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Service Occupations About one out of every eight workers in the United States is in a service occupation; in 1960, the number of these workers exceeded 8 million. Service workers help to protect peo ple’s lives and property and add to their comfort and convenience in many other ways. Domestic service workers in private homes are the largest group. Others are protective service workers such as policemen and firemen; and workers such as barbers, beauty operators, and practical nurses, who give personal services to people. The remaining group— a large one— is com posed of waiters, cooks, janitors, elevator opera tors, and other workers who perform services directly connected with the operation of the business firms and other organizations which employ them. Service occupations should not be confused with service industries. Service industries— which include hotels, automobile repair shops, amusement enterprises, and advertising agen cies— employ not only workers in service occu pations but also many professional, clerical, and skilled workers, such as writers, actors, stenog raphers, and mechanics. On the other hand, many workers in service occupations are em ployed outside the service industries; watchmen and cleaners in factories and porters on railroad trains are examples of service occupations found in manufacturing and in transportation industries. The following chapters give information about some of the principal protective and per sonal service occupations. Information about some other service occupations is given in the chapters on hotel and restaurant occupations. (See index for page numbers.) PROTECTIVE SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Protecting life and property is the chief job of more than three-quarters of a million civilian workers in the United States. Guards and watchmen are the largest group of protective service workers— probably well over one-third of the total number. Some guards and watch men are employed by private companies to pro tect their property and enforce company rules and regulations; others are employed in jails and other government buildings. Policemen and detectives are the second largest group of protective service workers. Most policemen and detectives are government employees, but some work for hotels, stores, or other companies, or as private detectives. Firemen, who work mainly for city governments, are the third largest group. The remaining protective service workers, who together probably represent less than a tenth of the total number, are sheriffs and bailiffs, crossing watchmen and bridge tenders, and marshals and constables. A college education is needed to enter some protective service jobs. For many others, highschool graduation is required, but for some there are no formal educational requirements. To become an FBI agent, for example, a young man must be either a lawyer or an accountant and, in most cities, young people seeking ap pointment to the police force are required to be high school graduates. On the other hand, the amount of education completed is not an important consideration for many guard and watchman jobs. In addition to specific educational require ments, candidates for protective service jobs in government agencies may have to meet very rigid standards with respect to health, age, and strength, as well as to personal reliability. 311 312 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK In contrast, guards and watchmen are some times handicapped persons or older men. The number of protective service workers in the United States has been growing faster than the population as a whole, during the past 50 years— owing partly to the increasing propor tion of people living in cities where police, firefighting, and other protective services are especially needed. In 1910, there was only 1 protective service worker for every 450 per sons in the United States. By 1960, the ratio had nearly doubled— about 1 for every 235 per sons. In all probability, the need for protective service workers will continue to increase faster than the population. Besides, thousands of new workers will be required each year to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other oc cupations. Many openings for protective service workers will occur even in years when the gen eral level of business activity is declining. Since police and other protective services are always necessary, employment is steadier in most protective service occupations than in many other fields of work. The employment outlook for FBI agents, fire men, and policemen—three large protective service occupations which offer career oppor tunities for young people— is described in the sections that follow. FBI Agents (D.O.T. 2-66.99) Nature of Work Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agents investigate many types of violations of Federal law, such as bank robberies, kidnapings, frauds against the Government, thefts of Government property, and cases of espionage or sabotage. The FBI is part of the U.S. De partment of Justice. Altogether, it has juris diction over some 160 Federal investigative matters, and each agent may be assigned to work on any one of them. However, agents with specialized training in accounting are likely to be assigned chiefly to cases involving complex financial records; for example, frauds involving Federal Reserve Bank records. An agent can never be certain what his day will be like, what new assignment may be given him, or where it will lead him. Owing to the highly confidential nature of the FBFs work, agents may not disclose to un authorized persons, including members of their families, any of the information which they gather in the course of their official duties. The FBI is primarily a fact-gathering and fact reporting agency, and its agents function strictly as investigators. Agents may be called upon to testify in court about cases that they investigate, but they do not make recommen dations pertaining to prosecution, express opin ions concerning the guilt or innocence of sus pects, or issue “ clearances.” Under ordinary circumstances agents wear regular business suits. They generally work alone and must maintain continual contact with their superiors by radio or telephone. Two or more agents always are assigned to handle ar rests, raids, and other potentially dangerous duties. Where Employed Most of the approximately 6,000 agents em ployed in 1960 were assigned to the Bureau’s 54 field offices located in major cities through out the Nation. The remainder worked out of the Bureau’s office in Puerto Rico or were sta tioned at FBI headquarters at the U.S. Depart ment of Justice, Washington, D.C. In addition to the field offices, there are FBI resident agencies, staffed by small numbers of agents, in many cities and towns across the United States. These agencies facilitate the prompt and economical handling of all investigative matters which are within the FBI’s jurisdic tion. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To be eligible for appointment as an FBI agent, an applicant must have graduated from 313 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS C o urtesy o f F ed eral B u rea u o f In v estig atio n F B I agents in training learn how fingerprints identify people. a State-accredited resident law school or a 4year resident accounting school requiring per sonal attendance on the part of the student. The law school training must have been pre ceded by at least 2 years of college education. Accounting graduates must also have had at least 3 years of experience in accounting or auditing or a combination of both. All applicants for positions as FBI agents must be male citizens of the United States, between the ages of 25 and 40, and willing to serve anywhere in the United States or its territorial possessions. They must be at least 5 feet 7 inches tall and capable of strenuous physical exertion, and they must have unim paired hearing, very good vision, normal color perception, and no physical defects which would prevent the use of firearms or participation in dangerous assignments. Each applicant must pass a rigid physical examination, as well as written and oral examinations testing his knowledge of law or accounting and his aptitude for meeting the public and conducting investi gations. All the tests except the physical exami nation are given by the FBI at its field offices. In addition, all applicants undergo exhaustive background and character investigations. Ap pointments are made on a probationary basis and become permanent after 1 year of satis factory service. Each newly appointed agent is given 13 weeks of training before he is assigned to a field office. He takes most of this training at the FBI headquarters in Washington, D.C., and the rest at the FBI Academy at the U.S. Marine Corps Base in Quantico, Va. During this period, he is taught judo and defensive tactics and becomes familiar with FBI rules and regula tions, investigative work, fingerprinting, and the firearms normally used by the FBI. After assignment to a field office, the new agent works closely with an experienced agent for a period of about 2 weeks before he qualifies for inde pendent assignments. All higher grade positions are filled from within the ranks of FBI agents. It is possible, therefore, for an experienced agent to advance to more responsible administrative and super visory positions, such as field supervisor, spe cial agent in charge of a field office, and in spector. Employment Outlook The FBI is a career service, and its rate of personnel turnover traditionally has been lower than that of private industry and the Govern ment as a whole. Accordingly, unless there is a substantial expansion of its investigative staff, it is not anticipated that many vacancies for agents will arise in the immediate future. Nevertheless, the FBI is always interested in receiving applications from qualified men who would like to be considered for positions as agents. Earnings and Working Conditions The entrance salary for FBI agents was $6,995 in 1960. This was somewhat higher than the usual starting salary for college grad uates entering employment in other Federal agencies. FBI agents are not appointed under Federal Civil Service regulations, but, like oth er Federal employees, they receive periodic within-grade salary raises if their work per formance is satisfactory, and they can advance 314 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK in grade as they gain experience. The top salary for regular field agents was $11,935 in 1960; agents in supervisory and administrative positions received higher salaries. Agents are subject to call 24 hours a day and must be available for assignments at all times. They frequently work longer than the customary 40-hour week and, under certain specified con ditions, receive overtime pay at the rate of $977 a year (about $38 each 2-week pay period). They receive paid vacations and sick leave and annuities on retirement. Some aspects of the FBI agent’s work are adventurous; he travels frequently and meets all kinds of people. The work is potentially dangerous and involves a great deal of responsibility. Where To Go for More Information The Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. Department of Justice, Washington 25, D.C. Firemen (D.O.T. 2-63.) Nature of Work Firefighters in city and town fire departments have the exciting job of protecting the public against fire. Through efficient teamwork, they prevent loss of life and minimize property damage from fire. For many thousands, partic ularly in large cities, firefighting is a full-time job. In small towns, however, there are also thousands of volunteer firemen and paid “ call men” who hold themselves ready to help fight fires whenever their services are needed. This statement is concerned principally with the work of full-time firemen. When an alarm sounds at the station, firemen put on protective clothing and are ready to drive to the scene of the fire in a matter of seconds. They may fight fires ranging from spectacular waterfront blazes, requiring men and equipment from several fire companies, to smoldering trash fires that can be controlled with a fire extinguisher. Because firefighting is a dangerous and com plicated activity, it must be well organized. The scene of a fire may appear to be one of con fusion, with many fire trucks, thousands of feet, of fire hose, and firemen working at a feverish pace. Nevertheless, each fireman performs spe cific duties under the direction of a command ing officer. Truckmen drive the fire trucks; hosemen unreel and couple fire hose, put on nozzles, turn on water hydrants, and direct streams of water on the fire; and laddermen set up ladders. Other firefighters may be assigned to forcible entry jobs, using tools such as axes, crowbars, and fire hooks to get inside burning buildings. Still others work as rescue teams to reach people trapped in burning buildings, carry them to safety, and administer first aid. Depending on the judgment of the officer in charge, firemen may be shifted from one of these duties to another while the company is in ac tion. After a fire is put out, firemen carefully inspect the premises to make sure no further danger exists; if necessary, firefighters may be put on standby watch or hand extinguishers used on smoldering objects. Firemen fighting a blaze from a building roof. SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Another important responsibility of city fire departments is fire prevention. In big depart ments, certain kinds of fire prevention work may be handled by specially trained personnel, and other kinds by regular firemen. In many cities, however, firefighters do practically all kinds of fire prevention work. Firemen on as signments of this kind inspect factories, thea tres, and other public buildings for conditions that might cause fire, and check on whether owners are complying with local regulations relating to fire escapes, fire doors, storage of inflammable materials, and other possible haz ards. Educating the general public about fire prevention and safety measures is also a part of their job. Sometimes they speak on this subject before school assemblies and civic groups, and in many communities they inspect private homes in an effort to prevent fires by pointing out possible hazards to homeowners. Between alarms, firefighters spend a great deal of time at the local station improving their knowledge of firefighting and doing mainte nance work. They participate in practice drills, lubricate and polish firefighting equip ment, stretch hoses to dry, stand watch at fire alarm instruments, and verify and record alarms. They may also use their spare time to study fire manuals and textbooks in prepara tion for examinations which will qualify them for promotion. Some firemen, who have to be at the station 24 hours at a stretch, take turns performing various housekeeping duties such as mopping floors or making beds. Firemen usually have some leisure time in which to read, watch television, and play table tennis or other games. Where Employed An estimated 125,000 to 150,000 full-time firefighters were employed in 1960 by city fire departments. A few large cities— New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Philadelphia— each had several thousands of firemen, while at the other extreme many very small cities had fewer than 50 firefighters each. 315 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To become eligible for appointment as a fire man, young men generally have to pass a writ ten intelligence test, a rigid physical examina tion, and an athletic performance test (running, climbing, etc.) as specified by local civil service regulations. In most communities, these exami nations are open only to men who are at least 21 years of age, meet certain height and weight requirements, and have a high school education. The men who receive the highest grades on their examinations (with credit usually given for military service) have the best chances for appointment. Other factors, such as previous firefighting training, may also be considered. Experience gained as a volunteer fireman may improve a young man’s chances for appoint ment to a paid job. As a rule, the beginner in a large fire de partment is given training for several weeks at the city’s fire service school. During this train ing, formal study is combined with practice drills related to the fundamentals of firefighting — forcible entry, rescue work, first aid, and the use of equipment such as axes, bars, life lines, chemical extinguishers, ladders, and pumps. The recruit is then assigned to one of the city fire companies, usually as a hoseman, truckman, or ladderman. After 1 to 5 years of experience, he may be eligible for promotion. Eventually he may become an officer; in a large city, the line of promotion is to lieutenant, then to captain, battalion chief, deputy or assistant chief, and finally to chief. Chances for advance ment generally depend upon the candidate’s position on the promotion list, as determined by his rating on a written examination and on his work as a fireman. Throughout his service, the fireman continues to receive in-service training and spends many hours studying such subjects as hydraulics, ventilation, salvage work, fire investigation and incendiarism, and fire prevention. This broadened knowledge helps him to pass the subject matter sections of the promotion examinations. Among the personal qualities which are im portant for firefighters are above average physi cal stamina, mental alertness, courage, and mechanical aptitude. Leadership qualities and good judgment are valuable assets for officers, 316 since they have the responsibility of establish ing* and maintaining a high degree of discipline and efficiency, as well as planning and directing the activities of firemen. Employment Outlook Several thousand employment opportunities for firefighters are expected each year through the mid-1960's. Most openings will arise from the need to replace men who retire, die, or otherwise leave the occupation; the replace ment rate is higher than that for many occupa tions. A moderate number of new jobs will also become available, as city fire departments enlarge their staffs and as new departments are formed to replace volunteer fire companies in rapidly growing communities. In addition, some openings will probably be created as city fire departments continue to shorten the scheduled hours of duty for their firefighters. The number of young men who apply and qualify for firefighter jobs in large cities is usually greater than the number of job open ings, even though the written examination and stiff physical requirements always eliminate many applicants. Competition for fireman jobs is apt to be very keen when there is consider able unemployment, since this occupation is an extremely stable one and especially desirable when many other jobs are insecure. Over the long run, the number of firefighters will continue to increase moderately. The need for more firemen resulting from population growth, urbanization, and additional building construction will be offset, to some extent, by certain other factors— among them, more wide spread use of fireproof and fire-resistant ma terials in building construction, improved fire fighting techniques and equipment, the rebuild ing of slum areas and replacement or modern ization of old dwellings, and increased efforts at fire prevention. At the same time, however, fire departments are likely to be called on to spend more time in fire prevention activities, as campaigns are undertaken to inform people about the measures that can be taken, and as city governments revise fire and building codes, improve fire inspection procedures, and enforce more strictly their fire regulations. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Earnings and Working Conditions Average (median) beginning salaries of fire fighters in 1960 ranged from $3,900 a year in small cities (10,000 to 25,000 population) to $4,840 in larger cities (over 500,000 popula tion), according to a study by The Interna tional City Managers' Association. Begin ning salaries were as low as $2,340 in one rela tively small city and as high as $6,000 or more in a few larger ones. Generally, firemen receive salary increases annually during the first 2 to 5 years of service. Maximum salaries of fire men (below the rank of officer) averaged about $4,500 in small cities and $5,900 in the largest ones. Fire chiefs averaged $6,000 in small cities and almost $14,000 in the largest ones. Practically all city fire departments furnish or pay allowances for protective firefighting cloth ing (helmets, boots, and rubber coats), and many also provide for firemen's dress uniforms. In most cities, firemen are on duty for a 24-hour shift, and then off for 24 hours, with an extra day off at intervals. In a few cities, the day shift is 10 hours, and the night shift 14 hours, with firemen rotating shifts at least once a month. The time firemen are scheduled to be on duty may range all the way from 40 to 96 hours a week. In most cities, firemen are on duty 60 or more hours a week, but in the very largest cities with the biggest fire depart ments, weekly schedules are usually shorter than this. In addition to their scheduled hours, firemen must work as much overtime as necessary to bring a fire under control. As a rule, they receive time off instead of extra pay for over time work. The job of a firefighter involves risk of life or injury from sudden cave-ins of floors or top pling walls, in addition to the dangers from exposure to flames, smoke, and bad weather. In fighting fires in industrial establishments, fire men may come in contact with poisonous, flammable, and explosive gases and chemicals. Firemen are generally covered by liberal pen sion plans, which often provide for retirement at half pay at age 50 after 25 years of service, or at any age if disabled in line of duty. Should disability occur, men may be transferred from active firefighting to vacancies in such jobs as 317 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS fire alarm operator or dispatcher. Firefighters receive regular paid vacations like other city employees. In addition, because of the hazards of the occupation, provisions for sick leave are usually very liberal. Some fire departments allow firefighters time off for working on holi days, although a substantial number give paid holidays. A majority of firefighters are members of the International Association of Fire Fighters (AFL-CIO). Where To Go for More Information Information on how to obtain a job as a firefighter may be obtained from your local civil service commission or fire department. General information on the occupation may be obtained from : International Association of Fire Fighters, 815 16th St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. Additional information on the salaries and hours of work of firemen in various cities is published by The International City Managers' Association in its Municipal Yearbook, availa ble in many libraries. Policemen (D.O.T. 2-66.) Nature of Work Policemen who direct traffic at street cor ners, patrol “ beats,” or make newspaper head lines by arresting dangerous criminals are all helping to enforce the law with respect to such things as people’s lives and property. They are employed mainly by'police departments in cit ies and towns. (Sheriffs, State highway patrol men, immigration inspectors, Federal border patrolmen, and others who help enforce the law are not covered by this discussion of police men; nor does it cover guards, railroad police, and others employed, for the most part, by business fims to protect lives and property.) Policemen usually begin their day by re porting to police headquarters or their local precinct stations. In large police departments, they may answer rollcall and stand personal inspection. They take notes while their supe rior officer briefs them on such matters as “ wanted” criminals, stolen cars, and missing persons. Most policemen patrol an assigned “ beat” on foot, in police cars, or on motorcycles. They may be assigned to a congested business district, a crowded tenement area, or an out lying residential district. Patrolmen become familiar with conditions on their beat: They know when shopkeepers open and close their stores; they are aware of local banking hours and payroll movements; and they know who the neighborhood “ toughs” are. At night, patrolmen check to see that the doors of business establishments are locked and watch for anything that looks suspicious. Through signal boxes or by two-way radios, they report to headquarters at regular intervals and some times receive special instructions regarding problems in their vicinity. In emergencies— Policemen investigating a burglary. 318 riots, serious accidents, or fires— the patrol man on the beat is often the first to take action before reinforcements can reach the scene. Although in large cities many policemen are specifically assigned to traffic duty, patrolmen on their beats also watch for traffic vio lations and direct traffic if necessary. Whether on or off duty, policemen are ex pected to exercise their authority whenever necessary. Policemen spend part of their time filling out various forms such as “ tickets” for parking violations and other traffic offenses, writing reports on arrests or stolen articles, and testifying in court. In large cities, some policemen may be spe cially assigned to communications work, labo ratory work, firearm or fingerprint identifica tion, testing for drivers’ licenses, duty at pre cinct jails, or other special work. Detectives (plainclothes men) are usually assigned to precinct detective squads or to burglary, homi cide, narcotics, or other special squads. A small number of policewomen are employed, mainly in crime prevention and detection work with girls and women. Policemen may also be detailed to do this kind of work with boys. Where Employed More than 170,000 full-time policemen of all ranks were employed in 1959 by police de partments in cities of over 2,500 population. Additional thousands of workers not clas sified as policemen were also employed in these cities, checking parking meters, and doing other kinds of work related to law enforce ment. New York City had approximately 23,000 policemen in 1959; Chicago had about 11,000. In contrast, many small cities, with populations under 25,000, employed fewer than 25 policemen each. Most policemen work outdoors, on beats which may range from a block or two in a crowded "downtown district to a wide area in less congested sections. However, some police men perform their duties mainly indoors— for example, in laboratories or at desks in police headquarters or in local precinct stations. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To become eligible*for appointment as a policeman, young men generally have to pass a written intelligence test, a rigid physical examination, and a test of strength and agility as specified by local civil service regulations. In many cities, these examinations are open only to men who are at least 21 years of age, meet certain height and weight requirements, have a high school education, and have been residents of the city for a specified period. In an increasing number of cities, however, the residence requirements are being relaxed. Many police departments give preference in hiring to young men trained at the growing number of colleges and universities which offer degrees in police science and adminis tration. Since personal characteristics such as honesty and emotional stability are especially impor tant in police work, many departments give each prospective appointee an interview and investigate his character and background. Those who receive the highest grades on ex aminations and also rate high on personal evaluation have the best chances of ap pointment. Credit is usually given for military service. As a rule, the beginner in a police department receives from 2 weeks’ to several months’ train ing at the police school maintained by the city. He practices shooting and takes lessons in selfdefense, including boxing, wrestling, and judo. Formal instruction may cover such subjects as the law of arrest, search, and seizure, State criminal laws, and local ordinances; patrol pro cedures ; accident investigation; and traffic con trol. The beginner may also receive training in first aid and other subjects so that he will be able to deal with emergencies of all kinds— which can range from delivering a baby to han dling explosives. The recruit often patrols a beat with an experienced officer for a week or so. He is then usually assigned to either patrol or traffic duty. After some experience, the patrolman becomes eligible for promotion. In a large city, pro motion to sergeant, lieutenant, and captain generally depends upon the candidate’s posi tion on the promotion list, based on a written SERVICE OCCUPATIONS examination and his work as a policeman. Often, however, patrolmen are promoted to the job of detective solely because of an aptitude for investigative work or a citation for out standing performance. The latter may also serve as a basis for promotion to higher ranks in any type of police work. Many training opportunities are available to help policemen improve their performance and prepare them for advancement. Most laYge city departments have in-service training pro grams. A limited number of police officers are selected to take advanced training at the Na tional Police Academy in Washington, D. C., conducted by the Federal Bureau of Investiga tion; and others may be given an opportunity to take college and university courses in police administration, scientific investigation, traffic control, and other police science subjects, with all or part of their tuition paid by the police departments where they are employed. In the opinion of many police officials, college-trained men, especially those who have taken courses in police science, will have the best chances for advancement in the future, owing to the increasing need for men with specialized knowl edge who can handle the complex work of modern police departments. Some large cities have police cadet systems which make it possible for high school gradu ates interested in police careers to get a start without waiting until they are old enough to be eligible for appointment to regular police jobs. Cadets are paid police department em ployees who spend part of their time doing clerical and other nonenforcement work, and the remaining time attending courses in police science. When they reach the age of 21, they may be appointed to the police force, provided their work has been satisfactory and they meet other requirements. Like most policemen, cadets must serve a probationary term before their appointments to the police force become permanent. Employment Outlook Many opportunities for qualified young men to enter police work are expected annually the mid-1960’s. Thousands of men will through 319 be needed each year to fill new jobs created as police departments expand, and vacancies which occur as policemen retire, die, or trans fer to other occupations. Many policemen re tire before the usual retirement age for workers in most occupations. Chiefly for this reason, the proportion of policemen who have to be replaced yearly is higher than in many other occupations. Employment of policemen will continue to rise fairly rapidly over the long run, as growth in population, particularly in and around cit ies, creates a need for more men in traffic control and crime detection and prevention. Police authorities, concerned over the rise in the number of juvenile offenders, will proba bly further increase preventive and enforce ment work in this field. Of course, the number of policemen employed depends on the amount of money made available by local governments. Because of the essential nature of the work, however, it is likely that police department appropriations will be increased to take care of growing needs. The number of policemen needed in the future and the nature of their work will be influenced also by technological advances— the use of improved methods and equipment in police work. For many years, police depart ments have used automatic signal lights for traffic control, cars and motorcycles for patrol work, scientific methods for crime detection, and, more recently, trained police dogs for patrol and detection work, and radar and closed-circuit television in connection with traffic enforcement work. Along with these changes in police methods, police employment has continued to grow. Further technological developments will probably increase the need for policemen with specialized skills and knowl edge, as well as help to make police work more efficient. The number of young men applying for jobs as policemen is usually greater than the num ber of openings. However, the written exam inations and stiff physical requirements always eliminate many applicants. Competi tion for police jobs is very keen during periods of high unemployment, since this is an unu sually stable occupation. 320 Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning* salaries for patrolmen ranged from slightly less than $3,000 a year in several small cities to considerably more than $5,000 in some large ones in 1960, according to a study by The International City Managers’ Association. The average (median) entrance salary for patrolmen in middle-size cities (50,000 to 100,000 population) was $4,340 a year. Generally, patrolmen’s salaries are raised at regular intervals during their first years of employment, until a specified maximum is reached. In small cities, top salaries paid pa trolmen in 1960 were generally from $500 to $600 more than starting salaries; in the larg est cities, the difference was close to $1,000. Detectives, sergeants, lieutenants, and other officers are paid higher salaries than the patrolmen in their police departments. For police chiefs, salaries ranged from less than $5,000 a year in several small cities to more than $20,000 a year in a few of the largest. Most policemen are paid special allowances for uniforms and are furnished the special equipment they use, such as revolvers, night sticks, handcuffs, and badges. The majority of policemen have a 40-hour workweek, although the average is 48 hours in small cities. They often work nights, since they generally rotate on a 3-shift basis; for example, shifts may be from 8 a. m. to 4 p. m., from 4 p. m. to midnight, and from midnight to 8 a. m. Those who are called to work in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK emergencies often receive additional time off or extra pay for overtime worked. Policemen are generally covered by liberal pension plans which often provide for retire ment at age 55 after 25 years of service, or at any age if disabled in line of duty. They receive regular paid vacations and, in a number of cities, are given time off to compensate for work on holidays. Sick leave and medical, surgical, and life insurance plans are also among the benefits provided. In this occupation, men must often stand or walk for long periods in bad weather. The higher-than-average injury rate of policemen reflects the risks they take in pursuing speed ing motorists, capturing lawbreakers, and rescuing would-be suicides. Relatively few policemen are killed in line of duty, however. Where To Go for More Information Information on how to become a policeman may be obtained from local civil service com missions or police departments. General information on the occupation may be obtained from : International Association of Chiefs of Police, 704 17th St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. Additional information on the salaries and hours of work of policemen in various cities is published by The International City Manag ers’ Association in its Municipal Year Book, available in many libraries. OTHER SERVICE OCCUPATIONS About 7.5 million workers were employed in service occupations in 1960 (not counting protective service workers, discussed in the preceding chapter). These occupations are of many different kinds and afford opportuni ties for workers with entirely different back grounds and personal qualifications. Many of the service occupations require workers with considerable skill and training; others require comparatively little. Barbers and beauty oper ators are among those who need specialized vocational training. Chefs and cooks in restau rants must also be specially trained for their work, either in school or on the job. On the other hand, such workers as kitchen helpers, maids, charwomen, and janitors need little, if any, special training. For porters, life guards, and certain other service occupations, physical strength is necessary. A pleasant manner and nice appearance are particularly important for such workers as elevator oper ators, hat check girls, and theater ushers. Still other service workers— for example, practical nurses and travel guides— need to have a special knack for dealing with people. Private household workers, who numbered more than 2 million in 1960, are the largest group in the service field. The number of domestic workers fell sharply during World War II, as is likely to happen whenever there is a general and acute shortage of labor, but in recent years, it has been rising again. Be tween 1950 and 1960, employment of private household workers increased by about 17 per cent, somewhat faster than the work force as a whole, though not as fast as employment in most service occupations. Employment in service occupations outside private households increased by 32 percent between 1950 and 1960— or considerably faster than the average for the entire work force. For the most part, this increase resulted from rising income levels and changing patterns of American living. The proportion of women who work outside their homes has risen steadi ly, for example; this has led to a growing need for such services outside the home as meal preparation and care of the sick, and to a substantial rise in the employment of service workers in eating and drinking places and in hospitals and nursing homes. Educational institutions are among the other types of es tablishments where employment of service workers has grown— reflecting the rapid rise in school and college enrollments and the fact that it has become customary to provide meals not only for college students but also for many pupils attending elementary and secondary schools. In the long run, employment in service oc cupations will probably continue to rise sub stantially. Most of this growth will probably continue to be in jobs outside private house holds. Some rise in employment of domestic workers is also probable, because of the in creasing number of working mothers with young children. However, most job openings for workers in all service occupations, both in and outside private households, will result from the need to replace the thousands of workers who annually leave their jobs. Turnover is high in these occupations for several reasons— the high proportion of women, especially in pri vate household work, the many temporary and part-time jobs, and the relatively low rates of pay. Turnover will no doubt continue high because of these factors, and will result in many thousands of job openings each year. Additional information on service workers is given in the statements on barbers, beauty operators, and practical nurses which follow. 321 322 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Barbers (D.O.T. 2-32.01) Nature of Work About 200,000 barbers were employed full time in the occupation in 1960, and many others did some part-time barbering. Besides cutting hair, barbers give hair and scalp treat ments, fit hair pieces, and provide customers with other personal services such as shaves, facial massages,' and shampoos. They some times sell hair tonics, shampoos, and related preparations, and give advice on care of the hair and scalp. Barbers must know all hair styles and be alert to follow customers’ wishes on the type of haircut wanted. They must also try to finish each haircut in the way best suited to the shape of the customer’s head. A barber builds up a steady clientele not only by giving good haircuts but also by putting customers at ease, giving them quick and cour teous service, and keeping a clean, attractive shop. In small shops, a barber may be expected to keep his own work area clean or take his turn sweeping the shop. Each barber is usu ally responsible for keeping his barbering in struments sterilized and in good condition. Barbers who run their own shops have respon- sibilities common to many small businessmen, such as ordering supplies, paying bills, and hiring and managing employees. The few women barbers sometimes perform all types of barbering services, or sometimes specialize in a particular type of work, for example, cutting children’s hair. Where Employed More than half of the barbers in the more than 100,000 barbershops in the country in 1960 owned or operated their own shops. Most barbershops are one- or two-man establish ments, where the owner either works alone or with one other barber. However, shops em ploying several barbers are to be found in large hotels and office buildings in downtown areas of cities and in a growing number of suburban shopping centers. A few thousand barbers are employed in combination barber and beauty shops. A small number have jobs in such places as hospitals and on ocean liners, or work in government agencies. All cities and towns and most villages have barbershops. However, barbers are concen trated in large cities and in the most popu lous States. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Student barbers practice their trade besides attending classes. Almost every State requires that barbers be licensed or certified by the State board of barber examiners or some other State au thority. In order to qualify for his license or certificate, a barber is required in most States to pass a State examination which includes both a written test and a demonstration of his ability to perform barbering services. Nearly all States admit to their licensing examina tions only those candidates who are at least 16 or 18 years old, meet certain health stand ards, and have completed at least the 8th grade and then graduated from a State-approved bar ber school. In most States, the new barber school graduate is required first to take an examination for a license as an apprentice 323 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS barber and then— usually after 1 or 2 years of work experience— he takes another examina tion for his journeyman barber's license. A few States issue journeyman licenses to be ginners without requiring any apprenticeship. Barbers who move to another State must meet whatever licensing requirements may have been established by that State. Barber training is offered in more than 100 public vocational schools and private barber colleges. Courses may be up to a year in length. The student barber studies principally the basic barber services— haircutting, shaving, massaging, and facial and scalp treatments— and, under supervision, practices these ser vices on people. Besides attending lectures on barber services and the use and care of barber instruments, the student also takes courses in anatomy, sanitation, and hygiene, including the recognition of skin diseases. Instruction is also given in salesmanship and general business practices. A beginner may obtain his first job as a barber by being recommended to an employer by the barber school where he received his training, or he may locate a job through the barber's union or through personal contacts in his own local community. He customarily buys his own tools— usually at a cost of about $75 to $100. Experienced barbers may advance by opening their own shops, by becoming managers of large shops, or by moving to shops which have more patrons. If they meet the requirements, a few barbers may eventually teach at barber schools. Barbers who go into business for themselves must have the capital necessary to buy or rent a shop and install equipment. The usual cost of equipping a onechair barbershop is roughly estimated at $1,500. Costs differ greatly, however, as some barbershop owners may buy used equip ment and fixtures at reduced prices, whereas others pay higher prices to procure the newest and best equipment. Dealing with customers may call for patience and a better-than-average disposition on the part of the barber. Good general health and stamina are important also, as barbers must stand for long periods, much of the time working with both hands above shoulder level. Employment Outlook Several thousand openings for barbers are expected each year through the mid-1960's. Most of the openings will arise from the need to replace barbers who retire, die, or trans fer to other fields of work. The death and retirement rates in this occupation are rela tively high, since barbers are somewhat older, on the average, than workers in many other occupations. Also, experienced barbers as well as beginners are often attracted to other types of jobs and many vacancies have to be filled as they leave the occupation. In addition, employment of barbers will probably increase moderately during the 1960's. This employment increase will be due principally to population growth and the re sulting need for more barbering services. The small shop with only one or two barbers will probably remain the most common type of es tablishment; however, the continuing shift of population to suburban communities should re sult in more opportunities to open large shops in these areas and in a need for larger staffs in suburban shops which are already established. Earnings and Working Conditions Most full-time barbers earned between $50 and $150 a week in 1960, according to the limited data available. A few barbers in the most desirable locations in big cities probably earned up to $175 or more a week. These esti mates include tips, which are often an im portant part of barbers' earnings. Aside from tips, most barbers not in business for them selves are either paid commissions— usually 65 to 80 percent of the money they take in— or receive salaries plus commissions. A few barbers are paid straight salaries. In the Federal Government, where this is the prac tice, most barbers earned from $70 to $85 a week in 1960. A barber's earnings depend to a great extent on the size of the community where he works and the location of his shop, since the income level and tipping customs of the community, the competition from other barbershops, and 324 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK the prices that can be charged all affect earn ings. The price of haircuts, for example, ranged from $1 in most cities in 1960 to as much as $2 in others, with some special types of haircuts costing $2.50 or more. Earnings, of course, depend also on the barber's skill and personality, which help bring him regular customers. Barbers who own and work in their own shops generally earn considerably more than other barbers. Most full-time barbers work between 5 and 6 days and 40 and 50 hours weekly. A barber may have to serve a steady stream of customers during peak hours and on especially busy days, such as Saturday, but there are slack peri ods when he can have time off to attend to personal matters. Under some union con tracts, barbers receive 1- or 2-week paid vaca tions, insurance, and medical benefits. The principal union which organizes barbers — both employed barbers and barbershop owners— is the Journeymen Barbers, Hair dressers, Cosmetologists, and Proprietors' International Union of America. Some shopowners and managers are represented by the Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of America. Where To Go for More Information Information on State licensing require ments may be obtained from the State board of barber examiners or other State authority at each State capital, and information about approved barber schools from each State's division of vocational education. General information on the occupation of barber may be obtained from : Journeymen Barbers, Hairdressers, Cosmetologists, and Proprietors’ International Union of America, 1141 North Delaware St., Indianapolis 7, Ind. National Educational Council, Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of America, 537 South Dearborn St., Chicago 5, 111. Beauty O perators* (D.O.T. 2-32.11 through .31) Nature of Work Most beauticians provide their customers with a variety of services, largely related to the care of the hair. They give permanent waves and cut, style, shampoo, set, straighten, bleach, dye, or tint the hair. In addition, beauticians may give manicures and scalp, facial, and body treatments; provide make-up analysis; shape eyebrows; tint eyebrows and eyelashes; give treatments for damaged hair; remove superfluous hair; and arrange wigs and chignons. General duties of a beauty operator may occasionally include making appoint ments; cleaning the shop, equipment, and fur niture ; and sterilizing implements. In a small shop, which primarily provides hair and manicuring services, an operator may perform a great variety of tasks. In larger shops, where a wider range of services is avail able, operators may specialize in a particular * Prepared by the Women’s Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor. phase of the work, such as hair styling, hair coloring, permanent waving, facial and body treatments, or manicuring. A beauty shop owner, in addition to working as an operator herself, usually performs a num ber of administrative duties, such as record keeping, property maintenance, control of sup plies, and supervision of employees. Where Employed Beauticians, also called hairdressers or cos metologists, work in all parts of the country. Job opportunities were formerly concentrated in cities, but in recent years, the demand for beauty services in small towns and rural areas has shown a substantial growth. In 1959, most beauty operators worked in the estimated 190,000 commercial beauty shops li censed by State cosmetology boards. These licensed shops were generally individual busi ness establishments, but quite a few were lo cated in department or specialty stores and in SERVICE OCCUPATIONS hotels. A smaller number of shops were on Government bases, ocean liners, and in hos pitals, schools, and other institutions. Some beauticians rented booths within a shop from the shopowner and operated independently. A large proportion of beauty operators are either owner-operators of small shops or are employed in small establishments with 1 to 3 operators; few shops have as many as 15 work ers. Other operators are employed in branch shops of citywide or nationwide chains. In States and communities where the practice is permitted, a beautician may set up a small shop within her home. Some manicurists work in barber shops. Nearly 692,000 State licenses were issued to beauty operators in 1959. Beauticians may ob tain a license even though not actually em ployed, and some hold a license in more than one State. The number of operators actually employed in 1960 was, therefore, probably closer to 300,000. Men make up only a small part of the total number of operators, but their number has been increasing steadily since World War II. They are more often engaged in specialized work than are women and fre quently work as hair stylists or shop managers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All but two States (Delaware and Virginia) require that a beauty operator be licensed. To obtain a license, an applicant must pass an examination on the theory and practice of cos metology given by an agency of the State in which she intends to practice. Most States charge a fee (ranging from $3 to $20) for ad mittance to the examination and/or a fee (ranging from $2 to $15) for issuance of an operator’s license. Requirements which a candidate must meet before being admitted to examination vary by State. However, all States (except Delaware and Virginia) have set a minimum age for operators and require applicants to complete an approved cosmetology course which has included an established minimum number of hours of training. In about half, the age is 16 years; in the others, 17 or 18. Most States have set a minimum requirement for formal 325 Beautician brushing hair of customer after shampoo and set. education— generally completion of the eighth grade, but the education required ranges from completion of elementary school to graduation from high school. A health certificate is re quired by a majority of States. Nearly two-thirds of the States require a separate license for manicurists, for which sub stantially fewer hours of training are required than for the all-round operator’s license. Many State boards require teachers and shop man agers to obtain special licenses. Moreover, many States set higher age, education, and experi ence requirements for a teaching license than for an operator’s license. Beauty operators are often able to practice in a different State from the one in which they are licensed; over 85 percent of the States provide for reciprocity, usually without an ad ditional examination. There were 1,922 private cosmetology schools in 1960, according to the National American Cosmetology Schools. A course in most private schools consists of combined classroom work and practice in beauty service, lasting from 1,000 to 1,500 hours, depend ing on State licensing requirements. It usually takes from 6 to 9 months to complete such a course. In a few States, where 2,000 hours or more of study and practice are re quired, the course may last up to 12 months. 326 Typically;'one-fourth of the training time in a private school is devoted to classroom study, lectures, and demonstrations, and threefourths to practical work. Beginning students get practice by working on each other and/or manikins. When they have completed the be ginning training course satisfactorily, they may practice in the “ clinic” on customers who pay a small fee for the services rendered. Some beauty schools provide a free lifetime placement service for their graduates. Other schools may have no formal placement service, but advise their students of openings. Cosmetology courses conducted as part of public vocational education programs meet State license requirements and are usually part of a curriculum leading to a high school or a vocational high school diploma. There were 329 public vocational schools throughout the country which offered this type of program in 1960. Because of the required academic sub jects, the program may run from 2 to 3 years. However, in some States, students who meet State agency requirements in cosmetology be fore completing the vocational high school aca demic program may secure a license and work part time as beauty operators while completing the other courses necessary for a high school diploma. Some junior colleges also offer programs in beauty culture. In addition to formal educational programs, nearly half of the States accept apprenticeship training as the basis for admittance to exami nation. This type of training is usually spread over a longer period than formal training pro grams. Over 107,000 students were enrolled in pub lic and private beauty schools in 1959. Another 5,700 students were enrolled in ap prenticeship programs. A beautician may continue her training by taking post-graduate courses. Schools offering such courses are licensed and regulated in the same manner as basic training schools. Usu ally one must be a licensed operator in order to take an advanced course. Some employers provide special training for their personnel by holding demonstrations of the latest hair styles and beauty techniques, and a number OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK of manufacturers of beauty supplies and equip ment conduct beauty shows. The entry job of a beautician is usually that of an all-round operator, performing a variety of services. Advancement in this occupation may come as one gains experience and becomes specialized in one or more phases of the work, such as hair tinting or styling. A trained and experienced operator may ad vance to the job of a manager of a large shop or a teacher in a beauty school. She may even set up her own shop, either working alone or employing other beauticians. An experienced operator may also have the opportunity to utilize her training in related fields. She may be employed as a representative of a manufacturer of cosmetics or beauty shop equipment, as a beauty editor for a news paper or magazine, as a make-up artist, or as an inspector for a State licensing board. To be successful, a beauty operator should keep abreast of changing hair styles and beauty techniques through reading trade and fashion magazines and taking refresher train ing. She must be able to establish and main tain friendly relationships with people. She should be well groomed, since many customers identify her appearance with the results they expect to see in their own appearance. Dexter ity is necessary in almost every operation. A sense of form and artistry in cutting and styl ing hair is important, as are ability and willingness to follow instructions and custom ers’ wishes. The work also calls for physical stamina, since a great deal of standing is normally required. In smaller shops, an operator may be re quired to furnish such equipment as brushes, combs, clips, rollers, nets, scissors, thinning shears, and rods for permanent waves. In larg er establishments, most of the equipment is provided by the shop. Almost without ex ception, an operator furnishes her own uni form. Employment Outlook Employment is expected to continue expand ing to meet the needs of a growing population with an increasing awareness of the part good 327 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS grooming- plays in social and business life. Beauty shop receipts increased nearly 60 per cent and beauty shop payrolls by over 55 per cent, between 1954 and 1958, according to the Bureau of the Census. In this 4-year period, the number of beauty shops, including beauty and barber shop combinations, increased by 40 percent. In addition to jobs created by expansion, many job opportunities are created annually by turnover. Many young women who enter this field leave because of home or family re sponsibilities. A career as a beautician is open to men and women. There are opportunities for young workers and for mature workers. The avail ability of part-time work is especially at tractive to married women who wish to in crease their income but are unable to work full time. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of a beautician depend on such factors as experience, speed of performance, and ability to please customers. The location of place of employment may be a major factor. For example, earnings of an individual working in a small shop in a rural area might be quite different from those of an operator in a large multiservice salon located in the main busi ness center of a large city. Beauty operators who work in shops as em ployees are often paid a basic wage plus a commission. Under a customary arrangement, an operator must take in twice her basic wage in customers’ fees before being eligible for a commission. She then receives a specified per cent of any receipts she takes in over this amount, often as high as 40 or 50 percent. However, some operators are paid only a salary or a commission. In some shops where cosmet ics are sold directly to the customer, a small commission (up to 10 percent) may be paid to the beautician selling these products. A number of States have minimum-wage laws which are applicable to beauty operators. It is difficult to estimate the basic wage of a beginning beautician because of the great variation in salary arrangements. Some esti mates placed the basic wage in 1960 at about $50 a week. Expert operators in exclusive shops earn considerably more. Top salon styl ists or teachers in advanced cosmetology schools may earn from $150 to $800 a week, and possibly as much as $500 a week, includ ing tips. The practice of tipping varies in different parts of the country; it is likely to be more prevalent and the tips more liberal in the larger cities. Incomes of owners of beauty shops are de termined, among other things, by the size and location of the shop. For example, the income of an owner of a salon of wide reputation in a large city may be many times greater than that of a beautician who owns a shop in a small town. Most full-time beauticians work 40 hours a week, although in some areas, the 44-hour week is common. Hours frequently include evening and Saturday work. Some States have laws which require employers to pay overtime for hours worked beyond a specified minimum. Most beauty shops have too few employees to be eligible for membership in group life and health insurance plans. However, beauti cians who work in establishments such as de partment stores usually participate in employee benefit plans sponsored by the employer. Most shops allow their employees at least 1 week’s vacation with pay. In some organizations, a beautician may have as much as 3 weeks of paid vacation, depending on length of service. Although the occupational field is not highly organized, one union— The Journeymen Bar bers, Hairdressers, Cosmetologists, and Propri etors’ International Union— is active in the United States. Other organizations in the field include: The National Hairdressers’ and Cosmetologists’ Association, an organization which includes both shopowners and operators; the National Beauty Culturists’ League, made up of Negro operators, teachers, managers, and shopowners; and the Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of America, an as sociation for shopowners and managers. Where To Go for More Information State boards of cosmetology can supply in formation on approved beauty operator train- 328 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK mg schools and requirements for licensing. Local vocational schools and private beauty schools can provide information on how the student can meet these requirements. The fol lowing publication includes detailed informa tion about the beauty service field: Employment Opportunities for Women in Beauty Service (Women’s Bureau Bull. 260, 1956). Superintendent of Documents, Washington 25, D.C. Price 25 cents. Practical Nurses and Auxiliary Nursing Workers * Nature of Work Practical nurses and auxiliary nursing workers assist in the care and treatment of the physically or mentally ill, under the direction of physicians or professional nurses. Their im portance on the nursing team has increased over the past decade as they have been utilized more and more to perform many of the less com plex nursing tasks, thus freeing professional nurses for more skilled and specialized nursing duties. Licensed practical nurses (D.O.T. 2-38.20), known also as licensed vocational nurses, usu ally perform such duties as giving prescribed treatments and medications; taking patients’ temperature, pulse, and blood pressure; and helping with personal hygiene tasks. They may provide nursing care for newborn babies, mothers, the handicapped, the chronically ill, or the convalescent. Practical nurses may also assist physicians or professional nurses with more complicated diagnostic procedures or treatments. In doctors’ offices, practical nurses assist physicians or professional nurses in the exami nation of patients, give simple medications or treatments as directed, carry out routine labo ratory tests, and perform some clerical tasks. In industrial establishments, their duties may vary from first aid at the place of business to home-visiting services for workers and their families. Among auxiliary nursing workers, most of the women are called nursing aids (D.O.T. 2 42.20) and most of the men, orderlies (D.O.T. 2-42.10) or hospital attendants. These auxil iary nursing workers are not licensed. They * Prepared by the Women’s Bureau, U.S. Department o f Labor. Practical nurse administering an injection under supervision of professional nurse. generally are trained on the job and perform duties requiring less nursing skill than those of professional or practical nurses. Working under the direction of nurses in either of these groups, auxiliary nursing workers may make beds, bathe patients, deliver messages, count and stack linens, escort patients to other de partments of the hospital, help with exami nations, or take care of hospital equipment. In recent years, psychiatric aids or assistants have been trained in many hospitals and institutions which lack sufficient numbers of professional and practical nurses in their psychiatric wards. Psychiatric aids assist in providing the specialized type of care and treatment needed by mentally ill patients. Their duties and level of responsibility, how ever, vary considerably among hospitals. Where Employed In 1958, there were an estimated 220,700 licensed practical nurses. Auxiliary nursing SERVICE OCCUPATIONS workers in hospitals numbered approximately 364,000. Hospitals employ the largest propor tion of both groups. According to a survey of the American Hospital Association in 1959, hospitals had on their staffs 95,900 practical nurses; 309,300 nursing aids and attendants; 37,900 orderlies; and 29,600 other auxiliary nursing personnel. A large number of licensed practical nurses are also engaged for private duty. They are hired by patients or their families to provide individual nursing care in hospitals or private homes. Practical nurses also work in doctors’ offices and in some industrial firms. In ad dition, employment of practical nurses— and to some extent auxiliary nursing personnel— by public health agencies and nursing homes is increasing. Many practical nurses and nursing aids are mature women who have returned to paid em ployment after a period devoted to homemak ing responsibilities. Many of these women had wanted a career in nursing, but lacked the time or money necessary for the extensive prep aration required for professional nursing. To day, a growing number of younger women also are entering the field of practical nursing. Al though most practical nurses are women, the number of men is increasing. Most men per forming nursing services, however, are em ployed as orderlies, hospital attendants, or psy chiatric aids. Training and Other Qualifications Practical nurses, today, receive formal training in nursing skills. Not very long ago, the majority of practical nurses were either self-trained or learned their skills through practice on the job. Auxiliary nursing workers, for the most part, still do not have formal preemployment training. Practical nurse training may be obtained in two major types of schools: Those operated by public school systems, usually as part of a vocational school or adult education program; and private schools, usually controlled by hospitals, health agencies, junior colleges and universities, or community organizations. Ap Digitized proval of schools of practical nursing is given for FRASER 329 by State boards of nursing. In addition, stand ards of operation are established by State boards of vocational education for schools un der their control. Over the past 30 years, there has been a very rapid growth in the number of practical nurse training programs. In 1930, there were only 11 approved programs. By 1960, this num ber had grown to 661, of which about threefifths were operated by public school systems. In recent years, an increasing number of high schools have included practical nursing courses in their regular curriculum. Admis sions to approved practical nurse programs exceeded 23,700 in 1960. Entrance requirements vary among schools of practical nursing. In most cases, applicants under 25 years of age must have completed at least 2 years of high school or its equivalent; however, for those over 25 years of age, a grammar school education is often accepted. Most schools prefer applicants between the ages of 18 and 50, but occasionally relax these limits. A main requirement is that candidates be in good physical and mental health. Candi dates usually must have a preentrance health examination, take a psychological test, come for a personal interview, and submit references and school records. In schools of practical nursing which charge tuition, the amounts range between $50 and $200 a year. Vocational education programs under public school systems may charge tui tion to local students in States which have no tax funds for adult education or to out-of-State students. All programs entail certain expenses such as those for books, equipment, laboratory fees, and uniforms. During their period of practice training, students may receive a month ly allowance to help pay for living costs; in some cases, the hospital may provide room and board. Practical nursing courses in most schools last 1 year. Training includes classroom study of basic nursing skills and related subjects such as body structure and function, conditions of illness, nutrition, and types of medicine and medications, as well as supervised clinical practice in applying these skills to actual nurs ing situations. The practice period is arranged 330 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK to offer a wide variety of nursing experiences so that students may gain confidence in caring for patients and increase their knowledge of different types of services. After graduating from a training program approved by the State board of nursing and passing the State examination, practical nurses may obtain a State license. Thirty-one States have citizenship requirements; in most cases the practical nurse must be a citizen or an applicant for naturalization. Fees for li censes ranged between $5 and $20 in 1959. Most employers hire only licensed practical nurses. This requirement is a comparatively new de velopment as most legislation covering licensure has been enacted since 1945. By 1960, all States and the District of Columbia had pro vided for the licensing of practical nurses. Postgraduate training and in-service edu cation are provided in some hospitals. Such programs usually prepare practical nurses to give nursing care in specialized areas such as psychiatry and operating room technique. Auxiliary nursing workers generally are given from 1 week to 3 months of training on the job. In some hospitals or institutions, classroom instruction and demonstration may be supplemented by specified practice work. In others, training may be informal and con sist of daily instruction by supervisors on the tasks at hand. The entry jobs held by auxiliary nursing workers in most hospitals and institutions sel dom have any formal educational requirements. However, at least a grammar school education is preferred. Usually the only formal require ments are that the applicant be physically able to perform the work and be at least 17 years of age. Many of the personal qualities required of other health workers apply also to practical nurses and auxiliary nursing personnel. The basic requisites are the desire to help sick people and an aptitude for the work. Also im portant are tact, patience, understanding, emotional stability, and dependability. Employment Outlook Throughout portunities for the 1960’s, employment op practical nurses and auxiliary nursing workers should continue to expand rapidly. Factors affecting this rising demand for nursing personnel are the growth in popu lation ; increased public interest in good health; new medical discoveries; and the steady uptrend in hospital, medical, and surgi cal insurance coverage. Moreover, a substan tial number of openings will arise from re placement needs as workers retire, die, or leave the nursing field. As a result of the shortage of professional registered nurses which began during World War II, most hospital and other health organi zations have redistributed nursing duties among various personnel with different amounts of preparation and training. Although the number of professional nurses has increased steadily, the gain has been more phenomenal for practical nurses and auxiliary nursing workers. The successful use of these workers as members of nursing teams, under the di rection of professional nurses or physicians, indicates even greater utilization of these personnel in most hospitals and health agencies. Over the past 20 years, the number of practi cal nurses who have received formal training in approved schools has risen sharply. From September 1959 through August 1960, almost 16,500 practical nurses completed their train ing. However, leaders in the nursing field state that many more newly licensed practical nurses are needed to help meet the mounting demand for nursing services. Earnings Average weekly salaries of women practical nurses in hospitals in 15 metropolitan areas surveyed during mid-1960 ranged from $42 a week in Atlanta to $75.50 a week in the Los Angeles-Long Beach area. Women nursing aids averaged between $32.50 in Memphis and $67 in the San Francisco-Oakland area; aver age earnings of men nursing aids ranged from $36 in Memphis to $68.50 in the San Francisco -Oakland area and in Baltimore. Practical nurses and nursing aids had an average work week of 40 hours or less in most of the cities surveyed. 381 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Graduates of approved schools of practical nursing who met the civil service require ments and passed a written examination were hired by the Federal Government at $3,760 a year in 1961. Auxiliary nursing workers who qualified for employment in the Federal Government by passing an aptitude test and an oral interview started at $3,500 in 1961. Most were employed in Veterans Administra tion hospitals. Practical nurses on private duty usually re ceived three-fourths of the prevailing pay for professional nurses in the same area in 1959. Those working in public health nursing serv ices (non-Federal) averaged $3,210 in 1959, as indicated in a survey made by the National League for Nursing. Where To Go for More Information Additional details about practical nurses and auxiliary nursing workers are given in a publication of the U. S. Department of Labor's Women's Bureau, The Outlook for Women as Practical Nurses and Auxiliary Workers on the Nursing Team, Bulletin 203-5. 66 pp. Wash ington, D. C., 1953. Price 40 cents. Information about these occupations may also be obtained from : National League for Nursing, Committee on Careers, 10 Columbus Circle, New York 19, N. Y. National Association for Practical Nurse Education and Service, 475 Riverside Dr., New York 27, N.Y. National Federation of Licensed Practical Nurses, 250 West 57th St., New York 19, N.Y. Skilled Trades and Other Industrial Occupations The skilled trades and other industrial oc cupations— skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled— together provided jobs for more than a third of all employed workers in the United States in 1960. Young persons with mechanical or manual interests and abilities who do not plan to go to college will find most of their employment opportunities among the hundreds of different occupations in this group. Levels of skill vary considerably among these occupations, which range from those of the unskilled laborer to the highly skilled tool and die maker. The men and women in these jobs perform important functions in industry by helping to transform the ideas of scientists and the plans of engineers into goods and services. Many of them help to operate transportation systems, communication facilities, and atomic instal lations. Others build homes, office buildings, and factories. Large numbers work in facto ries where they build, install, control, main tain, and repair the complex machinery needed by our highly mechanized society. Still others repair automobiles, television sets, and wash ing machines. The efficient operation of the Armed Forces depends on skilled workers in uniform, as well as upon civilian craftsmen who produce and maintain weapons, vehicles, ships, tanks, planes, and communication equipment. During the past two centuries, the oc cupational structure of our economy has under gone a major but gradual transformation as a result of the widespread introduction of ma chinery and mass-production methods. The development of the factory system of produc tion, which emphasized the division of labor' and specialization of function, changed our economy and resulted in the appearance of many new skills and trades. New occupations 332 developed and others changed drastically. The manufacturing industries, with their greater potential for division of labor, were particu larly influential in these occupational changes. The grouping of labor into such categories as skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled was primari ly a result of factory production methods. Some of the types of work formerly done by skilled workers have been broken down into several simpler jobs, each requiring a much shorter period of training than was originally demanded of the craftsmen. These simpler jobs can be performed by workers who are usually classified in the semiskilled category, although, in some cases, they still retain the titles of skilled workers. (The classification of jobs in terms of skill must always be some what arbitrary because job titles sometimes fail to indicate levels of skill.) In recent decades, the steady advance of technology in the factory and on the construc tion site has been chiefly responsible for the sharp reduction in the number and proportion of unskilled workers in the work force. On the other hand, the numbers and proportions of skilled and semiskilled workers in the working population have increased. The United States appears to be on the threshold of a new age of technological pro gress which may result in major changes in the future occupational composition of the labor force. Rapid advances in the industrial application of scientific knowledge and inven tion, particularly in the field of electronics, are making possible greater use of electronic, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, and other devices to feed, control, handle, and adjust the machinery and equipment used in factory production processes. These developments (popularly called “ automation” ) have not yet been applied generally in industry and, there- SKILLED TRADES AND OTHER INDUSTRIAL OCCUPATIONS fore, it is difficult to assess their impact on employment and occupational skills. However, the numbers of skilled and semiskilled workers are expected to continue to increase substan tially during the 1960's despite the increasing rate at which industry is mechanizing and automating its production processes. With re spect to skill requirements, it is expected that our increasingly complex technology generally will require workers with higher levels of skill. Changes in employment and skills in the skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled groups in the 1960's generally will represent extensions of recent trends that have resulted from techno logical gains. Employment of skilled workers is expected to increase somewhat more rapidly than the Nation's total working population which, it is estimated, will grow by about 20 percent in the 1960's. The semiskilled group is expected to grow at a somewhat slower rate than the skilled worker group, because many simple repetitive operations such as the load ing or unloading of machines will be taken over increasingly by automatic and semiauto matic devices. Little change in the number of unskilled laborers is expected. As a proportion of the working population, the number of skilled workers will increase, while semiskilled workers may remain about the same and may even decline somewhat. The proportion of unskilled laborers in the work force is expected to continue its long-term de cline, but the rate of decline probably will not be as rapid as in previous decades. The reports on the trades and other indus trial occupations which follow this introduc tion are grouped by industry or field of work, rather than by level of skill, since this is the most useful grouping for practical vocational guidance. The occupations which are found in a wide variety of industries or activities, or in industries for which an entire chapter has not been prepared, are included in this section of the Handbook. The great majority of the skilled trades and other industrial oc cupations, however, are described in the section on Some Major Industries and Their Occupa tions. Skilled Workers The Nation's economic and military strength depends to a great extent on the initiative and competence of its craftsmen. The contribu tions of physicists, engineers, chemists, and other professional workers to the national se curity and well-being are transformed into goods and services by a skilled, intelligent, and flexible work force. Skilled workers make the patterns, mo dels, tools, dies, machines, and equipment without which industrial processes could not be carried out by semiskilled and unskilled workers. They repair the equipment used in industry, as well as the mechanical equipment and appliances used by consumers. They also construct homes, commercial and industrial buildings, and highways. More than half of the country's skilled work ers in 1960 were employed in three broad occupational groupings— building trades, me chanics and repairmen, and skilled machining occupations. At least 15 skilled occupations 333 had more than 100,000 workers each in 1960. Among these were more than a million car penters and more than three-quarters of a mil lion automobile mechanics. (See chart 19.) Many skilled occupations, such as instru ment maker and stonemason, however, have relatively small numbers of workers. Skilled workers are employed in almost every branch of industry, but the largest numbers are employed in manufacturing and construc tion. A large majority of employed craftsmen work for private employers; others are selfemployed, or work for Federal, State, or local governments. The building trades have a fairly large percentage of self-employed craftsmen. As might be expected, employment of the skilled work force is concentrated in the highly industrialized States, for example, New York, California, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Ohio. Job opportunities for skilled workers, however, are found in every State. Only a very small proportion of skilled workers are women. 334 Training, Qualifications, and Advancement Skilled workers must have a thorough knowl edge of the processes involved in their work. They exercise considerable independent judg ment and often need a high degree of manual dexterity. In some instances, they are respon sible for valuable equipment or products. Workers in skilled occupations usually receive extensive training. Skilled workers learn their jobs in several different ways. Many acquire their skills through apprenticeship or other formal train ing programs. Many others, particularly dur ing periods of labor shortage, acquire the skills of their trades through experience on the job, but without participation in a planned train ing program. Large numbers* of young men also acquire skills in the armed services. For others, vocational school training has an impor tant role in developing skills. Most training authorities agree that the best way to learn a skilled trade is through a formal apprenticeship program. Apprenticeship is a period of systematic on-the-job training, sup plemented by related trade instruction, which is designed to familiarize the apprentice with the materials, tools, and principles of the trade. The apprenticeship program provides the worker with a balanced knowledge of his trade and the ability to perform duties competently. The formal apprenticeship agreement stipu lates the number of hours of training the ap prentice is to receive in the various aspects of the trade. Most apprenticeship programs last from 3 to 6 years. Apprenticeship has a number of advantages over less formal methods of learning a trade. An apprentice receives broad training and ex perience which enable him to adjust more easily to changing job requirements, and to work in a wide range of jobs. The completion of an apprenticeship gives the worker a recog nized status which is an advantage in finding and holding jobs. Many firms select foremen from among their former apprentices, because they are usually familiar with all aspects of the work being performed. Many companies have other kinds of train programs which also provide systematic ing OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK on-the-job training and, frequently, supple mentary classroom instruction. In these pro grams, new workers begin on the simplest tasks under the direction of a foreman or an ex perienced worker and gradually progress to more difficult work. Many young persons, in moving from one semiskilled job to another among different em ployers over a period of many years, acquire sufficient knowledge and skills which eventu ally enable them to become skilled workers. Others begin learning a skilled trade in voca tional, trade, or technical schools. A small pro portion of these students move directly into jobs in their trade and, after acquiring expe rience, qualify as skilled workers. Other young persons, who are already employed in semi skilled or unskilled jobs, move into skilled ocCHART 19 MANY SKILLED O CC U PAT IO N S HAVE M O RE THAN A HUNDRED T H O U SA N D W O R K E R S .... 0 200 400 Thousands of w ork ers,l 9 6 0 1 600 800 1,000 1,200 1 ------------ 1 --------------1 -------------- 1 --------------1 --------------1 -------------- 1 C a rp e n te rs Station a ry engineers In d u stria l m achinery repairmen A p p lia n ce servicem en Tool and die makers Sheet-m etal worke Electricians (construction)f 1 Estimated. Construction miachinery operators. SKILLED TRADES AND OTHER INDUSTRIAL OCCUPATIONS cupations through vocational training related to their work. Large numbers of young men in the Armed Forces acquire skills which enable them to qualify, with little or no additional training, for skilled jobs in civilian life, such as auto mobile mechanic, electronic technician, air plane mechanic, electrician, or office-machine repairman. Employment Trends and Outlook Employment in skilled occupations has grown from about 5 million (approximately 1 out of 9 civilian workers), in 1940, to about 8.6 mil lion (approximately 1 out of 8) in 1960. De spite the long-term upward trend, however, em ployment of skilled labor has fluctuated with changes in business conditions and require ments for national defense. Following the em ployment decline during the depression of the 1930’s, the demand for craftsmen rose sharply as a result of World War II production re quirements and by 1944, reached about 7 mil lion. After the war, as industrial activity ex panded to meet the accumulated demand for consumer products, employment of skilled workers rose steadily, exceeding 8 million by 1948. Although employment of skilled workers declined during subsequent periods of reces sion, employment in this group generally tended to move upward in the 1950,s. Continued growth in the number of skilled jobs is expected in the next decade. Even more job opportunities for young persons will result from the need to replace skilled workers who transfer to other fields of work, are promot ed, or who retire or die. At least 170,000 skil led workers may be needed each year to replace just those who retire or die. Among skilled occupations, those concerned with the repair and servicing of machinery and equipment have shown the greatest growth in recent years. The expansion has been due to increasing mechanization and more complex machinery in many manufacturing industries, the growing number and complexity of auto mobiles, and the greater use of electrical and appliances in the home. Between mechanical 335 1940 and 1950, employment of mechanics and repairmen doubled, rising by more than 850,000. The number of automobile me chanics, airplane mechanics, office machine re pairmen, and television, radio, and appliance servicemen increased rapidly. The building trades, which employed almost a third of all skilled workers (about 3 million) in mid-1960, also grew rapidly. On the other hand, employ ment declined for some skilled workers, such as blacksmiths. By the end of the 1960’s, employment in skilled occupations is expected to reach nearly 11 million, because of industrial growth and technological advances which increase the need for skilled workers. As in the past, rates of employment growth will differ for workers in many of the skilled occupational groups. For example, employment of mechanics and repair men should continue to grow more rapidly than the skilled work force as a whole. Many thou sands of job opportunities will be available for auto mechanics, industrial machinery repair men, maintenance electricians, diesel mechan ics, business-machine repairmen, and airconditioning and refrigeration mechanics and repairmen. The number of skilled workers in the building trades also is expected to gain rapidly because of the anticipated large rise in construction activity. Another large area of employment opportunities for skilled work ers will be the major skilled machining occupations— tool and die maker, machinist, instrument maker, skilled machine-tool oper ator, setup man, and layout man. On the other hand, the printing trades, also one of the large groups of skilled workers, probably will in crease at a somewhat slower rate than the skilled work force as a whole. Young people who do not expect to go to college should consider seriously the definite advantages which the skilled trades offer, com pared with semiskilled and unskilled occupa tions. Skilled workers have higher earnings, more job security, better chances for promo tions, and more opportunities to open their own business, than most of the workers with lesser skill. Of the 11 occupational groups which make up our labor force, only the pro fessional and managerial worker groups had 336 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK higher average annual earnings than crafts men in 1959. The greater job security of skilled workers compared with semiskilled and unskilled work ers was clearly evident during the 1960-61 re cession. Their rate of unemployment was sub stantially less than that for semiskilled work ers, but more than twice as low as that for unskilled workers. Employers were reluctant to lay off skilled maintenance workers. With training and experience in a skilled craft, a worker can handle not only a skilled job but also, if necessary, one requiring less skill. Many supervisors and men in high adminis trative positions in industry have come from the ranks of craftsmen. Employers have long Semiskilled Workers “ Operatives,” who are usually called semi skilled workers, make up the largest occupa tional group in the Nation's labor force. About 12 million workers— almost 1 in every 5— were employed in semiskilled jobs in 1960. About 7 million of these semiskilled workers were em ployed in manufacturing industries (for ex ample, men's and women's clothing, automo biles, automobile parts, food, cotton and wool textiles, machinery, and electrical and elec tronic equipment). Nearly one-third of all semiskilled workers were women. Semiskilled jobs, such as sewing machine operator and assembler, were by far the largest source of employment for women in manufacturing in dustries. The broad field of semiskilled jobs will provide hundreds of thousands of employment opportunities for young people looking for jobs in the 1960's. Truckdrivers are the largest single group of semiskilled workers. Millions of other semi skilled workers operate power-driven machines in factories, for example, power trucks to move equipment and materials, and lathes to shape metal parts. Semiskilled assemblers fit together parts such as tubes, sockets, and wires to make complete television sets and other pro ducts. Inspectors check the size, quality, and workmanship of parts and products to make recognized the value of executives who have both industrial know-how and administrative ability and thus have drawn many of them from the ranks of skilled workers— especially from among those who have received apprenticeship or other well-rounded training. In the years ahead, applicants for skilled jobs will have to meet increasingly higher stand ards. Industry will need craftsmen with higher levels of skill to do the complex work involved in rapidly advancing fields such as electronics, spacecraft, and guided missiles. Young men who acquire a good basic education (including courses in mathematics and the sciences), as well as thorough job training, will be better able to compete for the higher paying skilled jobs than applicants without this training. sure they operate properly. Other semiskilled factory workers operate self-powered equip ment, such as forklift trucks, which move heavy parts or materials from place to place. Many semiskilled employees work as helpers or assistants to skilled workers. For example, stationary firemen assist skilled stationary en gineers in the operation and maintenance of steam boilers. (A detailed discussion of work ers in selected semiskilled factory jobs is in cluded in a later section. Further information is available in Factory Jobs: Employment Out look For Workers in Jobs Requiring Little or No Experience or Specialized Training, BLS Bulletin 1288, January 1961.) In general, operatives work with their hands. They have had only brief on-the-job training. Usually they are told exactly what to do and how to do it, and their work is supervised closely. They often repeat the same motions or the same jobs throughout the working day. Semiskilled workers do not need to invest many years in learning a trade. The simplest repetitive and routine semiskilled jobs can be learned in a day and mastered in a few weeks. Even those semiskilled jobs which require a higher degree of skill, such as truckdriver, can be learned in a few months. Adaptability— the ability to learn new jobs and the operation of SKILLED TRADES AND OTHER INDUSTRIAL OCCUPATIONS new machines quickly— is an important quali fication for semiskilled workers. New employees in semiskilled jobs usually are required only to be physically able to per form the work. At the beginning, they are not expected to be highly proficient, but after a short training period they must work at a standard, fast, and steady pace. A semi skilled worker must be dependable— come to work regularly, pay attention, and follow in structions carefully. Frequently, good eyesight and good coordination are required also. Employment growth in semiskilled jobs has been greatest in manufacturing industries (such as apparel and automobiles) where pro duction processes are divided and subdivided into step-by-step sequences of relatively simple operations. To reduce costs and increase efficiency, many former skilled jobs in these in dustries have been replaced by a series of jobs which require workers with much less skill. Mass production industries also have created large numbers of new semiskilled assembly and inspection jobs. Other new jobs for semiskilled workers resulted from the introduction and use of welding as a manufacturing process. Ex panded production in manufacturing indus tries together with the growing use of trucks and buses have been instrumental in making the semiskilled the largest group of workers in the labor force. Between 1910 and 1960, em ployment of semiskilled workers more than doubled. Employment of semiskilled workers will con tinue to increase in the 1960’s. As a proportion of the labor force, however, it is expected that semiskilled workers may remain about the same or even decline somewhat. Recent tech nological advances (popularly called “ automa tion” ) have permitted great gains in produc tion with little or no increase in employment of semiskilled machine operators. Many loading and handling operations, for example, can be performed more quickly and efficiently with the newer types of semiautomatic trans fer equipment, thus reducing requirements for semiskilled operators in such work. On the other hand, the creation of new jobs — frequently a result of continuing technolog ical advances http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ in processing and products— Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 337 will favorably affect employment of semi skilled workers. In addition, semiskilled work ers will have many job opportunities in plants which will remain relatively unmechanized in the 1960,s. The continuing substitution of power equipment for unskilled manual labor— lifting, hauling, digging, and similar heavy physical work— also will create many employ ment openings for semiskilled workers. Tens of thousands of job opportunities for semiskilled workers also will become available each year in the 1960,s as workers are pro moted, transfer out of semiskilled jobs, retire, or die. Replacement needs for semiskilled workers are high because a fairly high propor tion of them are young workers and wo men workers, who tend to change jobs fre quently. Many women operatives leave their jobs to marry, raise families, or move to other areas when their husbands change jobs. Semiskilled workers are more likely to lose their jobs during a business recession, and to remain unemployed for longer periods of time, than craftsmen or white-collar employees. On the other hand, semiskilled workers can move to different jobs at the same level of pay more easily than can highly specialized workers. Semiskilled jobs often pay well. Operatives who are paid on the basis of the number of items they produce are among the highest paid workers in manufacturing, although the aver age annual earnings of operatives are about $1,000 less than those of skilled workers. Young men and women who have no train ing beyond high school will continue to find a major area of job opportunities in factory op erative and other semiskilled jobs. However, the most rapid gains in the Nation's employ ment are in skilled occupations and profes sional, technical, and other white-collar occu pations. If possible, young people with ability should obtain the additional training and edu cation which these occupations require. Young people who take semiskilled jobs, however, are not cut off permanently from advancement if they take advantage of the many educational opportunities available in their communities. They may enter apprentice training programs, or take courses in evening schools, and eventu ally qualify for better jobs. 338 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Unskilled Workers Unskilled laborers work in manual occupa tions which generally require no special train ing. Frequently, these jobs involve handling and moving objects or materials, for example, loading or unloading, digging, shoveling, hau ling, hoisting, wrapping, and mixing. Some of these unskilled jobs require heavy physical work. Unskilled manual laborers are employed mainly in manufacturing plants, construction work, wholesale and retail trade, and transpor tation jobs. Employment of unskilled laborers dropped over the past few decades, but has remained relatively stable in recent years. In 1960, em ployment of unskilled laborers was approxi mately 3.7 million, only about 5.5 percent of the Nation’s work force. The long-run decline in the employment of unskilled workers has occurred largely because mechanized equipment has been replacing tnanual labor. Use of power-driven, material handling equipment, such as forklift trucks, derricks, cranes, hoists, and conveyor belts, has greatly increased in factories, freight termi nals, warehouses, and construction operations. The substitution of mechanical equipment for unskilled labor in industry is expected to con tinue in the 1960’s. However, total employ ment in this occupational group probably will show little change, mainly because new require ments for unskilled laborers in expanding in dustries are expected to offset the drop resul ting from continuing mechanization. BUILDING TRADES Building* trades craftsmen make up the larg est group of skilled workers in the Nation’s la bor force. Altogether, there were about 3 mil lion such craftsmen in mid-1960— almost a third of all the skilled' workers. The more than two dozen skilled building trades vary greatly in size. Several major trades— carpenter, painter, plumber, pipefitter, bricklayer, opera ting engineer (construction machinery opera tor), and construction electrician— each com prised more than a hundred thousand workers. (See chart 20.) The more than 1 million carpen ters accounted for about 2 out of every 5 skilled building tradesmen. By contrast, only a few thousand workers were employed in each of several trades, such as marble setter, asbes tos and insulating worker, and stonemason. There are several reasons why young men may wish to consider one of the building trades as a career. These trades offer especially good opportunities for those who are not planning to go to college, but who are willing to spend sev eral years in learning a skilled occupation. Well-trained building trades craftsmen can find job opportunities in all parts of the coun try. Their hourly wage rates generally are much higher than those of most other manual workers. Building trades craftsmen with busi ness ability have greater opportunities to estab lish their own businesses than workers in many other skilled occupations. Moreover, employ ment in most building trades has expanded during the past several decades, and is still growing, despite advances in technology. A principal disadvantage of work in the building trades is the sharp employment fluc tuations that result from changes in general business conditions. Another disadvantage is that even during years of high levels of con struction activity, annual earnings of workers in the building trades are somewhat limited by the seasonal nature of construction work. Worktime is lost as a result of bad weather and other interruptions. In addition, construction jobs generally are of short duration and build ing craftsmen must spend time in finding their next job, which may be located at a con siderable distance from their homes. What Are the Building Trades? Building trades craftsmen are employed mainly in the construction, maintenance, re pair, and alteration of homes and other types of buildings, highways, airports, and other structures. The wide range of materials and skills used in construction work has resulted in specialization of various work operations. CHART 20 EMPLOYMENT IN SKILLED BUILDING TRADES, M ID -1960.1 .... 0 200 400 600 Thousands of workers 800 1,000 1,200 Painters Plumbers and pipefitters Bricklayers Operating engineers Electricians (construction) Structu ral-ornamental, and reinforcing-iron workers 1 Estimated. 2 Construction machine operators. 339 340 Thus, building trades workers who use essen tially the same materials or skills have tended to become identified with distinct trades. For example, bricklayers and stonemasons both work with masonry materials. Although oper ating engineers do not work with particular ma terials, they have a group of related skills which enables them to handle various types of excavating, grading, hoisting, and other equip ment. The building trades consist primarily of journeymen who generally must have a high level of skill and a sound knowledge of assem bly and construction operations. They are often assisted in their work by apprentices, tenders, and laborers. The work of journeymen may be grouped in to three broad classifications— structural, finishing, and mechanical. However, some craftsmen— for example, carpenters— may do finishing as well as structural work. Generally, each building trade is classified in one of these three categories, as follow s: Occupations mainly concerned with struc tural w ork: carpenter, bricklayer, stone mason, cement or concrete mason, structuraliron worker, ornamental-iron worker, re inforcing-iron worker (rodman), rigger, boiler maker, and operating engineer. Occupations mainly concerned with finish ing w ork: lather, plasterer, marble setter, tile setter, terrazzo worker, painter, paperhanger, soft-floor layer, glazier, roofer, and asbestos worker. Occupations mainly concerned with mechan ical w ork: plumber, pipefitter, millwright, construction electrician, sheet-metal worker, and elevator constructor. (A detailed description of the nature of the work, training, employment outlook, and other information concerning millwrights and boilermakers appears elsewhere in this Hand book. See index for page numbers.) Most of these skilled trades are described in dividually later in this chapter. These descrip tions are necessarily brief and incomplete. They do not apply fully to all localities because of local differences in the scope of the various trades. Also, they are not statements or recom mendations concerning the work jurisdiction OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK of these trades and are inappropriate for use in jurisdictional negotiations or the settlement of jurisdictional questions. Where Building Trades Workers Are Employed Building trades workers are employed mainly by contractors in the contract construction in dustry. Many others are employed to do main tenance work in industries other than construction, particularly manufacturing. Some building trades craftsmen work directly for business firms or government agencies which have their own construction work force; others are self-employed. The building trades craftsmen who work in the contract construction industry are em ployed by general and special-trade contrac tors. General contractors may be classified as building (residential, commercial, or indus trial), highway, or heavy construction con tractors, since most general contractors limit their operations to one of these activities. They construct buildings and other structures, such as dams, bridges, and roads, taking full respon sibility for the complete job, except for any specified portions of the work that may be omit ted from the general contract. General con tractors may do a large part of the work with their own crews, but they often subcontract particular phases of the construction job to special-trade contractors. Special-trade contractors usually do the work of only one trade, such as painting, car pentry, or electrical work, or of two or more closely related trades, such as plumbing and heating, or plastering and lathing. Beyond fit ting their work to that of other trades, they have no responsibility for the structure as a whole. The special-trade contractors obtain orders for their work from general contrac tors, architects, or from property owners. Re pair work is almost always done on direct order from the owners, occupants, architects, or rental agents. There are several hundred thousand contrac tors (both general and special-trade); most of them operate within a limited geographical area. The great majority are small— generally employing fewer than 10 workers. Some larg BUILDING TRADES er firms employ several thousand workers each. Many building trades workers are selfemployed. Self-employed journeymen work di rectly for property owners on small jobs. They may be paid by the hour or the day, or they may be paid an agreed price for the job, either providing the materials and including them in the price or using materials provided by the owner. Self-employment is most common in carpentry and painting, but is found also in other skilled building trades. In some of the trades, work may be performed away from the construction site. For example, sheet-metal workers may be em ployed in shops where ducts are fabricated for installation in a building. Many building trades craftsmen are also employed to do main tenance work in factories, stores, mines, hotels, and almost every other type of large business establishment. The work of skilled building craftsmen is identified with a specific trade, such as car pentry or bricklaying, rather than with an in dividual contractor or even a broad group of contractors. Thus, a carpenter may be em ployed mainly by a particular builder but, in the course of a year, he may be employed also by a concrete contractor to build forms for a concrete bridge; by an electrical or plumbing contractor to build a temporary structure at a large construction site; or he may contract to do a small repair job on his own. The fact that building trades craftsmen are employed in almost every community is an im portant consideration for young persons inter ested in a career in the skilled building trades. Once they learn one of the trades they can find jobs not only in their own community but in almost any part of the country. Employment of these workers is distributed geographically, however, in much the same way as the Nation’s population. Thus, their employment is concen trated generally in the industrialized and highly populated States, such as California, New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Texas, and Ohio. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities, including national apprenticeship com joint labor-management 341 mittees established for most of the building trades, recommend formal apprentice training as the best way to acquire the all-round pro ficiency of craftsmen in the building trades. Apprenticeship is a prescribed period of onthe-job training, supplemented by related class room instruction, which is designed to develop skill by making the apprentice familiar with the materials, tools, and principles of his trade. This type of training provides the apprentice with a balanced knowledge of his field of work and enables him to perform its operations com petently. Formal apprenticeship agreements are registered with a State apprenticeship agency or the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training. In addition to the apprenticeship method, many building trades workers have acquired skills of their trades informally, by working for many years as laborers and helpers, observ ing the work of experienced craftsmen. Some building trades craftsmen have acquired their skills, or part of their skills, by attending vo cational or trade schools, or by taking corre spondence school courses. Generally, apprentices in the building trades are required to be between the ages of 18 and 25, and in good physical condition. (The maxi mum age limit may be waived for veterans or others with experience or special quali fications.) A high school education or its equivalent, with course work in mathematics and the sciences, is desirable. Often, applicants are given tests to determine their aptitude for a particular occupation. For some skilled building trades, it is important to have considerable manual dexterity, mechanical aptitude, a discerning color sense, and an eye for quickly determining proper alinement of materials. The formal registered apprenticeship agree ment generally stipulates a training period of 3 to 5 years of relatively continuous employ ment and training, in addition to a minimum of 144 hours a year of related classroom in struction. The journeymen on the job and the foreman explain to the apprentice how the work is done and show him how different ope rations are performed and how different tools are used. Ordinarily, most of this instruction 342 is given by a particular journeyman to whom the apprentice is assigned. The apprentice is required to do work of progressively increasing difficulty and with progressively less supervi sion. Related classroom instruction varies among the skilled building trades, but usually includes courses such a s: History of the trade; charac teristics of the materials used; shop mathemat ics as related to the work of the trade; some basic principles of engineering, where appro priate (particularly for pipework, work on ventilating systems, and electrical w o rk ); sketching, elementary drafting, and interpre tation of drawings; safety practices; and special-trade theory such as color harmony for painters and elementary sanitation for plumb ers. Such related instruction is seldom offered in small communities where there may be only a few apprentices and a small number of jour neymen in a particular trade. In these areas, apprentices receive instruction through courses offered in the local high school or by visiting instructors, generally furnished by the State. Other subject matter requirements are met through personal instruction by local jour neymen and contractors or, in some cases, through correspondence courses. The formal registered apprenticeship agree ments also stipulate the length of time the ap prentice is to be required to work in each major operation of the trade as well as his rate of pay at successive intervals of advancement. The apprentice is paid at an advancing rate, usu ally starting at 50 percent of the journeyman's pay. The apprentice's rate increases at 6month or 1-year intervals until a rate of about 90 percent of the journeyman's rate is reached in the final months of training. Often, ad vanced apprenticeship standing and pay are given to apprentices who have acquired trade skills in the Armed Forces, or through trade school instruction. Advanced standing is granted on an individual basis and is usually determined by a demonstration of trade skill and knowledge. In most communities, the apprenticeship programs are supervised by joint apprentice ship committees composed of representatives the local employers or employer groups and of OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK the local union. The apprentices sign their ap prenticeship agreements with these com mittees. The committee determines the need for apprentices in the locality and establishes minimum apprenticeship standards of educa tion, experience, and training. Whenever em ployers cannot provide the variety of experi ence necessary to give an apprentice all-round instruction in the various branches of the trade, or relatively continuous employment over the entire period of apprenticeship, the committee transfers the apprentice to another employer. Where specialization by contractors is extensive— for instance, in electrical work — it is customary for the joint committee to ro tate apprentices among several contractors in the trade at intervals of about 6 months. In some large cities, the local joint apprentice ship committee employs an apprenticeship pro gram coordinator. In areas where these committees have not been established, the apprenticeship agreement is solely between the apprentice and an em ployer or employer group. Many journeymen have received worthwhile training under this type of apprenticeship program, but such a pro gram may involve some element of risk for the apprentice. In such instances, there is no joint committee to supervise the training offered, to settle differences over the terms and conditions of apprentice training, or to arrange a transfer in cases of personal disagreements between the the apprentice and the employer. The appren tice's training depends principally on his em ployers' business prospects and policies. If the employer lacks continuous work or does only a restricted type of work, he cannot provide the apprentice with the all-round train ing needed to develop journeyman skills. In many localities, craftsmen, most com monly construction electricians and plumbers, are required to have a journeyman's license to work at their trade. To qualify for such li censes, they must pass an examination, show ing a well-rounded knowledge of the job and of State and local regulations. Building trades craftsmen may advance in a number of ways. For example, a journey man may become a foreman in charge of a crew. In most localities, small jobs are BUILDING TRADES run by “ working foremen” who work at the trade along with members of their crews. On very large jobs, the foremen do supervisory work only. A craftsman can also become an estimator for a contractor. In this job, he es timates material requirements and labor costs to enable the contractor to bid on the work of a particular construction project. Some craftsmen advance to jobs as superintendents on large projects. Others become instructors in trade and vocational schools, or salesmen for building supply companies. In addition, many thousands of journeyman have become contractors, particularly in the homebuilding field. Sound journeyman knowl edge is a great help in assuring success as a contractor. However, the successful contrac tor must also have the ability to plan work, to foresee needs and problems, to direct others, and to estimate material and time requirements for jobs on which he is bidding. He also must have a sound knowledge of business practices and financing. Generally, it is easier to start a small con tracting business in the construction industry than it is to start a small business in other in dustries. For example, only relatively moder ate financial investment is needed, liberal credit arrangements make it easier to buy materials, and it is possible to conduct a fairly substantial business from the pro prietor’s home. Because it is relatively easy to enter the contracting business, competition is usually keen, especially for smaller jobs. For larger jobs, considerable working capital and investment in equipment are necessary. Some States or municipalities require contractors to be licensed. Employment Outlook A continued upward trend in the em ployment of skilled building trades workers is expected during the 1960’s. The rate of em ployment increase for these craftsmen is ex pected to be greater than the estimated 20percent rise anticipated for the Nation’s total working population. In addition to openings resulting from employment growth, many thou sands of job opportunities for new workers to 343 enter the building trades will result each year from the need to replace skilled workers who transfer to other fields of work, are promoted to other jobs, or who retire or die. The favorable employment prospects for these skilled workers in the 1960-70 decade will result primarily from the approximate 50percent increase anticipated in the level of construction activity, continuing the upward trend of the 1950’s. This trend can be illus trated by an examination of construction ex penditures. Total construction expenditures (including maintenance and repair) rose more than 75 percent from 1950 to 1960 (actual ex penditures not adjusted for changes in price levels). The rate of growth of new construc tion was even greater over the same period, while expenditures for maintenance and repairs increased nearly 60 percent. Employ ment growth accompanied the 1950-60 expan sion in construction activity. For example, in contract construction, where a majority of building trades craftsmen work, annual aver age employment rose from about 2.3 million in 1950 to nearly 2.8 million in 1960, or by almost 20 percent. The same factors which accounted for the rapid expansion in construction activity over the 1950’s are expected to spur construction expenditures over the 1960’s. These factors in clude anticipated large increases in population and in the number of households; a continuing shift of families from the cities to the suburbs; increases in government expenditures for high ways, schools, and national defense; a rise in expenditures for new industrial plant capacity; higher levels of personal and corporate income; and expanding demand for maintenance, repair, and modernization work. This large rise in construction activity is expected to result in a substantial increase in the employment of building trades craftsmen. However, employment is expected to increase at a slower rate than expenditures. Continued technological developments in construction methods and equipment will permit greater out put per construction worker. The techno logical changes which can be foreseen at the present time will likely have limited effects on employment in the building trades. The experi 344 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ence of the past 50 years shows that the skilled building trades generally have been able to adapt to technological changes and still con tinue to grow. Employment of building trades craftsmen in maintenance jobs in factories, commercial es tablishments, schools, and large residential pro jects is also expected to increase substantially by 1970. The rates of growth will differ among the various building trades. Employment growth is expected to be most rapid for operating engi neers, cement masons, construction elec tricians, sheet-metal workers, and plumbers and pipefitters. Employment of carpenters will also increase substantially and this trade will continue to be the largest single occupa tion in the building trades. Painters, paperhangers, stonemasons, tile and marble setters, and lathers probably will be among the build ing trades which will have the least rapid growth. (See chart 21.) CHART 21 EXPECTED EMPLOYMENT GROWTH RATES IN SELECTED BUILDING TRADES, 1960-70..... Building Growth rates related to ave rage for all building trades trades Very mc uh less Substan Slightly Slightly Substan Very tially much tially more less more more less O pe ratin g e n gin e e rs1 ! Sheet metal workers 1 Earnings and Working Conditions Electricians (construction) 1 J Cement masons Carpenters 1 Plumbers and pipefitters J Bricklayers I Structural-, ornamental-, and \ reinforcing- iron workers j Roofers Plasterers / I \ r Paperh an ge rs I (A more complete statement covering train ing, other qualifications, advancement, and em ployment opportunities in each trade is given in the discussions of individual occupations la ter in this chapter.) One of the principal sources of job oppor tunities for new workers will result from re placement needs. Retirements and deaths alone may provide about 65,000 to 75,000 job open ings each year. Other openings will result from the need to replace experienced craftsmen who leave the building trades for other fields of‘ work. In mid-1960, about 103,000 apprentices were in registered apprentice training programs in the construction trades and perhaps more than 20,000. other apprentices were in unregistered programs. Opportunities for young men to re ceive apprentice training will be available in all parts of the country during the 1960’s. In addition, thousands of other workers will be able to enter construction trades informally. Some indication of the location of future ap prenticeship opportunities in the building trades is available from the latest data show ing the geographical distribution of registered apprentices in these trades. The following eight States accounted for more than half of the number of registered apprentices in train ing for selected building trades in mid-1960: California, 14,848; New York, 9,169; Illinois, 8,766; Ohio, 6,013; Texas, 4,532; Pennsylvania, 4,134; Florida, 3,268; and Michigan, 3,018. — * ^Construction machinery operators. Hourly wage rates paid to building trades craftsmen are generally higher than those paid to many other skilled workers. However, be cause construction work is seasonal and time is lost for other reasons, average annual earn ings are not as high as the hourly rates of pay would indicate. The hourly rates of pay for skilled workers in the building trades vary by trade and lo cality. Generally, the highest hourly rates are paid in the larger communities. Union mini mum hourly rates for journeymen and for helpers and laborers in selected building trades in 52 large cities, as of July 1, 1960, ac- 345 BUILDING TRADES cording to the national survey of building trades workers, averaged as follows: M in im u m average h o u r ly r a te All building trades__________________________ $3.66 Journeymen _________________________________________ 3.86 Asbestos workers ______________________________ 3.90 Bricklayers_____________________________________ 4.17 Carpenters _____________________________________ 3.78 Cement masons (finishers)_____________________ 3.75 Electricians (inside wiremen) ________________ 4.00 Elevator constructors__________________________ 3.95 Glaziers________________________________________ 3.53 Lathers ________________________________________ 4.00 Marble setters _________________________________ 3.91 Terrazzo workers ______________________________ 3.93 Tile setters_____________________________________ 3.84 Painters _______________________________________ 3.55 Paperhangers _______________________________ T 3.52 Pipefitters______________________________________ 4.00 Plasterers ______________________________________ 4.06 Plumbers ______________________________________ 4.01 Roofers, composition __________________________ 3.61 Roofers, slate and tile__________________________ 3.62 Sheet-metal workers __________________________ 3.90 Stonemasons __________________________________ 4.04 Structural-iron workers ______________________ 3.96 Rodmen ________________________________________ 3.86 Helpers and laborers________________________________ 2.88 Bricklayers’ tenders___________________________ 3.00 Building laborers ______________________________ 2.81 Composition roofers’ helpers___________________ 2.51 Elevator constructors’ helpers________________ 2.84 Marble setters’ helpers_________________________ 3.07 Terrazzo workers’ helpers_____________________ 3.18 Tile setters’ helpers____________________________ 3.13 Plasterers’ laborers____________________________ 3.18 Plumbers’ laborers ____________________________ 2.77 Union rates for these occupations are nego tiated between trade unions and employers. They do not include overtime, bonuses, or pay ments for special qualifications or for other reasons. Construction work frequently requires pro longed standing, bending, stooping, and work ing in cramped quarters. Exposure to cold, hot, and inclement weather is common, as much of the work is done outdoors or in partially en closed structures. During the winter, when the buildings are sufficiently enclosed, heat is com monly provided. Many persons prefer con struction work to other skilled occupations, be cause they can work outdoors. Construction work is generally more danger Digitized for than work in manufacturing, but the risk ous FRASER of injury is lessened considerably when proper work practices are followed. In recent years, the safety record of construction workers in contract construction work has improved as a result of safety programs established by em ployers and unions. Forty hours was the standard workweek for a vast majority of union building trades workers in mid-1960. Time and one-half was generally paid for hours worked beyond the stand ard workday of 8 hours. Time-and-one-half or double-time rates were usually paid for work on Saturdays and Sundays or on holidays. Travel pay to and from work was commonly paid to building trades workers whenever their work was outside a specified local area. A substantial proportion of organized build ing trades workers are included in health and insurance programs negotiated between unions and employers. A majority of the build ing trades workers in major cities are covered by health and insurance programs financed en tirely by employer contributions. Pension plans for building trades workers have become more common in recent years. A large proportion of skilled building trades workers are members of trade unions affiliated with the Building and Construction Trades De partment of the American Federation of Labor and Congress o f Industrial Organizations. Where To Go for More Information Information on opportunities for apprentice ship or other types of construction employment in a particular locality should be obtained from individual construction firms, employer asso ciations, locals of the building trades unions, or the local office of the Bureau of Ap prenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. Many apprenticeship programs are supervised by local joint union-management apprenticeship committees. In these instances, an apprentice applicant may apply directly to the coordinator of the joint apprentice ship committee, if there is one in his locality. In recent years, there has been a trend toward increased use of the local office of the State em ployment service as a source of information about apprenticeship openings. 346 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK For more information on jobs in the buildingtrades, a young man should write to the organi Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington 6, D.C. National Association of Home Builders, 1625 L St. NW., Washington 6, D.C. zations listed below : American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations, Building and Construction Trades Department, 815 16th St. NW., Washington 6, D.C. For the names of labor organizations and trade associations concerned with specific building trades, see the discussions of individ ual building trades later in this chapter. Carpenters (D.O.T. 5-25.110 through .840) Nature of Work Carpenters, the largest single group of build ing trades workers, are employed in al most every type of construction activity. Their work is commonly divided into two broad categories— “ rough” carpentry and “ finish” carpentry. Skilled carpenters are able to do both types of work. In rough work, carpenters erect the wood framework in buildings, including subfloor ing, sheathing, partitions, floor joists, studding, and rafters. They install heavy timbers used in the building of docks, railroad trestles, and similar heavy installations. Rough carpentry Carpenter's doing rough-framing work following architectural drawings. also includes the building of forms to enclose concrete until it is hardened, the making of chutes for pouring concrete, and the erection of scaffolding and temporary buildings on the construction site. A fter the rough carpentry is completed, finish carpenters install molding, wood panel ing, cabinets, window sash, door frames, doors, and hardware. They also build stairs and lay floors. Carpenters who do finish work must con sider the appearance as well as the structural accuracy of the work. A s part of their job, carpenters also saw, fit, and assemble plywood, wallboard, and other materials. They use nails, bolts, wood screws, or glue to fasten materials. They may also in stall linoleum, asphalt tile, and similar softfloor coverings. Carpenters use handtools such as hammers, saws, chisels, and planes, and pow er tools such as portable power saws, drills, and rivet guns. Carpenters tend to specialize in a particular type of carpentry work because of the wide scope of the work performed in the trade. For example, some carpenters specialize in in stalling acoustic panels on ceilings and walls; others specialize in the installation of millwork and finish hardware (trim m ing), laying hard wood floors, or building stairs. Specialization is more common in the large cities; in small communities, carpenters ordinarily do all types of carpentry work. In rural areas, carpenters may do the work of other craftsmen, particu larly painting, glazing, or roofing. Carpenters generally work in a particular field of construc tion, such as home, bridge, or highway con struction, or in industrial maintenance. BUILDING TRADES Where Employed Most carpenters work in the construction in dustry and are employed mainly by contractors and homebuilders at the construction site. They work principally on building construc tion, although many are employed on highway or other nonbuilding projects. A large num ber do repair, alteration, or modernization work. Many carpenters alternate between wage employment for contractors and selfemployment on small jobs. Many others work for government agencies or nonconstruction firms which employ a separate work force for their own construction work. A large number of carpenters do maintenance work in facto ries, hotels, office buildings, and other large establishments. They are also employed in shipbuilding, in mining, and in the production of many kinds of display materials. Carpenters are employed in almost every community. Skilled carpenters can obtain jobs in almost any part of the country. Em ployment of these workers is distributed geo graphically in much the same way as em ployment in the building trades generally, with large concentrations of workers in the highly populated and industrialized areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities, including the na tional joint labor-management apprenticeship committee for the carpentry trade, recommend the completion of a 4-year apprenticeship pro gram as the best way to learn carpentry. A substantial number of workers in this trade, however, have acquired carpentry skills in formally, by working for many years as helpers or handymen, observing or being taught by ex perienced carpenters. Many of these men have also gained some of the knowledge of the trade by taking correspondence or trade school courses. Apprenticeship applicants are generally re quired to be at least 17 years of age; a high school education or its equivalent is desirable. Good physical condition, a good sense of bal ance, and lack of fear of working on structures higl^pff the ground are important assets. Ap titudes which the apprentice should have in 347 elude manual dexterity and the ability to solve arithmetic problems quickly and accurately. Most apprenticeship programs are under the supervision of local joint union-management apprenticeship committees. Generally, the ap prentice is employed under a written ap prenticeship agreement, and the program is registered with a State apprenticeship agency or the U.S. Department of Labor's Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training. The apprenticeship program usually con sists of 8,000 hours (4 years) of on-the-job training, in addition to a minimum of 576 hours of related classroom instruction. During the apprenticeship period, the apprentice learns elementary structural design and becomes fa miliar with the common systems of frame and form construction, and to use, care for, and handle safely the tools, machines, equipment, and materials used in the trade. He also learns, among other things, how to build forms for holding cement and rough framing, outside and inside finishing work, and how to fit hardware and layout doors, windows, and partitions. The apprentice receives related classroom in struction in drafting and blueprint reading, mathematics applicable to layout work, and the use of woodworking machines. Both in the classroom and on the job he learns the relation ship between carpentry and the other building trades, because the work of the carpenter is basic to the construction process. Hourly wage rates for apprentices usually start at about 50 percent of the journeyman rate and increase by about 5 percent in each 6-month period until a rate of 85 to 90 percent is reached during the last period of apprentice ship. If apprentice applicants have had experi ence or training directly related to the trade, such as training in carpentry in a vocational school or experience in the Armed Forces, they may be given advanced apprenticeship standing. Carpenters may advance to the position of carpenter foreman, or they may become general construction foremen. Carpenters usually have greater opportunities than most building crafts men to become general construction foremen, since carpenters are familiar with the entire construction process. The proportion of selfemployed among carpenters is higher than 348 among most other skilled building trades. Some self-employed carpenters are able to become con tractors— hiring other journeymen. A knowl edge of construction, adequate resources, and a sound knowledge of business principles and practices are basic requirements for success as a contractor. Employment Outlook Tens of thousands of job openings will be available each year during the 1960’s for young men who wish to enter the carpentry trade. These openings will result primarily because of the large rise anticipated in construction ex penditures. (See discussion, p. 343.) In addi tion, a growing number of carpenters will be needed in the maintenance departments of factories, commercial establishments, large residential projects, and government agencies. Technological developments are expected to con tinue to affect both the number and skill re quirements of carpenters during the decade. Construction materials that are processed off the site and materials designed for easier and faster installations have become progressively more important. There has also been a con tinued trend toward a greater use of factory prefabrication of structural building compo nents as well as entire structures. Replacement needs will also result in many thousands of job opportunities for new work ers each year. Carpenters comprise the largest single group of skilled workers in the country and account for approximately two-fifths of all building trades craftsmen. More than 1 million carpenters were employed in 1960, compared with about 900,000 in 1950. Because of the size of this occupation, replacement needs are great. Retirements and deaths alone may provide from 25,000 to 30,000 job openings annually during the 1960’s. Many other openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave the trade for other reasons. Young men who obtain all-round training of the kind given under apprenticeship programs will have especially favorable long-range job prospects. They are in much greater demand and have better opportunities for advancement than the many men in the trade who can do OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK only the simpler and more routine types of carpentry work. Earnings and Working Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates, as of July 1, 1960, for carpenters averaged $3.78, compared with $3.86 for all journeymen in the building trades, according to a national survey of building trades workers in 52 large cities. Among individual cities surveyed, the minimum hourly rates for carpenters ranged from $2.50 in Charlotte, N.C., to $4.55 in New York City. Because of the seasonal nature of much of construction work and because of time lost for other reasons, the. average annual earnings of carpenters are not as high as their hourly rates of pay indicate. A large proportion of carpenters are members of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America. A small number are mem bers of other unions. Union-management con tracts covering carpenters often provide health insurance and pension benefits, financed either entirely by employers or jointly by the workers and employers. Like other building trades, the work of the carpenter is active and is sometimes strenu ous, but exceptional physical strength is not re quired. Many young persons like carpentry be cause they are able to work out of doors. However, prolonged standing, as well as climb ing and squatting, is often necessary. Carpen ters risk injury from slips or falls, from con tact with sharp or rough materials, and from the use of sharp tools and power equipment. Where To Go for More Information A young man who wishes to obtain further information regarding carpentry apprentice ships or work opportunities in this trade should direct his inquiry to the carpentry contractors or general contractors in his area; a local of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America; a local joint union-manage ment apprenticeship committee, if there is one in his locality; or the local office of The Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Depart ment of Labor. In addition, the local office of BUILDING TRADES 349 the State employment service may be a source of information about apprenticeship opportuni ties. Some local employment services screen applicants and give aptitude tests. General information on apprenticeship in this trade is also available from : Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. National Association of Home Builders, 1625 L St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitution Ave., Washington 1, D.C. Painters and Paperhangers (D.O.T. 5-27.010 through .920 and 5-28.100) Nature of Work Painting and paperhanging are separate skilled building trades, although many crafts men in these trades do both types of work. Painters prepare the surfaces of buildings and other structures and then apply paint, varnish, enamel, lacquer, and similar materials to these surfaces. Paperhangers cover room interiors with paper, fabric, vinyls, or other materials. One of the important duties of the painter— especially in repainting— is to prepare the sur face. Loose paint must be removed by scraping or by heating with a blowtorch and then scrap ing. Grease must be removed, nail holes and cracks filled, rough spots sandpapered, and dust brushed off. Often, surfaces must be covered with a prime coat or sealer to provide a suitable surface or base on which to apply the new paint. Paint is applied to many kinds of ma terials, including wood, structural steel, and clay products, generally by means of a brush, spray gun, or roller. A painter must be skilled in handling brushes and other painting tools, in order to apply paint thoroughly, uniformly, and rapidly to any type of surface. In addition, he must be able to mix paints, match colors, and must have a knowledge of color harmony. He must also know the characteristics of common typs of paints and finishes from the standpoints of durability, suitability for different purposes, and ease of handling and application. Painters must know how to erect the scaffold ing from which they often work, including “ swing stages” (scaffolds suspended by ropes or cables attached to roof hooks) and “ bosun chairs” which are used to work on tall buildings and other structures. Painters use spray guns to paint surfaces or objects which are difficult to paint with a brush such as lattices, cinder and concrete block, and radiators. They also use spray guns on large area which can be sprayed with a min imum of preparation. When using a roller (a rotating applicator covered with soft material), the painter rolls the applicator over the surface to be covered. The paperhanger first prepares the surface to be covered. In new work, he applies “ sizing,” a prepared material which makes the plaster less porous and assures better sticking of the Painters in bosun chairs applying first coat to metal tower. 350 paper to the surface. In redecorating work, it may be necessary to remove old paper by soak ing or, if there are many layers, by steaming. Iji many cases, it is also necessary for paperhangers to do minor plaster patching in order to get a smooth surface for the covering material. When the surface has been prepared, the paperhanger measures the area to be covered and cuts the paper to size. He mixes a paste and applies it to the reverse side of the paper. The pastecoated paper is then placed on the wall or ceiling in strips and smoothed into place with a dry brush. The paperhanger matches the adjacent edges of strips of figured paper, cuts overlapping ends, and smooths the seams between strips with a roller or other special tool. When working with wall coverings other than paper, the paperhanger follows the same general procedure, except that he applies an adhesive other than paste. Where Employed Most painters and paperhangers work for contractors engaged in new building construc tion work. Substantial numbers of painters and paperhangers are also employed by contractors to do repair, alteration, or modernization work. Hotels, office buildings, shipyards, utility com panies, manufacturing firms, schools and other government units, and other organizations that own extensive property commonly employ main tenance painters. When interior redecorating involves papering, as in hotels or apartment buildings, maintenance painters may also do the paperhanging. More than 425,000 painters and paperhangers were employed in mid-1960. The geo graphical distribution of employment in these occupations is similar to that in the building trades generally, with large concentrations of workers in the highly populated and industrial ized areas. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK dustry, recommend the completion of a 3-year formal apprenticeship as the best way to be come a journeyman painter or paperhanger. A substantial proportion of painters and paperhangers, however, have learned the trade in formally. They have picked up the trade by working for many years as helpers or handy men, observing or being taught by experienced craftsmen. Workers without formal apprentice training have gained acceptance as journeymen more easily in these crafts than in most of the other building trades. Apprentice applicants are generally required to be between the ages of 16 and 26 and in good physical condition. A high school educa tion is preferred although not essential. Appli cants should have manual dexterity and a dis cerning color sense. They should not be allergic to paint fumes or to the various materials used in these trades. Many apprentice training programs are under the supervision of local joint union-management apprenticeship committees. Generally, the ap prentice is employed under a written apprentice ship agreement and the program is registered with a State apprenticeship agency or the U.S. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities, including the na tional joint labor-management apprenticeship committee for the painting and decorating in Paperhanger using hand tools to remove excess wall covering around window frame. BUILDING TRADES Department of Labor's Bureau of Apprentice ship and Training. The apprenticeship for painters and paperhangers generally consist of 6,000 hours (3 years) of on-the-job training, in addition to related classroom instruction. Many apprentice ships combine painting and paperhanging. In a typical 3-year training program, the appren tice learns, among other things, to: use, care for, and handle safely the tools, machines, equipment, and materials commonly used in the trade; prepare surfaces, including sizing, sand papering, and puttying walls; match and mix colors; apply various types of interior and ex terior materials, including stain, whitewash, enamel, oil, and varnish; and erect scaffolding. In addition, the apprentice receives related classroom instruction in color harmony; paint chemistry; estimating costs; and making, mix ing, and matching paints. He also learns the relationship between painting and paperhang ing work and the work performed by the other building trades craftsmen. Hourly wage rates for apprentices usually start at 50 percent of the journeyman rate and increase periodically until the journeyman rate of pay is reached upon completion of apprentice ship. If apprentice applicants have had experi ence directly related to the trade, such as ex perience or training in the Armed Forces, they may be granted advanced apprenticeship standing. Painters and paperhangers may advance to the position of foreman. They may also ad vance to jobs as estimators for painting and decorating contractors— computing material requirements and labor costs. Some may be come superintendents on large contract paint ing jobs, or they may establish their own business as painting and decorating contrac tors. To become successful contractors, paint ers and paperhangers must have a thorough knowledge of the trades, adequate financial re sources, and a sound knowledge of business principles and practices. Employment Outlook The employment of painters and paperhang slowly over the 1960's— Digitized ersFRASER for is expected to rise 351 continuing the trend of the 1950's— despite the anticipated large expansion in construction activities. (See discussion, p. 343.) Most job opportunities will arise from the need to re place experienced workers who retire, transfer to other fields of work, or die. Technological developments have limited and are expected to continue to limit the employ ment of painters and affect their skill require ments. New types of paint which are more easily applied and have improved “ covering power" have made it easier for inexperienced workers to do work which is acceptable to some customers. Spray painting requires fewer painters to do the same amount of work. More over, many items formerly painted at the build ing site now come from a factory with a prime coat and often with a final coat. Aluminum building products which often require no paint ing have become increasingly common in re cent years. Employment prospects for paperhangers will continue to be limited by the substitution of paint for wallpaper as a covering for interior walls in residential and commercial buildings. The more widespread use of fabrics, plastics, and other types of wall coverings, however, may improve somewhat the employment out look for these workers. Because of the large size of the painter and paperhanger group, replacement needs are very great. Retirements and deaths may result in about 10,000 job openings annually during the 1960's. Many other openings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who leave the trades for other reasons. Earnings and Working Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates for painters and paperhangers in 52 large cities averaged $3.55 and $3.52, respectively, as of July 1, 1960, according to a national survey of building trades workers. In comparison, the average rate for all journeymen in the building trades was $3.86 an hour. Among individual cities surveyed, the minimum hourly rates for painters ranged from $2.45 in Rich mond, Va., to $4.45 in New York City. The rates for paperhangers ranged from $2.25 in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 352 Louisville, Ky., to $3.98 in Los Angeles, Calif. The average annual earnings of painters and paperhangers are less than their hourly rates of pay would indicate. These workers lose much work-time because of weather conditions and the brief duration of many jobs. A large proportion of painters and paperhangers are members of the Brotherhood of Painters, Decorators and Paperhangers of America. A few are members of other unions. Union-management contracts covering these workers often provide health insurance and pension benefits, financed either entirely by employers or jointly by the workers and em ployers. Painters and paperhangers are often re quired to stand for long periods of time, to climb, and to bend at their work. A painter must have strong arms because much of the work is done with arms raised overhead. Paint ers and paperhangers risk injury from slips or falls from ladders and scaffolds. The number of injuries per million man-hours worked by employees of painting and paperhanging con tractors in the contract construction industry has been lower than that for contract con struction as a whole, but higher than for all manufacturing industries. Where To Go for More Information A young man who wishes to obtain further information concerning painting and paper hanging apprenticeships or work opportunities in these trades should apply to a painting and decorator contractor in his area; a local of the Brotherhood of Painters, Decorators, and Pa perhangers of America; a local joint unionmanagement apprenticeship committee, if there is one in his locality; or the local office of the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addition, the local office of the State employment service may be a source of information about apprenticeship opportunities. General information about the work of paint ers and paperhangers may be obtained from : Brotherhood of Painters, Decorators and Paperhangers of America, 217-219 North Sixth St., Lafayette, Ind. National Association of Home Builders, 1625 L St. N W , Washington 6, D.C. Painting and Decorating Contractors Association of America, 2625 West Peterson Ave., Chicago 5, 111. Plumbers and Pipefitters (D.O.T. 5-30.010, .026, .210, .410) Nature of Work Plumbers and pipefitters are craftsmen who install pipe systems which carry water, steam, air, or other liquids or gases needed for sani tation, industrial production, or other uses. They also alter and repair existing pipe sys tems and install plumbing fixtures, appliances, and heating and refrigerating units. Although plumbing and pipefitting are some times considered to be a single trade, journey men in this field tend to specialize in either one craft or the other, particularly in large cities. Water, gas, and waste disposal systems, especially those which must be connected to public utility systems, are installed by plumb ers. Such installations are made in residential and commercial buildings, schools, industrial plants, and other structures. Pipefitters install both high- and low-pressure pipes that carry hot water, steam, and other liquids and gases, especially those in industrial and commercial buildings and defense establishments, such as missile launching and testing sites. Pipefitters, for example, install ammonia-carrying pipe lines in refrigeration plants, complex pipe sys tems in oil refineries and chemical and food processing plants, automatic sprinkler systems, and pipelines for carrying compressed air and industrial gases in many types of industrial establishments. Some plumbers and pipefitters specialize in either gas fitting or steam fitting. Gas fitters install and maintain the gas fittings and the BUILDING TRADES central gas main extensions which connect the main gas line with those leading to homes. Steamfitters assemble and install steam or hot water systems for commercial and industrial uses. Plumbers and pipefitters use a variety of skills when installing pipe systems. For exam ple, they bend pipe and make welded, brazed, calked, soldered, or threaded joints. After a pipe system is installed, the plumber or pipe fitter tests for leaks by filling the pipes with liquid or gas under pressure. Plumbers and pipefitters use wrenches, ream ers, drills, braces and bits, hammers, chisels, saws, and other handtools. Power machines are often used to cut, bend, and thread pipes. Hand-operated hydraulic pipe benders are also used. In addition, plumbers and pipefitters use gas or gasoline torches and welding, soldering, and brazing equipment in their work. Where Employed Most plumbers and pipefitters are employed by plumbing and pipefitting contractors in new building construction, mainly at the construc tion site. A substantial proportion of plumbers Pipefitter bending pipe with hydraulic pipe bender. 353 are self-employed or work for plumbing con tractors doing repair, alteration, or moderniza tion work. Some plumbers install and maintain pipe systems for government agencies and public utilities, and some work on the con struction of ships and aircraft. Others do maintenance work in industrial and commer cial establishments. Pipefitters, in particular, are employed as maintenance personnel in the petroleum, chemical, and food-processing in dustries where the industrial operations include the processing of fluids through pipes. Jobs for plumbers and pipefitters are found in almost every community in the country, but they are concentrated in highly populated and industrialized areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities, including the na tional joint labor-management apprenticeship committees for the plumbing and pipefitting industries, recommend a 5-year apprenticeship for plumbers or for pipefitters as the best way to learn all the aspects of these trades. A large number of plumbers and pipefitters, however, have acquired plumbing and pipefitting skills informally, by working for several years with craftsmen, receiving instruction from them and watching them work. Many of these persons have gained some of their knowledge of their trade by taking trade or correspondence school courses. Apprentice applicants generally are required to be between the ages of 17 and 25, and in good physical condition. A high school edu cation or its equivalent, including courses in mathematics, physics, and chemistry, is de sirable. Applicants are often required to take aptitude tests, particularly to determine wheth er they have the high degree of mechanical aptitude required in this field. Most apprentice training programs for plumbers and pipefitters are conducted under written agreements between the apprentices and local joint apprenticeship committees, composed of union and management represen tatives, who supervise the training. The ap prenticeship committee determines the need for apprentices in the locality, establishes 354 minimum apprenticeship standards of training, and, if necessary, schedules a rotating work program. This program is designed to give the apprentice diversified training by having him work for several plumbing or pipefitting contractors. Under formal apprenticeship pro grams, the apprentice is registered with the appropriate State apprenticeship agency or the U.S. Department of Labor's Bureau of Appren ticeship and Training. The apprenticeship program for plumbers or for pipefitters usually consists of 10,000 hours of on-the-job training, in addition to at least 720 hours of related classroom instruction. In a typical 5-year training program, the plumber or pipefitter apprentice learns, among other things, how to use, care for, and handle safely the tools, machines, equipment, and materials used in the trades. They also learn welding and soldering techniques and general repair work; the use of ladders and the erection and dis mantling of scaffolding; and the proper use of plastic and glass piping. The plumber appren ticeship program includes training in the in stallation of waste, vent, and domestic hot and cold water pipes, and the piping in septic tanks, cesspools, and sewers; the testing of plumbing installations; and in estimating jobs and costs of materials required. The pipefitter appren ticeship program includes training in the installation of radiators, pumps, boilers, stokers, oil burners, and gas furnaces; hot water, steam panel, and radiant-heating systems; air-condi tioning and powerplant piping systems; and pneumatic control systems and instrumenta tion. They may also learn boiler replacement. The apprentice receives related classroom instruction in subjects such as drafting and blueprint reading, mathematics applicable to layout work, applied physics and chemistry, and local building codes and regulations which apply to the trade. Hourly wage rates of apprentices in this trade usually start at 50 percent of the journey man rate and increase by about 5 percent in each 6-month period until a rate of 95 percent is reached during the last period of the ap prenticeship. If apprentice applicants have prior experience or training directly related to the trade they may, in some instances, be OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK given advanced standing and pay. This expe rience or training may have been obtained in the Armed Forces or through courses in public or private schools. In some localities, a journeyman's license is required for plumbers. To obtain this license, a person must pass a special examination to demonstrate his knowledge of the local building codes. The examination also tests his all-round knowledge of the trade. Some journeymen plumbers and pipefitters may become foremen for plumbing or pipe fitting contractors. Many journeymen go into business for themselves. As they expand their activities, they may employ other workers and become plumbing and pipefitting contractors. In some localities, contractors are required to obtain a master plumber's license. Basic re quirements for ’ success as a contractor are thorough knowledge of plumbing and pipefitting and construction principles, adequate financial resources, and a sound knowledge of business principles and practices. Employment Outlook Employment of plumbers and pipefitters is expected to rise rapidly over the 1960-70 decade, at a faster rate than over the previous 10-year period. The number of workers in this field increased from less than 280,000 in 1950 to more than 300,000 in 1960. In addition to openings resulting from the increase in em ployment, many job opportunities for new work ers will arise as a result of replacement needs. The most important factor which will con tribute to the rapid rise in employment is the large increase anticipated in construction ac tivity over the 1960's. (See discussion, p. 343.) Furthermore, plumbing and heating work is expected to become more important in many types of construction. For example, the trend toward more bathrooms per dwelling unit is likely to continue. The installation of appli ances such as washing machines and waste dis posals which require plumbing work will be come more widespread. The number of auto matic heating system installations probably will increase. Also, in industry generally, pipe work is becoming more important and plumbers and 355 BUILDING TRADES pipefitters will be needed for installation and maintenance work. For example, the chemical industry, which uses extensive pipe work in its processing activities, is expected to expand its facilities substantially during the 1960’s. Those industries which are automating their production activities will require more pipe fitting work. The increasing industrial activi ties related to atomic energy and the greater use of refrigeration and air-conditioning equip ment will also result in more work for plumbers and pipefitters. On the other hand, technologi cal developments, such as the growing use of factory prefabricated plumbing assemblies, may limit, somewhat, the growth in the number of jobs for plumbers and pipefitters. The need to replace experienced workers who retire, transfer to other fields of work, or die will provide thousands of job openings for new workers each year. Retirements and deaths alone may result in approximately 7,000 to 8,000 job openings annually during the 1960’s. Earnings and Working Conditions Hourly wage rates for plumbers and pipe fitters are among the highest in the skilled building trades and among skilled workers generally. Union minimum hourly wage rates for plumbers and for pipefitters averaged $4.01 and $4.00, respectively, as of July 1, 1960, ac cording to a national survey of building trades workers in 52 large cities. At the same time, all journeymen in the building trades had an average hourly rate of $3.86. Among individual cities surveyed, the union minimum hourly wage rates for plumbers ranged from $3.25 in Charlotte, N.C., to $4.55 in New York City; pipefitters' rates ranged from $3.25 in Char lotte, N.C., to $4.65 in New York City. Young people contemplating plumbing and pipefitting as a career should consider the fact that annual earnings of workers in this field are among the highest in the building trades. This is true because plumbing and pipefitting are affected less by seasonal factors than are most other building crafts. Some union-management contracts cover ing plumbers and pipefitters provide vacation pay, health insurance, and pension benefits, financed either entirely by employers or jointly by the workers and employers. A large proportion of plumbers and pipe fitters are members of the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumb ing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada. The work of plumbers and pipefitters is active and sometimes strenuous, as is the work in the other building trades. They frequently must stand for prolonged periods and occasionally work in cramped or uncomfortable positions because much of their work is done in rela tively inaccessible places. They are less exposed to unfavorable weather conditions than are many other building tradesmen, because most of their work is performed indoors. Workers in this trade risk the danger of falls from ladders, cuts from sharp tools, and burns from hot pipes or steam. The number of in juries per million man-hours worked by em ployees of plumbing, heating, and air-condi tioning contractors in the contract construc tion industry has been lower than that for contract construction as a whole, but higher than the average for production workers in manufacturing industries. Where To Go for More Information A young man who wishes to obtain further information concerning enrollment in a local plumber or pipefitter apprenticeship program or to locate work opportunities in the field should apply to a plumbing, heating, and airconditioning contractor in his area; a local union of the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fit ting Industry of the United States and Canada; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee, if there is one in his area; or the local office of the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addi tion, the local office of the State employment service may be a source of information about apprenticeship opportunities. Some local em ployment service offices provide such services as screening applicants and giving aptitude tests. 356 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK General information about the work of plumbers and pipefitters may be obtained from : National Association of Plumbing Contractors, 1016 20th St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada, 901 Massachusetts Ave. N W ., Washington 1, D.C. National Association of Home Builders, 1625 L St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. Bricklayers (D.O.T. 5-24.000 through .199) Nature of Work Bricklayers (or brickmasons) are craftsmen who construct walls, partitions, fireplaces, chimneys, and other structures from brick. They may also use other masonry materials, such as concrete, cinder, or gypsum block; structural tile, or terra cotta (a hard-baked brick used for ornamental purposes). They also install the brick linings of industrial kilns and furnaces. In laying brick, a bricklayer first spreads a layer or “ bed” of soft mortar. He applies mortar to the end of the last brick laid or to one end of a brick to be laid. He places the brick on the bed of mortar and works it into the desired position with his hand. Then he cuts off the excess mortar. When necessary, he breaks bricks with a trowel or brick hammer to fit spaces too small for whole bricks. He keeps the courses (rows) of brick level by using a tightly stretched horizontal cord (gage line) as a guide. At fixed points along the wall he checks the surface with a mason's level to make sure the bricks are lined up. A plumb line is also used to check vertical alinement. Using the point of a trowel or a special finishing tool, he trims the mortar between the bricks to achieve a neat appearance. If two or more thicknesses of brick are being laid, the brickmason lays a “ bond” course at regular intervals, that is, he arranges a row of bricks crosswise or in another “ bond” pattern in order to tie the bricks together. When the bricklayer works with concrete block, structural tile, or other masonry material, the work is essentially the same. Bricklaying requires careful, accurate work so that the brick structure will have a neat and uniform appearance and the rows of brick will line up with windows, doors, or other openings without excessive cutting of brick. Craftsmen in this trade mainly use handtools, including chisels, trowels, jointers, and tuck pointers (a special finishing tool used to shape mortar joints), bricklayer's hammers, gage lines, plumb bobs, and mason's levels. Power saws are some times used for cutting masonry materials. Journeymen bricklayers are usually assisted by hod carriers or helpers who supply them with bricks and other materials, mix mortar, and set up and move scaffolding. Where Employed The great majority of bricklayers work mainly on new building construction. Some are employed in sewer construction work in which they construct manholes and catch basins. Bricklayers do a considerable amount of altera tion work, especially in the larger cities where construction of fire-resistant partitions, store front remodeling, and similar modernization work, are often done. They also do a substantial amount of maintenance and repair work. Bricklayers also work for such industrial establishments as factories making glass or steel, where furnaces and kilns require special fire brick and refractory brick linings. For ex ample, in a steel manufacturing plant, the brick layer lines converters, cupolas, and ladles which hold molten metal. Bricklayers must have addi tional training to do refractory brick work. Jobs for bricklayers are found throughout the country. Their employment, however, is con centrated in the more highly populated and in dustrialized areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities, including the Na tional Joint Labor-Management Apprentice BUILDING TRADES ship Committee for the bricklaying trade, rec ommend the completion of a 3- or 4-year ap prenticeship program as the best way to learn this trade. A substantial proportion of workers in this trade have acquired bricklaying skills informally, by working for many years as help ers or hod carriers, observing or being taught by experienced bricklayers. Many of these per sons have gained additional knowledge of their trade by taking trade school courses. Apprenticeship applicants are generally re quired to be between the ages of 17 and 24. A high school education or its equivalent is de sirable. Many apprenticeship programs are under the supervision of local joint unionmanagement apprenticeship committees. Gen erally, the apprentice is employed under a written apprenticeship agreement and the pro gram is registered with a State apprenticeship agency or the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bu reau of Apprenticeship and Training. The apprenticeship program generally con sists of from 6,000 to 8,000 hours (3 to 4 years) of on-the-job training, in addition to related classroom instruction. In a typical 3-year brick layer training program, the apprentice learns, Journeyman bricklayer teaching apprentice how to form a comer. 357 among other things, t o : use, care for, and han dle safely the tools, machines, equipment, and materials commonly used in the trade; lay brick (including mixing and spreading mortar), bond and tie, build footings and foundations; do plain exterior brickwork such as straight wall work; build arches, columns, piers, and corners; plan and build chimneys, fireplaces, and floors; lay stone; point brick and stone; clean stone, brick, and tile with water and acid, and by sandblasting; cut, set, and point cement blocks, artificial stone, glass blocks, and cork; and fireproof. The apprentice receives related classroom instruction in blueprint reading, lay out work, and measurements and sketches. In addition, he learns the relationship between bricklaying and other building trades. A bricklayer must have an eye for straight lines and proportions. Good physical condition and manual dexterity are important assets. Since the other building craftsmen must usually fit their work to his, he should know how the parts of a structure fit together. Hourly wage rates for bricklayer apprentices generally start at 50 percent of the journey man rate and increase periodically until 95 per cent of the journeyman’s rate is reached during the last period of the apprenticeship. If ap prentice applicants have had training or expe rience directly related to the trade as, for ex ample, in the Armed Forces or in a trade school, they may be given advanced apprentice ship standing. In some areas, formal apprentice training for bricklayers includes brief, preliminary instruc tion at a vocational school or some other type of prejob training which is designed to give the apprentice sufficient skill in the handling of tools and materials to make him productive at the start of his on-the-job training. Bricklayers may advance to jobs as foremen. They may also become estimators for bricklay ing contractors. Estimators compute material requirements and labor costs. Some journey men advance to the position of bricklaying superintendent on large construction projects, while others may start their own bricklaying contracting business. Adequate financial re sources and a sound knowledge of business principles and practices, in addition to a knowl 358 edge of the trade, are basic requirements for success as a contractor. Employment Outlook The employment of bricklayers is expected to rise rapidly over the 1960-70 decade, but the rate of growth will probably be slower than it was over the previous 10-year period. Between 1950 and 1960, employment of these craftsmen rose from about 165,000 to more than 250,000. Much of the expected growth in the 1960’s will result from the large increase anticipated in construction expenditures. (See discussion, p. 343.) Also, increasing use of structural clay tile for fire-resistant partitions and glass blocks for exterior walls is expected. The rise in brick layer employment is expected despite a continu ation of some technological developments which reduce the amount of brickwork per structure. For example, the introduction of steel-frame and reinforced concrete structures permits the elimination of load-bearing exterior brick walls in buildings and the substitution of light metal panels; the use of prefabricated brick, metal, and glass wall panels in many buildings results in less masonry work; and ornamental brick work is less widely used in building decoration. In addition to job openings that will result from growth of the trade, many job opportuni ties for new workers will arise from replace ment needs. Retirements and deaths may result in about 5,000 job openings annually during the 1960’s. Replacement of workers who leave the trade for other reasons will provide many other job openings. Earnings and Working Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates, as of July 1, 1960, for bricklayers averaged $4.17, com pared with $3.86 for all journeymen in the building trades, according to a national survey of building trades workers in 52 large cities. Among individual cities surveyed, the minimum hourly rates for bricklayers ranged from $3.20 in Charlotte, N.C., to $4.80 in New York City. Although bricklayers generally have the high est hourly wage rates in the building trades, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK their average annual earnings are not as high as their hourly rates of pay would indicate, because of the highly seasonal nature of the bricklayer’s work. A large proportion of bricklayers are mem bers of the Bricklayers, Masons and Plasterers’ International Union of America. Union-man agement contracts covering bricklayers often provide health insurance, pension, and other benefits, financed either entirely by the employ ers or jointly by the workers and employers. The work of the bricklayer is active and sometimes strenuous, like the work in other building trades. It involves stooping to pick up materials, moderately heavy lifting, and pro longed standing. Most of the work is done outdoors. Where To Go for More Information A young man who wishes to obtain further information regarding bricklaying apprentice ships or work opportunities in the trade, should apply to a bricklaying contractor in his area; a local of the Bricklayers, Masons and Plaster ers’ International Union of America; the local joint union-management apprenticeship com mittee, if there is one in his area; or the local office of the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addi tion, the local office of the State employment service may be a source of information about apprenticeship opportunities. Some local em ployment service offices provide services such as screening applicants and giving aptitude tests. General information about the work of brick layers may be obtained from : Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. Bricklayers, Masons and Plasterers’ International Union of America, 815 15th St. N W ., Washington 5, D.C. National Association of Home Builders, 1625 L St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. Structural Clay Products Institute, 1520 18th St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. BUILDING TRADES 359 Operating Engineers (Construction Machinery Operators) (D.O.T. 5-23.000 through .999 and 7-23.000 through .999) Nature of Work Operating engineers operate, maintain, and repair various types of power-driven construc tion machinery. These machines include power shovels, cranes, derricks, hoists, pile drivers, concrete mixers, paving machines, trench ex cavators, bulldozers, tractors, and pumps. Be cause operating engineers work with many dif ferent types of machines— some complex and others relatively simple— the range of skills among these workers is broader than among journeymen in any other building trade. This range of skills may be illustrated by describing the work performed by an engineer who oper ates a crane and one who operates an earth boring machine. The crane operator manipulates various ped als and levers to rotate the crane on its chassis and to raise and lower the crane boom and the loadline. The operator also manipulates a num ber of different attachments to the crane boom for various construction purposes. For example, he manipulates buckets for excavation work; pile drivers to drive steel beams, wood, and concrete piling into the ground; and wreckingballs for demolition work. Good eye-hand-foot coordination, skill in precision handling of heavy equipment, and judgment in estimating proper load size are among the essential apti tudes needed to do the crane operator's job. In contrast, the operation of earth-boring machines that dig holes for poles or posts is one of the less skilled tasks performed by operating en gineers. The operator sets the proper auger (drill) in the spindle, starts the machine, and stops it when the auger has penetrated to the proper depth. Operating engineers are often identified by the types of machines they operate— for example, craneman, bulldozer operator, or derrick operator. However, the more experi enced operating engineers generally can operate several types of construction machines. Opera tors prefer to work on the more complex types of machines when jobs requiring such equip ment are available, because higher wage rates are paid for the operation of such machines. Where Employed Most operating engineers are employed on construction work. They work for contractors engaged in highway, dam, airport, and other large-scale engineering projects. On building projects, they are employed in excavating, grading, landscaping and in hoisting concrete, steel, and other building materials. Others are employed by utility companies, manufacturers, and other business firms which do their own construction work, as well as by State and local public works and highway departments. Rela tively few operating engineers are self-em ployed. Those who are self-employed are owneroperators of construction equipment, such as bulldozers and cranes. In addition to employment in construction work, operating engineers operate cranes, hoists, and other power-driven machinery in factories and mines. In some cases, the duties of operating engineers in nonconstruction jobs are about the same as those in construction work. For example, operation of a crane to unload cars of coal at a factory is very similar to operation of a crane to unload cars of sand and gravel for a street paving job. On the other hand, the nature of the work of a steel pourer (craneman) in a steel mill differs considerably from that of a crane operator in the construc tion industry. Operating engineers are employed in every section of the country, but mainly in the larger urban areas. This work, however, may take them to remote locations where highway con struction and heavy engineering construction, such as dams, are being done. The geographical distribution of the more than 200,000 operating engineers employed in mid-1960 was much the same as for the building trades generally, with large concentrations of workers in the highly populated and industrialized areas. 360 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal apprenticeship programs for oper ating engineers are available in some localities. Most of these programs last from 3 to 4 years. The trend in apprenticeships is toward estab lishing separate programs to provide training in the operation of one of the following types of equipment: Grading and paving equipment; universal equipment (hoists and shovels); and plant equipment (material mixing and crushing machines). Many men with mechanical aptitude, how ever, enter this occupation by obtaining jobs as oilers (operating engineer’s assistant) or as helpers to heavy equipment repairmen. Workers on these jobs gain a knowledge of the machin ery, how to keep it in good working order, and how to make repairs. Oilers and helpers must perform their work well and demonstrate ini tiative before they are given the instruction from experienced operators which is necessary for advancement. They must also demonstrate interest in and ability to learn the correct methods of handling equipment, and to recog nize hazards which must be avoided. Some men with mechanical experience, such as that obtained from operating farm equipment or air compressors, may get jobs operating the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK simpler construction machines. However, oper ating knowledge of a broad range of related equipment and attachments is ordinarily neces sary to obtain continuous employment. This all round knowledge is best obtained through a formal apprenticeship program or by working as an oiler or helper, usually for a much longer period of time than it takes to complete an ap prenticeship. Employment Outlook A continued rapid rise in employment of con struction machinery operators is expected during the 1960’s, primarily as a result of the anticipated large increases in construction ac tivity. (See discussion, p. 343.) The growing volume of highway construction, resulting from the Federal Government’s long-range multi billion dollar highway development program, will be especially important in providing thou sands of job opportunities for operating engi neers during the 1960’s. Moreover, the trend in the postwar period toward the increasing use of construction ma chinery shows every indication of continuing. More specialized and more complex machines, particularly those used in earth moving, as well as smaller machines suitable for small construc tion projects, are continually being developed and are expected to be used to a greater extent. The increasing mechanization of material move ment in factories and mines should also result in growing employment of these workers out side of construction. In addition to job openings resulting from the expected growth of employment in this oc cupation, the need to replace experienced con struction machine operators who retire, transfer to other fields of work, or die will result in many job opportunities for new workers. Retirements and deaths alone may provide from 4,000 to 5,000 job openings annually during the 1960’s. Earnings and Working Conditions Tractor-crane operator hauling a pipe-coating machine. The wage rate structure for operating engi neers is more complicated than for any other construction trade. Hourly rates are established not only for operators of different types of ma BUILDING TRADES 361 chines, but often for operators of machines of the same type but of different capacity. More over, in some cases there are different rates for the same machine, depending upon the type of construction for which it is used. The wage scale also varies among different parts of the country and the operators of machines having the top wage rates in one area do not neces sarily receive the top wage rates in other areas. Shovel operators, who generally are among the highest paid construction machinery opera tors, had union minimum hourly rates, rang ing from $3.18 in Birmingham, Ala., to $5.10 in Newark, N.J., as of July 1, 1960, according to a national survey of building trades workers in 52 large cities. The rates for bulldozer opera tors ranged from $2.67 in Richmond, Va., to $4.18 in New York City. Average annual earnings of operating engineers are not as high as their hourly rates of pay would indicate, since they lose much worktime because of weather and for other reasons. A large proportion of operating engineers are members of the International Union of Oper ating Engineers. Union-management contracts covering these workers, in some areas, provide health insurance and pension benefits, financed either entirely by the employers or jointly by the workers and employers. The operating engineer's work is performed outdoors. The work is active and sometimes strenuous. The operation of some machines, particularly bulldozers and some types of scrapers, is physically tiring because the con stant movement of the machine shakes or jolts the operator. Where To Go for More Information A young man who wishes to obtain further information regarding qualifications and train ing for the job of operating engineer, and the location of present apprenticeship programs, should direct his inquiry to the International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW., Washington 6, D.C. For information re garding work opportunities, he should apply to general contractors in his area. The local office of the State employment service also is a source of information about employment opportunities. General information about the work of op erating engineers may be obtained from the Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington 6, D.C. Electricians (Construction) (D.O.T. 4-97.010) Nature of Work Construction electricians perform the var ious tasks related to electrical work on con struction projects. They lay out, assemble, install, and test electrical fixtures, apparatus, and wiring used in electrical systems. These systems are used to provide heat, light, power, air conditioning, and refrigeration in resi dences, office buildings, factories, hospitals, schools, and other structures. They also install and connect electrical machinery, equipment, and controls. (Maintenance electricians do work which is similar in many respects to that performed by construction electricians. A dis cussion of maintenance electricians is pre sented elsewhere in this Handbook. See index for page numbers.) Construction electricians install many types of switches, conduits, controls, circuit break ers, wires, lights, signal devices, and other electrical components, following blueprints and specifications. If there is no electrical drawing showing outlets which are to be on each circuit, the electrician splits the incoming electrical service into several circuits, with each circuit protected by a fuse or circuit breaker of the proper rating to prevent overheating of the wire used. The construction electrician should know and follow national electrical code regu lations and, in addition, must fulfill State, coun ty, and municipal regulations. In installing wiring, the construction elec trician uses a mechanical or hydraulic bender to shape conduit (pipe or tubing) so that the conduit will fit the contours of the surface to which it is attached, or within the space al 362 lotted. The electrician then pulls insulated wires or cables through the conduit. The wire or cable sizes vary from those smaller than the lead in a pencil to those about 3 inches thick. The electrician then connects the ends of the wires or cables to circuit breakers, switch-gear motors, transformers, or other components. When these operations are com pleted, the electrician tests the electrical cir cuits to make sure that the entire system is properly grounded, the connections properly made, and that the circuits do not carry exces sive current. Wires are spliced (joined) by soldering or other methods. The electrician furnishes his own handtools, such as pliers, screwdrivers, brace and bits, knives, and hacksaws. The employer furnishes test meters and heavier tools, such as pipe threaders, conduit benders, chain hoists, elec tric drills, and power fasteners, and ladders. In residential electrical construction work, heavier tools are not usually required. Electrical work in installations with unusu ally high electrical power requirements, such as are needed at powerplants, steel mills, and other establishments, may be done by journey men electricians who specialize in this type of work. However, most construction electricians can do all types of electrical work. Where Employed Most construction electricians work for elec trical contractors. Substantial numbers are self-employed. Others work for government agencies or business establishments which do their own construction electrical work rather than hire electrical contractors. Although many construction electricians work for the same electrical contractor for several years, job transfers are fairly common. During a single year, a construction electrician may work for an electrical contractor in the con struction of new homes or office buildings, for a manufacturing firm in remodeling its plant or offices, or he may do electrical repairs for homeowners or business firms. Employment of these workers is distributed geographically in much the same pattern as the Nation’s population. Thus, employment is OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK concentrated in the highly industrialized and populated areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities, including the na tional joint labor-management apprenticeship committee for the electrical contracting in dustry, recommend the completion of a 4- or 5-year apprenticeship program for construction electricians as the best way to learn all the aspects of this trade. Some construction elec tricians, however, have learned the trade in formally. They have acquired skills of the trade by working for many years as helpers, observing or being taught by experienced craftsmen. Many of these persons have gained some knowledge of the trade by taking trade school or correspondence courses, or through special training while in the Armed Forces. Apprenticeship applicants generally are re quired to be between the ages of 18 and 24. A high school education or its equivalent, includ ing courses in mathematics and physics, is desirable. Applicants are required to take tests to determine their aptitude for the trade. All apprenticeship programs are conducted under written agreement between the appren tice and the local joint union-management apprenticeship committee, which also super vises the training. The committee determines Construction electrician wiring a control panel. 363 BUILDING TRADES the need for apprentices in the locality, establishes minimum apprenticeship standards and pay, and schedules a diversified, rotating* work program. This program is designed to give the apprentice all-round training by hav ing him work for several electrical contractors who engage in particular types of work. Under most programs, the apprentice is registered with a State apprenticeship agency or the U.S. Department of Labor's Bureau of Apprentice ship and Training. The International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers and the National Electrical Contrac tors Association have jointly developed an ex tensive apprenticeship program. They have a national director of apprenticeship who assists the local joint apprenticeship committees. The apprenticeship program usually requires 8,000 or 10,000 hours (4 or 5 years) of on-thejob training, in addition to a minimum of 144 hours of related classroom instruction each year. In a typical 4-year training program, the construction electrician apprentice learns, among other things, to use, care for, and handle safely the tools, equipment, and materials com monly used in the trade; do residential, com mercial, and industrial electrical installations; and maintain and repair installations. In addi tion, he receives related classroom instruction in such subjects as drafting and electrical lay out, blueprint reading, mathematics, and elec trical theory, including electronics. Hourly wage rates of apprentices often start at about 50 percent of the journeyman rate and increase by 5 percent in each 6-month pe riod until 85 or 90 percent of the journeyman rate is reached during the last period of the apprenticeship. An experienced construction electrician who has learned all the aspects of the craft through apprenticeship can transfer readily to other types of electrical work. For example, many take jobs as maintenance electricians in fac tories or in commercial establishments and others work as electricians in shipbuilding and aircraft manufacturing. Because improperly installed electrical work is so hazardous, most cities require electricians to be licensed. To obtain a license, the elec trician must pass an examination which re quires a thorough knowledge of the craft and of State and local building codes. Many journeymen electricians become fore men or superintendents for electrical contrac tors on particular construction jobs. These craftsmen may also become estimators for elec trical contractors, computing material require ments and labor costs. Many journeymen construction electricians go into business for themselves. As they expand their activities, they may employ other work ers and become contractors. Success as an electrical contractor requires not only a thor ough knowledge of the trade, but also adequate financial resources, and a sound knowledge of business principles and practices. In most large urban areas, a master electrician's license is required in order to engage in an electrical con tracting business. Employment Outlook Over the 1960-70 decade, the number of con struction electricians is expected to rise rapidly and at a faster rate than employment in most of the other skilled building trades. Many new jobs should result from the large increase an ticipated in construction activity. (See dis cussion, p. 343.) Other factors which are ex pected to contribute to the growth of this trade are greater requirements for electric outlets, switches, and wiring in homes to accommodate the increasing use of appliances; and the exten sive wiring systems needed for the installation of electronic data-processing equipment and electrical control devices being used increas ingly in commerce and industry. Because this is a large occupation— more than 130,000 construction electricians were employed in mid-1960— many additional job op portunities for new workers will result from the need to replace experienced electricians who transfer to other types of electrical work, leave the field for other reasons, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone may result in 3,000 to 3,500 job openings annually during the 1960's. 364 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Earnings and Working Conditions Hourly wage rates of construction electri cians are among the highest in the skilled building trades. Furthermore, because the sea sonal nature of construction work affects elec tricians to a lesser extent than most other construction workers, their annual earnings generally are among the highest in the building trades. Union minimum hourly wage rates for elec tricians averaged $4, compared with $3.86 for all journeymen in the building trades, as of July 1, 1960, according to a national survey of building trades workers in 52 large cities. Among individual cities surveyed, the union minimum hourly rates for construction elec tricians ranged from $3 in Charlotte, N.C., to $4.65 in Los Angeles, Calif. A large proportion of construction electri cians are members of the International Broth erhood of Electrical Workers. Some are mem bers of other unions. Union-management agreements covering construction electricians often provide health, vacation, and other bene fits and usually provide for employer contribu tions to a pension plan. A union may also operate its own pension program. The work of the construction electrician, like that of other building trades, is active but does not require great physical strength. Frequent ly, the construction electrician stands for prolonged periods; sometimes he works in cramped quarters. Because most of his work is indoors, the construction electrician is less ex posed to unfavorable weather conditions than most other skilled building trades workers. Electricians risk the danger of falls from lad ders and scaffolds, cuts from sharp tools, elec trical shock, blows from falling objects, and burns from “ live” wires. However, safety prac tices learned during apprenticeship and other types of training have helped to reduce the injury rate for these workers. The number of injuries per million man-hours worked by em ployees in contract electrical work has been less than for contract construction work as a whole, but higher than that for production workers in manufacturing industries, Where To Go for More Information A young man who wishes to obtain further information regarding electrician apprentice ships or work opportunities in the trade should apply to one of the electrical contractors in his area; to a local union of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; to a local joint union-management apprenticeship com mittee, if there is one in his locality; or the local office of the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addition, the local office of the State employ ment service may be a source of information about apprenticeship opportunities. Some local employment service offices provide such serv ices as screening applicants and giving aptitude tests. General information about the work of elec tricians may be obtained from : International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1200 15th St. N W , Washington 5, D.C. National Association of Home Builders, 1625 L St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. National Electrical Contractors Association, 1220 18th St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. National Joint Apprenticeship and Training Committee for the Electrical Industry, 1200 18th St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. Structural-, Ornamental-, and Reinforcing-Iron (Rodmen) Workers (D.O.T. 4-84.010, .020, .030, .040, .060, and 7-32.251) Nature of Work Structural- and ornamental-iron workers and reinforcing-iron workers (rodmen) erect, as semble, or install fabricated structural metal products in the construction of industrial, com mercial, and large residential buildings. Al though these are distinct trades, many crafts men are skilled in, and do the work of, two or all three of the trades. Structural-iron workers erect the steel frame work of bridges, buildings, and other structures including metal storage tanks, and overhead 365 BUILDING TRADES crane runways that support heavy equipment. They install steel floor decking and the doors and frames of vaults. In erecting a steel framework or structure, structural-iron workers take the steel shapes already fabricated in shops by other workers and hoist them into place in the proper order. Next, they temporarily connect all the steel shapes with bolts, accurately aline the structure, and then rivet or weld the parts. In the construc tion of a large building, workers generally do not perform all of these operations, instead, separate gangs perform a particular operation, such as riveting. Ornamental-iron workers install metal stair ways, catwalks, floor gratings, iron ladders (such as those used extensively in powerhouse and chemical plants), metal window sash and doors, grilles and screens (such as those used in bank tellers’ compartments and elevators), metal cabinets, and safety deposit boxes. They also install lampposts, gates, and fences, and decorative ironwork on balconies. In addition to iron and steel, ornamental-iron workers install aluminum, brass, and bronze metal shapes, frames, and panels. These metal products are usually prefabricated, but may re quire assembly before installation. They are fastened permanently to a building or other structure by bolting, setting in concrete, or welding. Reinforcing-iron workers (rodmen) set steel bars in concrete forms to reinforce concrete structures. They place the steel bars on suita ble supports in the concrete form and tie the bars together at intersections, so that each bar receives its intended structural load. The bars are placed in the concrete form according to blueprints, specifications, or verbal instructions. The rodmen use steel pliers and other tying tools to wire the rods securely in place. Some con crete reinforcing is in the form of coarse mesh made of heavy steel wires. When using mesh, the rodmen measure the surface to be covered, cut and bend the mesh to the desired shape, place the mesh over the area to be reinforced, and hammer it into place. Where Employed Structural-iron workers erecting framework. Structural-, ornamental-, and reinforcing-iron workers (rodmen) work mainly on new indus trial and commercial construction. They do some alteration work. For example, they may install steel stairs in an old apartment or com mercial building or add window guards to an existing building for burglary protection. In addition, they remodel existing structures and do repair work, such as replacement of metal bridge parts. Some highly skilled structural steel workers are able to transfer to jobs in structural steel fabricating shops. A large proportion of these craftsmen are employed by general contractors on large build ing projects, by steel erection contractors, or ornamental-iron contractors. Many are em ployed by large steel companies or their sub sidiaries engaged in the construction of bridges, dams, and large buildings. Some work for gov ernment agencies, public utilities, or large in dustrial establishments which do their own con struction work. Few of these craftsmen are self-employed. 366 Structural- and ornamental-iron workers and rodmen are employed throughout the country. However, a large proportion of their jobs are in highly populated and industrial centers where large commercial and industrial struc tures are constructed. Training and Other Qualifications Most training authorities, including the Na tional Joint (labor-management) Ironworker Apprenticeship Committee, recommend the com pletion of a 3-year apprenticeship as the best way to learn these trades. A few workers with many years’ experience as helpers have become journeymen, but it has been more difficult to achieve journeyman status in this manner in recent years. Apprenticeship applicants are required to be between the ages of 18 and 30. Good physical condition is required. A high school education or its equivalent is desirable. Apprenticeship programs are under the supervision of local joint union-management apprenticeship com mittees. Under formal programs, the appren tice is registered with a State apprenticeship agency or the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bu reau of Apprenticeship and Training. The apprenticeship program for these trades usually consists of 6,000 hours (3 years), of onthe-job training. On-the-job instruction is given either by the foreman or an experienced jour neyman. In a typical combined structural- and ornamental-iron worker’s training program, the apprentice learns, among other things, to use, care for, and handle safely the tools, machines, equipment, and materials commonly used in the trade; read blueprints and working drawings; form, shape, drill, tap, and erect and assemble various metal structures; lay out and assemble steel stairs, fire escapes, grilles, railings, fences, doors, and related metal structures. He also learns arc and gas welding; gas cutting, bolting, and riveting; and how to repair and alter metal structures. The apprenticeship program generally in cludes a minimum of 144 hours a year of re lated classroom instruction in subjects such as drafting, blueprint reading, and mathematics applicable to layout work. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Areawide apprenticeship programs, some times covering an entire State or region, are found extensively in this trade. They are supervised by apprenticeship committees com posed of representatives of the International Association of Bridge, Structural and Orna mental Iron Workers’ local unions and local management groups. Hourly wage rates for apprentices start at not less than 60 percent of the journeyman rate and increase periodically until the journey man rate is reached at the completion of the apprenticeship. In some localities, the starting rate may be as high as 75 percent of the jour neyman rate. If apprenticeship applicants have had experience directly related to the trade as, for example, training in ironwork in a factory or in the Armed Forces, they may be granted advanced apprenticeship standing. Employment Outlook Employment in these trades is expected to increase substantially by 1970, above the ap proximate 100,000 workers employed in 1960. In addition to job openings resulting from the growth of employment in these occupations, the need to replace experienced workers who retire, leave the trade for other reasons, or die, will provide several thousand job opportunities for new workers each year. Retirements and deaths alone may result in about 2,000 job openings annually during the 1960’s. In recent years, these trades have been among the fastest growing of the skilled building trades. A continued rise in employment of these workers is expected, principally because of the large increase anticipated in construction ac tivity over the 1960’s. (See discussion, p. 343.) The job outlook in these trades will also be favorably affected by the increased use of structural steel in smaller buildings. Work op portunities for ornamental-iron workers will re sult from the growing use of ornamental panels of aluminum, porcelainized steel, or other metals, which are attached to the exterior walls of large buildings, and by the use of metal frames to hold large exterior glass installations. BUILDING TRADES 367 Earnings and Working Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates for struc tural-iron workers and rodmen averaged $3.96 and $3.86, respectively, as of July 1, 1960, ac cording to a national survey of building trades workers in 52 large cities. The average rate for all journeymen in the building trades surveyed was $3.86 an hour. Among individual cities, the minimum hourly rates for structural-iron workers ranged from $3.25 in Charlotte, N.C., to $4.85 in Newark, N.J. The rates for rodmen ranged from $3 in Charlotte to $4.85 in Newark. The rates for ornamental-iron workers gener ally are about the same as those for structuraliron workers. The earnings of ironworkers are often in creased by considerable overtime work at premium pay. As with other building trades in which much of the work is done outdoors, these craftsmen lose much working time because of weather and other reasons. Rodmen, in particular, are intermittently out of work be cause each of their jobs lasts only a few days or weeks. A large proportion of workers in these trades are members of the International Association of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Iron Workers. Many union-management contracts covering these trades provide health insurance and pension benefits financed entirely by the employers. Since the materials used in the structural metal trades are heavy and bulky, above average physical strength and agility are necessary. A good sense of balance is also required because some of the structural work is done at great heights and on narrow footings. Structuraliron work often involves considerable travel. In most localities, the demand for structural-iron work is insufficient to keep local crews con stantly employed. Consequently, workers must be brought in from outside the area to handle the occasional large construction projects, such as a steel frame office or factory building. Large contractors may keep a small structural-iron worker crew continually employed, moving them from job to job and city to city. The use of many safety devices, such as nets and scaffolding, has reduced the frequency of accidents in recent years. The number of in juries per million man-hours worked by em ployees of contractors doing structural- and or namental-iron work has been slightly lower than for contract construction work as a whole. Where To Go for More Information A young man who wishes to obtain further information concerning apprenticeships or work opportunities in these trades should apply to the large general contractors in his area; to a local of the International Association of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Iron Workers; or the local office of the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addition, the local office of the State employ ment service may be a source of information about apprenticeship opportunities. General information about the work of struc tural-, ornamental-, and reinforcing-iron work ers may be obtained from : Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. International Association of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Iron Workers, Continental Bldg., Suite 300, 3615 Olive St., St. Louis 8, Mo. Plasterers (D.O.T. 5-29.100, .200, and .300) Nature of Work The plasterer is the building craftsman who applies plaster to interior walls and ceilings to form fire-resistant and relatively soundproof surfaces which may then be decorated. They also apply stucco to exterior walls, and form and cast ornamental designs in plaster; In interior work, plaster is applied to gypsum lath or wire lath (backing to which plaster ad heres) or directly to masonry. The plasterer uses a hawk (a square plate of wood or metal) to hold small amounts of wet plaster, and a trowel to apply it to the lath. To obtain a uniform surface of plaster, the craftsman ap 368 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK plies a border of plaster of the desired thichness to the top and bottom of the wall section to be covered. When these borders have hardened sufficiently, he fills in the area between them with one or two base coats of plaster. The sur face of this area is then leveled to the exact thickness of the borders with a straight-edged tool. A long, flat tool, called a darby, is used to smooth this surface. Applying the finish coat of plaster is the last operation before painting or paperhanging. This coat is relatively thin and must be applied care fully if the surface is to be smooth. Wall sur faces may be finished to obtain a variety of decorative textures, such as stipple or swirl finishes. As the plasterer acquires more skill he can do more complex types of plastering work, such as decorative and ornamental plastering. For example, he may be called upon to mold or form intricate ornamental designs such as cornices, paneling, or recesses for indirect lighting. Plasterers who do this type of work must be able to follow blueprints and other specifications furnished by the architect. In exterior stucco work, the plasterer applies a mixture of Portland cement and sand to masonry or metal lath in the same manner as in interior plastering. The finish coat usually consists of a mixture of white cement and sand or a patented finish material which may be ap plied in a variety of colors and textures. Apprentices work with the plasterer so that they may acquire a full knowledge of the craft and develop the necessary skills. Laborers (hod carriers) mix base coat materials and carry them to the plasterer; they also erect scaffolding when needed. In many small localities, jour neymen plasterers may also perform the work of cement finishers, because the skills of the two crafts are closely related. In recent years, plasterers have been making increasing use of machines which spray plaster on walls, ceilings, and structural sections of buildings. These machines are particularly de sirable when used to apply the newly developed lightweight plasters. Machines used to mix plaster have been in general use for many years. Where Employed Most of the approximately 70,000 plasterers employed in mid-1960 were working on new building construction. In addition, plasterers work on extensive building alterations, partic ularly where special architectural and lighting effects are part of the building modernization. There is a relatively small amount of work for plasterers in the repair and maintenance of older buildings. Jobs for plasterers are found throughout the country. The geographical distribution of em ployment in this occupation is about the same as in the building trades generally, with large con centrations of workers in highly populated and industrialized areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement P h o to g ra p h by U .S . D e p a rtm e n t o f L a b o r Plasterer applying white plaster finish to wall, using trowel and brush. Most training authorities, including the na tional joint labor-management apprenticeship committee for the plastering trade, recom mend completion of a 3- or 4-year apprentice ship as the best way to learn plastering. How ever, many workers in this trade have acquired some plastering skills by working for many BUILDING TRADES years as helpers or laborers, observing or being taught by experienced plasterers. Apprentice applicants in this trade are gen erally required to be between the ages of 18 and 25. Good physical condition and manual dexterity are important assets. Many plasterer apprenticeship programs are under the super vision of local joint union-management appren ticeship committees. Generally, the apprentice is employed under a written apprenticeship agreement and the program is registered with a State apprenticeship agency of the U.S. De partment of Labor's Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training. Apprenticeship programs generally consist of 6,000 to 8,000 hours (3 or 4 years) of onthe-job training, in addition to at least 144 hours of related classroom instruction annually. In a typical 4-year training program, the ap prentice learns, among other things, to use and handle the tools of the trade, and the properties and appropriate handling of the different kinds of materials and mixtures used in plastering; apply scratch (first) coat and brown (second) coat; aline walls and beams to given measure ments ; apply white coat and sand finish; install acoustical plaster and stucco, and acoustical tile, cork, and similar materials; use machines to apply and finish plaster; and lay out arches and ceilings. He also learns texture finishing. The apprentice receives classroom instruc tion in such subjects as drafting, blueprint reading, and mathematics applicable to layout work. In the classroom and on the job, the apprentice becomes familiar with the work of other trades so that he may determine, for example, whether lathing or other preparatory work is satisfactory. Although advancement opportunities for plasterers are limited, some may become fore men or estimators. Many plasterers are selfemployed. Some self-employed plasterers may expand their activities to contracting, and then employ other journeymen. Adequate financial resources and a sound knowledge of business principles and practices, in addition to a knowl edge of the trade, are basic requirements for success as a contractor. 369 Employment Outlook A continued increase in the employment of plasterers is expected during the 1960's, but the increase will not be as rapid as for the skilled building trades generally. In addition to job openings that will result from the expected growth of employment, the need to replace ex perienced plasterers who transfer to other fields of work or who retire or die, will provide many job openings for new workers. Retirements and deaths alone may result in about 1,500 job openings annually during the 1960's. The growth in employment of these workers in the 1960's will result primarily from the anticipated large increase in construction ac tivity. (See discussion, p. 343.) In addition, recent changes in plastering materials and im proved methods of applying these materials are increasing the scope of the craft and creating work opportunities for plasterers. For example, improved lightweight plasters are being used increasingly because of their excellent sound proofing, acoustical, and fireproofing qualities. Another development that is expanding job op portunities for plasterers is the marked style trend toward the greater use of curved surfaces and ceilings made of plaster, both as a form of architectural treatment and to achieve special lighting and acoustical effects. These favorable developments will be offset to some extent by the continuing trend toward, wider use of nonplaster (dry-wall) construction. Earnings and Working Conditions Hourly pay rates for plasterers rank among the highest in the skilled building trades. How ever, their annual earnings are not as high as their hourly rates of pay would indicate, because of the seasonal nature of much construction work and because of worktime lost for other reasons. Union minimum hourly rates, as of July 1 , 1960, for plasterers averaged $4.06, as compared with $3.86 for all journeymen in the building trades, according to a national survey of build ing trades workers in 52 large cities. Among individual cities surveyed, the minimum hourly rates for plasterers ranged from $2.75 in Charlotte, N.C., to $4.95 in N e w York City. 370 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK A large proportion of plasterers are members of unions. They are represented by either the Operative Plasterers' and Cement Masons' In ternational Association of the United States and Canada, or the Bricklayers, Masons and Plasterers' International Union of America. Union-management contracts covering plaster ers often provide health insurance, pension, and other benefits, financed either entirely by em ployers or jointly by workers and employers. Plastering requires considerable standing, stooping, and lifting. Plasterers work both out doors, doing stucco work, and indoors, plaster ing walls and ceilings and forming and casting ornamental designs. local joint union-management apprenticeship committee, if there is ojLe in his area; or the local office of the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addi tion, the local office of the State employment service may be a source of information about apprenticeship opportunities. General information about the work of plas terers may be obtained from : Bricklayers, Masons and Plasterers’ International Union of America, 815 15th St. N W , Washington 5, D.C. Contracting Plasterers’ and Lathers’ International Association, 304 Landmark Bldg., 1343 H St. N W ., Washington 5, D.C. Where To Go for More Information National Bureau for Lathing and Plastering, 755 N A D A Bldg., 2000 K St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. A young man who wishes to obtain further information regarding plastering apprentice ships or work opportunities in the trade should apply to a plastering contractor in his area; locals of the unions previously mentioned; a Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Association of the United States and Canada, 1125 17th St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. Roofers (D.O.T. 5-25.220, 7-31.100 through .500, and 7-32.611) Nature of Work Roofers apply composition roofing and other materials, such as tile and slate, to the roofs of buildings. They also waterproof and dampproof walls and other building surfaces. In applying composition roofing, the roofer first places overlapping strips of asphalt and impregnated felt over the entire surface. He then applies a coating of tar, pitch, or other bituminous material to the new surface. This process is repeated until at least three layers of felt are in place. Finally, he applies a sur facing of tar, pitch, and gravel to protect the roofing materials from the weather. In applying other types of composition roof ing, such as roll roofing and asphalt shingles, the roofer overlaps the roofing material and then fastens it to the roof base with nails or asphalt cement. If necessary, he cuts the ma terial to fit corners, pipes, and chimneys. The roofer then cements or nails flashing (strips of metal) wherever two roof surfaces intersect. Flashing is installed to make the intersections (joints) watertight. In another method of ap plying roofing, the roofer mops a layer of hot asphalt over the entire surface and rakes pebbles over the asphalt. Roofers also use metal, tile, and slate for the more expensive types of roofs. Metal roofs are constructed by soldering metal sheets together and nailing them to the wood sheathing. In in stalling tile and slate roofs, the roofer places a covering of roofing felt over the wood sheath ing. He punches holes in the slate or tile which he nails to the sheathing. Each row of slate or tile is placed so as to overlap the preceding row. Finally, the roofer covers the exposed nailheads with roofing cement to avoid rusting and water leakage around the nailheads. Handtools usually are used in applying roof surfaces —for example, hammers, roofing knives, mops, pincers, and calking guns. Roofers also do waterproofing and damp proofing work on parts of structures other than roofs, such as masonry or concrete walls or swimming pools and other tanks. The roofer prepares surfaces to be waterproofed by re BUILDING TRADES moving rough projections and roughing glazed surfaces, using a hammer and chisel. He then applies a coat of liquid compound with a brush. He may also paint or spray surfaces with a waterproof material or nail waterproofing fab ric to surfaces. In dampproofing work, he usually sprays a coating of tar or asphalt on interior or exterior surfaces to avoid the pene tration of moisture. Where Employed Roofers work mainly for roofing contractors on new building construction. They also do maintenance and repair work, especially on composition roofing. Some roofers are self-em ployed, doing either roofing on small, new building work or repairs and alterations. Roof ers also work for government agencies or busi ness establishments which do their own con struction and repair work. Jobs for roofers are found throughout the country. Most of the estimated 60,000 roofers employed in mid-1960 had jobs in the highly industrialized and populated States. 371 The 3-year apprenticeship program generally consists of a minimum of 1,400 hours of onthe-job training annually, in addition to re lated classroom instruction. In a typical train ing program, the apprentice learns, among other things, to use, care for, and handle safely the tools, equipment, and materials commonly used in the trade; work with composition, tar, and asphalt; prepare roof surfaces for cover ing; apply pitch and other materials; spread gravel; do slate, tile, and terra cotta w ork; and do dampproofing and waterproofing work. The trainee receives related classroom in struction in such subjects as blueprint reading and mathematics applicable to layout work. Hourly wage rates for apprentices usually start at 65 percent of the journeyman rate and increase periodically until 90 percent of the journeyman rate is reached in the final 6 months of the training period. If apprentice applicants have had experience directly re lated to the trade, for example in the Armed Forces, or as a helper, they may be granted advanced apprenticeship standing. Roofers may advance to the job of foreman for a roofing contractor. Also, they may enter Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities, including the na tional joint labor-management apprenticeship and training committee for the roofing indus try, recommended completion of a 3-year ap prenticeship program, covering all types of roofing work, as the superior way to learn this trade. A substantial proportion of workers, however, have acquired roofing skills informal ly, by working for many years as helpers or handymen, observing or being taught by ex perienced roofers. Apprenticeship applicants generally are re quired to be at least 18 years old; a high school education or its equivalent is desirable. Good physical condition and a good sense of balance are important assets. Many apprenticeship pro grams are under the supervision of local joint union-management apprenticeship committees. Generally, the apprentice is employed under a written apprenticeship agreement and the pro gram is registered with a State apprenticeship agency or the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bu reau of Apprenticeship and Training. Roofer applying tar to roof before spreading pebbles. 372 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK business for themselves. Thorough knowledge of the trade, adequate financial resources, and a sound knowledge of business principles and practices are basic requirements for success as a roofing contractor. Employment Outlook There will be a few thousand new job op portunities for roofers annually during the 1960's. Most of the new jobs will result from the large increase anticipated in construction activity over the 1960-70 decade. (See discus sion, p. 343.) Replacement needs will also pro vide a few hundred job openings each year. Retirements and deaths alone may result in about 1,200 job opportunities annually. Other openings will result from the transfer of roof ers to other fields of work. Application of roofing on new construction and repair jobs on old structures will provide most of the work for these craftsmen during the 1960's. However^ dampproofing and water proofing are expected to provide an increasing proportion of roofers' work. Earnings and Working Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates, as of July 1, 1960, for composition roofers, averaged $3.61, according to a national survey of build ing trades workers in 52 large cities. For slate and tile roofers, the rate was $3.62. By com parison, the average for all journeymen in the building trades was $3.86 an hour. Among in dividual cities surveyed, the minimum hourly rates for composition roofers ranged from $2 in San Antonio, Tex., to $4.40 in Newark, N.J. Slate and tile roofers had hourly rates ranging from $2.35 in San Antonio, to $4.60 in New York City. The average annual earnings of roofers are less than their hourly rates of pay would indi cate. These workers lose much worktime be cause of weather conditions and the brief dura tion of many jobs. A large proportion of roofers are members of the United Slate, Tile and Composition Roof ers, Damp and Waterproof Workers Associa tion. Union-management contracts covering roofers often provide health insurance and pen sion benefits, financed either entirely by the employers or jointly by the workers and employers. Roofers' work, like that of other building tradesmen, is sometimes strenuous. It involves prolonged standing, as well as climbing, bend ing, and squatting. These workers risk injuries from slips or falls from scaffolds or roofs. They may have to work outdoors in all types of weather, particularly when doing repair work. Where To Go for More Information A young man who wishes to obtain further information concerning roofing apprentice ships or work opportunities in this trade should apply to roofing contractors in his area; a local of the United Slate, Tile and Composition Roof ers, Damp and Waterproof Workers Associa tion; a local joint union-management appren ticeship committee, if there is one in his area; or the local office of the Bureau of Apprentice ship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addition, the local office of the State em ployment service may be a source of informa tion about apprenticeship opportunities. General information about the work of roof ers, may be obtained from : National Association of Home Builders, 1625 L St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. National Roofing Contractors Association, 189 West Madison St., Chicago 2, 111. United Slate, Tile and Composition Roofers, Damp and Waterproof Workers Association, 6 East Lake St., Chicago 1, 111. Cement M ason s (Cement and Concrete Finishers) (D.O.T. 5-26.100 and .200) Nature of Work The principal work of cement masons is finishing the exposed concrete surfaces on many types of construction projects. These projects range from small jobs, such as the finishing of patios, floors, and sidewalks, to work on huge 373 BUILDING TRADES mmmum dams, miles of concrete highways, foundations and walls of large buildings, airport runways, and missile launching sites. On small projects, a cement mason assisted by one or two helpers may do all the concrete w ork; on large projects, crews of several cement masons and many help ers may be employed. In preparing the site for pouring the concrete mixture (cement plus stones of various sizes, and water), the cement mason makes sure that forms, which hold the concrete, are set for the desired slope and depth of the concrete mixture and are properly alined. Materials, such as stone and gravel, may be provided as a founda tion for the concrete. The cement mason pours or directs the pouring of the concrete mixture. He usually supervises laborers who level and settle the mix ture by tamping it, or b^ vibrating it with a special machine. The mason levels the surface further with a “ straightedge” (a flat tool long enough to extend across the poured concrete mixture). He then works it with a “ float” (a rectangular, flat-surfaced handtool) and other handtools to fill depressions and remove high Where Employed C o u rtesy o f N a tio n a l P ark Service Cement mason using float and trowel to smooth cement surface. spots and to draw cement to the surface of the mixture in preparation for final finishing operations. Final finishing is often delayed for several hours until the concrete has hardened suffi ciently. While the concrete is still workable, the cement mason uses a trowel to bring the concrete to the proper consistency and obtain a smooth final finish. The final finishing may also be done by means of power-operated trow els. On most building projects, concrete finishing work generally involves hand operations. On highways and other large-scale projects, how ever, power-operated floats and cement finishing machines are used extensively, but supplemen tary hand operations are also necessary, partic ularly to finish curved surfaces. Cement masons also do patching work to correct surface defects on concrete structures. Some cement masons specialize in laying a mastic coating (a fine asphalt mixture) over concrete, particularly in buildings where soundinsulated or acid-resistant floors are specified. The mastic is applied while hot, then smoothed with heavy hand tools. On large jobs, cement masons work in gangs or crews. In such instances, masons perform finishing operations while laborers do routine and heavy work. The cement mason’s knowledge of his mate rials is essential to the quality of his work. He must be familiar with the working characteris tics of various cement and concrete mixes, such as those containing substances to speed or slow the setting time, and those which are used to construct weight-supporting walls or surfaces of specified strengths. In addition, because of the effects that heat, cold, and wind have on the curing of cement, the skilled mason must recognize by sight and touch what is occurring in the cement mixture so that he may be able to prevent defects that could develop. Cement masons work principally on large buildings, but many are employed on highway or other nonbuilding construction. Cement masons work directly for general contractors 374 who are responsible for constructing entire projects such as highways, or large industrial, commercial, and residential buildings. They also work for cement contractors who do only the concrete work on a large construction project or who work on smaller projects such as sidewalks, driveways, and basement floors. A small number work for municipal public works departments, public utilities, and manufacturing firms which do their own construction work. Some cement masons are self-employed and do small cement jobs, such as sidewalks, steps, and driveways. Cement masons are employed in almost every community in the country. The geographical distribution of employment in this occupation is about the same as in the building trades generally, with large concentrations in the highly populated and industrialized areas. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK written apprenticeship agreement and the pro gram is registered with a State apprenticeship registration agency or the U.S. Department of Labor's Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training. The apprenticeship program usually consists of 6,000 hours (3 years) of on-the-job training, in addition to related classroom instruction. During the apprenticeship period, the appren tice learns, among other things, to use and handle the tools, equipment, and materials of the trade. He also learns finishing, layout work, and safety techniques. The apprentice receives related classroom instruction in subjects such as applied mathematics and related sciences, blueprint reading, architectural drawing, es timating materials and costs, and local building regulations. Although a high school education is not required, education above the grade-school level, preferably including mathematics, is needed to understand the classroom instruction. Training and Other Qualifications Most training authorities, including the National Joint (labor-management) Cement Masonry, Asphalt, and Composition Appren ticeship and Training Committee, recommend the completion of a 3-year apprenticeship pro gram as the best way to learn this trade. A substantial number of workers, however, have acquired some cement masonry skills informally by working for many years on building and road construction jobs as laborers assisting cement masons. Others have worked with specialty contractors constructing sidewalks and doing other types of masonry work. These workers have learned their skills by observing or being taught by experienced cement masons. In the past, when there have been shortages of skilled masons, a number of men with informal train ing have been given some credit for this ex perience toward completion of the apprentice ship program. In the future, such credit may depend upon the demand for skilled cement masons in local areas. Apprenticeship applicants generally are re quired to be between the ages of 18 and 25. Good physical condition and manual dexterity are important assets. Many apprenticeship pro grams are under the supervision of local joint union-management apprenticeship committees. Generally the apprentice is employed under a Employment Outlook Continued rapid increase in the employment of cement masons is expected over the 1960's, in line with the rate of growth for the skilled building trades as a whole. In addition to open ings resulting from the growth of the trade, replacement needs may result in hundreds of other job opportunities for new workers each year. Cement masons have had one of the fastest rates of employment growth among building trades craftsmen in recent years. The number of cement masons increased from about 30,000 in 1950 to approximately 50,000 in mid-1960. The anticipated large expansion of construction activity is expected to result in continued rapid growth in this occupation in the 1960's. (See discussion, p. 343.) Moreover, the relatively greater use of concrete in construction in re cent years is likely to continue. Recent tech nological developments, such as cement finishing machines, will have some adverse effect on em ployment prospects in the cement finishing trade. However, the expected increase in the total amount of cement finishing work will be sufficiently great to result in a substantial em ployment increase in this relatively small building trade. 375 BUILDING TRADES Earnings and Working Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates for cement masons averaged $3.75, compared with $3.86 for all journeymen in the building trades, as of July 1, 1960, according to a national survey of building trades workers in 52 large cities. Among individual cities surveyed, the minimum hourly rates for cement masons ranged from $2.40 in Charlotte, N.C., to $4.65 in Newark, N.J. Because of the seasonal nature of construc tion work and because of worktime lost for other reasons, average annual earnings of cement finishers are not as high as their hourly rates of pay would indicate. Cement masons usually receive premium pay for hours worked in excess of the regularly scheduled workday or workweek. Overtime work for these crafts men often arises, because once concrete has been poured for a job, the work must be completed. The work of the cement mason is active and strenuous, like the work of skilled building tradesmen generally. Since most cement finish ing is done on floors or at ground level, the cement mason is required to stoop, bend, or kneel. Much of his work is done outdoors. A large proportion of cement masons are union members. They belong either to the Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ In ternational Association of the United States and Canada or to the Bricklayers, Masons* and Plasterers’ International Union of America. Union-management contracts covering cement finishers often provide health, retirement pen sion, and other benefits, financed either entirely by employers or jointly by the workers and employers. Where To Go for More Information A young man who wishes to obtain further information regarding cement mason appren ticeships or work opportunities in the trade should apply to cement finishing contractors in his area; locals of unions previously mentioned; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee, if there is one in his area; or the local office of the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addi tion, the local office of the State employment service may be a source of information about apprenticeship opportunities. General information about the work of cement masons may be obtained from : Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. Bricklayers, Masons and Plasterers’ International Union of America, 815 15th St. N W ., Washington 5, D.C. Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ Inter national Association of the United States and Canada, 1125 17th St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. Sheet-Metal Workers (D.O.T. 4-80.010) Nature of Work Sheet-metal workers fabricate and install ducts which are used in ventilating, airconditioning, and heating systems. They also fabricate and install a wide variety of other products made from thin metal sheets, such as roofing and siding, commercial stainless steel kitchen equipment, partitions, sheet-metal shelves in industrial establishments, store fronts, metal framework for neon signs, and chutes used for materials movement. Skilled sheet-metal workers should not be confused with assembly-line factory operatives who also make sheet-metal products, but are trained in only a few specific operations. In heating or air-conditioning duct work, the sheet-metal worker lays out and plans the job, determining the size and type of sheet metal to be used. The ducts are often fabricated at the sheet-metal shop. Sheet-metal workers cut the metal with hand snip£ and power-driven shears, as well as other types of cutting tools. They form the metal with bending machines, hammers, and anvils; then weld, bolt, rivet, solder, or cement the seams and joints. However, factory fabricated ducts in standard sizes are often available and these require little 376 additional fabrication by sheet-metal workers. Some duct fabrication is done at the work site. In the installation of ducts, the component parts are fitted together and assembled. Hangers and braces are installed to support ducts, and joints may be soldered. Some jour neymen workers specialize in shopwork or on site installation work. However, it is essential that skilled workers know all aspects of the trade. Where Employed Sheet-metal workers are employed mainly by plants producing heating, refrigeration, and air-conditioning equipment and by contractors engaged in residential, industrial, and commer cial building work. In residential construction, these workers may also work for roofing con tractors who specialize in metal roofing work. In addition, many of these craftsmen work for government agencies or business establish ments which do their own construction and al teration work. Others are self-employed, mainly on repair work or on smaller types of installations. Some craftsmen are employed in small shops manufacturing specialty products, such as custom kitchen equipment for hotels and restaurants. Many skilled sheet-metal workers are also employed by railroad, aircraft, or shipbuild ing companies. Firms making blowers, ex hausts, electrical generating and distributing equipment, food products machinery, steam en gines, and turbines also employ skilled sheetmetal workers. The jobs of the skilled sheet-metal workers are distributed throughout the country in about the same pattern as those of building trades workers generally, with large concentra tions of workers in highly populated and in dustrialized areas. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK however, have acquired skills of the trade in formally, by working for many years as helpers or handymen, observing or being taught by ex perienced craftsmen. Many of these persons have gained some knowledge of the trade by taking correspondence or trade school courses. Apprenticeship applicants generally are re quired to be between the ages of 17 and 21; a high school education or its equivalent is desir able. Good physical condition and mechanical aptitude are necessary assets. Many appren ticeship programs are under the supervision of local joint union-management apprentice ship committees. Generally, the apprentice is employed under a written apprenticeship agree ment and the program is registered with a State apprenticeship agency or the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training. The apprenticeship program usually con sists of 8,000 to 10,000 hours (4 or 5 years) of on-the-job training, in addition to related classroom instruction. In a typical train ing program, the apprentice learns, among other things, to use, care for, and handle safely Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities, including the na tional joint management-labor apprenticeship committee for the sheet metal industry, recom mend the completion of a 4- or 5-year apprenticeship program as the best way to learn this trade. Some sheet-metal workers, Sheet-metal workers installing ducts for system. ventilation 377 BUILDING TRADES the tools, machines, equipment, and materials commonly used in the trade; solder; do airconditioning, heating, and ventilating work; do residential installations such as roof ing, gutters, and downspouts; and do architec tural and industrial sheet-metal work. He also learns general work processes such as cutting, forming, folding, grooving metal material and bending edges, and punching and driljing holes. The trainee receives related classroom in struction in subjects such as drafting, blue print reading, and mathematics applicable to layout work. In addition, he learns the rela tionship between sheet-metal work and other building trades. Hourly wage rates for sheet-metal ap prentices generally start at 50 percent of the journeyman rate and increase periodically un til 90 percent of the journeyman rate is reached during the final portion of the apprentice training period. If apprenticeship applicants have had training or experience directly re lated to the trade, for example, training in sheet-metal work in a vocational school or ex perience in a factory or in the Armed Forces, they may be granted advanced apprenticeship standing. Experienced sheet-metal workers have more job mobility than many other building trades workers because they can transfer their skills from the construction industry to the metal manufacturing industries. Also, they may ad vance to the job of foreman for a contractor, become superintendents of large projects, or go into business for themselves as sheet-metal con tractors. A thorough knowledge of sheetmetal work, adequate financial resources, and a sound knowledge of business principles and practices are basic requirements for suc cess as a contractor. Employment Outlook Employment of sheet-metal workers is ex pected to increase rapidly during the 1960’s. However, there will be only a couple of thou sand job opportunities each year in this rela tively small occupation. In addition to job openings arising from the growth of the trade, opportunities for new workers will result from the need to replace experienced sheet-metal workers who retire, transfer to other fields of work, or die. The increase in the employment of sheetmetal workers is expected mainly as a result of the anticipated large expansion in new resi dential, commercial, and industrial construction over the 1960’s. (See discussion, p. 343.) The expected large increase in the number of per manently installed air-conditioning systems in residential, commercial, and factory buildings will provide more work for sheet-metal workers. In addition, the manufacturing industries which employ skilled sheet-metal workers generally have favorable long-range prospects. The shops which fabricate sheetmetal products used in construction are also ex pected to require more of these skilled crafts men in the next 10 years. Prefabrication is not likely to affect the growth of employment in this occupation as much as in most other building trades, because of the custom nature of much of the work. The prefabrication of ducts and fittings for venti lating installations is limited by the need to tailor these installations to meet a wide variety of structural conditions, such as the dimensions of the building and the space allowed for ducts, and also by the cost of storage space needed to store prefabricated ducts and fittings. Earnings and Working Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates for sheetmetal workers averaged $3.90, compared with $3.86 for all journeymen in the building trades, as of July 1, 1960, according to a national sur vey of building trades workers in 52 large cities. Among individual cities surveyed, the minimum hourly rates for sheet-metal workers ranged from $3.10 in Charlotte, N.C., to $4.65 in New York City. The average annual earnings of sheet-metal workers often are less than their hourly rates of pay would indicate. Many jobs are of brief duration and sheet-metal workers who do out door work frequently lose worktime because of weather conditions. A large proportion of sheet-metal workers 378 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK are members of the Sheet Metal Workers’ In ternational Association. Union-management contracts covering sheet-metal workers often provide health insurance and pension benefits, financed either entirely by the employers or jointly by the workers and employers. Many sheet-metal workers spend consider able time at the construction site, where they may work either indoors or outdoors. Other sheet-metal workers may work primarily in doors, doing fabricating and layout work. When installing gutters, skylights, and cor nices they may work high above the ground level. When installing ventilating and airconditioning systems, they may work in awk ward and relatively inaccessible places. Sheetmetal workers run the risks of cuts and burns from the materials, tools, and equipment used in their trade. Where To Go for More Information A young man who wishes to obtain informa tion regarding sheet-metal apprenticeships or work opportunities in this trade should direct his inquiry to sheet - metal contractors or heating, refrigeration, or air-conditioning con tractors; a local of the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; a local joint unionmanagement apprenticeship committee, if there is one in his locality; or the local office of the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addition, the lo cal office of the State employment service may be a source of information about apprentice ship opportunities. General information about the work of sheetmetal workers may be obtained from : Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National Association, Inc., 107 Center St., Elgin, 111. Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association, 1000 Conn. Ave. N W .; Washington 6, D.C. Asbestos and Insulating Workers (D.O.T. 5-33.110 and .210) Nature of Work The principal work of asbestos and insula ting workers is to cover pipes, boilers, and other equipment with insulating materials, such as cork, felt, asbestos, fiberglass, and magnesia. These materials are installed by pasting, wiring, taping, stud-welding, spray ing, or other methods. Asbestos and insu lating workers use handtools, such as trowels, brushes, scissors, hammers, saws, pliers, and stud-welding guns. Powersaws are also used to cut insulating materials. The insulating materials which these work ers install serve many purposes. For example, the insulation of pipes, ducts, tanks, vats, stills, towers, boilers, and furnaces retains heat and thus saves fuel. Another function of these materials is to insulate the piping in refriger ation systems to prevent the absorption of heat. Where Employed Most asbestos workers are employed by in in new industrial and com sulation contractors mercial construction. A substantial number are also employed in the alteration and main tenance of insulated pipe work in chemical plants, petroleum refineries, rubber plants, atomic energy installations, shipyards, and other industrial establishments which have ex tensive steam installations for power and heating. Similarly, some large establishments which have cold storage facilities employ as bestos workers for maintenance work. Asbes tos workers are found in almost every part of the country, with large concentrations in the more highly populated and industrialized cen ters. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most asbestos workers learn their trade through a 4-year “ improver ship” program that is similar in many respects to apprenticeship programs in other building trades. The improvership program consists of a specified period of on-the-job training in which the new worker learns how to handle the tools of the 379 BUILDING TRADES trade and to work with the various kinds of insulating materials. Applicants for improvership programs are generally required to be between the ages of 18 and 30 and in good physical condition. Hourly wage rates under the improvership programs start at about 50 percent of the journeyman’s rate and, if the trainee’s work progresses satisfactorily, increase by 10 percent each year until 80 percent of the journeyman rate is reached during the final stage of the program. At the end of the 4-year improvership program, trainees are required to pass an examination which demonstrates their knowledge of the trade. A skilled asbestos worker may advance to the job of foreman, shop superintendent, or esti mator, or he may open his own insulation con tracting business. Employment Outlook Employment in this relatively small build ing trade is expected to increase rapidly dur ing the 1960’s as a result of the anticipated sharp rise in the volume of construction and commercial and industrial building. (See dis cussion, p. 343.) The increasing use of industrial pipe for numerous manufacturing processes and where air-conditioning and refrigeration are required, will increase the need for asbes tos workers for installation and maintenance work. In addition to job openings resulting from the growth of the trade, other opportuni ties will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. The expected replacement needs in this relatively small field of work may result in about 400 to 500 job openings annually dur ing the 1960’s. Earnings and Working Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates, as of July 1, 1960, for asbestos workers averaged $3.90, compared with $3.86 for all journeymen in the building trades, according to a national survey of building trades workers in 52 large cities. Among individual cities, the minimum hourly rates for asbestos workers ranged from $3.15 in Charlotte, N.C., to $4.75 in New York City. A large proportion of the workers in this trade are members of the International Asso ciation of Heat and Frost Insulators and As bestos Workers. Union-management contracts covering asbestos workers often provide health insurance and pension benefits, financed entirely by employers. Where To Go for More Information A young man who wishes to obtain further information regarding asbestos workers’ im provership programs or work opportunities in this trade should apply to an asbestos contractor in his area or to a local of the International Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbestos Workers. General information about the work of as bestos and insulating workers may be obtained from : Insulation Distributor-Contractors Association, Inc., National 1425 Chestnut St., Philadelphia 2, Pa. International Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbestos Workers, Asbestos workers applying flat block to metal ducts. 1300 Connecticut Ave. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. 380 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Lathers (D.O.T. 5-32.761, .762, and .763) Nature of Work Lathers install the supporting backings on ceilings or walls on which plaster or other ma terials are applied. These supports are usually metal laths (strips of metal or metal wire mesh), or large pieces of perforated gyp sum board. When installing metal laths, the lathers first build a light metal framework (furring) which is fastened securely to the structural frame work of the building. The laths are then at tached to the furring by nailing, clipping, ty ing, or machine stapling. After the laths have been installed, the lathers cut openings in them for electrical outlets and heating and venti lating pipes. The method of installation varies somewhat in other types of lath work. For example, for plaster cornices, the lather builds a frame work that approximates the desired shape or form of the cornice. He then attaches metal laths to the framework. Gypsum laths are nailed on studs, or clipped or stapled to the metal furring. Lathers also install metal rein forcements, known as corner beads, which are used as guides by the plasterer and as pro tection for the finished corner. When stucco (a mixture of portland cement and sand) is to be applied over wood frame work, the lather installs two layers of wire mesh separated by a layer of felt, to act as a base for the stucco. The tools of the trade include measuring rules and tapes, drills, hammers, chisels, hack saws, shears, wirecutters, boltcutters, punches, pliers, hatchets, and stapling machines. Where Employed Most lathers work for lathing and plaster ing contractors on new residential, com mercial, or industrial construction. They also work on modernization and alteration jobs. Some lathers are also employed outside the con struction industry; for example, they make the lath backing for plaster display materials scenery. or Most of the estimated 25,000 lathers employed in mid-1960 had jobs in the larger urban areas. Training and Other Qualifications Most training authorities, including the national joint labor-management apprentice ship committee for this trade, recommend the completion of a 2- or 3-year apprenticeship program as the best way to learn lath ing. However, many lathers, particularly in small communities, have acquired skills in formally, by working for many years as help ers, observing or being taught by experienced lathers. Apprenticeship applicants generally are re quired to be between the ages of 16 and 26, and in good physical condition. Aptitude tests are often given to applicants to determine their manual dexterity as well as the other qualifica tions required for this trade. Many ap prenticeship programs are under the super vision of local joint labor-management apprenticeship committees. Apprentices gen erally must pass examinations which are given at the end of each 6-month period. Apprentices usually are employed under a union ap prenticeship agreement and the program is registered with a State apprenticeship agency or the U.S. Department of Labor's Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training. During the apprenticeship period, the ap prentice learns to use and handle the tools and materials of the trade. For example, he in stalls gypsum and composition board, wall fur ring, and metal lathing. In addition, he generally receives related instruction in sub jects such as applied mathematics, geometry, reading of blueprints and sketches, welding, estimating, and safety practices. Although a high school education is not required, education above grade school level, particularly courses in mathematics, is needed to understand the classroom instruction. Hourly wage rates for lather apprentices usually start at 50 percent of the journeyman rate. The rate is increased periodically by 5 381 BUILDING TRADES percent every third or fourth month until a rate of 85 percent is reached in the final quar ter of the second year of training. Employment Outlook A moderate increase in employment in this relatively small building trade is expected over the 1960’s. The growth of the trade will result principally from the anticipated large expan sion in construction activity over the 1960-70 decade. (See discussion, p. 343.) Moreover, there will be a growing need for lathing work because of the increased use of acoustical tile for sound insulation, the trends toward sus pended and other decorative types of ceilings, and the increased use of lightweight plasters as a fireproofing material for structural steel. These developments may largely offset the loss of lathing work resulting from the in creasing use of dry walls, particularly in resi dential construction where these materials are often installed by carpenters. In addition to the expected employment increase, a few job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer out of the trade, retire, or die. Earnings and Working Conditions The average hourly wage rates for lathers are among the highest in the skilled building trades. However, because of the seasonal na ture of their work, their average annual earn ings are lower than the hourly rates would in dicate. Union minimum hourly wage rates, as of July 1, 1960, for lathers averaged $4, compared with $3.86 for all journeymen in the building trades, according to a national survey of build ing trades workers in 52 large cities. Among individual cities surveyed, the minimum hourly rates for lathers ranged from $3 in Memphis, Tenn., to $4.65 in New York City. A large proportion of lathers are members of The Wood, Wire and Metal Lathers Inter national Union. Union-management contracts covering lathers often provide health, life in surance, pension, and other benefits, financed either entirely by employers or jointly by the workers and employers. Where To Go for More Information For further information regarding lathers' apprenticeships or work opportunities in the trade, a young man should apply to a lathing contractor in his area; a local of the Wood, Wire and Metal Lathers International Union; a local joint labor-management apprenticeship committee, if there is one in his area; or the local office of the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In ad dition, the local office of the State employment service may be a source of information about apprenticeship opportunities. General information about the work of lathers may be obtained from : Contracting Plasterers’ and Lathers’ International Association, 304 Landmark Bldg., 1343 H St. NW ., Washington 5, D.C. National Bureau for Lathing and Plastering, 755 Nada Bldg., 2000 K St. NW ., Washington 5, D.C. The Wood, Wire and Metal Lathers International Union, 6530 New Hampshire Ave., Takoma Park 12, Md. M arble Setters, Tile Setters, and Terrazzo Workers (D.O.T. 5-24.310, .410, and .510) Nature of Work Marble setters, tile setters, and terrazzo workers cover interior or exterior walls, floors, or other surfaces with marble, tile, or terrazzo. Craftsmen in each of these distinct trades work primarily with the material indicated by their Digitized title. for FRASER Marble setters install marble, shop-made ter razzo panels and artificial marble, and struc tural glass when it is used in the interior of a building. The marble setter does little fabrica tion work because the marble and other mate rials are cut to size and polished before they are delivered to the work site. However, he 382 may do some minor cutting- to make the ma terials fit exactly. In setting marble, he lays out the work, then applies a special plaster mixture to the backing material and sets the marble pieces in place. When necessary, he braces them until the setting plaster has hard ened. Special plaster is poured into the joints between the marble pieces, and the joints are “ pointed up” (slightly indented) with a trowel or wooden paddle. Bolt holes may have to be drilled if attachments to the marble are necessary. Usually, each marble setter has a helper or general assistant to prepare plaster, carry marble slabs, and clean the surface of the completed work. The tile setter attaches tile (a thin slab of baked clay, stone, or other material) on walls, floors, or ceilings according to blueprints or other instructions. For walls and ceilings, a plaster coat and then a layer of cement are applied to the surface or other supporting back ing, such as plaster board or metal lath. The tiles are then tapped into place with a trowel handle. In laying tile floors, the tile setter adds cement to the fresh concrete subfloor and then lays the tile. He chips the tile with a hammer and chisel or cuts it with pincers to make it fit into irregular areas, into corners, or around pipes. Small tiles, such as those laid in bathrooms, are available in paperbacked strips and sheets that can be fastened to the floor as a unit, using cement or various types of adhesives. This eliminates the need for the setting of in dividual tiles. The tile setter is usually assisted by a helper who mixes mortar, sets up scaf folds, supplies the setter with materials, fills the joints after the tile setting is completed, and cleans the completed work. Terrazzo workers work with terrazzo which, essentially, in a type of ornamental concrete used mainly for floors, in which marble chips are used as the coarsest ingredient. After the terrazzo hardens, it is ground and polished to give a smooth surface in which the marble chips are exposed against the background of other materials. A terrazzo worker starts his work by laying a base (first course) of fine, fairly dry concrete, leveling this base accurately with a long, flat OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tool called a straightedge, and tamping it. He then places metal strips wherever there is to be a joint, or a change of color between panels, and imbeds their bottom edges into the first course. If there is to be lettering or an orna mental figure, he also imbeds a shop-made mold. Then he mixes the top course of concrete and marble chips, pours it onto the base course, and rolls and levels it. There is a separate mixture for each color. After the concrete has hard ened for a few days, a semiskilled worker grinds and polishes the floor with an electricpowered grinding machine. The terrazzo worker is assisted by helpers in the mixing and placing of the base course, but he alone does the leveling and placing of the metal strips. Helpers handle sand, cement, marble chips, and all other materials that may be used by the terrazzo workers. They rub and clean all marble, mosaic, and terrazzo floors and perform other work required in helping a terrazzo craftsman. The terrazzo worker gen erally supervises mixing of the top course which, along with the grinding, governs its final appearance. Where Employed Marble setters, tile setters, and terrazzo workers are employed mainly in new building construction and generally in the larger urban areas. Substantial numbers of terrazzo work ers are found in Florida and California. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities, including the na tional joint labor-management apprenticeship committees which set the training standards in these trades, recommend the completion of a 3-year apprenticeship program as the best way to learn each of these trades. A substantial proportion of tile setters, terrazzo workers, and marble setters, however, have acquired skills of these trades informally by working for many years as helpers, observing or being taught by experienced craftsmen. Apprenticeship applicants generally are re quired to be between the ages of 17 and 22; a high school education or its equivalent is de sirable. Good physical condition and manual 383 BUILDING TRADES dexterity are important assets. Applicants should have an eye for quickly determining proper alinements of tile, terrazzo, v and marble, and have a good sense of color harmony. Many apprenticeship programs are under the supervision of local joint union-management apprenticeship committees. Generally, the ap prentice is employed under a written apprentice ship agreement and the program is registered with a State apprenticeship agency or the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Apprentice ship and Training. The apprenticeship pro grams in each of these trades generally consist of 6,000 hours of on-the-job training, in addi tion to related classroom instruction. In a typi cal 3-year training program for terrazzo work ers, apprentices learn, among other things to use, care for, and handle safely the tools, equip ment, and materials commonly used in the trade; mix, place, tamp, and level terrazzo ma terial and concrete; and select, set, and level metal dividing strips. The apprentice also learns the selection and placement of materials according to the design of the job; the rough and final finishing of bases and coves; and hand and machine rubbing. The apprentice receives related classroom in struction in blueprint reading, layout work, basic mathematics, and the making of measure ment sketches. Hourly wage rates for apprentices in each of these trades start at about 50 or 60 percent of the journeyman rate and increase periodical ly until 95 percent of the journeyman rate is reached during the last period of apprentice training. Skilled and experienced tile, terrazzo, or marble setters may become foremen. Others may be able to start their own small contract ing businesses. Employment Outlook Employment in these small trades is expected to increase somewhat during the 1960’s, pri marily because of the anticipated large growth in new building construction. (See discussion, p. 343.) Job openings for terrazzo workers are ex pected to increase faster than for marble set ters and tile setters. Because terrazzo is durable and attractive, the number of terrazzo instal lations, particularly for floors, expanded over the past decade or so, and is expected to grow further during the 1960’s. A small number of skilled terrazzo workers have been recruited from abroad to meet shortages of these workers in some areas. The anticipated growth in employment of tile setters will be limited by the increased use of competing materials, such as asphalt floor tile, structural glass, plastic tile, and plastic-coated wallboard. Little change in the employment of marble setters is expected. Despite the relatively high er costs of marble compared with competitive materials, the excellent properties of marble as a building material will insure its continued use and provide work for marble setters, al though the supply of quality marble is grad ually being depleted. Earnings and Working Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates, as of July 1, 1960, for terrazzo workers averaged $3.93; for marble setters, $3.91; and for tile setter^, $3.84; according to a national survey of building trades workers in 52 large cities. These rates compared with the average of $3.86 for all journeymen in the building trades. Among individual cities surveyed, the mini mum hourly rates for terrazzo workers ranged from $3 in San Antonio, Tex., to $4.60 in Newark, N.J. For marble setters, the rates ranged from $3 in San Antonio to $4.28 in Peoria, 1 1 The rates for tile setters ranged 1. from $3 in San Antonio to $4.28 in Peoria, 1 1 1. A large proportion of the workers in each of these trades are members of one of the fol lowing unions— Bricklayers, Masons and Plas terers’ International Union of America; Inter national Association of Marble, Slate and Stone Polishers, Rubbers and Sawyers, Tile and Marble Setters’ Helpers and Marble Mosaic and Terrazzo Workers’ Helpers; and Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Association of the United States and Canada. Union-management contracts covering these 384 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK workers often provide insurance and pension benefits, financed either entirely by the em ployers or jointly by the workers and employers. Marble setters and terrazzo workers work both indoors and outdoors, depending on the type of installation. Tile setters work mostly indoors. General information about the work of marble setters, tile setters, and terrazzo work ers may be obtained from : Bricklayers, Masons and Plasterers’ International Union of America, 815 15th St. N W ., Washington 5, D.C. International Association of Marble, Slate and Stone Polishers, Rubbers and Sawyers, Tile and Marble Setters’ Helpers and Marble Mosaic and Terrazzo Workers’ Helpers, 821 15th St. N W ., Washington 5, D.C. Where To Go for More Information To obtain further information regarding ap prenticeships or work opportunities in these trades, a young man should apply to tile, ter razzo, and marble setting contractors in his area or to locals of the unions previously men tioned. In addition, the local office of the State employment service may be a source of infor mation about apprenticeship opportunities. National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association, Inc. 2000 K St. N W ., Washington 5, D.C. Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ Interna tional Association of the United States and Canada, 1125 17th St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. Tile Contractors’ Association of America, 1420 New York Ave. N W ., Washington 5, D.C. Glaziers (D.O.T. 5-77.010) Nature of Work Where Employed Glaziers cut, fit, and install plate glass, ordi nary window glass, mirrors, and special items such as leaded glass panels. In making a glass installation, the glazier cuts the glass to size or uses precut glass. The glazier puts a bed of putty into the wood or metal sash and presses the glass into place. He fastens the glass with wire clips or triangular metal points and then places and smooths another strip of putty on the outside edges of the glass to keep out moisture. When installing structural glass, which is used to decorate building fronts, walls, ceil ings, and partitions, the glazier (and some times the marble setter, see discussion, p. 381) applies mastic cement to the supporting back ing and presses the glass into it. The glass may have to be trimmed with a glass cutter if it is not precut to specifications. Glaziers (as well as bricklayers, see discussion, p. 356), install glass blocks for building exteriors, in terior partitions, and walls. In addition to handtools, such as glass cut ters and putty knives, glaziers use power cut ting tools and grinders. In mid-1960, only a few thousand glaziers were employed by glazing contractors on new construction, alterations and modernizations, and on replacement of broken glass, particu larly for store windows. Others were employed by government agencies or business establish ments which do their own construction work. A large number of glaziers work outside the construction industry. Many are employed in factories where they install glass in sash, doors, mirrors, and partitions. Other workers, using skills similar to those used by glaziers, install glass or mirrors in furniture and ships, or re place glass in automobiles. Most glaziers are employed in large urban areas. In small communities, glazing is done by persons who also do painting or paperhang ing. Training and Other Qualifications Most training authorities, including the na tional joint labor-management apprenticeship committee for the glass and glazing industry, recommend the completion of a 3-year appren ticeship program as the best way to learn this trade. A substantial proportion of glaziers, BUILDING TRADES however, have learned the trade informally. They have acquired glazing skills by working for many years with glaziers and observing or being taught by experienced craftsmen. In smaller communities, many journeymen paint ers and paperhangers have learned to do glazier work as part of the apprentice training for their trade. Apprenticeship applicants generally are re quired to be at least 18 years of age; a high school education or its equivalent is desirable. Many glazier apprenticeship programs are un der the supervision of local joint union-man agement apprenticeship committees. Generally, the apprentice is employed under a written apprenticeship agreement, and the program is registered with a State apprenticeship agency or the U.S. Department of Labor's Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training. The apprenticeship program usually consists of 6,000 hours (3 years) of on-the-job training, in addition to a minimum of 144 hours a year of related classroom instruction. During the apprenticeship, the apprentice learns how to use and handle the tools, machines, and ma terials of the trade. The program also includes on-the-job training in the glazing of wood and metal sash (frame) in doors, windows, and partitions and other types of openings; setting of store front openings, structural glass, mir rors, showcases, automobile glass, shower doors, and tub enclosures; replacement of glass; and scaffolding. Hourly wage rates for glazier apprentices usually start at 50 percent of the journeyman rate and increase periodically until the journey man rate is reached at the completion of train ing. If apprenticeship applicants have had ex perience directly related to the trade, they may be granted advanced apprenticeship training. Employment Outlook There will be several hundred opportunities for new workers to enter this relatively small occupation annually during the 1960's. The large increase anticipated in construction ac tivity (see discussion, p. 343) and the increasing use of glass in building construction are ex pected to result in more glazing work. Replace Digitized ment and modernization work, frequently for FRASER 385 involving large glass installations, will provide additional job opportunities. The need to re place experienced glaziers who retire, transfer to other fields of work, or die will also provide some job opportunities for new workers. Earnings and Working Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates for glaziers averaged $3.53, compared with $3.86 for all journeymen in the building trade, as of July 1, 1960, according to a national survey of building trades workers in 52 large cities. Among individual cities surveyed, the union minimum hourly wage rates for glaziers ranged from $2.45 in Richmond, Va., to $4.25 in New York City. The average annual earnings of glaziers in construction work are not as high as their hourly rates of pay would indicate, since they lose much worktime because of weather and other reasons. A large proportion of glaziers employed in construction work are members of the Brother hood of Painters, Decorators and Paperhangers of America. Union-management contracts cov ering glaziers often provide health insurance and pension benefits, financed either entirely by the employers or jointly by the employers and workers. Where To Go for More Information A young man who wishes to obtain further information regarding glazier apprenticeships or work opportunities in this trade should direct his inquiry to a glazing contractor or general contractor in his area; a local of the Brother hood of Painters, Decorators and Paperhangers of America; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee, if there is one in his locality; or the local office of the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Depart ment of Labor. In addition, the local office of the State employment service may be a source of information about apprenticeship oppor tunities. General information about the work of glaziers may be obtained from the Brotherhood of Painters, Decorators and Paperhangers of America, 217-219 North 6th St., Lafayette, Ind. 386 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Elevator Constructors (D.O.T. 5-83.350 through .359) Nature of Work Elevator constructors (also called elevator mechanics) assemble and install elevators, esca lators, dumb waiters, and similar equipment. They also do considerable modernization, main tenance, and repair work. The work is done by small crews (seldom more than six men) con sisting of skilled mechanics and their helpers. In elevator construction work, the crew first installs the guide rails of the car in the elevator shaft of the building. Then they install the car frame and platform, the counterweight, the elevator chassis, and the control apparatus. Next, the car frame is connected to the counter weight with cables, the cab body and roof are installed, and the control system is wired. Finally, the entire assembly, including cables, wire, and electrical control apparatus, is care fully adjusted and tested. In maintenance and repair work, elevator mechanics inspect elevator and escalator in stallations periodically and, when necessary, ad just cables and parts and lubricate or replace parts. Alteration work on elevators is impor tant because of the rapid rate of innovation and improvement in elevator engineering. This work is similar to new installation work because all elevator equipment except the old rail, car frame, platform, and counterweight are gen erally replaced. To install and repair modern elevators, many of which are electrically controlled, elevator constructors must have a working knowledge of electricity, electronics, and hydraulics. They must also be able to repair electric motors, as well as control and signal systems. Because of the variety of their work, they use many dif ferent handtools and power tools. elevator maintenance and repair. Others work for government agencies or business establish ments which do their own elevator maintenance and repair. Elevator constructors are also em ployed as elevator inspectors for municipal or other government licensing and regulatory agencies. The jobs of elevator constructors are concentrated in the highly industrialized and populated centers of the country. Training and Other Qualifications Although elevator constructors are among the more highly skilled building craftsmen, training is comparatively informal and is obtained through employment as a helper for a number of years. The helper-trainee must be at least 18 years of age, in good physical condition, and have a high school education or its equivalent, preferably including courses in mathematics and physics. Mechanical aptitude and an interest in machines are important assets. To become a skilled elevator mechanic, at least 2 years of continuous job experience, in cluding 6 months’ on-the-job training at the Where Employed Most of the estimated 12,000 journeymen ele vator constructors employed in mid-1960 worked for elevator manufacturers, doing new installa tion and modernization work and elevator serv icing. Some elevator constructors are employed by small, local contractors who specialize in Elevator constructors installing electric generators in framework of new skyscraper. BUILDING TRADES 387 factory of a major elevator firm, is usually necessary. During- this period, the helper must learn to perform all of the operations involved in the installation, maintenance, and repair of elevators, escalators, and similar equipment. The helper-trainee is generally required to at tend evening classes in vocational schools. Among the subjects studied are mathematics, physics, electrical and electronic theory, and proper safety techniques. Opportunities for establishing an individu ally owned small contracting business in. this field are very limited. Employment Outlook Continued increase in employment of elevator constructors is expected during the 1960's. However, there will be only several hundred job openings annually for new workers in this small occupation. Increasing numbers of elevator constructors will be needed as the result of the anticipated large expansion in new industrial, commercial, and large residential building. (See discussion, p. 343.) In addition, technological developments in elevator and escalator construction will spur modernization of older installations and thus will contribute to the growing need for these craftsmen. For example, the modern high speed elevators with automatic control systems require more work and higher skill for the installation and adjustment of electrical and electronic controls. Earnings and Working Conditions Both the hourly wage rates and the annual earnings of elevator constructors are among the highest in the skilled building trades. These craftsmen lose less worktime because of seasonal factors than do most other building trades workers. Union minimum hourly wage rates, as of July 1, 1960, for elevator constructors averaged $3.95, compared with $3.86 for all journeymen in the building trades, according to a national survey of building trades workers in 52 large cities. Among individual cities surveyed, the minimum hourly rates for elevator constructors ranged from $3.37 in Richmond, Va., to $4.46 in Newark, N.J. Helpers' rates generally are 70 percent of the journeymen's rates. Most elevator constructors are members of the International Union of Elevator Constructors. Union-management contracts covering elevator workers often provide health insurance, financed either entirely by employers or jointly by the employers and workers. Some work operations in elevator construc tion involve lifting and carrying heavy equip ment and elevator parts, but this is usually done by the helpers. Much of the work must be done in cramped or awkward positions. The work is done indoors. Where To Go for More Information A young man who wishes to obtain further information regarding work opportunities as a helper in this trade should direct his inquiry to an elevator manufacturer, an elevator con tractor, or a local of the International Union of Elevator Constructors, if there is one in his locality. In addition, the local office of the State employment service may be a source of informa tion about work opportunities in this trade. General information about the work of eleva tor constructors may be obtained from the In ternational Union of Elevator Constructors, 12 South 12th St., Philadelphia 7, Pa. Stonemasons (D.O.T. 5-24.210) Nature of Work Stonemasons build the stone exteriors of structures. They work primarily with two types of stones— natural cut stone, such as marble, granite, limestone, or sandstone; and artificial stone which is made to order using cement, marble chips, or other types of masonry ma terials. Much of the work of these craftsmen is the setting of cut stone for comparatively ex pensive buildings, such as office buildings, hotels, churches, and public buildings. 388 The stonemason works from a set of drawings in which each stone has been numbered for identification, except where all pieces are identi cal. A helper or, in some cases, a derrickman, locates the pieces needed and brings them to the mason; large stones are set in place with a hoist. The stonemason sets the stone in mortar and moves it into final position with a mallet, hammer, or crowbar. He alines the stone with a plumb line and finishes the joints between the stones with a pointing trowel. He may fasten the stone to supports with metal ties, anchors, or by welding. Occasionally, the stonemason may have to cut stone to size. To do this, he must determine the grain of the stone selected and strike blows along a predetermined line with a stonemason's hammer. Valuable stones are cut with an abra sive saw to make them fit. Stonemasons also do some stone veneer work, in which a thin covering of cut stone is applied to the exterior surfaces of a building. In one specialized branch of the trade known as alberene stone setting, stonemasons set acid-re sistant soapstone linings for vats, tanks, and floors. The principal handtools of the stonemasons are heavy hammers, wooden mallets, and chis els. For rapid stone cutting, pneumatic tools are used, such as hammers, drills and brushing tools. Special power tools are used for smooth ing the surface of large stones. An abrasive saw is used for fine cutting. Where Employed Most stonemasons work on new building con struction, particularly on the more expensive residential and commercial buildings. A few work for government agencies or business es tablishments which do their own construction and alteration work. Journeymen stonemasons are employed mainly in the larger urban areas. In many areas where there are no stonemasons, the work is performed by bricklayers who can do stone masonry work. Training and Other Qualifications Most training authorities, including the Na (labor-management) Bricklaying tional Joint OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Apprenticeship Committee, recommend the com pletion of a 3-year apprenticeship program as the best way to learn the stonemason's trade. A substantial proportion of stonemasons, how ever, have picked up the trade by working many years as helpers, observing or being taught by experienced stonemasons. Apprenticeship applicants generally are re quired to be between the ages of 17 and 24; a high school education or its equivalent is de sirable. Good physical condition is an important asset. The apprentice training program for stone masons generally requires 6,000 hours (3 years) of on-the-job training, in addition to related classroom instruction. During the apprentice ship, the trainee learns to use, care for, and handle safely the tools, machines, and materials of the trade, and to lay out and install walls, floors, stairs, and arches. The apprenticeship program in this occupation is similar to that for bricklayer. (See discussion, p. 347.) Employment Outlook Little increase in the employment of stone masons is expected during the 1960's, despite the anticipated large expansion in new building construction. (See discussion, p. 343.) Less use of stone masonry work is expected, because modern architectural design has emphasized simple lines, little ornamentation, and large window areas. Replacement needs will provide a small number of job opportunities for new workers each year in this relatively small build ing trade. Earnings and Working Conditions Hourly wage rates for stonemasons are among the highest in the skilled building trades. Their average annual earnings, however, are much less than their hourly rates would indicate since these workers lose much worktime be cause of weather conditions and the brief dura tion of many jobs. Union minimum hourly wage rates, as of July 1, 1960, for stonemasons averaged $4.04 com pared with $3.86 for all journeymen in the build ing trades, according to a national survey of building trades workers in 52 large cities. Among individual cities surveyed, the minimum BUILDING TRADES 389 hourly rates for stonemasons ranged from $3.55 in Columbus, Ohio, to $4.96 in New York City. A large proportion of stonemasons are mem bers of the Bricklayers, Masons and Plasterers’ International Union of America. Union-manage ment contracts covering stonemasons often pro vide health insurance, pension, and other bene fits, financed either entirely by employers or jointly by the workers and employers. Most stonemasonry work is done outdoors. The work of the stonemason is active and some times strenuous, as it involves lifting moderately heavy materials. stonemasons or work opportunities in this trade should apply to bricklaying contractors in his area; to a local of the Bricklayers, Masons and Plasterers’ International Union of America; to a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee, if there is one in his locality; or the local office of The Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addi tion, the local office of the State employment service serves as a source of information about apprenticeship openings. General information about the work of stone masons may be obtained from : Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. Where To Go for More Information A young man who wishes to obtain further information regarding apprenticeships for Bricklayers, Masons and Plasterers’ International Union of America, 815 15th St. N W ., Washington 5, D.C. Construction Laborers and Hod Carriers (D.O.T. 9-32.01) Nature of Work Construction laborers work on all types of building construction and on other types of construction projects, such as highways, dams, pipelines, and water and sewer projects. Their work includes the loading and unloading of con struction materials at the work site and the shoveling and grading of earth. Laborers stack and carry materials, including small units of machinery and equipment, and do other work which aids building craftsmen. They also erect and dismantle scaffolding, set braces to support the sides of excavations, and clean up rubble at various stages of construction to provide a clear work area and to reduce hazards. On alteration and modernization jobs, labor ers tear out the old work. They perform much of the work done by wrecking and salvage crews during the demolition of buildings. When concrete is mixed at the work site, laborers fill the mixer with ingredients. Whether the concrete is mixed on-site or hauled in by truck, laborers pour and spread the con crete, and spade it to prevent air pockets. In highway paving, they handle and place the forms into which wet concrete is poured and cover new pavement with straw, burlap, or http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ other materials to prevent excessive drying. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Bricklayers’ tenders and plasterers’ laborers, both commonly known as hod carriers, serve journeymen in their respective trades, supply ing them with materials, setting up and moving portable scaffolding, and providing the other services needed. Hod carriers must be familiar with the work of the journeymen, have some knowledge of the materials used, and have some degree of judgment. It is customary practice in the building trades for hod carriers to be transferred with the journeymen from one con struction project to another. Building and construction laborers are com monly classified as unskilled workers, but this term can be misleading. Their work covers a wide range of requirements. Some types of con struction laborer and hod carrier jobs often re quire experience as well as a broad knowledge of construction methods, materials, and opera tions. Rock blasting is an example of a type of work in which “ know-how” is important. Construction laborers who work with explosives drill holes in rock, handle explosives, and set charges. These workers must know the effects of different explosive charges under varying rock conditions so that proper measures can be taken to prevent injury and property damage. Construction laborers learn how to handle and 390 use blasting materials through job experience and instruction from ‘foremen in charge of blasting work. Also, in the construction of tunnels, and dam and bridge foundations, con struction laborers must have specific on-the-job experience. They do all the work in the pres surized area of a tunnel, including operations which would be done by journeymen if the job were located elsewhere. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK condition. A laborer’s first job is usually on the simplest type of work, but as he gains expe rience he does more difficult work. Although laborers work with skilled building craftsmen, they rarely have a chance to work with the journeyman’s tools or equipment and, therefore, generally have little opportunity to pick up the skills of a building trade. Employment Outlook Where Employed Laborers are employed by all types of con struction contractors. A large number of these workers are also employed by State and muni cipal public works and highway departments and by public utility companies in road repair ing and maintenance, and excavating. The more than 700,000 laborers at work in mid-1960 were employed in every section of the country. Their employment is distributed geo graphically in much the same way as building trades employment generally, with large con centrations in the highly populated and indus trialized centers. Training and Other Qualifications No formal training is required to obtain a job as a building or construction laborer. Generally, to be employed in these jobs, a young man must be at least 16 years of age and in good physical Continued increase in employment for labor ers is expected during the 1960’s as a result of the anticipated large growth in the volume of construction activity. (See discussion, p. 343.) Increased mechanization and improved methods of materials handling, however, may limit the rate of growth in the employment of these workers. For example, the employment of labor ers is being affected by the increasing use of new types of more efficient grading machinery and mechanical lifting devices. Earnings and Working Conditions Because of the seasonal nature of much of construction work and because of worktime lost for other reasons, the average annual earnings of laborers are not as high as their hourly rates of pay would indicate. Union minimum hourly wage rates for bricklayers’ tenders and building laborers averaged $3 and $2.81, respectively, as of July 1, 1960, according to a national survey of building trades workers in 52 large cities. Among individual cities surveyed, the minimum hourly rates for bricklayers’ tenders ranged from $1.55 in Charlotte, N.C., to $3.80 in New York City. The rates for building laborers ranged from $1.45 in Charlotte to $3.80 in New York City. Construction work is generally physically strenuous and requires bending, stooping, and heavy lifting. Much of the work is performed outdoors. Many laborers are members of the International Hod Carriers’, Building and Com mon Laborers’ Union of America. Where To Go for More Information Construction laborers haul and pour concrete. A young man who wishes to obtain further information regarding work opportunities as a BUILDING TRADES laborer should direct his inquiry to a building or construction contractor in his area, or a local of the International Hod Carriers', Building and Common Laborers' Union of America, if there is one in his area. In addition, the local office of the State employment service is a source of information about work opportunities. 391 General information about the work of con struction laborers may be obtained from : Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. International Hod Carriers’, Building and Common Laborers’ Union of America, 905 16th St. N W ., Washington 5, D.C. PRINTING (GRAPHIC ARTS) OCCUPATIONS The printing crafts provide a large field of employment for skilled workers in the United States. In 1960, about 333,000 workers were employed in the printing crafts as compositors, photoengravers, electrotypers, stereotypers, pressmen, lithographic workers, and bookbind ers. These trades offer especially good oppor tunities for young men willing to spend several years in learning a skilled craft. Skilled printing workers generally have year-round employment and much better than average earnings. Jobs can be found throughout the country, in small towns as well as big cities. Some printing craftsmen also have opportunities to go into business for themselves. Nature and Location of the Industry Printing is basically a means of transferring ink impressions of type, photographs, and il lustrations from a press plate to paper, metal, or other materials. The printing process is used mainly by the printing (graphic arts) indus try— one of the Nation's major manufacturing industries. The more than 35,000 printing and publishing establishments in 1960 employed about 276,000 printing craftsmen. Government agencies and private firms that do their own printing— such as manufacturers of paper pack aging, banks, and insurance companies— em ployed an estimated additional 57,000 printing craftsmen. The printing industry consists of a number of divisions. Of these the largest, in terms of printing craftsmen employed, is made up of more than 12,000 commercial or job printing shops which produce printed matter such as letterheads, advertising matter, folders, and pamphlets. Commercial shops also print books, periodicals, limited-run newspapers, and maga zines. More than half of all workers employed in commercial shops are in plants with fewer than 100 workers. A few large plants which 392 employ more than a thousand workers each and compete for business on a State or national basis account for about one-sixth of all commercial printing employees. Newspapers provide the second largest em ployment field for printing craftsmen. A great majority of the approximately 1,800 daily and 9,000 weekly newspapers throughout the Nation do their own printing. Although some major metropolitan newspapers employ as many as several hundred craftsmen, many smaller dailies and weeklies employ fewer than 15 skilled workers. Lithographic plants provide the third largest area of employment for craftsmen in the in dustry. These plants produce items similar to those of commercial plants, but differ in the type of printing process used. About two-thirds of the employment in the lithographic division is in plants with 25 or more employees. Binderies, which assemble printed materials into books, folders, magazines, and pamphlets also provide many jobs for craftsmen. Other divisions of the industry employing many craftsmen include firms such as those specializing in printing books, magazines, greet ing cards, and business forms. In addition, many shops perform service functions, such as photo engraving, typesetting, electrotyping and stere otyping, and offset platemaking for printing establishments, advertising departments of large firms, and advertising agencies. Printing jobs are found throughout the country. Almost every small town has a printing shop of some kind— frequently, a small news paper plant which also may do the community's printing. However, more than half of the Nation's printing employees are in five States— New York, Illinois, California, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. Within these States, most printing activities are in or near manufacturing, com mercial, or financial areas, such as New York City, Chicago, Los Angeles, San Francisco, 393 PRINTING OCCUPATIONS Philadelphia, Cincinnati, and Cleveland. Other leading centers are Boston, Detroit, St. Louis, Minneapolis-St. Paul, Milwaukee, and Wash ington, D.C. Employees in book and magazine printing work are highly concentrated in these major urban areas. A much larger proportion of employment in newspaper plants, however, is found outside these centers because of the great number of small local newspapers scattered throughout the country. Printing Processes A description of the various printing pro cesses is essential to an understanding of the work performed by the printing crafts. Three printing processes are in general use today— letterpress, lithography (offset printing), and gravure. A fourth method, the screen process, although much less extensively used than the other three methods, is increasing in impor tance. Each method has its own special advan tages and requires different types of skilled craftsmen. In letterpress (relief)- printing, the letters and designs to be reproduced are raised above the nonprinting areas of the press plate. When the actual printing is done, ink is applied only to the raised area of the plate by means of an inking roller. Letterpress is the oldest and by far the most common printing process. Prac tically all newspapers, most books and maga zines, and a substantial portion of other printed items are produced by this method. The letterpress process also includes photoengraving (the photomechanical production of plates for illu strations and other copy that cannot be set up in type) and stereotyping and electrotyping, the process by which letterpress plates are dupli cated. In lithography, the press plate is smooth, with both the image and nonimage areas on the same level, instead of on different levels as in the letterpress and gravure processes. Lithography is based on the principle that grease and water repel each other. The image areas of the plate are coated with a greasy substance to which the greasy printing ink will stick. On the press, the plate is moistened with water before each inking, so that only the image areas take up the greasy ink from the inking roller. In modern lithography, the plates are produced photomechanically, and the method is often referred to as photolithography. The lithographic process can be used to produce practically all items printed by any other process. Lithographic de partments have been added to many printing plants which formerly used only the letterpress process. They are called mixed or combination plants to distinguish them from plants using only the letterpress process. Gravure or intaglio printing is much less widely used than either the letterpress or litho graphy. In this process, the relative position of the printing and nonprinting areas of the plate is the reverse of that in letterpress. The letters and designs to be printed are etched (cut) into the plate and are below the nonprinting surface. Ink is applied to the entire plate, but the sur face is then wiped or scraped, leaving ink only in the depressions. In printing, suction is created, which lifts the ink out onto the paper. Sunday newspaper supplements and mail-order catalogs are well-known examples of gravure printing. Gravure pictures also appear as in serts in many magazines as well as in other forms of printed material. Most printing on metal foil is done by this means. Screen printing is a process in which inks, or other materials such as paint, varnish, and liquid plastic are forced by the action of a flexible blade through a stencil mounted on a finely woven silk or wire mesh or screen. The shape of the stencil openings determines the de sign to be printed. This process may be applied to a wide variety of surfaces such as conven tional paper, cardboard, wood, glass, metal, plastic, and textiles. Screen printing is used on irregularly shaped surfaces and cylindrical sur faces as well as on flat sheet materials. Printing Occupations Regardless of the process employed, most printing work goes through at least three stages: Composition, platemaking, and presswork. (See chart 22.) Additional processing in a bindery is needed for materials that must be bound, such as books and magazines. In the past, many printers could perform every operation in the 394 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK CHART 22 SIMPLIFIED VIEW OF THE FLOW OF PRINTING WORK printing process. Such all-round craftsmen can still be found in small newspaper and commer cial shops, but today printing craftsmen are usually more specialized and, therefore, their training is directed to a specific area of printing operations— for example, type composition, photography, platemaking, or presswork. Train ing, moreover, is largely confined to only one of the basic printing processes— letterpress, litho graphic, or gravure. The largest group of skilled craftsmen is made up of composing room workers, with more than 180,000 employed in 1960. This group includes hand compositors, imposers, typesetting ma chine operators, and, frequently, proofreaders. Other large groups of skilled printing workers are the lithographic craftsmen and the letterpress and gravure pressmen. Bookbinders, pho toengravers, and electrotypers and stereotypers are other important occupations. (These groups are described in detail later in this chapter.) Steel and copper plate engravers, who cut or etch lettering and designs into plates by hand or machine, are employed in small engraving shops. Another smaller group of skilled workers em ployed in large plants are maintenance ma chinists who repair and adjust typesetting machines, printing presses, or bindery equip ment. In the skilled occupations, practically all the workers are men. However, many of the less skilled jobs, especially in the binderies, are held by women. A small but growing number of Negroes are employed in skilled jobs; a greater number are employed in the less skilled occu pations. In the several hundred shops which print newspapers, magazines, or other items mainly for the Negro community, the great majority of the jobs are held by Negroes. Printing establishments also employ a great many persons as executives, estimators, sales men, accountants, engineers, stenographers, clerks, and laborers. Newspapers and other pub lishers employ a considerable number of re porters and editors. These occupations are dis cussed elsewhere in this Handbook. (See index for page numbers.) Training and Other Qualifications The most common way of entering a skilled printing occupation is through apprenticeship. With rare exceptions, it is the only means by which one may be trained to become a journey man (skilled worker) in a unionized shop. Formal apprenticeship is also required for journeyman status in many of the larger estab lishments not covered by union contracts. In some of the smaller shops, however, it is pos sible to pick up the printing trades by working with printing craftsmen or by a combination of work experience and schooling. Some ac quire their first experience in duplicating (let ter-service) shops which have lithographic departments. Printing apprenticeships usually last from 4 to 6 years, depending on the occupation and the shop or area practices. The apprentice training program covers all phases of the par PRINTING OCCUPATIONS ticular trade and almost always includes class room or correspondence study in related tech nical subjects in addition to training on the job. As new methods have been developed and introduced into the industry, they have been incorporated into the duties of the traditional crafts and included in the apprentice training programs. Apprenticeship applicants are gen erally required to be between 18 and 30 years of age and must pass a physical examination. In selecting applicants for apprenticeship, most employers require a high school education or its equivalent. A thorough knowledge of spelling, punctuation, and grammer is essential for some of the printing trades, and a knowl edge of the basic principles of chemistry and physics is becoming increasingly important in many of the trades. An artistic sense is also an asset for many kinds of printing work. Most of the printing crafts require men with good eyesight, about average physical strength, and a high degree of manual dexterity. Speed with accuracy, mental alertness, neatness, patience, and the ability to work with others are neces sary in printing trades. Many employers re quire applicants to take one or more of the specific aptitude tests developed for printing industry occupations by the U.S. Department of Labor. These tests are given in the local offices of State employment services. About 3,000 high schools, vocational schools, technical institutes, and colleges offer courses in printing. These courses may materially help a young person to be selected for apprentice ships and other job openings in the printing industry. Apprentices are often chosen from among the young men already employed in various unskilled jobs in printing establish ments, who demonstrate the mechanical apti tudes essential for the printing crafts. Employment Outlook There will be many thousands of oppor tunities for young men to enter the skilled printing trades in the 1960’s. These openings will occur as a result of the expected moderate growth in the employment of skilled printing workers and because of the need to replace who retire, die, or transfer to other craftsmen 395 fields of work. Retirements and deaths may result in about 6,000 to 7,000 job openings each year during the 1960’s. A continued rise in the volume of printed material is expected because of population growth, the increasingly high level of educa tion, the expansion of American industry, and the trend toward greater use of printed ma terial for information, packaging, advertising, and various industrial and commercial pur poses. However, as in the past, employment in the skilled printing trades as a whole is not expected to increase as fast as the total output of printed matter, partly because of new and improved printing equipment and methods. A number of technological advances now be ing introduced in the industry, mainly involv ing type composition and platemaking, will af fect printing methods as well as the number and skills of workers employed. Among these are developments in photocomposition, “ cold type” compositions, and the use of electronic devices and controls for engraving and print ing. Research is being expanded in several other areas, including those involving electronic or magnetic principles. These developments are not expected to reduce the total employ ment of skilled craftsmen. In the past, as new technical developments with their changed skill requirements have been introduced into the industry, they have been incorporated into the duties of the crafts. As in the past, there will be differences in the rates of growth among the various print ing crafts. Employment of skilled composing room workers, the largest group of printing craftsmen, is expected to increase slowly, de spite the continuing increase in the volume of printing. Composing room occupations are the most likely to be affected by changes in printing equipment and by competitive printing meth ods. The number of workers in composing room occupations in the 1940-60 period increased more slowly than total employment in printing and publishing in the same period. Employ ment of pressmen is expected to increase more rapidly than composing room workers, while lithographic craftsmen will show the fastest rate of growth. These groups have shown the greatest growth in the past decade or so as 396 indicated in the employment outlook for in dividual printing crafts discussed later in this chapter. At the beginning of 1960, about 13,000 reg istered apprentices were training in the skilled printing crafts. (A registered apprentice is an employee who, under an expressed or implied agreement, receives instruction in an apprenticeable occupation for a stipulated term and who is employed in an apprenticeship program registered with a State apprenticeship agency or the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training.) In addition, perhaps 8,000 to 10,000 apprentices were in nonregistered programs. A substantial number of persons were also picking up a printing trade while working as helpers, particularly in small printing shops and in duplicating services (lettershops). An examination of the latest information on the location of registered apprentices indicates the areas in which future apprenticeship op portunities may be found. However, it must be borne in mind that registration is voluntary and that employers in some localities have not registered their apprenticeship programs. The following 10* States and the District of Colum bia accounted for 70 percent of the registered apprentices as of January 1, 1960: New York, 2,327; Ohio, 1,069; California, 1,051; Minne sota, 815; Pennsylvania, 721; Michigan, 690; Massachusetts, 558; Illinois, 542; Connecticut, 509; District of Columbia, 354; and Wiscon sin, 350. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of production workers in the print ing and publishing industry, including un skilled and semiskilled workers and printing craftsmen, are among the highest in manu facturing industries. In January 1961, pro duction workers in this industry averaged $106.22 a week or $2.81 an hour, compared with $90.25 a week or $2.32 an hour for pro duction workers in all manufacturing in the same month. The amount an individual printing crafts man can expect to earn varies from one occu pation to another. Generally, the wage rates in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK large cities are higher than in small commu nities. Wage rates also differ by type of print ing establishment. The following tabulation shows the average union minimum hourly wage rates for daywork for selected printing occu pations in 53 large cities on July 1, 1960. These rates are the minimum basic rates for the individual occupational classifications. They do not include overtime, other special payments, or bonuses. A v e r a g e m in im u m h o u r ly ra te, J u ly 1, 1960 N ew sp a per Bookbinders B o o k an d jo b $3.18 _________________ Compositors, hand ___________ _____ $3.40 3.37 Electrotypers ________________ 3.64 _____________ _____ 3.73 Pressmen (journeymen) ____ _____ 3.94 3.37 Photoengravers 3.33 Pressmen (cylinder) ____ Pressmen 3.02 (platen) _____ Stereotypers _________________ _____ 3.34 3.70 A standard workweek of 37 hours was specified in labor-management contracts cov ering almost half of the organized printing trades workers, although standard workweeks of 3 6 ^ hours are also common. A 40-hour workweek was standard in other establish ments in the industry. Time and a half is generally paid for overtime, and work on Sun days and holidays is customarily paid for at time and a half or doubletime rates in most printing establishments. In newspaper plants, however, the craftsmen’s workweek often in cludes Sundays and time and a half or double time is paid for these days only when they are not part of the employee’s regular shift. Nightshift workers generally receive pay differen tials above the standard day rates. The starting wage rates of apprentices are generally from 40 to 50 percent of the basic rate for journeymen in the shop. Wages are increased periodically, usually every 6 months, until, in the final year or half year of training, the apprentice receives from 80 to 95 percent of the journeyman rate. Apprentices with prior experience, civilian or military, or in exception al cases, technical school training, can obtain credit which will start them above the begin ning apprentice pay rate and also reduce the length of time required to become a journey 397 PRINTING OCCUPATIONS man. Apprentices may be upgraded when they show exceptional progress. The annual earnings of printing craftsmen depend not only on their hourly rate of pay, but also on how regularly they are employed. The printing industry has fewer seasonal fluc tuations than most other manufacturing indus tries and this is one of the reasons why it of fers steadier employment and higher average annual earnings. Paid vacations are typical in the industry. The most common provision is 2 weeks' vaca tion with pay after 1 year's employment. Many labor-management agreements, however, pro vide for 3 weeks' vacation with pay after 1 or more years of employment. Other major bene fits, such as paid holidays, retirement pay, life and disability insurance, hospitalization, and severance pay are also common. In addition, a number of printing trade unions have for many years operated their own programs pro viding their members with one or more types of benefits, such as life insurance, retirement, sickness, or disability payments. The injury-frequency rate in the printing industry is comparable to the average for manu facturing industries. In 1960, the injury-fre quency rate was 11.2 disabling work injuries per million man-hours worked in printing and publishing, compared with the average of 11.3 for all manufacturing industries. A large proportion of the skilled workers in the industry are members of unions affiliated with the AFL-CIO. The two largest unions are the International Typographical Union and the International Printing Pressmen and Assist ants' Union of North America. Other printing craft unions include the International Photo Engravers' Union of North America, Interna tional Stereotypers' and Electrotypers' Union of North America, and International Brother hood of Bookbinders. Their names indicate the crafts included in their membership. The majority of lithographic workers are in plants under contract with the Amalgamated Lithog raphers of America, an unaffiliated union which organizes on a plantwide basis and, therefore, includes both skilled craftsmen and other Digitizedlithographic workers. for FRASER Where To Go for More Information Information on opportunities for apprentice ship or other types of printing employment in a particular locality may be obtained from various sources. Applicants may apply directly to the printing establishments in their areas. The names and locations of local printers can usually be obtained from the classified section of the local telephone directory. In addition, the local unions and employer associations in the printing industry can often provide infor mation regarding apprenticeship openings. In union shops, many apprenticeship programs are supervised by joint union-management com mittees. In these plants, applicants may apply directly to the coordinator of the joint appren ticeship committee. In recent years, there has been an increasing use of local offices of the State employment services as contact points for apprenticeship openings. Some of these offices provide such services as screening applicants and giving aptitude tests. However, the final selection is made by the employer, the joint apprenticeship committee, or the union. For general information on the printing in dustry, applicants may write to the following organizations. (See sections on individual printing occupations for names of labor or ganizations and trade associations which can provide more information on specific printing trades.) American Newspaper Publishers Association, 750 Third Ave., New York 17, N.Y. Book Manufacturers’ Institute, Inc., 25 West 43d St., New York 36, N.Y. Education Council of the Graphic Arts Industry, Inc., 1411 K St. N W , Washington 5, D.C. Lithographers and Printers National Association, Inc., 1025 Connecticut Ave. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. Printing Industry of America, Inc., 5728 Connecticut Ave. N W ., Washington 15, D.C. Screen Process Printing Association, 549 West Randolph St., Chicago 6, 111. 398 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Com posing Room Occupations The printing process begins in the composing room where the manuscript copy is set in type, chiefly by typesetting machines, but also by hand. Machine- and hand-set type, photoengrav ings, and other materials necessary to complete printing jobs are assembled there and prepared for the pressroom. In 1960, more than 180,000 skilled workers (more than half of all printing craftsmen) were employed in composing room occupations. These occupations offer good opportunities for young men willing to spend several years in learning a skilled craft. Workers in these Oc cupations usually have year-round employment and better-than-average earnings. The two principal composing room occupations are those of hand compositor and typesetting machine operator. A skilled worker in a closely related occupation is the proofreader (D.O.T. 1-10.07) who compares a trial printing or “ proof” with the original copy from which the type was set and marks necessary corrections on this proof to guide the compositor in making changes. Skilled composing room workers are employed in newspaper plants, commercial printing shops, in periodical and book printing establishments, and in typographical composition shops which specialize in typesetting. They work in almost every community throughout the country, but employment is concentrated in larger commer cial and industrial cities, such as New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, Boston, Washington, D.C., San Francisco, Detroit, St. Louis, Baltimore, and Cleveland. Nature of Work Hand compositors (typesetters) (D.O.T. 444.010) make up the oldest composing room oc cupation. An important function of workers in this occupation is to set type by hand for fine printing— for advertisements, for the title pages of books and, in some cases, the text of the book. This type of work requires highly skilled craftsmen with artistic ability because the type must be arranged and spaced to produce a well balanced and pleasing effect. Hand compositors also set type for small jobs when setting type by machine is impractical. In setting type by hand, the hand compositor, reading from the manuscript copy, first sets each line of type in a “ composing stick” (a device which holds type in place) letter by letter and line by line. When this stick is full, he slides the completed lines onto a shallow metal tray called a “ galley.” Then he assembles and arranges machine- and hand-set type and any needed engravings into pages. In the final step the completed pages are put into proper sequence for folding in the bindery, and locked into forms called “ chases” before they are sent to the press room or platemaking department. After print ing is completed, the hand compositor breaks down the type forms and distributes the in dividual pieces of type to the proper storage compartments for reuse. In large plants, and in many typographic composition shops, the com positors who specialize in page makeup are called imposers (D.O.T. 4-44.220). These craftsmen (also called lockup men, stonemen, or stonehands) place the pages in the correct order on an imposing stone or table to be locked, by wedges, into a chase. The pages must be placed in such order that, when folded, the printed pages will have the proper numerical sequence. Typesetting machine operators are craftsmen who operate semiautomatic machines which set type much more rapidly than the hand composi tors. Linotype (or Intertype) machine operators (D.O.T. 4-44.110) reading from the copy clipped to the machine’s copy board, select letters and other characters by operating a key board (somewhat similar to that on a type writer) which has 90 keys. As they press the keys, the letters, in forms of metal molds called matrices, are assembled into lines of words. As they complete each line, the operators touch a lever and the machine automatically casts the line of type into a solid metal strip called a “ slug.” The slugs are then deposited in a galley and are later assembled into the type forms from which either the printing impressions or the plates are made. Nearly all newspaper plants and large commercial shops use these machines and operators to set type. In the smaller plants PRINTING OCCUPATIONS the typesetting- machine operator maintains and repairs as well as operates the typesetting- ma chine. In the larger plants, maintenance ma chinists are employed to make all but minor adjustments to the machines. Other typesetting machine operators work on Monotype machines. One machine is called the Monotype keyboard and the other is the Mono type caster. Monotype keyboard operators (D.O.T. 4-44. 120) operate keyboards somewhat similar to those on a typewriter, but which include about four times as many keys. The keyboard machine produces a perforated paper tape which is later fed into the casting machine. The keyboard operator must be able to handle complicated copy in his line of work, such as statistical tables. Monotype caster operators (D.O.T. 6-49.310) operate the casting machines which automatic ally cast and assemble the type, guided by the perforations in the paper tape prepared by the keyboard machine. As the rolls of perforated tape are fed into the machines the proper ma trices (molds) for casting letters are automatic ally selected by means of the perforations in the tape. Molten metal is forced into the matrix to form the individual characters. The Mono type caster machine, as the name suggests, casts type one letter or character at a time. This per mits corrections to be made by hand without the need to reset an entire line. The principal duties of caster operators are to insert the tape, adjust and tend the machine while it is oper ating, and do necessary maintenance and repair work. Only one caster operator is employed to every two or three keyboard operators. Composi tion service shops are the largest employers of both Monotype keyboard and caster operators. Phototypesetting machine operators set type on machines which may be similar in appear ance, or method of operation, or both, to those which cast type in hot metal. In phototype setting, however, a photographic process re places the function of the hot metal, and the final product is a film positive of the type rather than a metal image. In one type of machine, as the operator presses the keys, the individual matrices or mats, which contain small film nega tives, are assembled and photographed as a line 399 New typesetting equipment requires operator to have both typesetting and photographic skills. of type on film. In other types of phototype setting machines, a perforated paper tape, or a magnetic sound tape, is produced as the oper ator presses the keys. These tapes are fed into a composing machine which “ reads” the tapes and photographs the individual characters in dicated on the tape. In addition to machine operation, the photo typesetter must be familiar with the fundamen tals of photography, including darkroom pro cedures, because he has to develop the film on which the type has been photographed. He also arranges and pastes the developed film on lay out sheets. This process, called “ stripping,” cor responds to page makeup in the hot metal type process. The operator also makes minor repairs on the phototypesetting machine. Since much of this equipment has electronic controls, the operator needs a basic working knowledge of the principles of electronics to make the repairs. Typesetters also operate photolettering ma chines which produce lines or individual char acters in large-size type such as that used for newspaper headlines and for advertisements. As in phototypesetting, a photographic process is involved, and the final product is a film positive. 400 Training and Other Qualifications Apprenticeship is the principal way to be come a compositor, especially in unionized shops. Many compositors, however, acquire their skills while working as helpers for several years (particularly in small shops and in: the smaller communities) or through a combination of trade school and helper experience. Generally, such an apprenticeship covers a 6year period of progressively advanced training, supplemented by classroom instruction or cor respondence courses. However, this period may be shortened by as much as 2 to 2 y> years for apprentices who have had previous experience or schooling or who show the ability to learn the trade more rapidly. The time and emphasis spent upon any particular phase of training varies from plant to plant, depending upon the type of printing establishment. A typical apprenticeship program for com positors includes instruction in elementary hand composition, page makeup, lockup, and lineup, and proofreading. After basic training as a hand compositor, the apprentice receives inten sive training in one or more specialized fields, such as the operation of typesetting machines, including phototypesetting and teletypesetting machines, as well as specialized work in hand composition and photocomposition. Apprenticeship applicants generally must be high school graduates and in good physical con dition. They are sometimes given aptitude tests. Important qualifications include training in English and mathematics. Imagination and artistic ability are assets for a compositor in layout work. Printing and typing courses in vocational or high schools are good preparation for apprentices, and a general interest in elec tronics and photography is also helpful. Apprentices are paid according to a prede termined wage scale, which increases as the apprenticeship period advances. At the begin ning of 1960, there were 5,400 registered ap prentices in training for skilled composing room jobs. Employment Outlook There will be many opportunities for young the skilled composing room oc men to enter OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK cupations during the 1960’s. Because compos ing room jobs make up a very large occupa tional field, there will be 3,000 to 4,000 job opportunities for new workers each year just to replace those skilled workers who retire or die. The anticipated expansion in the volume of printing in the United States during the next decade is expected to result in only a small rise in employment for this group. This was also true in the 1940’s and 1950’s when employment in the composing room crafts increased much more slowly than the volume of printing pro duced and the growth of total employment in the printing industry. Changing technology will significantly affect the skills required of many typesetting machine operators and will tend to limit their employ ment growth. Since much of the new printing equipment being introduced in composing rooms is controlled and operated by electronic systems, a knowledge of the application of electronic principles to the operation of this equipment is becoming necessary. Also, the greater use of phototypesetting, by which images of lines of type are composed on phototypesetting ma chines, requires typesetters to learn photo graphic skills. A technological development which may affect typesetters’ employment op portunities is a tape operated line casting ma chine that permits automatic typesetting by re mote control. A tape is punched (perforated) on a special keyboard which may be located in another room or another city. After the tape is punched it may be sent by wire to various locations where it is repunched and used to operate typesetting machines automatically. Even though the volume of printing is expected to increase in the i960’s, these developments, if widely adopted, could reduce the number of new job openings for typesetting machine oper ators. The apprenticeship programs for com posing room craftsmen include instruction in the operation of these new machines and re lated processes, and thus these skills are becom ing part of the present crafts. Earnings and Working Conditions As is true for most printing crafts, wages of skilled composing room workers are relatively PRINTING OCCUPATIONS 401 high compared with skilled workers generally. However, there is considerable variation in wage rates from place to place and from firm to firm. The average union minimum hourly wage rate for hand compositors on day shift in 53 large cities was $3.37 in newspaper plants and $3.40 in book and job shops on July 1, 1960. Union minimum wage rates for hand compositors in book and job shops ranged from $2.69 an hour in Springfield, Mass., to $3.91 in San Francisco. In newspaper establishments, the union mini mum wage rates for day shift hand compositors ranged from $2.61 an hour in Springfield, Mass., to $3.66 in Minneapolis. Working conditions for compositors vary from plant to plant. Some heat and noise are made by hot metal typesetting machines. In general, the newer plants are well lighted and clean, and many are air-conditioned. Com posing room jobs require about average physical strength. Hand compositors are required to stand for long periods of time, and to do some lifting. Young men with some types of physical handicaps, such as deafness, have been able to enter the trade and do the work satisfactorily. Many compositors work at night on the second or third shift for which they generally receive additional pay. A substantial proportion of compositors are members of the International Typographical Union. Where To Go for More Information International Typographical Union, 2820 North Meridian St., Indianapolis 6, Ind. International Typographic Composition Association, Inc. Washington Bldg., 15th and New York Ave. N W ., Washington 5, D.C. Lithographers and Printers National Association, Inc., 1025 Connecticut Ave. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. Printing Industry of America, Inc., 5728 Connecticut Ave. N W ., Washington 15, D.C. See page 397 for additional sources of infor mation. Photoengravers (D.O.T. 4-47.100 through .300) Nature of Work Photoengravers make metal printing plates of illustrations and other copy that cannot be set up in type. On these plates the printing surfaces stand out in relief above the nonprint ing spaces, as do the letters and the accom panying type. Similarly, gravure photoengra vers, a specialized type of photoengraver, make gravure plates in which the image is etched below the surface for use in reproducing pic tures and type. In making a photoengraving plate for the letterpress process, the entire job may be done either by one man or by a number of skilled workers, each specializing in a particular opera tion. These specialized workers are cameramen, printers, etchers, finishers, routers, blockers, and provers. In the large shops, the work is almost always divided among a number of these specialists. A cameraman starts the process of making a Digitizedphotoengraving plate by photographing the ma for FRASER terial to be reproduced through a cross-lined screen, which breaks down the copy into thou sands of tiny dots. Plates made from line drawings are called line plates and those from photographs are called half-tone plates. After the cameraman develops the negative, the printer prints the image on a metal plate by coating the plate with a solution sensitive to light and then exposing it and the negative to arc lights. The image areas are protected by chemical means so that when the plate is placed in an acid bath by the etcher, only the nonimage areas are etched away, leaving the image areas standing out in relief. A number of other photoengraving operations are then performed. The finisher carefully in spects and touches up the plate with handtools; the router cuts away metal from the nonprinting part of the plate to prevent it from touching the inking rollers during printing; the blocker mounts the engraving on a suitable base to make it reach the right height; and the prover prints a sample copy on a proof press. 402 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK large newspaper and commercial plants also have departments where this work is done. Gravure plants are concentrated in a few States, particularly New York, New Jersey, Illinois, and Ohio. Training and Other Qualifications Photoengraver cutting away (routing) metal from nonprinting areas of a plate. The operations involved in gravure photo engraving are much like those in letterpress photoengraving except that a positive instead of a negative is used in making the plate, and the image areas, rather than the background, are etched away. Where Employed More than 17,000 journeymen photoengravers were employed in 1960. The great majority of photoengravers (about 12,000) are employed in commercial service shops where the main busi ness is making photoengravings for use by others. Newspaper and rotogravure shops em ploy several thousand photoengravers. In addi tion, book and periodical shops and the U.S. Government Printing Office also employ photo engravers. Many craftsmen have their own shops. Photoengravers’ jobs are highly concen trated in the largest printing centers, particu larly New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Los Angeles. Gravure photoengravers work mainly in in dependent gravure plants. Most of them work for the small number of big firms which handle a large proportion of all gravure work. A few Apprenticeship is the accepted way to become a photoengraver. The apprenticeship program generally covers a 5- or 6-year period and in cludes at least 800 hours of related classroom instruction. Besides the care and use of tools, the apprentice is taught to cut and square nega tives, make combination plates, inspect nega tives for defects, mix chemicals, sensitize metal, and to operate machines used in the photo engraving process. Apprenticeship applicants must be at least 18 years of age and generally must have a high school education or its equivalent, preferably with courses in chemistry and physics and training in art. Credit for previous experience acquired in photoengraving work may shorten the required apprenticeship time. Many em ployers require a physical examination for pros pective photoengravers; the condition of the applicant’s eyes is particularly important be cause a photoengraver’s duties involve constant close work and color discrimination. E m p lo y m e n t O u t lo o k The anticipated continued expansion in print ing output, the greater use of photographs and other illustrations, and the increasing use of color are expected to result in only a small in crease in the number of photoengravers during the 1960’s. Technological changes, such as wider use of phototypesetting and more rapid etching techniques, may result in more work for photo engravers, but the introduction of photographi cally and electrically made plates may limit the growth of employment of these workers. On the average, employment growth and replace ment needs together probably will result in 500 to 800 openings for new workers each year during the 1960’s. PRINTING OCCUPATIONS 403 Earnings and Working Conditions Photoengravers are among the highest paid printing craftsmen. The union minimum hourly wage rate for photoengravers, including gra vure, in book and job shops, in 53 large cities ranged from $2.98 in New Orleans to $4.50 in Chicago on July 1, 1960. The great majority of photoengravers are union members. Nearly all photoengravers are represented by the International Photo Engrav ers’ Union of North America. Where To Go for More Information American Photoengravers Association, 166 West Van Buren St., Chicago 4, 111. International Photo Engravers’ Union of North America, 3605 Potomac St., St. Louis 16, Mo. Lithographers and Printers National Association, Inc., 1025 Connecticut Ave. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. Printing Industry of America, Inc., 5728 Connecticut Ave. N W ., Washington 15, D.C. See page 397 for additional sources of infor mation. Electrotypers and Stereotypers Nature of Work Electrotypers (D.O.T. 4-45.010) and stereo typers (D.O.T. 4-45.210) make duplicate press plates of metal, rubber, and plastic for letterpress printing. These plates are made from the metal type forms prepared in the composing room. Electrotypes are used mainly in book and magazine work. Stereotypes, which are less durable, are used chiefly in newspaper work. Electrotyping and stereotyping are necessary because most volume printing requires the use of duplicate printing plates. When a large edition of a book or magazine is printed, several plates must be used to replace those which become too worn to make clear impressions. Also, by means of duplicate plates, printers can use several presses at the same time, and thus finish a big run quickly. This is especially important in pub lishing daily newspapers. Furthermore, the rotary presses used in many big plants require curved plates which can be made by either electrotyping or stereotyping processes from the flat type forms. Several steps are required to produce a fine metal plate ready for use in the pressroom. In electrotyping, the first step is making a wax or plastic mold of the type form, coating it with special chemical solutions, and then suspending it in an electrolytic solution containing metal. This leaves a metallic shell on the coated mold, which is then stripped from the mold, backed with metal or plastic, and carefully finished. The stereotyping process is much simpler, quicker, and less expensive than electrotyping, Electrotyper removing completed shell from a mold. but it does not yield as durable or as fine a plate. Stereotypers make molds or mats of papier mache (a strong material composed of paper pulp) instead of wax or plastic. This involves placing the moist mat (in newspaper printing, usually a dry mat) on the type form, and covering it with a cork blanket and sheet of fiberboard. The covered form is then run under heavy power-driven steel rollers to im 404 press the type and photoengraving on the mat. After the paper mold has been dried, it is placed in a stereotype casting machine which casts a composition lead plate on the mold. In the larger plants, stereotype plates are usually cast automatically in a machine known as an auto plate. In many of the larger plants, electrotypers and stereotypers perform only one phase of the work, such as casting, molding, finishing, or blocking. However, journeymen must know how to handle all the tasks involved in their respec tive trades. Many electrotypers work in large plants which print books and periodicals. Stereotypers generally work in newspaper plants, but some are employed in large commercial printing plants. Electrotypers and stereotypers are also employed in independent service shops which do this work for printing firms. Training and Other Qualifications Nearly all electrotypers and stereotypers learn their trades through apprenticeship. Electrotyping and stereotyping are separate crafts, and there is little transferability between the two. The apprenticeship program in each trade covers all phases of the work and almost always includes classes in related technical sub jects as well as training on the job. Apprentice ship training for electrotypers and stereotypers usually covers a 5- or 6-year period of reasonably continuous employment. Apprenticeship applicants must be at least 18 years of age and, in most instances, must have a high school education or its equivalent. If possible, this education should include me chanical training and courses in chemistry. Physical examinations and aptitude tests are often given to prospective apprentices. The emphasis placed upon different phases of train ing varies from plant to plant, however, depend ing upon the type of printing establishment. Apprenticeship training for stereotypers in cludes matrix molding, flat casting, color re gister, curved routing, and the use of casting machines. Because electrotypers specialize in one or more of the various aspects of the trade, the apprenticeship programs generally tend to OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK provide specialized training for such specific jobs as molding and finishing. Employment Outlook Employment of electrotypers and stereotypers is not expected to increase during the 1960's. Although the anticipated growth in the total volume of printing should result in an increasing demand for platemaking, employment in these crafts probably will remain about the same be cause of technological changes. For example, the increasing use of automatic plate composi tion eliminates many steps in platemaking, and plastic and rubber plates are being increasingly made outside electrotyping and stereotyping shops. Earnings and Working Conditions On July 1, 1960, the union minimum hourly wage rate for electrotypers and stereotypers in 53 large cities averaged $3.47 or more an hour. Union minimum hourly wage rates for electro typers in book and job plants ranged from $3.01 an hour in Baltimore to $4.05 an hour in Seattle. In newspaper plants, rates for day shift stereo typers ranged from $2.76 an hour in Springfield, Mass., to $3.81 an hour in Chicago. Much of the work requires little physical effort since the preparation of duplicate print ing plates is highly mechanized. However, there is some lifting of relatively heavy, hot press plates. Nearly all electrotypers and stereotypers are members of the International Stereotypers’ and Electrotypers’ Union of North America. Where To Go for More Information International Stereotypers’ and Electrotypers’ Union of North America, 752 Old South Building, Boston 8, Mass. International Association of Electrotypers and Stereotypers, Inc., 758 Leader Building, Cleveland 14, Ohio. Lithographers and Printers National Association, Inc., 1025 Connecticut Ave. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. Printing Industry of America, Inc., 5728 Connecticut Ave. N W ., Washington 15, D.C. See page 397 for additional sources of infor mation. 405 PRINTING OCCUPATIONS Printing Pressmen and Assistants (D.O.T. 4-48.010, .020, .030, and .060; 6-49.410, .420, and .430) Nature of Work The actual printing- operation is performed in the pressroom. After the type forms come from the composing room, the press plates from the electrotyping and stereotyping department, or the gravure or lithographic plates have been brought to the pressroom, they are made ready for final printing by the printing pressmen. The pressmen’s basic duties are to “ makeready” and then tend the presses while they are in operation. The object of makeready, which is one of the most delicate and difficult parts of the pressman’s work, is to insure printing impres sions that are distinct and uniform. This is accomplished by such means as placing pieces of paper of exactly the right thickness under neath low areas of the press plates to level them, and by attaching pieces of tissue paper to the surface of the cylinder or flat platen which makes the impression. Pressmen also have to make many other adjustments— for example, those needed to control margins and the flow of ink to the inking roller. In some shops, they are responsible not only for tending the presses, but also for oiling and cleaning them and making some minor repairs. On the larger presses, pressmen have assistants and helpers. Pressmen’s work may differ greatly from one shop to another, mainly because of differences in the kinds and sizes of presses used. Small commercial shops generally have small and relatively simple presses that are often fed pa per by hand. At the other extreme are the enormous web-rotary presses used by the big newspaper and magazine printing plants. These giant presses are fed paper in big rolls called “ webs.” They print the paper on both sides by means of a series of cylinders; cut, assem ble, and fold the pages; and, finally, count the finished newspaper sections which emerge from the press ready for the mailing room. These steps are accomplished automatically by means of many different mechanisms, each of which calls for constant attention while a run is being made. Presses of this kind are operated by crews of journeymen and less skilled workers under the direction of a pressman-in-charge. Although the basic duties of lithographic (offset) pressmen are similar to those of let terpress and gravure pressmen, a number of differences arise, principally because of the specialized character of lithographic presses. (See p. 407 for further details.) The duties of press assistants range from feeding sheets of paper into hand-fed presses to helping pressmen makeready and operate large and complicated rotary presses. Workers whose main responsibility is feeding are often called press feeders. The ratio of assistants to pressmen differs from one establishment to an other, depending on the size of the plant, the type of press used, and other factors. Many shops are too small to have pressroom assist ants. Training and Other Qualifications Chief pressman controlling operation of large press from console. As in the other printing crafts, the most common way of learning the pressman’s trade is through apprenticeship. Some workers have 406 been able to pick up the skills of the trade while working as helpers or press assistants or through a combination of work experience in the pressroom and vocational or technical school training. The length of apprenticeship and the con tent of training depend largely on the kind of press used in the plant. The apprenticeship period is 2 years for press assistants and 4 years for pressmen in commercial shops. In news paper establishments the apprenticeship period is 5 years. The apprenticeship period for press men operating web presses is generally 5 years in union shops. On-the-job training includes the care of pressroom equipment, makeready, running the job, press tending and maintenance, and working with various types of inks and papers. In addition to on-the-job instruction, the apprenticeship involves related classroom or correspondence schoolwork. At the begin ning of 1960, there were about 3,200 registered apprentices in training and perhaps 2,000 oth ers in unregistered programs. Individual companies generally choose ap prentices from among press assistants and oth ers already employed in the plant. Young men may often work for 2 or 3 years in the press room before they are selected to begin 2- to 4-year training periods leading to journeyman status. A high school education or its equiva lent is generally required. Mechanical aptitude is important in making press adjustments and repairs. Art courses may also be helpful be cause the increased use of color presses and the need for pressmen who are able to mix their own inks have made a knowledge of color im portant. Physical strength and endurance are necessary for work on some kinds of presses, where the pressmen have to lift heavy type forms and press plates and stand for long periods. Employment Outlook Employment of pressmen is expected to in crease moderately in the 1960’s. Although the total amount of printing, and the use of color is expected to rise, continued improvements in the speed and efficiency of printing presses OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK may slow somewhat the rate of employment growth in this skilled craft. The need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work will also result in job opportunities for new workers. Retirements and deaths alone may result in about 1,000 job openings each year in the 1960’s. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of pressmen depend upon the kind of press operated, the type of printing plant, and the geographical area of employ ment. A survey of union minimum hourly wage rates for daywork in 53 large cities shows that the average minimum hourly rate in effect on July 1, 1960, for newspaper pressmen-in-charge was $3.67; for newspaper pressmen (journey men), $3.37; for book and job cylinder press men, $3.33; for book and job platen pressmen, $3.02; and for book and job press assistants and feeders, $2.75. Pressrooms are unavoidably noisy; also, there are the usual occupational hazards associated with machinery. Pressmen often have to lift heavy type forms and printing press plates. At times, they work under pressure to meet dead lines, especially in the printing of newspapers and magazines. Many pressmen work night shifts for which the rate of pay is higher than the basic day rate. A majority of pressroom workers are covered by union agreements. Practically all of the organized letterpress and gravure pressmen are members of the International Printing Press men and Assistants’ Union of North America. Where To Go for More Information International Printing Pressmen and Assistants’ Union of North America, Pressmen’s Home, Tenn. Lithographers and Printers National Association, Inc., 1025 Connecticut Ave. NW ., Washington 6, D.C. Printing Industry of America, Inc., 5728 Connecticut Ave. N W ., Washington 15, D.C. See page 397 for additional sources of infor mation. PRINTING OCCUPATIONS 407 Lithographic Occupations Nature of Work Lithography (offset printing) is one of the most rapidly growing printing processes, al though it is less common than letterpress. Prac tically all items printed by the letterpress pro cess are also produced by lithography— includ ing books, calendars, maps, posters, labels, office forms, sheet music, and even newspapers. Li thography has special advantages when the copy to be reproduced includes photographs, draw ings, or paintings, since it permits greater flexi bility in the type of paper that can be used. Several processes are involved in lithography, and each is performed by a specialized group of workers. The main groups of lithographic workers are cameramen, artists and letterers, strippers, platemakers, and pressmen. The cameraman (D.O.T. 4-46.200) starts the process of making a lithographic plate by photo graphing the copy. He is generally classified as a line cameraman (black and white) half-tone cameraman (black and white), or color separa tion photographer. After the negatives have been made, they frequently need retouching to lighten or darken certain parts. Thus, it is often necessary for a lithographic artist (D.O.T. 4-46.700) to make corrections by sharpening or reshaping images on the negatives. Highly skilled workers per form this work by hand, using chemicals, dyes, and special tools. To qualify as journeymen, these artists must be adept in one or more of the various retouch ing methods or in hand drawing with litho graphic crayon. Like cameramen, they are customarily assigned to only one phase of the work and may then be known, for example, as dot etchers, retouchers, crayon artists, or letter ers, depending on their particular job. The stripper (D.O.T. 4-47.300) makes layouts on paper, glass, or film. He arranges and pastes the negatives or positives of type, pictures, and other art work on the layout sheets called flats or “ strip-ups,” from which photographic im pressions are made for the lithographic press plates. The job of the stripper in the litho graphic process corresponds to that of the imposer in the letterpress process. In photolithography, employees in the plate making department expose press plates to nega tives or positives which are made by the camera men and corrected by artists. The platemaker (D.O.T. 4-46.300) .may cover the surface of the metal plate with a coating of photosensitive chemicals, or the metal plate may come to him with the photosensitive layer applied. The platemaker exposes the sensitized plate through the negative or positive to strong arc lights; this is commonly done in a vacuum printing frame. When a large number of the same images are to be exposed on a single plate, however, the operation is done in a photocomposing machine. The plate is then developed and chemically treated to bring out the image. The lithographic pressman (D.O.T. 4-48.070) makes ready and tends the lithographic printing presses. He installs the plate on the press, ad justs the pressure for proper printing, cares for and adjusts the rubber blanket which transfers the impression from the plate to the paper, ad justs water and ink rollers for correct operation, Cameraman adjusting filter in camera before making a color negative for a printing plate. 408 mixes inks, and operates the presses. Basically, the duties of these workers are similar to those of letterpress and gravure pressmen. Some dif ferences arise, however, because of the special ized nature of lithographic presses. In large plants, press feeders and helpers are employed whose duties are also similar to those of assist ants and helpers to letterpress and gravure pressmen. (See p. 405.) Training and Other Qualifications A 4- or 5-year apprenticeship covering the basic lithographic process is usually required to become an all-round lithographic craftsman. Training emphasis is on the specific occupation in which journeyman status is being sought, although generally, an attempt is made to make the apprentice familiar with all lithographic operations. Generally, apprenticeship applicants must be in good physical condition, a high school grad uate, and at least 18 years of age. Aptitude tests are sometimes given to prospective appren tices. Vocational school training and training in photography or art are helpful in learning these crafts. Employment Outlook A rapid rise in the number of lithographic workers is expected during the 1960’s. In addi tion, the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work will also pro vide some job openings. Employment growth and replacement needs together are expected to provide about 1,500 to 2,000 job opportunities for new workers, on the average, each year during the 1960’s. Offset printing has expanded considerably since World War II, particularly in the com mercial printing field where a large number of letterpress concerns have established offset de partments. In 1960, an estimated 50,000 jour neymen lithographic workers were employed. Offset printing employment should show con tinued rapid growth because of the greater use of photographs, drawings, and illustrations in printed matter, and because of the more wide spread use of color in many printed products. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK However, new technological developments in the competitive letterpress field, particularly in the platemaking and press departments, may slow somewhat the anticipated increase in litho graphic employment. Earnings and Working Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates for litho graphic occupations vary within each occupa tion, depending upon the degree of skill required, the type and size of equipment, and the part of the country in which the worker is employed. For example, according to information on mini mum union hourly wage rates in 46 selected cities, during 1960, compiled by the National Association of Photo Lithographers, wage rates for dot etchers or process artists and letterers ranged from $2.74 an hour in Little Rock to $4.20 an hour in San Francisco. Rates for cam eramen, which are generally below those for skilled artists, ranged from $2.74 an hour in Little Rock to $4.14 an hour in San Francisco. In many plants, top-grade cameramen earn as much as the highly skilled artists, and camera men who do multicolor work are paid more than those who do only black and white work. Mini mum hourly rates of photocomposition oper ators ranged from $2.99 an hour in Evansville, Ind., to $4.06 an hour in San Francisco, and vacuum frame platemakers’ hourly rates ranged from $2.74 an hour in Little Rock to $4.06 an hour in San Francisco. The wide range of rates for lithographic pressmen— from $1.95 an hour for Multilith machine operators and operators of small presses in Little Rock to $5.15 an hour for first pressmen on large four-color presses in Boston— is due to the many different types and sizes of presses operated. Many lithographic plants are modern, airconditioned, and well lighted. Much of the work requires little physical effort since it involves the handling of lightweight materials. A substantial proportion of all lithographic workers are members of the Amalgamated Lithographers of America (Ind.). A consider able number of offset pressmen and other offset workers belong to the International Printing Pressmen and Assistants' Union of North America. 409 PRINTING OCCUPATIONS Where To Go for More Information Amalgamated Lithographers of America (Ind.), 233 West 49th St., New York 19, N.Y. International Printing Pressmen and Assistants’ Union of North America, Pressmen’s Home, Tenn. Lithographers and Printers Nation* 1 Association, 1025 Connecticut Ave. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. Lithographic Technical Foundation, Inc., 131 East 39th St., New York 16, N .Y. National Association of Photo-Lithographers, 317 West 45th St., New York 36, N .Y. Printing Industry of America, Inc., 5728 Connecticut Ave. N W ., Washington 15, D.C. See page 397 for additional sources of infor mation. Bookbinders and Related Workers Nature of Work Many printed items such as books, magazines, pamphlets, and small calendars must be folded, sewed, stapled, or bound after they leave the printing shops. Much of this work is done by skilled bookbinders (D.O.T. 4-49.010 through .040) who numbered about 23,000 in 1960. Many bookbinders are employed in shops whose chief business is bookbinding. However, a con siderable number are employed in the bindery departments of large book, periodical, and com mercial printing plants and of large libraries. There are several different kinds of binderies. Edition and pamphlet binderies bind books, magazines, and pamphlets printed in large quantities. Trade or job binderies do bindery work on contract for printers, publishers, or other customers. Blankbook and looseleaf bind eries bind ledgers and bookkeeping and account ing volumes. Edition binding— making books in quantity from big, flat printed sheets of paper— is by far the most complicated. The first step in the process is to fold the printed sheets into sec tions of 16 or 32 pages, known as “ signatures,” so that the sheets will be in the right order. The next steps are to insert any illustrations that have been printed separately, to gather and assemble the signatures in proper order, and to sew them together. The resulting book bodies are shaped with power presses and trimming machines, and fabric strips are glued to the backs for reinforcement. Covers are glued or pasted onto the book bodies, after which the books undergo a variety of finishing opera tions and, frequently, are wrapped in paper jackets. Machines are used extensively through out the process. Skilled bookbinders seldom perform all the different edition bindery tasks, although many journeymen have had training in all of them. In large shops, skilled bookbinders may be assigned to one or a few operations, most often to the operation of complicated machines. In many binderies, especially large ones, much of the work is done by employees trained in only one operation or in a small number of relatively simple, related tasks. Most of these workers, often classified as bindery workers or bindery hands, are women (hence the common designation, bindery women). Their work Bindery workers assembling material on gathering machine. 410 closely resembles assembly line factory work. About 45,000 women and men were employed in these operations in 1960. Training and Other Qualifications A 4- or 5-year apprenticeship which includes on-the-job training* as well as related classroom instruction is generally required to qualify as a skilled bookbinder. Apprenticeship programs may vary considerably among the various types of bookbinding shops. When large quantities of books are bound on a mass production (edition) basis, emphasis is on the most modern machine methods. In fine hand binding, emphasis is mainly on hand methods, including artistic de signing and decorating of leather covers. For many years, hand bookbinding has been de clining in importance. Apprenticeship applicants usually must have a high school education and be at least 18 years of age. Mechanical aptitude is helpful to the person entering this trade. In the course of the apprenticeship, trainees learn, among other things, to assemble signatures, renovate old, worn bindings, and use various binding ma chines such as punches, folders, perforators, stitchers, and power cutters. For the less skilled bindery occupations, the training period may last from several months to 2 years. In union shops, apprenticeship pro grams for women bindery workers generally last 2 years. These formal programs include classroom instruction as well as on-the-job training. Employment Outlook Some increase in the employment of skilled bookbinders is expected during the 1960’s. In addition, replacement of skilled workers who retire, die, or leave the industry for other em ployment will result in several hundred oppor tunities each year for new workers to learn this trade. There will be considerably more openings for the less skilled bindery workers. The anticipated expansion of bound printed OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK matter is expected to result in some employment growth for skilled bookbinders. Continued me chanization of bookbinding operations and the declining demand for fine hand bookbinding will tend to limit the growth of this trade. On the other hand, these same trends should result in increased employment for the less skilled bindery workers, most of whom are women. Because there is considerable turnover among these employees, there will be a relatively large number of openings for women workers. Sea sonal fluctuations in employment are more common in bindery work than in other printing occupations. Earnings and Working Conditions Wage rates for skilled bookbinders tend to be below the average of other printing crafts. A survey of union minimum hourly wage rates in 53 large cities, as of July 1, 1960, showed that the minimum hourly wage rate for bookbinders in book and job establishments was generally more than $2.60 an hour and as high as $3.87 in the San Francisco-Oakland area. The wage rates for bindery women are considerably lower and are among the lowest for printing industry workers. They ranged from $1.40 an hour in Little Rock to $2.43 in the San FranciscoOakland area. A majority of bindery workers are members of unions. Most skilled bookbinders are repre sented by the International Brotherhood of Bookbinders. Where To Go for More Information International Brotherhood of Bookbinders, 815 16th St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. Lithographers and Printers National Association, Inc., 1025 Connecticut Ave. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. Printing Industry of America, Inc., 5728 Connecticut Ave. N W ., Washington 15, D.C. See page 397 for additional sources of infor mation. MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Mechanics Nature of Work The growing use of air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment throughout the Nation is providing many job opportunities for skilled mechanics who install and repair such equip ment in office buildings, factories, homes, food stores, restaurants, theaters, and other establish ments. (This chapter does not discuss mechanics who work on railroad, truck, automotive, or marine air-conditioning and refrigeration equip ment. ) In installing new air-conditioning or refrig eration equipment, the mechanic puts the motors, condensers, and humidifiers in proper position, following design specifications. He as sembles and connects duct work, refrigerant lines and other piping, and then connects the equipment to an electrical power source. He installs electrical controls and checks the elec tric power entering the motor. After completing the installation and connecting the recording and gaging devices, the mechanic starts the unit and tests it for proper performance and for leaks. He also adjusts the pumps, humidifiers, filters, and other components in order to obtain the most efficient performance. The mechanic may install air-conditioning equipment ranging from small, self-contained units to large central-plant-type systems. On small installations, he may have to prepare his own working diagrams and do simple layout work, such as measuring and cutting pipe. On large installation jobs, the mechanic must read and interpret blueprints or drawings. Mechanics engaged in maintenance work regularly lubricate machinery, replenish liquid refrigerant, adjust valves, and examine other parts of the equipment to detect leaks and other defects before trouble develops. When air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment breaks down, the mechanic must diagnose the cause and make the necessary repairs. In look ing for defects, he may take the motor apart, removing such parts as springs and brushes. After the cause of the trouble has been located and the defective part repaired or replaced, the mechanic reassembles the unit. He also may make electrical repairs in connection with his work. The mechanic uses tools and equipment, such as electric drills, soldering torches, pipe benders, hammers, screwdrivers, pliers, and testing devices, such as leak detectors and test lights. Where Employed A considerable number of these mechanics are employed in shops which specialize in the re pair and maintenance of commercial, indus trial, and home air-conditioning and refrigera tion equipment. Others work for construction Air-conditioning mechanics installing indoor unit in home basement. 411 412 companies, air-conditioning or refrigeration equipment manufacturers, heating and airconditioning contractors, and dealers. Some are employed by department stores, hotels, res taurant and food store chains, factories, ware houses, and other establishments large enough to require full-time maintenance men. Many mechanics have opened their own repair shops. Because of the widespread use of air-con ditioning and refrigeration equipment, these workers are employed in all parts of the coun try. However, they are employed mainly in the large cities where most of the large com mercial and industrial establishments are lo cated. New York, Texas, California, Pennsyl vania, Ohio, and Illinois lead in the number of these workers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most air-conditioning and refrigeration me chanics start as helpers and acquire the skills of their trade by working for several years with experienced craftsmen. Apprentice train ing is another way of learning this trade and is growing in importance as air-condition ing and refrigeration equipment becomes more complex. The apprenticeship programs, which generally last 4 or 5 years, include both onthe-job experience and classroom instruction. Apprentices are given training in the instal ling and connecting of refrigeration equip ment, gas lines, liquid lines, air-control lines, and other kinds of piping. They are also taught to do layout and assembly work and to install and connect electrical circuits and controls. Apprentices are given classroom instruction in mathematics, electrical controls, blueprint reading, compression refrigerating systems, heat transfer and insulation, and related sub jects. Employers prefer to hire high school gradu ates who have had courses in mathematics, phy sics, and blueprint reading. Mechanical aptitude and the ability to understand and work with electricity are other important qualifications. Young persons interested in advancing to higher level air-conditioning and refrigeration jobs as technicians or foremen are frequently advised by training authorities to attend OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK a technical institute. (Additional information about air-conditioning and refrigeration tech nicians appears in the chapter on Technicians. (See index for page number.) In these schools, students are taught to design and construct as well as to install, operate, maintain, and repair all types of air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment. They also take courses in mathe matics, physics, electricity, and mechanical drawing. Although great strength is not needed in this occupation, good physical condition is impor tant because a mechanic is often required to lift and move heavy equipment. Employment Outlook A demand for many thousands of additional mechanics who can install, maintain, and re pair air-conditioning and refrigeration equip ment is expected in the 1960’s. Many job openings will also arise as workers retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. A rapid growth in the number of jobs for mechanics is anticipated because of the con tinued increase in the use of air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment. Air condi tioning for industrial, commercial, and home use is becoming more and more widespread. The use of air conditioning in offices, stores, and theaters is increasing tremendously. In homes, the number of centrally installed air-conditioning units doubled between 1957 and 1960. The use of refrigeration as a means of preserving food and other perishable items has grown greatly in recent years. Refrigera tion also is becoming increasingly important in the manufacture of such products as syn thetic rubber, oil, high-test gasoline, medicine, and drugs. Earnings and Working Conditions Information collected from a small number of employers in selected cities on the East Coast and in the Midwest and from union-manage ment contracts, shows that the earnings of these workers compare favorably with those of other service mechanics. The rates of pay for skilled mechanics depend on such factors as 413 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN the size of equipment they work on, the type of work performed, and the type of establish ment in which they are employed. For example, in mid-1960 in some establishments, skilled mechanics performing maintenance and repair work on small equipment were re ceiving from $2 to slightly more than $3.25 an hour; men working on equipment of higher horsepower were being paid about $3.75 an hour. Mechanics doing installation work gen erally were receiving from $3 to more than $4 an hour. Air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics working on commercial equipment frequently earned more than those employed on household equipment, even when the equipment was of the same size. Apprentices usually start at about 50 percent of the journeyman’s hourly pay rate and receive increases each year, mov ing up to 75 to 90 percent of the journeyman’s rate during the last year of apprenticeship. Although most employers try to maintain the same work force throughout the year, they may have to lay off some mechanics during the winter months. In air-conditioning and refrig erator contractor shops which also install and repair heating equipment, the mechanics may work on heating equipment during the winter months. Most mechanics work a 40-hour week. However, during the summer months they must often work overtime or at irregular hours when refrigeration or air-conditioning equip ment breaks down. Overtime work in most shops is paid for at time and one-half the regu lar rate. Mechanics are sometimes required to work at great heights while installing new equipment. They may also work in awkward or cramped positions in order to reach motors or other parts of the equipment they are repair ing. Common hazards in this trade include elec trical shock, torch burns, and those associated with the handling of heavy equipment. Many air-conditioning and refrigeration me chanics belong to labor unions. Some of these unions are the United Association of Journey men and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada; the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers ; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the Interna tional Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers. Most employer-union contracts covering air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics provide benefit programs such as paid holidays and vacations; hospitalization, medical and surgical insurance; and retire ment pensions. Appliance (D.O.T. 5-83.043) Nature of Work When washing machines, refrigerators, toasters, and the dozens of other appliances used in homes today do not run properly, appli ance servicemen repair them. The repair of large and complicated appliances such as re frigerators and washing machines (which may have as many as 30 electrical connections in the control unit alone) is considerably more difficult than the repair of small appliances such as toasters and food mixers. However, all the work performed by appliance servicemen in volves finding why appliances are not operating properly and then installing new parts or making adjustments. To learn why an appliance is not operating properly, appliance servicemen first find out from customers what happened when it was last turned on. They often check the appliance by starting it and listening for loud humming, grinding, or other unusual noises, which might tell them what part of the appliance is not working properly. Sometimes servicemen look specifically for common signs of trouble, such as cracks in rubber hose, or they turn gears or other moving parts of appliances to see if they are jammed or too tight. Appliance serv icemen find other causes of trouble by using special tools and testing devices. After servicemen find what is wrong with appliances, they make the necessary repairs. Frequently, this involves replacing parts, such as electric cords, that receive extra hard wear. 414 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Where Employed Approximately 150,000 appliance servicemen were employed in 1960. TJhey worked in almost every city and town because the appliances they repair are used everywhere. About 105,000 servicemen were employed by appliance, furni ture, and department stores, and by other firms that sell and service appliances. Independent repair shops, many of which were owned and operated by servicemen, employed about 25,000 of these workers. Another 15,000 servicemen were employed by gas and electric companies. A few thousand worked for the manufacturers of appliances who operate service centers in most large cities. Some appliance servicemen are employed by companies that install and maintain coin-operated washing machines in apartment houses and self-service laundries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Appliance serviceman finding leak in refrigerator cooling system. Sometimes servicemen clean parts; for example, they remove lint that has clogged a washing machine drain. In removing old parts and putting in new parts, appliance servicemen use not only handtools, such as screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches, but also special tools designed for particular appliances. An important part of the work of appliance servicemen is dealing personally with customers. They often answer customers’ complaints about their appliances. Appliance servicemen fre quently advise customers about the care and use of their appliances, because many break downs are caused by improper use. For example, they may remind housewives how many pounds of clothing can be washed at one time in auto matic washing machines, or how to stack dishes in dishwashers. The work of appliance servicemen has con siderable variety. They drive light trucks or automobiles, some of which are equipped with two-way radios. They give estimates to cus tomers on the costs of repair jobs and keep rec ords of parts used and hours worked on each repair job. Also, they sometimes order parts and sell new or used appliances. Appliance servicemen are usually hired as helpers and acquire their skills through on-thejob training and work experience. Inexperienced men are given relatively simple work assign ments. In some companies, they work for the first few months mainly helping to install ap pliances in customers’ homes, driving service trucks, and learning street locations. In other companies, they begin to learn the skills of appliance servicemen by working in the shop, where they rebuild used parts such as washing machine transmissions. Gradually, trainees learn how motors, gears, and other appliance parts operate. They progress from simple repair jobs, such as replacing a switch, to more diffi cult jobs, such as adjusting automatic washing machine controls. In addition to practical ex perience on the job, trainees frequently receive classroom instruction given by appliance manu facturers and local distributors. Many trainees take correspondence courses in basic electricity to increase their skills in appliance repair. Trainees are usually supervised closely for 6 to 12 months. By this time, most of them can repair several kinds of appliances on their own, and they may be given responsibility for their own service trucks and for expensive stocks of appliance parts and tools. Appliance servicemen usually need up to 3 years’ on-the-job experience MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN to become fully qualified. Many experienced servicemen attend training* classes (often on company time) and study service manuals to become familiar with new appliances and the best ways to repair them. Employers generally prefer applicants who are high school graduates and who have had high school or vocational school courses in electricity or in physics. They must understand, in a practical way, how to use equipment that measures electricity and be able to use *such measurements in solving* equations or formulas that tell whether electrical currents in appli ances are flowing properly. Also important in servicing appliances is a knowledge of wiring diagrams which show electrical connections be tween appliance parts. Employers also look for men who can get along well with customers. Employers empha size that mechanical skills are only part of the qualifications for servicemen's work. Service men must be tactful and courteous. Sometimes this is difficult, for example, when explaining to a customer the right way to operate an ap pliance that has been used incorrectly. Service men also are expected to dress neatly and to avoid getting grease or dirt on floors and furni ture. Appliance servicemen can be promoted to foreman, assistant service manager, or serv ice manager. Preference is given to men who have shown ability to get along well with other servicemen and with customers. A general knowledge of bookkeeping and other subjects related to managing a business is also helpful in getting ahead. Servicemen who work for ap pliance manufacturers may advance to other higher paying jobs. They may teach service men to repair new models of appliances. They may also write service manuals. Because of their experience in repairing appliances and dealing with all types of customers, appliance servicemen often become successful appliance salesmen. Experienced appliance servicemen may open their own repair shops. Employment Outlook Employment of appliance servicemen is ex pected to grow rapidly during the 1960's. Most 415 new employment opportunities in this expand ing occupation will occur because more appli ances will be used and many new appliances will be more complex and require greater main tenance and repair. Some job openings will oc cur each year as a result of the need to replace servicemen who are promoted or who transfer to other fields of work. Other opportunities will arise because of the need to replace workers who die or retire. Appliances have become an essential part of our daily living. Some homes now have as many as 20 appliances. During the 1950's increasing numbers of basic gas and electric appliances such as refrigerators, washing ma chines, air conditioners, ranges, vacuum cleaners, food mixers, and heating pads were purchased. In addition, new appliances (electric can openers, for example) were intro duced, and their use spread rapidly. Ap pliances that were not widely used 10 years ago, such as dishwashers, have become more popular. Growing population and increasing numbers of young married adults, who spend large amounts of their incomes for furniture and ap pliances, will continue to stimulate demands for appliances during the 1960's. Appliance sales will also increase with rising incomes and standards of living. New and more com plicated appliances, such as electronic ovens, as they become popular, will also result in the need for more appliance servicemen with higher levels of skill. Refrigerators and ovens that are set into walls or cabinets and other modern appliances that are more convenient and easier to operate, will be more widely used. Air conditioners will also be installed in many more homes during the 1960's. Because the increasing complexity of many modern appliances has made appliance repair work more difficult, manufacturers are design ing appliances with more durable parts that will need fewer repairs and appli ances that can be taken apart and fixed more easily. In addition, appliance manufacturers and other employers are increasing the efficiency of servicemen through more wide spread and more effective training. Despite 416 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK these improvements, large numbers of service men will be needed each year. Mechanically inclined young men who are not planning to attend college will find many opportunities in the growing appliance repair field. Servicemen who have a working knowl edge of electricity, and especially those who know electronics, will be able to find a variety of good jobs almost everywhere. In addition, there will be more year-round jobs for service men. One reason is that more people are ex pected to sign yearly service contracts with companies which agree to keep their ap pliances in good operating condition. Earnings and Working Conditions National wage data are not available for ap pliance servicemen. Information obtained from several large employers in mid-1960 indi cated that appliance servicemen generally re ceive from $95 to $115 for a 40-hour workweek. Some highly skilled men earned up to $125 a week. Trainees usually were paid from about $65 to $80 a week. Appliance servicemen who worked on large appliances generally earned more than those who worked only on small ap pliances. In shops where only small appliances were repaired, men often received a daily bonus when they repaired more than a cer tain minimum number of appliances. Many ap pliance servicemen work more than 40 hours a week and receive higher rates of pay for the overtime hours. Many appliance servicemen working for manufacturers' service centers, gas and elec tric companies, and other employers received paid vacations and sick leave, health insurance, and other benefits, as well as credit toward re tirement pensions. Some of these companies also sponsored employee savings funds and contributed money to the accounts of em ployees who participated. The shops in which appliance servicemen work are relatively quiet, well lighted, and ade quately ventilated. While repairing small ap pliances, servicemen usually sit at benches. Working conditions outside the shop vary con siderably. Servicemen sometimes work in nar row spaces, uncomfortable positions, and places that are not clean. Servicemen who work with large appliances may spend 1 or 2 hours a day driving in all kinds of weather be tween customers' homes and the shops where they work. Appliance repair work is generally safe, although accidents are possible while the serv iceman is driving, handling electrical parts, or lifting or moving large appliances. Few acci dents occur because inexperienced men are warned to use tools cautiously and to follow simple precautions against electric shock, such as keeping hands dry while handling elec tric wires. The work of appliance servicemen is often performed with little direct supervision. This feature of the job may appeal to many young people. Automobile Mechanics (D.O.T. 5-81.000 through .999) Nature of Work The more than three-quarters of a million automobile mechanics who keep the millions of automobiles, trucks, and buses in the United States in good running order make up the larg est repair occupation. These skilled workers maintain and repair mechanical, electrical, and body parts of passenger cars, trucks, and buses. They may also service other gasolinepowered equipment such as tractors. Automo bile mechanics make inspections and tests to determine the causes of faulty operation, and repair or replace defective parts to restore the vehicle to proper operating condition. Typical maintenance and repair jobs done by mechan ics are tuning the engine, replacing pis ton rings, alining the front wheels, and adjusting or relining the brakes. Repair manuals and other technical publications pro vide instructions for these and other repair operations. Auto mechanics in the smaller shops are usu- MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN 417 Mechanics usually work by themselves. In large shops, however, a skilled mechanic may be assisted by a helper or an apprentice, and usually works under the supervision of a fore man or service manager. Before actually doing the work, mechanics in small shops may be re quired to prepare estimates of the cost of re pairs, including materials and labor. In larg er shops, the shop foreman, service salesmen, or service manager generally prepares the cost estimate and tells the mechanic which repairs to make. Where Employed P h o to g ra p h by U .S. D e p a rtm e n t o f L a b o r Automobile mechanic adjusting valve lifters during major tuneup on car engine. ally qualified to perform a variety of repair jobs, although a large number of other auto mobile mechanics specialize in particular types of repair work. For example, some me chanics do only alinement and steering work, or work on certain types of automatic trans missions. These mechanics usually work in shops with different departments or in shops that specialize in particular types of re pair. These specialists, however, usually have an all-round knowledge of automotive repair and may be occasionally called upon to do other types of work. (Body and fender re pairmen are specialists who do the shaping, finishing, and replacing of sheetmetal, and re pairing or replacing of trim or glass.) In making repairs, the mechanic uses many different kinds to tools and equipment. These may range from simple handtools, such as screwdrivers, wrenches, and pliers, to compli cated and expensive machines and equipment which help the mechanic find out why an auto mobile is not operating properly and assist him in making repairs. Some of the more common examples of such equipment are wheel aline ment machines, spark plug testers, engine ana lyzers, and headlight aimers. In 1960, about one-third of the auto mechan ics were employed in the service departments of new and used car dealers. Another third were employed in repair shops which make all kinds of repairs or specialize in particular types such as battery and ignition repairs, body and fender work, radiator service, and transmission and brake repair work and adjust ments. A considerable number of automobile mechanics are employed in gasoline service stations where they perform relatively minor repairs and adjustments. Many mechanics work for organizations which repair and main tain their own fleets of motor vehicles. In cluded in this group are Federal, State, and local governments and trucking, bus, taxi cab, bakery, and dairy companies. Some me chanics are employed by manufacturers of mo tor vehicles to make final adjustments and re pairs at the end of assembly lines. Most auto mechanics work in shops employ ing from one to five mechanics. However, some of the largest repair shops employ more than 100 mechanics. Generally, dealers’ serv ice departments in large cities have larger staffs of mechanics than independent shops and shops in the smaller communities. Because motor vehicles are used throughout the Nation, automobile mechanics are employed in every section of the country, from the largest cities to the smallest towns. In 1960, about half of the mechanics worked in eight States: Cali fornia, New York, Texas, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, and New Jersey. 418 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most auto mechanics learn the trade through on-the-job experience. Young men usually start as helpers, lubrication men, or car washers, and gradually acquire the necessary knowledge and skills by working with experienced mechanics. Although a man can perform the simpler types of repair work after a few months’ training and experience, it generally takes him at least 3 or 4 years to become a qualified all-round mechanic. The learning period will depend on the individual’s capabilities and the extent of his formal schooling in automotive repair. Addi tional training is usually required for mechanics who wish to become specialists. However, body repairmen, who do not have to learn to repair the operating parts of the vehicle, can learn their trade in as little as 3 years if they have a knack for handling metal. One of the best ways for a young man to become an all-round auto mechanic is through an apprenticeship training program, which usu ally lasts 4 years. Some apprenticeship pro grams also allow the trainee to specialize in such work as truck or bus repairs, or auto-body repairs. A large number of automobile mechanics re ceive training while they are members of the Armed Forces. Before they can qualify as fully trained mechanics in civilian life, however, they may be required to attend special training courses or to serve part of an apprenticeship period. Experienced mechanics employed by automo bile and truck dealers are sometimes sent to manufacturers’ training centers to learn about new features found in automobiles, such as fuel injection, power steering, or air conditioning. For beginning jobs, employers prefer young high school graduates who have some un derstanding of automobile construction and operation and who like mechanical work. Courses in science and mathematics are de sirable since they give a young man a better understanding of the operation of the automo bile. Shop courses in auto repair which are offered by many high schools and vocational schools are valuable. Practical experience gained working on automobiles as a hobby is also from OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK helpful to a young man who wishes to become a mechanic. Most mechanics are required to have their own handtools. A beginner is usually expected to accumulate about $100 worth of tools. Ex perienced mechanics usually have over $500 in vested in their tools. Special tools for servicing units like automatic transmissions, and major pieces of test equipment, are ordinarily furn ished by the employer. Capable and experienced automobile mechan ics have several advancement possibilities. A mechanic in a large shop may advance to a supervisory position, such as repair shop fore man, service salesman, or service manager. Many experienced mechanics open their own independent repair shops or gasoline service stations and some mechanics may become car or truck salesmen, or manage a dealer’s parts department. Employment Outlook Thousands of training opportunities are ex pected to be available each year during the 1960’s for young people who want to learn to be come automobile mechanics. These opportunities will arise because there will be a need for addi tional automobile mechanics to service the grow ing number of motor vehicles. A considerable number of job openings will also be created by retirements, deaths, and transfers of automobile mechanics to other fields of work. In this large occupation, retirements and deaths alone will probably create, on the average, about 12,000 openings each year during the 1960’s. The number of motor vehicles in the United States has increased very rapidly during the past several years. Passenger car registrations increased from 40 million to 59 million and bus and truck registration from 9 to 12 million in the period from 1950 to 1959. Further increases in motor vehicle registrations are expected in the years ahead. Expected increases in popula tion, consumer purchasing power, and in the number of families and two-car families will greatly increase the demand for motor vehicles in the 1960’s. In addition, the continuation of farm mechanization is expected to increase the 419 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN number of tractors and other gasoline-powered farm equipment. Employment of automobile mechanics over the next decade will also depend on the number of repairs required per vehicle and the amount of work that the average mechanic can do. During the 1950’s, the addition of such features as air suspension, power brakes, and power steering to automobiles, to make them more comfortable and easier to operate, also increased their complexity and maintenance requirements. Despite this increased complexity, mechanics have been able to increase the number of re pairs they can do. New and improved automo bile servicing equipment helps in locating and repairing the defects that cause faulty opera tion. Greater emphasis on replacement rather than on repair of defective parts, better shop management, specialization in a single type of repair, and better training methods have all contributed toward increasing the amount of work the mechanic can do. Although mechanics will be able to service more vehicles in less time during the 1960’s, the expected increase in motor vehicles and their growing complexity will result in many thousands of additional job opportunities each year. Earnings and Working Conditions Average hourly earnings of skilled automo bile mechanics in 61 large communities were more than $2.60 an hour in late 1959 and early 1960. Average earnings ranged from about $2.05 in Fort Worth to $3 in San Francisco. These earnings do not include extra pay for overtime work that mechanics may earn. Many mechanics receive holidays and vacations with pay. Most skilled auto mechanics and body repair men in automobile dealer repair shops are paid a percentage of the labor cost charged to the customer. Each repair job is assigned a fixed labor charge and the most highly skilled me chanics can earn considerably more than the average because they are able to make repairs in less time. This is especially true in body work, in which there are great differences in skill between the very best repairman and the average repairman. A few body repairmen in large cities earn more than $10,000 a year. Apprentices are paid a percentage of the journeyman’s rate. This percentage ranges from 55 percent of the skilled worker’s rate in the apprentice’s first 6 months of work to between 85 and 90 percent in the last 6 months of the apprenticeship period. Many automobile mechanics work between 40 and 48 hours each week. Some work more than 48 hours a week. Modern automotive repair shops are well ventilated, lighted, and heated, but older shops may not have such advantages. Most shops have lifts that raise the vehicle so that work can be done without stooping. Generally, the mechanic’s work is performed inside a shop during the day. However, in cases where breakdowns occur on the road, the me chanic may have to work out of doors. In many jobs, the mechanic must handle greasy tools or dirty parts. Many auto mechanics are members of labor unions. A large number of unionized mechanics are employed in shops of the larger new car dealers and the maintenance departments of truck and bus companies. Mechanics are highly organized in West Coast cities and in other large cities such as Chicago, Minneapolis-St. Paul, St. Louis, New York City, and Cleveland. Among the unions to which automobile mechanics be long are the International Association of Ma chinists; the International Union, United Auto mobile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Ware housemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Business Machine Servicemen Nature of Work and Where Employed Business machine servicemen repair and adding machines, cal- Digitizedmaintain typewriters, for FRASER culators, cash registers, accounting-statistical machines, and the many other types of machines used in business offices. They do much 420 of the work in the offices where the machines are used. These servicemen may maintain this equipment on a regular basis, returning at fre quent intervals to inspect the machines, to clean and oil them, and make minor adjust ments or repairs. They may also be called to an office to check a defective machine. On service calls, repairmen usually question the operator about the condition of the machine. They may have to explain to operators how various features of the machines can best be used or what not to do to prevent machine dam age. Some servicemen are expected to sell sup plies used with the machines, such as paper, inks, or stencils, or to sell contracts for ser vicing machines regularly. While inspecting business machines, the serviceman usually checks the operation of various parts of the equipment to make sure that they work properly or to find the source of trouble. For example, he may strike the keys of a typewriter, move the carriage of a calculator, or rotate the drum of a duplicating machine. In addition, he may check type for alinement and rollers for dryness or compact ness. If necessary, covers of machines may be removed to check levers, gears, belts, or spacing mechanisms. When overhaul or major repair is necessary, the equipment is generally brought to the shop of the servicing company. Here, servicemen take the machine apart; inspect components; remove and replace worn bearings, cams, and other defective parts; and install new belts and feed rolls where necessary. If the machine has electric motors or controls, these also are inspected. Common handtools such as screwdrivers, pliers, and adjustable wrenches are used in this work. In addition, tools designed for special purposes and gages, meters, and other test equipment are frequently used. Business machine servicing offers consider able variety in work assignments. Like some other types of repair work, it requires analyti cal and reasoning ability. Most repair jobs present new problems, and many persons find considerable satisfaction in being able to find the cause of the trouble and to put the machine in good working order. back OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Business machine servicemen are employed in several types of firms. Manufacturers of business machines employ more than half of these workers in their sales and service offices throughout the country. About 40 percent of the servicemen work in small, independent, lo cal establishments; some of these shops mainly do repair work, whereas others combine sales and service. The remainder are employed in large organizations which have enough ma chines to justify employing full-time service men. The Federal Government, for example, employed about 750 of these workers in late 1960. Business machine servicemen employed in manufacturers' branch offices work only on the manufacturer's products. In the large branch offices, in some companies, they may specialize in servicing one or two of the types of machines the manufacturer sells. In other companies, even in the larger branches, the men are “ combination" servicemen, and work on the full line of company equipment. In manufacturers' branches in the smaller cities, where fewer servicemen are needed, most of them are “ combination" servicemen, since it is impractical to have the men specialize on one type of machine. Servicemen employed in independent dealers' and repair shops usually work on more than one type of business machine because these shops repair and service many makes and models. Most of these shops are small and em ploy only a few servicemen. However, in some of the larger independent shops, most of the servicemen may specialize on typewriters and adding machines of various makes which pro vide most of the shop's business, while a few other men repair the more complicated ma chines. Business machine servicing jobs are found throughout the country. Even relatively small communities usually have at least one or two shops which repair machines. However, most business machine servicemen work in large cities, especially in those with large numbers of office workers and where most of the calcula tors, accounting-bookkeeping and statistical machines are used. MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN Typeivriter Servicemen (D.O.T. 5-83.127). An estimated 20,000 servicemen were engaged mainly in repairing and maintaining typewrit ers in late 1960, making this the largest busi ness machine repair occupation. Typewriters are the most widely used business machines. They are used in almost every business office, as well as by many individuals in their homes. The operation of electric typewriters and me chanical typewriters differs slightly, but the two types are enough alike that the servicemen who specialize in the repair of mechanical type writers can usually learn to repair the electric machines after a brief period of additional training. Typewriter servicemen are employed both in the sales and service branches of typewriter manufacturers and in independent, local repair shops (which frequently sell typewriters as well as repair them). Many servicemen operate their own shops. Typewriter servicemen are found in almost every sizable community throughout the Nation. Adding Machine Servicemen (D.O.T. 5 83.122) . In late 1960, about 3,500 business machine servicemen were engaged mainly in the servicing of adding machines. These ma chines are simpler to repair than most other business machines. In some cases, servicing of both adding machines and calculators is done by the same employee. The repair of adding machines and simpler calculating machines often provides experience for advancement to work on more difficult equipment such as book keeping and accounting machines. In inde pendent repair shops, adding machines are serviced by men who also repair typewriters. Adding machine servicemen are employed both in manufacturers' sales and service branches and in independent, local repair shops. Other sources of employment are Federal, State, and local governments, and a few large banks and other firms which used large numbers of adding machines. Calculating Machine Servicemen (D.O.T. 5 83.123) . More than 4,500 calculating machine servicemen were employed in late 1960. These machines, which have complex mechanisms, 421 add, subtract, divide, multiply, and perform combinations of these operations. Calculating machine servicemen require more training than typewriter or adding machine servicemen. In some shops, servicing of calculators is com bined with the servicing of other business ma chines, particularly adding machines and ac counting-bookkeeping machines. Men who service calculators are usually em ployed in manufacturers' sales and service branches. However, a few work in independ ent, local repair shops, most of which are small and employ only a few workers. The Federal Government also employs a few hun dred calculating machine servicemen. Cash Register Servicemen (D.O.T. 5-83.124). Cash register repair and maintenance was the main work of more than 5,000 business ma chine servicemen in late 1960. Next to type writers, cash registers are the most widely used business machines. The simplest models merely record transactions, add up receipts, and provide a change drawer. The more compli cated cash registers simultaneously record sev eral different kinds of information on each transaction (such as identification of the clerk, department, type of merchandise, payment given, and change due), provide printed re ceipts, and dispense change to the customer. The great majority of servicemen primarily engaged in repairing cash registers are em ployed in the sales and service branches of the few manufacturing firms making these ma chines. Some of the repair work, especially in smaller towns, is done in independent shops which also repair other business machines. Accounting-Bookkeeping Machine Servicemen (D.O.T. 5-83.121). In late 1960, the repair of accounting-bookkeeping machines was the main job of more than 3,000 business machine servicemen. These machines perform a variety of operations. Some post entries and some do billing, but others combine the functions of typewriters and computing devices. All models have keyboards, like those on typewriters and adding machines. These machines are used in firms which have a great deal of accounting and bookkeeping work, such as department 422 stores, large *retail and wholesale businesses, and banks. Many of the newer models are ad justed to fit the accounting procedures used in an individual customer’s office. Servicemen set up the controls or programs for such ma chines from plans which have been devised by the customers and manufacturers’ salesmen. Most accounting-bookkeeping machine serv icemen are employed in the sales and service branches of companies manufacturing this equipment. Only a few work in independent repair shops. Data-Processing Equipment Servicemen. In 1960, more than 12,000 men were employed in maintaining and repairing accounting-statisti cal machines. These are the most skilled busi ness machine servicemen. About half of them are employed in servicing electromechanical accounting-statistical machines (D.O.T. 5 83.126). These machines record, tabulate, and analyze great masses of accounting and sta tistical data. They include card punches, sort ers, and tabulators, as well as special purpose machines used in punched card systems. New lines of electronic accounting-statisti cal machines (computers) which process tre mendous amounts of data with great speed came into use in the 1950’s. Most of these machines are manufactured by the same firms which make the electromechanical accountingstatistical machines. Electronic machines combine mechanical and electronic features. Therefore, servicemen who work on these ma chines need a knowledge of electronics in addi tion to mechanical skill. In some firms, only men with training in electronics are hired to service these machines. Many of these men have learned electronics in technical schools or in the armed services. In other companies, experienced men who can repair other types of business machines are given training in elec tronics by their employers. Accounting-statistical machine servicemen are employed principally by a few firms which manufacture and service this equipment. They may be assigned by their companies to work anywhere in the United States, but they are OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK usually stationed in one of the larger cities. They rarely transfer from one company to another. Dictating Machine Servicemen (D.O.T. 5 83.135). About 1,000 men were employed to repair and service dictating machines in late 1960. These machines are used in business offices to record dictation on cylinders, discs, or sleeves which can be played back for typing. The new electronic models reproduce the voice much more faithfully than the older acoustictype machines. Servicing is still largely a mat ter of mechanical aptitude, since the mechani cal sections of dictating machines break down more frequently than the electronic parts; however, the servicemen must have a working knowledge of electricity and electronics. Be sides the standard office dictating machines, there are many special types, such as devices which record telephone conversations or con ferences, which are maintained by dictating machine servicemen. Dictating machine servicemen are employed mainly in the larger communities either in the sales and service branches of the manufactur ers of dictating machines or by their distribu tors. In small towns, typewriter and adding machine repairmen may also learn to service dictating machines. Duplicating and Copying Machine Servicemen (D.O.T. 5-83.125). More than 2,500 service men were employed in late 1960 to repair dupli cating and copying machines. These machines are used to make one or more paper copies of any printed or written information. The serv iceman adjusts, oils, repairs, or replaces ma chine parts, such a s. rollers, belts, or gears. He must also clean the machine so that it func tions properly and produces clear copy. He must be able to determine whether poor copy is a result of mechanical defects, improper use of machines, or other factors. Most of these servicemen are employed in the branch sales and service offices of manu facturers. Those who work for independent dealers generally work on more than one make of equipment. MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN Duplicating machine serviceman adjusting paper feeding mechanism. Qualifications, Training, and Advancement Employers prefer applicants for beginning jobs as business machine servicemen to be un der 30 years of age. Men up to the age of 40 may be considered by some employers provided they have had training or experience which can be useful in machine servicing work. Trainees are usually required to have at least a high school education; this qualification is particularly important after the serviceman has acquired his basic skills and is looking for promotion to a supervisory job or work on more complex equipment. Some companies will ac cept applicants with less than a high school education, provided they can demonstrate su perior mechanical aptitude or have had quali fying mechanical experience. Applicants for the trainee jobs are fre quently required to pass one or more tests. Mechanical aptitude is the characteristic most frequently tested. Applicants may also be tested for manual dexterity, general intelli gence, and knowledge of mathematics or elec tricity. Employers look for applicants who have a pleasant, cooperative manner. Most machine servicing is done in customers’ offices and a 423 serviceman’s ability to do his work with the least interference with office routine is very important. A neat appearance and ability to converse effectively are also desired character istics. Young men entering the business machine servicing field generally begin as trainees and acquire their skills through on-the-job training, work experience, and instruction in manufac turers’ training schools. Business machine servicemen who are hired for work in a manu facturer’s branch office are trained to service only the company’s line of machines. Inde pendent shops, who look for men who can serv ice many makes of machines, will either hire men with previous experience on one or more types of machines or will give a new man in formal training on several different makes. Formal apprentice training programs of from 2 to 4 years are conducted by some manu facturers and independent shops. Men hired as trainees in manufacturers’ branch offices are usually sent to company schools for periods lasting from several weeks to several months, depending on the type of machine they are learning to service. They then receive from 1 to 3 years of practical expe rience and on-the-job training before they are considered skilled workers. During this period, they may occasionally go back to factory schools for additional courses. Even after be coming skilled workers, they may return to school for special instruction in new business machine developments. Men in independent shops generally learn the trade by working with experienced service men who instruct them in the skills of the trade. Occasionally, men employed by an in dependent dealer who is authorized to sell and service a manufacturer’s products will be sent to the manufacturer’s school for a few weeks. In most cases, however, men in independent shops receive no formal training. Length of training depends on the kind of shop in which a man is employed and the type of machine he is learning to service. In inde pendent shops, the time required to become a skilled serviceman tends to be somewhat longer than in manufacturers’ branches, because of the greater variety of machines the serviceman 424 must become familiar with and the generally in formal nature of the training. Servicemen who will work on simple busi ness machines require less training than those who will work on more complex equipment. Typically, it takes from 1 to 2 years for a man to learn to repair an ordinary adding machine or a typewriter. Calculating machines require from 2 to 4 years of training and experience. Cash register repairmen learn their job in from 2 1/2 to 3 y2 years, the last 6 months of which are usually spent in the company school. Skilled accounting-bookkeeping machine re pairmen generally must have at least 4 to 5 years of training and experience. The first 1 or 2 years may consist of servicing adding ma chines, calculators, or cash registers, since this is considered valuable background for serv icing accounting-bookkeeping machines. Most accounting-statistical machines con tain electrical equipment; many have electronic components. The companies which manufac ture and service these machines, therefore, of ten require that applicants have some knowl edge of electricity or electronics. In qualifying for a job in the maintenance of the complex electronic data-processing machines, college or technical institute courses in engineering are helpful, though not essential. Young veterans who have had electronics training in the Armed Forces are specially desired by employers in this field. Men hired as trainees generally spend their first 2 months in on-the-job training. If they prove satisfactory, they are sent to a company school for a period of from 3 to 10 months. After completing the course, they work under supervision until they acquire enough skill to service and repair on their own. This period usually lasts from 12 to 18 months. Servicemen in manufacturers’ sales branches frequently have the opportunity to move into sales jobs, where their earnings are usually greater. In some cases, service and sales work are combined. Many of these men also have the opportunity for promotion to supervisory jobs, such as foreman or service manager; men in large independent shops have similar op portunities. Experienced men sometimes open their own repair shops; men who work in the offices of some manufacturers are some branch OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK times given sales franchises from the company and become independent dealers. Employment Outlook The rapidly growing business machine serv ice field will provide several thousand job op portunities for young men each year during the 1960’s. The 45,000 servicemen employed in late 1960 was more than double the number working in 1950. The greater employment of servicemen has been due to the increasing use of many types of office machines to do all kinds of clerical work in our expanding com mercial and industrial establishments. More complicated equipment, requiring additional maintenance, has also increased the need for these servicemen. Opportunities for jobs in the servicing of electronic business machines will be particu larly favorable in the next decade. The use of such machines has expanded tremendously in recent years, and demand for this equipment is expected to be even greater in the future. There will also be an increasing need for serv icemen to work on other types of business ma chines which are becoming more complex. Electrically driven mechanical equipment, such as typewriters and adding machines, is rapidly taking the place of nonelectrical me chanical machines which do the same work. Cash registers, bookkeeping machines, and oth er specialized equipment are designed to pro vide much more detailed information than in the past. All of these developments indicate that there will be many well-paying jobs avail able for servicemen who have good mechanical ability. The best opportunities, however, will be for those who have, in addition, a knowledge of electricity or electronics. Business machine servicemen have yearround employment— steadier than that in many other skilled trades. The office machines serv iced by these men must be maintained con tinuously, even when business slackens, since business records must be kept, correspondence carried on, and statistical reports prepared. Men who establish themselves in the business machine service field can expect continuing employment for many years. 425 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN Earnings and Working Conditions National wage data are not available for business machine servicemen. Information ob tained from a number of employers indicates that in mid-1960, earnings of experienced serv icemen generally ranged from $80 to $130 a week depending on the type of machine they serviced, where they were employed, and their length of service with employers. Wages were lowest for men who repair only typewriters or adding machines; the earnings of these work ers usually ranged from $80 to $100 a week. Cash registers, calculators, accounting-book keeping machines, and nonelectronic account ing-statistical machines require more skill to repair; consequently, the men who work on them receive somewhat higher pay rates, gen erally from $90 to $120 a week. Highest rates are paid to men who service electronic dataprocessing machines. The most highly skilled electronic computer servicemen were earning as much as $185 a week in mid-1960. In addition to their salaries, servicemen in some companies receive commissions for sell ing supplies or service contracts. Many serv icemen employed by manufacturers and inde pendent dealers are covered by group life and hospitalization insurance plans, and pension plans. Servicemen trainees begin at wages consid erably below these levels; they receive pay in creases as they become more and more skilled during the training period. Starting wages generally ranged from $60 to $80 a week in late 1960. Men with previous electronics train ing in the Armed Forces or civilian technical schools generally receive somewhat higher be ginning wages. Servicing of business machines is cleaner and lighter work than the work in most other mechanical trades. The occupation is compara tively free from the danger of accident. Serv icemen generally dress like office workers, since the work is clean and often performed in the offices where machines are used. Many of these jobs involve considerable traveling within the area served by the employer. Diesel Mechanics (D.O.T. 5-83.931) Nature o f Work Diesel mechanics keep bulldozers, tractors, and other diesel-powered equipment that is widely used on highways, on farms, and in in dustry, in good operating order. Many diesel mechanics specialize in maintenance and repair of diesel equipment; others specialize in rebuild ing engines. Those who do maintenance and repair work perform the periodic cleaning, ad justing, and tuneups that are necessary for efficient operation of diesel engines. When diesel equipment is not operating properly, these me chanics (or their supervisors) find out the cause of the trouble. The mechanics then repair or replace broken or wornout parts or make any necessary adjustments. In addition to engine maintenance and repair, diesel mechanics may work on other parts of diesel-powered machin ery. For example, some mechanics who repair diesel-powered trucks and buses work on brake and steering systems. Mechanics who specialize in rebuilding diesel engines that have been operated for many hours or miles, take the entire engine apart, examine all of the parts for defects, and repair or replace defective parts. They then reassemble and ad just the engine. Many of the men who repair the larger diesel engines, such as those used to run locomotives or electric generating equipment in industry, are specifically trained for this type of work. However, because the basic parts of the diesel engine and the gasoline engine are similar, smaller diesel engines such as the type used in buses, trucks, and farm equipment are often re paired by workers who have had previous train ing or experience in the repair of automobile and truck gasoline engines. (See statement on Automobile Mechanics, p. 416.) Diesel mechanics use handtools such as pliers, wrenches, and screwdrivers in their work. In addition, they may use complex electronic test- 426 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK However, large numbers of these workers are employed in California, New York, Illinois, and Texas, which have extensive construction pro grams and farming activities requiring great numbers of diesel-powered machines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Diesel mechanics using hoist to replace crankshaft of rebuilt diesel engine. mg equipment such as the dynamometer, which measures engine power, and mechanical lifting devices such as hoists. They may also use ma chine tools, such as grinders, drills, and lathes to make replacement parts for diesel-powered equipment. Where Employed Many diesel mechanics are employed in the service departments of distributors and dealers that sell diesel-powered farm and construction equipment and trucks. Diesel mechanics are also employed by companies and government agen cies that repair and maintain their own fleets of diesel-powered equipment. This group includes local and intercity bus lines, construction, com panies, trucking companies, shipping lines, elec tric power plants, railroads, and Federal, State, and local governments. Because diesel engines are widely used in American industry and commerce, diesel me chanics are employed in all parts of the country. Diesel mechanics learn their skills in several different ways. Most young men who become diesel mechanics first work as mechanics re pairing gasoline-powered automobiles, trucks, and buses. They usually start as helpers to ex perienced gasoline engine mechanics and become skilled by working with them for 3 to 4 years. When employed by firms that use or repair diesel-powered equipment, they are given 6 to 18 months’ additional training in the mainte nance and repair of such equipment. While learning to fix diesel engines, many of these men find it helpful to take courses in the repair and maintenance of diesel equipment offered by vocational, trade, and correspondence schools. Some diesel mechanics, such as those em ployed by railroads, learn their trade through formal apprenticeship programs. These pro grams, which generally last 4 years, give train ees a combination of classroom training and practical experience in fixing the particular types of diesel engines used by their employers. Apprentices receive classroom instruction in blueprint reading, hydraulics, welding, and other related subjects. In their practical train ing, they learn about valves, bearings, injection systems, starting systems, cooling systems, and other parts of diesel engines. Other young men learn to be diesel mechanics through less formal training programs. They are generally hired as trainees by employers who use or repair large quantities of dieselpowered equipment. These trainees are taught to do all kinds of diesel repair jobs by experi enced mechanics. Experienced diesel mechanics employed by companies that sell diesel-powered equipment are sometimes sent to special training classes conducted by diesel engine manufacturers. In these classes, mechanics learn to maintain and repair the latest diesel engines, using the most modern equipment. 427 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN Employers generally look for diesel mechanic trainees and apprentice applicants who have a high school education. Young men who have taken courses in physics, machine-shop work, and mathematics are given preference in hiring because they are likely to have a better under standing of the operation of diesel equipment. Courses in automobile repair, which are offered by many high schools and vocational schools, are also valuable. Employers also look for young men who have both mechanical aptitude and an interest in the accurate work required to make precise adjustments of diesel engines. Many diesel mechanics are required to have their own handtools. A beginner is usually expected to accumulate $100 worth of tools. Ex perienced mechanics usually have over $500 in vested in their tools. There are several advancement possibilities for capable and experienced diesel mechanics. Those who work for organizations that operate or repair large fleets of diesels, such as bus lines or diesel equipment distributors, may advance to supervisory positions of master mechanic or service manager. Some diesel mechanics who are in charge of the engine departments of ships may become marine engineers. To be licensed as a marine engineer by the U.S. Coast Guard, the diesel mechanic must have 3 years’ experi ence in the operation and maintenance of diesel engines on ships, pass a written examination, and meet other requirements. Employment Outlook An increasing number of diesel mechanics will be needed in the 1960’s to maintain and repair the growing number of diesel engines used in American industry and commerce and on the roads and farms of the country. In addi tion to the new jobs expected to develop be cause of the more widespread use of diesel en gines, many job openings will result as diesel mechanics retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. The use of diesel engines to power farm and construction machinery, electric generators, trucks, buses, trains, and ships has been in creasing. For example, the number of diesel trucks and buses in the United States powered increased from about 150,000 in 1956 to approxi mately 200,000 in 1959. The number of dieselpowered locomotives in 1960 was almost double the 15,000 in use in 1950, despite a decline in the total number of railroad locomotives. It is expected that the economic advantages of the diesel engine as a source of power will result in its increasing use in the future. Most industries which use diesel engines in large numbers are expected to expand their activities considerably during the 1960’s. The Federal Government’s vast highway development pro gram will require large numbers of additional diesel-powered bulldozers, cranes, and other construction machinery. Farm mechanization is expected to continue, resulting in the use of many new harvesters, tractors, and other dieselpowered equipment. The number of diesel-pow ered trucks and buses will increase. In addi tion, diesel-powered taxicabs, which are in limited use today, are expected to be used on a much larger scale. Most new job openings in this field will be filled by mechanics who have had experience in repairing gasoline engines. Companies that are replacing gasoline engine equipment with diesel-powered equipment usually retrain their experienced mechanics to service the diesel equipment. Companies which buy additional diesel engines to meet expansion needs usually hire experienced diesel mechanics. Men who have had school training but no practical ex perience in diesel repair work may be able to find jobs only as trainees. Earnings and Working Conditions National wage data are not available for diesel mechanics. However, wage data collected from a few employers and union contracts in dicate that these workers were earning from $2.35 to $2.80 an hour in early 1960. Diesel mechanics employed in some local and intercity bus company repair shops earned between $2.35 and $2.75 an hour in October 1959. Those em ployed by railroad companies to repair diesel locomotives were paid approximately $2.60 an hour in early 1960. The weekly work schedule of diesel mechanics ranges from 40 to 48 hours a week. Many of 428 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK them work nights or on weekends, particularly if they work on diesel equipment that is used in serving the public such as buses, or in electric light and power plants. Diesel mechanics gen erally receive a higher rate of pay when they work overtime hours, evenings, or weekends. Many diesel mechanics also receive vacations and holidays with pay. In addition, they may receive health and life insurance benefits which are at least partially paid for by their employers. Most of the larger repair shops are pleasant places in which to work, but some of the small shops have poor lighting, heating, and ventila tion. Occasionally, diesel mechanics who work for bus lines or construction companies may have to make repairs outdoors where the break downs occur. If proper safety precautions are not taken, there is some danger of injury to men working on heavy parts supported on jacks or hoists. In most jobs, the mechanics handle greasy tools and engine parts. It is often neces sary for them to stand or lie in awkward or cramped positions for extended periods of time. Many diesel mechanics belong to labor unions. Some of the unions to which they belong are the International Association of Machinists; the Amalgamated Association of Street, Electric Railway and Motor Coach Employes of America; The Sheet Metal Workers’ International Associ ation; the International Union, United Auto mobile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Industrial Machinery Repairmen (D.O.T. 5-83.641) Nature of Work The great variety of machinery and equip ment used in American industry is kept in good operating condition by industrial machinery re pairmen (often called maintenance mechanics). When breakdowns occur, repairmen must quickly determine the cause of the trouble and make the necessary repairs. They may com pletely or partly dismantle a machine in order to repair or replace defective parts. After the machine is reassembled, they make the neces sary mechanical adjustments to insure its proper operation. Much of a repairman’s time is spent in pre ventive maintenance. By regularly inspecting the equipment, oiling and greasing machines, and cleaning and repairing parts, he prevents trouble which could cause a breakdown of the machinery. He also may keep maintenance rec ords of the equipment he services. The types of machinery on which industrial machinery repairmen work depend to a great extent on the particular industry in which they are employed. For example, in the apparel in dustry, these skilled workers may be employed to repair industrial sewing machines. They may take sewing machines apart in order to repair belts, adjust treadles, or replace motor bearings. In printing and publishing establishments, skilled industrial machinery repairmen may Repairman cleaning gear teeth on rolling mill component. MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN maintain and repair equipment such as printing presses and folders. Repairmen often follow blueprints, lubrica tion charts, and engineering specifications in maintaining and repairing equipment. They may also use parts catalogs to order replacements for broken or defective parts. Occasionally, repair men may sketch a part which is to be replaced by the plant’s machine shop. In d u stria l m ach in ery rep airm en use wrenches, screwdrivers, pliers, and other handtools, as well as portable power tools. They also may use welding equipment in repairing broken metal parts. 429 adjustment of the machinery and equipment which they will maintain. Classroom instruc tion is given in shop mathematics, blueprint reading, safety, hydraulics, welding, and other subjects related to the craft. Mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity are important qualifications for workers in this trade. Good physical condition and agility also are necessary, because industrial machinery re pairmen are sometimes required to lift heavy objects or do considerable climbing in order to repair equipment located high above the ground. Employment Outlook Where Employed Industrial machinery repairmen work in al most every industrial plant that uses large amounts of machinery and equipment. Metal working establishments, in particular, employ large numbers of these workers. For example, in 1960, the machinery manufacturing industry had about 55,000 maintenance mechanics and the automobile industry, about 9,500. Other manufacturing plants such as textile mills, petroleum refineries, and paper and pulp mills, also employed many of these skilled craftsmen. Because industrial machinery repairmen work in a wide variety of industrial plants, they are employed in every section of the country. However, the largest numbers of these workers are in New York, Pennsylvania, California, Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, New Jersey, Massachusetts, and other heavily industrialized States. Training and Other Qualifications Most workers who become industrial machin ery repairmen start as helpers and pick up the skills of the trade informally through several years of experience. Others learn the trade through formal apprenticeship programs, and this method of entering the occupation will be come more important as machinery becomes more complex. Apprenticeship training usually lasts 4 years and consists of both on-the-job training and related classroom instruction. Ap prentices learn the use and care of the tools of the trade, and the operation, lubrication, and Many thousands of industrial machinery re pairmen will be needed in the 1960’s. The antic ipated use of more machinery and equipment such as machine tools and assembling equipment in manufacturing industries during the next decade will result in continued moderate growth in the employment of industrial machinery re pairmen. Also, as automatic equipment becomes more widespread and is used to make continuous production lines, breakdowns mean greater losses of production and make repair work and preventive maintenance more essential. In addition to the many new job openings for industrial machinery repairmen that will be created by industrial expansion, thousands of new workers will be needed in the next decade to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Earnings and Working Conditions Average straight-time hourly earnings of in dustrial machinery repairmen employed by a wide variety of manufacturing and nonmanu facturing establishments in 47 large metropoli tan areas ranged from $2.13 in Portland, Maine, to $3.12 in Detroit, Mich. More than half of the repairmen covered by these surveys, con ducted between September 1959 and June 1960, earned at least $2.80 an hour. Industrial machinery repairmen are not usu ally affected by seasonal changes in production. During slack periods, when production workers 430 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK are laid off, repairmen are often retained; many companies use machine repairmen to do major repair and overhaul jobs during”such periods. Because motors and other parts of machines are not always readily accessible, maintenance mechanics may work in stooped or cramped positions close to the floor or from the tops of ladders. Industrial machinery repairmen are subject to such common shop injuries as cuts and bruises. However, in recent years, accidents have been reduced by the use of goggles, metaltip shoes, metal helmets, and other safety de vices. Repairmen must frequently work on dirty and greasy equipment. Lighting and venti lation are usually good. Most industrial machinery repairmen belong to labor unions. Some of the unions to which these workers belong are the United Steel workers of America; the International Union, United Automobile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Interna tional Association of Machinists; and the Inter national Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers. Most employer-union contracts cover ing industrial machinery repairmen provide for fringe benefits such as paid holidays and vaca tions, health insurance, life insurance, and re tirement pensions. Instrument Repairmen (D.O.T. 5-83.456, .971, .972, .975, and .980) Nature of Work The many different instruments used to measure and control speed, heat, pressure, weight, time, electrical current, flow of gas, and other quantities are installed and serviced by instrument repairmen. Instruments serv iced by these workers are used in refining oil, in constructing missiles, in generating and dis tributing electricity, in manufacturing steel, and in hundreds of other activities. Automatic pilots which keep airplanes on courses and volt meters which measure electricity are examples of common instruments. Instrument repairmen (also called instrument mechanics, instrument servicemen, instrument men, and instrument technicians) usually specialize in particular kinds of instruments. For example, they may service either electronic or pneumatic instru ments or only timekeeping instruments. To locate and correct trouble, instrument re pairmen visually inspect instruments or use special testing equipment. They use testing equipment such as pressure and vacuum gages, speed counters, and electrical measuring in struments, for example, voltmeters, ammeters, and potentiometers. They compare the read ings shown on such testing equipment with the reading that would be shown if the instruments were operating properly. They also look for electrical leaks, short circuits, and broken wires. They visually inspect instruments for loose or broken parts, rust, and other causes of trouble. Instrument repairmen often take instru ments apart in order to replace worn or dam- Instrument repairmen are becoming more important with the increasing use of instruments. MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN aged parts, or to rewire, straighten, or resolder such parts. They use handtools such as drills, wrenches, and pliers. They also use soldering irons and micrometers. When workers install instruments or small parts, they use watch maker tools such as eyeloops and jeweler’s screwdrivers. Sometimes they operate drill presses, grinders, polishers, and other machine tools to make new parts or to change standard parts to fit particular instruments. As guides in their work, instrument repairmen frequently use instruction books that describe how to in stall, operate, and maintain instruments. They also use schematic diagrams, assembly draw ings, and blueprints. When instruments are reassembled, repairmen give them final checks for proper operation. Instrument repairmen also try to prevent trouble. At regular intervals they look for and correct defects which would cause breakdowns and result in production losses or inconven ience. They also clean, lubricate, and adjust instruments. Repairmen often check instru ments in shops after removing them and in stalling spares. In preventive maintenance work, they follow schedules that tell when particular instruments are to be checked and serviced. Instrument repairmen who install instru ments also advise operators how to use and care for them. In addition, they test new instruments after putting them in place. Some times instrument repairmen modernize older instruments by putting in new parts. Some highly trained instrument repairmen assist scientists and engineers in research and development laboratories. They select and ar range instruments for tests and experiments. They also change instruments to meet special requirements or to get better results. Some times they operate laboratory equipment to obtain samples or readings that will be used by technicians and professional workers. Where Employed More than 50,000 instrument repairmen were employed in 1960 by gas and electric utilities, by petroleum and chemical plants, by manufacturers of instruments, paper products, 431 metals, rubber, missiles, automobiles, electrical equipment, and by air lines. Several thousand of these repairmen work for government agen cies, mainly the Air Force, Navy, and Army. Although instrument repairmen are employed in almost every city, most of them are employed in large cities where large numbers of instru ments are used. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most instrument repairmen are hired as trainees and learn their trade while working on the job. Some companies have formal train ing programs for instrument repairmen; in other companies, trainees learn by working with experienced men. Formal training pro grams often include specialized courses in in strumentation theory, mathematics, and blue print reading, in addition to actual work ex perience. These courses may be given by local schools during or after working hours. Several instrument manufacturers offer spe cialized training to instrument repairmen em ployed by companies which buy their products. These training courses last from 1 week to 9 months, depending upon the number and com plexity of the instruments which these workers are learning to service. Courses are given in design, theory, maintenance, and operation of instruments. Students learn to check instru ments step by step and the reasons why each step is needed. They also learn where to find information about instrument servicing. Young men who are interested in becoming instrument technicians or engineering assist ants in research and development work can train for instrument repair work in technical institutes and junior colleges. The broad pro grams offered by these schools last about 2 years and emphasize science, mathematics, and shopwork. A few instrument repairmen start as ap prentices. Apprenticeship programs, which generally last 4 years, emphasize on-the-job training in repairing and maintaining instru ments. Apprentices also study mathematics, physics, electronics, chemistry, blueprint read ing, and instrumentation theory. Armed Forces technical schools also offer 432 training in instrument servicing. Young men who expect to enter the Armed Forces may wish to investigate opportunities for training and work experience while in military service. Skills acquired in this trade in the Armed Forces often qualify men for civilian jobs as instrument repairmen and for other mainte nance occupations. To become a fully qualified instrument re pairman usually takes at least 4 or 5 years of study and on-the-job training. However, the time required varies considerably depending upon individual ability, the complexity of the instruments being serviced, and whether the training is full time. Some full-time courses for instrument repairmen last 12 weeks. Many companies have training programs which last 2 or more years. Some employers reduce the length of on-the-job or apprentice training for employees who attend courses given by instru ment manufacturers. Men hired as trainees or apprentices gen erally must be high school graduates. Courses in algebra, trigonometry, physics, chemistry, electricity, electronics, machine shop practice, and blueprint reading are considered useful. Some employers give tests to applicants to de termine their mechanical aptitude. Instrument repairmen who meet the public are expected to be neat in appearance and to get along well with people. Other important qualifications are ability to work alone with little supervision, and good hand-eye coordination which is need ed while handling delicate instrument parts. Well-trained instrument repairmen may ad vance to positions of increasing responsibility. They can become group leaders or foremen in maintenance departments. They can advance to jobs as service representatives in branch offices of instrument manufacturing compa nies. Some instrument repairmen become tech nicians or engineering assistants. Because the use of electronic components in instruments will increase, a basic knowledge of electronics will help young men advance in the instrument field. Employment Outlook Employment of instrument repairmen will during the 1960’s, as the use increase rapidly OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK of instruments grows. A few thousand job openings are expected every year in this small but increasingly important occupation. Repair men will also be needed to replace those who are promoted, who transfer to different jobs, or who leave their jobs because of illness, dis ability, retirement, or death. Instruments are becoming more important in industries that manufacture chemicals, pe troleum, steel, paper, and rubber. They are needed to produce and distribute gas, fuels, and electricity. Space satellites and missiles re quire instruments. Scientists, engineers, and technicians in laboratories use instruments in almost every experiment. In these and other applications, instruments have become essential. They improve efficiency of workers, and help make production auto matic. They enable closer control of product quality and reduce waste. They free scientists and engineers for more creative work by speed ing up experiments. Aircraft and missiles re quire control instruments, especially as flying speeds and distances increase. More instru ments are being used for inspection, as pre cision products become more common. Increasing numbers of instruments and growing complexity of instruments will require greater numbers of instrument reoairmen to install them and keep them operating efficiently. Earnings and Working Conditions Average hourly earnings of instrument re pairmen employed in petroleum refineries were $3.12 in July 1959. Information obtained from a small number of collective bargaining agree ments in various companies (gas and electric, chemical, instrument, steel, paper, aircraft, and electronics) shows that most instrument repairmen in 1960 earned between $2.70 and $3.15 an hour. Instrument repairmen employed by Federal Government agencies in Washing ton, D.C. in 1960 received from $2.70 to $2.90 an hour, about the same rates received by non government repairmen in this area. Most instrument repairmen work a 40-hour, 5-day week. Those employed in petroleum re fineries and chemical plants, which operate 24 hours a day and 7 days a week, may work on 433 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN any of three shifts or rotate among shifts. They may also be called to work on Sundays and holidays with emergency crews. They re ceive premium pay for night and holiday work. Most companies provide holiday and va cation pay. Many provide additional benefits, such as life insurance, hospitalization, medical and surgical insurance, sickness and accident insurance, and retirement pensions. Instrument repairmen may service instru ments on factory floors amid noise, oil and grease. They may also work at benches in quiet, clean, well-lighted repair shops. Those employed by instrument manufacturers may have to travel often. Many instrument repairmen belong to unions, including the International Association of Ma chinists; International Brotherhood of Electri cal Workers; International Brotherhood of Pulp, Sulphite, and Paper Mill Workers; Internation al Chemical Workers Union; International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; International Union, United Automo bile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union; and Utility Workers Union of America. Where To Go for More Information For more information on job opportunities, training, and other questions, write to : Foundation for Instrumentation Education and Research, Inc., 527 Lexington Ave., New York 17, N .Y. Instrument Society of America, 313 Sixth Ave., Pittsburgh 22, Pa. Inquiries concerning positions with the Fed eral Government should be made at the regional offices of the U.S. Civil Service Commission. Jewelers and Jewelry Repairmen (D.O.T. 4-71.010, .020, and .025) Nature of Work Jewelers make rings, pins, necklaces, brace lets, and other precious jewelry by hand. They frequently use precious or semiprecious jewels or synthetic stones and set them in gold, silver, or platinum; they also create fine pieces of jewelry, using only these metals. Jewelers also repair jewelry, make rings larger or smaller, reset stones, and refashion old jewelry. In making jewelry, jewelers may follow their own design or one by another person who spe cializes in design work. The metal is formed to follow the design either by melting and casting it or by using small hand and machine tools such as drills, files, saws, soldering irons and jewelers’ lathes. Jewelers’ work is often very fine and delicate and must be done with preci sion, as the materials used are extremely expensive. As a rule, jewelers specialize in making a particular kind of jewelry, or in a particular operation such as making models and tools for jewelry, polishing, or stone setting. A few, after years of experience, become all-round jewelers, capable of making and repairing any kind of jewelery. Costume jewelry and some kinds of precious jewelry are mass produced by factory workers using assembly-line methods. Highly skilled jewelers are needed to make the models P h o to g r a p h by U .S . D e p a r tm e n t o f L a b o r Skilled jewelry worker setting a diamond. 434 and tools necessary to this large-scale produc tion. Many jewelers not only make and repair jewelry but have stores where they sell jewelry and, often, silverware, china, glassware, and other merchandise. However, an increasing number of the newer retail jewelry stores are owned or operated by merchants who are not jewelers. When repair work is brought to these merchants, the articles are sent to a “ trade shop” specializing in this work. Where Employed Probably between 15,000 and 25,000 jew elers and jewelry repairmen were employed in 1960. Most of them worked in retail jewelry stores, either as owners or employees, or in trade shops that serve these stores. Some were em ployed in factories manufacturing either pre cious or costume jewelry. A few worked for department stores and wholesale jewelry firms. Although most small towns have at least one store that sells and repairs jewelry, most of the Nation’s 25,000 retail jewelry stores, as well as the trade shops that service these stores, are located in and near large cities. The chief centers of precious jewelry manufacturing are the New York City metropolitan area, followed by the Providence, R.I., area. The majority of all precious jewelry manufacturing plants in the country are in New York, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. Training and Other Qualifications Young persons generally learn the jewelry trade either by serving a formal apprenticeship or through informal on-the-job training while working for an experienced jeweler. Jewelry repair, which is usually less complicated than jewelry making, can be learned in a short time by individuals already trained in filing, sawing, drilling, and other basic mechanical skills. Courses in jewelry repair are sometimes given in trade schools which teach watchmaking and watch repairing. Formal apprenticeship in this trade takes from 2 to 4 years, depending on the type of training. For example, 3 years are required to OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK become a colored stone setter and 4 years to qualify as a diamond setter. Throughout the apprenticeship, training on the job is supple mented by trade school instruction in design, quality of precious stones, the chemistry of metals, and other related subjects. First work assignments may be to set up work for solder ing or to do simple soldering or rough polish ing. As apprentices gain experience, they ad vance to more difficult work. On completion of the apprenticeship, they become journeymen jewelers. High school education is desirable for young people seeking to enter the trade. Courses in chemistry, physics, mechanical drawing, and art are particularly useful. Personal qualifications important for success in this field are mechani cal aptitude, finger and hand dexterity, and good eyesight. Artistic ability is necessary for work in jewlry design. For those planning to become retail jewelers, the ability to deal with people and manage a business is also important. Because young people entering this trade work with precious stones and metals, they must be bonded. Bonding requires an investigation of one’s personal background for such traits as honesty, trustworthiness, and respect for the law. Employment Outlook Skilled all-round jewelers with artistic talent and mechanical ability will probably be able to find employment readily through the mid-1960’s. Specialized jewelry craftsmen, such as stone setters and modelmakers, will also have favora ble employment prospects, especially in manu facturing shops. Inexperienced jewelers and those of only average ability, however, may en counter difficulty in finding desirable employ ment. Persons planning to open their own jewelry stores should expect to face considerable compe tition in most parts of the country and should be prepared to make a substantial financial invest ment. As in the past, retail jewelers who can also repair watches will have an advantage over those who can work on jewelry only, expecially in the smaller cities and towns. In the long run, little expansion from current 435 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN levels of employment of skilled jewelers and jewelry repairmen is expected in either jewelry manufacturing or retail trade. The anticipated growth in the number of retail jewelry stores is not likely to result in a comparable increase in employment of jewelers, as many of the new stores will be owned and managed by people other than jewelers. Most openings for skilled jewelers will arise from the need to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Such openings are expected to be rela tively few, however, because the occupation is a small one and jewelers traditionally work at the trade well beyond the normal retirement age, or as long as they retain good eyesight and steady hands. Earnings and Working Conditions More than three-fourths of the skilled jewelry workers employed by precious jewelry manu facturers in the New York City area are covered by a union contract between their employers and the International Jewelry Workers’ Union. Under the agreement, effective from 1960 to 1963, apprentices start at $1.25 an hour. They receive increases of 5 cents an hour every 3 months for the first 9 months, and then a 10cent increase every 3 months until they reach the applicable minimum rate for journeymen. The minimum hourly rates for journeymen are $2.40 for setters of colored stones, $2.55 for all round jewelers on handmade work, and $2.80 for modelmakers and diamond setters. Skilled workers in the precious jewelry manu facturing shops of the New York City area have a 35-hour workweek and are paid time and onehalf for all work done before or after the regular workday. Some workers may be subject to un employment during the post-Christmas and post-Easter seasons when sales decline. On the other hand, retail jewelers and jewelry repair men often work more than 35 hours, especially during the Christmas season and other peak periods. Maintenance Electricians (D.O.T. 4-97.420) Nature of Work Maintenance electricians (electrical repair men) are skilled craftsmen who are responsible not only for the maintenance and repair of many different types of electrical equipment, but also for the modernization of such equip ment to increase its efficiency. Equipment worked on by these skilled workers includes motors, transformers, generators, circuit break ers, controls, and lighting equipment used in in dustrial, commercial, and public establishments. A large part of a maintenance electrician’s work consists of periodically inspecting equipment to detect and repair defective equipment before breakdown occurs. When trouble does develop, the electrician must quickly find and repair the faulty circuit or equipment in order to prevent production losses and inconvenience. In emer gencies, it also is his responsibility to advise management whether immediate shutdown of equipment is necessary, or if contineud opera tion would be http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ hazardous. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In his daily work, the maintenance electrician performs many different jobs. For example, he may install new electrical equipment or he may make repairs by replacing units or parts such as wiring, fuses, transformers, coils, or switches. While doing installation or repair work, the electrician may connect wires by splicing or by using mechanical connectors. He may measure, cut, bend, thread, and install conduits through which wires are run to outlets, panels, and boxes. He also may adjust equipment controls and check and adjust instruments. In testing electrical equipment and wiring, the maintenance electrician uses such devices as test lamps, ammeters, volt-ohm meters, and oscilloscopes. He sometimes works from blue prints and other specifications when doing repair or installation jobs. He may make mathe matical computations relating to load capaci ties and connections of electrical wiring and equipment. The many different tasks performed by maintenance electricians call for the use of 436 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Where Employed Maintenance electrician and helper installing transformer. a variety of handtools and power tools such as pliers, screwdrivers, drills, reamers, and conduit bending and threading tools. Although all of these craftsmen possess the same basic skills and use the same tools, the nature of their work depends largely on the size of plant and the particular industry in which they are employed. In large plants, for example, these workers may specialize in the maintenance and repair of electrical machinery such as transformers, motors, and welding ma chines. In small plants, the electrician usually is responsible for all types of electrical work. The maintenance electrician in manufacturing plants usually repairs or maintains the electrical equip ment operated in connection with the produc tion of a specific item. For example, steel mills and aluminum plants require a large number of electricians to keep their rolling mills, heavy cranes, and other electrical and electronic equip ment in good working order. In large office build ings or apartment houses, skilled electricians are needed to maintain or repair w iring; motors; and compressors used in the operation of eleva tors, refrigerators, lights; or other electrical equipment and fixtures. Nearly 250,000 maintenance electricians were employed throughout the country in 1960. More than 110,000 of these craftsmen were engaged in servicing the equipment and machinery Used in manufacturing plants. About 18,000 of these workers were employed by manufacturers of primary metal products; 29,000 in factories producing transportation equipment; 11,000 in chemical and allied products plants; 7,000 in factories producing nonelectrical machinery; 5,000 in plants producing paper and allied prod ucts ; and the remainder were widely distributed among other manufacturing industries. Of the more than 130,000 maintenance elec tricians working in nonmanufacturing estab lishments in 1960, about 50,000 were working in retail and service enterprises; approximately 35,000 were employed by Federal, State, and local governments; 13,000 by railroads, 7,500 by wholesale trade establishments; and 10,000 were employed in maintaining and repairing electrical equipment in mines. Other nonmanu facturing establishments employed the remain der of these skilled workers. The jobs of maintenance electricians are found all over the country. Large numbers of these workers are employed in heavily indus trialized States such as New York, California, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Ohio. % Skilled workers in this trade have the ad vantage of being able to transfer to maintenance electrician jobs in many different industries. With some retraining they may also transfer to construction electrician jobs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Maintenance electricians can learn the skills of their trade through formal apprenticeship programs, or by informal on-the-job training, accumulating experience through a series of jobs in their trade. However, training authori ties generally agree that apprenticeship pro grams give the worker more thorough knowl edge of the trade and greater job opportunities during his working life. The apprenticeship program for maintenance electricians usually lasts about 4 years. Ap prentices are given on-the-job training and re 437 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN lated technical classroom instruction in such subjects as mathematics, electrical and elec tronic theory, and blueprint reading. Such training may include motor repair; wire splic ing ; commercial and industrial w iring; installa tion of light and power equipment; installation and repair of electronic controls and circuits; and welding, brazing, and burning. A young man employed in a plant as a helper to a skilled maintenance electrician may gradu ally acquire the skills of this craft by observing the skilled worker and working under his in structions. Other electricians learn the trade by working in the maintenance department of a plant and picking up some of the job funda mentals. By moving from job to job over a long period of time, they eventually acquire sufficient experience to qualify as skilled crafts men. A young man interested in becoming a main tenance electrician should include courses in mathematics (such as algebra and trigonom etry), physics, electricity, and basic science in his high school or vocational school curriculum. Because electrical work is subject to constant change, many experienced electricians must con tinue to acquire technical knowledge and learn new skills. For example, some maintenance elec tricians who entered the trade some years ago now must learn basic electronics in order to service the new electronic equipment being in troduced in the Nation’s industrial establish ments, and large commercial and residential buildings. In selecting apprentice applicants or trainees, employers look for young men who have manual dexterity and who are interested in learning how electrical equipment functions. These young men need good color vision because elec trical wires are frequently identified by their different colors. Although great physical strength is not essential, agility and good health are important. Some maintenance electricians must be famil iar with local building codes. In addition, a growing number of cities and counties require these craftsmen to be licensed. Maintenance electricians’ licenses can be obtained by passing a comprehensive examination which tests their knowledge of http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ electricity. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Skilled maintenance electricians may become foremen who supervise the work of other main tenance electricians or other maintenance per sonnel. Occasionally, they may advance to jobs such as plant maintenance supertendent. Employment Outlook A substantial increase in the number of main tenance electrician jobs is expected in the next decade, resulting in job opportunities for several thousand new workers each year. The antici pated industrial growth of the country and the long-term trend toward increased use of electri cal and electronic equipment are expected to provide favorable employment prospects for these skilled craftsmen. Many new workers also will be needed to replace the workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Retire ments and deaths alone may result in about 3,500 to 4,500 new job openings a year during the 1960’s. The number of maintenance electricians has increased rapidly with the doubling of electric power production every 10 years since 1900. In the next decade, production is expected to double again. About half of the electric power generated today is consumed by industrial con cerns, and a considerable portion of the re mainder is used in homes, and in large office, hotel, and apartment buildings. Since well over half of the electricity is used in establishments which employ maintenance electricians, it is ex pected that the anticipated expansion in elec trical power production will continue to result in increased employment of these workers. Earnings and Working Conditions In general, the earnings of maintenance elec tricians compare favorably with those of other skilled craftsmen. The average straight-time hourly earnings of maintenance electricians in establishments in 43 cities and areas ranged in 1959-60 from $1.87 in Greenville, S.C., to $3.16 in Detroit, Mich., Birmingham, Ala., and Charleston, W. Va. In most of the cities sur veyed, however, average straight-time hourly earnings for these craftsmen ranged from $2.50 to $3. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 438 In establishments which operate an appren ticeship program, apprentices start at about 60 percent of the journeyman's basic hourly pay rate. They receive increases every 6 months, moving up to 85 to 90 percent of the journey man's rate during the last year of their apprenticeship. During a single day, an electrician employed in a plant may repair electrical equipment both in a clean air-conditioned office and on the fac tory floor, surrounded by the noise, oil, and grease of machinery. Maintenance electricians may be called upon to climb ladders, work on scaffolds, or work in awkward or cramped posi tions when installing or replacing electricial equipment and performing other repair jobs. Because they often work around high-voltage industrial equipment, maintenance electricians must be alert and accurate in carrying out their duties. Errors in wiring installations could have dangerous consequences both to the elec trician and the operating employees. The safety principles which are now part of all training programs have greatly reduced the frequency of accidents. All well-trained maintenance elec tricians are taught to use protective equipment and clothing, to respect the destructive poten tial of electricity, and to handle small electrical fires. Various labor unions have maintenance elec tricians in their membership. Many of these craftsmen are members of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Among other unions to which maintenance electricians belong are the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; the International Association of Machinists; the International Union, United Automobile, Aircraft and Agri cultural Implement Workers of America; and the United Steelworkers of America. Most of the labor-management contracts covering main tenance electricians provide major benefit pro grams which may include paid holidays and vacations; hospitalization, medical and surgical insurance; life insurance; and retirement pen sions. Where To Go for More Information The National Joint Apprenticeship and Training Committee for the Electrical Industry, 1200 18th St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. The State Supervisor of Trade and Industrial Edu cation or the local Director of Vocational Educa tion in the State and/or city in which a person wishes to receive training will have lists of training institutions. M illw rights (D.O.T. 5-78.100) Nature of Work Millwrights are skilled workers who move and install heavy industrial machinery and other equipment. These workers must have a thorough knowledge of the complex industrial equipment on which they work because they frequently take apart, move, put together, and aline this equipment. Millwrights use hoists, cranes, jacks, crowbars, wood blocking, and other rigging devices to move heavy equip ment. In assembling machinery, they fit bear ings, aline gears and wheels, connect belts, and attach motors. In doing this work, they use wrenches, screwdrivers, pliers, hammers, and other handtools. After moving and erecting equipment, millwrights secure it firmly at the new site. To aline and level equipment, they use measuring devices such as micrometers, calipers, squares, plumb bobs, and levels. Mill wrights often work from blueprints when pre paring platforms on which machines are to be mounted or when laying out or installing plant equipment. In addition to moving and installing equip ment, millwrights often repair and maintain conveyors, cranes, hoists, scaffolds, pumps, blow ers and other industrial equipment. Such work may include oiling and greasing machinery, replacing worn or broken belts, and welding metal parts. Millwrights sometimes work as part of a maintenance team of pipefitters and machinery repairmen in keeping a production line operating. 439 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN industrialized States of Ohio, Michigan, Penn sylvania, New York, and Illinois. Training and Other Qualifications C o u rte sy o f U .S . N av al W e ap o n s P la n t Millwrights guiding machine into position as it is lowered by hoists. Where Employed Most millwrights are employed in industries that use heavy machinery and other equipment. The principal employers of the more than 70,000 millwrights at work in 1960 were the steel, machinery, automobile, paper, woodworking, chemical, and construction industries. The steel, machinery, and automobile industries, which are particularly dependent upon mas sive equipment in their manufacturing opera tions, together employed about 30,000 of these skilled workers. Other millwrights are employed by com panies that specialize in moving and installing industrial machinery on a contract basis. Some also work for machinery manufacturers who employ millwrights to install their products in customers’ plants. Millwrights work in every State. However, about half of them are employed in the heavily Millwrights learn the trade by picking up the skills informally or through apprenticeship programs. Those workers who pick up the trade work as helpers to skilled millwrights over a period of years until they acquire sufficient knowledge and experience to be classified as skilled workers. Most training authorities agree that apprenticeship programs give young per sons a more thorough preparation for his skilled trade. Apprenticeship programs gen erally last 4 years. Apprentices are given shop training in dismantling, moving, erecting, and repairing machinery and other equipment. They are also trained in floor layout, the installation of machinery and other equipment, rough car pentry, welding, and the use of structural steel, wood, and concrete. The apprenticeship pro gram includes related classroom instruction in shop mathematics, blueprint reading, hydrau lics, electricity, and safety. Many companies require that apprentice applicants be high school graduates between the ages of 18 and 26. High school courses in mathematics, mechan ical drawing, and machine shop practice are useful to young men interested in becoming millwrights. Because millwrights often put to gether and take apart complicated machinery, mechanical aptitude is helpful to young men entering the trade. Strength and agility are other important qualifications for millwright work, which often requires considerable lift ing and climbing. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for millwrights will increase moderately in the 1960’s, provid ing a few thousand job openings in this trade each year. The building of new plants, the addition of new machinery, changes in plant layouts, and the maintenance of increasing amounts of heavy and complex machinery and other equipment in the 1960-70 decade are all expected to increase employment opportunities for millwrights. 440 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK The paper and pulp industry is an example of an industry which is expected to expand and further mechanize its operations. Mill wrights will be needed in greater numbers in this industry to install, move, and maintain papermaking machines, cranes, conveyors, and other industrial equipment. In addition to new job openings which will be created by industrial expansion and in creased mechanization, many thousands of workers will be needed during the 1960’s to replace millwrights who retire or die. Job vacancies will also be created as millwrights transfer to other lines of work. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of millwrights depend upon the city where they are employed as well as the type of business in which their employer is engaged. Average hourly earnings of mill wrights employed in manufacturing and non manufacturing industries in 28 large metropoli tan areas in 1959-60 ranged from $2.16 in Providence to $3.10 in Detroit. More than 70 percent of these workers earned at least $2.80 an hour. Millwrights employed by companies doing contract installation work and by construction companies usually have higher hourly wage rates than those employed in manufacturing industries. For example, the union wage rates for millwrights working in the building trades in 28 large cities in July 1959 ranged from $3 an hour in Charlotte to $3.94 an hour in Phila delphia. The average was $3.57 an hour. The wage rates for apprentices generally start at approximately 50 percent of the skilled worker’s rate and progress to the full rate by the end of the training period. Millwrights, most of whom work in factories, ordinarily work year-round. Millwrights who work for construction companies and for com panies that move and install machinery on a contract basis may have periods of unemploy ment between jobs. The work of millwrights involves certain hazards. For example, there is danger of being struck by falling tools or other objects or by machinery that is being moved. There also is the danger of falling from high work places. In addition, millwrights are subject to the usual shop hazards, such as cuts and bruises. In recent years, accidents have been reduced by the use of protective devices, such as safety belts, metal hats, and shoes with metal toes. Millwrights must frequently work on dirty and greasy equipment. Most millwrights belong to labor unions. Among the unions to which these workers be long are the International Association of Ma chinists ; United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America; United Steelworkers of America; International Union, United Auto mobile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; International Brother hood of Pulp, Sulphite and Paper Mill Workers ; and the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers. Employer-union contracts covering millwrights usually include provisions for benefits, such as paid vacations; hospitalization, medical, and surgical insur ance; life insurance; sickness and accident in surance ; and retirement pensions. Television and Radio Servicemen (D.O.T. 5-83.416) Nature of Work Young persons who are interested in the rapidly growing field of electronics and who, for various reasons will not attend college, will find many opportunities for employment as television and radio servicemen. These skilled workers use their knowledge of electrical and electronic parts and circuits to install and re pair a growing number of electronic products. Of these, television sets are by far the most prominent; other major electronics products are radios (including home, automobile, and 2-way mobile radios), phonographs, high-fidel ity sound equipment, tape recorders, and public MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN Serviceman checking television receiver. address systems. Many servicemen specialize in repairing one kind of equipment, for exam ple, color television sets or automobile radios. Most of the skilled work done by television and radio servicemen involves diagnosing trou ble in equipment and making necessary re pairs. Equipment may operate poorly, or break down completely, because of worn-out tubes, broken solder connections, burned resistors, dirt, moisture, or other basic troubles that af fect all electronic equipment. When service men turn on television sets or other equipment that needs repair, signs of poor performance, such as no picture or no sound, may tell them what is wrong. Their job is to check and elimi nate each possible cause of trouble, beginning with the simplest and most common cause— tube failure. In other routine checks, they look for loose or broken connections and for parts that are charred or burned (a sign that too much electricity is passing through the parts). When simple, routine checks do not locate causes of trouble, servicemen use meters and electronic test equipment to trace the flow of electricity through wires and other parts. They work back from the point where trouble ap pears, measuring voltage, for example, until an unusual or irregular measurement indicates 441 that part of the set causing trouble. A com monly used meter is the vacuum tube voltmeter. Multimeters, oscilloscopes, signal generators, and other specialized instruments also are used. Servicemen spend much time talking with customers, particularly in homes, where most servicing is done. They advise customers what is wrong with sets and whether sets must be taken to shops for repair. They explain, in general, what must be done to fix sets and give estimates of the costs of repairs. After sets are repaired in homes or returned from shops, servicemen explain what has been done. They may make additional comments as needed to satisfy the customer and may further adjust the equipment to put it in good operating con dition. Work usually done by television and radio servicemen in homes or other places where equipment is used includes making simple elec trical checks with a voltmeter, changing tubes, and making simple adjustments such as focus ing the picture. Servicemen who make cus tomer service calls carry tubes and other components that are replaced frequently. Ap prentices or less experienced television service men install antennas on roofs or in attics and run wires from antennas to sets. Radios and other equipment small enough to be carried to shops by customers, usually are repaired by servicemen in the shops. Television sets are repaired in shops when they develop troubles which appear only after sets have been operating for a few hours, or when the troubles can be located only with test equipment ordi narily kept in shops. Television and radio servicemen in shops often refer to wiring dia grams and instruction books (service manuals) that list parts, show connections within sets, and describe causes of trouble associated with unusual symptoms. Television and radio servicemen use solder ing irons, wire cutters, long-nosed pliers, wrenches, screwdrivers, magnifying glasses, and hammers when they remove, adjust, or replace parts, components, or complete equip ment such as car radios. Such work may be time-consuming and may require patience as 442 well as great care to avoid damaging fragile parts, such as printed circuit boards. Where Employed An estimated 90,000 television and radio servicemen were employed in mid-1960. Many were self-employed. Others worked in inde pendent local service shops, in stores that sell and service consumer electronic products, and in factories and service branches operated by manufacturers of these products. Some servicemen are employed in almost every city, wherever television sets and radios are used. Most of them, however, work in large cities where large numbers of television sets, radios, and other electronic equipment are used and manufactured. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement School training in electronics usually is re quired to become a highly skilled television and radio serviceman capable of working on var ious types of equipment. Vocational or trade school training in electronic subjects has helped many men to qualify as expert tele vision and radio servicemen. Correspondence school courses also may be helpful. Young men who enter military service may wish to inves tigate opportunities to get training and work experience in servicing electronic equipment, because such experience often is valuable in civilian electronics work, including television and radio servicing. From 2 to 3 years' com bined training and on-the-job experience are required to become a qualified television and radio serviceman. Men without previous train ing may be hired as helpers or apprentices if they show aptitude for the work or, like the amateur ( “ ham” ) radio operator, have a hobby in electronics. Many employers and manufacturers conduct training programs at factories or through local distributors for television and radio service men, especially when new models or new prod ucts are introduced. Servicemen also keep up with new developments by studying manufac turers' instruction books and technical maga covering electronics service work. zines OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Television and radio servicemen need a good background in mathematics and physics in order to understand the equipment they work on. They must know how electronic compo nents work, and why they function as they do. They must be able to understand technical publications. Television and radio servicemen must also be tactful and courteous in dealing with customers. Other essential qualifications of television and radio servicemen are ability to manipulate small parts and tools, good hand-eye coordina tion, normal hearing, and excellent eyesight and color vision. Often these servicemen work with delicate wires and parts that are identi fied only by color codes. Television and radio servicemen may advance within the service field and become foremen or service managers. They may also be promoted to other higher paid work, such as technical writing, sales engineering, design, and train ing. Many become owners of independent tele vision and radio service shops. Others may combine a sales and service business. Young persons interested in advancing to higher level positions as electronic technicians or supervisors can improve their opportunities by taking trade school, correspondence, tech nical institute, or other types of advanced courses in electronic engineering, television engineering, automatic controls, engineering mathematics, and other subjects related to elec tronics. Television and radio servicemen often are able to transfer to jobs as electronic mechan ics or servicemen in manufacturing industries or government service. Employment Outlook Television and radio servicemen will con tinue to have good employment opportunities in the 1960's. A few thousand job openings probably will become available each year. Most of these openings will occur because of the growing number of electronic products in the home. Others will result from replacement of servicemen who transfer to other jobs, are promoted, or who retire or die. In 1960, almost 9 of every 10 households had 443 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN television sets. As population increases, the number of television sets will also increase. In addition, the number of homes with two or more television sets and radios is expected to continue to grow. Greater use of television sets is also expected in business and industry, and schools and other institutions. For exam ple, using television sets which show pictures sent from cameras set up in several different locations, a factory guard can check several places at the same time, or a nurse can watch patients in several different rooms at once. Most automobiles and many taxicabs and trucks are equipped with radios. Two-way radios are often used by companies to keep in touch with drivers. Growing numbers of motor vehicles thus will result in increasing demand for radio service work. In recent years, improvements in television sets and radios (such as the use of transistors in place of tubes) have tended to reduce the amount of service this equipment requires. Similar developments in the future may slow down employment growth expected to result from increasing use of consumer electronic products. In the long run, however, techno logical developments will increase employment opportunities for those television and radio servicemen with a broad knowledge of elec trical and electronic circuits. Earnings and Working Conditions According to limited information, most full time employed skilled television and radio serv icemen in 1960 earned from $100 to $115 a week, but some earned as much as $130 a week. Starting pay was about $60 to $70 a week. Television and radio servicemen employed in local service shops or dealer service depart ments commonly work a 6-day, 48-hour week. In large shops, including manufacturers’ serv ice branches, they usually work a basic 40hour week. Servicemen often work at night and on weekends, and for more than 8 hours a day. Usually they receive extra pay for over time or night work. Television and radio service is performed in shops and homes where working conditions are usually pleasant. Inside (shop) servicemen work at benches provided with stools. Outside servicemen may spend an hour or more a day driving between shops and customers. Some physical strain is involved in lifting and carry ing sets. Perhaps the greatest hazard is the risk of falling from roofs while installing an tennas. Electrical shock is another hazard, but it has rarely caused seripds injury. Some employers of television and radio serv icemen provide paid vacations and holidays aft er a specified number of years’ service. Many also provide or help pay for health and insur ance benefits. Where To Go for More Information Additional information about jobs in tele vision and radio servicing may be obtained from local servicemen, local dealers who sell and service television sets and other electronic equipment, and manufacturers of television sets who provide training for servicemen. Local vocational schools which offer courses in tele vision or electronics may also provide helpful information. Watch Repairmen (D.O.T. 4-71.510) Nature of Work Watch repairmen or “ watchmakers” repair and adjust watches, clocks, and other timepieces. This work is precise and delicate. First, the working parts of the watch are removed from the case and examined with the aid of a mag nifying eyeglass. The repairmen may then re place the mainspring, hairspring, balance and other wheels, or broken jewels, and adjust im properly fitted wheels and other parts. The parts may also be cleaned and oiled before the dials, hands, crystal, and wristband are reas sembled. The development of interchangeable mass-produced parts has decreased the need for 444 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Watch repairing requires patience and mechanical skill. making” parts by hand but factory-made parts sometimes must be adjusted to insure a “ true” fit. In their work, watch repairmen use small lathes and handtools such as tiny pliers and screwdrivers. Watchmakers who own or work in retail jew elry stores also repair jewelry and may sell watches, jewelry, silverware, and other items such as china and lamps. They may also hire and supervise salesclerks, other watch repair men, jewelers, and engravers; arrange window displays; purchase goods to be sold; and handle other managerial duties. Where Employed Most watch repairmen work in retail jewelry stores or in separate watch repair shops, either as owners or as employees. Many are employed by department stores and mail order houses or operate watch repair concessions in such estab lishments. Others work for trade shops (not usually open to the public) which repair watches for retail stores. A number work for jeweledwatch factories and importing firms or teach in watch repair schools. There are probably over 25,000 watch repair men employed in all parts of the country, chiefly in the New York City area and in other large cities. A few States— Florida, Iowa, Indiana, Ken tucky, Louisiana, Minnesota, Oregon, Tennessee, and Wisconsin— require that watch repairmen obtain a license to work at the trade. To obtain a license, they must pass an examination de signed to test their skill with tools and their knowledge of watch construction and repair. Watchmakers in all States, however, can dem onstrate their ability by passing an examination given by the American Watchmaking Institute. The certificate awarded watchmakers who pass this examination is widely recognized by em ployers as an indication of an acceptable stand ard of skill. Many young people prepare for this trade through courses given in private watch repair schools. Some enter through vocational high school training. Others are trained in formal apprenticeship or other on-the-job training programs. Watch repair schools generally have no spe cific educational requirements for entrance, al though most students are high school graduates. The length of time required to complete the course— usually 18 months to 2 years— is deter mined by its content, the ability of the indi vidual student, and whether attendance is full or part time. In most watch repair schools, a considerable amount of time is spent taking apart various types of watch movements and reassembling them, truing hairsprings, remov ing and replacing balance staffs and balance wheels, learning how to use a watchmaker’s lathe, and cleaning watches. Some schools offer courses in the repair of unusual types of time pieces, for example, chronographs and new-type electric or electronic watches. Students are re quired to furnish their own tools. Important qualifications for success in this field are mechanical aptitude, finger dexterity, a sensitive touch, good vision (with or without glasses), and patience. For those interested in owning or working in a retail store, salesman ship and a good business sense are desirable. Beginners with sufficient funds— about $1,000 to $1,500 is needed to purchase a watch timing machine and other tools ancf equipment— may open their own watch repair shops. Some watch repairmen gradually extend their serv 445 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN ices to include the sale of various items of jew elry and eventually establish retail jewelry stores. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities will continue to be good through the mid-1960’s for experienced watch repairmen who have established reputa tions for doing high quality work. Jobs for beginners, however, are likely to be somewhat limited. A few new jobs will become available, particularly in small cities where business ac tivities are expanding and in newly established shopping centers in the suburbs of large cities. In addition, inexperienced watchmakers as well as other persons with the qualifications im portant in watch repairing will be in growing demand to work on miniature devices, espe cially in industries producing electronic equip ment. Nevertheless, most openings will probably continue to rise from the need to replace re pairmen who retire, transfer to other fields of work, or die. Employment of watchmakers is likely to rise slowly over the long run. Factors that will tend to increase the demand for watchmakers will be partially offset by other factors that will operate to decrease it. For example, the number of watches in use will undoubtedly rise as the population increases. In addition, the trends toward owning more than one watch, wearing watches as costume jewelry, and buying more children’s watches are expected to continue. The popularity of small watches, which need repair more frequently than large ones, and the in troduction of more complicated timepieces— chronographs, calendar watches, and self-wind ing watches— will also help maintain a large volume of repair work. On the other hand, sales of inexpensive watches which can be replaced at a price as low as the cost of repairing them will probably continue to grow; competition from persons employed in other fields who re pair watches in their spare time is expected to continue; and new types of watches are being developed which will require less repair. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of most beginning watchmakers ranged from about $60 to $80 a week in 1960 depending on individual ability and the type and place of employment. Experienced journey men employed in retail stores generally received from $85 to $125 for a 40-hour week. Watch repairmen who are in business for themselves usually earn considerably more than those work ing for a salary. Earnings of the self-employed depend on the amount of repair work done and, in the case of watchmakers who own retail jewelry stores, the volume of sales. Watchmakers frequently work longer than the standard 40-hour week. Those who are selfemployed or located in small communities usu ally work a 48-hour week or longer. There may be some tendency toward eye strain, but the work involves little physical exertion. This light, sedentary work is frequently recom mended to certain handicapped and disabled workers. Where To Go for More Information Information on schools giving training courses acceptable to the trade, as well as on watch repairing as a career, may be obtained from : American Watchmakers Institute, 18465 James Couzens Highway, Detroit 35, Mich. M ACHINING OCCUPATIONS Almost every product of American industry contains metal parts or is manufactured by machines made of metal parts. Many of these metal parts are made by machining workers, who make up the largest occupational group in the metalworking trades. In late 1960, more than a million workers were employed as all-round machinists, machine tool operators, tool and die makers, instrument makers, setup men, and lay out men. Machining workers, one of the most important groups of workers in the labor force, use ma chine tools to form metal to desired shapes and sizes with great accuracy. Metal parts which must fit together exactly are first shaped by casting, forging, rolling, or stamping, and then finished to more precise measurements by machining. Nature of Work The principal job of machining workers is to operate machine tools. A machine tool is a power-driven machine which holds firmly both the piece of metal to be shaped and a cutting instrument, or “ tool,” and brings them together so that the metal is cut, shaved, ground, or drilled. In some cases, the cutting tool is moved and the metal is held stationary; in others, the metal is moved against a stationary tool. The most common types of machine tools are: grinding machines, drilling machines, lathes, milling machines, cutoff machines, polishing and buffing machines, boring mills, shapers, and planers. Lathes turn and shape metal against a sharp cutting tool. Grinding machines smooth metal parts by means of power-driven abrasive wheels. Boring mills and drilling machines make holes in metal. Milling and broaching machines cut or remove excess metal with tools which have several cutting heads. Shapers and planers are machine tools which produce flat surfaces. 446 Accuracy is very important in metal machin ing work. Metal products usually are made of separate parts which must be interchangeable and thus easily assembled by mass-production processes. Metal parts sometimes are machined accurately to within one-ten thousandth of an inch (which is only one-thirtieth the width of a human hair). Machining workers follow directions which generally are given in draw ings or blueprints which may specify exact dimensions of finished parts. Machining work ers frequently use micrometers and other pre cision-measuring instruments to check the ac curacy of their work against these specifications. Besides operating machine tools, skilled ma chining workers also lay out and assemble metal parts. They use chisels, scrapers, files, and other small handtools in chipping, filing, and polishing the parts so that they will fit together exactly. The all-round machinist is a skilled worker who can operate most types of machine tools. The largest number of machining workers are skilled and semiskilled machine tool operators who run lathes, drilling machines, milling ma chines, grinders, and other machine tools. Un like all-round machinists, machine tool opera tors commonly work with only one kind of machine tool. A highly skilled machining job is that of tool and die maker, who specializes in making dies for use with presses and die casting machines, devices to guide drills into metal, and special gages to determine whether the work meets specified tolerances. Another highly skilled ma chining job is that of instrument maker who machines, with great accuracy, instrument parts made of metal or other materials, and often assembles and tests instruments. Setup men and layout men are skilled specialized workers em ployed in plants which produce large amounts of metal products. Setup men adjust machine tools so that semiskilled machine tool operators can run the machine and perform the proper 447 MACHINING OCCUPATIONS machining- operations. Layout men mark ma chining directions on metal so that an operator can perform the proper machining operations. (A detailed discussion of the types of work performed by workers in each of these ma chining occupations is presented later in this chapter.) Since continuous attention is required when machine tools are in operation, the work may be rather tedious, especially on simple and repet itive machining jobs. However, where the work is varied and complex, and standards of ac curacy are high, a worker can experience the satisfaction which comes to a capable and con scientious craftsman in a highly skilled trade. Location of Machining Work An estimated 600,000 machine tool operators, 300.000 machinists, 150,000 tool and die makers, 35.000 instrument makers, and 45,000 setup men and layout men were employed in machin ing jobs in late 1960. About two-thirds of these workers were employed in the metalworking industries, mostly in plants which manufacture machinery, transportation equipment such as automobiles and aircraft, fabricated metal prod ucts, and electrical machinery and equipment. (See chart 23.) CHART 23 INDUSTRIES EMPLOYING MACHINING WORKERS Thousands of machining workers, I9 6 0 1 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 ! I I I I 1 I I I Machinery (except electrical) I Aircraft Autom obiles Other Transportation equipment Fabricated metal products Electrical machinery All other iEstim ated. Many thousands were employed in nonmetal working establishments such as repair shops of railroads and maintenance shops of factories which make textiles, paper, glass, or chemicals (usually one or only a few machinists worked in each of these establishments). A smaller number worked in industrial and university re search laboratories and shops which fabricate models of new products. Machining workers are employed in every State and in almost every city in the country. More than half of all machining workers are employed in Ohio, New York, Illinois, Cali fornia, Michigan, and Pennsylvania. Other States with large numbers of machining work ers are: Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Jersey, Indiana, Wisconsin, and Texas. Main tenance machinists are employed in almost every city. Most instrument makers are employed in New York City, Chicago, and a few other large cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The common method of entering skilled ma chining occupations is through apprenticeship, which is a period of formal on-the-job training during which the new worker learns all the aspects of his trade. He is taught how to oper ate machine tools, and how to use handtools and measuring instruments. In addition to shop training, the apprentice is given classroom in struction in blueprint reading, mathematics, and other related subjects. In choosing apprentices, employers usually prefer young men who have a high school or trade school education. Some companies use aptitude tests to determine whether apprentice applicants have the neces sary mechanical ability and the temperament suited to perform this exacting work. Machin ing workers must also have good vision, and superior judgment of depth and distance. Most machine tool operators and some ma chinists, tool and die makers, and instrument makers have “ picked up” the skills of their trade informally through experience on several jobs. They generally start in the less skilled machining jobs and gain “ know-how” while working with experienced craftsmen. They gradually advance to more skilled jobs as they 448 acquire experience and knowledge. Some of these workers improve their qualifications for the more skilled trades by taking courses in blueprint reading and shop mathematics in vocational schools. Because machining work is not physically strenuous, women are sometimes employed as machine tool operators. Relatively few women are employed in skilled machining occupations. Skilled machining workers have several ad vancement opportunities. For example, many can advance to supervisory positions such as foreman. Tool and die makers and instrument makers can advance to technical positions, such as tool designer. Skilled machining workers also can open their own tool and die shops or machine shops. Employment Outlook There will be thousands of opportunities for workers to get jobs as tool and die makers, all-round machinists, instrument makers, ma chine tool operators, layout men, and setup men in the 1960’s. A large proportion of these job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other fields of work, or who retire or die. Despite changing business conditions and technological developments, the long-range trend of production-worker employment in the metalworking industries has been upward. Dur ing the 1960’s, the number of workers employed in machining jobs in these industries is ex pected to increase moderately because of in creasing demands for consumer products such as automobiles and appliances, and for indus trial goods such as machinery and instruments. Employment opportunities for machining workers during the 1960’s also may be favor ably affected by defense spending, since it appears likely that the Armed Forces will in crease their purchases of metal products. Many military products will be new products, in volving new metals or alloys and requiring special machining skills. Employment in the individual machining occupations is expected to increase at varying rates. Technological changes are expected to cause employment of machine tool operators, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK setup men, and layout men to increase more slowly than employment of other machining workers. A new technological development is the use of automated machining lines in which machine tools are linked together for automatic production operations. Cutting speeds are also increasing. Increasing mechanization and growth in nonmetalworking industries have expanded needs for maintenance machinists who keep mechanical equipment in good con dition. Machining workers employed in main tenance shops tend to have fairly steady employment over the years, because the amount of work they must do is not wholly dependent on changes in the volume of production. Main tenance work continues even when production declines. The numerical control of machine tools is another technological advance— not yet wide spread— which may affect machining workers. The use of numerically controlled machine tools broadly involves the following sequence of operations: Engineers or draftsmen trans late part dimensions and tolerances, cutter shapes and sizes, cutting paths and sequences, and other data into numbers or codes repre senting numbers. These numbers are punched on tapes or cards which are inserted into elec tronic devices that translate numbers into mo tions or actions such as drilling or cutting. The machine tool operator simply installs the tool, inserts and removes the workpiece, and changes the tapes or cards. Specific effects of numerically controlled machine tools on the employment of machining workers could not be measured accurately in early 1961. However, numerical controls may greatly simplify the jobs of many machining workers and increase their production effi ciency. Also, employment growth may be slowed in some machining occupations. (These effects are discussed in the sections of this chapter which cover individual machining oc cupations.) In addition to the expected rise in machining employment, replacement needs will create thousands of openings. Retirements and deaths of experienced men alone may provide about 20,000 openings annually during the 1960’s. This will be a particularly important factor 449 MACHINING OCCUPATIONS in the skilled machining occupations, which have a relatively high proportion of older work ers. In the less skilled occupations, shifting into other occupations is fairly common, and many openings will arise in this way. cultural Implement Workers of America; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; the United Steelworkers of America; and the Mechanics Educational So ciety of America. Earnings and Working Conditions Where To Go for More Information The earnings of skilled machining workers generally compare favorably with those of other skilled industrial workers. Tool and die makers and instrument makers are the highest paid workers in the machining group, and among the highest paid skilled workers in manufac turing. Detailed earnings information is pre sented in most of the discussions of the individ ual occupations. The National Machine Tool Builders Asso ciation, 2139 Wisconsin Avenue, Washington 7, D.C.— whose members build a large percent age of all machine tools used in this country— will supply information on career opportunities in the Machine Tool Industry. Most machine shops are fairly clean, well lighted, and free from dust. Safety instruc tions are an important part of job training. Because they work with high speed machine tools and sharp cutting instruments, workers in these occupations need good safety habits. Persons working around machine tools are pro hibited from wearing loose fitting clothing and frequently wear protective goggles. Machining work is not physically strenuous. The machine tools do the actual cutting while the machining worker sets the machine, watches the controls, and checks the accuracy of the work. The workers, however, usually stand at their jobs most of the day and move about frequently. Companies that employ machining workers generally provide paid holidays and paid vaca tions. Life insurance, hospitalization, medical and surgical insurance, sickness and accident insurance, and pensions also are often avail able to machining workers. The great majority of machining workers are members of unions. Among the labor or ganizations in this field are the International Association of Machinists; the International Union, United Automobile, Aircraft and Agri The National Tool & Die Manufacturers Association, 907 Public Square Building, Cleve land 13, Ohio, offers information on appren ticeship training, including Recommended Apprenticeship Standards for Tool and Die Makers, certified by the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Apprenticeship and Train ing. Many local offices of the State employment service, affiliated with the U.S. Employment Service, offer free aptitude testing to persons interested in determining their capacity to acquire the skills necessary for the all-round machinist and tool and die making trades. The State employment service also refers appli cants for apprentice programs to employers. In many communities, applications for appren ticeship are also received by labor-management apprenticeship committees. Apprenticeship information also may be ob tained from the following international unions (which have local offices in many cities): International Association of Machinists, 1300 Connecticut Ave. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. International Union, United Automobile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of America, 8000 East Jefferson Ave., Detroit 14, Mich. International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers, 1126 16th St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. 450 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK All-Round Machinists (D.O.T. 4-75.010 and .120) Nature of Work The all-round machinist is a skilled metal worker who makes metal parts with machine tools. A machinist can set up and operate most types of machine tools. His wide knowledge of shop practice and the working properties of steel, cast iron, aluminum, brass, and other metals, and his understanding of what the various machine tools do, enable him to turn a block of metal into an intricate part meeting precise specifications. Variety is the main feature of the work of an all-round machinist. He plans and carries through all operations needed in turning out machined products. He may switch from one kind of product to another. An all-round ma chinist selects the tools and material required for each job and plans the cutting and finishing operations in order to complete the finished work according to blueprint or written specifi cations. He makes standard shop computations relating to dimensions of work, tooling, feeds, and speeds of machining. He often uses pre cision-measuring instruments such as micro meters and gages to measure the accuracy of his work to thousandths of an inch. After completing machining operations, he may finish the work by hand, using files and scrapers, and then assemble the finished parts with wrenches and screwdrivers. The all-round ma chinist also “ heat treats” cutting tools and parts to improve machinability. Machinists employed in maintenance depart ments to make or repair metal parts of ma chines and equipment also have a broad knowl edge of mechanical principles. They sometimes adjust and test the parts they have made or repaired for a machine. All-round machinist using small turret lathe for precision work. such as the railroad, textile, automobile, and printing industries. Many were employed in Navy yards and other installations of the Fed eral Government. Some machinists worked in metalworking factories where large quantities of identical parts are produced, as well as in machine shops where a limited number of varied products are made. An important advantage of this occupation is that machinists can be employed in almost every locality and industry because their skills are required to maintain all types of machinery. The largest number of machinists jobs are found in heavily industrialized States. Where Employed Almost every factory using a substantial amount of machinery employs machinists to keep its mechanical equipment operating. The majority of the approximately 300,000 machin ists employed in late 1960 worked in mainte nance shops of a wide variety of industries Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement According to most training authorities, a 4-year apprenticeship is the best way to learn the machinist trade. Many machinists, how ever, have qualified without an apprenticeship by picking up the trade over years of varied 451 MACHINING OCCUPATIONS experience in machining jobs. Several com panies have training programs which qualify some of their employees as machinists in less than 4 years. A young person interested in becoming a machinist should be mechanically inclined and temperamentally suited to do highly accurate work that requires concentration as well as physical effort. A high school or vocational school education is desirable preparation for machinist training and is required by many employers. Courses in mathematics and phys ics and some knowledge of electronics and hydraulics may be helpful both during and after apprenticeship training. A typical machinist apprentice program lasts 4 years and consists of approximately 8,000 hours of shop training and about 570 hours of related classroom instruction. Shop training includes the learning of proper ma chine speeds and the operation of the various types of machine tools. The apprentice also is taught chipping, filing, hand tapping, dowel fit ting, riveting, and other hand operations. In the classroom, the apprentice studies blueprint reading, mechanical drawing, shop mathe matics, and shop practices. A machinist who has just finished his ap prentice training often is assigned the job of operating a single type of machine tool. With additional experience, he may be assigned jobs requiring him to operate several types of ma chine tools as well as to perform hand opera because of the expected increase in employ ment in this occupation. Thousands of new workers also will be needed each year to re place machinists who transfer to other fields of work, or who retire or die. In this relatively large occupation, retirements and deaths alone may result in about 6,000 job openings annually during the 1960’s. The employment of machinists is expected to increase especially in maintenance shops as industries continue to use a greater volume of complex machinery and equipment. Skilled maintenance machinists are needed to prevent costly breakdowns in highly mechanized plants where machine tools often are linked together by transfer equipment. In such plants, a break down of one machine may stop many other machines. tions. Atlanta __________________ Birmingham______________ Chicago __________________ Cincinnati________________ Detroit __________________ Greenville ________________ Houston_________________ ... Los Angeles-Long Beach Milwaukee _______________ Minneapolis-St. Paul ____ New Y o r k ________________ Portland, Oreg. __________ Rockford, 111. ____________ San Francisco-Oakland .... W orcester________________ Some journeymen machinists, however, remain machine tool specialists and do highly skilled work with one type of machine tool. Numerous promotional opportunities are available to all-round machinists. Many ad vance to foreman of a section or to other super visory jobs. With additional training, others may become tool and die makers or instrument makers. A skilled machinist has excellent op portunities to advance into other technical jobs in process planning, machine program ming, and tooling. Machinists can also open their own machine shops. Employment Outlook Many workers will obtain jobs as machinists opportunities will develop Digitized forthe 1960’s. Some in FRASER Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of all-round machinists com pare favorably with those of other skilled fac tory workers. Maintenance machinists employed in various manufacturing industries in 37 selected areas in 1960, received average straight-time hourly earnings ranging from $1.87 in Greenville, S.C., to $3.17 in Detroit and Milwaukee. Average straight-time hourly earnings of maintenance machinists employed in these industries in the following 15 cities w ere: $2.54 3.14 3.08 2.81 3.17 1.87 3.04 3.01 3.17 2.96 2.90 3.03 2.65 3.10 2.68 Machinists must follow strict safety regu lations when working around high speed ma chine tools. The greater use of safety goggles and other protective devices in recent years 452 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK has reduced the accident rate for these work ers. Most companies which employ machinists provide paid holidays and paid vacations. Many machinists also receive benefits such as life insurance, medical and surgical insurance, and retirement pensions. Unions to which many machinists belong include the International Association of Ma chinists; the International Union, United Auto mobile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; and the United Steelworkers of America. (See introductory section of this chapter for Where To Go for More Information.) Machine Tool Operators (D.O.T. 4-78.000 through .589 and 6-78.000 through .589) Nature of Work Machine tool operators shape metal to precise dimensions by the use of machine tools. Al though some operators can operate several tools, most can operate only one or two machine tools. Many operators are essentially machine tenders who perform simple, repetitive operations which can be learned quickly. Other machine tool oper ators, however, are much more skilled and can perform complex and varied machining opera tions. The work of skilled machine tool operators is similar to that of all-round machinists, except that often it is limited to a single type of ma chine and involves little or no hand fitting or assembly work. (By contrast, all-round ma chinists can operate almost every machine tool.) The skilled machine tool operator plans and sets up the correct sequence of machining operations in accordance with blueprints, layouts, or other instructions. He adjusts speed, feed, and other controls and selects the proper cutting tools for each operation. Adjustments may be necessary during machining operations, and changes in setup also may be required. Therefore, the skilled operator must be able to use all the spe cial attachments of his machine. Upon complet ing his work, he checks measurements with micrometers, gages, and other precision meas uring instruments to see whether they meet specifications. The skilled machine tool opera tor also may select cutting and lubricating oils used to cool metal and tools during machining operations. The majority of machine tool operators are much less skilled than the operators described above. A typical job of a semiskilled operator is to place rough metal stock in a machine tool on which the speeds, feeds, and operation sequence have already been set by a skilled worker. The operator watches the machine and calls his supervisor when anything unusual happens. Special, easy-to-use gages help him to measure work quickly and accurately. The oper ator with limited training may make minor adjustments to keep his machine tool operating, but he depends on skilled machining workers for major adjustments. Lathes, drill presses, boring machines, grind ing machines, milling machines, and automatic Machine tool operator drilling hole in aircraft part. 453 MACHINING OCCUPATIONS screw machines are among the machine tools used by machine operators. Both skilled and semiskilled operators have job titles based upon the kind of machine they operate, such as engine lathe operator, milling machine operator, and drill press operator. Where Employed Machine tool operators are primarily em ployed in metalworking factories where metal parts for automobiles, aircraft engines, ma chinery, and other metal products are mass pro duced. Because of their limited training, few semiskilled operators can work either in the maintenance department of a plant or in a ma chine shop which produces small quantities of parts to special order. Skilled machine tool operators, on the other hand, can work in pro duction, job, or maintenance shops, and in tool rooms, because their greater skills widen their job opportunities. Machine tool operator jobs are found in great est number where metalworking industries are located. States leading in the employment of operators are Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, New York, California, and Pennsylvania. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most machine tool operators learn their skills on the job. A new worker usually starts by observing a skilled operator at work. When the learner is operating a machine, he is super vised closely by a more experienced worker. The new worker learns how to use measuring instruments and to make elementary computa tions needed in shop work. He gradually ac quires experience and learns to operate a ma chine tool, read blueprints, and plan the sequence of machining work. Individual ability and effort largely determine how long it takes to become a machine tool operator. Semiskilled machine tool operators generally learn their jobs within a few months. A period of 11/2 to 2 years of on-the-job training and experience generally is required to become a skilled machine tool operator. Some skilled machine tool operators' jobs are filled by men who have completed machinists' apprentice ships. Some companies have formal training programs for new employees which acquaint them with the details of machine tool operation and machining practice. Although there are no special educational re quirements for semiskilled operator jobs, young persons seeking these jobs can improve their job opportunities by completing courses in mathematics and blueprint reading. In hiring unskilled operators, employers often look for persons who also have mechanical aptitude and some experience working with machinery. Skilled machine tool operators can advance to jobs as all-round machinists and tool and die makers. They may also advance into process planning, machine programming, and mainte nance jobs. Employment Outlook Anticipated growth in the metalworking in dustries in the 1960's is expected to cause some increase in employment of machine tool opera tors. In addition, the need to replace those work ers who transfer to other jobs, retire, or die, may also provide many job opportunities each year. Retirements and deaths alone may result in about 10,000 job openings each year during the 1960's. Technological developments may affect both the number and skill requirements of machine tool operators. The continued development and use of faster and more versatile automatic ma chine tools will result in greater output per operator. Future widespread use of numerically controlled machine tools would also slow em ployment of machine tool operators (see discus sion on page 448). Workers with thorough back grounds in machining operations, mathematics, blueprint reading, and good working knowledge of the properties of metals will be better able to adjust to future technological changes and to find new jobs in the machining field. Earnings and Working Conditions Machine tool operators are paid on an hourly rate or incentive basis, or on the basis of a com bination of both methods of wage payments. Operators employed in production shops are usu 454 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ally classified as class A, class B, and class C operators, according to their skill level. Class A operators are the most highly skilled and usually are paid the highest rates. (In the ma chinery manufacturing industry in 1959-60, class A operators received 20 to 40 cents an hour more than class B operators, and 40 to 80 cents an hour more than class C operators.) Average straight-time hourly earnings for class A drill press, engine lathe, and milling machine operators in the machinery manufacturing in dustry in 1959-60, were as follows: Drill press operators, single or multiple, class A Baltimore _____ Boston _________ _ Buffalo ________ _ Chicago ________ _ Cleveland _____ . Dallas _________ _ Denver ________ Detroit _ Hartford ______ . Houston________ _ Los Angeles-Long Beach ____________ . Milwaukee ____ .. Minneapolis-St. Paul N ewark-J er sey City._ Engine lathe operators, class A Milling machine operators, class A 2.80 2.16 2.41 $2.42 2.48 2.54 2.77 2.73 2.33 3.22 3.12 2.63 2.80 $2.88 2.66 2.56 2.89 2.85 2.30 3.19 3.15 2.59 2.74 2.41 2.78 2.48 2.38 2.75 2.80 2.52 2.58 2.70 2.87 2.56 2.61 $2.56 2.34 2.65 3.02 2.13 Drill press operators, single or multiple, dlass A New York City____ .... Philadelphia________ Pittsburgh ________ Portland ( Oreg.) San FranciscoOakland_________ Worcester _________ 2.31 2.37 Engine lathe operators, class A 2.62 2.68 3.05 2.87 2.99 2.39 Milling machine operators, class A 2.57 2,66 2.90 2.87 2.98 2.43 Machine tool operators are required to wear protective goggles and to avoid wearing loosefitting garments when working around high speed machine tools. Increasing emphasis upon these and other safety regulations in recent years has reduced the accident rate for these workers. Most machine tool operators are members of the International Association of Machinists; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the United Steelworkers of America; and other unions. Most labor-management contracts covering these workers provide health insurance, life in surance, pensions, and other benefits. (See introductory section of this chapter for Where To Go for More Information.) Tool and Die Makers (D.O.T. 4-76.010, .040, and .210) Nature of Work Tool and die makers are highly skilled, creative workers whose products— tools, dies, and special guiding and holding devices— are the b&sis of mass production in metalworking industries. Tool makers specialize in producing jigs and fixtures (which are devices required to hold metal while it is being shaved, stamped, or drilled). They also make gages and other measuring devices which are used in manu facturing precision metal parts. Die makers con struct metal forms (dies) which are used in stamping and f orging operations to shape metal. They also make metal molds used in die-casting and in molding plastics. Tool and die makers also repair dies, gages, jigs, and fixtures. Some and die makers help design tools and dies. tool In comparison with most other machining workers, tool and die makers have a broader knowledge of machining operations, shop prac tices, mathematics, and blueprint reading, and can work to closer tolerances and do more pre cise handwork. Tool and die makers use almost every type of machine tool and precision meas uring instrument. They work with all metals and alloys commonly used in manufacturing. Where Employed Approximately 150,000 tool and die makers were employed in 1960. The largest numbers were employed in plants making industrial, construction, and farm machinery and equip ment. The automobile, aircraft, and other trans- MACHINING OCCUPATIONS Apprentice receiving pointers on die construction from experienced tool and die maker. portation equipment industries also employed large numbers of tool and die makers. Several thousand of these craftsmen worked in small tool and die jobbing shops, which make tools, dies, and other machine tool accessories for use in metalworking factories. Companies manu facturing electrical machinery and fabricated metal products were other important employers of tool and die makers. Many nonmetalwork ing industries also employed tool and die makers. Nearly half of all tool and die makers are employed in California, Ohio, Michigan, New York, and Illinois. Other States with many of these skilled craftsmen are Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Indiana, and Massachusetts. Detroit, Cleveland, Chicago, and Los Agneles are im portant job centers for tool and die makers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Tool and die making requires several years of varied training and experience which is ob tained through formal apprenticeship or equiva lent on-the-job training. Since this work is highly skilled, persons planning to enter the trade should have a good working knowledge of mathematics and physics as well as'' con 455 siderable mechanical ability, finger dexterity, and a liking for painstaking work. In selecting apprentices, most employers prefer young men with high school or trade school education. Some employers test apprentice applicants to deter mine their mechanical aptitudes and their abili ties in mathematics. A tool and die apprenticeship ordinarily lasts 4 or 5 years. Most of the time is devoted to practical shop training, but some classroom work also is part of the training program. Dur ing shop training, the apprentice learns to oper ate major machine tools, such as lathes and mill ing machines. He learns to use handtools in fitting and assembling tools, gages, and other mechanical equipment. Tool and die maker ap prentices study heat treating and other metal working processes. Classroom training in shop mathematics, shop theory, mechanical drawing, tool designing, and blueprint reading also is given to apprentices. After apprenticeship, several years’ experience often is necessary to qualify for more difficult tool and die work. Some companies have separate apprenticeship programs for toolmaking and diemaking. Many metal machining workers have become tool and die makers without completing formal apprenticeships. These men, after years of ex perience as machine tool operators or as machinists and after vocational or correspond ence school training, have developed into all round workers who can skillfully perform al most any metal machining operation, including tool and die making. The increasing complexity of modern ma chinery and metalworking equipment is raising the technical and mental skill requirements for tool and die making. A knowledge of mathe matics, the basic sciences, electronics, and hy draulics will give young persons entering this occupation greater opportunities to further their careers. An early investment in thorough training for this occupation may lead to better paying jobs in the future. Men who have had tool and die training often advance to supervisory and administrative positions in industry. Many tool and die makers become tool designers. Others may open their own tool and die shops. 456 Employment Outlook An increasing number of tool and die makers will be needed in the 1960’s as a result of the anticipated expansion of metalworking activity. In addition, many openings may become avail able as workers transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone may result in about 3,000 job openings an nually in the 1960’s. The anticipated long-range expansion in the aircraft and missile, machinery, and other metalworking industries will result in a con tinued increase in the employment of tool and die makers. Their skills are needed to make the dies and tools used to produce the large numbers of identical metal parts which are often required in these industries. Unlike other machining workers, whose em ployment may be adversely affected by tech nological changes, tool and die makers will help to put many technological developments into effect. More tool and die makers will be needed to make and repair the dies and holding devices used in mass-production industries. However, numerically controlled machining operations may require fewer of the special tools and jigs and fixtures which are now made by tool and die makers. (See page 448 for a discussion of numerical control and other technological changes.) Tool and die makers, as a group, have a longer working life than many other workers in the labor force. Their jobs require extensive skill and knowledge which can be acquired only after years of experience. For this reason, com panies are reluctant to lay off tool and die makers, even when production is decreased. Fur thermore, tool and die makers have greater oc cupational mobility than other workers. They can transfer to jobs as instrument makers or machinists, or find jobs in other industries. Earnings and Working Conditions Tool and die makers are among the highest workers. In 1959-60, paid metal machining OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK average straight-time hourly earnings of tool and die makers in machinery manufacturing job shops in the following cities w ere: Boston _____________________________________________ $2.77 Buffalo ____________________________________________ 2.73 Chicago ____________________________________________ Cleveland __________________________________________ 3.43 3.02 Detroit ____________________________________________ H artfo rd _________________________ ,________________ Los Angeles-Long Beach___________________________ Milwaukee ________________________________________ Minneapolis-St. Paul ____________________________ Newark-Jersey City ______________________________ New York City___________________________________ Philadelphia ______________________________________ 3.56 2.70 3.12 3.18 3.11 2.89 2.78 3.02 Tool and die makers in various manufactur ing industries in 30 selected areas in 1960 were paid average straight-time hourly earnings ranging from $2.09 in Charlotte, N.C. to $3.47 in San Francisco-Oakland, Calif. Because tool and die makers do precision work, the areas in plants or shops where they work are generally clean and well-lighted. Tool and die makers stand part of the time when they are operating machine tools. At other times they do handwork at benches. Sometimes they operate machines, to test tools and dies they have made. Good safety habits are necessary for tool and die makers because they work with high speed machine tools and sharp cutting instruments. The use of safety devices has reduced the in jury rate for machining workers in recent years. Most tool and die makers are members of such unions as the International Association of Machinists; the International Union of Electri cal, Radio and Machine Workers; the Inter national Union, United Automobile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of Amer ica; the United Steelworkers of America; and the Mechanics Educational Society of America. Labor-management contracts covering these workers often provide for life and- health in surance, pension plans, and other benefits. (See introductory section of this chapter for Where To Go for More Information.) 457 MACHINING OCCUPATIONS Instrument M akers (D.O.T. 4-75.010 and .130) Nature of Work The increasing use of instruments in pro duction, research, development, and testing work in industry and government, is making the job of the instrument maker in creasingly important. Instrument makers (al so called experimental machinists and modelmakers) work closely with engineers and scientists in translating designs and ideas into experimental models, special laboratory equip ment, and nonstandard instruments. They also modify existing instruments for special pur poses. Experimental devices constructed by these craftsmen are used, for example, to sta bilize heat (thermostats), measure distance (geodimeters), record earthquakes (seismo graphs), and help control industrial processes (servo-mechanisms). The instrument parts and models made by these workers range from simple gears to intricate navigation systems used in guided missiles. The skills of instrument makers are similar in many respects to those of all-round machin ists, tool and die makers, and setup men. Like these other machining workers, instru ment makers fabricate metal parts by oper ating machine tools such as lathes and milling machines, and by using handtools such as files and chisels. They also determine the sequence of machining operations and follow blueprint instructions. Because accuracy is important, they measure finished parts with micrometers and standard optical measuring instruments. Finally, instrument makers and other machin ing workers make devices that hold metal parts in place and guide tools which shape them. Certain significant differences exist, however, between the work of instrument makers and that of other skilled machining workers. Gen erally, instrument workers are not given de tailed instructions such as blueprints. Rather, they often work from rough sketches, verbal instructions, or only ideas. Thus, in making parts, they frequently use consider able imagination and ingenuity. Instrument makers often work on parts which must not vary from specifications by more than one tenthousandths of an inch (which is 30 times nar rower than a human hair), or even by a few millionths of an inch. To meet these stand ards, instrument makers commonly use special equipment or precision devices, such as the electronic height gage, which are used only in frequently by other machining workers. An other important difference is that instrument makers work with a greater variety of materi als, including plastics and the rarer me tals such as silver and platinum. An instrument maker may construct instru ments from start to finish— making and assem bling all the parts and testing finished instru ments for proper operation. However, in large model shops or where time is important, an in strument maker may cooperate with other workers, each making a part or component of a more complicated instrument. Because they often work on their own and have highly developed manual skills and reason- Instrument maker using ultrasonic machine tool. 458 ing abilities, instrument makers have consider able prestige among their fellow employees. Where Employed Most instrument makers are employed by firms which manufacture instruments. The Federal Government employed about 1,200 in strument makers in 1960. University and com mercial research laboratories also employ in strument makers to make the special devices required in scientific research. The main centers of instrument making are located in and around a few large cities, par ticularly New York City, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Washington, D.C. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most instrument makers advance from the ranks of machinists or skilled machine-tool op erators. These craftsmen, working at first under close supervision and doing the simpler jobs in the instrument shop, usually need at least 1 or 2 additional years of experience to qualify as instrument makers. Other instrument makers learn their trade through instrument-maker apprenticeships which generally last 4 or 5 years. The appren tice's shop training emphasizes the use of ma chine tools, handtools, and measuring instru ments, and the working properties of various materials. Classroom instruction covers re lated technical subjects such as mathematics, physics, and blueprint reading. The appren tice must learn enough shop mathematics to en able him to plan his work and use handbook formulas. A basic knowledge o f mechanical principles is needed in solving gear and linkage problems. Employers generally prefer applicants who have a high school education, including courses in algebra, geometry, trigonometry, science, and machine shop work. Further technical schooling in electricity and electronics is often desirable, and may make possible future pro motions to technician positions. A young man interested in becoming an in strument maker should have a strong interest in mechanical subjects and a better-than OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK average ability to work with his hands. He must have initiative and resourcefulness, be cause instrument makers often work alone and almost always under minimum or no supervi sion. Since the instrument maker often faces new problems, he must be able to develop origi nal solutions. The instrument maker frequent ly must visualize the relationship between indi vidual parts and the complete instrument. He must understand how the instrument is used and the principles of its operation. Be cause of the nature of his work, the instrument maker has to be very conscientious and take considerable pride in creative work. As the instrument maker's skill improves and as he broadens his knowledge, he may ad vance to increasingly responsible positions. About 10 years' experience is required to rise to the top skill level in instrument making. With additional training beyond the high school level in subjects such as physics and ma chine design, some instrument makers may ad vance to technician jobs. In these jobs, techni cians plan and estimate time and material requirements for the manufacture of in struments, or provide specialized support to professional personnel. Others may become supervisors of less skilled instrument makers and help in their training. Employment Outlook The employment of instrument makers is ex pected to continue to increase rapidly during the 1960's, but the number of new openings in any one year will be limited by the relatively small size of the occupation. Probably not more than 35,000 workers were employed as in strument makers in 1960. Growing numbers of instrument makers will be needed to make models of new instruments that may be mass produced in the future, and also to make custom or special purpose in struments that are not needed in large numbers. Many devices made by these crafts men will be needed in the expanding fields of atomic energy, guided missiles, and industrial “ automation" (the use of instruments to di rect and control manufacturing processes). Also, many new precision instruments, which 459 MACHINING OCCUPATIONS will be even more versatile and sensitive than those in current use, can be expected to emerge from growing research and development pro grams of universities, government agencies, private laboratories, and manufacturing firms. New instruments are needed to solve many serious technical and scientific problems. For example, scientists who work with atomic re actors need better control systems for hand ling radioactive materials, as well as improved “ thermometers” which can measure tempera tures in the millions of degrees. Instrument maker employment will not rise as rapidly as total sales and production of in struments because semiskilled workers can produce and assemble instruments that have been standardized and are being pro duced in large quantities. In addition to new job opportunities for in strument makers that will occur as a result of expanded industrial, scientific, and defense re quirements, there will be several hundred new openings annually for these craftsmen as a re sult of promotions to technician positions, transfers to other fields of work, and retire ments and deaths. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of instrument makers compare favorably with those of other highly skilled metalworkers. Wage data obtained from a small number of instrument manufacturers and research laboratories and from, selected union contracts indicate that wages of these craftsmen in 1960 generally ranged from $2.50 to $3.25 an hour. A few skilled instrument makers employed by the Federal Government in Washington, D.C., were receiving from $2.93 to $3.53 an hour, and averaged around $3.15 an hour. Instrument shops usually are not as noisy as some other places where machining workers are employed. Generally, the machines do not run continuously and many of the machine tools are quite small. Serious work accidents are not common among instrument makers, but machine tools and flying particles sometimes cause finger, hand, and eye injuries. Safety rules generally require the wearing of special glasses, aprons, tightly fitted clothes, and shirts with elbowlength sleeves; the wearing of neckties is pro hibited. Many instrument makers belong to unions, two of which are the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers and the International Association of Machinists. Union management contracts covering these workers often provide life and health in surance, pensions, and other benefits. (See introductory section of this chapter for Where To Go for More Information.) Setup Men (Machine Tools) (D.O.T. 4-75.160) Nature of Work The setup man, often called a machine tool job setter, is a skilled specialist em ployed in plants and machine shops which do machining in large volume. His main job is to set up machine tools— that is, to get machine tools ready for use by semi skilled operators. He may also explain to these workers the operations to be performed, and show them how to check the accuracy of their work. Usually a setup man is assigned a number of machine tools, which often are one type, such as turret lathes. However, he may set up several different machine tools such as milling machines and automatic screw ma chines. Working from drawings, blueprints, written specifications, or job layouts, he deter mines the rate at which the material is to be fed into the machines, operating speeds, tool ing, and operation sequence. He then selects and installs the proper cutting or other tools, and adjusts guides, stops, and other controls. He may make trial runs and adjust the machine and tools until the parts pro duced conform to specifications. The machine is then turned over to a semiskilled operator. 460 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK After the machine tool has been running a while, the setup man may make additional ad justments to maintain accurate production. so that metal parts will be made exactly to specifications. Jobs for setup men usually are filled from within a shop by promotion or reas signment. Where Employed Most setup men work in factories that manu facture machinery, automobiles, and aircraft. Usually they are employed by large companies which employ many semiskilled machine tool operators. Setup men usually are not employed in maintenance shops or in small job bing shops. Most of them work in Ohio, Illi nois, Michigan, New York, and California. Training and Other Qualifications To become a setup man, a worker usually must qualify as an all-round machinist or skilled machine tool specialist. A setup man must be thoroughly trained in the oper ation of one or more machine tools. He must read blueprints and make computations in se lecting speeds and feeds for machine tools. He also must be able to explain to a semiskilled ma chine tool operator how to perform machin ing operations and how to check machin ing accuracy. Above all, a setup man must be skilled in selecting the sequence of operations Employment Outlook This is a small occupation which will pro vide a relatively small number of job opportuni ties for new workers in the next decade. Many of these openings will result from needs to re place setup men who transfer to other jobs, are promoted, or who retire or die. Employment of setup men should increase moderately in the 1960’s with the expected greater use of new machine tools which must be set up by skilled workers. The use of numerically controlled machine tools may limit employment growth in this oc cupation (see discussion on page 448). Work re quirements of setup men also may change when numerically controlled machine tools are used. Setup men then may only preset tools, instruct operators, and check the first few parts that are produced. Since setup men are skilled workers, their chances for advancement or transfer into other jobs will remain good. (See introductory section of this chapter for Where To Go for More Information.) Layout Men (D.O.T. 4-75.140) Nature of Work The layout man is a highly skilled specialist who marks metal castings, forgings, or metal stock to indicate where and how much ma chining is needed. His work enables other workers to use machine tools simply by fol lowing his lines, points, and other instructions. He uses many instruments, such as the scriber, with which he marks lines on the surface of the metal; the center punch, to indicate the centers on the ends of metal pieces to be machined or drilled; the keyseat or box rule, for drawing lines and laying off distances on curved surfaces; dividers, for transferring and comparing distances; L- or T-squares for de termining right angles; and calipers and mi crometers for accurate measurement. Not only must the layout man work with extreme accu racy, but he also must be familiar with the operation and capabilities of standard ma chine tools. Where Employed Layout men work primarily in the massproduction metalworking industries employing large numbers of machine tool operators. Most of the layout men work in plants pro ducing electrical machinery and transpor tation equipment. Many are employed in Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, New York, and California. MACHINING OCCUPATIONS 461 correctly prepare detailed work plans for less skilled workers. A layout man must be well trained in mathematics and blueprint reading, and be able to use various precision-measuring tools. Mechanical ability and a liking for pains taking work are other important qualifications for layout men. These skilled jobs usually are filled from within an establishment by promotion or reas signment. Employment Outlook C o u rte sy o f U .S . N av al W e ap o n s P la n t Layout man marking lines and reference points with surface gage to guide machine tool operator. Training and Other Qualifications From 6 to 10 years’ training and experience are needed to develop the skill for this occupa tion. Required training includes a machinist apprenticeship, or an equivalent knowledge of machine tools, machining qualities of metals, and the proper sequence of machining opera tions. Layout men must learn to visualize the sequence of machining operations so they can Employment is expected to increase slowly in this small occupation in the 1960’s. Antici pated growth in metalworking industries— particularly in plants employing large numbers of machine tool operators— will cause employ ment of layout men to increase. Replacement needs also will provide a small number of job opportunities for skilled machinists to be pro moted to jobs as layout men. Use of numerically controlled machine tools may adversely affect employment of layout men (see discussion on page 448). However, correct positioning of metal stock and tools will con tinue to be important, and layout men will be needed to mark accurate reference points. In addition, layout men can easily transfer to other work such as process planning, which will become more important with further technological development. (See introductory section of this chapter for Where To Go for More Information.) FOUNDRY OCCUPATIONS The metal castings produced by foundry workers are essential parts of thousands of pro ducts ranging from automobile engines to cooking utensils. In 1960, an estimated 386,000 workers were employed in the Nation's more than 5,000 foundries. Many of these workers were employed in skilled occupations. Hourly earnings in many foundry occupations were above the average for factory work as a whole. In casting metal objects, a mold is prepared with a cavity in the shape of the casting to be made; metal is then melted and poured into the cavity where it cools and solidifies. (Other metal shaping methods include machining, forging, stamping, and rolling.) The casting process is an economical and fast method of forming metal into a wide range of intricate shapes. Castings have considerable strength and rigidity and range in size from a fraction of an inch to many feet. They may weigh any where from less than an ounce to many tons. Among the thousands of articles made by the casting process are machinery bases, ship pro pellers, bearings, water faucets, water mains, bathtubs, automobile engine blocks, pipe, and aircraft and missile components. Nature and Location of Foundry Work About 290,000 of the foundry industry's workers were employed in 1960 in ferrous foundries— those that make castings of iron and steel. About 60 percent of these workers were in ferrous foundries which produce grayiron castings and the remainder were employed in steel and malleable iron foundries. About 96,000 were employed in nonferrous foundries. Most of this group worked in foundries which made copper-base alloy (bronze and brass), aluminum, magnesium, and lead castings. Most foundries specialize in casting a particular metal since somewhat different methods and equipment are needed for casting the different 462 metals. However, many shops cast several met als. In many foundry occupations, workers can transfer from foundries casting one type of metal to foundries which produce castings of a different metal, with additional training. In general, castings are produced in smalland medium-size shops. About 80 percent of all foundries employ fewer than 100 workers. More than two-thirds of the foundry workers are employed in independent foundries (shops which sell their castings to other firms). The remaining workers are employed in “ captive shops"— foundries that are departments of plants using the castings in the manufacture of their own products. There are five principal methods of casting based primarily on different types of molds. By far the most common of these is green sand molding. In this method, sand composed chiefly of silica and clay is packed in a boxlike container, called a flask, around a pattern (a model of the object to be cast). The pattern is withdrawn and molten metal is poured into the mold cavity to form the desired metal shape. The sand mold can be used only once, but the sand can be reclaimed. A second method, known as permanent mold ing, employs a metal instead of a sand mold. Metal molds, which can be used many times, are used chiefly for casting nonferrous prod ucts. Precision investment casting, a third method (often known as the “ lost wax" process), uses ceramic molds. In this method, a wax or plas tic pattern is coated with refractory clay. After the coating hardens, the wax or plastic is melted and drained out, leaving a mold cavity into which the casting metal is poured. Castings obtained from these molds are very exact and need little machining. Shell molding, a fourth process, was intro duced after the end of World War II and is becoming increasingly important. In this proc- 463 FOUNDRY OCCUPATIONS ess, resinbonded sand shells made from master metal patterns replace green sand molds. Ad vantages of this method are greater precision, good surface finish of the casting, lower unit cost in quantity production, and ease in han dling, because of the lighter weight of the shell mold compared with other types. Die casting is a process in which molten metal is forced under high pressure into steel dies from which the resulting castings are automat ically ejected. Because die casting is done entirely by machines operated by die-casting machine operators, it is a distinctly different process from other casting methods. The work performed by die-casting machine operators is not described in this chapter, but these workers are included in the total employment estimate. Some foundries use very little mechanized equipment. These foundries are usually small, ordinarily use the sand molding method, and produce small amounts of different kinds of castings. They employ all-round molders (the key foundry occupation) and a substantial number of unskilled laborers. Other foundries are highly mechanized and are typically large shops that produce great quantities of identical castings. For example, such a foundry may produce thousands of auto mobile engine cylinder blocks. In such'shops, a large amount of mechanized equipment is used. For example, materials and castings be ing processed are moved with mechanical con veyors and cranes. These shops use relatively few unskilled laborers. They also employ pro portionately fewer highly skilled workers than the small, relatively unmechanized shops, since the large shops usually divide the job duties of the all-round molder, coremaker, and other skilled workers into specialized functions that are performed by semiskilled workers. There are foundry jobs in every State and almost every large- or medium-size city in the country. Very frequently, foundries are located near the plants where their castings are used. As a result, they tend to be concentrated in areas where there is considerable metal working. The greatest numbers of foundry workers are http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ found in the important metal Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis working centers of Ohio, Michigan, Pennsyl vania, Illinois, and Indiana. Foundry Occupations More than four-fifths of the approximately 386,000 workers in foundries or foundry de partments in 1960 were employed in plant occupations. (See tabulation below.) More than half of the plant workers had jobs which are not found in other industries. It is these occupations that are chiefly discussed in this chapter of the Handbook. Occupational group Percent of total employment Total employment______________________________ 100.0 Nonplant occupations _________________________ Professional and technical________________ Managerial ________________________________ Clerical and sales_________________________ 16.5 4.2 3.5 8.8 Plant occupations ______________________________ Specialized casting occupations___________ Materials movement, mechanical_________ Equipment maintenance and repair______ Machining occupations____________________ Laborers and service occupations_________ 83.5 47.0 4.0 7.5 3.0 22.0 In order to explain more clearly the duties of foundry workers, a brief description of the jobs involved in the most common casting process — sand casting— is presented. The first step in foundry work after the cast ing has been designed is for the patternmaker to make a wood or metal pattern in the shape of the final casting desired. Next, a hand molder makes a sand mold by packing and ramming sand, specially prepared by a sand mixer (D.O.T. 4-82.310; 6-82.310 and .320), around the pattern. A molder's helper (D.O.T. 8-82.10) sometimes assists in these operations. When the job calls for large numbers of iden tical (usually small) castings, a variety of ma chines are used to perform many operations at a much faster rate than is possible by hand. An operator of any one of these machines is called a machine molder. A coremaker shapes sand, specially prepared by sand mixers, into a core (a body of sand designed usually to create a hollow space in the casting). The core is baked in an oven by a core-oven tender (D.O.T. 6-82.120). Core parts or sections are put together by a core assembler OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 464 (D.O.T. 6-82.060). The core is then placed in the mold and the mold is ready for the metal pouring1 . A melter, or cupola tender (D.O.T. 4-91.851, .411, .441, and .572), operates a furnace that melts the metal. The metal is customarily poured into the mold by a pourer (D.O.T. 6-91. 610, .612, and .613), although in some small foundries it is part of the molder’s job. When the casting has cooled, it is taken out of the mold by a shakeout man (D.O.T. 8-82.10) and sent to the cleaning and finishing department. Chippers (D.O.T. 6-82.910) and grinders (D.O.T. 6-82.330) use pneumatic chisels, pow ered abrasive wheels, saws, and handtools, such as hammers, chisels, and files, to remove excess metal and to finish the casting. The rough sur face of the casting may be cleaned by sand blasting. Sandblasters (D.O.T. 6-82.720) op erate machines which blast the casting with air mixed with abrasive particles. The casting surface may be smoothed by tumbling. In this process, castings, together with an abrasive material, and sometimes water, are placed in a barrel which is rotated. As the barrel turns the castings tumble against each other, thereby removing sand, burrs, and scale. The men who control these barrels are called tumbler opera tors (D.O.T. 6-82.730). Sandblasters and tum bler operators may also operate a machine that both tumbles and blasts the castings. The casting may be placed in heat treating furnaces to improve the physical properties of the metal; heat treaters, such as annealers (D.O.T. 6-87.110), run these furnaces. Casting inspectors (D.O.T. 6-82.920) then check fin ished castings for structural soundness and properties, and determine whether their dimen sions meet blueprint specifications. The number of workers in the principal oc cupations unique to the foundry industry are shown in chart 24. Detailed discussions of the duties, training, and other qualifications; earn ings ; and employment outlook for three of these occupations— molders, coremakers, and pattern makers— are given at the end of this chapter. There are many workers in those foundry oc cupations which are found in other industries as well as in foundries. These workers made up a substantial part of foundry employment CHART 24 EMPLOYMENT IN SELECTED FOUNDRY OCCUPATIONS Thousands of workers, I9 6 0 1 0 10 20 30 40 50 ----------------1 ----------------1 ---------------- 1 --------------- 1 1 -------------- 1 M olders Chippers and grinders Corem akers Patternmakers M elters and pourers Shakeou t men Inspectors, ca stin gs 1 Estimated. in 1960. About 29,000 of these workers, such as maintenance mechanics, machinists, car penters, and millwrights, maintain and repair foundry plant and equipment. Foundries em ployed an estimated 7,000 crane and derrick operators and 4,000 truckdrivers. In many foundries, some of the castings are machine finished. Nearly 8,000 machine tool operators do this work. Foundries also employed about 85.000 workers in relatively unskilled jobs, such as guards, janitors, laborers, and helpers. About 64,000 foundry workers were em ployed in professional, office, managerial, or sales jobs. Included in this group were nearly 12.000 engineers, chemists, metallurgists, and other technical workers. Some were employed in research activities. Engineers and other technical personnel have been employed in greater numbers in recent years to improve castings and meet new production and quality requirements. Constant effort has been made, for example, to develop methods of reducing the weight of castings without losing strength and other important characteristics. Current research also deals with the problem of getting 465 FOUNDRY OCCUPATIONS greater accuracy in the molding process. Other engineers and scientists are employed to design and lay out machinery and equipment and to supervise plant operation and mainte nance. About 2,000 of the industry's professional and technical workers were technicians who worked in a variety of functions concerned with the control of quality in casting produc tion. In this group are workers who test mold ing and coremaking sand, make chemical anal yses of metal, and operate machines which test the strength and hardness of castings. Some use X-ray or magnetic apparatus to inspect the internal structure of castings. The foundry labor force is predominantly male. Women, who make up only about 6 per cent of the industry's labor force, are employed primarily in office jobs, but some are employed in such plant jobs as semiskilled coremaker. Negroes account for about one-third of the plant workers in foundries. They are employed in skilled as well as unskilled jobs, with a con siderable number working as skilled molders and coremakers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most foundry plant workers start in un skilled jobs, such as laborers or helpers. Spe cialized jobs in the plant are frequently filled by promotion. A worker may begin as a laborer and, after receiving informal on-the-job train ing from a foreman or experienced worker, gradually learns how to perform the more skilled jobs. This is the usual practice in train ing workers for such direct casting process jobs as melter, chipper, and grinder. The majority of skilled foundry workers— particularly hand molders, hand coremakers, and patternmakers— learn their jobs through formal apprenticeship. In this type of train ing, the young worker is given supervised onthe-job training for a period of 3 to 5 years, usually supplemented by classroom instruction. A worker who has completed an apprentice ship program is usually preferred by foundry management because he has a greater working knowledge of all foundry operations and is, therefore, better qualified to fill supervisory jobs. Employment Outlook The foundry industry will hire many thou sands of new workers in the 1960-70 decade, mainly to replace experienced workers who re tire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Be cause the industry employs a large number of workers (about 386,000 employees in 1960), retirements and deaths alone should create from 7,000 to 10,000 job openings annually dur ing the 1960's. Foundry employment is expected to rise slowly above the 1960 level. A sizable increase in foundry production is anticipated. Many of the industries that use large quantities of cast ings in their products, such as the aircraft, construction, and machinery industries, are expected to expand their output considerably in the 1960's. However, foundry employment is expected to rise at a much slower rate than production. Continued improvements in casting methods, particularly in machine molding and coremaking, and the increasing use of machin ery for materials handling will result in greater output per worker. Employment of technical personnel— par ticularly sand technologists, metallurgical as sistants, and some other technicians— will con tinue to grow faster than that of most other groups of foundry workers. Two factors which will tend to increase the demand for scientists and other technical workers in the industry are the expected introduction of new scientific techniques in casting and quality control, and the expansion of research ac tivities. Many maintenance workers and oper ators of materials moving machines will be em ployed also, owing to the increasing use of more and more complex processing and materials handling equipment. In contrast, the numbers of hand molders, hand coremakers, and other hand processing workers will show little in crease, because of the increasing substitution of machine molding and coremaking for hand processes. The number of laborers and other unskilled workers employed in the industry will decline. 466 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment in foundries has been sensitive to changes in general business conditions. For example, employment rose sharply in 1951, dur ing the Korean conflict, and in 1955-56, when business activity was again at a high level. Foundry employment dropped substantially during 1949, 1954, and 1958, when business activity generally declined. During the 1960,s, it is expected that substantial year-to-year changes in the level of foundry employment will continue. Earnings and Working Conditions Wages in foundries are somewhat above the average for all manufacturing. In November 1960, production workers in iron and steel foundries earned an average of $94.13 a week or $2.51 an hour (including pay for over time and night w ork). In nonferrous foundries, the average was $101.09 a week or $2.54 an hour. These averages compare with average weekly earnings of $90.16 or average hourly earnings of $2.30 for production workers in all manufacturing industries in the same month. Working conditions in foundries have im proved greatly in recent years. In many of the new foundries, improvements have been made by reducing the heat, fumes, smoke, and noise that are part of foundry operations. Progress has also been made in reducing the foundry in dustry's injury-frequency rate (the average number of disabling work injuries for each million employee-hours worked). However, this rate is higher than the rate for manu facturing industries as a whole. From 1947 to 1960 the injury-frequency rate in independent gray-iron and malleable-iron foundries was re duced from 44.5 to 24.5, and from 27 to 18.3 in independent nonferrous foundries. The rate for all manufacturing industries was 11.3 in 1960. Patternmaking and coremaking generally have the lowest injury rate among the different foundry production operations; molding has a somewhat higher rate. Jobs in melting and chipping tend to have the highest injury rates. Various labor unions have foundry workers in their membership. Among these unions are the International Molders and Foundry Work ers Union of North America; the United Steel workers of America; the International Union, United Automobile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the Inter national Union of Electrical, Radio and Ma chine Workers. Many patternmakers are mem bers of the Pattern Makers' League of North America. Where To Go for More Information International Molders and Foundry Workers Union of North America, 1225 East McMillan St., Cincinnati 6, Ohio International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers, 1126 16th St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. National Foundry Association, 4321 St. Charles Rd., P.O. Box 172, Bellwood, 111. Non-Ferrous Fou nd ed Society, Inc., University Bldg., 1604 Chicago Ave., Evanston, 111. Gray Iron Founders’ Society, Inc., National C ity-E. 6th Bldg., Cleveland 14, Ohio. American Foundrymen’s Society, Golf and W olf Rds., Des Plaines, 111. Malleable Founders’ Society, Union Commerce Bldg., Cleveland 14, Ohio. Steel Founders’ Society of America, 606 Terminal Tower, Cleveland 13, Ohio. (Detailed discussions of professional, tech nical, mechanical, and other occupations found in the iron and steel industry as well as in many other industries are given in the sections of this Handbook covering the in dividual occupations. See index for page num bers.) Molders Nature of Work The molder prepares a mold, made of spesand, which contains a hollow dally prepared space in the shape of the item to be made. The mold is made by packing and ramming prepared sand around a pattern— a model of the object to be duplicated— in a molding box FOUNDRY OCCUPATIONS 467 occupation vary considerably. An all-round hand molder (journeyman) makes many different kinds of molds. A less skilled molder does more repetitive work, specializing in a few simple types of molds. Machine molders (D.O.T. 4-81.025 and .050; 6-81.010 and .020) operate one of several types of machines which simplify and speed the making of large quantities of iden tical sand molds for castings. The machine molders’ duties consist mainly of assembling the flask (molding box) and pattern on the machine table, filling the flask with prepared sand, and operating the machine by the prop erly timed use of its control levers and pedals. They are commonly semiskilled workers, whose duties are limited to operating the ma chines which are set up for them. Sometimes they are journeymen molders who set up and adjust their own machines with little super vision. Machine molders are employed mainly in production foundries which make large quantities of identical castings. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement C o u rtesy o f U .S . N av al W e ap o n s P la n t Hand molder ramming sand around pattern in flask. called a flask. A flask is usually made in two parts which can be separated to allow removal of the pattern by the molder without damaging the mold cavity. Molten metal is poured into the cavity which, when solidified forms the casting. The sand is prepared by adding water and other substances so it will hold its shape and not crumble when molten metal is poured into the mold. A molder uses rammers, trow els, shovels, mallets, and other handtools in the handling, compacting, and smoothing of sand in molds made by hand. The nearly 47,000 workers in this occupa tion in 1960 were classified either as hand or machine molders. Hand molders use mainly hand methods to make the sand molds. Molds for small castings are usually made on the workbench by bench molders (D.O.T. 4 81.010); those for large and bulky castings are made on the foundry floor by floor molders (D.O.T. 4-81.030). Skill requirements in this Completion of a 4-year apprenticeship train ing program, or the equivalent in experience, is needed to become a journeyman molder and thus qualify for all-round hand molding and for the skilled specialized or supervisory jobs. Men with this training are also preferred for some kinds of machine molding. The molder apprentice works under the close supervision of journeymen who instruct him in the skills of the craft. About half of the apprenticeship training is devoted directly to molding. The apprentice may begin with a simple job, such as shoveling sand, and gradu ally take on more difficult and respon sible work, such as ramming molds, with drawing patterns, and setting cores. He also learns to operate the various types of molding machines. As his training progresses, he makes complete molds, beginning with simple shapes and progressing to those of increasing complexity. This training includes both floorwork and benchwork. In addition, the appren tice works in other foundry departments in order to develop the diversified knowledge of 468 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK foundry practice needed by fully qualified molders. He is taught sand preparation, melting of metal, and how to clean and finish castings. The apprentice usually receives, in addition, at least 144 hours of classroom instruction each year in such subjects as shop arithmetic, metallurgy, and shop drawing. Molders’ helpers and less skilled hand mold ers frequently learn the various elements of skilled molding informally, while on the job, and then seek jobs as journeymen. However, this is often a lengthier and less reliable way of learning the trade than through apprentice ship. The less skilled type of hand molding, in which highly repetitive work is done, requires only a brief training period. “ Learners” (either men without previous foundry experi ence or upgraded foundry helpers) are assigned to work with a molder engaged in making a particular kind of mold. After 2 to 6 months of this training, the learner is usu ally competent to make the same mold or one that is roughly similar, without close supervision. The more difficult and responsible types of machine molding jobs also require formal or equivalent training. However, the less skilled machine molding jobs are ordinarily learned in 60 to 90 days of on-the-job training. An eighth grade education is usually the minimum requirement for apprenticeship. Many employers specify additional education up to and including high school gradu ation. Eighth grade schooling, however, is sufficient for learners of less skilled hand molding or machine molding jobs. Physical standards for molding jobs are fairly high. The molder stands at his work, moves about a great deal, and must do frequent lifting. The hand molder needs a high degree of manual dexterity and good vision. Since the work is fairly strenuous, very few women are employed as molders. Employment Outlook The need to replace molders who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work will provide most of the job openings for new workers to enter this trade during the 1960’s. Re tirements and deaths alone will provide about 1,000 openings annually. Several hundred of these openings will be for molding ap prentices. There will be even more openings each year for workers in entry jobs in machine molding and in the less skilled types of hand molding. Little increase in the total number of mold ers is expected during the 1960’s, despite the expected sizable increase in foundry produc tion. The continuation of the trend toward more machine molding and less hand molding, and increasing use of permanent molds and shell molds, will result in a greater foundry output per molder employed. Earnings and Working Conditions In mid-1959, experienced machine molders in gray-iron foundries in 12 metropoli tan areas had straight-time average hourly earnings ranging from $2.42 to $2.97. The lowest straight-time average hourly earnings reported for floor molders were $2.46; the highest earnings were $2.83. In 11 of the 12 areas, hand bench molders had straight-time average earnings ranging from $2.37 to $2.80 an hour. Most molders are members of labor unions. Many of them have been organized by the In ternational Molders and Foundry Workers Union of North America. Others are members of the United Steelworkers of America; the International Union, United Automobile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Work ers of America; and the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers. (See introductory section of this chapter for Where To Go for More Information.) Coremakers Nature of Work Coremakers prepare the “ cores” which are placed in molds to form the hollows or holes usually required in metal castings. The poured metal solidifies around the core so that when the core is removed, the desired cavity or con- 469 FOUNDRY OCCUPATIONS tour remains. A core may be made either by hand or machine. In both instances, prepared sand is packed into a core box, a block of wood or metal into which a hollow space of the size and shape of the desired core has been cut. After the core has been removed from the core box, it is hardened either by baking or by other drying methods. When hand methods are used to make a core, the coremaker uses mallets and other handtools to pack and ram sand into the core box. In hand coremaking, small cores are made on the workbench by bench coremakers (D.O.T. 4-82.010) and bulky cores are made on the foundry floor by floor coremakers (D.O.T. 4-82.010). There is a wide range of skill requirements in this occupation. All round hand coremakers (journeymen) prepare different kinds of large and more intricate cores. The less skilled coremakers make the smaller and simpler cores frequently produced in large numbers, so that the work is highly repetitive. Many skilled coremakers are em ployed as supervisors. Machine coremakers (D.O.T. 6-82.010, .020, and .030) operate several different types of ma chines which force sand into specially shaped hollow forms to make the sand cores. Some machine coremakers are required to set up and adjust their own machines and do any neces sary finishing operations on the cores. Other coremakers are primarily machine tenders. They are more closely supervised and the nec essary adjusting of the machines is done for them. Machine coremakers are employed mainly in foundries where large quantities of identical castings are made. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Completion of a 4-year apprenticeship train ing program or the equivalent in experience is needed to become a skilled hand core maker. Coremaking apprenticeships are also sometimes required for the more difficult and responsible machine coremaking jobs. Only a brief period of on-the-job training is needed for less skilled hand coremaking and for most machine coremaking jobs. Training in core making and molding are often combined in a single apprenticeship. The coremaking apprentice works with journeymen coremakers, first helping them in routine duties and then undertaking more ad vanced work, such as making simple cores, or operating core ovens. As his skill increases, the apprentice makes more complex cores. He acquires experience in benchwork and floorwork and in the operation of any coremaking machines used in the plant. On-the-job train ing is generally supplemented by classroom instruction covering such subjects as arithmetic, shop drawing, and the properties of metals. Hand coremakers with all-round training have opportunities for promotion to supervisory jobs. An eighth grade education is usually a mini mum for coremaking apprentices; some em ployers require that apprentices be high school graduates. Persons without previous foundry experi ence may be hired directly for the less skilled coremaking jobs, or foundry laborers or helpers may be upgraded to do this work. Physical requirements for light coremaking are not exacting because the work is not very strenuous. Some types of hand coremaking require a high degree of manual dexterity. Women are frequently employed to do light coremaking. Employment Outlook During the 1960’s, employment of hand and machine coremakers is expected to increase slowly above the 1960 level of about 25,000. The continued trend toward a greater propor tion of cores being produced by ma chine rather than by hand and the resulting greater output per worker will limit the growth in the number of coremakers. The need to replace experienced workers who re tire or die will create about 500 additional job openings annually for new workers. Other new workers will be required to replace core makers who transfer to other fields of work. Earnings and Working Conditions Experienced machine coremakers in grayiron foundries in six metropolitan areas, in 470 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK mid-1959, had straight-time average hourly earnings ranging from $2.40 to $3. Average earnings of hand coremakers in 12 areas ranged from $2.06 to $2.86 an hour. Most coremakers are members of labor un ions. Many of them have been organized by the International Molders and Foundry Work ers Union of North America. Other unions which have coremakers in their membership include the United Steelworkers of America; the International Union, United Automobile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers. (See introductory section of this chapter for Where To Go for More Information.) Patternmakers Nature of Work Patternmakers are highly skilled craftsmen who manually build patterns used in making molds out of which foundry castings are formed. About half of the nearly 19,000 work ers in the occupation in 1960 were metal 'pat ternmakers (D.O.T. 5-17.010). A large propor tion were ivood patternmakers (D.O.T. 5 17.020) and a small number worked with other materials such as plaster and plastics. The patternmaker must be able to work from blueprints prepared by an engineering depart ment. He makes a precise pattern for the product, after allowing for shrinkage of molten metal used in the casting process and for other factors. The metal patternmaker prepares patterns from metal stock, or more commonly, from rough castings made from an original wood pattern. He uses a variety of metalworking machines, including the engine lathe, drill press, shaper, milling machine, power hacksaw, and grinder, to shape and finish the patterns. The wood patternmaker selects the appro priate woodstock, lays out the pattern, marks the design for each section on the proper piece of wood, and saws each piece roughly to size. He then shapes the rough pieces into final form, using various woodworking machines, such as lathes, planers, bandsaws, and sanders, as well as many small handtools. Finally, he assembles the pattern segments by hand, using glue, screws, and nails. Throughout his work, the patternmaker care fully checks each dimension of the pattern. A high degree of accuracy is required, since any imperfection in the pattern will be reproduced in the castings made from it. Other duties of Patternmaker using a gouge to carve wood pattern. patternmakers include making core boxes (in much the same manner as patterns are con structed) and repairing patterns and core boxes. About half of the patternmakers work in specially equipped pattern shops in foundries. The other half work in establishments that make patterns for foundries on order, or in departments of plants that buy castings from a foundry. Training and Other Qualifications Apprenticeship, or a similar program of onthe-job training, is the principal means of 471 FOUNDRY OCCUPATIONS qualifying as a journeyman patternmaker. Be cause of the high degree of skill and the wide range of knowledge needed for patternmaking, it is very difficult to obtain the necessary train ing by informally picking up the trade. How ever, in some instances skilled machinists have been able to transfer to metal patternmaking with additional on-the-job training or expe rience. Good trade school courses in pattern making provide useful preparation for the prospective apprentice. Such courses may, in some cases, be credited toward completion of the apprenticeship period. However, these courses do not substitute for apprenticeship or other on-the-job training. The usual apprenticeship period for pattern making is 5 years. At least 720 hours of class room instruction in related technical subjects is normally provided. There are separate ap prentice programs for wood and metal pattern making. The patternmaker apprentice begins by help ing journeymen in routine duties. Then he makes simple patterns under close supervision, gradually learning to use the various types of machines and handtools. As his training prog resses, the work becomes increasingly complex and the supervision more general. Patternmaking, although not strenuous, re quires considerable standing and moving about. A high degree of manual dexterity is especially important because of the precise nature of many hand operations. The ability to visualize ob jects in three dimensions is also important. Employers generally require patternmaker ap prentices to have had at least a high school education. Employment Outlook Little change in the number of patternmak ers is expected in the 1960’s. Despite the in crease in foundry production, the number of patternmakers has not grown significantly for several decades. Mass production, which re quired the preparation of large numbers of identical castings, resulted in greater use of metal and plastic rather than wood patterns. As the more durable metal patterns can be used many times in the making of identical molds, the number of individual patterns required for a given number of castings has declined. Replacement needs will provide some job op portunities for new workers to be trained as patternmakers. It is estimated that about 500 new patternmakers will be needed annually in the 1960’s to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Most of the job openings will be in metal patternmaking. Because patternmakers learn either basic metalworking or woodworking skills, they can find jobs in related fields when patternmaking employment is not available. Wood pattern makers can qualify for skilled woodworking jobs, such as cabinetmaker, and metal pattern makers can transfer their skills to machine shop jobs, such as machinist or layout man. Earnings and Working Conditions Experienced wood patternmakers in grayiron foundries in six metropolitan areas, in mid-1959, had straight-time average hourly earnings ranging from $2.80 to $3.88. Many patternmakers are members of the Pat tern Maker s’ League of North America. (See introductory section of this chapter for Where To Go for More Information.) FORGE SHOP OCCUPATIONS Forging is the process in which workers use hammers and presses to shape glowing hot metal. This method of shaping metal is similar to that used by the oldtime blacksmith, except that large mechanical equipment is substituted for the blacksmith’s small handtools. Because forged metal is strong, such items as automobile crankshafts, gears, screwdriver blades, pliers, and aircraft and missile parts are produced by forging. Most forged products are made of steel, but brass, aluminum, and other metals are also forged. Some forged parts weigh less than a pound, but others weigh many tons. Some of the jobs required to produce forgings are found only in forge shops; this chapter deals primarily with such jobs. (For a detailed description of the duties, training, working conditions, and job prospects of blacksmiths, who do work similar to that of many forge shop workers, see the statement on blacksmiths, page 507.) The basic equipment used by forge shop workers consists of various types of hammers, presses, and furnaces. Forge shop workers may also use handtools such as tongs, wrenches, and measuring devices such as rulers and calipers. The principal forge shop jobs are concerned with the operation of forging hammers, presses, and furnaces. Crews, generally consisting of from 2 to 10 men, operate this equipment. A crew usually specializes on a particular kind of hammer or press. Duties of the more important forge shop jobs are described below: Hammersmiths (D.O.T. 4-86.120) control N atu re o f W ork Before metal may be forged, workers must first heat it in intensely hot furnaces. Then other workers manipulate the glowing hot metal between die halves that shape the metal. These die halves are attached to hammers or presses which pound or squeeze the metal. Other workers smooth off the rough edges of the forged metal parts and perform other finishing operations. The dies used in forging may be either flat (called open dies), or they may have a hollow space in the form of the metal part to be forged (called closed dies). Open dies are generally used where a small number of identically shaped forgings are to be produced. Closed dies are usually used to make large quantities of identical forgings (for example, automobile crankshafts). 472 Hammerman forging metal between “closed” dies attached to drop hammer. FORGE SHOP OCCUPATIONS steam hammers, equipped with open dies, that pound hot metal blocks and bars into particu lar shapes. The precision of these forged parts depends on the skill of the hammersmith. He interprets blueprints, drawings, or sketches to determine how to work the metal under the hammer. He directs a crew of assistants in the manipulation of the metal and controls the force of the hammer so that the piece being forged will be shaped to the customer’s speci fications. The hammersmith may also deter mine whether the metal being worked needs additional heating. During the forging process, he may also place various forming tools be tween the dies and the part being forged in or der to make forgings of various simple shapes. The hammersmith’s crew consists of one or more helpers; a hammer driver ( “ hammer runner” ) who manipulates the controls of the hammer to regulate the force of the forging blow; a craneman who transfers large blocks of heated metal from the furnace to the ham mer and manipulates the metal under the ham mer; and a heater who heats the metal to the correct f orging temperature. Drop hammer operators (D.O.T. 4-86.110), often called hammermen or forgers, operate different types of drop hammers that shape heated metal by pounding it between closed dies. These workers use tongs to pick up and turn the heavy, hot metal bar or block on the bottom half of the die, and operate the controls of the hammer to strike the number of blows required to shape the metal. A drop hammer operator supervises the helpers and heaters as signed to him. He may set the dies in the hammer or supervise his crew in doing this work. The level of skill required of these operators depends on the size and the type of drop ham mer being used and the size and complexity of the object being forged. Generally, operators of large, steam- or compressed-air-powered ham mers who regulate the force of the forging blow, are more skilled than operators of other kinds of hammers. Drop hammer operators who forge very large, unusually shaped objects must also be highly skilled. Press smiths (D.O.T. 4-86.125) work on huge forging presses which shape hot metal 473 by squeezing it between open or closed dies. These skilled workers must know how to con trol the heating of the metals, regulate the pressure of their forging presses, and position the work between the dies. Their duties may also include setting up the dies in the presses. Many of the skills and duties of press smiths who work on forging presses equipped with open dies are similar to the skills of hammer smiths. Both groups of workers must be able to understand blueprints, drawings, or sketches in order to transform heated metal into fin ished forgings; both groups of workers must be able to manipulate heated metal between open dies; and both groups of workers may have to supervise crews composed of an assist ant operator, a craneman, a heater, and several helpers. Press smiths who work on forging presses equipped with closed dies must work to more precise specifications than open die press smiths but do not need as much skill because the closed dies determine the shape of the forging. The closed die press smith may supervise a small crew or he may work alone. Upsettermen (D.O.T. 4-86.125) operate up set machines which forge hot metal by applying pressure to the metal as it is held between dies. Unlike forging presses and hammers in which metal is shaped as the top die is dropped or pressed on the lower die, in an upset machine the metal is shaped as one die moves against the other die parallel to the ground. Upsettermen control the heating of metal, adjust the machine’s pressure on the metal, aline the dies, and position the metal between the dies. A small crew consisting of a heater and helpers is often supervised by an upsetterman. Deep-socket wrenches, aircraft engine cylinders, bolts, and valves are some of the products made in large quantities on upset machines. Heaters (D.O.T. 4-88.081) control the sup ply of fuel and air in furnaces so that different metals can be heated to the most suitable tem peratures for forging. When the heater sees that the metal is at the right temperature, by observing the color of the metal or by using a temperature gage, he may move the metal to the hammers or presses, using tongs or me 474 chanical moving equipment. The heater is also responsible for keeping the inside of the fur nace clean. Inspectors (D.O.T. 4-86.162) check forgings for size, shape, quality, and other specifications. Some inspectors examine forged pieces for flaws and faulty workmanship while the forgings are still hot. Others inspect forgings after they have been trimmed and cleaned. Inspectors visually inspect forged parts or they may use micrometers, calipers, or other measuring de vices to determine whether forged parts meet exact specifications. Testing for flaws may also be done with strength and hardness testing machines, electronic testing devices, and other testing equipment. Die sinkers (D.O.T. 4-76.010) are the highly skilled workers who make the closed dies that are used on some forging hammers and presses. Working from a blueprint or drawing, a die sinker traces the outline of the object to be forged on two matched blocks of steel. He carves the shape of the piece to be forged in the steel blocks by using drill presses and other machine tools. The die sinker smoothes and finishes the die cavity using handtools such as small files. Finally, the die sinker makes a sample casting from the completed dies, and checks all the measurements using a micro meter and other precision measuring instru ments. A considerable number of forge shop workers are employed to clean and finish forgings. For example, trimmers (D.O.T. 6-88.717) remove excess metal from forged pieces with presses or hammers equipped with trimming dies. Chippers (D.O.T. 8-78.10) use power hammers to remove inperfections. Grinders (D.O.T. 8 77.10) remove rough edges from completed forgings with mechanically powered abrasive wheels. Sandblasters (D.O.T. 6-82.720) operate sandblasting or shotblasting equipment to clean and smooth forgings. Picklers (D.O.T. 8-74.13) dip forgings in an acid solution to remove sur face impurities. Heat treaters (D.O.T. 4-87.220) heat and cool forgings under controlled con ditions, to make them last longer. They produce forgings of specified degrees of hardness and strength by cooling them in the air or in baths of water, oil, or brine. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Where Employed Independent shops (forge shops that produce forgings for sale) employed almost two-thirds of the nearly 70,000 workers who were directly engaged in the production of forged products during 1960. The remainder were employed in the forging departments of steel mills; by manufacturers of automobiles, farm machinery, handtools, structural and ornamental metal products used in bridges, buildings, and boats; and in types of plants which use forgings in their final products. Employment of forge shop workers is con centrated mainly in Wisconsin, Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, and Pennsylvania. Forge shops are usually located near steel producing centers, which provide steel for forgings, as well as near metalworking plants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most forge shop workers learn their skills through on-the-job training and work experi ence. As they acquire experience and skills, they progress from the simple to the more difficult jobs. Advancement to the skilled job of hammersmith, for example, requires 4 or 5 years of on-the-job training and experience. The basic entry job of hammer and press crews is that of helper, although in some plants workers begin as heaters. After a worker has served as a helper, he may be upgraded to one of the more skilled jobs, such as heater, ham mersmith, drop hammer operator, or forging press operator. Employers usually require no more than an eighth grade education for helpers and heat ers, but high school graduates are preferred. Therefore, young men interested in preparing themselves for the more skilled forge shop jobs and for supervisory positions should complete high school and include mathematics, drafting, and shopwork in their studies. Because much forge shop work involves lift ing and moving of heavy forgings and dies, workers must be strong. However, cranes may be used for moving very large objects. Forge shop workers must have the stamina to work under very hot and noisy conditions for an en tire working day. 475 FORGE SHOP OCCUPATIONS A few companies offer apprentice training programs for the more skilled forge shop jobs, such as die sinker, heat treater, hammersmith, hammerman, and press smith. The programs, which generally last 4 years and provide 8,000 hours of varied training, give the trainee a combination of classroom training and practi cal experience in using the tools of the trade. For example, hammersmith apprentices learn how to operate hammers and furnaces and how to use handtools. They also learn about the properties of metals, how to read blueprints, and how to weld. The die sinker apprentice ship lasts from 4 to 8 years, depending on the particular area or shop in which he works. Inspectors who visually inspect rough forg ings, using simple gages, can usually perform their jobs after on-the-job training lasting only a few weeks. However, inspectors who exam ine forgings that must meet a customer’s exact specifications are required to have some tech nical background in blueprint reading and mathematics. They may also be given several months of on-the-job training before they can operate the more complicated testing equip ment. Employment Outlook A few thousand young people each year will have opportunities to get jobs in forge shops during the 1960’s. Many of these openings will result from the expected moderate growth in the employment of forge shop workers. Other opportunities will arise because workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work will have to be replaced. Additional workers will be needed in forge shops because metalworking industries which use forgings in their final products— particu larly the aircraft and missile, industrial ma chinery, and automobile industries— are expect ed to expand. However, the growth in forge shop employment may be limited by the use of metal castings to replace some forged parts, by the competition from new material and metals which are not forged, and by the con tinued use of more modern equipment. The Digitized wider use of more modern equipment will for FRASER probably have a greater effect on the employ ment of helpers than on the employment of the more skilled forge shop workers. Earnings and Working Conditions In January 1961, production workers (includ ing unskilled and semiskilled workers as well as skilled craftsmen) in independent iron and steel forging plants had average earnings of $115.85 a week or $2.95 an hour. Production workers in all manufacturing industries aver aged $90.25 a week or $2.32 an hour in the same month. In many forge shops, the earnings of ham mer and press smiths are determined by the number of forgings they produce. Other mem bers of hammer or press crews are paid a per centage of the operators’ pay. An examination of several union-manage ment contracts indicates that skilled hammer smiths, press smiths, and die sinkers received the highest hourly rates among forge shop workers; die sinker rates were between $3 and $4 an hour. According to a private survey of a large number of union-manage ment contracts covering forge shop workers, the rates for many hammersmiths and press smiths in mid-1960 were between $2.25 and $3.25 an hour, although these workers fre quently earned considerably more depending on the number of f orgings produced. Most forge shop workers are union members. Many are members of the International Broth erhood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers. Others are members of the United Steelworkers of Amer ica; the International Union, United Automo bile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the International Asso ciation of Machinists, and the International Die Sinkers’ Conference (Ind.). Many of the plants which employ forge shop workers have union-management contracts which provide in surance and pension plans, and other nonwage benefits. Although forge shops typically "are hot and noisy, working conditions have been improved in recent years. Many firms have installed 476 large ventilating fans and have attempted to reduce machine concussion and vibration. The injury-frequency rate in forge shops is higher than in many other types of factory work, but it has been declining in recent years because of the greater emphasis upon safety precautions. Forge shop firms and the unions have contributed to the reduction of accidents in forge shops by promoting greater use of OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK protective goggles, metal-toe shoes, metal hel mets, and safety guards at the machines. Where To Go for More Information Drop Forging Association, 1121 Illuminating Bldg., 55 Public Square, Cleveland, Ohio. International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers, 570 New Brotherhood Bldg., Kansas City 1, Kans. DRIVING OCCUPATIONS One out of every 19 male American workers in the civilian labor force in 1960 earned his living as a driver or deliveryman. Over 2% million men played a vital role in moving pas sengers and goods over miles of highways and city streets. (See chart 25 for percent of em ployment by individual occupation.) They transported food and thousands of other prod ucts used in our homes, schools, and factories. They also transported millions of Americans to and from work every day. Some of them, like the over-the-road truckdriver, the intercity bus driver, the local bus driver, and the taxicab driver, spend practi cally all of their working time in driving. Others, like the local truckdriver and delivery man, spend considerable time in loading and unloading goods, making pickups and deliveries, and collecting money. Still others, like the routeman, spend a good deal of their time sell ing. This chapter deals only with employment opportunities for drivers of intercity and local trucks and buses; routemen; and taxicab drivers. Many driving jobs require a high degree of responsibility. Drivers, for the most part, oper ate large and expensive equipment which they must drive carefully, obeying safety regulations and traffic laws, to deliver their passengers and freight safely. These men are on their own, away from direct supervision. Although employment in some driving jobs is not expected to increase substantially during the next decade, expansion in the employment of local and over-the-road truckdrivers is antic ipated as a result of increased freight tonnage. Normal turnover in this large occupational field will also provide many job opportunities each year. Driving jobs offer excellent opportunities for young men who are not planning to attend college and who have no interest in or aptitude for the skilled technical occupations. The pay of most drivers is relatively high and working conditions are fairly good. Many young men will also enjoy the freedom from close super vision, as well as the frequent contacts with people, which is characteristic of most of these jobs. CHART 25 TRUCKDRIVERS MAKE UP FOUR-FIFTHS OF WORKERS IN DR IV IN G JO BS.... Percent of em ploym ent, I9 6 0 * 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 r --------1 --------------r~---------1 ---------1 ----------- t ----------- 1 Local truckdrivers O v e r-th e -ro ad truckdrivers T axicab drivers Routemen Local transit bus drivers Intercity bus drivers Over-the-Road Truckdrivers (D.O.T. 7-36.240) Nature of Work the top professional drivers in the country. The men at the wheels of the big trucks seen on our highways and turnpikes are generally These men drive the largest and most expensive equipment and receive the highest wages of all 477 478 Over-the-road truckdriver checking light and air line connections before starting trip. drivers. They are on their own practically all the time and have a great deal of responsibility. Most over-the-road drivers operate gasoline or diesel powered tractor-trailers. (The tractor is the vehicle with the very short chassis which draws the trailer in which the freight is carried.) They deliver goods usually over long distances— frequently driving at night. Unlike the local truckdriver who spends con siderable time in loading and unloading, the over-the-road driver (sometimes called intercity driver, line-haul driver, or long-haul driver) spends practically all of his working time in driving. He. may, however, sometimes handle the freight he carries. Some drivers, for ex ample, may have to unload their goods because they make deliveries to stores at night when there are no receiving crews on hand. Drivers of long-distance moving vans generally have to load or unload their vehicles, with the assistance of helpers hired locally. The truckdriver must back up big trailers to loading platforms. To do this requires the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ability to maneuver the trailers while driving in reverse. The driver must also be able to judge distances accurately while driving around corners or through narrow passageways. Because the over-the-road truckdriver spends most of his time driving, safe driving practices and courtesy are of the utmost importance. Every one has seen the emergency warning signals set out by a driver near his disabled truck on the edge of the highway. Many motor ists have noted the courtesy of truckdrivers who pull off to the shoulder of the road at the top of a hill to allow the accumulated traffic to pass. The long-haul truckdriver has a responsible job which also requires initiative. He is en tirely on his own for long periods of time, trans porting goods and materials of great value which must be delivered safely and on time. Interstate Commerce Commission regulations require drivers to inspect their trucks before and after trips and make out reports on the condition of the vehicles at the end of the run. Drivers are also required to keep a daily log of their activities. If a driver has an accident, he must make out a detailed report. W h e re E m p lo y e d The more than one-half million over-the-road drivers are employed throughout the United States. Many work out of some of the large cities, such as Chicago and Los Angeles; how ever, some large companies have their operating headquarters in fairly small towns. Over-the-road drivers are employed by private and for-hire carriers. Private carriers are com panies, such as chain food stores or manufac turing plants, which use trucks to transport their own goods. For-hire carriers are either common carriers (trucking companies serving the general public) or contract carriers (truck ing firms hauling goods under contract only for certain companies). Most of the drivers of the big tractor-trailer combinations on long in tercity runs are employed by common carriers. On shorter hauls, many drivers are employed by contract and common carriers to make de liveries of machinery, food, petroleum products, household appliances, and other items, from DRIVING OCCUPATIONS plants to warehouses and from warehouses to large volume purchasers. Qualifications, Training, and Advancement Regulations of the Interstate Commerce Com mission establish minimum qualifications for over-the-road drivers. The driver must be at least 21 years of age, able-bodied, with good hearing and vision of at least 20/40 with or without glasses. He must be able to read and speak English, have at least 1 year’s driving experience (which may include driving private automobiles), and a good driving record. Most States require truckdrivers to have a chauffeur’s license, which is a commercial driving permit obtained from State Motor Vehicle Depart ments. These are minimum standards which apply to all over-the-road drivers. Most fleet opera tors, however, have higher standards. Many firms will not hire drivers under age 25. Some employers specify height and weight limita tions. Many require applicants to have at least a grade school education; others require 2 years of high school. Some companies will employ only an applicant who has had several years of experience in handling vehicles of the type he would be required to drive. The standards for over-the-road drivers are higher than those which generally prevail for local truckdrivers. Furthermore, these stand ards are more strictly adhered to than those for local drivers, whose standards frequently may be lowered when there is an insufficient number of applicants for local driver jobs. The truck-trailer combination often seen on our highways probably costs as much as $20,000 and the load inside may be worth more than $100,000. The owners of this transporta tion equipment, therefore, employ drivers with a know-how based on years of driving experi ence and who also can accept great responsi bility. Many training authorities and employers rec ommend that young men interested in becoming professional drivers would do well to take the driver-training courses offered by many of the Nation’s high schools. If such a high school not available, the professional driving course is 479 schools which operate in most large cities are recommended. A high school course in auto motive mechanics is also very helpful. Most long-haul drivers have had experience in local trucking. Usually they have entered this occupation by first driving a small, light truck. After gaining experience they have moved on to the larger and more complicated trucks. A young man may also begin as a helper to a local truckdriver and assist him in loading and unloading the truck. He may occasionally do some driving to relieve the driver. Another type of experience considered very desirable by employers is a combination of in tercity bus and local truck driving. This ex perience may be gained by working for an in tercity bus company for the spring and summer months and by working for a local trucking company during the fall and winter months delivering such products as fuel oil. Thus, the driver gets the road experience with the bus company and learns how to handle a truck and trailer with the local trucking company. All employers are interested in obtaining good, safe, reliable drivers, but the methods of selection and training vary. Some companies have formal tests and training programs. Other companies do their hiring on the basis of per sonal interviews and their training program consists of a “ break-in” period during which the new employee observes and works with an ex perienced driver. Applicants for jobs as over-the-road drivers are required to pass a physical examination which is usually paid for by the employer. Many firms also give written traffic and driving knowledge tests. Some employers give tests to measure such factors as sharpness and field of vision, reaction time, the ability to judge speed, and emotional stability. The last step in the selection of drivers is the road test. The ap plicant is expected to demonstrate his ability to handle, under a variety of driving conditions, a vehicle of the type and size he will operate in regular service. A new driver may be given a brief indoctrina tion course. Company policy is explained and the new employee is taught how to prepare the various forms he will use on the job. The new driver will then make one or more training 480 trips with an instructor or an experienced driver. Drivers employed by common carriers fre quently start on the “ extra board,” bidding for regular runs on the basis of seniority as vacancies occur. (The extra board is a list of men, assigned in rotation, who substitute for regular drivers or who make extra trips when necessary.) Drivers for private carriers are more likely to begin with assigned regular routes. Promotional opportunities in this occupation are limited. A few drivers may advance to jobs as safety supervisors, driver supervisors, and dispatchers. Most drivers, however, can only expect runs which will give them higher earnings. Employment Outlook A very substantial increase in the employ ment of over-the-road truckdrivers is antici pated during the 1960’s as a result of increased industrial activity, continued decentralization of industry, and the movement of population to the suburbs. A large number of job openings will also be created by transfers from this field of work. Many long-haul truckdrivers often re turn to local truckdriving jobs. Several thou sand additional openings will also result each year from retirements and deaths. The freight carried by over-the-road trucks has been increasing as a result of the general economic growth of the Nation and because trucks have been hauling an increasing propor tion of the total freight. Many factories, ware houses, and stores are being located at great distances from each other in suburban or semirural areas where rail facilities are nonexistent or extremely limited. Furthermore, the growth of chain stores and the trend to decentraliza tion of factories are developments requiring daily coordination of shipping which can best be handled by trucks. Improvements in trailer design have also con tributed to more over-the-road trucking. These advancements have made it possible to ship cer tain kinds of freight for longer distances by truck than was previously possible. For ex OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ample, some refrigerated trailers now provide temperatures down to 20 degrees below zero, and new livestock trailers feature controlled ventilation, nonskid floors, and interior walls designed to avoid bruising and other injury to the animals. As a result of these, and other factors mentioned previously, a large part of the future increase in long-haul freight traffic will probably be by truck and thus expand the demand for over-the-road truckdrivers. Some recent freight transportation innova tions will limit somewhat the anticipated in crease in trucking business and driver employ ment. For example, “ piggyback,” the movement of highway trailers on railroad flat cars, which saves the cost of driver, fuel, and tractor, ap pears to have promising prospects, although it accounts for only a small share of total freight shipped at present. The increasing use of trailer-carrying ships, recently introduced for the transportation of loaded trailers for long distances, could also adversely affect the em ployment of over-the-road truckdrivers. In any event, the effect of this latter innovation would be largely limited to the movement of those commodities where the time element is not too important. In addition, the trucking business may under go a considerable expansion without a corres ponding increase in driver employment. State limitations on truck weight, size, and speed are being liberalized as a result of the construction of better highways. The movement of bigger loads at higher average speeds could result in a need for fewer drivers than would otherwise be required to move the greatly increased overthe-road tonnage anticipated during the 1960’s. The over-the-road driver has a better chance of remaining employed during business reces sions than workers in many other occupations. Although the total tonnage moved declines, over-the-road trucking is less affected than other means of transportation. It gets a larger share of the shrinking transportation business be cause manufacturers and merchants, unable to buy merchandise in railroad carload lots can reduce inventories and still maintain their di versified stock by small daily shipments by truck. DRIVING OCCUPATIONS Earnings and Working Conditions Most over-the-road drivers earned well above $100 a week in 1959. Drivers employed by class I common carriers of general freight (carriers with gross operating revenues of $1 million or more a year) had average annual earnings of $7,839 in 1959, the most recent year for which such data are available. The rates paid to overthe-road drivers are fairly uniform because this is a highly unionized field and union-employer contracts are generally master agreements covering all employers within a region— an area including a number of States. Furthermore, regional contracts tend to be quite uniform be cause drivers working under different contracts often travel the same routes. The earnings of an individual driver are affected by such factors as the mileage driven, the number of hours worked, the type of equipment driven or the weight of the loads carried, and the type of “ run” — whether or not pickup or delivery enroute is required. Drivers on the longer runs are generally paid on a mileage basis for actual driving time. For all other time during which the driver is re quired to be on duty, he is paid at an hourly rate. This includes waiting time, delay time due to breakdown of equipment or impassable highways, layover time (time spent at a termi nal away from home beginning at some des ignated hour after his run ends), and time spent in making pickups or deliveries enroute. Reg ular drivers are usually assured minimum pay for a certain number of hours— generally 8 hours a day. Some private carriers pay their drivers on the same basis as their other employees— a monthly, weekly, or daily wage. Generally, such a wage is for a specified number of hours and if the driver works beyond that he receives extra pay. Interstate Commerce Commission regulations limit the hours of work of over-the-road drivers. No driver may be on duty for more than 70 hours in any 8-day period. A driver must be off duty for at least 8 hours after driving for 10 hours before he can drive again. Many drivers, particularly on the very long runs, work fairly close to the maximum permitted. A Digitized workweek of at least 50 hours is very common. for FRASER 481 Most drivers receive pay for 6 national holi days plus 1 or more State and local holidays. They also have paid vacations, usually from 1 to 4 weeks, depending upon their length of serv ice. Health, insurance, and pension plans, usu ally paid for by the employers, are very common. Over-the-road truckdrivers are often required to spend time away from home— particularly when they drive long runs. The driver often starts out in the evening and arrives at the terminal in the other city the following morn ing. There, the company provides lodging for him either in a company dormitory or a hotel. In the evening, he starts on his return trip and arrives at the home terminal the following morning. The driver may make two or three such round trips a week. If the trips are part of a relay operation, another driver is working a similar schedule starting from the other end of the run. Some companies use two-man sleeper teams on their very long runs. One drives while the other sleeps in a little bunk behind the cab. The vehicle goes straight on through to the end of the run where there may or may not be a layover before the return trip. Two periods of 4 hours of resting or sleeping in a berth in the truck meet the ICC requirement of 8 hours off duty following 10 hours of driving. This means that the drivers on a run may remain with the truck in some cases for over 100 hours. Although earnings on sleeper runs are the highest in this field of work, few drivers stay with this type of run very long. The work is very tiring and requires being away from family and friends for days and even weeks. However, many drivers come back to sleeper runs after they have had a rest or have done some relay driving for a while. The earnings of drivers of long-distance moving vans are also quite high, but their hours are long and the work is strenuous. They drive more miles than the average over-the-road driver and also work more hours in loading and unloading goods. Largely because of intensive safety programs and drivers' skill, the accident rate in over-theroad trucking is surprisingly low. Injuries oc cur less frequently than in other forms of motor transportation. 482 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Driving the big over-the-road trucks does not involve the physical effort most people associate with truck driving. Sitting in one place for hours at a time, however, is tiring and the nervous strain of sustained driving at night is also fatiguing. Most over-the-road drivers are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Some drivers of private carriers belong1 to unions representing the plant em ployees of the companies for which they work. Local Truckdrivers (D.O.T. 7-36.200 through .299) Nature of Work Much of the food, clothing, and other prod ucts required by consumers are transported by trucks. The men who move these goods from terminals, warehouses,, and factories to whole salers, retailers, and consumers in the local area must be skilled drivers to avoid accidents on congested city streets. They must also be able to maneuver big trucks into tight parking spaces, through narrow alleys, and up to load ing platforms. (Telephone linemen, repairmen, and many thousands of other workers for whom driving trucks is only incidental to their pri mary job duties are not included in this discussion.) When the local truckdriver reports to work at the terminal or warehouse, he receives his assignment to make deliveries, pickups, or both. He also receives the delivery forms he will need and checks the condition of his truck. His truck is generally loaded for him by platform men. If he does the loading himself, however, and must make many deliveries, he arranges the items in proper sequence so that there will be a minimum of handling. At the customer's place of business, the driver generally loads and un loads the merchandise himself. If he has heavy loads such as machinery or if he has many deliveries to make during the day, he may have a helper to assist him. The driver of a moving van usually has a crew of helpers to assist him in loading and unloading household or office furniture. At the delivery points, the driver gets cus tomers to sign receipts and freight bills, and he sometimes collects money for freight, C.O.D. deliveries, and other charges. At the end of his day he turns in all receipts and cash col lected and records his time and the deliveries made. He also reports whatever maintenance or repair is needed before his truck is used again. Some of these workers drive special types of trucks, such as dump or oil trucks, which may require the operation of mechanical levers, pedals, or other equipment. For example, if they drive dump trucks, they operate levers inside the cab or at the side of the truck in order to set the dumping mechanism in motion. If they haul heavy machinery, they operate mechanical hoists to load and unload the machines. Where Employed About 114 million workers were employed as local truckdrivers in early 1960, mostly in and around large metropolitan areas. They work in all localities, however, including the smallest villages. A large majority of local drivers work for businesses which deliver their own products and goods— such as department stores, meatpackers and other food processors, wholesale distributors, petroleum companies, grocery chains, and construction companies. Many other truckdrivers are employed by local forhire operators— trucking companies which serve the general public or specific companies under contract. Some other truckdrivers are employed by the Federal Government and by States and municipalities. A large number of local drivers are in business for themselves. Qualifications, Training, and Advancement Qualifications for local truckdrivers vary con siderably, depending upon such factors as the type of equipment to be operated and the nature 483 DRIVING OCCUPATIONS of the employer's business. Generally, appli cants must be 21 years of age or older. Some employers prefer applicants who have completed grade school or have had 2 to 4 years of high school. The applicant must be physically able to lift heavy objects and otherwise be in good health. He should have good hearing and good vision (with or without glasses). Since a driver often deals directly with the public, employers look for men who are tactful and courteous. An applicant must have or get a chauffeur's license, which is a commercial driving permit. Familiarity with traffic laws and safety meas ures is necessary, and some previous experience in driving a truck is helpful. A young man may obtain such experience by working as a truckdriver's helper. Employers also give con sideration to driving experience gained in the Armed Forces. Since he will be responsible for costly vehicles and cargo, a truckdriver must be cautious, alert, and able to judge distances and to co ordinate his reactions so as to avoid accidents in congested traffic. To demonstrate these qualifications, an applicant's driving ability will be tested, and he may have to pass a written examination, as well as a general physical examination. Training given to a new driver is often in formal and may consist only of riding with and observing an experienced driver on the job. If he is to drive a special type of truck, the new driver may be given additional training. In some companies, a new driver is given a brief indoctrination course which lasts 1 or 2 days. This instruction covers his general duties, the efficient operation and loading of his truck, company policies, and the preparation of de livery forms and company records. Although most new employees are immedi ately assigned to regular driving jobs, some start as extra drivers. These drivers take over the routes of regular drivers who are ill or on vacation, or make extra trips when necessary. They receive regular assignments when open ings occur. Local truckdrivers may get jobs as dispatch ers or advance to jobs as terminal managers, or supervisors. However, these jobs are rela Digitized tively few. For the most part, advancement for FRASER for a local truckdriver consists of earning higher hourly wages by driving heavy or spe cial type trucks instead of light trucks, or by transferring to over-the-road truck driving. An experienced truckdriver who has some business ability and ambition can start his own trucking company when he has sufficient capi tal to purchase expensive trucking equipment and meet other business expenses. Truckers who own only one or two vehicles continue to account for a sizable proportion of local forhire trucking business. Employment Outlook A moderate rise in the employment of local truckdrivers is anticipated during the 1960's because of the expected increased volume of freight. Many new workers will also be needed to replace drivers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Retirements and deaths alone will result in about 10,000 to 15,000 job openings each year for local truckdrivers dur ing the next few years. The rise in total business activity antici pated between 1960 and 1970 will increase the volume of freight. Since trucks carry virtually all freight for local distribution and do not compete for hauling with other types of car riers, this anticipated increase in total intercity and local freight volume will expand local truck ing business and, thereby, truckdriver employ ment. Another factor that will contribute to the employment of more drivers is the con tinued growth of suburban areas. Some recent developments may offset some what the growth in the number of local truckdrivers that would otherwise occur with an in crease in freight volume. For example, the trend toward larger deliveries to relatively fewer customers is the result of the growth of chain stores and shopping centers. The intro duction of new equipment may also affect the number of drivers who will be needed to deliver large and heavy loads. For example, the greater use of trucks equipped with power tailgates that can be raised or lowered to platform or ground level will reduce the time needed for deliveries. Innovation in local trucking will continue to be limited, however, by the narrow city streets and heavy traffic. 484 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Earnings and Working Conditions On the average, hourly union wage scales were $2.56 for local truckdrivers and $2.27 for driver-helpers on July 1, 1959, according to a survey in 52 large cities. Average hourly pay scales for drivers ranged from $2.02 in New Orleans to $2.82 in the San Francisco-Oakland area. Wage scales vary even in the same city depending on the type of trucking service (such as general freight drayage or local moving and storage), the type of product hauled, and the size and type of truck operated. As a rule, local truckdrivers are paid by the hour and receive extra pay for working over time, usually after 40 hours. Some drivers are guaranteed minimum daily or weekly earnings. Local truckdrivers frequently work 48 hours or more a week and thus often drive 6 days a week. Daytime work is customary, but night or early morning work is sometimes necessary. Some drivers are assigned different routes when they report to work each day. Others, however, deliver over regular routes or runs. Local truckdrivers generally have paid vaca tions of 1 or 2 weeks after a year of service and up to 4 weeks after 20 years. In addition, they usually receive pay for 6 national holidays plus 1 or more State and local holidays. A majority of local truckdrivers belong to unions. Most of them belong to the Interna tional Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Some local truckdrivers employed by private carriers are members of unions representing the plant workers of their employers. Practically all unionized local truckdrivers and their helpers are covered by health, and life insurance, and pension plans which are gen erally paid for by the employer. When uni forms are required, the cost is usually paid for. entirely or partly by the employer, who may also provide for their upkeep. Local truckdrivers, because they drive in heavy traffic through narrow city streets, are subject to nervous strain. The actual operation of a truck is not physically demanding, but when local drivers make many deliveries dur ing a day, their work can be exhausting. Some drivers may develop physical disorders, such as back strains and hernias. Local truckdrivers do, however, have certain advantages. For the most part, they have steady employment. Fur thermore, unlike over-the-road drivers, they usually work a regular daytime schedule and re turn home in the evenings. Routemen (D.O.T. 7-35.100) Nature of Work Routemen are as much salesmen as they are drivers. In fact, they are sometimes known as driver-salesmen or route-salesmen. Once they are assigned to their routes, they must, through their selling ability, increase sales to existing customers and obtain new business by canvas sing potential customers within their ter ritories. Routemen drive panel or light trucks over an assigned route selling and delivering goods, or providing services such as collecting and delivering laundry and dry cleaning, to retail establishments (wholesale routemen) or directly to the public (retail routemen). Before starting on his daily route, the route loads or supervises the loading of his truck. man The amount of merchandise in his truck is generally checked by another employee. Some routemen deliver merchandise previously or dered and obtain orders for future delivery. Others make immediate sales from the stock in the truck. In either case, they must collect pay ments and keep records of their transactions. When they check in at the plant after complet ing their routes, they empty their truck and turn in their collections to the cashier. The retail routemen serving homes make from 5 to 10 times as many stops as the wholesale routemen who serve stores and other business es tablishments. The work performed by routemen varies ac cording to the industry in which they are em ployed, the type of routes they have (retail or DRIVING OCCUPATIONS 485 A good example of a wholesale routeman is the man who delivers bakery products to gro cery stores. His truck is loaded the night be fore or early in the morning, and he checks to see whether he has the proper variety and quantity of products before starting on his route. He stops at from 10 to 50 grocery stores. At each stop, he brings the orders of bread and other bakery products into the store, and arranges them on the display racks, in the best possible display space he can secure. Together with the store owner or manager he checks the merchandise he has delivered. He also credits the store for the value of the stale bread and cakes left over from the previous delivery. The routeman prepares a list of products he plans to deliver the next day. This represents his estimate of the amount of bakery products that will be sold by the grocery stores on his route. From time to time, he calls on grocers along his route, who are not his customers, and tries to get orders from them. Where Employed wholesale), and the company employing them. Some specific examples, however, may indicate in a general way what most routemen do. A typical day for a dry-cleaning routeman begins when he picks up cleaned garments at the processing plant and loads his truck, which is equpped with carrying racks. He delivers the garments to homes or business establish ments and picks up soiled clothing. He marks the articles picked up so they may be identified at the plant. Sometimes, he makes notes of the types of stains or of special processes to be used, such as waterproofing. Each cleaned gar ment has an itemized bill attached, so that the routeman can collect the amount of money due. Although all routemen must be able to get along well with people, it is particularly im portant for the dry-cleaning and laundry routeman. His reaction to complaints and requests for special services may be the difference be tween increasing business or losing customers. Periodically, he calls at homes and business establishments along his route which are not using his company’s services to try to get their trade. About 100,000 routemen worked for a wide variety of businesses in 1960. Since most routemen were employed by companies which dis tributed food products or provided personal services, they worked in small towns as well as in large cities throughout the country. The greatest concentration of employment, how ever, was in the dairies, bakeries, and laundry and dry-cleaning plants located in the large cities. Some routemen were engaged in wholesale distribution of goods and services to stores and other business establishments, while others distributed goods and services to homeowners and apartment dwellers. Many companies em ployed both wholesale and retail routemen. Qualifications, Training, and Advancement In addition to being a good driver, a routeman must have sales ability. To induce people to buy he must have a thorough knowledge of the product or service he is selling and a persua sive personality. Other important sales quali fications are a pleasant voice, ability to speak 486 well, and a neat appearance. He also needs to have self-confidence, initiative and tact. Besides having selling ability, a routeman must be able to work without direct supervi sion, do simple arithmetic, and write legibly. In most States, a routeman is required to have a chauffeur's license, which is a commercial driver permit. Information regarding this li cense can be obtained from State Motor Vehicle Departments. Most employers require their routemen to be high school graduates, preferably 25 years of age or older. Many of the large companies give applicants aptitude and other psychological tests to determine whether they will make good salesmen and safe drivers. High school courses in salesmanship, public speaking, driver-training, bookkeeping and bus iness arithmetic, and school-work programs in retail and wholesale merchandising are helpful to a person interested in entering this occupa tion. In the years immediately following high school, a young man interested in preparing himself for this occupation may obtain valuable experience as a sales clerk in a store or in some other type of selling job. Another method of entering this occupation is to get a job as a routeman helper (D.O.T. 9-35.10). Employers usually hire boys 18 years of age or over who have a driver's license for this job. The helper assists the routeman by loading the truck at the beginning of the day, and runs deliveries from the truck to the cus tomer's home or store. He may collect payments or obtain receipts, and may sometimes drive to relieve the routeman. Still another way of be coming a routeman is to get a job (plant or office) in a bakery, dairy, laundry, or drycleaning establishment. After learning some thing about the business, a young man may get a job as a routeman when an opening occurs. Most companies give their routemen on-thejob training which varies in length and thor oughness. Many of the large companies have classes in salesmanship. Some companies as sign newly hired routemen for brief periods to jobs in the different departments of the plant to familiarize them with all the processing operations, so they can answer customers' ques OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tions intelligently and be better salesmen. New employees are then trained for a short time on routes with supervisors. The first week, the routemen usually observe and assist the super visors; later, they take over the operation un der the direction of the supervisors. Routemen may be promoted to route foremen or sales supervisors, but these jobs are rela tively scarce. For most routemen, advancement is limited to moving from a retail to a whole sale route where earnings are usually higher. However, some routemen obtain better paying sales jobs as a result of the experience gained in route selling. Employment Outlook The employment of routemen in the 1960's is expected to remain at approximately the current level. However, a few thousand oppor tunities for new workers to enter this occupa tion will occur each year as a result of retire ments, deaths, and transfers to other fields of work. Since 1940, the number of routemen has been declining despite increases in population, in come, and consumer expenditures. During World War II, there were sharp reductions in the number of routemen, particularly in home delivery, because of a shortage of men and gasoline. Deliveries were made less frequently — a practice which was continued after the war. During the postwar period, the introduc tion of larger home refrigerators caused a fur ther decline in the home delivery of milk and dairy products. The employment of routemen in wholesale routes has also been declining because individ ual manufacturers now produce a greater va riety of products than routemen can handle, and because large supermarkets have been re placing small neighborhood stores. In recent years, some manufacturers and wholesale food companies have replaced their routemen with salesmen who cover their assigned territory by automobile. Truckdrivers, rather than routemen, then make the deliveries. The decline in the employment of routemen appears to have run its course. Any further effect of the factors previously mentioned will DRIVING OCCUPATIONS probably be counterbalanced by the continuingpopulation shift to the suburbs, with its demand for retail routemen, and by the continuing- de velopment of new products, increasing the demand for wholesale routemen. New lines of frozen food for example are often introduced and marketed by wholesale routemen in thou sands of food stores throughout the country. Earnings and Working Conditions Most routemen are paid a salary plus a per centage of the sales or collections they make. Earnings vary considerably according to the product sold and also between routemen selling the same product. To a considerable extent, the earnings of routemen may be determined by their selling ability and the amount of time they spend in canvassing. Wholesale routemen generally earn more than retail routemen be cause, although they receive a lower percent age of sales, they handle much larger quan tities. Some recent studies indicate that in 1960 retail milkmen, making home deliveries, aver aged about $100 a week. Weekly earnings of these routemen, usually based on sales commis sions, ranged from $93 in Dallas, to $135.50 in Minneapolis-St. Paul. The weekly earnings of milkmen on regular wholesale routes averaged more than $100 a week, and ranged from $101 in Boston, to $195.50 in Minneapolis-St. Paul. The average weekly earnings of dry-cleaning and laundry routemen ranged from $72.50 in the area around Providence, R.I., to $131 in Chicago. According to a 1961 survey of baking firms in 13 Eastern States, driver-salesmen for both wholesale and home-service bakeries had minimum weekly salaries of from $50 to $98. By selling more baked products to their cus tomers and by increasing the number of cus tomers on their routes, driver-salesmen can in crease their earnings considerably. The number of hours worked by routemen 487 varies. Some routemen work only about 30 hours a week; others may work as much as 60 or more hours a week. It depends, to some extent, on whether the individual routeman has a well-established route or whether he is trying to build up a new one; whether he has a retail or a wholesale route; and how ambitious he is. For some routemen, the hours of work are limited by union contract. The hours of routemen may also vary according to seasonal peaks and lows. During the spring cleaning season, for example, dry-cleaning routemen may work about 60 hours a week; whereas, in the dead of winter, they may not work more than 30 hours a week. Many companies require routemen to wear uniforms. Some employers pay for the uni forms and for keeping them clean; others re quire the routemen to do so. Most routemen receive paid vacations, gen erally ranging from 1 to 4 weeks, depending upon length of service, and 6 or more paid holidays a year. Many employers provide hos pitalization and medical benefits. Some routemen are covered by pension plans. The routeman is on his own to a great ex tent. He does not work under strict supervision and, within certain broad limits, may decide how fast he will work and where and when he will have his lunch or rest period. This freedom of action, plus the daily meeting and dealing with different people on his route, appeals to many young men. On the other hand, a retail routeman has to make deliveries in bad weather, do a great deal of lifting and carrying, and climb up and down stairs. He may also have to work unusual hours. Many routemen, particularly those delivering bakery and dairy products, are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf feurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Some routemen belong to the unions which represent the plant workers of their employers. 488 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Intercity Bus Drivers (D.O.T. 5-36.010) Nature of Work The drivers of the big buses which travel between the cities of our country are selected on the basis of their driving skill, emotional stability, and courtesy. A driver’s duties gen erally begin when he takes charge of the bus at the terminal, garage, or on the highway. Before beginning his scheduled trip, the driver inspects the bus carefully at the terminal or garage. He checks the fuel, oil, water, and tires; and makes certain that the bus is carry ing safety equipment, such as fire extinguishers, first-aid kits, flags, and flares. The driver also picks up the tickets, change, report blanks, and other items needed for his trip. He receives a listing of the express and mail to be carried. Unless the driver is to take over an already loaded bus on the highway from another driver, he moves his empty bus from the terminal or garage to the proper loading platform, where he takes on his passengers. He collects fares— tickets or cash— from the passengers as they board the bus, and announces the destination, route, time of arrival, and other information concerning the trip. The driver also loads or supervises the loading of baggage into the bag gage compartment. He checks the loading plan so that the baggage can be unloaded at the proper destination with minimum effort. The driver operates the bus carefully at speeds which will enable him to arrive at and leave regular bus stops according to established time schedules. On most runs, he also stops momentarily at other designated points to dis charge or pick up passengers, and load or un load baggage wherever necessary. He announces regular stops, and rest or lunch stops. Before continuing the trip he counts the passengers to make certain all have reentered the bus. The driver also regulates lighting, heating, and airconditioning equipment for the passengers’ comfort. In an emergency, he is sometimes required to make minor road repairs such as changing tires, for which he generally receives extra pay. Upon arriving at his final destination, the Intercity bus driver taking baggage from passengers. driver unloads or supervises the unloading of the remaining baggage and turns in the lists of packages or mail carried. He prepares re ports on mileage, time, and fares as required by company rules. He also keeps a log of hours as required by the Interstate Commerce Commis sion. The driver must make out a complete re port if an accident or unusual delay occurs. Where Employed Approximately 26,000 intercity bus drivers were employed by more than 1,600 bus com panies in 1959. About 16,000 of these drivers worked for the 143 large class I intercity com panies— those with annual revenues of over $200,000. Although most bus drivers work out of the larger cities, some are employed in smaller cities and towns. Qualifications, Training, and Advancement All intercity bus drivers are required to meet minimum age, health, and experience qualifica tions established by the Interstate Commerce Commission. The ICC minimum age requirement is 21 years. In addition, the applicant must be able-bodied, have good hearing, and "his eyesight must be at least 20/40 with or without glasses. He must have at least 1 year’s driving experi DRIVING OCCUPATIONS ence (through all four seasons), he must be able to read and speak English, and he must have a good driving record. Although many intercity bus companies use these standards for bus driver positions, the large companies have higher requirements. Most of these companies prefer applicants to be at least 23 years of age with a high school education or its equivalent. Applicants are often given comprehensive examinations to determine their driving skill, intelligence, temperament, and personality. Some of the large companies do not accept applicants who wear glasses. Young persons interested in becoming bus drivers should have good foot, hand, and eye coordination; be able to judge distances ac curately, and react quickly. An even tempera ment and emotional stability are other impor tant qualifications because bus drivers work under considerable tension when they operate large vehicles in heavy and swiftly moving traffic. Since they represent their companies in dealing with passengers, bus drivers must also be courteous and tactful. Although previous experience in the opera tion of a truck or bus is not required, it is preferred by some employers. In most States, the law requires that a trainee for a bus driver's job must either have or obtain a chauffeur's license, which is a commercial driving permit. Most intercity bus companies conduct train ing courses for beginning drivers. These train ing programs, which usually last from 2 to 6 weeks, include both classroom and driving in struction. In the classroom, the trainee is in structed in company and Interstate Commerce Commission rules; State and municipal regula tions; safe driving practices; rates, schedules, and timetables; and how to deal with the public. He is also taught how to keep clerical records, check supplies, inspect the bus, and make minor emergency repairs. The trainee then rides with a regular driver to observe correct driving practices and other aspects of the job. He also makes trial runs, without passengers, to demonstrate his driving skill. After satisfactorily completing the train ing, which generally includes final driving and written examinations, the new driver begips a “ break-in" http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/period. During this period under Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 489 strict supervision, he makes regularly scheduled trips with passengers. New workers start out on the “ extra board," which is a list of drivers on call who are given temporary assignments. While on the extra board, the new driver may substitute for a reg ular driver who is ill or on vacation. He may also drive a second or overload section, make an extra trip if necessary, or drive chartered buses. Extra drivers may have to wait several years before they have the necessary seniority to bid for and receive a regular assignment. Opportunities for promotion are generally somewhat limited, particularly in the small com panies. An experienced driver may be promoted to a job as dispatcher, supervisor, sales repre sentative, terminal manager, or regional man ager. For most drivers, advancement consists of receiving better assignments, with conse quent higher earnings, as their seniority in creases. Employment Outlook During the 1960's, employment of intercity bus drivers will probably rise moderately, re versing the downward trend in the 1946-58 period when the number of drivers dropped from 32,000 to 26,000 because intercity bus traffic decreased. Additional workers in this relatively small occupation will be needed main ly as a result of the expected increase in inter city bus travel. Among the factors which contributed to the decrease in the intercity bus traffic and af fected the employment of bus drivers, was the rapid growth in the number of automobiles and their use in intercity travel. The expansion of the air transportation industry also offered some competition to bus travel on long trips. The drop in employment was also caused by the increased efficiency which resulted from larger buses, better highways, improved scheduling, and generally more effective use of buses and drivers. The growth in population and higher con sumer incomes expected during the 1960's should result in more travel generally, a portion of which is expected to be by bus, since the share of intercity traffic carried by automobile 490 is not likely to increase as rapidly as in the past. Some of the other factors which are expected to make bus travel more attractive during the 1960’s are: New and improved high ways, which are expected to cut the scheduled running time of many buses; larger and more comfortable buses; and deluxe express buses offering hostess service, refreshments, and other conveniences. Touring and charter services, package express and first-class mail delivered by buses, which have become important sources of revenue in the past few years, are also ex pected to affect the bus industry favorably in the future. The further curtailment or elimina tion of railroad passenger service in many areas may also bring about an increase in intercity bus traffic. Earnings and Working Conditions Drivers (including extra men) employed by class I intercity bus companies, averaged $6,148 in 1959. Many regular drivers employed by these companies earned more than $7,000 a year. The wages of intercity bus drivers are typi cally computed on a mileage basis. Rates ranged from about 7 to 1 1 cents a mile in 1960. Most regular drivers were guaranteed pay for either 160 miles or for 8 hours a day. For all work other than their regular assignment or “ tour of duty,” they receive additional pay, cus tomarily at premium rates. Extra drivers are usually paid by the hour when they are on call, but not driving. They are paid the regular mileage rate when actually driving. Drivers usually start at a minimum rate and receive increases at intervals of 6 months or a year. The maximum rate is gen erally reached at the end of 2 years. Extra men generally earn slightly less than regular drivers but, if enough work is available, they may earn as much or more than regular drivers. Extra drivers receive a weekly or biweekly guarantee either in minimum hours, mileage, or earnings. Trainees are usually paid a flat daily rate. Most drivers who work for the large com panies average between 32 and 36 hours a week. Work schedules may range from 6 to 10 hours a day http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/and from 3*/^ to 6 days a week. For Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK example, a driver on the run between Washing ton, D.C., and New York City may make one 10-hour round trip a day for 3 days a week, drive part way and return each day for 6 days, or have the run split in some other way. Interstate Commerce Commission regulations limit the hours of work of intercity bus drivers. According to ICC regulations, intercity drivers may drive no more than 10 consecutive hours, after which they must have at least 8 hours off. Drivers are also limited to 60 hours of “ on duty” time in a 7-day period. The on-duty time is the period from the time the driver is required to report for work until the time he is relieved. Most intercity bus drivers belong to the Amalgamated Association of Street, Electric Railway and Motor Coach Employees of Amer ica. The Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen, and the International Brotherhood of Teams ters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.) have also organized intercity bus drivers in a few areas. The labor-management contracts covering most intercity bus drivers provide for health and life insurance, and pension plans which are usually financed jointly by the workers and their employers. Drivers are also given vaca tions with pay ranging from 1 to 4 weeks, depending on the company for which they work and their length of service. They also usually receive 6 paid holidays. When away from home terminals overnight, drivers generally receive pay for food and lodging. Drivers must usually pay for their own uniforms. Driving an intercity bus is not usually phys ically burdensome, but the work is demanding and requires steady nerves. The bus driver is given a great deal of independence in the actual performance of his job and he is solely re sponsible for the safety of both the passengers and bus. Many drivers enjoy working without direct supervision and take pride in assuming these responsibilities. Some drivers like the idea of meeting the public and enjoy the opportunity to travel. Among the less desirable aspects of this job are the weekend and holiday work and the necessity of occasionally spending a night away from home. Another unfavorable part of the 491 DRIVING OCCUPATIONS job is that extra drivers are on call at all hours and may be required to work at any time on very short notice. In addition, drivers with little seniority may, in some cases, be laid off when business declines. Where To Go for More Information For information regarding job opportunities, a young man should apply to intercity bus com panies or the local office of the State employ ment service. Local Transit Bus Drivers (D.O.T. 5-36.010) Nature of Work Local bus drivers transport millions of Americans to and from work every day. These drivers follow definite time schedules and routes over city and suburban streets in order to get passengers to their destinations on time. The local bus driver’s workday begins when he reports to the terminal or garage where he is assigned his bus. He receives his change, to kens, transfers, passes, and any other items needed. Before starting the run, the driver is usually required to check the tires, brakes, and lights. Some companies also require him to check the water, oil, and fuel. On most runs, the driver makes regular stops every block or two, where he operates the con trols of the bus doors to enable passengers to enter and leave the vehicle. As the passengers board the bus, the driver collects cash fares, tokens, tickets, or transfers, issues trans fers and tokens, and makes change. The local bus driver often answers questions concerning schedules, routes, transfer points, and street numbers; he is sometimes required to call out the name of the street at each regular bus stop. The driver also regulates heating, air-condition ing, and lighting equipment to keep the pas sengers comfortable. At the end of his day’s run, the bus driver turns in a trip sheet which usually includes a record of fares received, trips made, and any delays in schedule. In case of accident or an unusual delay, the driver must make out a com prehensive report on its nature and cause. Where Employed In 1959, about 70,000 bus drivers were em ployed by the local transit bus industry. Ap proximately one-fourth of the drivers worked in cities where the transit system was munic ipally owned, such as Boston, Chicago, Cleve land, Detroit, Los Angeles, New York, and San Francisco. In addition to the bus drivers employed by the local transit bus industry, some local driv ers work for charter and sightseeing lines and for companies which specialize in operating school buses. A few drivers are employed by the Federal, State, and local governments. Although many drivers work in major metro politan areas such as New York, Chicago, and Detroit, some bus drivers are employed in most communities throughout the Nation. 492 Qualifications, Training, and Advancement Applicants for bus driver positions should be between the ages of 21 and 40, of average height and weight, and have good eyesight— with or without glasses. The applicant must be in good health, with no physical disabilities, and must be able to pass both the written and physical examinations given by most em ployers. He must be able to judge distances ac curately; have good foot, hand, and eye coordi nation; and have quick reflexes. Because the driver often works under pressure and deals with many different personalities, an even tem perament and emotional stability are impor tant. Although educational requirements are not high, many employers prefer applicants with a high school education or its equivalent. A motor vehicle operator’s permit and, gen erally, 1 or 2 years of driving experience on some type of motor vehicle are basic require ments. Most States require bus drivers to have a chauffeur’s license which permits the holder to operate commercial motor vehicles. This li cense may be obtained either during or im mediately after the driver’s training period. Some employers prefer drivers who have had some experience operating a truck or bus. Be cause the applicants will eventually be trans porting passengers and since an accident could involve serious injury to a large number of peo ple, good driving records are essential. An ap plicant who has had a serious traffic violation or accident which occurred while a vehicle was moving may be disqualified. Most local transit companies conduct train ing courses which may last several weeks and include both classroom and driving in structions. In the classroom, the trainee is taught company rules, safety regulations, and safe driving practices. He is taught how to keep records, and how to deal tactfully and courteously with passengers. The trainee makes several trips without pas sengers, under the direct supervision of an ex perienced driver. After he becomes familiar with the operation of the bus, the company’s routes, and other details of his work, he makes, under supervision, several trips over a regular run with passengers. At the conclusion of his training, the new driver is often required to OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK pass a written and final driving examination before he goes out on a run. After the driver passes the examinations, he is placed on the “ extra” list. While on this list, he takes over the runs of regular drivers who are ill or on vacation and also makes extra trips in the morning or evening rush hours. He remains on the extra list until he has the necessary seniority to “ bid” for and obtain a regular run. It may take anywhere from sev eral months to several years before he is as signed a regular run. He also may drive char ter and sightseeing runs, and also other extra runs such as special service buses for public meetings and sporting events. Promotional opportunities in regular driving jobs are generally limited and slow. Experi enced drivers may advance to jobs as instruc tors, dispatchers, road supervisors, and, some times, to executive positions. Promotion in municipally owned bus systems is usually by examination. The opportunities for advance ment of most drivers are limited to assignments to more desirable runs. Only after acquiring sufficient seniority do the drivers receive these assignments. Employment Outlook There will be a small number of opportuni ties for new workers to enter this occupation each year during the 1960’s, even though em ployment of local bus drivers is expected to continue to decline, as in recent years. These openings will result from the need to replace drivers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Retirements and deaths alone may account for more than 1,000 openings each year during the 1960-70 decade. In recent years, there has been a considerable decline in the volume of passenger traffic han dled by the local-transit bus industry. The main cause of this decline has been the rapid rise in the number of private automobiles and their increasing use for transportation in both city and suburban areas. Another factor has been the rapid growth of suburbs, most of which have a wide variety of stores, theaters, restaurants, and other services. Because most suburban shopping centers have good parking DRIVING OCCUPATIONS facilities and are easily reached by automobile, many suburban residents have found it unnec essary to use public transportation for shop ping* or other activities. In addition, increas ing traffic congestion and parking problems in most downtown sections have led to the de cline of many central business districts. This in turn has resulted in the curtailment of down town bus service between rush hours. As local transit bus traffic declined steadily in recent years and bus schedules and routes were curtailed or entirely eliminated, the em ployment of bus drivers also declined. The de cline in bus driver employment was limited, however, partly because transit companies are not completely free to curtail or eliminate un profitable routes, since the companies are usu ally regulated by municipal authorities. Employment of local transit bus drivers is expected to continue to decline during the 1960’s— but at a somewhat slower rate than during 1950-60. The continuing population shift to the suburbs will again be responsible for a moderate drop in employment. No sharp decline is expected because downtown traffic congestion and parking problems will continue to limit the use of automobiles in downtown areas. Factors which will slow the downward trend in bus driver employment ,are the replacement of streetcars by buses, and the in creased need for school buses in the suburbs. An increase in the number of munici pally owned companies might also favorably affect bus driver employment, since munici pally owned companies, even more than privately owned companies, may provide ser vice in the public interest on unprofitable routes. Earnings and Working Conditions Local transit bus drivers are usually paid by the hour, and earnings vary according to lo cality, length of service, size of company or city, and length and type of run. According to a survey of minimum hourly wage scales set by union contracts for bus drivers in 52 large cities, the average hourly rate was $2.36 on July 1, 1960. For more than half o f the bus Digitizeddrivers covered by the contracts, scales ranged for FRASER 493 from $2.25 to $2.55 an hour. Hourly scales were highest in the Great Lakes, Pacific, New England, and Middle Atlantic regions. Among the cities surveyed, the hourly pay scales for experienced bus drivers ranged from $1.69 in Charlotte, N. C., to $2.61 in Chicago, 111. Wage scales for beginning drivers were generally 5 to 15 cents an hour less. Most bus drivers have a standard work schedule of 8 hours a day, 40 hours a week. For additional work, drivers usually receive 11/2 times their hourly rates. In many com panies drivers often work in excess of their standard work schedule, thereby increasing their weekly earnings. Drivers on the extra list generally are guaranteed a minimum number of hours of work or a minimum weekly salary, but frequently earn more than the guaranteed minimum. The workweek for regular drivers usually consists of any 5 consecutive days, with Satur days and Sundays being counted as regular workdays. All transit companies run some buses in the evening and some companies op erate 24 hours a day. Therefore, many drivers have to work at night. Many drivers have regular “ straight” runs which are unbroken except for meal periods. Others may work the “ swing” run, in which the operator drives for several hours, is off for several hours and then drives again for several hours. If the total elapsed time between the beginning and end of a split shift exceeds a stated number of hours, the driver generally receives extra pay. Nearly all local transit bus drivers are covered by labor-management contracts which provide for health, insurance, and pension plans; the major plans are financed jointly by the workers and their employers. However, there are many plans which are paid for solely by the employer. Drivers also are given vaca tions with pay ranging from 1 to 5 weeks, de pending on the length of service, and usually 6 or 7 or more paid holidays a year. Although driving a bus is not physically ex hausting, bus drivers are exposed to the nerv ous tension which arises from driving a large vehicle on heavily congested streets and deal ing with many types of passengers. In addi tion to driving a bus, they must collect fares, 494 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK answer questions, see that passengers are clear of the doors* and request riders to move to the rear. Among the more favorable aspects of this job is the steady year-round employment once a driver receives a regular assignment. Bus drivers are usually free of direct supervi sion— which many drivers also find desirable. Drivers take pride in being solely responsible for the safety of the passengers and bus and in acting as the bus company’s representative to the general public. Most bus drivers are members of the Amal gamated Association of Street, Electric Rail- way and Motor Coach Employes of America. Drivers in New York City and several other large cities belong to the Transport Workers Union of America. The International Brother hood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.) has also organ ized some local transit bus drivers. Where To Go for More Information For information on employment opportuni ties for a local bus driver, a young man should apply to the local transit company in his area or to the local office of the State employment service. Taxi Drivers (D.O.T 7-36.040) Nature of Work In many communities, taxicabs are a neces sary part of the regular transportation system. Taxicab drivers, in addition to providing trans portation, also perform other services. For example, they assist passengers with their lug gage and may also pick up and deliver pack ages. Cab drivers occasionally provide sight seeing tours for out-of-town visitors. Drivers get their “ fares” or passengers in one or more ways. Some companies have twoway radio systems over which requests for taxi cabs are transmitted to the driver. Other com panies have cab stands at which drivers may wait for phone calls from their central office which will direct them to pick up passengers. Many drivers wait in front of theaters, hotels, railroad stations, and other buildings which may have large numbers of prospective passen gers. In small cities and in suburban areas, drivers may work from a central location, such as a terminal, to which they return after each trip. Passengers may also be picked up while the driver is returning to his stand or station. Drivers are usually required to keep records, such as the date, time, and place passengers were picked up, and the destination, time of ar rival, and amount of fare collected. If the cab driver owns his own cab or if he rents a cab over an extended period of time, he may Cab driver picking up fare. periodically clean the cab. In large cab com panies, this job is generally performed by cleaners employed by the company. Where Employed Approximately 135,000 to 150,000 taxi drivers were employed full time in 1960 in the taxicab industry, which is made up of both pri vately owned cabs and fleets of company-owned vehicles. There were also many part-time driv 495 DRIVING OCCUPATIONS ers. Although taxicab drivers are employed in every metropolitan area in the country, the greatest concentration of these workers is found in large cities. New York City, Wash ington, D.C., Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston, New Orleans, Detroit, St. Louis, and Baltimore lead in the employment of cab drivers. Qualifications, Training, and Advancement To become a taxi driver in most large cities, it is necessary to have, in addition to a Stateissued chauffeur's license, a special taxicab operator's license issued by the local police or safety department or Public Utilities Commis sion. Although licensing requirements vary considerably among cities, in general, appli cants must be over 21, in good health, have a good driving record, and have no criminal rec ord. Most large communities require an applicant for a taxi driver's license to pass a written examination on taxicab and traffic regulations. The examination may include questions on street locations, insurance regulations, accident reports, lost articles, zoning or meter rules, and passenger pickup and deliveries. In some cities, the cab company will teach the driver-applicant taxicab regulations and the location of streets and important buildings. In other cities, the driver may prepare himself for the license ex amination. After the driver has passed the ex amination, he pays an annual license fee gen erally ranging from $1 to $5. Although formal education is seldom re quired, many companies prefer applicants for a taxi driving job to have at least an eighthgrade education. A neat, well-groomed appear ance is desirable, as is the ability to deal tact fully and courteously with all types of people. Good foot, hand, and eye coordination are par ticularly desirable because taxi drivers must often operate their cabs in fast moving and heavy traffic. Opportunities for advancement for taxi driv ers are extremely limited, with promotion to the job of dispatcher often the only possible advancement. Some drivers, however, have be come road supervisors, garage superintendents, or claims agents. Many drivers who work for companies try to purchase their own cabs so that they can become their own employers. In some large cities, however, the number of cabs is restricted by ordinance, which may lim it the opportunity to own cabs in such areas. Employment Outlook There will be a large number of op portunities for new workers to become taxi drivers during the 1960-70 decade prima rily because of the high turnover rate in this occupation. The total number of full-time taxi drivers is not expected to increase to any great extent during the 1960's. In the past, the employment of taxi drivers has been adversely affected by the increased use of privately owned automobiles, rented cars, and the continuing population shift to the suburbs. In more recent years, however, the level of employment appears to have stabilized. During the 1960's, the use of taxicabs for local transportation is expected to increase some what. Increased population, higher consumer incomes, parking difficulties, and higher local transit bus and streetcar fares are some of the factors which may lead to a greater use of taxi cabs and a slight increase in the employment of taxicab drivers. This occupation has a relatively high turn over rate which results from the lack of assur ance of a steady income, long hours, and the use by some workers of this job as stopgap em ployment when better jobs are not available. Transfers from this occupation are expected to be the major reason that employment oppor tunities will be available for many new workers who wish to enter this field of driving. Earnings and Working Conditions Wage information collected from a small number of employers in large cities on the East Coast and in the Midwest indicates that, in 1960, full-time taxi drivers earned, with their tips, from $60 to about $100 a week for a 6-day week. Most full-time drivers in these areas averaged about $75 or $85 a week. Driverowners earned about the same amount, after deduction of their overhead and driving costs. 496 Most taxi drivers employed by taxicab com panies are paid a percentage— usually be tween 40 and 50 percent— of the total fare. Drivers also frequently receive tips, ranging from 10 to 20 percent of the fare. Some com panies pay their drivers a salary and give them an additional commission based upon the amount of business the drivers do. A few com panies guarantee their drivers minimum daily or weekly earnings. Many drivers rent their cabs from the company by the day for a set price. Any receipts above the cab rental and other operating expenses are retained by the drivers. A large percentage of full-time taxi drivers work 9 or 10 hours a day for 6 days a week. They usually begin work between 6 a. m. and 8 a. m. Many drivers work nights, starting between 3 p. m. and 5 p. m. Some drivers work on Sundays and holidays. Taxi drivers usually put in long hours of work and do not receive overtime pay. Many of them do not receive fringe benefits, such as pensions and severance pay, that workers in many other occupations receive. When eco nomic conditions decline, their earnings are generally reduced because of increased compe tition for less business. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Many college students have been able to work their way through school by driving cabs on a part-time basis and during summer and spring holidays. Some workers also be come part-time drivers in order to supplement their regular income. Driving a taxicab is not physically strenu ous. Most drivers do not change tires or do other heavy repair work. Drivers are, how ever, subject to nervous tension from driving in heavy traffic in all kinds of weather, and dealing with passengers who differ markedly in their personalities. Many drivers find the lack of direct super vision by an employer one of the more desir able aspects of their job. They may, however, be subject to municipal regulations which govern their personal appearance, the fares they charge, and their driving practices. Although unionization in this occupation is not widespread in small cities, taxi drivers in many of the large cities belong to labor unions, particularly those drivers who work for the large taxicab companies. The main union in this field is the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). SOME FACTORY OCCUPATIONS NOT REQUIRING SPECIALIZED TRAINING Assemblers Nature of Work Many of the products and parts made in fac tories must be assembled during various steps in the manufacturing process as well as in the final assembly of the product. For example, television sets, automobiles, and refrigerators are typical products which must undergo many assembly operations. The workers who put to gether parts or finished products are known as assemblers. Some assemblers, known as floor assemblers, put together large, heavy machinery or equip ment on shop floors, often fastening parts with bolts, screws, or rivets. Others, known as bench assemblers, put together small parts to make subassemblies or small complete units, while working at a bench. Many assemblers work on products or parts which move auto matically past their work stations on convey ors. These workers must do their assembly job within the time period it takes the part or pro duct to pass their work station. The job duties of assemblers depend upon the product being manufactured or the manu facturing process being used. In aircraft and missile production, these workers may assemble and install units or parts into subassemblies. In the automobile industry, one assembler may start nuts on bolts and the next worker on the assembly line tightens the nuts with powerdriven tools. Assemblers in electronic plants may connect parts with electrical wire. Semiskilled assemblers do relatively simple, repetitive operations under close supervision, often guided by simple instructions. In con trast, skilled assemblers work on the more complex parts of subassemblies with little or no supervision and are responsible for the final Assembler soldering connections on automobile heater motor. assembly of complex jobs. These skilled work ers must know how to read blueprints and other engineering specifications and use a vari ety of tools and precision measuring instru ments. The kinds of tools semiskilled assemblers use depend upon the job they are doing and the pro duct on which they are working. Pliers, screw drivers, soldering irons, power drills, and wrenches are among the common tools used by assemblers. Where Employed More than 500,000 semiskilled assemblers were employed in manufacturing plants 497 498 in 1959, with the great majority in metalwork ing plants. Assemblers work in plants which manufacture, on a mass production basis, such diverse products as automobiles, aircraft, electrical and electronic equipment (such as radios and television sets), and instruments. The number and types of assembly jobs with in a plant depend to a great extent upon the product being manufactured and the way in which production is organized. Large numbers of semiskilled assemblers are usually employed in plants where the work can be divided into many routine and repetitive tasks. Semiskilled assembly jobs are concentrated in greatest number where metalworking in dustries are located. California, Michigan, New York, Ohio, Illinois, and Pennsylvania are among the leading States in which assembly jobs are found. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Inexperienced workers may be hired as trainees or helpers in manufacturing in dustries and trained on the job to do semiskilled assembling work in a few hours or days. The new worker may have his job duties explained to him by his supervisor and then be placed under the supervision of a more experi enced employee. The trainee observes the ex perienced employee at work or directly assists him in his work. When the learner develops sufficient speed, he is placed “ on his own” and is responsible for the work he produces. Employers generally want applicants for semiskilled assembly jobs to be physically able, dependable, and to have some aptitude for me chanical work. Some employers prefer persons with no pre vious experience in factory assembly work so that they can be more easily trained in the em ployers* assembly methods. High school grad uates or workers who have taken vocational school courses, such as blueprint reading, are preferred by many employers and usually have more job opportunities and greater advance ment possibilities. Generally, for production line assembly jobs, employers look for appli cants who can do routine work at a steady and fast pace. For other types of assembly jobs, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK applicants may have to meet special re quirements. For example, in plants producing electrical and electronic products which may contain many different colored wires, ap plicants often are tested for color blindness. Many women are employed in semiskilled as sembly jobs because much assembly work is re latively light and often requires the ability to work with small and delicate objects. This is particularly true in the electrical and electron ic equipment industry. On the other hand, male workers are employed in final automobile assembly where the work generally is phys ically hard. Possibilities for advancement are limited in this type of work. However, some workers who learn to perform a variety of assembly work and who have a knowledge of blueprint read ing and shop mathematics are able to become skilled assemblers. A few workers also may be come skilled inspectors or foremen. Employment Outlook Many thousands of semiskilled assembly jobs in manufacturing industries are expected to become available during the 1960’s. The metalworking industries (particularly those which produce electrical and electronic equip ment), which employ the great majority of these workers, are expected to experience em ployment increases. In addition to the new openings which may be created by the expected increase in the employment of semiskilled as semblers, replacement needs will provide a con siderable number of job opportunities for new workers in this relatively large occupational group. The need to replace workers who leave their jobs, transfer to other types of work, retire, or die should result in a considerable number of job openings. Not all assembly jobs are expected to in crease at the same rate. Technological changes may slow up the growth of some jobs. For example, the introduction of printed electrical circuits reduces the wiring work required in assembling radio and television sets, affecting the employment of assembly workers in plants producing these products. An increase in the SELECTED FACTORY JOBS use of automatic assembly processes also may decrease the employment of these workers. Although the outlook for semiskilled assem blers in manufacturing industries is generally favorable, employment in metalworking manu facturing plants, which have many assemblers, is particularly sensitive to changes in business activities and national defense needs. There fore, these workers are subject occasionally to layoffs. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of semiskilled assemblers in manu facturing industries vary widely, depending on their skill, the type of product assembled, the size and location of the plant in which they are employed, and the method of wage payment. For example, assemblers who are paid on the basis of the number of items assembled may earn more than those paid on an hourly basis. Assembly jobs are commonly classified to re flect the level of skill and responsibility in volved. In its surveys of earnings in machinery plants, the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics classifies assembly jobs as class A, B, and C. A 1959-60 BLS survey of earnings of assemblers in such plants in 21 large cities and metropolitan areas shows that the average straight-time hourly earnings of class B male assemblers ranged from $1.73 in Nature of Work Almost everything manufactured, including those products we eat, drink, wear, or ride in, must be carefully inspected during the manu facturing process. The* millions of automobiles, sewing machines, television sets, production machinery, and other mass-produced items must be inspected to make sure they operate properly. The workers who see that size and quality of raw materials, parts, assemblies, and the operation of the finished products meet specifications are known as inspectors. Inspectors may look for scratches and other defects in products or parts. They often use simple gages to find out whether parts are made 499 Dallas to $2.68 in Pittsburgh; and earnings of class C male assemblers ranged from $1.43 in Dallas to $2.45 in Milwaukee. (For the purpose of this publication, class B and C assemblers are considered to be semiskilled workers.) The working conditions of semiskilled assem blers differ depending on the particular job performed. Assemblers of electronic equipment may put together small components at a bench in a room which is clean, well lighted, and free from dust. Floor assemblers of industrial ma chinery, on the other hand, may install and assemble heavy parts and are often exposed to contact with oil and grease. Assemblers on assembly lines may be under pressure to per form their assignments in the time the con veyor moves the parts or subassemblies past their work stations. Many semiskilled assemblers in manufactur ing industries are members of labor unions. These unions include the International Asso ciation of Machinists ; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; and the International Union, United Automobile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of America. Most labor-management contracts in the manufacturing plants in which assem blers are employed provide for fringe benefits such as holiday and vacation pay, health insur ance, life insurance, and retirement pensions. to specified sizes; they may also use measuring devices such as micrometers (a precision measuring instrument) to check the accuracy of the parts. Inspectors may be required to read simple work orders and do arithmetic involving decimals and fractions when reading measur ing instruments. Some inspectors use handtools such as screwdrivers or pliers in their work. The work done by semiskilled inspectors in factories is different from that performed by skilled inspectors. Semiskilled inspectors usu ally work under close supervision; skilled in spectors work under general supervision. In addition, skilled inspectors are often required to read blueprints, interpret specifications, and 500 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK number of inspectors also were employed in the clothing, chemical, and ordnance indus tries. Many of the inspection jobs are found in States which are manufacturing centers such as California, Michigan, New York, Ohio, Illi nois, and Pennsylvania. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Inspector using a mirror to help check brushes in a motor. use complex precision-measuring instruments. Inspectors do a variety of jobs in many in dustries. For example, they may be employed in radio and television manufacturing plants to test tubes and circuits to see that they meet specifications. They are also employed in the automobile industry to examine raw materials and parts during the various stages of manu facturing. Inspectors often keep records of the number of parts they have inspected, accepted, and rejected. When they find that a large number of pieces are faulty, they notify their super visors so that corrections can be made on the production line. Where Employed More than 200,000 semiskilled inspectors were employed in a wide variety of manufactur ing plants in 1959. Plants which produced automobiles and parts; aircraft, missiles, and parts; electrical machinery and equipment, such as electrical motors, radios, and refrig erators; machinery; iron and steel; fabricated metal products, such as structural steel for buildings; and food products were among the important employers of inspectors. A large Inspectors generally learn the requirements of their jobs during a brief period of on-thejob training. The training period may vary from a few hours or days to several months, depending upon the skill required. Many employers prefer workers with no pre vious inspection experience. They look for ap plicants who are physically able, dependable, have good eyesight, and can follow instructions. Some employers prefer experienced production workers for inspection jobs. A few large com panies give aptitude tests in selecting new em ployees for inspection work. For example, in the electronics industry, new workers may be given tests to determine their ability to work with numbers. Employers also look for em ployees who can do work requiring constant attention. Many women are employed as inspectors be cause many inspection jobs are not physically hard. They generally work in plants which pro duce relatively small and light products and parts such as electrical and electronic equip ment. Some semiskilled inspectors who supplement their work experience with formal educational courses such as blueprint reading, shop mathe matics, and electrical theory may advance to jobs as skilled inspectors. A few semiskilled inspectors, after acquiring sufficient experience and knowledge, may advance to foremen jobs. Employment Outlook Many thousands of young workers will be able to find employment as inspectors in manu facturing industries during the 1960-70 decade. Most of the industries which employ these workers are expected to increase their employ ment during this period. SELECTED FACTORY JOBS 501 In addition to the new jobs that will be created by increases in employment, replace ment needs will provide job opportunities for new workers. A considerable number of job opportunities should result from workers who leave their jobs, transfer from this field of work, retire, or die. The growing complexity of the products manufactured in our factories and rising qual ity standards should result in a need for more inspectors. However, the demand for inspec tors may be offset somewhat by the trend to ward the use of mechanized and automatic inspection equipment. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of inspectors vary considerably depending on their skill, the type of product inspected, the method of wage payment, and the size and location of the plant in which they are employed. Inspector jobs are com monly classified to reflect the level and skill involved. In its survey of earnings in machin ery plants, the U.S. Department of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics classifies inspector jobs as class A, B, and C. A 1959-60 BLS sur vey of earnings of inspectors in such plants in 19 large cities and metropolitan areas shows that the average straight-time hourly earnings of class B male inspectors ranged from $1.92 in Dallas to $2.76 in Houston; and earnings of class C male inspectors ranged from $1.64 in New York City to $2.51 in Philadelphia. (For the purpose of this publication, class B and C inspectors are considered to be semiskilled workers.) The working conditions of inspectors vary considerably. For example, they may work in well-lighted, air-conditioned workplaces in an aircraft or missile plant; others may work on the production floor of a machinery or metal fabricating plant, often exposed to high tem peratures, oil, grease, and noise. Many inspectors employed in manufacturing industries are members of labor unions. The International Union, United Automobile, Air craft and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the International Association of Ma chinists; and the International Union of Elec trical, Radio and Machine Workers are among the larger unions to which these workers be long. Most of the labor-management contracts in manufacturing plants employing inspectors provide for fringe benefits such as paid holi days and vacations, health insurance, life in surance, and retirement pensions. Power Truck Operators Nature of Work In the past, manual workers in factories usually did the hard physical labor of moving raw materials and products. Today, many heavy materials are moved, with little physical ef fort, by workers who operate various types of self-powered trucks which can easily carry tons of material and lift it to heights of 18 or more feet. A typical truck operated by these workers is the forklift truck which has a hydraulic lifting mechanism; other power trucks may have attachments such as scoops to lift coal or other loose material and tow bars to pull one or more small trailers. Power truck operators start the truck, make it go forward or backward, stop the truck, and control the lifting mechanism and attachments by moving pedals and/or levers. Power truck operators may be required to keep records of material moved, do some manual loading, and unloading of materials, and maintain their trucks in good working condition by cleaning, oiling, checking water in batteries, and making simple adjustments. The driver must use care and skill in driving his truck. For example, in driving through aisles where material is stored or when loading or removing materials from stock, he must be able to judge distance so that no damage oc curs. The operator also must know how much of a load the truck can carry and the kinds of jobs it can do. 502 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK plant, as well as the most efficient way of han dling the materials to be moved. Large companies generally require applicants for a power truck operator job to pass a physi cal examination. Many large employers also have formal training programs for new em ployees. In these training programs, the em ployee learns how to operate the power truck, how to do simple maintenance work, principles of loading and handling materials, plant layout and plant operation, and safe driving practices and rules. Advancement is limited. A few operators may become materials movement foremen or supervisors. Employment Outlook Forklift truck operator moving load of material. Where Employed Semiskilled power truckers are employed in all types of manufacturing industries. Many of these workers are employed in metal and metal working plants which manufacture products such as automobiles and automobile parts, ma chinery, fabricated metal products, and iron and steel. In addition to working in factories, large numbers of these workers are employed in com mercial establishments, warehouses, depots, dock terminals, mines, and other places where great quantities of materials must be moved. In 1958, about 8,000 forklift truck operators were employed by the Federal Government; most of them were employed by the Army, Navy, and Air Force. Many of these jobs are found where the metalworking industries are concentrated. Large numbers of industrial power truck oper ators work in California, Michigan, New York, Ohio, Illinois, and Pennsylvania. Power truck operator jobs in manufacturing industries are expected to increase considerably in the 1960’s. Most of the industries which em ploy large numbers of these workers are expect ed to have a long-range upward trend in employ ment. Replacement needs resulting from trans fers to other jobs, retirements, and deaths also will provide many job openings. The continued development and use of more efficient power trucks and other mechanized materials handling equipment could reduce somewhat the expected increase in the employ ment of these workers. For example, new mech anized materials handling equipment, such as continuous conveyor systems, moves materials in fixed paths at constant rates of speed, elimi nating bottlenecks and allowing for accurate production control. This method of materials handling may result in less use of power trucks in some plants. On the other hand, many com panies which use few or no power trucks today will require many semiskilled power truck oper ators as they mechanize their materials han dling operations. Despite more efficient power trucks and mechanized equipment, the more widespread use of power trucks will result in a significant growth in this occupation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most persons learn to operate a power truck in a few days. However, it takes several weeks to learn the physical layout and operation of a Earnings and Working Conditions Power truck operators employed in manufac turing industries generally are paid an hourly SOME FACTORY OCCUPATIONS NOT REQUIRING SPECIALIZED TRAINING rate. According to wage surveys made by the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1959-60, the average straight-time hourly earnings of forklift power truck oper ators in manufacturing plants in 59 cities and areas ranged from $1.31 in Jackson, Miss., to $2.71 in Akron, Ohio. Safety instruction is an important part of the job training in power trucking work. For example, many of these workers are subject to hazards— such as falling objects and collisions between vehicles. The driver may operate his truck inside buildings and outdoors where he is exposed to various weather conditions. 503 Some operators may handle loose material which can be dirty or dusty. Power truck operators have somewhat varied work in moving materials throughout a plant. Their work is likely to be less repetitive and routine than that of workers who do machine operator work. Many power truck operators are members of labor unions. Most labor-management contracts in manufacturing plants employing power truck operators provide for fringe benefits such as paid holidays and vacations, health insurance, life insurance, and retirement pensions. Production Painters Nature of Work Almost every metal or wood product manufac tured by American industry is given a coating of paint or other protective material. Although some of this paint is applied by automatic methods, much of the painting in mass-pro duction industries is done by workers known as production painters. These workers use spray guns to apply paint, lacquer, varnish, or other finishes to parts or finished manufactured products. Other production painters use brushes to apply paint. The work done by production painters in factories is different from that per formed by skilled painters who are employed in construction and maintenance work. (See index for page number references to Painters.) Painters who operate spray guns pour mixed paints into a spray gun container which is at tached to an air-compressor unit. They make adjustments to the nozzle of the spray gun and the air-compressor so that the paint will be ap plied uniformly to the surface. The objects being sprayed may be stationary or attached to a moving conveyor. When working on ob jects requiring more than one color, production painters may apply masking tape to prevent overlapping of colors. Although the duties of most production paint ers are quite simple and repetitive, the jobs of some may be rather varied. These production painters may make decisions involving the ap plication of finishes, thinning of paint, and the Production painter spraying paint on automobile fender attached to moving conveyor. adjustment of paint spray equipment. Produc tion painters also may clean the surface to be painted before painting. For some assignments, which require production painters to mix paints and figure the size of the area to be painted, they use simple arithmetic involving decimals and fractions. Production painters may replace nozzles and clean guns and other paint equip OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 504 ment when necessary. In addition to spray tanks and spray guns, production painters use tools such as mixing paddles, pliers, rules, and liquid mixing devices. Where Employed More than 90,000 production painters were employed in manufacturing industries in 1959; about 15 percent were women. About 40,000 of these workers were employed in plants manufacturing furniture and transportation equipment (primarily automobiles and air craft) . Others worked in plants which produce electrical and electronic machinery, machinery other than electrical, and fabricated metal prod ucts. Production painter jobs are found mainly in New York, Michigan, Ohio, Illinois, Califor nia, and Pennsylvania. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most production painters learn their jobs through on-the-job training. The length of training may vary from 2 weeks to several months. The new worker may have his job duties ex plained to him by his supervisor and then be placed under the supervision of an experienced employee. The trainee may observe the experi enced employee at work or assist him in his work. Persons going into this work should be in good health, be able to stand for long periods of time, have a steady hand, and have good eyesight so that they can distinguish between colors and see whether the paint is applied evenly. There are limited advancement possibilities in this field of work. A small number of workers have been able to advance to jobs as skilled inspectors or foremen. Employment Outlook There will be thousands of job opportunities for new workers as production painters during the 1960,s. Most openings will arise from the need to replace workers who leave their jobs, transfer out of this field of work, retire, or die. Although many industries which employ these workers are expected to increase their employment in the 1960-70 decade, there prob ably will be only a slight increase in the em ployment of production painters. The increasing development and use of mechanized and auto matic painting equipment probably will slow up the employment increase of these workers. Earnings and Working Conditions Production painters generally are paid on an hourly basis. According to a 1959 wage survey of the wood household furniture industry by the U.S. Department of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics, male production painters had aver age straight-time hourly earnings of $1.57. An examination of several 1959-60 labor-manage ment contracts in the metalworking industries indicates that these workers earned from about $2 to $2.70 an hour. Production painters are exposed to fumes from paint and paint-mixing ingredients. Some painters wear protective goggles and masks which cover their nose and mouth. When work ing on large objects, they may work in awk ward and cramped positions. Many production painters are members of unions. Among the labor organizations to which they belong are the International Union, United Automobile, Aircraft and Agricultural Imple ment Workers of America; the United Furni ture Workers of America; and the United Steel workers of America. Many labor-management contracts in the plants in which these workers are employed provide for fringe benefits such as holiday and vacation pay, health insurance, life insurance, and retirement pensions. Stationary Firemen (Boiler) Nature of Work Stationary firemen operate and maintain one or more steam boilers used to provide power for industrial machinery or for heating. In most plants, these workers operate mechanical de vices which control the flow of air, gas, oil, or SOME FACTORY OCCUPATIONS NOT REQUIRING SPECIALIZED TRAINING powdered coal into the firebox to keep proper steam pressure in the boilers. They keep water in the boilers at required levels and move valves and other devices such as levers and switches to control and regulate boiler operation. They also may add chemicals to boiler water to pre vent boiler corrosion. Stationary firemen reg ularly inspect boiler equipment, reading meters and other instruments, to make sure that the boilers are operating efficiently and in accord ance with safety regulations. Although some firemen in manufacturing plants operate low-pressure boilers, most fire men operate the more powerful high-pressure equipment. In many plants using high-pressure boilers, semiskilled stationary firemen are super vised by skilled workers called stationary engi neers. (These skilled workers are responsible for the operation and maintenance of a variety of equipment including boilers, diesel and steam engines, and refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment. See index for page number refer ences to Stationary Engineers.) Stationary firemen keep equipment in good working order by cleaning, oiling, and greasing moving machinery parts. They may make minor repairs, using small handtools such as wrenches and hammers, and may keep simple records such as those which show the amount of fuel used and boiler temperatures. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most large and medium-size cities, and a few States, require that the applicant for a station ary fireman job have a license which permits him to do this work. Applicants can obtain the knowledge and experience to pass the license ex amination by first working as a helper in a boiler room, or working as a stationary fireman under a conditional license. License requirements differ from city to city and from State to State. However, the appli cant usually must prove that he meets the ex perience and other requirements for the license and pass an examination testing his knowledge of the job. There are two types of stationary firemen licenses— for low and high pressure boilers. Low pressure firemen operate low pressure boilers generally used for heating. High pressure fire men operate the more powerful high pressure boilers and auxiliary boiler equipment used to power machinery and equipment in addition to heating buildings. However, both high and low pressure operators may operate equipment of any pressure class, provided a stationary engi neer is on duty. Stationary firemen must undertand the oper ation of machinery and have normal vision and good hearing. (Because of the mechanization Where Employed About 70,000 stationary firemen were em ployed in a wide variety of manufacturing in dustries in 1959. Generally, these workers are employed in industries which are large users of power generating equipment. Leading industries in the employment of stationary firemen are lumber; iron and steel; textiles; stone, clay, and glass; foods; and chemicals. Because stationary firemen work in so many different industries, they are employed in all parts of the country. Although some are em ployed in small towns and even rural areas, most work in the more heavily populated areas where large manufacturing plants are located. New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Michi gan, and New Jersey are States which have large numbers of firemen jobs. 505 Stationary fireman lighting a boiler. 506 of equipment, physical strength is no longer a major requirement for this type of work.) Stationary firemen may advance to jobs as stationary engineers. In order to become sta tionary engineers, firemen sometimes supple ment their on-the-job training by taking courses in subjects such as practical chemistry, ele mentary physics, blueprint reading, applied electricity, and theory of refrigeration, air-con ditioning, ventilation, and heating. Stationary firemen may also advance to jobs as mainte nance mechanics. Employment Outlook During the 1960's, a slight increase in the number of semiskilled stationary firemen in manufacturing industries is expected. Most op portunities for new workers will result from replacement needs. The expected increase in the use of stationary boilers and auxiliary equipment— used to gen erate power or heat plant structures— in the Nation's manufacturing industries is the main reason why some increase in employment is ex pected in this occupation. However, improved operating efficiency resulting from use of auto matic, more powerful, and more centralized equipment, and better use of manpower will limit the growth in the employment of station ary firemen. Retirements and deaths of experienced sta tionary firemen will also result in job openings for new workers. In addition, a large number of job openings will be created by experienced workers who leave their jobs or transfer to other fields of work. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Earnings and Working Conditions The type of equipment operated and the in dustry in which they are employed are among the factors affecting the earnings of stationary firemen. According to wage surveys made by the U.S. Department of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1959-60, the average straight-time hourly earnings of stationary firemen in manu facturing plants in 51 cities and areas ranged from $1.26 in Greenville, Ohio, to $2.83 in the Beaumont-Port Arthur, Tex., area. Although many boiler rooms where sta tionary firemen work are clean and well lighted, these conditions do not always exist. Most sta tionary firemen, even under the most favorable conditions, are at times exposed to noise, high temperatures, dirt, dust, contact with oil and grease, odors, and fumes from oil, gas, coal, or smoke. In repair or maintenance work, these workers may have to crawl inside a boiler and work in a crouching or kneeling position. Stationary firemen are subject to burns and falls, and injury from moving machinery. Boil ers and auxiliary equipment which are not oper ated correctly, or are defective, may be danger ous to these workers and to other persons in the work vicinity. However, modern equipment and safety procedures have reduced accidents considerably in recent years. Many stationary firemen are employed in plants which have labor-management contracts, most of which provide benefits which may in clude paid holidays and vacations, hospitaliza tion, medical and surgical insurance, sickness and accident insurance, and retirement pensions. Among the unions to which these workers be long are the International Brotherhood of Fire men and Oilers and the International Union of Operating Engineers. OTHER TRADES AND INDUSTRIAL OCCUPATIONS Blacksmiths (D.O.T. 4-86.010) Nature of Work The blacksmith makes and repairs many dif ferent kinds of metal articles, such as tools, gears, machine frames, and other industrial and agricultural equipment. He does this work by heating the metal in a forge (a special type of furnace) and hammering it into shape on an anvil. He also joins metal by heating separ ate pieces and hammering them together. He sharpens chisels, drills, picks, and other tools by reshaping their cutting edges. The blacksmith determines when the metal being heated in the forge is ready for ham mering by observing its color. He then removes the metal and hammers it into shape by hand or machine. After the article is formed, the blacksmith may heat-treat the metal to bring it to the proper hardness and temper. To harden tools, the blacksmith heats them to a high temperature in a heat-treating furnace and quickly cools them in an oil or water bath. In tempering (the process of making metal tougher and less brittle), the metal is heated in a tempering furnace to a temperature less than that used for hardening. The metal is kept at this temperature for a specified time, and then allowed to cool gradually in the air. Blacksmiths use hand hammers, tongs, and chisels. In addition to these handtools, they often use welding equipment, grinders, presses, and automatic hammers. shaping; some shoe horses. Many blacksmiths are self-employed. The other workers in this occupation are the industrial blacksmiths, employed chiefly in maintenance and repair departments in many industries. The petroleum industry leads in the employment of blacksmiths. A large number of these men work in oil-well drilling, sharpen ing and tempering drill bits, repairing tools, and assisting the driller in operating and main taining drilling equipment. Many others work in the maintenance departments of petroleum refineries. Other industries which employ many blacksmiths are the railroad, construction, coal- and metal-mining, steel, and machinery manufacturing industries. Some blacksmiths have production jobs in metalworking estab lishments, where they operate machines that make large numbers of identical articles. (A detailed discussion of the duties, training, and employment opportunities in jobs related to the blacksmith trade is provided in the section on Forge Shop Occupations, which appears else where in this Handbook. See index for page numbers.) Blacksmiths work in all parts of the country, in small rural communities as well as in large industrial centers. There is some concentra tion of employment in Pennsylvania, Texas, and Illinois. Training and Other Qualifications Where Employed In 1960, about 40 percent of the Nation's blacksmiths worked in small shops repairing farm and garden equipment, tools, automobile parts, and household articles. Often, black smiths in these shops perform other services such as welding and tool sharpening and re Most workers enter the occupation by get ting jobs as helpers in blacksmith shops where they gradually learn the trade. Others enter through apprentice training. The apprentice ship period is generally 3 or 4 years and cus tomarily includes training in blueprint reading, the use of tools and equipment, heat-treatment 507 508 of metal, forging methods, and welding. Black smiths in the railroad industry usually begin as apprentices. High school and vocational school courses in metalworking, blueprint read ing, and mathematics will be helpful to young persons interested in becoming blacksmiths. A blacksmith must possess considerable strength and stamina to pound metal into shape and to handle heavy parts for an entire working day. He must also have a precise touch when shaping metal parts even though he uses heavy tools and equipment. Employment Outlook There will be a small number of opportuni ties for new workers to enter the blacksmith occupation in the 1960,s. Most of these open ings will occur because of replacement needs, as many experienced blacksmiths are older men. Retirements and deaths will provide about 1,000 job openings for new workers each year during the 1960’s. Fewer than 40,000 blacksmiths were em ployed in late 1960, substantially less than 20 years ago. The need for blacksmiths has les sened because many of their skills are being per formed by other workers such as welders and hammersmiths. In addition, some repair work, formerly done by blacksmiths, has been made unnecessary by the use of parts which are cheaper to replace than to repair. However, the decline in the employment of blacksmiths has slowed down in recent years, and this trend is expected to continue through the 1960’s. The skills of all-round blacksmiths will still be needed in the maintenance departments of large industrial plants and in the many small metalworking and repair shops throughout the country. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK employed in railroad shops averaged $2.62. In the steel industry, the union base rate for ex perienced blacksmiths was $2.83 an hour. With the cost-of-living adjustment but excluding in centive pay, they earned about $3 an hour in the steel industry. Although no overall wage data are available for blacksmiths employed in the petroleum industry, an examination of some 1960 union contracts indicates that blacksmiths in this industry earned $3.06 or more an hour. Other wage data collected from a limited num ber of employers indicated that blacksmiths in industry generally were receiving between $2.38 and $3.15 an hour in early 1960. Although all blacksmith shops are rather hot and noisy because of the furnaces and ham mers, the conditions under which blacksmiths work are better in some shops than in others. In small repair shops, the noise is not constant and the temperature is more easily controlled. In large production shops, the large forges and the sound of many automatic hammers create considerable heat and noise. In recent years, however, the introduction of large ventilating fans and the reduction of machine vibration have improved working conditions in produc tion shops. Blacksmiths are subject to a number of hazards. These include burns from forges and heated metals, and injuries from large pieces of metal which may drop while being handled. Safety devices such as goggles, metal-tip shoes, and leather aprons have reduced hazards in this trade. Many blacksmiths belong to unions. The principal union in the trade is the Interna tional Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Ship builders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers. Some blacksmiths are members of the Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union, the United Steelworkers of America, and other unions. Many union-employer agree ments provide health insurance and pension plans for blacksmiths. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of skilled blacksmiths depend upon the part of the country, the kind of shop, or the industry in which they work. In 1960, straight-time hourly earnings for blacksmiths Where To Go for More Information International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers ap^I Helpers, 570 New Brotherhood Bldg., Kansas City 1, Kans. OTHER TRADES AND INDUSTRIAL OCCUPATIONS 509 Boilermaking Occupations Nature of Work Boilermakers, layout men, and fitup men spe cialize in the repairing, fabricating, and as sembling of boilers, tanks, vats, and similar vessels made of metal plate. These boilers and other vessels are widely used throughout in dustry to hold liquids and gases under pressure. Boilermakers are primarily engaged in the re pairing and erecting of boilers and vessels, while layout men and fitup men are usually employed in the manufacturing of new boilers and heavy tanks. The repair work performed by boiler makers requires these workers to be all-round skilled craftsmen; fitup men and layout men have more specialized duties. Boilermakers (D.O.T. 4-83.100). These crafts men assemble and erect prefabricated parts and fittings at construction sites where the boilers or vessels are to be used. After the installation is completed they make all the necessary tests to check for defects. Boilermakers doing repair Boilermakers assembling units of heavy steel plate. work in the field first determine the cause of trouble. They may then dismantle the boilers, vessels, or other units, and make repairs such as patching weak spots with metal stock, re placing defective sections with new parts, or strengthening joints. The repair and installa tion work performed by boilermakers must often meet standards set by State and local boiler and pressure vessel laws. Boilermakers use a variety of tools and equip ment in repair and assembly work. They cut and shape plate to size with power shears, power rolls, power presses, or oxyacetylene torches. They use welding or riveting equipment when repairing or assembling boilers. When assem bling and erecting steel plate units in the field on a construction site, the boilermakers may use all types of rigging equipment including hoists, jacks, and rollers. Layout Men (D.O.T. 4-83.200). In the manu facture of units made of heavy steel plate or other metals, the metal is initially prepared for fabricating operations by layout men. They mark on the plates and tubes all curves, lines, points, and dimensions which serve as directions to other workers for the cutting or shaping of the parts of boilers, tanks, and pressure vessels. They lay out the parts to scale as outlined on blueprints, sketches, or patterns. Layout men use compasses, dividers, scales, surface gages, hammers, and scribers in laying out the parts to be fabricated. Fitup Men (D.O.T. 4-83.300). Before the vari ous parts of boilers, tanks, vats, or other vessels are finally assembled, the fitup men assemble and temporarily fit-them together in the shop. They bolt or tack welded parts together and correct irregularities in parts so that they fit together neatly and securely. Fitup men also assemble and fit together nozzles, pipes, fittings, and other parts. Fitup men read and interpret blueprints and drawings used in the manufacturing process in order to check parts for accuracy and fit ac cording to specifications. They use handtools such as hammers, sledges, wrenches, and 510 punches, and equipment such as welding ma chines, portable drills, and grinding tools. Where Employed Boilermakers are employed principally in re pair shops which specialize in servicing and re pairing boilers and pressure vessels used in com mercial and industrial companies; they also are employed in the railroad transportation and con struction industries. The boilermakers employed by the railroads work, for the most part, in locomotive shops where they maintain and re pair steam heat generators, locomotive and sta tionary boilers, fireboxes, tanks, and other parts made of sheet iron or plate steel. Many boiler makers also work in the maintenance depart ments of industrial establishments to maintain and repair boilers, tanks, and other vessels. More than 2,400 boilermakers were employed in early 1960 in Federal Government installations, prin cipally in Navy shipyards and Federal powerplants. Boilermakers are employed in every State be cause of the widespread need for their skills in maintenance and repair work. Most of the boilermaking jobs, however, are located where the metalworking industries and railroad shops are concentrated. Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, New York, and New Jersey have the largest numbers of boilermaking jobs. In the West, California and Texas lead in the employment of boilermakers. Layout men and fitup men are primarily em ployed in the boilershop products industry which produces fire-tube boilers, heat exchang ers, heavy tanks, heating boilers, water-tube boilers, and similar boiler-type items. Most lay out men and fitup men are employed in the Middle Atlantic and East North Central indus trial areas where the boilershop products in dustry is concentrated. Training and Other Qualifications Many men have become boilermakers by working as helpers for several years, but most training authorities agree that a 4-year appren ticeship is the best way to learn this trade. In the apprenticeship program, the apprentice works OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK under the close supervision of a journeyman who instructs him in the skills of the trade. The apprentice learns how to use the tools and machines of the trade during his training period. Apprenticeship programs usually pro vide for about 8,000 hours of relatively con tinuous employment and training supplemented by about 600 hours of related technical instruc tion. Some of the related technical subjects studied by apprentice boilermakers during their training period are blueprint reading, shop mathematics, welding techniques, and shop metallurgical science covering stress and strain of metals. Many layout men and fitup men acquire their skills on the job. They are usually first hired as helpers and learn the trade by working with experienced workers. It generally takes at least 2 years to qualify as a journeyman layout or fitup man in a fabricating shop where boilers and vessels are produced on a mass-production basis. However, in the railroad industry and in shops where products are custom made, layout and fitup jobs are generally filled by men who have first qualified as skilled boilermakers. Prior training in mathematics, blueprint reading, and shopwork will prove helpful to young men interested in entering these trades. Mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity are important qualifications for persons who want to become boilermakers, layout men, or fitup men. Such persons are also required to be in good physical health and able to do heavy work. Employment Outlook During the 1960,s, a moderate rise in the em ployment of boilermakers, layout men, and fitup men can be expected. Most opportunities for new workers, however, will result from replace ment needs. The expected large expansion in electric power generation facilities and the development of atomic energy for industrial use will result in an increased need for these workers in boiler manufacturing plants. In the construction in dustry, the fabrication and assembly of indus trial power boilers, smokestacks, heavy tanks, and other large vessels also will favorably affect the employment of these workers. Some addi 511 OTHER TRADES AND INDUSTRIAL OCCUPATIONS tional maintenance boilermaker jobs will be created by the expansion of facilities in pe troleum refineries, chemical plants, electric light and power plants, and steel plants. In contrast to this growth, the employment of boilermakers in railroad repair shops will decline further. The number of these workers has been declining steadily since World War II because diesel engines have been replacing steam locomotives. In 1950, the railroads em ployed 9,800 boilermakers, but by March 1960, the employment of boilermakers in this industry had dropped to about 2,600. Replacement needs will be the primary factor in creating job opportunities for new workers in these trades. Because a high proportion of experienced boilermakers, fitup men, and layout men are older men, many will be leaving the labor force during the next 10 to 20 years. Retirements and deaths may create about 8,000 new jobs during the 1960’s. Additional job open ings will be created by the transfer of experi enced workers in these occupations to other fields of work. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of skilled boilermakers compare favorably with those of other skilled craftsmen. For example, the union wage rate of mainte nance boilermakers in the basic steel industry was $3 an hour in 1960. The average straighttime hourly earnings of boilermakers employed by Class I railroads were $2.64 an hour in 1960. Recent earnings data of fitup men and layout men are not available. According to a Bureau of Labor Statistics study of union wage scales in the building trades in cities of 100,000 or more population, the average minimum hourly scale for union journeymen boilermakers was $4.11 in July 1960. The minimum union wage scale for these workers in most of the areas surveyed ranged from $3.75 to $4.81 an hour. However, in a few areas the wage scale was higher; the highest hourly rate reported was $4.81 in Newark, N.J. Boilermakers employed in the building trades are not as steadily employed throughout the year as those who work in maintenance depart ments of large industrial establishments. Many boilermakers, layout men, and fitup men are employed in metalworking plants which have employer-labor union contracts. Most of these agreements have provisions for fringe benefits such as hospitalization, medical and surgical insurance, life insurance, sickness and accident insurance, and retirement pensions. When engaged in boiler repair and assembly work, boilermakers are often required to work in cramped quarters or at great heights. Some work must also be done under conditions of dampness, heat, and poor ventilation. Boilermaking tends to be more hazardous than many other metalworking occupations. Al though the injury-frequency rate in the boilershop products industry is considerably higher than the average for manufacturing industries as a whole, it has been declining in recent years because of the safety programs of employers and unions. Most boilermakers, layout men, and fitup men bqlong to labor unions. The principal union of these trades is the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers. Some of these craftsmen also are members of industrial unions, such as the Industrial Union of Marine and Shipbuild ing Workers of America; the Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union; and the United Steelworkers of America. Where To Go for More Information International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers, 570 New Brotherhood Bldg., Kansas City 1, Kans. Dispensing Opticians and Optical Laboratory Mechanics Nature of Work portant work done by dispensing opticians and The more than 80 million persons who wear prescription eyeglasses benefit from the im- optical laboratory (shop) mechanics. These workers make and fit eyeglasses prescribed by 512 an eye physician (oculist or ophthalmologist) or optometrist to correct a patient’s visual de fect. The shop mechanic fabricates the fin ished eyeglasses by surfacing (grinding and polishing) lenses to meet the specifications of the prescription and the dispensing optician, and mounts the lenses in a frame. Then the dispensing optician fits and adjusts the eye glasses to the customer’s requirements. In gen eral, the fabrication and fitting of eyeglasses involves two separate functions. The dispensing optician serves the customer directly and the optical mechanic works in the shop. Occa sionally, both functions are performed by the same person. Dispensing opticians may also fit various types of prescription contact lenses. These lenses are worn in contact with the eyes and may be used as a substitute for, or change from, conventional eyeglasses. The most re cently developed and currently the most pop ular type of contact lens is the corneal lens, a tissue-thin plastic disc, about a third of an inch in diameter. Although contact lenses are becoming increasingly popular, the number of persons wearing them is small compared with the number wearing conventional eyeglasses. The dispensing optician (D.O.T. 5-08.010) works in a retail optical establishment. In fit ting prescription eyeglasses, he makes certain that the eyeglasses follow the lens prescription and fit the customer properly. The optician de termines exactly where the lenses should be in relation to the pupils of the eyes, by measuring the distance between the centers of the pupils (the pupillary distance). He also assists the customer in the proper selection of an eyeglass frame, by measuring the customer’s facial fea tures and giving consideration to the various styles and colors of the eyeglass frames. Before prescription eyeglasses are fitted, the dispensing optician prepares a work order which gives the optical laboratory mechanic the in formation he needs to interpret the prescription properly, grind the lenses, and insert them in a frame. The work order consists of the lens pre scription; information on the size and optical centering of the lens and other optical require ments; and the size, color, style, and shape of the frame. After the finished eyeglasses are re- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Dispensing optician using precision instrument to determine inner curve of contact lens. turned from the laboratory, the optician adjusts them to the customer to make sure they fit properly. He uses small handtools, such as opti cal pliers, files, and screwdrivers, and a milli meter ruler to measure the pupillary distance. He also uses a precision instrument to check the power of the lenses and their surface quality. In fitting contact lenses, the dispensing opti cian, following the directions of the eye physi cian, takes certain measurements of the cornea of the customer’s eye and then prepares specifi cations to be followed by a firm specializing in finishing such lenses. The dispenser fits the cus tomer with the completed lenses, using preci sion instruments to measure the power and cur vature of the lenses and the curvature of the cornea of the eye. Contact lens fitting requires more skill, care, and patience than conventional eyeglass fitting. The dispensing optician in structs the customer in the insertion, removal, and care of the contact lenses over a period of time, generally a few weeks. The physician re checks their fit as needed. If minor adjustments are necessary, the dispensing optician makes them; if major changes are needed, he returns them to the contact lens manufacturer. The opticial mechanic (D.O.T. 5-08.010) per forms the shop or laboratory work required to make prescription eyeglasses. There are two principal types of optical mechanics— the sur- 513 OTHER TRADES AND INDUSTRIAL OCCUPATIONS facer (D.O.T. 5-08.077) and the henchman (or finisher) (D.O.T. 5-08.033). The surfacer, starting with standard or stock size lens blanks, lays out the work, grinds and polishes the sur faces of the lenses, and makes sure that the ground lenses conform to the prescription re quirements. In small laboratories, one qualified man may perform all these operations. In large laboratories, the work is divided into separate operations which are performed by semiskilled workers who operate large power grinding and polishing machines in producing the lens sur faces. The surfacer uses precision instruments to measure the power and curvature of lenses. The other principal type of optical laboratory mechanic— the benchman or finisher— marks and cuts the ground and polished lenses to fit the frame. He then bevels or smooths the edges of the lenses and assembles the lenses and frame parts into the finished eyeglasses. In large laboratories, these duties are divided into several operations which are performed by semi skilled workers. The benchman uses small handtools, such as lens cutters, chippers, pliers, files, protractors, and diamond point glass drills. He also uses precision instruments to deter mine, for example, if there are any imperfec tions in the lenses. Both the surfacer and the benchman also do repair work. They may also duplicate eyeglass lenses that have been broken and replace dam aged parts of frames. Where Employed About 21,000 dispensing opticians and opti cal mechanics were employed throughout the country in 1960. Of these, about 9,000 (4,000 dispensing opticians and 5,000 optical labora tory mechanics) were employed in the Nation’s estimated 3,100 retail optical shops, which deal directly with individuals requiring correction of visual defects. Approximately 12,000 work ers were employed in the prescription depart ments of the more than 1,250 wholesale optical laboratories which did work for retail optical firms. In addition to the 21,000 opticians and mechanics mentioned above, many of the ap proximately 2,500 proprietors of retail optical establishments were optical mechanics or dis pensing opticians. Opticians and mechanics are mainly employed in cities and industrial areas. New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Califor nia, and Illinois are the leading States in the employment of these workers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Benchman checking lens to insure proper fit into eyeglass frame. Most dispensing opticians and optical me chanics learn their skills through informal, onthe-job training. Mechanics start in jobs re quiring simple skill and dexterity and gradu ally work into the more difficult jobs. Some then move into dispensing offices and, with ad ditional training, become dispensing opticians. A small number of opticians start immediately in dispensing work and learn their jobs under the guidance of trained opticians. In addition to this informal method, young persons who are high school graduates can pre pare for these occupations through formal ap prenticeship programs. Most training authori ties agree that workers who have learned their trade as apprentices have more job opportuni ties, improved job security, and are able to ad vance further in their careers. A number of optical firms have 4- and 5-year apprentice ship programs. Apprentices with exceptional 514 ability may complete their training program in a shorter period. The typical program for an apprentice optical mechanic in eyeglass lens production includes on-the-job training and related instruction in ophthalmic optics (vision improvement). This training qualifies a person for both surfacing and finishing work. However, apprentices may specialize in one phase of this work in the larger laboratories. The apprenticeship pro gram for the surfacer emphasizes training in grinding operations, polishing, blocking, inspection, and layout. The benchman ap prenticeship program concentrates on lens edging, layout for cutting, lens cutting and drilling, rimless spectacle assembly, inserting lenses into frames, and inspection of eyeglasses. In addition to this work experience, the ap prentice optical mechanic receives related in struction in subjects such as types and measure ment of lenses, the measurement and curvature of lens surfaces, and the effect of glass surfaces on light rays. The dispensing optician apprentice is given training similar to that of the benchman ap prentice. He receives additional instruction in optical mathematics, the relationship of the lens to the eye, the mechanics of dispensing, and the inspection of eyeglasses. Formal school training plays a relatively small part in preparing for these occupations. However, academic training for entry into the dispensing optician occupation is being encouraged. In 1960, three schools were offer ing 2-year courses at the college level in opti cal fabricating and dispensing work. One col lege offers a 2-year home study course in optics and optical dispensing, designed to supplement the training of apprentices employed in retail optical dispensing shops. A few vocational schools have courses for training of optical me chanics. The larger manufacturers of contact lenses offer dispensers courses of instruction in contact lens fitting, usually lasting a few weeks. Employers prefer applicants for entry jobs as dispensing opticians and optical mechanics to be high school graduates who have had courses in the basic sciences. A knowledge of physics, algebra, geometry, and mechanical OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK drawing is particularly valuable in acquiring skills in these occupations. Interest in, and ability to do, precision work are essential. Be cause dispensing opticians deal directly with the public they must be tactful and have a pleasing personality. A discriminating color sense is also very helpful in their work because of the increasing importance of styling in eye glass frames. Some States require dispensing opticians and optical mechanics to be licensed. Two States— Connecticut and New Jersey— license optical mechanics. Fourteen States— Arizona, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Ken tucky, Massachusetts, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and Washington— require dispensing opticians to be licensed. Advancement opportunities are available to both optical mechanics and dispensing opti cians. Optical laboratory mechanics can be come supervisors, foremen, and, frequently, managers. Many optical mechanics have be come dispensing opticians, although there has been a trend in recent years to train especially for this latter job. There are opportunities for mechanics and dispensing opticians to go into business for themselves. In the past decade or so, the number of proprietors of retail optical establishments has increased substantially, reaching a total of about 2,500 in 1960. These owners came, for the most part, from the ranks of optical mechanics and dispensing opticians. Opticians may also get jobs as salesmen for wholesale optical goods companies. With ad ditional educational training, opticians may become optometrists. Employment Outlook Employment of optical mechanics and dis pensing opticians is expected to increase in the 1960’s, as in prior years. New jobs in these rel atively small occupations will provide em ployment opportunities for a few thousand workers. In addition, replacement needs will provide a few hundred job openings each year. More optical mechanics and dispensing opti cians will be needed to perform the growing amount of prescription lens fabrication and 515 OTHER TRADES AND INDUSTRIAL OCCUPATIONS dispensing work. Because of the increasing size, literacy, and educational level of the popu lation, and with the particularly large growth in the number of older persons (who are those most likely to need eyeglasses), the production of prescription lenses should considerably ex ceed the 1960 level of about 29 million pairs. The market for eyeglasses will expand also be cause the importance of good vision is being emphasized increasingly in homes, schools, factories, and offices. (A widespread national promotion program which seeks to educate the public about the need for professional eye care is being sponsored by the optical industry.) Another factor is the more attractive design of eyeglass frames, in many different styles and colors, which has increased the numbers of pairs of eyeglasses purchased by individuals and lessened the opposition of many persons to the wearing of eyeglasses. The rapid growth in purchases of contact lenses in recent years also is expected to continue, providing more dispensing work for opticians. As in the past, many technological de velopments affecting employment needs will continue to be made in the manufacture of eyeglasses and in the equipment used by opti cal laboratories to fabricate lenses to prescrip tion specifications. Nevertheless, the expand ing market for eyeglasses should result in a continued growth in the number of optical me chanics. skilled workers depending on their experience, skill, and responsibilities. Apprentices start at about 60 percent of the skilled worker's rate and their wages are increased periodically, so that after they complete the apprenticeship program they receive the pay of skilled workers. Wholesale establishments usually have a 5-day, 40-hour workweek. Retail shop employees generally work a 5!/2 or 6-day week. Workers in these occupations usually have year-round employment. The work of the dispensing optician requires little exertion and is generally performed in pleasant, well-lighted, and well-ventilated sur roundings. Optical mechanics may work under fairly noisy conditions because power grinding and polishing machines are used in preparing prescription lenses. Physically handicapped persons who have full use of their eyes and hands and can do sedentary work, can perform some of the more specialized jobs found in the larger laboratories. Some optical mechanics and dispensing op ticians are members of unions. One of the unions organizing these workers is the Inter national Union of Electrical, Radio, and Ma chine Workers. Where To Go for More Information American Optical Company, Box 1, Southbridge 1, Mass. Association of Independent Optical Wholesalers, 222 West Adams St., Chicago 6, 111. Earnings and Working Conditions Weekly earnings for qualified optical labora tory mechanics generally ranged from about $90 to $135 a week in 1960. Dispensing opti cians usually earn about 10 to 20 percent more than optical mechanics. Opticians who have their own business may earn much more. Foremen earn up to 20 percent more than Guild of Prescription Opticians of America, 110 East 23d St., New York 10, N .Y. International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers, 1126 16th St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. Optical Wholesalers National Association, Chamber of Commerce Bldg., Columbus 15, Ohio. Electroplaters (D.O.T. 4-74.010) Nature of Work Electroplaters use plating solutions and elec tric current to coat metal articles with a layer of chromium, nickel, silver, gold, or other metal. The electroplating process gives the metals a protective surface or a more attractive appear ance. Metal products which are often electro plated include such widely different items as 516 automobile bumpers, cigarette lighters, silver ware, costume jewelry, plumbing fixtures, electrical appliances, bearings, component parts of electronic equipment, jet engine parts, and ammunition. The skilled plater first studies specifications which indicate the parts of the objects to be plated, the type of plating metal to be applied, and the desired thickness of the plating. He prepares the plating solution by mixing a com pound of the plating metal with other chemi cals. The plater also calculates the amount of electric current required to carry the metal particles through the plating solution and the length of time the objects must remain in the solution so that the plating metal will be of the specified thickness. A plater must often use originality in designing special racks for hold ing the objects while they are in the plating tank. In preparing an article for electroplating, the plater cleans it by dipping it in cleansing solutions, by scouring, or by buffing. He covers with lacquer, or with rubber or plastic tape, any part of the article which is not to be plated. He then places the article in the plating tank, where an electric cur rent carries metal in the solution to the surface being plated. When the desired thickness of metal plate has been obtained, he removes, rinses, and dries the article. The plater must analyze the plating solution periodically and sometimes add chemicals to keep the solution constant. It is also necessary for him to control the temperature of the solu tion. He examines finished articles for defec tive plating and may use micrometers and cali pers to check the thickness of the plating. In addition to plating, platers do other kinds of finishing, such as spray painting, dipping, and flow painting. Electroplaters employed in job shops, which do small lot plating of great variety, are often required to use considerable ingenuity in their work.. Platers working in production shops, where large lots of metal parts of the same type are electroplated, usually carry out routine assignments. In some of the larger shops, chemists and chemical engineers pften make the technical plating decisions while OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Electroplater removing tumbler barrel containing small parts from electroplating bath. platers act as foremen and do some of the rou tine plating work. As a foreman, a plater often supervises the work of helpers, who place objects on racks before plating and remove them afterwards, and clean tanks and racks. In some shops, a plater is expected to order chemicals and other supplies for his work. Where Employed Although electroplating shops are found in almost every part of the country, most are con centrated in the Northeast and Midwest near the centers of the metalworking industry. Large numbers of the approximately 20,000 electroplaters employed in 1960 were working in Chicago, Detroit, New York, Cleveland, Newark and Jersey City, Providence, and Los Angeles. About 8,000 of these electroplaters were em ployed in independent job shops specializing in metal plating and polishing for other manufac turing firms and for individuals. The remain ing platers were employed in the plating departments of plants primarily engaged in the manufacture of plumbing fixtures, heating and cooking utensils, lighting fixtures, wire prod ucts, electric control apparatus, electric appli ances, radio and television products, motor vehicles and parts, mechanical measuring in struments, miscellaneous hardware items, and other metal products. OTHER TRADES AND INDUSTRIAL OCCUPATIONS Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most platers are hired as helpers and learn the trade by working with skilled platers. It usually takes 4 years or longer to become a skilled worker in this way. Since less time is required to learn to work with only one or two metals, many employers tend to develop spe cialized platers rather than those who can work with all kinds of metals. This often makes it difficult for a plater to transfer to shops doing other kinds of electroplating. Another way to enter the electroplating trade is through an apprenticeship program. Although apprentice training provides better all-round preparation, only a small percentage of electroplaters have been trained this way. The planned program for apprentices in cludes a combination of on-the-job training and related classroom instruction in the prop erties of metals, chemistry, and electricity as applied to plating. The apprentice does pro gressively more difficult work as his skill and knowledge increase. By the third or fourth year, he determines cleaning methods, does plating without supervision, makes solutions, examines plating results, and supervises helpers. After 3 or 4 years of an apprentice ship program or general work experience, the worker usually becomes a fully qualified plater. From this position, he may qualify as a fore man. High school and vocational school courses in chemistry, electricity, physics, mathematics, and blueprint reading will prove helpful to young persons interested in becoming master electroplaters. Some colleges, technical insti tutes, and vocational high schools offer 1- to 2-year courses in the principles and practices of electroplating. In addition to the training offered by these schools, many branches of the American Electroplaters' Society conduct bas ic courses in the fundamentals of electroplat ing. The increasing complexity of the plating process and the greater use of precision plating will require platers with a higher degree of technical training in the future. Employment Outlook The expected expansion in the machinery industries and the broader Digitizedand metalworking for FRASER 517 application of the electroplating process brought about by recent developments in the use of aluminum, other metals, and metal alloys will increase the demand for skilled electro platers in the 1960's. In addition to the new job openings which are expected to develop be cause of the increased use of the electroplat ing process, a small number of vacancies will develop from the need to replace those workers who shift to other lines of work, retire, or die. A factor which is limiting the growth of this occupation somewhat is the tendency of some of the large, highly mechanized plants to em ploy chemists and chemical engineers to plan the plating operations and to use skilled platers only as foremen. The growing use of anodizing— another method of finishing metals, used almost exclu sively on aluminum products— may have some adverse effect on the use of the electroplating process in the future. However, with only lit tle additional training, electroplaters can do this work since the equipment and skills re quired are similar. Vacuum plating, a relative ly new metal finishing method, may limit the growth of employment of electroplaters if use of this process becomes widespread. This method requires equipment and skills different from those used in electroplating. Earnings and Working Conditions Wage rates of skilled electroplaters ranged from about $1.50 to $2.90 an hour in late 1960, as indicated by examination of a number of union contracts and information from a limit ed number of employers. During a worker's pe riod of apprenticeship or on-the-job training, his wage rate usually starts at 60 to 70 percent of a skilled worker's rate and progresses to the full rate by the end of his training period. In almost all plants, workers are paid shift pre miums for working at night. Plating work involves some hazards because acid, alkaline, or poisonous solutions are used. Problems of humidity and odor also prevail in electroplating plants. However, most plants have installed systeins of ventilation and other safety devices which have considerably re duced the occupational hazards. Protective clothing and boots provide additional protec 518 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tion. Mechanical devices are generally used to handle most of the lifting required, but at times the worker must lift and carry objects weigh ing up to 100 pounds. Some platers are union members. Union platers belong to the Metal Polishers, Buffers, Platers and Helpers International Union. Oth er platers have been organized by the Interna tional Union, United Automobile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of America, and the International Association of Machin ists. Some of the labor-management contracts covering electroplaters provide health, insur ance, and other benefits. Where To Go for More Information For educational information concerning elec troplating and other metal finishing methods, write t o : American Electroplaters Society, Inc., 445 Broad St., Newark 2, N.J. For information on job opportunities, train ing, and other questions, write t o : National Association of Metal Finishers, 11 Park St., Montclair, N.J. Stationary Engineers (D.O.T. 5-72.010) Nature of Work The man in charge of the heating and airconditioning equipment in a large office build ing is likely to be a stationary engineer. Sta tionary engineers are members of one of the larger skilled occupations in the United States. Stationary engineers operate and maintain equipment used to generate power and to heat and air condition large industrial plants and commercial buildings. These workers are needed wherever large boilers, diesel and steam engines, refrigeration and air-conditioning ma chinery, generators, motors, and turbines are used. They work in many different types of establishments, such as power stations, facto ries, mines, sewage and water treatment plants, office and apartment buildings, hotels, hospitals, and schools. The stationary engineer inspects the equip ment for which he is responsible, regularly each day, to make sure that it is working properly. He reads meters, gages, and other instruments, and records such information as amount of fuel used, temperature of boilers, number of pieces of equipment in use, hours of operation, and repairs made. He must be able to detect and identify any trouble that develops by analyzing the various readings and watching and listen ing to the machinery. He uses levers, throttles, switches, valves, and other devices to regulate and control the machinery so that it operates efficiently. The engineer has a responsible job. The equipment he is in charge of is essential to the operation of the establishment. He also must operate and maintain the equipment propperly in accordance with State and local safety laws. The duties of stationary engineers depend on Stationary engineer making adjustment on pump. OTHER TRADES AND INDUSTRIAL OCCUPATIONS the size of the establishment in which they work and the type and capacity of the machin ery for which they are responsible. In a large plant, the chief stationary engineer may be re sponsible for the entire operation of the boiler room and direct the work of assistant stationary engineers and other employees including tur bine operators, boiler operators, and air-condi tioning mechanics. Assistant stationary engi neers may be responsible for the operation of all the equipment during a shift, or in charge of a specific type of machinery, such as refrigera tion equipment. In relatively small plants, only an engineer and a helper may be needed, and the engineer, himself, may oil and clean the equipment, grease moving parts, and clean boiler tubes and walls. Stationary engineers also may repair the equipment they operate, using handtools such as wrenches and hammers. The repacking of valves and replacing of gaskets are common re pair jobs performed by these workers. The amount of repair work done by these men de pends largely on the type of equipment and the size of the plant in which they are employed. Occasionally, stationary engineers make me chanical changes such as installing a bypass line to change the flow of steam so that the equipment will operate more efficiently. Where Employed About 200,000 stationary engineers were em ployed in a wide variety of establishments in late 1960. More than 30,000 were employed by Federal, State, and local governments. The types of establishments in which the engineers worked ranged in size from giant hydroelectric plants and large public buildings to small in dustrial plants. Most plants which operate on three shifts employ from 3 to 8 stationary en gineers, but some have as many as 60. In many establishments, only one engineer is at work on each shift. Because stationary engineers work in so many different kinds of establishments and industires, they are employed in all parts of the country. Although some are employed in small towns and in rural areas, most work in the more heavily populated areas where large industrial and 519 commercial establishments are located. New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Texas, California, and Ohio are leading States in the employment of these workers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most of the people now working as stationary engineers started as helpers and acquired their skills largely through informal on-the-job expe rience. However, many training authorities rec ommend formal apprenticeship as the most desirable method for learning this occupation. Formal training is more necessary today because of the increasing complexity of stationary ma chinery and the varied training and experience required before a stationary engineer can obtain a first-class license. After completing appren ticeship, a stationary engineer usually must get further work experience before he can qualify for a first-class license. (This license is the accepted proof of a worker's qualifications and an important goal of his training.) In selecting apprentices, most employers pre fer young men between 18 and 23 years of age with high school or trade school education, who have received instruction in such subjects as algebra, geometry, trigonometry, shop mathe matics, mechanical drawing, machine-shop prac tice, physics, and chemistry. Employers also look for young men with mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity. A stationary engineering apprenticeship customarily lasts 4 years. Through on-the-job training, the apprentice learns to operate, main tain, and make repairs on stationary equipment, such as blowers, generators, compressors, boilers, motors, and air-conditioning and re frigeration machinery. He is taught how to use a variety of hand and machine tools, such as chisels, hammers, small electric grinders, lathes, and drill presses. He also may learn to use precision measuring instruments, such as calipers and micrometers. In addition, he may be taught how to move machinery by the use of blocks, chain hoists, or other equipment. This on-the-job training is supplemented by class room instruction and home study in such related technical subjects as practical chemistry, ele mentary physics, blueprint reading, applied 520 electricity, and theory of refrigeration, air con ditioning, ventilation, and heating. Persons who become stationary engineers without going through a formal apprenticeship program usually do so only after many years of experience as assistants to licensed stationary engineers in such occupations as boiler, refrig eration, or turbine operator. This practical ex perience usually is supplemented by vocational or other school training or home study. Almost every large or medium-sized city and a few States require stationary engineers to be licensed. Although requirements for obtaining a license differ from place to place, the following are usual: (1) The applicant must be over 21 years of age; (2) he must have resided in the State or locality in which the examination is given for a specified period of time; and (3) he must demonstrate that he meets the exper ience requirements for the class of license re quested. A license is issued to the applicants meeting these requirements and passing an examination which may be written, oral, or a combination of both types. There are generally three classes of sta tionary engineer licenses. These license classes specify the steam pressure or horsepower of the equipment the engineer may operate. The firstclass license permits the stationary engineer to operate equipment of all types and capacities without restriction. The second- and third-class licenses limit the capacity of the equipment the engineer may operate. However, engineers with second- and third-class licenses may operate equipment restricted by their license class, provided they are under the supervision of a higher rated engineer— usually one with a firstclass license. Stationary engineers advance to more re sponsible jobs by being placed in charge of larger, more powerful, or more varied equip ment. Generally, the engineer advances to such jobs as he obtains higher grade licenses. Ad vancement, however, is not automatic. For ex ample, an engineer with a first-class license may work for some time as an assistant to another first-class engineer before a vacancy requiring a first-class licensed engineer occurs. In general, the broader the knowledge a stationary engi neer has about the operation, maintenance, and OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK repair of various types of equipment, the better are his chances for advancement in this field. Stationary engineers may also advance to jobs as plant engineers and as building and plant superintendents. Employment Outlook A moderate increase in employment of sta tionary engineers is expected during the 1960's. In addition, it is estimated that about 5,000 opportunities for new workers to enter this large field of employment will occur each year during the next decade because of the need to replace workers who retire or die. Transfers out of this occupation to other fields of work also will be a source of job openings for new workers. Employment in this occupation is expected to rise mainly because of the continuing increase in the use of large stationary boilers and refrig eration and air-conditioning equipment in the Nation's factories, powerplants, and commer cial buildings. However, improved operating ef ficiency resulting from the use of more power ful, automatic, and more centralized equipment and better utilization of workers may limit the growth in the employment of stationary engi neers. The increasing use of atomic energy to gen erate power should not affect significantly the employment of stationary engineers. It is likely that both the number and skill requirements of operating jobs (i.e., stationary engineer, boiler operator, turbine operator, etc.) in a nuclear plant will be about the same as those in a new conventional powerplant. Earnings and Working Conditions According to wage surveys by the U.S. De partment of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1959-60, the average straight-time hourly earnings of all classes of stationary engineers in plants in 30 large cities and metropolitan areas ranged from $2.03 in Miami, Fla., to $3.08 in the Newark and Jersey City, N.J., area. Stationary engineers who are in charge of a large boiler room operation may earn consider OTHER TRADES AND INDUSTRIAL OCCUPATIONS ably more than the average; some of these workers earn more than $160 a week. Stationary engineers generally have steady year-round employment. They usually work a straight 8-hour day and 40 to 48 hours a week. In plants or institutions which operate around the clock, stationary engineers may be assigned to any one of three shifts— often on a rotating basis— and to Sunday and holiday work. Many stationary engineers are employed in plants which have union-employer contracts. Most of these contracts provide benefits which may include hospitalization, medical and surgi cal insurance, life insurance, sickness and acci dent insurance, and retirement pensions. Simi lar benefits may also be provided in plants which do not have union-employer contracts. Among the unions to which these workers belong are the International Union of Operating Engineers and the International Union, United Automo bile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of America. Most engine rooms, powerplants, or boiler rooms where stationary engineers work are clean and well lighted. However, even under the most favorable conditions, some stationary en gineers are exposed to high temperatures, dust, Welders and Oxyj Nature of Work Many of the parts used in automobiles, air planes, refrigerators, and thousands of other products are joined by a metalworking process known as welding which is widely used in manu facturing and repair operations. Welders join metals by applying intense heat and, sometimes, pressure to melt the edges to form a permanent bond with or without the use of filler metal. Closely related to welding is “ thermal cutting” (also called oxygen and arc cutting). Oxygen and arc cutters use torches to cut or trim metal objects to a desired size or shape. They also remove excess metal from castings and cut scrap metal into pieces of manageable size. Of the more than 35 different ways of weld ing metals, most fall under 3 basic categories: arc, gas, and resistance welding. Arc welders 521 dirt, contact with oil and grease, and odors from oil, gas, coal, or smoke. In repair or mainte nance work, they may have to crawl inside a boiler and work in a crouching or kneeling posi tion to clean or repair the interior. Because stationary engineers often work around boilers and electrical and mechanical equipment, they must be alert to avoid burns, electric shock, and injury from moving ma chinery. If the equipment is not operated cor rectly or if it is defective, it may be dangerous to them as well as to other persons in the vicinity. However, modern equipment and safety procedures have reduced accidents greatly. Where To Go for More Information Further information on this occupation may be secured from State or local licensing agencies. Locals of the International Union of Operating Engineers also may be an important source of information. Additional information may be obtained from : International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. r and Arc Cutters > (D.O.T. 4-85.020) perform their work either by hand or machine methods. Gas welders (D.O.T. 4-85.030) usually join metals by hand opera tions, although they also may use automatic and semiautomatic gas-welding equipment. Re sistance welding is mainly a machine process performed by semiskilled resistance-welding operators (D.O.T. 6-85.010, .020, .030, .060, .100). Semiskilled oxygen cutters (D.O.T. 6 85.215, .240) work with either hand-guided torches or with oxygen-fuel-gas-cutting ma chines. The principal duty of the welder using the manual technique is to control the melting of the metal edges by directing the heat, either from an electric arc or from a gas-welding torch, and to add filler metal where necessary to complete the joint. In one of the^most com monly used of the manual arc welding processes, the welder selects a suitable electrode and ad- 522 Special clothing and protective helmets guard arc welders against bums and eye injuries. justs the electric current. The welder first “ strikes” an arc (creates an electric circuit) by touching the metal. After the arc is made, the welder guides the electrode at a suitable dis tance from the joint seams to be welded. The intense heat caused by the arc melts the metal seams and the electrode tip. The molten metal from the electrode is deposited in the joint and together with the molten metal edges solidifies to form a solid connection. During the past decade or so, there has been a considerable in crease in the use of arc welding processes employing inert gas for shielding the weld area. This type of welding was developed for welding hard-to-weld metals such as aluminum, magne sium, stainless steel, and titanium. Many weld ers are now specializing in this process. In gas welding, the welder applies an intensely hot flame (obtained from the combustion of a mixture of fuel gas— most commonly acetylene and oxygen) from a gas welding torch to the metal edges. After the welder selects the proper types of welding rods and welding torch tips and adjusts the regulators on the oxygen and acetylene cylinders, he lights his welding torch. He then adjusts the oxygen and acetylene valves on the torch to obtain the proper size and quality of flame. The kind of flame selected de pends on the type of metal to be joined and the type of joint to be made. The welder heats the metal parts to be welded by directing the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK flame against the metal until it begins to melt. He then applies the welding rod to the molten metal to supply additional metal for the weld. Resistance-welding operators, unlike arc and gas welders who use manual as well as machine methods, operate machines which weld metal parts by bringing them together under heat and pressure. The operator sets the controls of the machine for the desired electric current and pressure, feeds and alines the work, and removes it after the welding operation is completed. The principal types of resistance-welding equipment are spot, seam, projection, flash, upset, and portable spot-welding guns. Thermal (oxygen and arc) cutters commonly use hand-guided torches to cut or trim metals. In the oxygen-cutting process, for example, the oxygen cutter directs a flame of oxygen and fuel gas on the work area until the metal begins to melt. He then releases an additional stream of oxygen to burn or cut the metal. The oxygen cutter prepares for the cutting job by attaching the proper torch tip for the particular job, con necting the torch to the gas and oxygen hoses, and regulating the flow of gases into the torch for the desired cutting flame. He then cuts through the metal, manually guiding the torch along previously marked lines or following a template or pattern. He may mark guidelines on the metal by following blueprints or other instructions. Arc cutting differs from oxygen cutting because an electric arc is used as the original source of heat. However, as in oxygen cutting, an additional stream of gas may be released in cutting the metal. In addition to manual methods used in ther mal cutting, cutters may operate a torch or torches mounted on a machine. These electri cally or mechanically controlled machines auto matically follow the proper guideline. Where Employed In mid-1960, an estimated 350,000 welders and oxygen and arc cutters were employed throughout the country. Their principal em ployers were the manufacturers of boilershop and sheetmetal products, motor vehicle and equipment plants, the aircraft industry, the con OTHER TRADES AND INDUSTRIAL OCCUPATIONS struction industry, and independent metalwork ing* repair shops. Important employers of are, gas, and resist ance welders were steel mills, metal-stamping establishments, machinery plants, and railroad shops. Federal, State, county, and city govern ment agencies, such as arsenals, road commis sions, and departments of public works, also em ployed many welders. Many manual arc and gas welders were employed in maintenance and repair work in railroad shops, electric powerplants, street-railway systems, and in the main tenance shops of manufacturing plants. Re sistance-welding operators were employed in production work in automobile manufacturing establishments and other metalworking plants where large quantities of identical sheet-metal parts were manufactured. Among the major employers of oxygen and arc cutters were ship yards, steel mills, and machinery, fabricated structural-steel, and boilershop product plants. The widespread use of the welding and cut ting processes in American industry enables welders and cutters to find jobs in every State. However, most of these jobs are found in the major metalworking areas, with more than 40 percent of them concentrated in Michigan, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, and California. Large numbers of welders and cutters are em ployed in Detroit, Chicago, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and other important metalworking centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Skills of manual arc and gas welders, machine resistance-welding operators, and flame cutters vary widely. For most skilled arc- and gaswelding jobs, several years of training and a knowledge of blueprint reading, welding sym bols, properties of metals, work planning, elec tricity, and welding techniques are desirable. Some of the less skilled manual welding jobs can be learned after a few months of on-thejob training. Training requirements for the resistance welding operator's job depend upon the parti cular type of equipment used; most of these operators learn their work in a few weeks. Little Digitized skill is required for most flame-cutting jobs and, for FRASER 523 generally, they can be learned in a few weeks of on-the-job training. However, the cutting of some of the newer alloys requires a knowledge of the properties of metals as well as greater skill in flame cutting. Welding and oxygen- and arc-cutting work requires manual dexterity, a steady hand, good eye-hand coordination, and good eyesight. Manual welders usually learn their trade through a study of welding methods, generally in public or private vocational schools, followed by several years of job experience. A formal apprenticeship generally is not required for this occupation. However, apprenticeship programs for many metal crafts include training in weld ing as one of the related skills. A few large companies offer apprenticeship programs for welders. The U.S. Department of the Navy, at several of its installations, conducts 4-year weld ing apprenticeship programs for its civilian employees. Young persons entering the welding trade often start with simple manual welding produc tion jobs where the type and thickness of metal, as well as the position of the welding opera tion, rarely change. Occasionally, they are first given jobs as flame cutters and later move into manual welding jobs. Some large companies employ general helpers in maintenance jobs who, if they show promise, may be given op portunities to become welders. After serving as a helper to an experienced welder, a young man may be promoted to a semiskilled, class B welding job where he will usually perform repetitive work, or work which does not involve critical safety and strength requirements. The work duties of the class B welder are primarily performed in only one position (flat, vertical, horizontal, or overhead). The class A or skilled, all-round welder should be able to plan and lay out work from drawings, blueprints, or other written specifications. He should have a knowledge of the welding prop erties of steel, stainless steel, cast iron, bronze, aluminum, nickel, and other metals and alloys. He should be able also to determine the proper sequence of work operations for each job and be able to weld all types of joints in flat, vertical, horizontal, and overhead positions. Some skilled manual welders are required to know both arc 524 and gas welding. These craftsmen are usually called “ combination welders/' The skilled manual arc welder may specialize in one of the many types of arc welding. Before being assigned to work where the strength of the weld is a highly critical factor, welders may be required to pass a qualifying examination. The test may be given by an em ployer, a municipal agency, a private agency designated by local government inspection au thorities, or a naval facility. Certification tests are also given to welders on some con struction jobs or to those who may be engaged in the fabrication or repair of steam or other pressure vessels where critical safety factors are involved. In addition to certification, some localities require welders to obtain a license be fore they can do certain types of outside con struction work. New developments in some manufacturing industries are increasing the skill requirements of welders. This is particu larly true in fields such as atomic energy or missile manufacture, which have high stand ards for the reliability of welds and require more precise work. With 2 years' training at a vocational school or technical institute, the skilled welder can qualify as a welding technician. Generally, workers in this small but growing occupation interpret the engineers' plans and instructions. Occasionally, welders may be promoted to jobs as inspectors where they check welds for gen eral conformance with specifications and for quality of workmanship. Welders also may be come foremen who supervise the work of other welders. A small number of experienced, all round welders establish their own welding and repair shops. Welding also is used widely in maintenance and repair work by workers other than welders. The boilermaker, the structural-steel worker, the machinist, and the plumber may at times be required to weld. Frequently, when welding is used as a repair process, as in the maintenance shops of large factories, it is done by workers who specialize in welding but who are not classi as welders. fied OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Outlook A rapid increase in the number of welding jobs is expected in the 1960's as a result of the generally favorable longrun outlook for metalworking industries and the wider use of the welding processes. In addition, about 4,500 to 5,500 job openings will occur each year dur ing the 1960's because of vacancies resulting from retirements and deaths. Resistance welders, who make up the largest single group of welders, are expected to con tinue to be in demand. Employment prospects for this occupational group are favorable be cause of the increased use of the machine re sistance-welding process in such activities as the manufacture of motor vehicles, aircraft and missiles, and the production of light, stream lined railroad cars. The use of faster and more highly automatic welding machines, however, will slow down the growth in the number of these welders. Many more skilled manual welders will be needed for maintenance and repair work in the growing metalworking industries. The number of manual welders engaged in production work also is expected to increase in plants manufac turing structural-metal products, such as metal doors, boilers, and sheet-metal products. The construction industry will need an increasing number of workers skilled in welding as the use of welded steel structures expands. The number of jobs for oxygen and arc cut ters is expected to rise somewhat during the 1960's as the result of the general expansion of metalworking activity. The increased use of oxygen- and arc-cutting machines, however, will tend to restrict the growth of this occupation. Earnings and Working Conditions The amount a welder can expect to earn de pends to a great extent on the skill requirements of his job and on the industry or activity in which he is employed. Earnings of highly skilled manual welders generally compare favorably with those of other skilled metalworking occupa tions. Machine welders, such as resistance weld ers, who require little training, generally earn somewhat less than skilled manual welders. Average straight-time hourly earnings for OTHER TRADES AND INDUSTRIAL OCCUPATIONS skilled (class A) manual welders in machinery manufacturing industries in 21 cities and metro politan areas in 1959-60 ranged from $2.12 to $2.95, with the highest rates in San FranciscoOakland ($2.95). Semiskilled (class B) manual welders’ average hourly earnings ranged from $1.76 to $2.68. (Welders who are covered by union contracts may earn considerably more than these average earnings.) Many welders and cutters are union members. Among the labor organizations which include welders and cutters in their membership are the International Association of Machinists; the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers; the International Union, United Auto mobile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada; and the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America. Labormanagement contracts which cover welders and flame cutters provide employees with major benefit programs which may include paid holi days and vacations, hospitalization, medical and surgical insurance, life insurance, sickness and accident insurance, and retirement pensions. Welders and cutters are exposed to some hazards in their work, but safety programs have kept the injury rate relatively low. For example, protective clothing, goggles, helmets with col ored lenses, and other devices are provided for 525 the safety and protection of the welder. Al though lighting and ventilation are usually ad equate, welders occasionally work in the pres ence of toxic gases and fumes generated by the melting of some metals. Welders are often in contact with rust, grease, paint, and other ele ments found on the surface of the metal parts to be welded. Operators of resistance-welding machines are largely free from the hazards associated with hand welding. A clear eye shield or clear goggles generally offer adequate pro tection to these operators. Where To Go for More Information The American Welding Society, 33 West 39th St., New York 18, N .Y. International Association of Machinists, 1300 Connecticut Ave. N W ., Washington 1, D.C. International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers, 570 New Brotherhood Bldg., Kansas City 1, Kans. International Union, United Automobile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of America, 8000 East Jefferson Ave., Detroit 14, Mich. United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada, 901 Massachusetts Ave. N W ., Washington 1, D.C. State Supervisor of Trade and Industrial Education or the local Director of Vocational Education in the State and/or city in which a person wishes to receive training. Some Major Industries and Their Occupations OCCUPATIONS IN AIRCRAFT, MISSILE, AND SPACECRAFT MANUFACTURING America’s entry into the space age has caused rapid growth in the aircraft, missile, and space craft field. By late 1960, about 1.1 million per sons were employed in private industry and Federal agencies in the manufacture of aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft. Many thousands of new and interesting jobs have come into being, and many more will be created during the 1960’s. Generally known as the “ aerospace” industry, this field is one of the most rapidly changing in the country today, with a future full of exciting prospects and stimulating job opportunities. Because its products are complex and changing, the majority of its job openings are for workers with a college education or a specialized skill. Engineers, scientists, and technicians represent a much larger percentage of total employment in the industry than in most other manufactur ing industries, and they probably will account for an even higher percentage during the 1960’s. Increases are also expected in the number of skilled workers employed, such as tool and die makers, skilled assemblers and inspectors, weld ers, and various types of mechanics. Employ ment opportunities for semiskilled and unskilled workers, on the other hand, are not expected to grow during the 1960-70 decade and may even decrease. Nature and Location of the Aircraft, Missile, and Spacecraft Industry Aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft have the same main components: a frame to hold and support the rest of the vehicle, an engine to propel the vehicle, and a guidance and control system. A major difference is that most aircraft are manned whereas missiles and spacecraft are not, although spacecraft in the future may be manned. Another difference is that missiles and spacecraft can reach into space and attain 526 speeds many times the speed of sound, whereas aircraft fly only in the earth’s atmosphere and at slower speeds. Many types of aircraft are made. They vary from small personal planes, costing not much more than an automobile, to multimillion-dollar giant bombers and supersonic fighters. Aircraft plants also produce transport planes, helicop ters, dirigibles, balloons, and gliders. About 80 percent of aircraft (in dollar value) is manu factured for military use; the rest is for commercial passenger and freight traffic, pri vate business and pleasure use, and civilian instructional flying. Missiles and spacecraft also vary greatly in the purposes for which they are made, and in their size and capabilities. Missiles are pro duced chiefly for military use and generally carry destructive warheads. Some can travel only a few miles and are intended for such pur poses as the support of ground troops and de fense against low flying aircraft. Others, such as the Atlas and Minuteman, have intercontinen tal ranges of 5,000 miles or more. Some missiles are designed for launching from land or under ground sites, others for firing from aircraft, submarines, ships, or trains. Spacecraft are sent aloft with a “ payload” of instruments which measure conditions in space and transmit the data to receiving stations on earth. Payloads successfully launched by the United States have varied in weight from less than 25 pounds to nearly 1 ton ; currently being developed is the Saturn rocket which will be able to launch 25-ton payloads. Some space vehicles probe the space environment and then immediately fall back to earth. Others are put into orbit and become artificial satellites around the earth, sun, or other celestial body. Nearly all this country’s missiles and spacecraft are built for the Air Force, Navy, Army, or the OCCUPATIONS IN AIRCRAFT, MISSILE, AND SPACECRAFT MANUFACTURING National Aeronautics and Space Administra tion (N ASA). Because the aerospace industry makes many kinds of finished products, it uses many kinds of engines, electronic systems, and other com ponents. Aircraft engines may be reciprocating (piston), jet, or rocket. Missile engines may be jet or rocket. Spacecraft are always rocket powered, because rockets are the most powerful type of engine we have and also can operate in airless space whereas other engine types need oxygen from the air for combustion. Today’s rocket engines are powered by chemical pro pellants, which may be either liquid or solid. New sources of rocket propulsion may be availa ble in the future, such as nuclear energy or ion power. Guidance, control, and instrument-payload systems are usually electronic. Because missiles and spacecraft are unmanned, they gen erally have more complex guidance and control systems than most aircraft. An aircraft, missile, or spacecraft is manu factured usually under the technical direction of a prime contractor. He manages and co ordinates the entire project, subject to periodic inspections by the Federal agency or the airline which ordered the vehicle. His engineering de partment prepares design drawings, blueprints, and other specifications. These go to the pro duction department, where planners work on the many details regarding machines, materials, and operations needed to manufacture the ve hicle in the quantity required. Decisions must be made as to what part of the production work the prime contractor will do and what part will be contracted to outside firms. Special tools, dies, jigs, and fixtures must be made to manufacture the vehicle. Many sheetmetal workers, machinists, machine tool opera tors, and other metal processors produce the thousands of parts and components which go into the craft. All parts and equipment must be inspected and tested many times, both before and after they are assembled, and all assembly work must also be thoroughly inspected and checked. Assemblers and installers are needed in every stage of the production process to fit together, hook up, and install systems and com ponents. After its final assembly, the vehicle out by a team of mechanics, flight is checked 527 tested if an aircraft, and then prepared for delivery. Many subcontracts are awarded for the parts and assembly work that go into the aircraft, missile, or spacecraft. It is estimated, for ex ample, that about 50,000 subcontractors produce components and other equipment for missiles and that the average missile contains approxi mately 300,000 parts. The prime contractor may manufacture components of the craft and also do the final assembly. Aerospace plants range in size from the large factories of major manufacturers, each with thousands of employees, to the shops of small subcontractors and suppliers with only a few workers each. Jobs in aerospace work may be found in practically every State, although roughly one-third are concentrated in Cali fornia. Ohio has the next largest work force, with about 6 percent of industry employment. Other States with large numbers of aerospace jobs include New York, New Jersey, Connecti cut, Massachusetts, and Maryland, in the East; and Washington, Texas, Missouri, and Kansas, west of the Mississippi River. An estimated 1.1 million people— about onefifth of them women— were working on aero space products in late 1960. About 500,000 of these persons were producing aircraft, aircraft engines, and propellers; about 300,000 were making missiles and spacecraft; and approxi mately 135,000 worked in the electronics field producing electronic equipment for aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft. The rest of the 1.1 million persons were civilian employees of the Federal Government working in the aerospace field— approximately 150,000 in the Department of Defense and 16,000 in the National Aeronau tics and Space Administration. Occupations in Aircraft, Missile, and Spacecraft Manufacturing Workers with many different kinds of educa tional backgrounds and job skills are needed to design and manufacture aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft. Engineers and scientists with ad vanced university degrees as well as plant work ers who can learn their jobs after a few days or weeks of training are employed. 528 Occupational needs vary among establish ments in the industry, depending on the work being done. Research and development labora tories employ mainly engineers, scientists, and supporting technicians and craftsmen. These laboratories are run by manufacturers, univer sities, independent research organizations, and Government agencies such as the Air Force, Navy, Army, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Factories engaged in production, on the other hand, employ mostly plant workers such as assemblers, inspectors, tool and die makers, sheet-metal workers, ma chinists, and machine tool operators. Some of the more important jobs found in aerospace-products manufacturing are de scribed below, under three major categories: professional and technical occupations; admini strative, clerical, and related occupations; and plant occupations. (Many of the jobs in this industry are found in other industries as well and are discussed in greater detail elsewhere in this Handbook, in the sections covering individ ual occupations. See index for page numbers.) Engineer in protective suit checking rocket-engine model between tests in wind tunnel. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Professional and Technical Occupations. Before production of an aircraft, missile, or spacecraft can begin, a design must be approved. This re quires many experiments and “ feasibility” studies, to determine how well various design possibilities meet the conditions under which the vehicle will be operated. A scale model is made from the approved design. It is tested in wind, temperature, and shock tunnels, on bal listic ranges, and in centrifuges where actual flight conditions are simulated. The next step is to develop a full-size experimental model or prototype, which is thoroughly tested in the air and on the ground. If test results are satisfac tory, production may begin. Many modifications in the craft are normally made during the course of design and development, and often even after production has started. The pace of discovery and change is so rapid that much equipment becomes obsolete while still in the experimental stage or soon after being put into operation. Research and develop ment are vital in the industry, particularly in the missile and spacecraft field. (In 1960, for example, only about half of missile and space craft spending was for production, the other half being for research and development.) An intensive effort is being made to develop aero space vehicles with greater speeds, ranges, and reliability; engines with more power; and metals and plastics with wider capabilities. Increasing emphasis on research and develop ment makes the aerospace industry an important and growing source of jobs for engineers, scien tists, and technicians. The industry was em ploying 83,000 engineers, 12,000 scientists, and 52,500 technicians in January 1959, according to a Bureau of Labor Statistics’ survey of aero space companies. Many more thousands of workers in these occupations were employed in aerospace establishments not covered by the survey. It is estimated that in late 1960 about one-fifth of all employees in all plants making aerospace products were engineers, scientists, and technicians, considerably more than the percentage of such personnel in most other man ufacturing industries. Many kinds of engineers and scientists are employed in aerospace work. For example, over 30 different college degree fields are represented OCCUPATIONS IN AIRCRAFT, MISSILE, AND SPACECRAFT MANUFACTURING among the engineers and scientists employed by the National Aeronautics and Space Admini stration. Among the more important types of engineers working in the industry are electronic, electrical, aeronautical, chemical, nuclear, me chanical, and industrial engineers. Some of the types of scientists employed in the industry in clude physicists, mathematicians, chemists, met allurgists, psychologists, physiologists, and as tronomers. Aerospace engineers and scientists work in a wide and varied range of applied fields, such as materials and structures, energy and power systems, fluid and flight mechanics, measurement and control systems, communica tions and data systems, human factors and bio astronautics, and space sciences. Engineers and scientists are assisted by aero nautical draftsmen, mathematics aids, labora tory technicians, electronic technicians, tool designers, research mechanics, and research electricians. They also work with production planners (D.O.T. 0-68.50), who plan the layout of machinery, movement of materials, and se quence of operations so that manufacturing processes will flow efficiently from one step to the next; and technical writers (D.O.T. 0-06. 90) and technical illustrators (D.O.T. 0-48.32), who produce technical manuals and other litera ture used to describe the operation and main tenance of air and space craft and their many parts. Administrative, Clerical, and Related Occupa tions. Managerial and supervisory jobs are gen erally comparable with similar jobs in other industries. Personnel in these jobs include execu tives, who are responsible for the direction and supervision of research and production, and of ficials in such departments as sales, purchasing, accounting, public relations, advertising, and in dustrial relations. Many thousands of clerks, secretaries, stenographers, typists, tabulating machine operators, and other office personnel are also employed. Plant Occupations. Nearly 60 percent of all workers in the aircraft, missile, and spacecraft field were employed in plant jobs in late 1960. Plant jobs can be classified into the following groups: sheet-metal work; machining and tool 529 fabrication; other metal processing; assembly and installation; inspecting and testing; flight checkout; and materials handling, maintenance, and custodial. Sheet-metal occupations. Sheet-metal work ers shape parts from sheet metal by hand or machine methods. When hand methods are used, the worker shapes the part by pounding it with a mallet and by bending, cutting, and punching it with handtools. Machine methods involve the use of power hammers and presses, saws, tube benders, and drill presses. The all round sheet-metal worker (D.O.T. 4-80.050 and .060) lays out the sequence of operations on the basis of blueprints and other engineering in formation. He then fabricates complicated metal shapes, using handtools or machines. Less complex parts, as well as those produced in large numbers, are fabricated by less skilled sheet-metal workers or workers who specialize in operating a single machine. They have such titles as stretch press operator (D.O.T. 6-88. 627), poiver brake operator (D.O.T. 6-94.207), power hammer operator (D.O.T. 6-94.221), power shear operator (D.O.T. 6-88.664), punch press operator (D.O.T. 6-88.622), and profile cutting torch operator (D.O.T. 6-85.240). Machining and tool fabrication occupations. Another important group of workers engaged in shaping and finishing metal parts with ma chine tools are machinists (D.O.T. 4-75.010 and .120) and machine tool operators. The most skilled of these are the all-round or general ma chinists who can lay out the work and set up and operate several types of machine tools. They perform machining operations of a highly varied and nonrepetitive nature. They are most fre quently employed in departments which are engaged in experimental and prototype produc tion. Machine tool operators are employed in the large-volume production of metal parts. They generally specialize in the operation of a single type of machine tool, such as a lathe, drill press, or milling machine. The more skilled machine tool operators are able to set up the work on a machine and handle difficult and varied jobs. The less skilled operators usually do more repetitive work. Machinists and machine tool operators rep 530 resent a higher proportion of the work force in engine and propeller plants, which are basi cally metalworking establishments, than in plants performing the final assembly of air and space vehicles. Among engine plants, those manufacturing reciprocating engines do rela tively more machining and less sheet-metal work than those producing jet or rocket engines. Many of the plants in the aerospace industry make a large proportion of the jigs, fixtures, tools, and dies they use. Fabrication of these items requires skilled metal-processing work ers, chiefly jig and fixture builders (D.O.T. 5-17. 060) and tool and die makers (D.O.T. 4-76.010, .040, and .210). Jig and fixture builders make the work-holding and tool-guiding devices used in production and assembly operations. On the basis of information received from the engineer ing department, they plan the sequence of metal machining operations involved in making a jig and carry the job through to completion. Tool and die makers make the cutting tools and fix tures used in machine tool operations and the dies used in forging and punch press work. They must be all-round experts in the use of machine tools. Other metal-processing occupations. Other metalworkers, such as tube benders, riveters, and welders are also employed. Tube benders (D.O.T. 6-95.060) form tubings which are used for oil, fuel, hydraulic, and electrical conduit lines. Riveters (D.O.T. 6-95.080 and .081) and welders (D.O.T. 4-85.020, .030, .040, and .063) join fabricated parts by hand or machine rivet ing and by electric arc, gas, or electric resistance welding. Additional metal fabricating is performed by skilled foundry workers such as patternmakers, molders, and coremakers. Drop hammer opera tors and other forge shop workers are employed in the forging departments. Many aircraft, missile, and spacecraft parts are chemically and heat treated during several stages of their manufacture in order to clean, change, or protect their surface or structural condition. Sheet-metal parts are heat treated to keep the metal soft and malleable while it is being worked into the required shape. Many processes, such as painting and plating, are used, on the surfaces of parts. Workers in these metal OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK processing jobs have such titles as heat treater (D.O.T. 4-87.020), painter fD.O.T. 5-16.940), and plater (D.O.T. 4-74.010). Assembly and installation occupations. As sembly and installation workers are a major oc cupational group, employed in practically all plants in the industry. Many work in factories producing engines, electronic equipment, and auxiliary components, but the majority are found in plants which assemble air or space craft into completed form. They perform such final assembly work as the fitting together of major subassemblies and the installing of ma jor components. In the case of aircraft, for example, this work involves joining wings and tail to the fuselage and installing the engine and such auxiliary equipment as the fuel system and flight controls. In the course of their duties, assemblers perform such operations as riveting, drilling, filing, bolting, soldering, cementing, and gluing. A large proportion of assemblers are semi skilled workers doing repetitive work, but some Final assembly mechanics installing and inspecting equipment in fighter-bomber jet airplane. OCCUPATIONS IN AIRCRAFT, MISSILE, AND SPACECRAFT MANUFACTURING are skilled mechanics and installers. Many of the latter perform diversified assembly or in stallation operations, and often work on ex perimental, prototype, or special craft. They assemble, take apart, inspect, and install com plex mechanical and electronic assemblies. They read blueprints and interpret other engineering specifications. They may be called final assem blers of complete aircraft (D.O.T. 5-03.572), missile assembly mechanics (temporary D.O.T. 5-03.599), or rocket assembly mechanics (temp orary D.O.T. 5-03.699). Some skilled assemblers are employed in plants which produce relatively large num bers of aircraft and missiles rather than a few experimental types. These assemblers usually specialize in one or more fields of work. They are often assisted by less skilled assemblers who do the more routine work. For example, a class A armament assembler (D.O.T. 5-83.543) typi cally does such work as assembling, installing, and alining power turrets, weapons, gun cam eras, and related accessories. Lower rated arma ment assemblers typically do such work as un- Women assemblers follow specifications to put together electronic equipment for aerospace vehicles. 531 crating and cleaning weapons, loading ammuni tion, installing armor plate, and placing parts in jigs. Power plant installers (D.O.T. 5-03.572), sometimes known as engine mechanics* install, aline, and check the various types of engines and accessories. Skilled electrical assemblers (D.O.T. 4-97.910), sometimes called electricians, in stall, hook up, and check major units in elec trical or radio systems. They are assisted by less skilled assemblers, who do the more routine installations and wire routings by following standard wiring diagrams and charts. Assem blers also specialize in other systems, such as plumbing, hydraulic, heating and ventilating, and rigging and controls. Inspecting and testing occupations. Because aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft are extremely complex, thousands of painstaking inspections and tests must be made as each component and part moves toward final assembly of the whole system. Inspections are made not only by em ployees of the manufacturers but also by civil ian employees of Federal agencies which have contracted for the equipment. Some inspectors specialize in examining ma terials and equipment purchased from the out side, others inspect components during fabri cation and subassembly within their own plants, while still others inspect completed craft after their final assembly. Many inspection jobs re quire highly skilled workers. On the other hand, some tests are made by automatic equipment which can be run by relatively unskilled persons. Such equipment not only checks the component or assembly under test but may also run simul taneous checks on itself to eliminate the possi bility of error. Some of the most skilled inspectors, especially in final assembly plants, are outside production inspectors (D.O.T. 4-76.220). They examine machined parts, subassemblies, and tools and dies which have been ordered from other firms. They also serve as liaison men between their own engineering departments and supplying companies. Other inspectors, frequently known as receiving inspectors (D.O.T. 7-03.810), with less responsibility than outside production in spectors, check purchased materials and parts for conformity with blueprints, armed services requirements, and other established standards. 532 They operate testing equipment and must be familiar with specifications of the parts and materials purchased from different sellers. In the production department, machined parts inspectors (D.O.T. 4-78.671) determine, by the use of precision testing instruments, whether or not a part has been properly ma chined to conform to blueprint specifications. They may also test for hardness and porosity and determine the “ machineability” of castings and forgings. Fabrication inspectors (D.O.T. 5-03.812) are generally skilled sheet-metal workers. They inspect fabricated sheet-metal work and complex parts which have required numerous fabricating operations. As the parts are fitted together, they undergo numerous inspections by assembly inspectors (D.O.T. 5-03.814). These inspectors are em ployed, for the most part, in the later stages of the assembly process. They usually inspect complete major assemblies and installations, such as fuselage, wing, and nose sections, to insure their proper final fitting. They also check the functioning of such systems as hy draulics, plumbing, and controls. Subassem blies are usually inspected by less skilled as sembly inspectors. Final testing must be especially rigorous with missiles and spacecraft since, unlike aircraft, they have no human guidance aboard to correct for improper work ing of components which may cause a target miss or other failure of the mission. Flight checkout occupations. The job of checking out an air or space craft before its first flight requires a team of mechanics with different levels and types of skills. Sometimes the checking-out process involves making re pairs or returning the craft to the plant for repairs. The chief mechanic or crew chief, who is the most skilled worker of the team, is re sponsible for the entire checking-out operation including repair work. He usually directs the work of a crew of mechanics, each of whom specializes in one or more fields. For example, engine mechanics specialize in checking out the power plant, including the engine, propellers, and oil and fuel systems. Engine mechanics use handtools, testing equipment, and precision measuring instruments in their work. The electronics checkout men perform or supervise OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Inspectors examining nose cones of air-defense missiles. the final operational checkout of such systems as radio, radar, automatic pilot, fire control, and complete electronic guidance systems. Other skilled workers may specialize in checking out and repairing armament, instruments, rigging and controls, plumbing, and hydraulic systems. In some cases, less skilled mechanics are employed to help conduct tests and make repairs. Materials handling, maintenance, and cus todial occupations. Aerospace plants employ large numbers of materials handlers, such as truckdrivers, crane operators, shipping clerks, stock clerks, and tool crib attendants. Main tenance workers, who keep equipment and buildings in good operating condition and make changes in the layout of the plant, include maintenance mechanics, millwrights, electri cians, carpenters, plumbers, painters, and weld ers. Guards, firemen, and janitors make up a major portion of the plant’s protective and cus todial employees. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college degree in engineering or in one of the sciences is usually the minimum require ment for engineering and scientific jobs in the aerospace industry. A few workers may get jobs as professional engineers without a college OCCUPATIONS IN AIRCRAFT, MISSILE, AND SPACECRAFT MANUFACTURING degree, but only after years of semiprofessional work experience and some college-level training. Since many kinds of engineers and scientists are employed in aerospace work, college grad uates in many different degree fields may qualify for professional jobs in the industry. Regard less of his degree field, the undergraduate stu dent preparing for professional aerospace work is well advised to get as solid a grounding as possible in fundamental concepts and basic general areas of engineering and science. Math ematics and physics courses are especially im portant, since these sciences provide the neces sary language understood by the variety of en gineers and scientists working on any given project. Training in the more concentrated fields of specialization which exist in aerospace work is generally received in graduate school or through on-the-job experience. An increasing number of semiprofessional workers, such as electronic technicians, engi neering aids, draftsmen, production planners, and tool designers receive training for their jobs through 2 years of formal education in a technical institute or junior college. Others qualify for these jobs through several years of diversified shop experience rather than through institute or college training. Training requirements for plant jobs vary from a few days of on-the-job instruction to several years of formal apprenticeship training. Apprenticeship programs are used to develop craftsmen, such as machinists, tool and die makers, sheet-metal workers, patternmakers, aircraft mechanics, and electricians. These pro grams vary in length from 3 to 5 years depend ing on the trade; during this time, the appren tice handles work of progressively increasing difficulty. Besides on-the-job experience, he receives classroom instruction in subjects re lated to his craft. Such instruction for a ma chinist apprentice, for example, would include courses in blueprint reading, mechanical draw ing, shop mathematics, trade theory, physics, safe working practices, and other subjects. Many levels of skill are required for other factory jobs. Workers with little or no previous training or experience are hired for the less skilled assembly jobs. On the other hand, skilled assemblers may need 2 to 4 years of plant ex 533 perience in addition to a high school or voca tional school education or its equivalent. Skilled assemblers must be able to read and interpret engineering blueprints, schematic diagrams, and production illustrations. Skilled inspectors must have at least several years of machine shop experience. They must be able to install and use various kinds of testing equipment and instruments, read blueprints and other engineering specifications, and use shop mathematics. New workers with little or no experience in shop trades may also be hired and trained for jobs requiring less skilled inspectors. Mechanics who perform the final checkout of air and space craft qualify for their jobs in several ways. Many gain experience as me chanics by working in earlier stages of the plant's production line, before final checkout of the craft. Others receive all their training in checkout work, or come from "line mainte nance" jobs with commercial airlines. Chief mechanics usually need 3 to 5 years of experience in the manufacture of aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft, including at least 1 year as a checkout mechanic. Specialized me chanics, working under the supervision of the chief mechanic, are usually required to have at least 2 years' experience. Workers with less ex perience serve as helpers or assistants and pick up the mechanic's skills on the job and through plant training courses, Because of the manufacture of their complex and rapidly changing products requires workers who are highly trained and aware of new de velopments, the majority of aerospace plants support some kind of formal worker training. Instruction of this type supplements day-to-day job experience and helps workers advance more rapidly to higher skills and better paid work. A U.S. Department of Labor study of some of the industry's major producers showed that nearly three-fourths of them were sponsoring training programs in 1959. Many of these plants were conducting educational and training classes themselves, others were paying tuition and related costs for outside courses taken by their employees, and some were doing both. Some classes were held during working hours, in which case trainees were paid for class time, and others were after working hours. Courses 534 were available for practically every occupa tional group, and covered many skills and areas of knowledge. Examples of subjects typically offered include blueprint reading, drafting, welding, aircraft maintenance and repair, elec tronic data processing, shop mathematics, su pervisory practices, and safe working practices. Most of the trainees were taking short-term courses designed to meet immediate skill needs. Only a relatively few employees were enrolled in long-term programs scheduled to run for several years, such as apprenticeship. Employment Outlook Thousands of employment opportunities are expected to develop in the aerospace field during the 1960's. Many new jobs will be created by expanding activity in the industry, and many others will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other industries, re tire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone will probably result in an average of 15,000 to 18,000 openings each year during the 1960-70 decade. The industry's future depends largely on Government spending. Unless the international situation changes significantly from that pre vailing in late 1960, Government expenditures for aerospace products are expected to rise during the decade ahead. The overall picture for aerospace activity during the 1960's is one of growth, but this is not true for every segment of the industry. Jobs in the spacecraft field will probably increase rapidly. Employment in the production of missiles is not expected to change much, after a sharp rise which occurred during the last few years of the 1950's. Employment in military-aircraft manufacture will probably drop. Civil-aircraft production is not expected to change much during the first half of the 1960's but may expand during the second half. Many new jobs will be created to produce elec tronic units for the industry. Electronic sys tems and components are major items of aero space craft and their importance in the industry is growing. Expenditures for research and development should rise rapidly during the 1960's. Employ OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ment opportunities will, therefore, be parti cularly favorable for engineers and scientists, and for such workers as draftsmen, electronic technicians, mathematics aids, and research craftsmen. Many job openings in these special ties will become available not only in manu facturing concerns but also in university lab oratories, independent research organizations,, and Federal agencies such as the Air Force, Navy, Army, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Opportunities will also be favorable during the 1960's for skilled plant personnel, such as tool and die makers, skilled assemblers and in spectors, and maintenance craftsmen. Because of the shift from the volume production of con ventional items, chiefly aircraft, to the custom production of relatively small numbers of many diversified products, employment of semiskilled and unskilled plant workers is not expected to increase during the 1960-70 decade and may even decrease. Semiskilled and unskilled work ers are also more likely to be laid off during production cutbacks than are skilled workers and office personnel. Aerospace employment has fluctuated sharply in the past, owing mainly to changes in the needs of the industry's major customer— the Federal Government. Earnings and Working Conditions Plant workers' earnings in the aerospace in dustry are higher than those in most other manufacturing industries. During January 1961, for example, production workers in plants making aircraft and parts earned an average of $114.13 a week or $2.75 an hour, while produc tion workers in all manufacturing industries as a whole averaged $90.25 a week or $2.32 an hour. Production workers in the Department of Defense and other Federal agencies receive wages equal to prevailing rates paid for com parable jobs by local private employers. Information on earnings for professional and technical workers in the aerospace field indicate that they are higher than earnings for similar work in most other industries. The relatively favorable position of these workers is due mainly to the recent rapid growth-of research and development activity on missiles and space- OCCUPATIONS IN AIRCRAFT, MISSILE, AND SPACECRAFT MANUFACTURING craft, which has created an urgent need for wellqualified engineers, scientists, and technicians. (General information on earnings of profes sional and technical personnel may be found in the sections on individual occupations in this Handbook. See index for page numbers.) The following tabulation was developed from examination of collective bargaining agreements of a number of representative aircraft and missile manufacturers. It indicates the approxi mate range of hourly wage rates for selected occupations in mid-1960. The ranges in the various jobs are rather wide, partly because wages within an occupation vary according to the worker's skill and experience and partly be cause wages differ from plant to plant depending upon plant size, locality, and other factors. Aircraft mechanics _________________________ $2.35-$3.20 2.00- 2.95 Assemblers _________________________________ Draftsmen __________________________________ 2.10- 3.05 Electronics technicians _____________________ 2.50- 3.50 Heat treaters _______________________________ 2.10- 3.00 Inspectors and testers______________________ 2.00- 3.40 Jig and fixture builders ____________________ 2.10- 3.40 Laboratory technicians ___ ,_________________ 1.90- 3.25 Machine tool operators _____________________ 2.05- 3.00 Machinists __________________________________ 2.50- 3.40 Maintenance craftsmen ____________________ 2.15- 3.25 Riveters _____________________ r _______________ 1.95- 2.85 Tool and die makers _______________________ 2.15- 3.40 Welders _____________________________________ 2.10- 2.95 Fringe benefits are common in the industry. Workers usually get 2 weeks of paid vacation after 1 or 2 years of service, and 3 weeks after 10 or 12 years. They generally get 6 to 8 paid holidays a year and 1 week of paid sick leave. Other major benefits include life insur ance ; medical, surgical, and hospital insurance; payments in case of accident and sickness; and retirement pensions. Fringe benefits in Federal 535 aerospace employment are comparable with those in the rest of the industry. Most employees work in modern factory build ings which are clean, light, and airy. Some work is done outdoors. Operations such as sheet-metal processing, riveting, and welding may be relatively noisy, and some assemblers may work in cramped quarters. Aerospace plants are comparatively safe working places, with an injury-frequency rate which in 1960 averaged only about one-third that for manu facturing as a whole. Most plant workers in the aerospace field are union members. They are represented by several unions, among them being the International Association of Machinists; the International Union, United Automobile, Aircraft and Agri cultural Implement Workers of America; and the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers. Some craftsmen, guards, and truckdrivers belong to unions which represent specific occupational groups rather than plant workers as a whole. Where To Go for More Information National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1520 H St. N W ., Washington 25, D.C. Aerospace Industries Association of America, Inc., 15th and H Sts. N W ., Washington 5, D.C. International Association of Machinists, 1300 Connecticut Ave. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. International Union, United Automobile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of America, 8000 East Jefferson Ave., Detroit 14, Mich. International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers, 1126 16th St. N W ., Washington 6, D.C. AIR TRANSPORTATION OCCUPATIONS The widespread use of airplanes has provided jobs for many thousands of workers in a variety of interesting and responsible occupations. Some of these jobs, such as pilot, copilot, and stewardess, are especially appealing to young men and women. Nature of Air Transportation Activities Many different types of employers have jobs for workers in the various air transportation occupations. The scheduled airlines (those which operate regularly scheduled flights over pre scribed routes) employ workers in most of the major air transportation occupations. Other employers have workers in only a few of these occupations. These employers include the Fed eral Government; companies and individuals that provide commercial flying services, such as “ air-taxi operators” who fly their own planes on special chartered flights to deliver cargo or transport passengers between cities not con veniently serviced by the scheduled airlines; and airlines that hold licenses to make nonscheduled flights, and fewer scheduled flights than sched uled airlines. These airlines— called “ certifi cated supplemental airlines” — fly both domestic and international routes. The 54 scheduled airlines that were operating in late 1960 employed about 168,000 workers. Of these workers, about 80 percent (134,000) were employed by 28 airlines to fly and service aircraft and passengers on domestic routes— between cities in the United States. About 29,000 other workers handled the operations of the scheduled airlines which flew international routes. The remaining workers were employed by airlines that handled only cargo, or by lines that were based in Alaska or Hawaii. About half of all scheduled airline employees (82,000) worked for the four largest domestic airlines. Many thousands of workers in jobs concerned with air transportation— most of them either http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 536 Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis pilots or mechanics— are employed by several Federal Government agencies. They work for the Federal Aviation Agency (F A A ), which develops air safety regulations, inspects and tests airplanes and airline facilities, provides ground electronic guidance equipment, and gives tests for licenses to such personnel as pilots, copilots, flight engineers, dispatchers, and air plane mechanics; the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB), which establishes policy concerning such matters as airline rates and routes and investi gates accidents; and the Department of De fense, which employs civilian mechanics to serv ice their many aircraft. In addition to pilots and maintenance personnel, the FAA also em ploys about 12,300 air traffic control specialists to provide weather and other information to pilots and to guide planes around airports and through the Federal Airways System— a net work of designated air lanes along which air craft are guided from airport to airport. Most FAA personnel are civilian Federal employees whose major function is to serve those who use the airways. Thousands of other workers— also mostly pi lots and maintenance personnel— are employed in the field of commercial flying. Most of these workers are employed by air-taxi operators, and by companies that operate airplanes to trans port their executives; do agricultural flying such as crop dusting, spraying, and seeding; run fly ing schools; and specialize in aircraft and en gine repair. A small number of workers are employed by companies that do aerial photog raphy and advertising through sky writing. An additional 2,500 workers were employed by 26 certificated supplemental airlines which were operating in late 1960. These airlines oper ated a limited number of scheduled flights each month. The majority were small companies which operated charter flights between com munities off the main airline routes. 537 AIR TRANSPORTATION OCCUPATIONS Air Transportation Occupations The scheduled airlines employ a great many workers to fly planes, maintain and repair equipment, provide services to passengers at terminals and during flights, and perform cleri cal and other business services. Mechanics and other aircraft maintenance personnel made up about 20 percent of scheduled airline employ ment in 1960; pilots and copilots, 8 percent; and stewardesses, stewards, flight engineers, and navigators, 9 percent. (See chart 26.) About 17 percent of all airline workers were traffic agents and clerks, and almost 3 percent worked at airline ground stations as communi cations personnel and dispatchers. The re mainder (about 43 percent) were cargo and freight handlers, custodial and other aircraft^ servicing personnel, office workers, and admini strative and professional personnel. Flight crews consist of pilots, copilots, flight engineers, flight attendants (stewardesses and stewards), and sometimes navigators. All com mercial airline flights have a pilot and at least one copilot who operate the aircraft. On many types of aircrafts, a flight engineer is on board to see that the engines, gages, and controls CHART 26 AIRLINES EMPLOY M O RE M E C H A N IC S THAN FLIGHT P E R S O N N E L .... Thousands of workers with scheduled airlines,I9601 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 operate satisfactorily and to take proper emer gency measures in flight. Navigators are carried on flights over water to aid the pilot in navigat ing and maintaining communications. Almost all passenger flights carry stewardesses or stewards to serve the passengers. Ground operational personnel consist of work ers such as dispatchers, controllers, radio oper ators, and mechanics. Dispatchers guide and give flight information to all planes operated by their company and flying within a given radius of their airport. Air-route and airport traffic controllers, mainly employed by the FAA, give landing and takeoff clearances and naviga tional information to all planes operating within their areas of control. Radio operators and teletypists assist dispatchers by making direct connections with the planes and relaying mes sages to flight crews and to other airports. Other flight service specialists who operate radio equipment help air traffic controllers perform their work. Mechanics make sure that planes are in good condition before each flight, do repair jobs, and overhaul and recondition aircraft and engines at periodic intervals. A detailed description of the duties, training, qualifications, employment outlook, earnings, and working conditions for each of the following air transportation jobs appear in the later sec tions of this chapter: (1) pilots and copilots, (2) flight engineers, (3) stewardesses, (4) air plane mechanics, (5) airline dispatchers, (6) air traffic controllers, (7) ground radio operators and teletypists, and (8) traffic agents and clerks. Employment Outlook Traffic a ge n ts and clerks Flight engineers I G ro u n d ra d io operators and teletypists D isp a tch e rs a ssis ta n ts Pilots and copilots Stewards, stewardesses, and pursers I Total employment in air transportation oc cupations is expected to increase moderately in the 1960,s, although employment is not expected to change much during the early years of the decade. The new planes and equipment being introduced by airlines will enable them to handle more traffic in this early period with little or no increase in employment. Neverthe less, there will be many thousands of opportuni ties for young women and men to obtain jobs as stewardesses and traffic agents and clerks. In the latter part of the decade, overall employ- 538 ment is expected to increase, largely because of the anticipated growth in air transporta tion. The combination of anticipated increase in total employment and continuing replace ment needs will result in larger numbers of job opportunities for new workers. Airline traffic and employment have grown rapidly during most of the industry’s brief history. For example, during the 1950’s, the number of miles flown by paying passengers (revenue passenger miles) on the scheduled air lines more than tripled. Employment doubled over the same period. Air traffic is expected to continue to grow in the 1960’s. The FAA has estimated that by 1970 the scheduled airlines will fly twice the revenue passenger miles flown in 1959. Among the factors which will contribute to greatly in creased air travel are a larger population, in creased consumer purchasing power, the trend toward longer vacations, the greater dependence upon air travel by businessmen, faster flights on jet aircraft which will save considerable time in long-distance travel, and more low-cost air coach service. An even larger increase is ex pected in air cargo traffic, which, however, represents a relatively small percentage of total traffic. Continued growth in commercial flying services, such as air-taxi operations and busi ness executive flying, is also expected. As in the past, employment is not expected to increase as fast as the increase in traffic over the 1960’s. With the transition to jet-powered planes and jet-powered propeller planes, more passengers will be carried at a much greater speed. Some of the smaller airlines, which have been operating smaller planes, probably will re place much of their equipment with jet-powered propeller planes and the larger piston aircraft now used by the major airlines. Expanded lowcost air coach service should also enable airlines to handle more traffic without a comparable in crease in employment. The greater use of electronic data-processing systems will enable airlines to handle a much greater volume of reservations, scheduling, and accounting operations without a comparable ex pansion in clerical employment. Also, increased installation of mechanical equipment, such as conveyors, will permit airlines to move more OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK baggage and cargo without additional cargo and baggage handlers. Despite the introduction of more efficient planes and equipment, employment in many air transportation occupations is expected to grow. The number of pilots, copilots, mechanics, and dispatchers employed by the airlines is expected to increase moderately during the 1960’s, but the number of flight engineers is expected to increase only slightly; employment of pilots and mechanics in the other areas of commercial fly ing is also expected to grow. Many more air traffic controllers will be hired. There will also be many employment opportunities in such air line jobs as stewardesses and traffic agents and clerks largely because of the high turnover in these occupations. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings vary greatly among the air trans portation occupations because of such factors as skill requirements, length of experience, and amount of responsibility for safe and efficient operations. The statements on individual occu pations which follow contain detailed discus sions of earnings. As a rule, employees and their immediate families are entitled to free transportation on their companies’ domestic flights. In addition, they may fly at greatly reduced rates with other airlines. In overseas travel, employees and their immediate families receive fare discounts of up to 90 percent. Flight personnel may be away from their home bases about a third or more of the time. When they are away from home, the airlines either provide living accommodations or pay actual expenses. Airlines operate flights at all hours of the day and night. Flight personnel, therefore, often have irregular work schedules. Maximum hours of work per month for these workers have been established by the FAA as a safety precaution against fatigue. In addition, union-company agreements often stipulate that persons in flight occupations be paid for a minimum number of hours each month, to guarantee a substantial proportion of their normal earnings. Ground personnel who work as dispatchers, mechanics, traffic agents, communications oper- 539 AIR TRANSPORTATION OCCUPATIONS ators, and in administrative jobs, usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. Their working* hours, however, like those of flight personnel, often in clude nights, weekends, or holidays. Air traffic controllers work a 5-day, 40-hour week; they are periodically assigned to night, weekend, and holiday work. Ground personnel generally re ceive extra pay for overtime work. In domestic operations, employees usually re ceive 2 or 3 weeks’ vacation with pay, depend ing upon length of service. Most flight person nel in international operations get a month’s vacation. Employees also receive paid sick leave and retirement, insurance, and hospitalization benefits. FAA employees are entitled to the same benefits as other Federal personnel, in cluding from 13 to 26 days of vacation leave and 13 days of sick leave a year, as well as retirement, life insurance, and health benefits. Many of the workers in air transportation are union members. These unions are identi fied in the statements covering the individual jobs. Where To Go for More Information Information about job openings in a particu lar airline and the qualifications required, may be obtained by writing to the personnel Pilots an manager of the company. Addresses are avail able from the Air Transport Association of America, 1000 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washing ton 6, D.C. Inquiries regarding jobs with the Federal Aviation Agency should be addressed to the Personnel Officer, Federal Aviation Agency, at any of the following addresses: Region 1. Federal Building, New York International Airport, Jamaica, Long Island, N .Y. Region 2. Box 1689, Fort Worth 1, Tex. Region 3. 4825 Troost Ave., Kansas City 10, Mo. Region 4. Box 90007, Airport Station, Los Angeles 45, Calif. Region 5. Box 440, Anchorage, Alaska Region 6. Box 4009, Honolulu 12, Hawaii National Aviation Facilities Center, Atlantic City, N.J. Aeronautical Center, Box 1082, Oklahoma City, Okla. Inform ation concerning FA A -approved schools offering training for work as an air plane mechanic, pilot, or in other technical fields related to aviation may be obtained from the Correspondence Inquiry Branch, MS-126, Federal Aviation Agency, Washington 25, D.C. Career information about dispatchers may be obtained from the Air Line Dispatchers Associa tion, 4620 Lee Highway, Arlington, Va. Copilots (D.O.T. 0-41. 0 and .12) Nature of Work The men who have the responsibility for flying a multimillion dollar plane and transport ing as many as 125 passengers safely are the pilot and copilot. The pilot (called “ captain” by the airlines) operates the controls and per forms other tasks necessary for getting a plane into the air, keeping it on course, and returning it safely to earth. He supervises a crew which may include— in addition to the copilot— a flight engineer, a navigator, and flight attend ants. The copilot is second in command. He must be present on airline flights since he also operates the controls of the plane. On some jets, there may be two copilots in addition to http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ members. the other crew Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Both captain and copilot must do a great deal of planning before a plane may leave the ground. Before each flight, they confer with the com pany meteorologist about weather conditions and, in cooperation with the airline dispatcher, they prepare a flight plan along a route and at altitudes which offer the best weather and wind conditions so that a safe, fast, and smooth flight will be possible. This flight plan must be ap proved by Federal Aviation Agency (FA A ) air traffic control personnel. The copilot plots the course to be flown and computes the flying time between various points. Just prior to take-off, both men check the operation of each engine and the functioning of the plane’s many instru ments. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 540 Flight crew receiving training in operation of jet aircraft. During the flight, the captain or copilot re ports, by radio, to ground control stations. They radio information about their altitude, air speed, weather conditions, and other flight de tails. The captain also supervises the navigation for the flight and keeps close watch on the many instruments which indicate the plane’s fuel load and the condition of the engines, controls, elec tronic equipment, and landing gear. The copilot records the progress of the flight and also keeps close watch on all instruments. Before landing, the pilot or the copilot per form such duties as rechecking the operation of the landing gear and requesting permission to land from the airport control tower. When visi bility is limited, the captain must rely solely on instruments, such as radar, when landing. Both men must complete a flight report and file trip records in the airline office when the flight is ended. Some pilots employed by airlines act as “ check pilots.” They make at least two flights a year with each captain to observe his proficiency and adherence to Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) flight regulations and company policies. Air lines also employ pilot-instructors to train new pilots, as well as to train experienced ones in the use of new equipment. Airlines also employ some pilots to fly planes leased to private cor porations. Pilots not employed by the major airlines may fly planes that are smaller and less expen sive and transport fewer passengers and less cargo. These pilots seldom have the assistance of flight crews. In addition to flying, they may perform minor maintenance and repair work on their planes. Those who are self-employed also have duties similar to those of other small busi nessmen. AIR TRANSPORTATION OCCUPATIONS Where Employed Scheduled airlines employed about 11,500 pilots and copilots in domestic operations in late 1960. Another 1,500 were employed on scheduled international flights. In addition, ap proximately 800 pilots were employed by the certificated supplemental airlines (airlines that hold licenses to make nonscheduled flights and fewer scheduled flights than the scheduled air lines). More pilots are employed outside of the sched uled airlines than by the scheduled airlines. For example, the FAA estimates that in mid1960 about 6,200 pilots and copilots were em ployed by companies that used their private air craft solely to transport their executives. A similar number were employed by about 2,600 air taxi operators who operate smaller planes to transport passengers and cargo on specially chartered flights. An additional 4,000 pilots were employed as “ crop dusters”— scattering insecticides, fertilizers, and seeds from the air. The Federal Government employs approxi mately 700 pilots (about half in the FAA) to perform a variety of services, such as examining applicants for pilots’ licenses, inspecting navi gation facilities along Federal airways, testing planes that are newly designed or have major modifications, enforcing game laws, fighting forest fires, and patrolling national boundries. In addition to employment in these fields, a few thousand pilots were employed by companies to transport engineers, scientists, and other technical personnel to branch plants in special or emergency situations, to inspect pipelines and installations for oil companies, and to pro vide other aerial services such as private flight instruction, and flights for sightseeing, sky writing, and aerial photography. A small num ber work for aircraft manufacturers as test pilots. Qualifications, Training, and Advancement To do any type of commercial flying, pilots or copilots must be licensed by the FAA. Air line pilots must have an “ airline transport pilots’ ” license. Copilots, and pilots who do not work for the airlines, must have a “ commercial airplane pilots’ ” license. In addition, airline 541 copilots, and pilots who are subject to FAA in strument flight regulations or who anticipate flying on instruments when the weather is bad must have an “ instrument rating.” Pilots and copilots must also have a rating for the class of plane they can fly, (single-engine, multiengine, or seaplane) and on the specific type of plane they can fly, such as DC-3 or DC-6. To qualify for a license as a commercial pilot, applicants must be at least 18 years old and have at least 200 hours of flight experience. To ob tain an instrument rating, applicants must have at least 40 hours of instrument flying time. Applicants for an airline transport pilots’ license must be at least 23 years old and have a total of 1,200 hours of flight time, including night flying time and instrument time. Before a person may receive any license or rating, he must pass a physical examination and a written test given by the FAA covering such subjects as principles of safe flight opera tions, Civil Air Regulations, navigation prin ciples, radio operation, and meteorology. He must also submit proof that he has completed the minimum flight-time requirements and, in a practical test, demonstrate flying skill and technical competence. His certification as a pro fessional pilot remains in effect as long as he can pass an annual physical examination. An airline transport pilot’s license expires when the pilot reaches his 60th birthday. A young man may obtain the knowledge, skills, and flight experience necessary to be come a pilot through military service or from a private flying school. Graduation from flying schools approved by the FAA satisfies the flight experience requirements for licensing. Appli cants who have appropriate military flight training and experience are required to pass only the Civil Air Regulations examination if they apply for a license within a year after leaving the service. Those trained in the armed services have the added opportunity to gain ex perience and accumulate flying time on large aircraft similar to those used by the airlines. As a rule, applicants for a pilot’s job with the airlines must be between 20 and 27 years old, 5 feet 7 inches to 6 feet 4 inches tall, and weigh between 140 and 200 pounds. All appli cants must be high school graduates; some air 542 lines require 2 years of college and prefer to hire college graduates. Physical requirements for pilots, especially in scheduled airline employ ment, are very high. They must have normal (20/20) vision without the aid of glasses, good hearing, outstanding physical stamina, and no physical handicaps that would prevent quick reactions. Since flying large aircraft places great responsibilities upon a pilot, the airlines use psychological tests to determine an appli cant’s alertness, emotional stability and matu rity, and his ability to assume responsibility, command respect, and make quick decisions and accurate judgments under pressure. Men hired by the scheduled airlines (and by some of the larger supplemental airlines) usually start as copilots, although in a few airlines they may begin as flight engineers. An applicant for a copilot’s job with a scheduled airline often must have more than the FAA minimum quali fications for commercial pilot licensing. For example, although the FAA requires only 200 flying hours to qualify for such a license, the airlines generally require from 500 to 1,000 fly ing hours. Airlines also require a “ restricted” radio-telephone operator permit, issued by the Federal Communications Commission, which allows the holder to operate the plane’s radio. All newly hired airlines pilots go through company orientation courses. In addition, some airlines give beginning copilots from 3 to 10 weeks of training on company planes before assigning them to a scheduled flight. Trainees also receive classroom instruction in subjects such as flight theory, radio operation, Civil Air Regulations, and airline operations. The beginning copilot generally is permitted only limited responsibility, such as operating the flight controls in good weather over safe terrain. As he gains experience and skill, his responsibilities gradually are increased. When he has proved his skill, accumulated sufficient ex perience and seniority, and passed the test for an airline transport pilot’s license, a copilot may advance to captain as openings arise. A minimum of 2 or 3 years’ service is required for promotion but, in actual practice, advancement often takes at least 5 to 10 years. A few opportunities exist for captains with administrative ability to advance to chief pilot, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK flight operations manager, and other super visory and executive jobs. Most airline captains, however, spend their entire careers flying. As they increase their seniority, they obtain a better selection of flight routes and schedules which offer higher earnings. Some pilots may go into business for themselves if they have ade quate financial resources and business ability. They may operate their own flying schools or air-taxi and other aerial services. Pilots may also shift to administrative and inspection jobs in aircraft manufacturing and government aviation agencies, even when they are no longer able to fly. Employment Outlook A moderate increase in the employment of airline pilots is expected in the 1960’s. The number of pilots will be affected by the larger, faster, and more efficient jet-powered and jetpowered propeller planes now being introduced. In these planes, a pilot is able to fly many more passenger and cargo miles than he can in piston aircraft. Thus, although air transportation is expected to continue to grow in the 1960’s, there probably will be little or no need for additional pilots during the next few years. However, after the period of transition to new flight equipment, the continuing increase in traffic should result in an expansion of airline activity and lead to a slow rise in the employment of pilots. The employment of pilots outside of the air lines is expected to grow in the 1960-70 decade. Flying of business executives, crop dusting, and air taxi and patrol work are among the activities expected to increase most rapidly. Earnings and Working Conditions Captains and copilots are among the highest paid workers in the Nation. Those employed by the scheduled airlines averaged about $15,700 a year in domestic air transportation and $18,500 in international operations, in late 1960. Most of the senior captains on large aircraft earned well over $20,000 a year; those assigned to the new jet aircraft may earn more than $30,000. Pilots employed by the scheduled airlines gener ally earn more than those employed elsewhere, AIR TRANSPORTATION OCCUPATIONS 543 although pilots who work for supplemental air lines may earn almost as much. Beginning co pilots generally earned $5,400 a year. Some experienced copilots were earning as much as $15,000 a year in domestic and more than $17,000 in international flying in late 1960. The earnings of airline pilots and copilots depend on factors such as the type, size, and speed of the planes they fly, the number of hours and miles flown, and their length of serv ice. They receive additional pay for night and international flights. Captains, and airline co pilots with at least 3 years of service, are guar anteed minimum monthly earnings which rep resent a substantial proportion of their earn ings. Under PAA regulations, pilots cannot fly more than 100 hours a month or 1,000 hours a year in domestic operations. Pilots in inter national operations are limited either to 100 hours a month, 300 hours every 90 days, or 350 hours every 90 days, depending on the size of the flight crew. In actual practice, pilots and copilots average between 72 and 82 hours’ flying time a month, plus between 15 and 35 hours in ground duties before and after their flights. Some pilots prefer the shorter distance flying usually associated with the local airlines and commercial flying activities such as air-taxi operations, because they are likely to spend less time away from their home bases and fly mostly during the daytime. These pilots, however, have the added strain of making more takeoffs and landings daily. Although flying does not involve much physi cal effort, the pilot is often subject to stress be cause of his great responsibility. He must be constantly alert and prepared to make decisions quickly. Poor weather conditions also make his work more difficult. Most airline pilots are members of the Inter national Air Line Pilots Association. (See introductory section for Where To Go for More Information and for general informa tion on supplementary benefits and working con ditions.) Flight Engineers (D.O.T. 5-80.100) Nature of Work The flight engineer is responsible for the prop er functioning of the airplane so that the pilot and copilot can concentrate on guiding the plane. Before takeoffs, he inspects the tires and other outside parts of the plane and makes sure that the plane’s fuel tanks have been properly filled. In the plane, he assists the pilot and copilot in making preflight checks of instruments and equipment. Once the plane is in the air, the flight engineer watches and operates many in struments and devices to check the performance of the engines and the air-conditioning, pres surizing, and electrical systems. In addition, he keeps records of engine performance and fuel consumption. He reports any mechanical diffi culties to the captain and, if possible, makes emergency repairs. Upon landing, he makes certain that mechanical troubles that may have developed are repaired by airport mechanics. Flight engineers employed by the smaller air lines may have to make minor repairs them selves at those few airports where mechanics are not stationed. Flight engineers are employed on all com mercial planes that have a maximum takeoff weight of more than 80,000 pounds, which in cludes almost all four-engine planes, and twoengine jet planes. Almost all of the 3,700 flight engineers were working for the major scheduled airlines, which operate virtually all such planes. Most flight engineers are stationed in or near large cities where long-distance flights originate and terminate. Qualifications, Training, and Advancement All flight engineers must be licensed by the Federal Aviation Agency (F A A ). A man can qualify for a flight engineer’s certificate if he has had 2 years of training or 3 years of work experience in the maintenance, re- 544 Flight engineer checking airplane’s engines and airconditioning, pressurizing, and electrical systems. pair, and overhaul of aircraft and engines, in cluding a minimum of 6 months’ training or a year of experience on four-engine piston, jetpowered, or jet-powered propeller planes. He may also qualify with at least 200 hours of flight time as a pilot in command of a fourengine piston or jet plane or with 100 hours of experience as a flight engineer in the Armed Fortes. A third method of qualifying is to com plete a course of ground and flight instruction approved by the FAA. A few of the airlines conduct such courses for their flight engineer trainees. In addition to such experience or training, an applicant for a license must pass a written test on flight theory, engine and aircraft per formance, fuel requirements, weather as it af fects engine operation, and maintenance pro cedures. In a practical flight test on a fourengine plane, he must demonstrate his skill in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK emergency procedures and his ability to dis cover and correct troubles which might arise while the airplane is in the air. He must also pass a rigid physical examination every year. Young men can acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to qualify as airline flight en gineers through military training as airplane pilots, mechanics, or flight engineers. They may also attend a civilian ground school and then gain experience as an airplane mechanic. Air lines which employ mechanic-trained flight en gineers usually select men from among their own senior mechanics and give them additional training for 5 or 6 months to qualify them for flight duties. In selecting licensed flight engineers, airlines generally prefer men 23 to 35 years of age, from 5 feet 7 inches to 6 feet 4 inches tall, and in excellent physical condition. They require a high school education but prefer men with 2 or more years of college. For employment in airlines which hire mechanic-trained flight en gineers, applicants must have FAA mechanic certificates. Some airlines, however, hire pilottrained flight engineers. In these airlines, pilots usually begin as flight engineers. A flight engineer can become a chief flight engineer for his airline. His advancement, how ever, comes mainly by gaining enough seniority to enable him to select the routes and schedules which offer the highest earnings. In airlines that employ pilot-qualified flight engineers, he can be promoted to copilot, and then follow the regular line of advancement open to other co pilots. Employment Outlook Employment of flight engineers is expected to increase slowly during the 1960’s. The num ber of flight engineers probably will not change much during the early part of the 1960’s, as faster and more efficient jet planes continue to be put into scheduled airline service. After this transition to the new type of planes, the antici pated growth in air traffic should result in a slow increase in the employment of flight engi neers. AIR TRANSPORTATION OCCUPATIONS 545 E a r n in g s a n d W o r k in g C o n d itio n s In late 1960, the earnings of flight engineers ranged from about $550 a month for new em ployees to $1,600 for experienced flight engi neers on jet aircraft on international flights. Many flight engineers earned between $1,000 and $1,500 a month. Average monthly earnings for all flight engineers in domestic operations was $975; those employed on international flights averaged nearly $1,200. The earnings of flight engineers depend upon such factors as size, speed, and type of the plane; hours and miles flown; length of service; and the type of flight (such as night or international). Engi neers are guaranteed minimum monthly earn ings, which represent a substantial proportion of their earnings. Their actual flight time is re stricted, under FAA regulations, to a maximum of 100 hours a month or 1,000 hours a year in domestic flying. Flight engineers in interna tional operations are limited either to 100 hours a month, 300 hours every 90 days or 350 hours every 90 days, depending on the size of the flight crew. Most flight engineers belong to the Flight Engineers’ International Association. Some are represented by the International Association of Machinists. (See introductory section for Where To Go for More Information and for general infor mation on supplementary benefits and working conditions.) Stewardesses (D.O.T. 2-25.37) N a tu re o f W o r k Stewardesses or stewards (sometimes called flight attendants) are aboard almost all passen ger planes operated by the commercial airlines. Their most important job is to make the pas sengers’ flight safe, comfortable, and enjoyable from the time the passengers board the plane until they arrive at their destinations. Like other flight personnel, they are responsible to the captain. Before each flight, the stewardess attends the briefing of the flight crew. She sees that the passenger cabin is in order, that supplies and emergency passenger gear are aboard, and that necessary food and beverages are in the galley. As the passengers come aboard, she greets them, checks their tickets, and assists them with their coats and small luggage. During the flight, the stewardess makes cer tain that seat belts are fastened and gives safety instructions when required. She answers questions about the flight and weather, distrib utes reading matter and pillows, helps care for small children and babies, and keeps the cabin neat. On some flights, she serves ready-cooked meals or light refreshments. On international flights, she also gives customs information, 'in structs passengers on the use of emergency equipment, and repeats instructions in several languages to accommodate foreign passengers. After the flight, she completes flight reports about the passengers, cabin, and supplies. About 9,500 stewardesses and 1,000 stewards worked for the scheduled airlines in late 1960. About 80 percent were employed by the domestic airlines, and the rest worked for international lines. Most of the stewards were employed on Stewardess serving dinner to airline passengers. 546 overseas flights where heavier work was in volved, such as making up berths on the older propeller aircraft. Airliners generally carry one to six flight attendants, depending on the size of the plane and whether the flight is tourist or first-class. Most flight attendants are stationed in major cities at the airlines’ main bases. A few who serve on international flights are based in foreign countries. Qualifications, Training, and Advancement Because stewardesses are in constant contact with passengers, the airlines place great stress on hiring young women who are attractive, poised, tactful, and resourceful. As a rule, ap plicants must be 20 to 27 years old, 5 feet 2 inches to 5 feet 8 inches tall, with weight in proportion to height (but not to exceed 135 pounds), and in excellent health. They must also have a pleasant speaking voice and good vision. Most major airlines require that stewardesses be unmarried and require them to resign when they marry or shortly afterwards. Applicants for stewardess’ jobs must have at least a high school education. Those with 2 years of college, nurses’ training, or business experience in dealing with the public are pre ferred. Stewardesses who work for interna tional airlines generally must be able to speak an appropriate foreign language fluently. Most large airlines give newly hired stew ardesses about 5 weeks’ training in their own schools. Girls may receive free transportation to the training centers and also may receive an allowance while in attendance. Training in cludes classes in flight regulations and duties, company operations and schedules, emergency procedures and first aid, and personal grooming. Additional courses in passport and customs reg ulations are given trainees for the international routes. Toward the end of their training, stu dents go on practice flights and perform their duties under actual flight conditions. (A few airlines which do not operate their own schools employ graduates who have paid for their own training at private stewardesses schools. Girls interested in becoming steward OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK esses should check with the airlines before en tering a private school to be sure they have the necessary qualifications.) Immediately upon completing their training, stewardesses report for work at one of their airline’s main bases. They serve on probation for about 6 months, and an experienced stew ardess usually works with them on their first flights. Until a regular flight is available, they may work as reserve flight attendants, during which time they serve on extra flights or replace stewardesses who are sick or on vacation. Stewardesses may advance to jobs as first stewardess or purser, supervising stewardess, stewardess instructor, or recruiting representa tive. Such jobs are few in number. However, since stewardesses work only about 2 or 3 years on the average, and then resign to get married, advancement opportunities for those who con tinue to work are good. Stewardesses who can no longer qualify for flying, such as those who marry, may obtain jobs in traffic or public rela tions work. Employment Outlook Young women will have thousands of op portunities to get jobs as stewardesses each year in the 1960’s. Most of these openings will occur as girls marry or leave the occupation for other reasons. (About 40 percent of the em ployed stewardesses leave their jobs each year.) In addition, total employment of stewardesses will grow moderately as a result of the antici pated large increase in passenger traffic and the need for additional stewardesses on the larger jet planes. This rise should more than offset any adverse effect that the introduction of faster jet planes may have on the employment of stewardesses. Young women interested in becoming stew ardesses should realize that thousands of girls apply for this type of work each year, because of the glamour attached to the occupation. De spite the large number of applicants, the air lines are finding it difficult to obtain enough young women who can meet their high stand ards of attractiveness, personality, and intelli gence. 547 AIR TRANSPORTATION OCCUPATIONS Earnings and Working Conditions An examination of union-management con tracts covering several large domestic and in ternational airlines indicates that in 1960 begin ning stewardesses earned approximately $300 to $345 a month for 85 hours of flying time. Stew ardesses with 2 years' experience earned ap proximately $345 to $375 a month. Those as signed to jet flights usually earned more. All stewardesses employed on domestic flights averaged $340 a month; those working on inter national flights averaged about $450. Since commercial airlines operate around the clock, 365 days a year, stewardesses usually work irregular hours. They may work at night, on holidays, and on weekends. They are usually limited to 85 hours of flight time a month. In addition, they devote up to 35 hours a month to ground duties. As a result of irregular hours and limitations on the amount of flying time, some stewardesses may have 15 or more days off each month. Of course, some time off may occur between flights while away from home. Airlines generally use the seniority bidding system for assigning home bases, flight sched ules, and routes. Stewardesses with the longest service, therefore, get the more desirable flights. The stewardess' occupation is exciting and glamorous, with opportunities to meet interest ing passengers and to see new places. However, the work can be strenuous and trying. A stew ardess may be on her feet during a large part of the flight. She must remain pleasant and efficient during the entire flight, regardless of how tired she may be. Most stewardesses belong to a labor union. (See introductory section for Where To Go for More Information and for general informa tion on supplementary benefits and working conditions.) Airplane Mechanics (D.O.T. 5-80.100, .120 and .130) Nature of Work Airplane mechanics have the important job of keeping airplanes operating safely and effi ciently. Basically, they do either “ line-mainte nance" work at the larger airline terminals, or overhaul work at the airline's main overhaul base. A line-maintenance mechanic may be instructed by the flight engineer or lead me chanic on which kinds of repairs to make, or he may examine the aircraft thoroughly to dis cover the cause of malfunction. He then makes the necessary repairs or adjustments, or he may install a new part; for instance, he may replace an entire engine when it cannot be fixed quickly. Line-maintenance mechanics must be all-round mechanics able to make repairs on all parts of the plane. They may also have to do mainte nance work such as changing oil or cleaning spark plugs. Mechanics who do overhaul work make major repairs or perform the periodic inspections that are necessary on all aircraft. These mechanics may specialize in work on a particular part of the airplane such as propellers, landing gear, hydraulic equipment, radio and radar, instru ments, or on sheet metal work. They frequently take apart a complex airplane component, re place damaged or worn parts, put the compo nent together, and test it to make sure that it is operating perfectly. Airplane mechanics not employed by the air lines usually do maintenance and repair work comparable with that performed by line-main tenance mechanics. However, the planes which these mechanics service may be smaller and less complex than those flown by the airlines. One mechanic frequently does the entire servicing job with little supervision, and he works on many different types of planes and engines. Mechanics who work for such employers as the certificated supplemental airlines (airlines that hold licenses to make nonscheduled flights, and fewer scheduled flights than scheduled airlines), air-taxi operators (operators of small planes carrying passengers or cargo on specially chart ered flights), flying schools, and independent repair shops may also do overhaul work. In dependent repair shops usually specialize in 548 either engine, instrument, or airframe over haul. (The airframe consists of the plane’s fuse lage, wings, landing gear, and other parts which are not part of the engine, propeller, or instruments.) Airplane mechanics use many different kinds of tools in their work. These may range from simple handtools, such as screwdrivers, wrenches and pliers, to large and expensive ma chines and equipment designed to diagnose troubles and help the mechanic to correct them. Examples of such equipment are propeller grinding machines and magnetic and black light inspection equipment which is designed to de tect flaws and cracks in metal parts. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tivities as air taxiing, crop dusting (applying seeds, fertilizer or chemicals to land or crops), and selling airplanes. Organizations which maintain fleets of planes to transport their ex ecutives, scientists, or other key personnel em ploy mechanics to maintain and repair these planes. Many other airplane mechanics work in aircraft manufacturing plants. (These workers, whose duties are somewhat different from those of airline mechanics, are discussed in the chap ter on Occupations in the Aircraft, Missile, and Spacecraft Field. See index for page numbers). About 18,000 civilian airplane mechanics were employed by the Air Force in late 1960. Another 9,000 worked for the Navy. The FAA employs about 500 skilled men with maintenance experience to inspect aircraft manufacturing plants; examine airline and other commercial flying organizations’ aircraft maintenance methods, training programs, and spare parts stock; and test applicants for FAA mechanic licenses. This agency also employs approxi mately 500 airplane mechanics to maintain its own planes. Most of these men are employed at the FAA Aeronautical Center in Oklahoma City. Some mechanics are employed by other Government agencies, principally the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Most airline mechanics are employed in the larger cities on the main airline routes. Each airline usually has one main overhaul base where more than half of its mechanics are em ployed. Large concentrations of mechanics are employed in such cities as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Miami, all of which are important domestic and international air traffic centers. Qualifications, Training, and Advancement Where Employed Approximately 34,000 mechanics were em ployed by the scheduled airlines in late 1960. The Federal Aviation Agency (FA A ) estimates that about 38,000 mechanics were employed by firms that are engaged in the repair of air frames, aircraft engines, or instruments (known as FAA approved repair stations). Mechanics also were employed by the certificated supple mental airlines and by firms engaged in such ac Because the safety of an aircraft in flight depends largely on good mechanical operation, mechanics who are responsible for any repair or maintenance operation must be licensed. Mechanics may be licensed by the FAA as “ air frame mechanics” (to work on the plane’s fuse lage, covering surface, landing gear, and control surfaces such as rudder or ailerons); “ powerplant mechanics” (to work on the plane’s en gines), or “ airframe and powerplant mechanics” 549 AIR TRANSPORTATION OCCUPATIONS (to work on all parts of the plane). A repair man's license is issued by the FAA to qualified mechanics. These licenses spell out the partic ular repairs that the mechanics are authorized to do. Mechanics who work on radio or radar equipment are required to have at least a Federal Communications Commission Second Class Radio Telephone Operator License. At least 18 months' experience working with airframes or engines is required to obtain an airframe or powerplant license and at least 30 months' experience working with both engines and airframes is required for the combined air frame and powerplant license. This experience is not required of graduates of mechanics' schools approved by the FAA, however. In ad dition to meeting these requirements, applicants must pass a written test and give a practical demonstration of their ability to do the work. Repairman licenses are issued to mechanics who are able to perform those maintenance and re pair operations for which his employer has re ceived FAA authorization. Mechanics may prepare for the trade and their licenses by working as trainees or appren tices, or as helpers to experienced mechanics. The larger airlines train apprentices or trainees in a carefully planned 3- or 4-year program of instruction and work experience. Men who have learned aircraft maintenance in the Armed Forces are usually given credit for this training toward the requirements of apprenticeship or other on-the-job training programs. For trainee or apprentice jobs, the airlines prefer men between the ages of 20 or 30 who are in good physical condition. Applicants should have a high school or trade school educa tion, including courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and machine shop. Experience in automotive repairs or other mechanical work is also helpful. Other mechanics prepare for their trade by graduating from an FAA approved mechanics school. Most of these schools have an 18- to 24month program. Several colleges and univer sities also offer 2-year programs that prepare the student for the FAA mechanic examinations and for jobs as engineering aids and research and development technicians in aircraft manufac turing. Mechanics are generally required to have their own handtools which they must pay for themselves. They usually acquire their tools gradually. Several advancement possibilities are avail able to skilled mechanics employed by the sched uled airlines. The line of advancement is usu ally mechanic, lead mechanic (or crew chief), inspector, lead inspector, shop foreman, and, in a few cases, supervisory and executive posi tions. In most shops, mechanics in the higher grade positions are required to have both air frame and powerplant ratings. In many cases, the mechanic must pass a company examination before he is promoted. A mechanic may also become a flight engineer after he qualifies for an FAA flight engineer's certificate and satisfies other requirements that the airline may have. To qualify for jobs as FAA inspectors, me chanics must have broad experience in main tenance and overhaul work, including supervi sion over the maintenance of aircraft. Applicants for this job must also have both air frame and powerplant ratings or a combined rating. Employment Outlook A moderate increase in the employment of airplane mechanics is expected during the 1960-70 decade. The number of mechanics em ployed by scheduled airlines is not expected to change much during the first half of the decade because of the increasing use of jet-powered and jet powered propeller planes which have larger capacities and fly at greater speeds than piston aircraft. Also, less complex engines in the jet aircraft may reduce somewhat the amount of maintenance required. Furthermore, the airline fleet will grow only slightly. An in crease in the employment of airline mechanics, however, is expected in the latter part of the 1960's as a result of the continued large expan sion of air traffic and the increase in the total number of airline planes. The rapid growth anticipated in the amount of business executive flying and a moderate ex pansion of other commercial flying services will also contribute to an increase in the number of planes and, therefore, mechanics employed by 550 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK firms providing such services. The number of mechanics employed outside of the scheduled airlines has been increasing rapidly. The FAA reports that the number of approved repair stations, which do most of the maintenance and repair work on nonairline planes, increased from 376 in 1955 to about 700 in mid-1960. Employment opportunities for airplane me chanics in the Federal Government will depend largely on the size of the Government’s military aircraft program. Earnings and Working Conditions Mechanics employed by the scheduled domes tic airlines earned, on the average, $540 a month in late 1960. Other airplane mechanics generally had lower average earnings. Airline mechanics work in hangers or in other indoor areas, whenever possible. How ever, when repairs must be made quickly, which is sometimes the case in line-maintenance work, mechanics may work outdoors. Mechanics employed by most major airlines are covered by union agreements. Most of these employees are members of the International Association of Machinists. Many others belong to the Transport Workers Union of America. (See introductory section for Where To Go for More Information and for general infor mation on supplementary benefits and working conditions.) Airline Dispatchers (D.O.T. 0-61.61) Nature of Work Dispatchers (sometimes called flight super intendents) are employed by the airlines to coordinate flight schedules and operations within an assigned area and to make sure that all Federal Aviation Agency (FA A ) and com pany flight and safety regulations are observed. After examining weather conditions, the dis patcher makes a preliminary decision as to whether a flight may be safely undertaken. He frequently must arrange to notify the passen gers and crew if there is any change from the scheduled departure time. The dispatcher con fers with the captain about the quantity of fuel needed, the best route and altitude at which the plane will fly, the total flying time, and the al ternate fields that may be used if landing at the scheduled airport is hazardous. The dispatcher and the captain must agree on all details of the flight before the plane leaves the airport. In some instances, the dispatcher is also respon sible for keeping records and checking such matters as the availability of aircraft and equipment; the weight and balance of loaded cargo; the amount of time flown by each plane and engine; and the number of hours flown by each crew member based at his station. After the flight has begun, the dispatcher plots the plane’s progress as reported by the cap tain at regular intervals by radio, and keeps him informed of changing weather and other conditions that affect his flight. The assistant dispatcher helps the dispatcher to plot the progress of flights, secure weather information, and handle communications with aircraft. In late 1960, only about 700 dispatchers and 200 assistants were employed in scheduled do mestic and international operations, primarily at large airports in the United States. A small Airline dispatcher calculating the quantity of fuel needed to complete a flight. 551 AIR TRANSPORTATION OCCUPATIONS number work for the large certificated supple mental airlines and for private firms which offer dispatching services to small airlines. Qualifications, Training, and Advancement Dispatchers are required to have an FAA dispatcher certificate. Assistant dispatchers do not need certification. An applicant for such a certificate may qualify, in part, if he has spent at least a year engaged in dispatching work un der the supervision of a certificated dispatcher. He may also qualify by completing an FAAapproved dispatcher's course at a school or an airline training center. If an applicant has none of this schooling or experience, he may also qualify if he has spent 2 of the previous 3 years in air traffic control work, or in such airline jobs as dispatch clerk or radio operator, or in similar work in military service. An applicant for an FAA dispatcher certifi cate must pass a written examination on such subjects as Civil Air Regulations, weather analysis, air-navigation facilities, radio proce dures, and airport and airway traffic procedures. In an oral test, he also has to demonstrate his ability to interpret weather information, his knowledge of landing and cruising speeds and other aircraft operational characteristics, and his familiarity with airline routes and naviga tional facilities. A licensed dispatcher is checked periodically by his employer to make sure that he is maintaining the skills required by Federal regulations. Some experienced dispatchers are given additional instruction by their airlines at special training centers so that they may become familiar with new flight procedures and with characteristics of new aircraft. Each year he is also required to “ fly the line" as an observer over the portion of the system which he serv ices, in order to maintain his first-hand famil iarity with airline routes and flight operations. For assistant dispatcher jobs, airlines hire men who have had at least 2 years of college or an equivalent amount of time working in some phase of air transportation, such as communi cations. Preference is given to college graduates who have had courses in mathematics, physics, and related subjects. Some experience in flying, meteorology, or business administration is also helpful. Most airlines fill dispatcher positions by pro motion or transfer from within the company. Men are preferred who have had long experi ence in ground flight operations work. As a result, most openings are filled by men who have been assistant dispatchers, meteorologists, or radio operators; a few jobs are filled by men who have been pilots. Employment Outlook The increase in airline traffic anticipated in the 1960's is expected to result in a slight in crease in the number of workers employed in this very small occupation. Most of the new workers will be hired as assistant dispatchers. Job openings for dispatchers will be filled mainly by promoting or transferring experi enced persons already employed by the airlines. The need for some additional dispatchers will result from the increase in air traffic, the ad dition and extension of routes, and the extra difficulties in dispatching jet aircraft. Addi tional dispatchers probably will be employed by helicopter lines and supplemental airlines to service their increased air traffic. Foreign air lines which fly between overseas points and cities in the United States will also provide a few job opportunities for dispatchers. These factors are expected to more than offset any ad verse employment effect of improved radio and telephone communication facilities. As com munication facilities continue to improve, a dispatcher at a major terminal center will be able to service larger areas by dispatching air craft at the smaller airports by radio and tele phone. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning dispatchers earned between $600 and $700 a month in early 1961. Dispatchers with 10 years' service earned between $900 and $1,000 a month. Assistant dispatchers earned $400 to $500 a month to start and $455 to $560 552 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK a month after 3 years. Assistant dispatchers with FAA certificates may earn $25 a month extra. Most dispatchers are members of the Air Line Dispatchers Association. (See introductory section for Where To Go for More Information and for general informa tion on supplementary benefits and working conditions.) Air Traffic Controllers N a tu re o f W o r k Air traffic controllers are the guardians of the airways. These employees of the Federal Aviation Agency (FAA ) give instructions, ad vice, and information by radio to pilots in order to avoid collisions and minimize delays as planes fly between airports or in the vicinity of air ports. All traffic controllers must take into consideration such factors as the weather, geog raphy, the amount of traffic, and the size, speed, and other operating characteristics of aircraft. The men who control traffic in the areas around airports are known as airport traffic controllers (D.O.T. 0-61.60); those who guide planes be tween airports are called air-route traffic con trollers. Airport traffic controllers are stationed at airport control towers to give all pilots within the vicinity of the airport takeoff and landing instructions, such as what flight approach and airfield runway to use and when to land and take off. They also provide pilots with weather and location information. These workers keep records of all messages received from aircraft and operate runway lights, radar screens, and other airfield equipment. They may also send and receive information to and from air-route traffic control centers about flights made over the airport. Air-route traffic controllers are stationed at air traffic control centers to coordinate the movements of planes which are being flown ‘‘on instruments.” They use the written flight plans which are filed by pilots and dispatchers before planes leave the airport. To make sure that planes remain on course, they check the progress of flights, using radar and other elec tronic equipment and information received from the aircraft, other control centers and towers, and from FAA or airline communication stations. C o u rte sy o f F ed eral A v iatio n A gency Airport traffic controllers using radar and radio to guide airplanes near airport. W h e re E m p lo y e d More than 12,300 air traffic controllers were employed by the FAA in mid-1961. Of these, about 5,600 airport traffic controllers were em ployed at airport control towers located at air fields with heavy traffic. A few of these jobs are located at a small number of towers and centers outside the continental United States. About 6,700 air-route traffic controllers worked in the 36 control centers scattered throughout the United States. Q u a lific a tio n s , T ra in in g , a n d A d v a n c e m e n t Applicants for positions as air-route or air port traffic controller must be at least 21 years of age and able to speak clearly and precisely. They enter the field through the competitive Federal Civil Service system after passing a rigid physical examination. Applicants must have had from 21/2 to 3 years’ experience in one or a combination of several fields, such as flight 553 AIR TRANSPORTATION OCCUPATIONS communications, radar operations, dispatching, and commercial flying. Education beyond high school may be partially substituted for some of this experience; however, some experience in air-ground communications is necessary. Successful applicants for FAA air traffic con troller jobs are given 6 to 8 weeks of formal training at the FAA aeronautical center in Oklahoma City, to learn the fundamentals of air traffic control. After completing this train ing, they qualify for a basic air traffic control certificate. They are then assigned to an FAA control tower or center for additional classroom instruction and receive on-the-job training to become familiar with specific traffic problems. After about 6 months, they generally qualify as assistant controllers and receive additional training. After they successfully complete this training which takes a minimum of 1 year, they are eligible for jobs as airport or air-route traf fic controllers. All controllers must pass a rigid physical examination every year. Controllers can advance to the job of chief controller. After this promotion, they may ad vance to more responsible management jobs in air traffic control and to a few top administra tive jobs in the FAA. Employment Outlook The employment of air traffic controllers is expected to grow rapidly during the 1960’s. Ad ditional controllers will be employed to work in airport towers that will be built to reduce the burden on existing facilities and to handle the increasing airline traffic. More controllers will also be needed to provide services to the growing number of pilots outside of the airlines, such as those employed by companies to fly their execu tives. There will be additional opportunities to enter this field because many air traffic con trollers leave for other jobs. The FAA estimates that there will be approximately 1,100 job openings each year between 1962 and 1966 for young men who want to become air traffic con trollers. Competition for jobs as air traffic controllers will continue to be great. For example, the U.S. Civil Service http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ Commission reports that there Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis were approximately 1,000 to 2,000 qualified ap plicants for such jobs in 1960 in each of the four Federal Aviation Agency regions in the United States (exclusive of Hawaii and Alaska). By contrast, in that same year, only about 1,200 men began their careers as air traffic controllers. To help the controller perform the routine functions of his job, the FAA is installing modern electronic equipment, such as computers, in many air traffic control centers and airports. Despite such improvements in air traffic control equipment, there will be many opportunities to get jobs as traffic control specialists. Earnings and Working Conditions The monthly salary for air traffic controllers during their first 6 to 12 months of training was about $400 in early 1961. After this train ing period, they receive about $490 monthly during their first year as an assistant air traffic controller. Air-route traffic controllers earn $580 to $700 a month depending on the type of work they do. Airport traffic controllers earn between $535 and $910 a month depending on the amount of traffic handled at their station and how long they have been on the job. In addition, all traffic controllers receive automatic wage increases every 12 or 18 months, depending upon their job grade. In areas that handle extremely large volumes of air traffic, a chief controller may earn from $1,100 to $1,200 a month. These employees receive the same an nual, sick leave, and other benefits as other Federal workers. FAA controllers work a basic 40-hour week; however, they may work overtime, for which they receive equivalent time off or additional pay. Because control towers and centers must be operated 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, con trollers are periodically assigned to night shifts on a rotating basis. However, an additional 10 percent is paid for work between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. Because of the congestion in air traffic, a controller works under great stress. He is re sponsible for directing as many as 10 to 20 or more aircraft at the same time. He must simul taneously check flights already under his con 554 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK trol, know the flight schedules of planes ap proaching his area, and coordinate these pat terns with other controllers as each flight passes from his control area to another. (See introductory section for Where To Go for More Information and for general informa tion on supplementary benefits and working conditions.) Ground Radio Operators and Teletypists (D.O.T. 0-61.33 and 1-37.33) Nature of Work Ground radio operators and teletypists transmit highly important messages concern ing weather conditions and other flight infor mation between ground station personnel or be tween ground station personnel and flight per sonnel. Radio operators use a radio-telephone to send and receive spoken messages; some op erators may use a radio-telegraph to transmit written messages. Radio operators occasional ly may make minor repairs on their equipment. Teletypists transmit only written messages be tween ground personnel. They operate a tele type machine which has a keyboard similar to that of a typewriter. Flight service station specialists employed by the Federal Aviation Agency (FA A ) do work that is similar to that of airline ground radio operators and teletypists. They use radio telephones, radio-telegraph, and teletype ma chines in their work. In addition to providing pilots with weather and navigational informa tion before and during flights, these workers relay messages from air traffic control facil ities to other ground station personnel, and to pilots. Where Employed More than 8,000 ground radio operators and teletypists were employed in air transportation in late 1960. Flight service station specialists employed by the FAA made up about half of these employees. The scheduled airlines em ployed about 3,200 radio operators and tele typists. An additional 400 were employed by a cooperative organization which offers the airlines, private pilots, and corporation air craft its services over a centralized communi cations system. A few hundred were em ployed by the Army and Navy. FAA flight service station specialists work at stations scattered along the major airline routes; some stations are located in remote places. Ground radio operators and teletypists employed by the airlines work mostly at air ports in or near large cities. Qualifications, Training, and Advancement Applicants for airline radio operator jobs must usually have at least a third-class Feder al Communications Commission radio-telephone or radio-telegraph operator's permit, a high school education, a good speaking voice, the ability to type at least 40 words a minute, and a basic knowledge of the language used in weath er reports. Teletypists must be able to type at least 40 words a minute and have had training or experience in operating teletype equipment. Applicants for jobs as radio operators and tele typists must also have a knowledge of standard codes and symbols used in communications. To qualify for entry positions as FAA flight service station specialists, applicants must be at least 18 years old and have from 2 1/2 to 3 years' experience in some phase of air commu nications, traffic control, or flying. Permanent appointments are made on the basis of Federal civil service examinations. The airlines usually employ women as tele typists, and an increasing number are being hired as radio operators. Both airline radio operators and teletypists and FAA flight serv ice station specialists serve probationary peri ods, during which time they receive on-the-job training. Skill gained in communications is helpful experience for transferring into such higher paying jobs as airline dispatchers or meteorologists. AIR TRANSPORTATION OCCUPATIONS Employment Outlook There will be several hundred opportunities each year during the 1960’s for new workers to get entry jobs as radio operators or tele typists, even though the overall employment of these workers may decline somewhat. These openings will arise as workers transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. The number of flight service station special ists employed by the FAA is expected to re main about the same during the 1960’s, but the number of radio operators and teletypists em ployed by airlines probably will decrease. Com munications systems are becoming more auto matic and centralized, and the number of air craft equipped with radios, which allow direct communication between pilots and traffic con trollers are increasing. However, employment of flight service station specialists by the FAA is not expected to decline, as more of these em 555 ployees will be needed to perform more services for pilots. Earnings and Working Conditions The beginning salary for airline radio oper ators who held the minimum third-class permit generally was about $400 a month in late 1960. Workers who held a second-class license gener ally received $10 or $15 more a month. Begin ning FAA flight service station specialists re ceived between $360 and $440 a month, de pending on the amount of traffic for which they are responsible; experienced communica tors earned up to $660 a month. Radio operators and teletypists in a number of airlines are unionized. The major union in these fields is the Communications Workers of America. (See introductory section for Where To Go for More Information and for general informa tion on supplementary benefits and working conditions.) Traffic Agents and Clerks (D.O.T. 1-44.12, .27, and .32) Nature of Work Selling flight tickets, reserving seats and cargo space, and taking charge of the ground handling of planes are some of the duties of traffic agents and clerks. This group of work ers includes ticket or reservation agents and clerks, operations or station agents, and traffic representatives. Reservation agents and clerks give custom ers flight schedule and fare information over the telephone. They record reservations as they are made and report the reservations by teletype machine to clerks in other cities so that the same space will not be sold twice. They also receive teletype messages informing them of the sale of space. Ticket agents sell tickets and fill out ticket forms including such information as the flight number and the pas senger’s name and destination. They also check and weigh baggage, answer inquiries about flight schedules and fares, and keep rec ords of tickets sold. Traffic representatives contact potential customers in order to pro mote greater http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ use of the airlines’ services. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Operations or station agents are responsible for the ground handling of airplanes at their stations. They supervise the loading and un loading of the aircraft and sometimes do this work themselves. They see that the weight car ried by the planes is distributed properly, com pute gas loads and the weight carried by the plane, prepare a list of the cargo, and keep rec ords of the number of passengers carried. They may also make arrival and departure an nouncements and prepare the weather forms that pilots use when they plan their routes. Where Employed Nearly 30,000 men and women were em ployed as traffic agents and clerks by the scheduled airlines in late 1960. Some were also employed by the supplemental airlines. Traffic staffs are employed principally in downtown offices and at airports in or near large cities where most airline passenger and cargo business originates. Some are employed in smaller communities where airlines have scheduled stops. 556 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK able to transfer to better paying jobs with trav el agencies or to the traffic departments of big corporations. Employment Outlook Ticket agent weighing passenger’s baggage prior to flight. Qualifications, Training, and Advancement Traffic agents and clerks must deal directly with the public, either in person or by tele phone. For this reason, airlines have strict hiring standards with respect to appearance, personality, and education. A good speaking voice is essential because these employees fre quently use the telephone or public address systems. High school graduation generally is required, and college training is considered de sirable. Experience with freight, passenger, or express traffic in other branches of transpor tation is also desirable. College courses in air transportation, such as traffic and fare analysis and aviation manage ment, as well as experience in other areas of air transportation, are helpful for higher grade jobs. Both men and women are employed as reservation and ticket agents; however, most operations agents are men. Traffic agents may advance to positions as traffic representative and supervisor. A few may eventually move up to jobs as city and dis trict traffic and station manager. Some are There will be many thousands of opportuni ties for new workers to get jobs as traffic agents and clerks in the 1960’s, mainly because of high turnover. Total employment in these jobs is expected to increase only slightly. Air lines will be able to handle the anticipated large expansion of air traffic expected in the 1960-70 decade with only a slight increase in traffic personnel, because of the increased use of electronic equipment to process informa tion. Most of the major airlines are installing new machines to record and process reserva tions, keep records, and perform a variety of other routine tasks. The job of reservation clerk, in particular, will be affected by this mechanization. The employment of ticket agents, however, whose main job involves per sonal contacts, will not be affected very much, although their paper work will be reduced con siderably. In addition, improved equipment for the handling of baggage and freight will tend to reduce the need for workers in these jobs. The small group of traffic representatives probably will increase substantially as the air lines compete for new business. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning salaries of reservations and ticket agents ranged from $330 to $375 a month in late 1960. Station and operations agents started at about $350 a month. Many reservation and transportation agents belong to labor unions. Most of the organized agents belong to the Transport Workers Union of America or the Brotherhood of Railway and Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers, Express and Station Employes. The Air Line Agents Association also represents some of these workers. (See introductory section for Where To Go for More Information and for general informa tion on supplementary benefits and working conditions.) OCCUPATIONS IN THE APPAREL INDUSTRY Well over a million men and women are em ployed in the factories which make cloth ing for the Nation’s population. This industry annually produces about $70 worth of cloth ing for every man, woman, and child. The apparel industry is an important field of employment for people with a wide range of skills and interests. Some of the jobs in this industry can be learned in a few weeks; others can be filled only by persons who have had sev eral years of experience or training. Four out of five garment workers are women, making this industry the Nation’s largest em ployer of women in manufacturing. Women work mainly as sewing machine operators. Many others also work in jobs as trimmers and basters as well as in office occupations. Men usually predominate in such jobs as cutters, markers, and pressers. Many thousands of job openings in this in dustry are expected each year during the 1960’s. Most of the opportunities will be for sewing machine operators. Nature and Location of the Industry Of the more than 1,210,000 men and women employed in the apparel industry in 1960, about 538,000 make women’s and children’s garments, such as suits, dresses, skirts, blouses, and undergarments. Approximately 450,000 of the apparel industry’s workers produce men’s and boys’ suits, coats, shirts, slacks, work clothes, undergarments, and other men’s and boys’ clothing and furnishings. Hats for men, women, and children are made by over 18,000 workers, and fur garments by about 9,000 em ployees. Over 60,000 workers produce accesso ries such as gloves, belts, handkerchiefs, robes, and raincoats. About 135,000 workers in this broad industry make other fabricated textile products, including curtains, draperies, tents, and awnings. Apparel factories are small; only a handful of them employ more than a thousand people. The great majority of the 31,000 apparel estab lishments in the United States employ less than 100 workers each. Plants which manufacture garments that are subject to rapid style changes tend to be smaller than plants which make standardized garments having little or no style change. The New York metropolitan area is the cen ter of the Nation’s apparel industry. Nearly half of all garment plants and nearly a third of the industry’s workers are located in this area. The rest of the workers are employed in many cities throughout the United States; none of these other cities, however, has more than 5 percent of the workers. The major cen ters of the men’s tailored clothing industry are New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Baltimore, Rochester, Boston, Cleveland, and Cincinnati. Jobs for workers who manufacture women’s dresses, coats, and suits are concentrated in New York, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, Boston, Chicago, and St. Louis. Dallas and Miami are two manufacturing centers which have grown rapidly in the last 15 years as a result of the trend toward highly styled garments especial ly designed for resort wear. Plants making underwear, children’s apparel, and work shirts are found in many Southern States including Georgia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and South Carolina. Occupations in the Industry The major operations in making apparel are: Designing the garment, cutting the cloth, sew ing the pieces together, and pressing the assem bled garment. Generally, high-grade clothing and style-oriented garments involve more handwork and fewer machine operations than cheaper and more standardized garments. For example, making men’s high quality suits re 557 558 quires a great amount of hand tailoring and pressing. Similarly, much hand detailing goes into a high-priced woman’s fashionable cock tail dress. In contrast, standardized garments, such as men’s undershirts, overalls, and work shirts are usually sewn entirely by machine. To make the many different types, styles, and grades of garments, workers with various skills and educational backgrounds are em ployed in the apparel industry. Designing Room Occupations. Typically, the manufacturing process begins with the de signer (D.O.T. 0-46.01) who creates original designs for new types and styles of apparel. He may get ideas for designs by visiting museums, libraries, and major fashion centers in both the United States and Europe. He makes sketches of his designs and presents them to the management and sales staff for approval. The sketches include information about type of fabric, trimming, and color. The designer makes an experimental garment in muslin from approved sketches. He cuts, pins, sews, and adjusts the muslin on a tjlress form or on a live model until the garment matches his sketch. In large manufacturing plants, a sample stitcher (D.O.T. 4-26.202) or skilled all-round tailor (D.O.T. 4-26.201) prepares these sample garments by following the design er’s sketch. Since designing is a creative job, designers usually work on their own as long as they pro duce a satisfactory number of successful styles during a season. A large garment manufactur er generally has one designer and several assist ants who often have specialized designing re sponsibilities of their own. Most small plants and plants making standardized garments do not employ designers but purchase readymade designs or patterns. When the sample garment has been approved, it is sent to a patternmaker (D.O.T. 4-27.432) who constructs a full-size master pattern. Working closely with the designer, the pattern maker translates the sketch or sample garment into paper or fiberboard pattern pieces to be used as guides for cutting fabric. In drawing and cutting pattern pieces, the patternmaker must make allowances for pleats, tucks, yokes, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK seams, and shrinkage. In some shops, designers or all-round tailors make patterns, whereas in other shops the assistant designer performs the patternmaking tasks. The master pattern serves as a guide for the pattern grader (D.O.T. 4-27.431) who makes a wide range of sizes in each garment style. In a sense, the pattern grader is a specialized draftsman. He measures the pieces that make up the master pattern and modifies them to fit all sizes. The pattern grader then draws an outline of each revised pattern piece on fiberboard and cuts out the pieces by following the outlines. After he completes a set of pattern pieces for each garment size, he attaches a la bel to identify the part and size of the garment. Cutting Room Occupations. Workers in the cutting room prepare cloth for sewing into ar ticles of wearing apparel. There are six basic operations in the cutting department: mark ing, spreading, cutting, assembling, and ticket ing. In small shops, two or more of these op erations may be combined into a single job. Most jobs in the cutting room are held by men. In most plants, markers (D.O.T. 6-27.011) trace the fiberboard pattern pieces on large sheets of paper, making several carbon copies of these tracings at the same time. In plants Marker arranging pattern pieces on cloth to guide cutter. OCCUPATIONS IN THE APPAREL INDUSTRY which make men’s and boys’ suits and coats, the pattern pieces are traced with chalk di rectly on the cloth itself, rather than on paper. In order to get the greatest number of cuttings from a given quantity of cloth, markers ar range pattern pieces so that there is just enough distance between them for the cutter to work. Figured materials must be marked in such a way that adjoining garment parts will match when the garment is assembled. The fabric that has been selected by the de signer to use with a particular garment style is laid out on long tables by spreaders. Hand spreaders (D.O.T. 6-27.016) lay out bolts of cloth by hand, neatly piling the layers into exact lengths on the cutting table. In large plants, machine spreaders (D.O.T. 6-27.015) do this work, using a machine which lays the cloth by traveling back and forth over the table. The job of a cutter (D.O.T. 6-27.054) is to cut out the various garment pieces from the layers of cloth which are spread on the cutting table. He follows the outline of the pattern on the cloth with an electrically powered cutting knife which cuts through all the layers at once. Cutter using machine to cut garment parts from marked cloth. 559 Sometimes layers of cloth are as high as 9 inches. The work of a cutter and a marker is frequently combined into the single job of cutter-marker. Other types of cutters are employed in shops making high-quality garments. Hand cutters or shapers (D.O.T. 4-27.043) trim and cut the pieces for these garments to make them con form exactly to the original pattern. Some times cutters sit in sewing rooms so that they can trim and shape garments as they advance through sewing operations; for example, they may trim excess canvas around armholes of a suit. The pieces of cloth that have been cut out are prepared for the sewing room by another group of specialized workers. Assemblers, sometimes called bundlers, (D.O.T. 6-27.137) bring together and bundle garment pieces and accessories (linings, tapes, and trimmings) needed to make a complete garment. They sort the pieces by matching color, size, and fabric design. In addition, assemblers may mark lo cations for pockets, buttonholes, buttons, and other trimmings with chalk or thread. They identify each bundle with a ticket. The ticket is also used for figuring the earnings of work ers who are paid on the basis of the number of pieces they produce. The bundles are then routed to the various sections of the sewing room. Setving Room Occupations. Nearly three out of four clothing workers are in some kind of sew ing job. Most of the employees in these jobs are women. Sewers stitch the garment cuttings together either by machine or by hand. The quality and style of the finished garment usually determine how much handwork is involved. Gen erally, higher priced clothing, such as suits and coats, require more handwork than do standardized garments. In the average plant, however, the work is broken down into a large number of machine operations with some hand work when the garment nears completion. Sewing machine operators (D.O.T. 6-27.530 through .589) use power-driven sewing ma chines which are generally used to stitch ma terial together. These machines are usually heavier and .capable of faster speeds than the 560 Sewing machine operators are the largest group of workers in the apparel industry. sewing machines found in the home. Special devices or attachments that hold buttons, guide stitches, or fold seams are often used to aid sewing operations. Some sewing machine oper ators specialize in a single operation such as sewing shoulder seams, attaching cuffs to sleeves, or hemming blouses. Others make gar ment sections such as pockets, collars, or sleeves. Still others assemble these completed sections and join them to the main parts of the garment. Some sewing machine operators are classified according to the type of machine they use, such as single-needle sewing machine operator or blind-stitch machine operator. Others are known by the type of work performed, such as collar stitcher, sleeve finisher, or cuff tacker. (Further discussion of Sewing Machine Opera tors is included elsewhere in this Handbook. See index for page numbers.) Hand sewing is done on better quality or highly styled dresses, suits, or coats to produce garments which are superior in fit and drape. Hand sewers (D.O.T. 4-27.070 through .119, 6 27.071, .074, .075, .082, and .098) use needle and thread to perform various operations rang ing from simple sewing to complex stitching. Many hand sewers specialize in a single opera tion such as buttonhole making, lapel basting, or lining stitching. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK In a typical garment factory, bundles of cut garment pieces move through the sewing depart ment where the garments take form as they pass through a series of sewing operations. Each operator performs one or two assigned tasks on each piece in the bundle and then passes the bundle to the next operator. Some plants employ work distributors (D.O.T. 9-88.40), often called floor boys or floor girls, who move garment pieces from one sewing operation to another. At various stages of the sewing operations, inspectors (D.O.T. 4-27.121) and checkers (D.O.T. 6-27.120, .121, .125, and .126) examine garments for proper workmanship. They mark such defects as skipped stitches or bad seams, which are repaired before passing the garments on to the next sewing operation. Inspectors sometimes make minor repairs. Thread trim mers and cleaners (D.O.T. 6-27.122) remove loose threads, basting stitches, and lint from garments. Tailoring Occupations. Tailors (D.O.T. 4 26.101 and .201) and dressmakers (D.O.T. 4-25.025 and .030) are skilled hand and ma chine sewers who are able to perform all or most of the sewing operations needed to make a garment. These skilled workers are usually employed in shops which specialize in making better quality or styled dresses, suits, and coats. Because their duties vary widely from shop to shop and from one type of gar ment to another, some tailors and dressmakers are more highly skilled than others. All-round tailors and dressmakers are able to make a garment from start to finish by hand or by machine. Some skilled tailors who are employed in plants making men’s, women’s, and children’s outer garments may make up sample garments from the designer’s specifications. In other plants, they may also perform the duties of designer and patternmaker. Head tailors are often known as “ quality men.” They supervise all-round tailors and the machine sewers to make certain that standards of workmanship set by the shop are met and that garment parts which have imperfections are returned to the operator for correction. Bushelmen, or alteration tailors, repair de OCCUPATIONS IN THE APPAREL INDUSTRY fects in finished garments that were rejected by the inspector. They alter garment parts that have not been sewn correctly, rearrange padding in coats and suits, and do other sewing neces sary to correct defects. Shop tailors perform specialized hand or ma chine sewing tasks required for making many types of high quality garments. They may set in sleeves by machine, hand-sew canvas linings in suits and coats, stitch shoulder padding, or baste collars to coat bodies. Shop tailors are usually known by the type of work they do; for example, there are coat basters, or sleeve tailors. Although the work of shop tailors is generally limited to one or two operations, some of them can do all-round tailoring because of their training and experience. In some plants, a skilled tailor may be responsible also for a thorough final inspection of garments. Pressing Occupations. The shape and appear ance of the finished garment depend to a large extent on the amount of pressing that is done during and after sewing operations. Pressing is particularly important in making high-quality garments. For example, from time to time dur ing the sewing of suits, coats, and better quality Pressers using hand irons to press seams and hems in dresses. 561 dresses, seams are pressed open in order to pro duce a better fitting and neater garment and to make it easier to assemble the garment. In the manufacture of lighter weight garments, on the other hand, pressing is done only after com pletion of all the sewing operations. Pressers (D.O.T. 7-57.501, .510, and .511) use various types of steam pressing machines or hand irons to flatten seams and to shape gar ment parts and finished garments. Pressers may specialize in one type of pressing or ironing. For example, in a shirt factory, a collar pointer (D.O.T. 6-27.211) operates a pressing machine which shapes and presses points of shirt collars; in a necktie plant, a roller presser (D.O.T. 6 27.218) feeds neckties between heated rollers of a roller press. There are two basic types of pressers— underpressers and finish pressers. Underpressers spe cialize on particular garment parts, such as collars, shoulders, seams, or pockets. Their duties vary from simple smoothing of cloth and flattening of seams to skillful shaping of gar ment parts. Finish pressers generally do final pressing and ironing at the end of the sewing operations. Their duties vary from operating a machine which presses a dozen folded shirts at a time to hand pressing delicate ruffles on an evening gown. Fur Shop Occupations. The apparel industry includes plants which manufacture garments made of fur. Because furs are expensive ma terials and difficult to work with, each opera tion in making a fur garment requires skilled handwork by an experienced craftsman. Al though fur shops employ only about 9,000 work ers altogether, a large proportion of these work ers have special skills which are not found in plants that make other types of apparel. The most skilled job in a fur garment manu facturing plant is that of a cutter who some times is also the foreman in the shop. A fur cutter (D.O.T. 4-21.210) selects and matches enough fur skins to make a single garment such as a fur coat or jacket. He arranges and cuts the skins on pattern pieces so that the choice sections of fur are placed where they will show. Following the sewing instruction given by the cutter, fur machine operators (D.O.T. 6-21.110) 562 stitch these pelts together to form the major garment sections. A fur nailer (D.O.T. 6-21. 210) wets the sewn garment sections, stretches them by hand, and nails them on a board so that they will cover the pattern. When the sec tions are dry, the nailer removes the nails and trims the fur exactly along the outline of the pattern. The fur machine operator then finishes sewing the various sections together to make the complete garment. Fur finishers (D.O.T. 4-21.110) sew in the lining, tape edges, make pockets, and sew on buttons and loops. Office, Sales, and Related Occupations. The majority of the administrative positions in an apparel plant are in the production department. The production manager and his assistants plan the flow of work, make up the work specifica tions, and supervise all the operations that are used to make a finished garment. Clerks, bookkeepers, stenographers, and other office workers make up payrolls, prepare in voices, keep records, and attend to other paper work required in this industry. Salesmen, pur chasing agents, models, credit managers, and accountants are among other types of workers in the apparel industry. (Discussions of many of these jobs can be found elsewhere in this Handbook. See index for page numbers.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for production (plant) jobs in the apparel industry range from a few days of on-the-job training to several years of training and experience. The difference in training time needed before an employee can reach his maximum speed and efficiency depends on the type of job and the worker's aptitude. Most plant workers pick up their skills while working as helpers or assistants to experienced workers. Apprenticeship is infrequent and is limited mainly to designing, cutting, or tailor ing jobs. Some private and public schools in garment manufacturing centers offer instruc tion in occupations such as designing, pattern making, and cutting as well as machine and hand sewing. Physical requirements for most production jobs in http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ the apparel industry are not high, but Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK good eyesight and manual dexterity are essen tial. Many occupations are well suited for handi capped workers since the majority of the jobs are performed while seated and require little physical exertion. Older workers and women workers also perform well in a variety of jobs. Many workers in their fifties and sixties are among the industry's most skilled and produc tive workers. Women are employed in most of the occupations in this industry, although men hold most of the cutting, tailoring, and pressing jobs. Designers enter the industry in various ways. Many designers receive their training by work ing on the job with experienced designers, by advancing from cutting or patternmaking jobs, or through apprenticeship. Some designers have worked in related fields such as designing tex tiles; others have attended schools or colleges which offer specialized training in design. Some young people with a background in designing may take jobs as designers with small firms and once their reputations have been established, transfer to jobs in larger, better paying firms. In large firms, young people may start as as sistant designers. A designer should have artistic ability, in cluding a talent for sketching; a thorough knowledge of fabrics and a keen sense of color; as well as the ability to translate design ideas into a finished garment. He should also be ac quainted with garmentmaking techniques so that he can make, or supervise others in the making of, sample garments. Most patternmakers pick up the skills of the trade by working for several years as helpers to experienced patternmakers. Pattern graders and cutters are occasionally promoted to patternmaking jobs. Patternmakers must have the ability to visualize from a sketch or model fur nished by the designer the size, shape, and num ber of pattern pieces required. Patternmakers must also have a detailed understanding of how garments are made as well as a knowledge of body proportions. Like the designer, they must also have a thorough knowledge of fabrics. Pattern graders are usually selected from em ployees working in the cutting room or in other plant jobs. Training in drafting is helpful since OCCUPATIONS IN THE APPAREL INDUSTRY much of the work requires the use of drafting tools and techniques. Most workers enter the cutting room by tak ing jobs as assemblers, or bundlers. Patience and the ability to match colors and patterns are necessary qualifications for these jobs. Assem blers, or bundlers, may sometimes be promoted to such jobs as spreaders. Several years of ex perience in the cutting room are required before an employee can become a skilled marker or cutter. A small number of the larger plants have apprenticeship programs which usually last 4 years and include training in spreading, cutting, marking, and patternmaking. Entry into beginning hand- or machine-sew ing jobs is relatively easy since there are few restrictions regarding education, physical condi tion, age, or sex, though women hold most sew ing room jobs. Some previous training in sew ing operations is preferred, but most apparel plants hire workers who have had no experience in sewing. Training is generally informal and received on the job. As a rule, inexperienced workers start by sewing rags in order to get used to operating a sewing machine. After about a week, they are assigned to a simple sewing task in the sewing room under the supervision of a section foreman or experienced coworker. Most sewing jobs require the ability to do routine work rapidly. The same sewing opera tion is repeated on each identical garment piece. Since almost all these workers are paid on the basis of the number of pieces produced, any clumsiness of hand may reduce the worker’s earnings. Good eyesight and ability to work at a steady and fast pace are essential for both hand- and machine-sewing jobs. The average sewer has little opportunity for promotion beyond section foreman although some sewers have worked their way up to the job of production manager. Most sewers stay on the same general type of operation throughout most of their working lives. Promotion is largely from beginning sewing jobs to more skilled and better paid sewing jobs in the same field. Some tailors enter the trade through appren ticeship programs, but most of them become tailors by first acquiring experience in less Digitizedskilled operations. The skills of the trade are for FRASER usually learned by working beside experienced 563 tailors. Training time varies from the few months required to become a shop tailor to the many years of experience necessary to become a head tailor. Generally, men are employed in tailoring jobs, but more and more women are entering the field. Head tailors and all-round tailors must be able to do all the operations involved in making ♦ garment and also be familiar with their firm’s a quality standards. Much more training is needed by these tailors than by the bushelman whose work is restricted to the correction of defects, or by the shop tailors, who are limited to one or two sewing operations. The head tailor is considered to be the top craftsman since he must have the most skill and experience. A possible path of promotion is from bushelman to all-round tailor to head tailor. In some cases, all-round tailors with artistic ability .may advance to assistant designer or designer. Supervisory jobs in apparel plants are often filled by workers who were once all-round tai lors. Promotion for shop tailors is limited be cause of the specialized nature of their job, although some may have an opportunity to be come section foremen or bushelmen. Some tailors open their own tailoring shops since the amount of capital needed for such a busi ness is low. Highly skilled tailors and dress makers may qualify for jobs as fitter or altera tion tailor in department stores, clothing stores, cleaning and dyeing shops, or custom tailoring shops. Pressers usually begin as underpressers work ing on simple seams and garment parts. This job can be learned in a very short time. After the pressers gain experience, they work on more difficult operations and eventually may be pro moted to the job of finish presser. Pressing, like tailoring, is one of the few needle trades in which workers can find similar employment in stores and in cleaning and dyeing shops. There is some transferring back and forth between pressing jobs inside and outside the apparel industry. Employment Outlook The apparel industry will offer many thou sands of job opportunities for new workers each 564 year in the 1960’s. Although total employment in the industry is expected to increase only moderately above the 1.2 million employed in 1960, a considerable number of employment op portunities in the needle trades will arise be cause of the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer out of this area of work, or to replace women who leave their jobs to marry, or have children. Demand for apparel in the 1960*8 will grow substantially and will be the major reason for the rise in employment. The increased need for apparel will be due mainly to clothe our rapidly growing population, but other factors will also be important. For example, the num ber of people in their teens and early twenties will rise greatly in the next decade, and these are the age groups in which spending for ap parel is greatest. The trend toward more work ers in clerical, sales, professional, and other white-collar occupations will increase the de mand for apparel since these workers spend more for apparel than other workers. Increas ing numbers of working women, particularly those in secretarial and other office jobs that require “ dressing up,” will stimulate apparel purchases. Men, also, are buying more clothing that is highly styled because they are becom ing more fashion-conscious. Changing buying habits of consumers, how ever, will largely offset the greater demand for apparel. Despite rising incomes, people have been spending only a small share of their earn ings for apparel. They are spending more on automobiles, television sets, radios, and similar products. Also, young couples tend to buy homes in the suburbs and spend more of their incomes for household products rather than apparel. Taking into consideration all the factors that affect employment in this industry, it is expected that the number of workers will increase moder ately by 1970. However, most opportunities for young people to enter the apparel industry will occur because of the large numbers of people who will leave the industry. About 80 percent of needle trades’ employment is made up of women, and a large number of them leave the industry each year to marry or to raise families. Also, http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ because there are more older workers in Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK this industry than in other industries, many opportunities will arise for younger workers to replace those who retire or die. Most of the opportunities for employment will be in sewing machine operator jobs because this is the largest occupational group and because this group is made up mostly of women. Some job openings will occur in tailoring occupations in which a large proportion of the employees are older workers. There will be a limited number of new employment opportunities in designing, patternmaking, and cutting room jobs. These relatively small occupational fields have little employment turnover because workers in these jobs have high earnings and prestige. The nature of the jobs in this industry will remain about the same since it is much less mechanized than most manufacturing indus tries. However, some new and improved equip ment that is being introduced speeds production and reduces the physical and skill requirements of certain jobs. For example, new compressedair pressing machines which require less physi cal effort than the older pressing machines make it possible to employ more women in these jobs. One development, still in its infancy, may bring about a change in the manufacture of clothing and thus affect employment. This is the production of disposable garments, such as pro tective coveralls, made of cheap, felted fabrics similar to heavy quality paper napkins. If paper clothing should become widespread, bond ing or fusing of seams rather than sewing, would be the most economical method of manufacture. Substitution of these methods would reduce the need for sewing machine operators. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings in the apparel industry as a whole are well below the general level for all manu facturing industries. In 1960, the average earnings of production workers in this industry were $55.69 a week or $1.56 an hour, compared with $90.91 a week or $2.29 an hour for those in all manufacturing industries. Production workers in this industry generally worked fewer hours per week than those in manufacturing as a whole. Production workers have much higher earnings in some kinds of garment fac- OCCUPATIONS IN THE APPAREL INDUSTRY tories than in others. For example, those mak ing women's suits, coats, and skirts averaged $69.01 a week in 1960, whereas those producing men's work shirts averaged $42.60 a week. There is also a wide range of earnings among the different occupations in the apparel industry and the States in which garment factories are located. The following tabulation indicates the approximate average hourly earnings or the range of such earnings in selected jobs in three apparel industries in 1960: Men’s and boys’ coats and suits hou^earningl $2.50 C utters____________________________ Markers __________________________________ 2.40 Spreaders ______________________________ 1.80 Pressers, machine, finish________________ 2.45 Sewing machine operators______________ 1.97 Tailors, all-round________________________ 2.15 Women’s and misses’ coats and suits Range of approximate average hourly earnings in 10 major garment centers Cutters and markers__________________ $2.25-$3.55 Pressers, machine _____________________ 2.35- 4.35 Sewers, hand___________________________ 1.55- 2.50 Sewing machine operators____________ 1.55- 2.50 Thread trimmers ______________________ 1.05- 1.40 Women’s and misses’ dresses Cutters and markers____ Pressers, hand __________ Sewers, hand_____________ Sewing machine operators Thread trimmers ________ Range of approximate average hourly earnings in 12 major garment centers _______ $2.02-$3.21 _______ 1.25- 4.26 _______ 1.25- 1.85 _______ 1.56- 2.58 _______ 1.12- 1.39 Because most production workers in this in dustry are paid on the basis of the number of pieces they produce, their total earnings depend mainly upon speed as well as skill. Sewing ma chine operators, hand sewers, and pressers are generally paid on a piecework basis. Cutters are paid either piecework rates or hourly wages, depending upon the practice in the area or shop in which they work. Most of the other workers, including tailors, patternmakers, graders, in spectors, and work distributors, are paid by the hour or week. Almost all apparel employees work in shops which have labor-management contracts. New employees in plants which have these agree ments are required to join the union after 30 days of employment. These agreements deal with such subjects as wages; hours of work; 565 vacation and holiday pay; seniority; health, in surance, and pension plans; and other employ ment matters. Among the unions to which ap parel workers belong are the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America (ACW A), Inter national Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (ILGWU), and United Garment Workers of America (UGW). The ILGWU sponsors vacation resorts for union members and their families. Both the ACWA and the ILGWU operate health centers for garment workers in major producing areas. Workers in the apparel industry can expect to lose very little work time as a result of strikes or other work stoppages because the industry has had many years of peaceful labor-manage ment relations. However, workers making cer tain types of garments may have layoffs of sev eral weeks during slack seasons. Generally, such layoffs occur more often in plants making sea sonal garments, such as women’s coats and suits, than in plants producing standardized gar ments, such as pajamas and men's shirts which are worn all year long. In many plants, the available work during slack periods is divided so that workers can be assured of at least some earnings. Plants in which garment workers are em ployed are generally clean, without the dust, grease, or noise often found in many other man ufacturing plants. Large shops are generally in modern factory buildings with ample space and good lighting. Many have cafeterias and health clinics with a trained nurse on duty. Small ap parel plants which are located in older garment manufacturing centers have much less favor able working conditions than modern plants. Most sewing jobs are performed while sitting and are not physically strenuous. The working pace is rapid because workers’ earnings depend on their production speed. In addition, many tasks are extremely monotonous. Serious acci dents among sewers are rare, although a sewer may occasionally pierce a finger with a needle. On the other hand, pressing may be strenuous work and sometimes is done in hot and humid rooms. Working conditions in cutting rooms and in designing rooms are pleasant. Jobs ip these operations are more interesting and less monot 566 onous than most other apparel jobs. Moreover, since accuracy, skill, as well as individual talent and judgment in these jobs are valued more than speed, the work pace is less rapid. Where To Go for More Information Information relating to vocational and high schools which offer training in designing, tailor ing, and sewing may be obtained from the Division of Vocational Education of the Depart ment of Education in the State capital. Information concerning apprenticeships may be obtained from the Apprenticeship Council of the State Labor Department or the local office of the U.S. Employment Service. Some local OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Service offices offer training courses for sewing machine operators. Others give tests to determine hand-eye coordination. Information of a general nature may be ob tained from the following sources: Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America, 15 Union Square, New York 3, N .Y. Clothing Manufacturers Association of U .S.A ., 220 Fifth Ave., New York 1, N .Y. International Association of Garment Manufacturers, 347 Fifth Ave., New York 16, N.Y. International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union, 1710 Broadway, New York 19, N .Y. United Garment Workers of America, 31 Union Square, New York 3, N .Y. OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOM IC ENERGY FIELD The rapid growth in the use of atomic energy and the continuing development of new applica tions will provide many thousands of job op portunities for young people in the atomic energy field in the 1960-70 decade. In 1960, approximately 200,000 workers had jobs in a variety of atomic energy activities. Large num bers of these workers were employed in research and development work. Others were engaged in such activities as the production of nuclear fuels and the design and manufacture of nuclear re actors. Scientists, engineers, technicians, and craftsmen accounted for a large proportion of atomic energy workers. Applications of Atomic Energy Atomic energy is a tremendous source of heat and radiation which can be used in many im portant ways for both peaceful and military purposes. A major use of this energy is the pro duction of commercial electricity, using nuclear reactors as the heat source. A nuclear reactor (see chart 27) can be thought of as an atomic furnace, although there is no fire and no com bustion in the usual sense. Several reactors are already producing electricity which is being fed into electric utility lines for public consump tion, and many others are being built. Rapid CHART 27 NUCLEAR REACTOR GENERATING ELECTRICITY 567 568 progress is being made in the development of portable nuclear power plants to provide elec tricity and heat for buildings at remote installa tions. Nuclear reactors are being used to power submarines and shortly will be used to propel surface ships. Intensive research toward devel oping nuclear propulsion systems for missiles, space vehicles, and some types of ground vehi cles is in progress. Reactors which have been built primarily as radiation rather than heat sources are used for many kinds of research and may be used, for example, to initiate chemi cal reactions and to produce radioisotopes. Radioisotopes, once considered only byprod ucts of nuclear reactors, have become immensely valuable as research tools in agriculture, medi cine, and industry and for use in industrial in spection and control devices. Their value lies in their unique property of emitting radiation which can alter materials and which can be de tected even in minute quantities by sensitive instruments. One important use of radioisotopes is as tracers. Radioisotopes can be placed in the blood stream of men and animals, for example, and their movements traced by instruments. In medicine, this aids the physician in diagnosing a patient's illness. Tracers may also be used to study such diverse processes as the assimila tion of fertilizer by plants and the wear on automobile engine parts. Radioisotopes are also used as high intensity radiation sources to kill bacteria, to destroy cancerous tissue, to sterilize insect pests, and to develop better strains of plants. They are used in radiography units (similar to X-ray ma chines) to detect flaws in metal castings and welds. Radioisotope gages are used to measure and control, automatically, the thickness of products manufactured in sheet form and the level of liquids in closed containers. How Atomic Energy Is Produced Atomic energy, or more accurately nuclear energy, may be produced through two processes, called fission and fusion. In fission, the nucleus of an atom is split, thereby releasing energy in the form of heat and radiation. In fusion, energy is produced by combining the nuclei of two OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK atoms. The detonation of nuclear bombs is an application of the explosive release of the tre mendous energy created through the fission and fusion processes. Nonweapon applications re quire that release of this energy be carefully controlled and regulated so that it proceeds at a manageable rate. Scientists have developed practical methods of controlling the fission re action, but have not yet mastered control of the fusion (or thermonuclear) reaction. Controlled fission is produced in a nuclear reactor. The reactor, being a kind of furnace, needs fuel to operate. The principal source ma terial for reactor fuel is natural uranium, which contains a small percentage of the readily fis sionable material, uranium U-235. Although natural uranium may be used as reactor fuel, a more concentrated fuel, called “ enriched uranium," can be made by separating the U-235 atoms from the remaining atoms which are dif ficult to fission. U-235 is the only naturally oc curring material that undergoes fission readily, but two manmade fissionable materials (pluto nium and uranium U-233) can also be used as reactor fuel. Fissionable fuel is placed in the nuclear re actor in a particular arrangement with certain other elements. The fuel will sustain a “ chain reaction"— the continuous fissioning (or split ting) of the nuclei of atoms— resulting in the release of energy in the form of heat and radia tion. When the fissionable atoms in the fuel split, they release neutrons (so-called “ atomic bullets") which can be made to split other fis sionable atoms. These, in turn, release additional neutrons which can similarly split more atoms. This is how the fission process is maintained. The level of the chain reaction is carefully con trolled, usually by inserting special neutron absorbing rods into the fuel chamber, or “ core" of the reactor. In this way, the rate of the fission reaction and of the energy produced can be reg ulated or stopped completely. Thus, harnessed atomic energy is produced in a nuclear reactor in the form of heat and radia tion. However, if reactors are to be used for power, the heat must be removed from the re actor and put to work. This is done by con verting the heat to electricity through the use of conventional generating equipment. The OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIELD major difference between nuclear and conven tional electric power stations is that a nuclear reactor replaces the conventional steam-generat ing boiler fueled with coal, gas, or oil. During the fission process, neutrons and other forms of nuclear radiation are released. Nuclear radiation, which is identifiable only by sensitive instruments, can be ruinous to equipment and highly dangerous to personnel. Therefore, spe cial metals which are resistant to damage by radiation are used in reactors and great care is taken to protect personnel; for example, the nuclear reactor is housed in a special container and surrounded by shielding materials, such as concrete, water, and lead, to absorb nuclear radiation. A valuable byproduct of reactor operation is the production of radioisotopes. The major method of producing radioisotopes is to expose stable atoms of various elements to the neutrons emitted from the reactor core. Radioisotopes can also be produced by bombarding materials placed in a particle accelerator (also known as an “ atom smasher” ), a machine which acceler ates electrically charged particles to speeds of thousands of miles per second. Nature of the Atomic Energy Field Many different kinds of research and indus trial activities are required for the production and application of nuclear energy. These include the mining, milling, and refining of uranium bearing ores; the production of nuclear fuels; the manufacture of nuclear reactors, reactor components, and nuclear instruments; the pro duction of special materials for use in reactors; the designing, engineering, and construction of nuclear facilities; the operation and mainte nance of nuclear reactors; the disposal of radio active wastes; the processing and packaging of radioisotopes; the production of nuclear weap ons ; and research and development work. These activities are performed in plants in many different industries, as well as in labora tories and other types of facilities. Much of this work, such as ore mining and milling, manu facture of heat transfer equipment, and con struction of facilities, differs little from similar nonatomic energy work. Other activities, such 569 as manufacture of the fuels needed to run re actors, are unique to the atomic energy field. The Federal Government supports most of the basic atomic energy activities. The Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) directs the Federal Government's atomic energy program and reg ulates the use of nuclear materials by private organizations. Most of the AEC’s work pro gram is contracted out to private organiza tions, including the operation of Commissionowned facilities. The AEC-owned facilities in clude laboratories, uranium processing plants, nuclear reactors, and weapon manufacturing plants. More than half of all workers in the atomic energy field are employed in these facili ties. Private firms in their own installations are engaged in every type of atomic energy ac tivity except development and production of military weapons and certain nuclear fuel proc essing operations. A large amount of research and development work is done in the atomic energy field. Much of this work is carried on by the AEC-owned research centers and by university and college laboratories, other nonprofit institutions, and industrial organizations under Commission con tracts. Additional research in atomic energy is carried on without financial assistance from the AEC. Jobs in the atomic energy field are found in every State, although employment is most heavily concentrated in Tennessee, New Mexico, California, and Ohio. Occupations in the Atomic Energy Field Engineers, scientists, technicians, and other technical personnel (such as designers and tech nical writers) accounted for a large proportion of the approximately 200,000 workers in the atomic energy field in 1960. There was a higher proportion of these professional and technical workers in this field than in most other fields of work, largely because of the concentration on research and development in atomic energy work. Personnel in administrative and profes sional (other than engineering and scientific) occupations and in clerical jobs were other large groups in 1960. Many highly skilled workers were also employed. Most of the remaining em 570 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ployment consisted of semiskilled and unskilled workers in production work, and plant protec tion and other service workers. The following tabulation shows the distribution of employ ment among major occupational groups as re ported in a 1960 Bureau of Labor Statistics’ survey covering about two-thirds of the work ers in the atomic energy field: Number Total employment _____________ 125,900 Engineers ____________________________ Scientists ______________________________ Administrative and other professional workers ____________________________ Clerical and other officeworkers______ Technicians and other technical workers ____________________________ Skilled workers ______________________ All others ____________________________ Percent 100.0 15,100 9,500 12.0 7.5 12,400 18,500 9.9 14.7 18,400 23,900 28,100 14.6 19.0 22.3 Although some engineers in the atomic energy field are highly trained in nuclear technology, engineers in all major engineering fields are employed. Mechanical engineer is probably the largest single job specialty, but large numbers of electrical, chemical, nuclear reactor, civil, and metallurgical engineers are also employed. Many of these engineers do research and development work, whereas others are engaged in designing nuclear reactors, nuclear instruments, and other equipment used in the atomic energy field, and in the supervision of construction activities or the operation of production plants. Mainly because of the emphasis given to basic and applied nuclear research, a large number of scientists are employed by research laboratories and other organizations engaged in atomic energy work. Physicists and chemists predomi nate, but nearly all types of scientists are em ployed, including many mathematicians, metal lurgists, biological scientists, and health physi cists. Among the large number of technicians who are employed in the atomic energy field to assist engineers and scientists in research and develop ment work and in the designing and testing of equipment and materials are draftsmen; elec tronic, instrument, chemical, and other engi neering and physical science technicians; and radiation monitors. Many highly skilled workers are employed in the atomic energy field because of such factors as the need to fabricate special parts and equip ment for use in experimental and pilot work and the need for large maintenance forces to care for the considerable amount of complex equipment and machinery. Machinery repair men and millwrights, who maintain and repair machinery and other mechanical equipment, and all-round machinists are employed extensively in most atomic energy activities. A large num ber of chemical operators, who operate chemi cal-processing equipment, are employed in the production of defense materials and reactor fuel materials. In addition, many other skilled work ers are employed, such as electricians, carpen ters, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters in construction and maintenance activities; weld ers and sheet-metal workers to fabricate reactor components and other equipment; and instru ment repairmen to install and repair electronic and other instruments. The following tabulation shows the employment of skilled workers by occupation, as reported in the 1960 survey men tioned previously: Number Skilled workers, total____________________ 23,900 Machinery repairmen andmillwrights__________ Chemical operators______________________________ All-round machinists ___________________________ Electricians _____________________________________ Plumbers, pipefitters, andsteamfitters__________ W elders__________________________________________ Instrument repairmen __________________________ Carpenters ______________________________________ Sheet-metal workers____________________________ Instrument m akers______________________________ Tool and die makers_____________________________ Other skilled workers___________________________ 3,640 3,230 3,070 2,260 1,460 1,320 1,270 720 650 540 500 5,240 The following is a brief description of the types of workers employed in some important atomic energy activities. In several of these activities, such as mining, the percentage dis tribution of employment by occupation is simi lar to that in comparable nonatomic work. Uranium Mining. The 4,100 workers employed in nearly 1,000 uranium mines in 1960 had jobs similar to those in the mining of other metallic ores. Their jobs were largely concentrated in the Colorado Plateau area of the Far West, in the States of New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, Wyo ming, and Arizona. A relatively few mines ac 571 OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIELD counted for the bulk of production and employ ment. Most workers in uranium mines were in production jobs, such as miners and drillers in underground mines, and truckdrivers, bulldozer operators, and machine loaders in open pit mines. A small proportion of the employees in uranium mining were in professional jobs, such as mining engineer and geologist. Uranium Ore Milling. In uranium mills, metal lurgical and chemical processes are used to ex tract uranium from the mined ore. The basic steps included are ore preparation (primarily crushing and grinding), leaching to extract the uranium, and product recovery— operations similar to those used in the milling of other metallic ores. There are 25 uranium mills, most of which are located on the Colorado Plateau. They employed 3,400 workers in 1960, distrib uted among major occupational groups in the following proportions: souri, and Illinois. In 1960, nearly 12,000 work ers were employed in these plants, distributed among major occupational groups in the follow ing proportions: Percent Total employment __________________________ 100 Engineers and scientists___________________________ Administrative and other professional workers___ Clerical and other office workers___________________ Technicians and other technical workers__________ Skilled workers_____________________________________ Other workers______________________________________ 10 13 13 7 36 21 Among skilled workers, the largest single oc cupation was chemical operator in processing operations. Maintenance workers, particularly in the highly automatic uranium enriching plants, accounted for a large proportion of the skilled workers. Chemical engineers and chem ists accounted for half of the engineers and scientists at these plants. Many of the techni cians worked in chemical analytical laboratories associated with production processes. Percent Total employed______________________________ 100 Engineers and scientists___________________________ Administrative and other professional workers___ Clerical and other office workers___________________ Technicians and other technical workers__________ Skilled workers_____________________________________ Other workers______________________________________ 6 9 8 7 27 43 More than a third of the skilled workers were machinery repairmen and millwrights, and nearly 20 percent were chemical operators. Chemists, metallurgists, and metallurgical en gineers accounted for over half of the engineers and scientists employed in the uranium mills. Uranium Refining and Enriching. There are three uranium refining plants, in which milled uranium is chemically processed to remove im purities and then coverted to metal or inter mediate chemical products for reactor fuel prep aration. Conventional chemical and metallurgi cal processes are used, but they must meet more exacting standards than in most other indus tries. The output of the refining plants may be further processed to obtain enriched urani um. Enriched uranium, used as the fuel for most reactors, is produced in three huge plants. The uranium refining and enriching plants are located in http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ Ohio, Tennessee, Kentucky, Mis Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Reactor Manufacturing. An estimated 20,000 workers were employed in the design and manu facture of nuclear reactors and unique reactor components in 1960. Reactor manufacturers do extensive research and development work on reactors and auxiliary equipment, design the reactor, and generally fabricate some of the intricate components, such as fuel elements, control rods, and reactor cores. Many reactor components are similar to standard power equipment and, therefore, are purchased from plants manufacturing such products. About a third of the employees in firms that design and manufacture reactors were profes sional and administrative workers. Engineers alone represented about 20 percent of employ ment, with nuclear reactor engineers, who are specialists in reactor technology, and mechani cal engineers predominating. Among the scientists, the largest group were physicists, but there were also many chemists, mathema ticians, and metallurgists. Assisting these en gineers and scientists were a great many draftsmen, engineering aids, and physical science technicians. Skilled workers were employed by reactor manufacturers in experimental, production, and maintenance work. All-round machinists, weld OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 572 ers, and sheet-metal workers accounted for about two-thirds of these craftsmen. Other craftsmen, such as instrument makers, ma chinery repairmen, instrument repairmen, and electricians, were also employed. In addition, reactor manufacturers employed nuclear reac tor operators to operate experimental and test reactors. Fuel elements and other unique components are fabricated not only by reactor manufac turers, but in specialized plants. Many me chanical engineers and metallurgists, techni cians, all-round machinists, welders, and ma chine tool operators were employed in the fab rication of fuel elements in 1960. Reactor Operation and Maintenance. Only a few hundred workers were engaged in the operation and maintenance of nuclear reactors producing commercial electricity in 1960. Workers typically employed in the operation of a nuclear power station include mechanical and electrical engineers, health physicists, instru ment technicians, chemical analysts, radiation monitors, reactor operators, and other power plant operators and attendants. Among the em ployees needed to maintain and repair reactors are machinery repairmen, instrument repair men, electricians, welders, and pipefitters. Research and Development Facilities. The Atomic Energy Commission research and de velopment laboratories and other research facilities (which are operated for the AEC by colleges and universities and industrial con cerns) are the major centers for basic and ap plied nuclear research in the physical, engineer ing, and life sciences and the development of nuclear reactors and other nuclear equipment. In 1960, these facilities employed about 42,000 workers, distributed among major occupational groups m the following proportions: Percent Total employment __________________________ 100 Engineers _________________________ Scientists _______________________ ,___________________ Administrative and other professional workers___ Clerical and other office workers___________________ Technicians and other technical workers__________ Skilled workers ____________________________________ Other workers _____________________________________ 15 13 9 17 22 12 12 Metallurgist, shielded by a lead glass window and con crete walls, operates controls of Master-Slave Manipulator in working with radioactive materials. Approximately half of the employees in the AEC research and development facilities were engineers, scientists, and supporting technical personnel. Among the engineers and scientists were physicists, mechanical engineers, electri cal engineers, chemists and chemical engineers, mathematicians, nuclear reactor engineers, metallurgists and metallurgical engineers, bio logical scientists, and health physicists. As sisting scientists and engineers were many draftsmen, electronic technicians, physical science and engineering aids, biological techni cians, and radiation monitors. Administrative and clerical workers together accounted for another large proportion of em ployment. The skilled worker group included large numbers of all-round machinists, electri cians, and machinery repairmen and mill wrights, as well as substantial numbers of tool and die makers, welders, instrument makers, and pipefitters. Nuclear reactor operators were employed to operate research and test reactors and many service workers were employed in plant protection and security operations. In addition to the atomic energy research OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIELD performed by the AEC research and develop ment facilities, additional research is performed by educational institutions and other nonprofit institutions, and by industrial concerns in their own laboratories. Like the AEC facilities, these laboratories employed a high proportion of workers in scientific, engineering, and other technical jobs. Production of Plutonium and Other Defense Materials. Special defense materials, such as plutonium, are produced in nuclear reactors at two giant production facilities located in the States of Washington and South Carolina. A great deal of research and development work is also done in these plants. Nuclear weapons and other defense materials are manufactured in other plants which are almost exclusively de voted to production activities, such as the metal lurgical and chemical processing of materials and the manufacture and assembly of weapons components. More than 35,000 workers were employed in these defense production facilities in 1960, distributed among major occupational groups in the following proportions: Percent T o ta l______________ -_________________________ Engineers and scientists___________________________ Administrative and other professional workers___ Clerical and other office workers___________________ Technicians and other technical workers_________ Skilled workers ____________________________________ Other workers______________________________________ 100 10 11 13 9 24 33 About one out of every four workers in the defense production facilities was a skilled worker in production and maintenance jobs. Included among these skilled workers were large numbers of machinery repairmen and mill wrights, chemical operators, all-round machin ists, electricians, instrument repairmen, pipe fitters, welders, tool and die makers, and instru ment makers. Among the large number of scientists and engineers employed at these facilities were many chemists, physicists, and mechanical, chemical, and electrical engineers. Many drafts men, electronic technicians, engineering and physical science aids, and radiation monitors were employed to assist scientists and engineers. 573 More than 600 nuclear reactor operators and assistants were employed at the two facilities producing plutonium and other special defense materials. Other Atomic Energy Activities. Several thou sand workers were employed in 1960 to produce special materials such as beryllium, zirconium, and hafnium for use in reactors. About twothirds of these workers were in production, maintenance, and service jobs. Chemical opera tors, all-round machinists, and machinery re pairmen were the most numerous among the skilled workers. Some chemists and chemical engineers were also employed. Many thousands of workers were engaged in designing and constructing nuclear reactor housing, atomic energy laboratories, and reactor fuel processing plants in 1960. Many mechani cal, civil, and electrical engineers, designers, and draftsmen were employed in the design of these facilities. Pipefitters, electricians, car penters, welders, boilermakers, operating engi neers, and other building trades craftsmen were employed in the actual construction. Several thousand workers were employed in 1960 by companies that manufacture reactor control instrumentation, radiation detection and monitoring devices, and other instruments for the atomic energy field. Production of these instruments involves work similar to that in in strument manufacturing in general. Engineers and scientists represented a substantial propor tion of employment in such companies. Among the technicians and craftsmen were draftsmen, electronic technicians, machinists, and instru ment makers. A few companies specialize in the manufac ture of particle accelerators— machines which enable scientists to study the structure and properties of the elem.entary particles that make up the nucleus of an atom. Workers typically employed in the design and manufacture of these machines include mechanical and electrical en gineers, physicists, electronic technicians, and machinists. Other workers in the atomic energy field in 1960 were engaged in such activities as process ing and packaging radioisotopes, manufacturing radiography units and radiation gages, packag 574 ing and disposing of radioactive wastes, and in dustrial radiography. Among the workers in these activities were engineers, chemists, chemi cal technicians, radiographic equipment opera tors (radiographers), remote handlers and packagers of radioisotopes, and mechanics and other workers who repair equipment containing radioisotopes. Government Employment. The Atomic Energy Commission, which directs the Federal Govern ment’s atomic energy program, employed nearly 6,700 workers in its national and field offices in 1960. About 1,000 engineers and scientists were employed by the Commission, including personnel in nearly every major engineering and scientific occupation, such as nuclear reac tor, civil, and electrical engineers, chemists, health physicists, and physicists. Since the AEC is primarily an administrative and regula tory agency, nearly 70 percent of Commission employees were in administrative and other professional positions and in clerical and other office jobs. Another large group was engaged in protective and security activities. In addition to those employed by the Atomic Energy Commission, Government employees were engaged in atomic energy work in other Federal agencies and in health and labor depart ments of State and local governments. Their du ties involved atomic energy research and appli cation, and preparing and carrying out radiation health and safety measures. Outside the AEC, most of the scientists, engineers, and other pro fessional and supporting workers in atomic en ergy work in Federal Government agencies were employed by the Department of Defense, Geo logical Survey, Department of Agriculture, and Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. The Department of Health, Education, and Wel fare in cooperation with the AEC aids States in establishing measures to meet radiation health hazard problems. Unique Atomic Energy Occupations. Most of the occupations discussed in the preceding sec tions are similar to those found in other indus trial activities, although engineers, scientists, and other workers may have job titles unique to the atomic energy field (such as nuclear en OCCUPATIONAL OUTLpOK HANDBOOK gineer, radiation chemist, and nuclear reactor operator), and their jobs may require some specialized knowledge of atomic energy in addi tion to the training typical of their occupations. A detailed discussion of the duties, training, and employment outlook for most of these occu pations appears elsewhere in this Handbook. (See index for page numbers.) The health physics’ occupations, which are unique to the atomic energy field, and some other occupations that are unique in that they require training in the handling and use of radioactive materials or radiation producing equipment are discussed briefly in the following sections. Health physicists (also called radiological physicists) are concerned with the problem of radiation safety for workers in atomic energy installations and for people in the surrounding community. They have a very responsible job of protecting individuals and property from the hazards of radiation by detecting radiation and controlling exposures to it. These professional workers usually are assisted by radiation moni tors. In 1960, there were more than 700 health Health physicist (left) using meter containing a geiger counter to make sure personnel are not exposed to dangerous amounts of radiation. OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIELD physicists in radiation protection work, re search, or teaching. Health physicists are responsible for planning and organizing radiological health programs at atomic energy facilities. For example, they set up standards of inspection and establish proce dures for protecting employees and eliminating radiological hazards. They supervise the inspec tion of work areas with potential radiation hazards and prepare instructions covering safe work procedures for use by employees working in these areas. Health physicists are also re sponsible for the inspection of shipments of equipment and materials and for the inspection of radioactive waste disposal activities to in sure compliance with Government standards and regulations. Another duty involves the preparation of reports on radioactive contami nation, radiation levels, and radiation exposure. Health physicists may also plan and supervise training programs dealing with radiation haz ards and may advise public authorities on methods of dealing with radiation hazards. In some cases, they are employed on research pro jects dealing with the effects of human exposure to radiation and may develop procedures to be followed in using radioactive materials. Finally, they assist in the development of better methods and equipment for the detection and control of radiation hazards. These scientists are employed at nuclear reactor sites and wherever there are sizable amounts of radioactive materials. Radiation monitors (also called healthphysics technicians) generally work under the supervision of health physicists. They use special instruments to monitor (check) work areas, tools, and equipment to detect radio active contamination. They monitor incoming and outgoing shipments of equipment and ma terials for radiation levels and contamination. Soil, water, and air samples are taken to de termine radiation levels. Monitors may also collect and analyze radiation monitoring equip ment worn by workers, such as film badges and pocket detection chambers, to measure each worker's exposure to radiation. Monitors inform their supervisors when a worker's exposure to radiation or the level of radiation in a work area approaches specified maximum permissible limits and they recom 575 mend work stoppage in potentially unsafe areas. They calculate the amount of time that personnel may work in contaminated areas, considering maximum radiation exposure limits for wor kers, as determined by a health physicist, and the radiation level in the area. Monitors may also determine clothing requirements and other safety precautions to be followed by workers entering radiation zones. Other duties may include instructing workers in radiation safety procedures, checking and servicing radiation detection instruments, and maintaining records on individual radiation ex posures and the location and intensity of radio activity in contaminated areas. In addition to the health physics occupations, other job specialties require training which is unique to the atomic energy field. For example, although a nuclear reactor operator's job in a nuclear power station is similar to a boiler operator's job in a conventional power station, he must learn to operate the controls of a nu clear reactor rather than the controls of a con ventional steam-generating boiler. In addition, reactor operators may perform work in connec tion with reactor fuel handling operations, such as the loading and unloading of nuclear fuel. Power reactor operators may also be trained as turbine operators and switchboard operators in order to provide interchangeability of jobs, and in small nuclear power plants there may be some combining of these jobs. Nuclear reactor operators who work with research and test reactors check reactor control panels and adjust controls to maintain specified operating conditions within the reactor, such as power and radiation levels, working under the direction of the scientist in charge of the ex periment. They also assist in setting up and conducting tests and experiments; for exam ple, they may insert objects into the reactor core for exposure to radiation. Accelerator operators set up and coordinate the operation of particle accelerators. The operator adjusts the machine controls to accel erate electrically charged particles, in accord ance with instructions from the scientist in charge of the experiment, and sets up target materials which are to be bombarded by the 576 accelerated particles. He may also assist in the maintenance of the equipment. Radiographers take radiographs of metal castings, welds, and other objects by adjusting the controls of an X-ray machine or by exposing a source of radioactivity to the object to be radiographed. These workers, taking into con sideration the object to be radiographed, select the proper type of radiation source and type of film to use and apply standard mathematical formulas to determine exposure distance and exposure time. While taking radiographs, they use radiation detection instruments to monitor the work area for potential radiation hazards. Radiographers also remove and develop the film or plate and may assist in its analysis. Many other specialized workers are employed in the atomic energy field. Hot-cell technicians operate remote-controlled equipment to test radio-active materials which are placed in hot cells— rooms which are enclosed with radiation shielding materials, such as lead and concrete. By controlling “ slave manipulators” (mechani cal devices which act as a pair of arms and hands) from outside the cell and observing their actions through the cell window, these technicians perform standard chemical and metallurgical tests involving radioactive ma terials. Hot-cell technicians may also enter the cell wearing protective clothing (after clearance by a radiation monitor) to set up experiments or to decontaminate the cell and equipment. Decontamination men have the primary duty of decontaminating equipment, plant areas, and materials exposed to radioactive contaminants. They use radiation-detection instruments to lo cate the contamination; eliminate it by the use of special equipment, detergents, and chemicals; and then verify the effectiveness of the decon tamination measures. Waste-treatment opera tors operate heat exchange units, pumps, com pressors, and other equipment to decontaminate and dispose of radioactive waste liquids. Waste disposal men seal contaminated wastes in con crete containers and transport the containers to a burial ground or arrange for sea burial. Radioisotope-production operators use slave manipulators and other equipment to prepare radioisotopes for shipping and to perform chem ical analyses to ensure that radioisotopes con OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK form to specifications. The tasks performed by employees in the above five jobs may also be done by chemical process operators. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The training and educational requirements and advancement opportunities for most work ers in atomic energy activities are generally similar to those for comparable jobs in other fields and are discussed elsewhere in this Hand book under the specific occupations. (See index for page numbers.) However, specialized train ing is required for many workers because the atomic energy field is a relatively new field of work, and one which requires rigorous work standards in both its research and production activities and has unique health and safety problems. Engineers and scientists at all levels of pro fessional training are employed in the atomic energy field. Many of them have had advanced training, particularly those engaged in research, development, and design work. Of the scientists employed by major AEC contractors in 1958, about one in three had a Ph.D. degree or equiva lent academic training. The proportion of engi neers with Ph.D. degrees is small. However, graduate training is preferred for an increasing number of engineering jobs, and training in nu clear engineering is available almost exclusively at the graduate level. Specialized knowledge of nuclear energy is not required for many engineering and scientific positions in the atomic energy field, although some basic knowledge of it is preferred. How ever, specialized knowledge of nuclear energy is essential for some engineers and scientists. For example, health physicists must be specially trained in health physics, and other positions may require engineers specially trained in nu clear engineering or chemists with special train ing in radiochemistry. This specialized training may be obtained through taking graduate work at a university or on-the-job training. It em phasizes problems dealing with the properties and control of radiation and its effects on ma terials or living systems. Colleges and universities have rapidly ex panded their facilities and curriculums in order OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIELD to provide training in nuclear energy. Engineers and scientists who plan to specialize in the atomic energy field generally take graduate work in nuclear energy, although introductory or background courses may be taken at the under graduate level. Some colleges and universities award graduate degrees in nuclear engineering or nuclear science. Others offer graduate train ing in these fields, but award degrees only in the traditional engineering or scientific fields. Craftsmen in some atomic energy jobs may need more training than most craftsmen in com parable nonatomic jobs. Stricter performance requirements may be needed because of the ex treme precision that is usually required to in sure efficient operation of equipment and be cause complex equipment and machinery must be maintained. For example, pipefitters on atomic projects may have to fit pipe to toler ances of less than one ten-thousandth of an inch and work with pipe made from rare metals costing more than $1,000 a foot. Welders, who may also work with rare metals, may have to maintain higher standards for reliability of work than in most nonatomic fields. Craftsmen in the atomic energy field generally obtain the required special skills through on-the-job train ing. Most AEC installations have apprentice training programs to develop craft skills. Some union craft training programs give particular attention to the special work requirements of the atomic energy field. The following discussion of training, educa tion, and other qualifications relates to jobs which are unique to the field of atomic energy or which require specialized training which is unique to the field. Such training mainly gives workers an understanding of radiation, methods of handling radioactive materials or radiation producing equipment, and procedures to follow when working in radioactive areas. Employers prefer that health physicists have a bachelor’s degree in physics, chemistry, or engineering and a year or more of graduate work in health physics. In some cases, related technical training and experience can be sub stituted for part of the academic requirement. Under an AEC fellowship program, health physicists attend lectures at a university during the academic year to obtain a fundamental 577 knowledge of radiation physics and biophysics, instrumentation, the interaction of radiation with matter and living systems, and the princi ples of permissible radiation exposure and pre vention of undesirable exposure. During the summer months, they work at Commission in stallations on problems of monitoring (measure ment of radiation level), instrument adjust ment, shielding, and waste disposal aassociated with the operation of nuclear reactors and particle accelerators, the processing of nuclear fuels, and the handling of radioisotopes. To qualify for on-the-job training as a radia tion monitor, a high school education with courses in mathematics, physics, and chemistry usually is sufficient. Completion of some college courses in the physical or biological sciences is preferred and experience in working with laboratory equipment is desirable. Radiation monitors must become familiar with some of the characteristics of radiation, maximum permis sible radiation exposure levels, and methods of calculating exposure periods. They must also learn how to use radiation detection instru ments. Nuclear power reactor operators need a basic understanding of reactor theory and a working knowledge of reactor controls. The minimum requirement for an operator trainee usually is a high school education, although college-level training may be required by some employers. To become a fully qualified operator, the trainee must get experience in power station operation and complete 6 months to 1 year of intensive on-the-job training in reactor theory and opera tion. Power reactor operators usually are selected from conventional power plant person nel having experience as boiler or turbine opera tors. Operators of research and test reactors must also be high school graduates. Preference is given to those who have completed courses in science and engineering at a college level. They need from 2 to 4 years of on-the-job training, covering all phases of reactor operation, before being considered fully qualified. Workers who operate the controls of private nuclear reactors must be licensed by the AEC. To qualify for a license, the trainee must pass an operating test, a written test given by the Commission, and a medical examination. 578 To qualify for on-the-job training as an ac celerator operator, a high school education, in cluding courses in mathematics and physics, is usually required. Extensive training in elec tronics or a bachelor's degree in engineering or physics may be required for operators of very high-energy machines. Accelerator operators receive on-the-job training covering operating, repair, and safety procedures. Such training may last from 2 to 7 months or more, depending on the type of accelerator. To qualify for onthe-job training as radiographers, a high school education, including courses in mathematics, chemistry, and physics is usually sufficient. High school graduates with some mechanical experience usually can qualify for on-the-job training as hot-cell technicians. They are given about 1 to 2 years of in-plant training. High school graduates can become decontamination men after receiving 3 to 15 months of formal technical instruction and on-the-job training. For the job of radioisotope-production operator, a high school education, with courses in chemis try, is usually required. One or 2 years of onthe-job training may be necessary to become fully qualified. High school graduates can qual ify as waste-treatment operators, but experi ence in reading electronic instruments or in a chemical laboratory is desirable. After 15 to 18 months of on-the-job training in the opera tion of equipment and use of instruments, they are fully qualified. High school graduates can also qualify for employment as waste-disposal men. They receive on-the-job training in the operation of equipment and the avoidance of radiation hazards. Many other workers in the atomic energy field also need special training because of the presence of potential radiation hazards. Em ployees who work in the vicinity of such haz ards should have some training in the nature of radiation and the procedures to follow in case of its accidental release. Workers who handle radioisotopes or maintain radioisotope gages need a basic knowledge of health physics in addition to specific training related to their particular jobs. Technicians, chemical process operators, and maintenance craftsmen in nu clear power plants and fuel processing facili also require some health physics training if ties OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK they work with radioactive materials or perform work in radiation contaminated areas. Such training is generally provided through in-plant programs— for example, through apprentice training programs for craftsmen— and may range from less than an hour to several weeks or more, depending largely on the degree of potential exposure to radiation. In some States, workers may obtain such training through adult vocational educational programs. Individuals who handle classified (restricted for reasons of national security) data or who work on classified projects in the atomic energy field must have a security clearance. This is a finding based on an investigation of a person's character, loyalty, and associations. All Atomic Energy Commission employees must have such clearance. The Atomic Energy Commission supports ex tensive on-the-job and specialized training pro grams to help prepare scientists, engineers, technicians, and other workers for the growing atomic energy field. The AEC offers graduate fellowships in specialized fields, trains people at its contractor-operated facilities, conducts training schools, and provides uranium and other materials as well as financial aid to educa tional institutions. Several kinds of graduate fellowships are of fered by the AEC. The largest number of fellow ships are offered for the study of nuclear energy technology. About one hundred and fifty such fellowships are available for first, intermediate, and final years of graduate work at 53 partici pating universities. The prerequisite is a bach elor's degree in engineering or physical science with courses in mathematics through differen tial equations. Fellowships in radiological (or health) physics provide for 9 months' training at a uni versity, followed by 3 months' training at a Commission laboratory. Approximately 90 such fellowships are available each year to students with bachelor's degrees in biology, chemistry, engineering, or physics with courses in mathe matics through calculus. About 10 additional fellowships are available for advanced training in health physics leading to a doctorate. The AEC also offers about 10 fellowships each year leading to the master's degree in industrial OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIELD hygiene for students who hold bachelor's de grees with a major in physics, chemistry, or engineering. Additional educational and training oppor tunities are offered in cooperative programs ar ranged by the AEC laboratories with colleges and universities. Temporary employment at AEC-owned laboratories is available to faculty members and students. Engineering undergrad uates may work at the laboratories and other Commission facilities on a rotation basis with classroom studies, and graduate students may do their thesis work at laboratories. The AEC sponsors institutes at which college and high school faculty members can obtain training in the latest developments in nuclear energy technology, in radiation biology, and in the use and safe handling of radioisotopes. Courses in health physics are offered by the AEC to State and local government employees who will be concerned with licensing and inspecting functions in the atomic energy field. The AEC also sponsors the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies, which conducts a school to train physi cians, scientists, and engineers in radioisotope technology. Many Commission contractors offer technical and graduate instruction at their own plants or at nearby colleges to prepare new employees for work in their organizations or to give fur ther training to experienced personnel. Some contractors send employees outside the imme diate area to receive graduate level instruction, and pay their transportation, tuition, and other expenses. Contractors often give tuition assist ance to employees desiring to attend college and university courses on their own time. Employment Outlook Continued employment growth is expected in most atomic energy activities in the 1960's as a result of the growth of existing uses of atomic energy and the development of new applications. Job opportunities will be especially good for highly trained technical and skilled personnel. In addition to opportunities provided by em ployment growth, a few thousand additional job openings will result each year from the need 579 to replace workers who transfer to other fields of work, or who retire or die. Increasing research and development expendi tures should lead to further employment growth in laboratories engaged in atomic energy work. More workers are already employed in such laboratories than in any other atomic energy activity. Employment is also expected to con tinue to increase in the design and manufacture of nuclear reactors and reactor components, in the manufacture of nuclear instruments, and in the processing and packaging of radioisotopes. As more nuclear reactors are built and put into operation, employment will increase both in the operation and maintenance of reactors and in such related activities as the fabrication and reprocessing of reactor fuel elements and the disposal of radioactive wastes. In contrast, em ployment in the mining, milling, refining, and enrichment of uranium probably will increase little, and may even decline. The expanding number of activities develop ing from the widespread application of nuclear energy will create an increased need for trained technical workers and skilled craftsmen. Partic ular need will exist for scientists (such as physicists, chemists, mathematicians, metallur gists, biological scientists, and health physicists) and engineers (such as mechanical, electrical, chemical, nuclear reactor, and metallurgical). There will also be an increased need for elec tronic and other technicians and for skilled workers, such as machinery repairmen, machin ists, electricians, plumbers and pipefitters, welders, and instrument repairmen. Earnings and Working Conditions Information on earnings in individual occupa tions in atomic energy activities is not available. However, indications are that the earnings of the work force as a whole in some nuclear energy activities were higher than in most non nuclear energy activities. In 1960, blue-collar workers employed by contractors at AEC lab oratories and other installations had average straight-time hourly earnings of $2.84. This compares, for example, with an average of $2.29 an hour for production workers in all manu facturing industries. 580 Professional workers employed at AEC in stallations averaged $792 a month in base pay in 1960, and other white-collar workers (largely clerical and other office personnel), $462. (Earnings data for many of the occupations found in the atomic energy field are included in the statements on these occupations elsewhere in this Handbook. See index for page numbers.) Most workers in the atomic energy field re ceive 2 or 3 weeks7vacation with pay, depending on their length of service. In addition, most firms in this field have group life, health, and accident insurance coverage and retirement plans. Working conditions in uranium mining, milling, instrument and auxiliary equipment manufacturing, and facilities construction are similar to those in comparable nonatomic energy activities. In other atomic energy activities, in which the major proportion of workers in the field are employed, working conditions generally are unusually good. Buildings and plants are relatively new and are well lighted and ventilated. Equipment, tools, and machines are modern and sometimes the most advanced of their type. The surroundings are also pleas ant because the buildings are often spread out over wide land areas. In some cases, plants are located in remote areas. Extensive safeguards have been established to insure the health and safety of workers in the atomic energy field. However, only a small pro portion of employees in the atomic energy field work in areas where direct radiation dangers exist. The AEC regulates the possession and use of radioactive materials and AEC personnel in spect nuclear facilities to insure compliance with the AEC’s health and safety requirements. Because the hazards of radiation are unique, constant efforts are being made to provide better safety standards and regulations. Workers in uranium mines are subject to OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK some hazard from the presence of radioactive gas in the air, which, if inhaled over a number of years, could cause lung injury. However, practically all mines have mechanical ventila tion systems to reduce concentrations of this gas. Uranium mills and other fuel processing facilities employing modern processes usually have no difficulty in maintaining safe working levels of radioactivity. The AEC and its contractors, who employ more than half of all atomic energy workers, have maintained a good safety record. In 1960, the average number of disabling injuries for all AEC operations was 1.7 for each million em ployee hours worked, compared with an average of over 11 for all manufacturing industries. Of the lost-time injuries in 1960, only one was caused by radiation. From 1943 through 1960, only 35 lost-time injuries in AEC operations were due to overexposure to radiation. Most plant hourly paid workers belong to unions. Among unions which have members in the atomic energy field are unions in the Metal Trades Department, AFL-CIO, such as: The International Association of Machinists; the In ternational Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, F orgers and Helpers; the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; the International Chemical Workers Union; and the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada. The Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union also rep resents workers in this field. Where To Go for More Information Information about employment in the atomic energy field may be obtained by writing to the Office of Industrial Relations, Atomic Energy Commission, Washington 25, D.C. AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS In the 60 or more years of its existence, the automobile industry has grown from an experi ment concerned with the development of a horse less carriage to one of the most important of America's manufacturing industries. This in dustry, which in the 1890's occupied the atten tion of a few inventive mechanics working in small sheds and shops, is now among the Na tion's largest employers with about threefourths of a million workers. By the end of 1960, an estimated 73.9 million cars, trucks, and buses were traveling the Nation's streets and highways. About 7.9 million of these motor vehicles were built during 1960. The industry has produced an average of nearly 7 million vehicles each year since 1950. Not only has the automobile industry helped to develop existing industries but it has also created new ones. Many businesses, including automotive repair shops, service stations, and truck and bus transportation facilities, have been created as a result of the automobile. More over, this industry is the most important con sumer of such basic commodities as steel, rubber, and plate glass. The automobile industry, like other large in dustries, is a source of employment for workers with widely different levels of education and skill. Requirements for jobs vary from college degrees for engineers and other professional and technical personnel to a few hours of on-the-job training for some of the less skilled assemblers, material handlers, and custodial workers. The largest number of employees work in factory (or plant) occupations. Plant jobs range from the skilled tool and die makers, millwrights, and electricians to the less skilled machine tool operators, assemblers, material handlers, and custodial workers. A great number of automo tive employees also work in office and adminis trative jobs as clerks, business machine opera tors, stenographers, accountants, purchasing agents, market analysts, and industrial relations personnel. Nature and Location of the Industry This industry's tremendous growth over the years has been due mainly to the mass produc tion of standardized parts. Thousands of iden tical parts are produced by workers whose jobs are divided into a limited number of operations on high-speed automatic machinery. These mass-produced parts are then put together by assemblers to form the completed vehicle. Be cause of the minute division of labor, cars can be driven off assembly lines at the astounding rate of one every 45 seconds. The automobile industry in 1960 consisted of more than 2,000 plants which manufactured parts or subassemblies and assembled these parts into motor vehicles of all types. These plants ranged in size from huge assembly plants employing many thousands of workers to parts plants employing a small number of workers. About 50 percent of the 780,000 automobile workers in 1960 were employed in establish ments with 2,500 or more employees. Hundreds of companies supply the parts or subassemblies for new automobiles and also pro duce the replacement parts necessary to keep the millions of vehicles already on the road in operation. These firms often specialize in pro ducing certain parts— for instance, brakes and clutches. About a third of the automobile work ers are employed in these parts-manufacturing plants. Only a few companies produce the com pleted vehicles— passenger cars, trucks, buses, and special-purpose vehicles, such as ambu lances, fire engines, and taxicabs. Automobile manufacturing is concentrated in the Great Lakes region where roughly four out of every five workers are so employed. Michigan alone accounted for about 45 percent of the industry's employment in 1960. Ohio, Indiana, 581 582 and New York together had another 25 percent. Seven other States each employed 10,000 or more workers. They were Wisconsin, California, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Missouri, New Jersey, and Georgia. The Detroit metropolitan area is the center of the industry. About one out of every three of the Nation's automobile workers is em ployed within its industrial area, which includes the nearby communities of Dearborn and Pontiac. Several other Michigan cities, espe cially Flint, Lansing, and Saginaw, employ large numbers of automobile workers. The Great Lakes region has many other important centers: Cleveland, Lorain, Toledo, and Cincinnati, Ohio; South Bend, Indianapolis, and Fort Wayne, Ind.; Chicago, 111.; Buffalo, N .Y .; and Milwaukee and Kenosha, Wis. Much of the automobile manufacturing on the East Coast is centered in the New York-North eastern New Jersey-Philadelphia industrial area in such localities as Newark, Paterson, Linden, and New Brunswick, N.J.; and New York, N.Y. The Los Angeles industrial area is the leading automobile manufacturing center in the Pacific Coast region. The Bay area (Oakland) is another automobile manufacturing center in California. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Stylist consulting with engineer regarding future automobile designs. The modern mass-produced automobile repre sents an engineering triumph matched by few other mechanical products. Mass production of standardized parts and assembly-line manufac turing methods enable the automobile industry to produce millions of these complex products each year. Motor vehicles are produced in three major stages. The first step is preliminary designing and engineering, the second is the production of motor vehicle parts and subassemblies, and the third is the final assembly of parts into completed vehicles. work closely with engineers and other technical personnel who are concerned with improving mechanical operation, design, and safety. The creative designs of the stylists are transferred to drafting boards and then skilled modelmakers convert the blueprints into clay, wood, and plastic models of the new automobile. From these models, refinements in styling and design of the new car are developed. For the mass production of the car, master dies are made from the finally accepted model. Throughout this initial stage of producing an automobile, companies which produce parts work closely with the automobile manufacturers on questions of designing, engineering, and tooling. Problems of production methods, costs, and scheduling also are worked out long before the actual manufacturing process begins. Planning for New Model Production. Approxi mately 3 to 4 years of designing, planning, and testing often precede the actual production of an automobile. Stylists constantly strive to improve the appearance of the automobile. They Making Automobile Parts. The manufacture of motor vehicle parts and subassemblies is the second stage of automobile production. After the design of the new model automobile is de veloped, automobile parts plants begin produc How Automobiles Are Made AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS tion of the various components of the car. Be cause parts are made by many different firms, rigid quality control is maintained to insure that the parts fit properly on the final assembly line. Quality control is also stressed to insure the safety of the finished automobile product. Motor vehicle parts are made of many dif ferent materials. Although most of the parts are made from steel, other materials such as aluminum, copper, and zinc also are used. Some of the parts contain plastic, rubber, fabric, or glass. Metal parts for motor vehicles can be shaped in several ways depending upon the purpose for which the part is to be used, the size of the part, and the type of metal used. The principal methods of shaping metal are casting, forging, machining, and stamping. Most metal parts are produced by foundry workers, forge shop workers, machining workers, and operators of stamping or pressing machines. Castings are made in foundries where molten metal is poured into molds and allowed to cool and harden into the desired shape. Bulky parts, such as engine blocks, generally are made by the casting process. In the forge shops, metal is heated and then shaped into the desired form by mechanical steam hammers and forging presses. The forging process shapes metal objects which are required to withstand great stress, such as automobile crankshafts, axles, and con necting rods. Generally, parts that are pro duced by casting or forging must undergo fur ther processing, usually machining, before be ing ready for assembly. Machining is the metalworking process gen erally best adapted for the production of parts to precise sizes. It is a process of cutting or chipping excess metal from rough castings, forgings, and bars by the use of power-driven machine tools. Among the more common types of machine tools are lathes, boring machines, drill presses, grinding machines, milling ma chines, and gear cutters. The machine tools are used to turn, drill, grind, cut, and finish metal parts to exact sizes. Hundreds of machining operations are required to complete some of the more intricate parts, such as engine blocks, pis 583 tons, ring gears, connecting rods, camshafts, and crankshafts. The automobile industry has taken the lead in trying to develop continuous automatic pro duction for many machining operations. This approach to production has been called “ auto mation,” which is the use of instruments to direct and control manufacturing processes. In applying automation to machining processes, automobile manufacturers have linked auto matic machine tools to perform a variety of machining operations. Less labor is required because the parts or pieces being machined are not handled manually. For example, one large motor vehicle pro ducer has built an automated engine plant in which a rough engine block goes through 555 different cutting, drilling, and grinding opera tions with the use of little or no manual labor. The engine block is moved into and out of load stations mechanically, machined automatically by a battery of machine tools, and transferred by conveyors to the next machining operation. Much of the inspection is done automatically. The machine tools, the conveyors, and the in spection equipment often are controlled by electronic, hydraulic, or air control mechanisms. Workers tend the automated lines of machine tools by watching the panel-control boards for interruptions of the machines’ normal func tioning. Metal stamping is another important manu facturing operation. The large sections of the body of the car are formed from sheet steel shaped by huge electronically controlled presses. Smaller parts of the vehicle also are stamped or pressed out of sheet steel or aluminum. The production of parts does not entirely con sist of metalworking operations. For example, to make body parts rustproof and attractive, they are spray painted and then baked in ovens lined with infrared lights. Also, upholstery for the car interior is cut, sewn, and installed. Throughout the production of parts, numer ous inspections are made to insure that the quality of the assembled vehicles will meet es tablished standards. Such inspection begins with a spot check of incoming raw materials from which parts are to be made. All machined 584 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK new motor vehicle is driven off the line. The finished car is inspected before it leaves the factory. As the many chassis move down the assembly line, “ banks” of material located in aisles along the line are continually fed to the assemblers in accordance with a careful system of sched uling arranged by the production control de partment. Behind the movement of the parts and subassemblies to the assembly line is the work of the materials control men who, months before, coordinated the movement of material from outside suppliers with a planned produc tion schedule. The sequence of the models to be built may be transmitted to the various stations along the line by either teletype or telautograph. The information on color and on the special equip ment desired in each car is obtained from car orders placed by automobile dealers. By this scheduling program, cars of different colors and types follow each other down the assembly line— for example, a light blue sedan may be followed by a beige station wagon. Inspector checking engine before installation in automobile. Automobile Manufacturing Occupations parts are carefully inspected so that they will not vary from the specified size limits. Assembling the Final Product. The last stage of motor vehicle manufacturing takes place on the final assembly line. Final assembly is the process of putting together in sequence the in dividual parts and the subassemblies, with the completed vehicle rolling off the end of the line. Overhead wires feed electric power to nut tighteners, welding equipment, and other tools used by workers on the assembly line. A con veyor carries the motor vehicle forward while men at work stations attach the necessary parts and subassemblies in proper sequence. Generally, large and heavy subassemblies, such as the engine and the body, are lowered by hoists into position on the chassis as it comes down the line. The finishing accessories, such as bumpers, hubcaps, and floor mats, are added near the end of the line. Finally, the headlights are adjusted, the wheels are alined, and gasoline is pumped into the fuel tank, and thus another About 780,000 workers were employed in hundreds of occupations in the automobile in dustry in 1960. Approximately 8 percent of the workers were employed in scientific, engineer ing, and technician jobs. Many thousands of other workers were in administrative, super visory, and clerical positions. The rest of the automobile workers were employed in as sembling, metalworking, inspecting, material handling, maintenance, and other plant occupa tions. The duties and training requirements of some of the important occupations are de scribed briefly below. (Detailed discussions of professional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations found in the automobile industry as well as in many other industries are given elsewhere in this Handbook, in the sections covering individual occupations. See index for page numbers.) Professional and Technical Occupations. The modern automobile is a product of the research, design, and developmental work of thousands of AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS 585 engineers, chemists, metallurgists, physicists, mathematicians, statisticians, and other profes sional and technical personnel employed by the automobile companies. According to a Bureau of Labor Statistics survey of manpower in American industry, about 32,000 scientists and engineers were employed in the automobile in dustry in January 1959. Engineers make up the largest group of professional and technical workers in the automobile industry. Automobile companies hire engineers specializing in me chanical, electrical, industrial, metallurgical, and other fields. For example, the mechanical engineer continually seeks ways of improving the engine, transmission, or other parts of the automobile through research and development and better design. The electrical engineer works on the design of electrical parts such as, ignition systems, voltage regulators, and gen erators. The industrial engineer concentrates on the layout of plant equipment, improved processes, and production scheduling. The in dustry also employs civil, chemical, and ceramic engineers. Although most of these professional workers are employed in research and development de partments, some also supervise the more techni cal production jobs. For example, a metallurgist may be employed to supervise the melting oper ations in the precision casting and forging departments. The industry also employs many semiprofes sional workers or technicians, such as drafts men, engineering aids, laboratory assistants, and other technical aids to assist engineering and scientific workers. About 25,000 technicians were so employed in January 1959, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics survey men tioned above. second level of administrative jobs are those such as personnel manager and purchasing agent, who direct individual departments or spe cial phases of operations. Among those who as sist the administrators are accountants, lawyers, market analysts, economists, statisticians, and industrial relations experts. This large industry also has many supervisory employees in charge of specific groups of office or plant workers. A large staff of clerical workers also is em ployed by the industry, including secretaries, stenographers, bookkeepers, clerks and typists, key punch operators, and business machine operators. A large proportion of these office workers are women. Administrative, Clerical, and Related Occupa tions. Many types of workers are employed in the industry to perform the many administra tive functions needed to operate the automobile companies. Included in this group are execu tives who determine, among other things, how many vehicles to produce, what styles to make, what prices to charge, which parts the company should produce and which parts it should buy, and where it http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ is best to locate plants. On the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Plant Occupations. About three-fourths of the workers in the automobile industry are employed in plant jobs. Most of these workers make auto mobile parts, assemble them into the complete vehicles, and put the finishing touches on the cars and trucks. Other plant workers service and maintain the vast amount of machinery and equipment needed for automobile manufactur ing. The plant work force is predominantly male. Only about 10 percent of the workers in automobile plants in 1960 were women. After the stylists, engineers, and draftsmen have planned and designed the new model car, the production process gets under way. First, the parts must be made. Parts are principally metal and are shaped by a variety of metal forming processes which require workers in a number of metalworking occupations. For ex ample, bodies must be stamped out by huge presses, cylinder blocks must be cast in foun dries, crankshafts must be forged in forge shops, and pistons must be ground by machine tools. Machining occupations. Automobile parts are manufactured to precise dimensions by machining workers. One of the largest metal working occupations in the automobile industry is that of machine tool operator. These workers operate power-driven machines (machine tools) which hold both the piece of metal to be cut and a cutting instrument, or “ tool,” and bring them together so that the metal can be cut, shaped, drilled, or ground. The job titles of these work ers depend on the type of machine tool they 586 Machine tool operator using highly automatic machine which bores cylinders in engine blocks. operate, for example, engine lathe operator, drill press operator, and milling machine operator. The most highly skilled workers who use ma chine tools are the tool and die makers. Toolmakers make the jigs, fixtures, and other ac cessories that hold the work which is being machined. Diemakers construct the dies that are used in stamping, pressing, forging, and other metalforming operations. Tool and die makers read blueprints, set up and operate ma chine tools, use precision measuring instru ments, and make shop computations in their work. They must work to closer tolerances (more exact dimensions) and do more precision handwork than most other machining workers. Foundry occupations. Some parts of the automobile are made in foundry departments which make castings' for such units as engine blocks. Patternmakers make a wood or metal pattern in the shape of the final casting de sired. Coremakers shape the bodies of sand, or “ cores/’ which are placed inside molds in order to form hollow spaces needed in castings. Ma chine molders make the sand mold into which the metal is poured. Castings are produced by OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK pouring metal into molds where it cools and hardens in the shape of the molds. Many other workers are in less skilled occupa tions in the foundries. Melters operate electric furnaces and cupolas used to melt metal for castings. The actual pouring is done by metal pourers. After the casting cools, the shakeout men remove it from the mold. Other workers clean the castings and remove the excess metal. Forging occupations. Some automobile parts, such as crankshafts and connecting rods which are required to withstand great stress, are shaped by forging hammers and presses in the forge shop. Hammermen operate drop ham mers which pound metal into various shapes between closed dies. The hammermen are as sisted by heaters who heat the metal stock in a furnace to prepare it for forging and then pass the stock to the hammermen. Other forge shop workers are engaged in cleaning, finishing, heat treating, or inspecting forgings. Other metalworking occupations. The auto mobile industry employs large numbers of work ers in other metalworking occupations. Included among these are punch press operators who run power-driven presses which vary in size from Press operator removing a wheel rim. AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS small presses used for forming brackets, clips, or other small parts to the massive presses which form, trim, and pierce holes in the doors, body panels, and frame. Automobile plants employed many thousands of welders in mid-1960. These welders operate equipment used to join metal parts. Welding can be performed manually or by machine. Some manual electric-arc welders and gas weld ers work in production jobs in parts and body manufacturing plants, and others work in maintenance jobs repairing and rebuilding ma chinery and equipment. Machine (resistance) welders are primarily employed on the assembly lines to weld the separate parts of the bodies and subassemblies. Inspection occupations (D.O.T. 5-02.700 through .799, 5-81.630, 6-78.671, and 7-02.700 through .799). Automobiles can be produced on a mass basis because parts and assemblies for the same make of automobile are interchange able. They are made to exact measurements and are subject to close quality control and inspec tion. (The industry employs statisticians and engineers in quality control departments who use statistical techniques designed to control the quality of the product.) Inspectors check incoming raw materials when received, examine parts during the manu facturing stages, and make quality and con formity checks during the subassembly and as sembly operations. Micrometers, specially de signed gauges, and other measuring and testing instruments are used by inspectors and testers in performing their duties. Finishing occupations. Many finishing operations must be performed before a car is completed. For example, the metal surfaces must be readied for finishing, the exteriors painted, the interiors covered, the seats up holstered, and finally, the finished product must undergo a thorough inspection. Among those employed in the finishing departments are metal finishers, platers, sprayers, polishers, sanders, trim cutters, sewing machine operators, and trimmers. Metal finishers (D.O.T. 6-77.040, and .530 and 8-77.10) file and polish rough surface areas of metal parts in preparation for painting. Platers put a thin coat of metal on automobile bumpers and “ hardware” for ornamentation Sewing machine operators sew fabric sections for interiors of automobiles. and protection against corrosion. Sprayers (D.O.T. 7-16.210, and .500 through .629) oper ate spray guns to apply paint or other finishes to the metal parts. Polishers (D.O.T. 6-77.020, .025, .080, and .330) rub the finished surfaces by hand or polish them with a portable motordriven buffing wheel. Cutters, sewing machine operators, and trim mers combine their skills to provide comfortable and attractive interiors. With hand shears or an electric knife, the cutter (D.O.T. 4-62.020 and 6-27.054) cuts fabric or leather to the spe cific shape according to a pattern. The sewing machine operator (D.O.T. 6-27.503), using a power-driven machine, sews together the up holstery sections after they have been cut to size. Trimmers (D.O.T. 4-35.610) arrange and fasten springs and padding or foam rubber for the seats and backs, and tack the covering ma terial in place. Assembling occupations (D.O.T. 5-02.300 through .399, 5-25.570, 7-02.300 through .399, and 9-02.01, and .81). The workers who do the assembling make up the largest occupational 588 group in the automobile industry. Assemblers may work on small units or subassemblies or they may assemble large units. Those employed on subassemblies may work in parts plants or on the subassembly lines of the larger automo bile manufacturers. Line assemblers work on the final assembly line where they may bolt parts and subassemblies to make the completed car. Most assembly jobs are repetitive and require little skill; however, they do require coordina tion and may be strenuous. Division of labor is carried to its extreme degree on the assembly line. For example, one worker may start nuts on bolts and the next worker may tighten the nuts with a power-driven tool called a nutrunner. Each worker is assigned the amount of work he can do within the time it takes the automobile to pass his work station. Material handling, custodial, and plant pro tection occupations. The production of motor vehicles by the assembly-line process requires an elaborate system of material movement to sup ply the assembly lines and to remove finished products. A considerable number of workers are employed to move materials in automobile and automobile parts plants. Drivers operate power trucks which deliver parts or subassemblies to the assembly line or move materials between plants. Material handlers load and unload ma terial from trucks or into and out of containers. Crane operators use machines to move raw steel stock, heavy dies, and other materials that can not be lifted by hand. Many persons are needed to keep the produc tion workers supplied with tools, parts, and ma terials, and to keep records of materials. Factory clerks, such as checkers, stock chasers, and stock clerks, coordinate the delivery of parts to the proper location on the assembly line. They check, receive, and dis tribute materials and keep records of incoming and outgoing shipments. The automobile industry also employs many workers in plant protection and custodial work. These workers include plant patrolmen, gatemen, janitors, and porters. Maintenance occupations. A large staif is required to keep machines and equipment in good operating condition and to make changes the layout of automobile plants. Because in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK breakdowns in the assembly lines and in the highly mechanized machining lines are partic ularly costly, the automobile industry employs many skilled maintenance employees to service this complicated production system. The main tenance and repair of complex electrical, elec tronic, and hydraulic equipment require welltrained electricians, electronic technicians, and machinery repairmen. Millwrights move, in stall, and maintain heavy machinery and me chanical equipment. Plumbers and pipefitters lay out, install, and repair piping, valves, pumps, and compressors. Other maintenance workers in automobile plants include carpenters, station ary engineers, tool and die makers, and sheetmetal workers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The training requirements for jobs in the automobile industry range from a few hours of on-the-job training to years of preparation. Many of the plant workers can learn their jobs in a day or two. On the other hand, engineering and scientific jobs, as well as craft jobs, are filled by persons who have spent years in training for their occupations. The automobile industry’s emphasis upon new design and mechanical improvements has made it an important employer of persons with engi neering and scientific backgrounds. The mini mum requirement for professional engineering jobs is a bachelor of science or a bachelor of engineering degree from a recognized college. Advanced degrees are often required for scien tists, particularly for those engaged in research and development work. Many of the companies give their newly hired engineers and scientists specialized training courses. It is from this group of professional workers that some com panies have selected many of their top execu tives. The requirements for other technical workers vary according to their specialties. For example, engineering aids, laboratory assistants, and draftsmen are often technical institute or junior college graduates. Some automobile companies train their own semiprofessional technical work ers at company-run schools or subsidize students at local junior colleges or technical institutes. AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS These workers may also take advanced training and acquire engineering degrees. Administrative positions are usually filled by men and women who have college degrees in business administration, marketing, accounting, industrial relations, or other specialized fields. Some companies have advanced training pro grams for workers in these specialties. Most of the top administrative jobs are filled by promotion from within the organization. Most automobile firms hire persons who have had commercial courses in high schools or busi ness schools for office jobs such as clerks, book keepers, key punch operators, stenographers, and typists. These workers usually have not been trained specifically for jobs in this industry. Applicants for most plant jobs must be physi cally able, dependable, and have aptitude for mechanical work. For semiskilled jobs, the in dustry looks for applicants who are high school graduates and who can do routine work at a steady and fast pace. As noted earlier, many assembling jobs can be learned in a few hours or days. Some of the less skilled machine oper ating jobs can be learned in a few weeks. Other plant production jobs require about a month of on-the-job experience before the worker can per form his job satisfactorily. Extensive periods of training are required for craft jobs in the automobile industry. Tool and die makers, patternmakers, electricians, mill wrights, and machinery repairmen are some of the highly skilled workers who generally require at least 4 years of training before they can perform their specialized jobs. Although many of the workers in craft jobs have acquired the skills of their trade by working for many years with experienced workers, most training au thorities agree that apprenticeship training is the best way to learn a skilled trade. Auto mobile firms, in cooperation with labor unions, conduct apprenticeship programs for many of the skilled trades. The industry's apprenticeship program enables several thousand young men each year to prepare themselves for skilled jobs. Applicants for apprenticeship training are generally required to be between the ages of 18 and 26 (50 percent of the apprentices can be workers between the ages of 26 and 41 who are already employed in automobile companies) and 589 graduates of a high school, trade, or vocational school. Training authorities stress that young persons interested in apprenticeship training should prepare themselves by taking courses in mathematics and other sciences. Apprentice applicants are given physical examinations, mechanical aptitude tests, and other qualifying tests. Apprenticeship training includes both onthe-job training and classroom instruction re lated to the occupation. Mathematics, blueprint reading, shop theory, and specialized subjects are studied in the classroom, while the opera tion and use of tools of a particular trade are learned in the shop. Most automobile companies select their fore men from among workers already employed. Frequently, persons who have completed ap prenticeship training in a company are selected for supervisory jobs after they have acquired further experience. Applicants for foreman jobs, if selected, go through a training period when promoted to the foreman level. Employment Outlook The automobile industry will provide thou sands of job opportunities for new workers during the 1960's. Most of the new job openings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone should result in an average of 15,000 to 17,000 openings annually during the 1960-70 decade. Since the end of World War II, employment in the automobile industry has fluctuated sharply in response to such factors as changes in general business conditions, shifts in con sumer preference, availability of credit, and defense production needs. In 1960, employ ment averaged 780,000. During the 1960's, em ployment is expected to rise somewhat over this level, primarily because of the expected increase in the production of motor vehicles. The major factor affecting motor vehicle pro duction and, therefore, employment is the de mand for cars. Demand, in turn, is affected by factors such as the level of economic activity, the level of income and its distribution among various income groups, the growth of popula 590 tion and household formations, the continuation of the movement to the suburbs, prices, credit availability, and the growth of multiple car ownership. Another important element in the demand for automobiles is the total number of cars in use because a certain percentage of new vehicles is needed each year to replace the cars which are scrapped. An examination of the above factors, which influence the sale of auto mobiles, indicates a long-term increase in the number of vehicles which will be produced during the 1960’s. Other important factors contributing to the growth of employment are the expected in creases in the production of trucks and buses and replacement parts for all types of motor vehicles. The demand for trucks and buses is affected by many of the same factors that affect the demand for automobiles, notably the level of economic activity and the growth of popula tion. The principal factor affecting the produc tion of replacement parts is the number of vehicles in use. Employment is not expected to increase as fast as production, mainly because of the in dustry’s emphasis upon mechanized production methods, such as automatic assembly operations, which are expected to continue to result in in creased output per worker. Increased expendi tures for new plants and equipment also are expected to lead to further efficiencies in pro duction which would tend to reduce labor re quirements. Imports of automobiles and parts also will have some adverse effect on employ ment. The addition of new or improved equipment in motor vehicles, greater complexity of design of many models, and continuing style changes could, to some extent, offset the effect of in creased production efficiency. Automatic trans missions and power steering are examples of equipment changes which tend to offset reduced manufacturing man-hour requirements. On the other hand, although the production of com pact cars appears to require fewer man-hours per automobile produced, the sales of these cars should result in an increase in total automobile sales. This development could favorably affect employment. The distribution of employment in the indus OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK try has been changing as a result of the indus try’s emphasis upon research and development activity and its increasing use of automatic manufacturing operations. In 1950, production worker (blue collar) employment made up about 85 percent of total employment and white-col lar employment represented 15 percent of the total. In 1960, white-collar employment ac counted for nearly 25 percent of the industry’s work force. Continuing recent occupational trends, the number of engineers, scientists, and other pro fessional and technical personnel is expected to increase at a faster rate than other occupa tional groups in the 1960-70 decade because of the anticipated expansion in research and de velopment activities. Emphasis upon research and development will create more job oppor tunities for engineers and scientists with ad vanced degrees. The growing complexity of the automobile industry will lead to a greater need for more accountants, particularly those spe cializing in tax accounting. Because the in dustry is expected to expand its use of elec tronic data processing equipment in the future, programmers will be employed in greater num bers. The employment of clerical and adminis trative workers is expected to increase at a somewhat faster rate than some other occupa tional groups although the introduction of data processing equipment may limit the growth of some types of clerical workers. There will be a growing need for stenographers and typists. The employment of skilled workers, such as tool and die makers, millwrights, pipefitters, electricians, and machinery repairmen, will grow at a relatively faster rate than many other occupational groups. Semiskilled workers, such as assemblers and machine operators, probably will increase at a slower rate than total employment. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of production workers in this industry are among the highest in manufactur ing. In February 1961, production workers em ployed in the automobile industry earned, on the average, $105.56 a week, or $2.80 aji hour. This compares with the average earnings of AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS $90.25 per week, or $2.32 an hour, for produc tion workers in all manufacturing industries in the same month. As a result of collective bargaining contracts negotiated between employers and unions, most employees in the industry receive benefits such as life insurance, accidental death and dis memberment benefits, weekly accident and sick ness benefits for temporary disability, and hos pitalization, surgical, and medical benefits. These are financed solely by employers or jointly by employers and employees. Supple mental unemployment benefit plans (paid for solely by the employers) cover the majority of workers. These plans provide cash payments ranging from $2 to $30 a week to all hourly rated and some salaried employees with at least 1 year of service. In most States, these benefits are in addition to those received from State unemployment compensation plans. Most em ployees also receive paid vacations (or payments in lieu of vacations) ranging from 1 to 3 weeks, depending on length of service, and an average of 7 paid holidays a year. A great majority of the automobile workers are covered by pension programs, almost all of which are paid for entirely by the employer. Retirement benefits vary with length of service. In a typical case, a retiring employee, age 65, with 30 years' service, receives a monthly com pany pension of $72 in addition to his Federal social security benefits. The great bulk of the production workers in the automobile assembly plants and a majority employed in the parts plants belong to the In ternational Union, United Automobile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of Amer ica. In some automobile parts plants, the Inter 591 national Union, Allied Industrial Workers of America is the bargaining agent for employees. Other unions with membership in the automo bile industry include the International Associa tion of Machinists; the Pattern Makers' League of North America; the International Molders and Foundry Workers Union of North America; the Metal Polishers, Buffers, Platers and Helpers International Union; the United Plant Guard Workers of America (Ind.) ; the Me chanics Educational Society of America; the International Brotherhood o f E lectrical Workers; and the International Die Sinkers' Conference (Ind.). In general, the work surroundings in auto mobile plants are more favorable than those in most other types of metalworking facilities. Most automobile workers are employed in plants which are relatively clean and free from dust, smoke, and fumes. Some work surroundings, however, particularly in the foundry and forge departments, may be hot and the worker may be exposed to noise, dust, and fumes. In recent years, the working conditions in foundries and forge departments have been greatly improved by the introduction of ventilation systems that are larger and better than those previously used. Automobile plants are, on the whole, com paratively safe places to work, although safety conditions vary somewhat among the individual departments or facilities. The rate of disabling injuries in automobile plants was less than half as great as for all manufacturing industries in 1959. Some automobile plants have fully equipped hospital facilities with doctors and nurses in attendance. OCCUPATIONS IN THE BAKING INDUSTRY The baking industry serves an everday need in every community. Baking is the largest food processing industry in the United States in terms o f . employment. Almost 9 cents out of every dollar spent for groceries goes toward the purchase of bakery products. The baking in dustry offers steady, year-round employment to several hundred thousand workers throughout the country. Replacement needs, as well as the increasing food requirements of a rapidly grow ing population, will provide thousands of op portunities for young people to find jobs in this industry in the 1960’s. The industry employs men and women with many interests and talents to make bakery products and to deliver them to stores, homes, and restaurants. For those who like to use their hands, the industry provides hundreds of opportunities each year to learn a skilled trade as a baker or other skilled baking specialist. For those who like to meet people and to sell, it offers jobs as driver-salesman and sales super visor. For the mechanically inclined, the in dustry has openings for skilled workers to maintain and repair the increasing amount of machinery and equipment used in today’s mod ern bakery. For those who like to work in an office, the industry offers the familiar types of clerical jobs. In addition, large baking firms em ploy many administrative and managerial spe cialists to direct the firms’ operations. products to their own stores. Home-service bakeries deliver their products directly to cus tomers’ homes. Multioutlet bakeries make their products in a central bakery for resale through their own retail stores. In addition to these in dustrial bakeries, neighborhood retail shops bake cakes, pies, and other specialties on the premises and sell them to local customers. The baking industry employs more people than any other food industry. In 1960, about 260.000 men and women were employed in about 6.000 industrial bakeries; about three-fourths of them were in wholesale bakeries. About 85.000 other men and women, including shopowners, were employed in nearly 12,000 neigh borhood retail bake shops. Most baking plants are small because they serve only their own community or neighbor hood. A small number of bakeries serves mar kets up to 100 miles away; only a few distribute baked foods farther away. Nearly half of the industrial bakeries had fewer than 10 employees each in 1958; neighborhood bakeshops averaged 6 each. In contrast, 9 industrial baking plants employed more than 1,000 workers each, and 84 employed from 500 to 1,000 each. Almost every community in the United States has at least one bakery. This is important to young people considering a career in the in dustry because it means that there are job op portunities in their own communities or in al most any other part of the country. Nature and Location of the Industry The baking industry produces bread and other perishable bakery products, such as cakes, pies, pastries, and doughnuts. Most of these products are made by several types of industrial baking firms. Large wholesale bakeries make products for sale to grocers, restaurants, hotels, and other establishments which then resell them to the public. Bakeries owned and operated by gro cery chainstores make and distribute baked 592 Occupations in the Baking Industry Nearly 55 percent of the workers perform the actual baking operations, receive and store raw materials, or maintain and repair machinery and equipment. Driver-salesmen and other sales personnel make up nearly 20 percent of the industry’s work force. An additional 5 per cent are truckdrivers who deliver bread to re tail stores but have no selling duties. The re OCCUPATIONS IN THE BAKING INDUSTRY mainder are in administrative, professional, or clerical jobs. About one out of every five industrial bakery workers is a woman. Most women workers are employed as secretaries, typists, bookkeepers, and in other office jobs. Others are employed in production jobs, such as slicing machine op erator, wrapping machine operator, or pie and cake packer; very few work as bakers. In neighborhood bakeshops, many women work as sales clerks. Production Occupations. Baking processes in industrial plants are similar to those used in the home, only on a much larger scale. In large baking plants, each operation in the baking process is handled by a specialized worker. In general, these workers feed and unload ma chines, watch their operation, and visually or physically inspect the output. Mixers (D.O.T. 4-01.600 through .700) weigh ingredients and combine them in a mixing machine. They care fully control timing and temperature in order to produce a uniform well-blended dough. The Dough mixer releasing a batch of dough in trough prior to first proofing. 593 dough then goes through a lengthy fermenting process which prepares it for the next opera tion. Dividermen (D.O.T. 6-02.123) separate the fermented dough into equal portions and form each portion into the shape of a ball. The divided dough is sent to a warm room for rising (proofing). Molding machine operators (D.O.T 6-02.124) knead and roll the raised dough into loaves and place them into baking pans. When fancy shaped bread and rolls are made, bench hands (D.O.T. 4-01.200) knead and form the dough by hand into various shapes and place the bread and rolls in pans ready for the oven. Ovenmen (D.O.T. 4-01.800) adjust temperature and timing devices on ovens to produce finished baked products. In small bakeries, all-round bakers (D.O.T. 4-01.100) assisted by helpers usually carry through all the steps needed to turn out finished baked products. Large bakeries employ all round bakers as working foremen in charge of one or more operations. These workers supervise the men and machines in their de partment and coordinate their activity with the work in other departments in order to meet production schedules. A considerable number of helpers (D.O.T. 8-02.10) are employed in baking operations. They may assist all-round bakers and specialized bakery workers. They have job titles such as dough mixer helper, bench hand helper, and ovenman helper. Helpers also perform such jobs as greasing pans, removing bread from pans, pushing troughs and racks, and washing pans. After baked foods leave the oven and are cooled, several types of workers prepare them for delivery, to grocers’ shelves. Slicing-andivrapping machine operators (D.O.T. 6-02.420 and .430) feed loaves of bread on conveyors leading into the machines and watch the slicing and wrapping operations. They adjust the machines and keep them supplied with waxed paper and labels. The wrapped loaves leave the machines and travel along a conveyor belt to the shipping platform. Many bakery employees work in icing de partments where cakes, pastries, and other sweet goods are given their finishing touches. Icing mixers (D.O.T. 4-02.321) prepare cake icings and fillings, following special formulas 594 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK electricians, machinists, and stationary engi neers. The largest group is automobile me chanics who keep thousands of bakery trucks and other company vehicles in operating condi tion. Small and medium size plants employ maintenance workers who do repair work on many types of plant equipment. Baker examining bread dough to see if it is ready for the oven. of the bakery. They weigh and measure ingre dients and mix them by machine. They also prepare cooked fillings for pies, tarts, and other filled pastries. In small plants, icing mixers may also spread icing on cakes and cookies. Hand icers (D.O.T. 4-02.311 and 6-02.311) and machine icers (D.O.T. 6-02.331) cover baked cakes and pastries with icing or frosting, either by hand or by machine, depending on the type of product and the extent of mechani zation in the plant. Bakeries employ many workers in their stor age, warehousing, and shipping departments. Receiving and stock clerks check and keep rec ords of incoming supplies and ingredients used in making baked foods and deliver them to various departments. Packers and checkers make up orders of bakery products for de livery by driver-salesmen. Maintenance Occupations. Baking firms em ploy skilled maintenance workers and their helpers to keep machinery and equipment in good operating condition. Large plants, which are usually highly mechanized, employ many of these workers, such as automobile mechanics, Sales and Driving Occupations. Selling and delivery of finished baked foods to grocers, res taurants, hotels, homes, and other customers provide jobs for many thousands of the indus try’s workers. Some of these workers sell baked foods and others drive trucks, but most of them perform a combination of these jobs. Driver-salesmen, called routemen, (D.O.T. 7 35.100) work for either wholesale bakeries or home-service bakeries. They deliver bread and other baked foods to grocery stores or to homes along their assigned routes and collect payment for delivered products. A major part of their job is to try to increase customers’ orders and to gain new customers on their routes. Whole sale driver-salesmen arrange their baked products on shelves or display racks in grocery stores. At some busy stores, they may restock the shelves several times a day. Home-service driver-salesmen make deliveries directly to customers’ homes with a basket of bread, rolls, pies, and cakes from which housewives can make their selection. Driver-salesmen return to the bakery at the end of each day to make an ac counting of the day’s transactions. They turn in money collected from their customers and return unsold baked foods. They make up a list of various types of baked foods that repre sents their estimate of what grocers or house wives on their routes will buy the next day. These estimates, assembled from driver-sales men on all routes, serve as guides for produc tion managers in making up production sched ules for the next morning. A large bakery may employ several route supervisors, each in charge of a group of from 6 to 10 driver-salesmen. In a small bakery, one route supervisor may be in charge of all the salesmen. When one of the salesmen is absent, the supervisor takes over the route until the salesman returns or is replaced. Route super visors also train new driver-salesmen. OCCUPATIONS IN THE BAKING INDUSTRY Chain grocery store bakeries and multioutlet retail bakeries generally employ truckdrivers rather than driver-salesmen. These employees drive large vans, delivering baked foods to each of the company's stores. Truckdrivers for chainstore bakeries deliver wrapped bread and other bakery products to loading platforms of the stores. The display of baked foods in chainstores is arranged by stock clerks. In bakeries which operate their own retail bakery outlets, unwrapped baked foods are wheeled from the van to each store in enclosed metal racks. Sales clerks then arrange the display of these freshly baked foods. Administrative, Clerical, and Technical Occu pations. Administrators in large baking firms and proprietors of small firms coordinate all baking activities from the purchase of raw ma terials to the production and delivery of baked products. In large baking firms, activities are divided into separate departments or functions and supervised by plant managers, comptrollers, sales managers, and other executives. Other ad ministrative employees may specialize in such fields as accounting, purchasing, advertising, and personnel and industrial relations. Busi ness offices of bakeries employ many types of clerical workers, including bookkeepers, cash iers, clerks, business machine operators, stenog raphers, typists, and switchboard operators. A large proportion of these office workers are women. Some large baking companies have lab oratories which employ chemists, home econo mists, and their assistants to test ingredients and to prepare formulas and recipes for bread and other baked items. (Detailed discussions of the duties, training, and employment out look for technical, administrative, and office personnel appear elsewhere in this Handbook. See index for page numbers.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for the various occu pations in the baking industry range from a few days of on-the-job training to several years of training and experience. For example, some bakery workers, such as slicing machine oper ators, can be trained on the job in a few days. DigitizedSkilled workers, such as all-round bakers and for FRASER 595 baking specialists, require at least 3 or 4 years of training. Professional personnel and some administrative workers must have a college de gree or its equivalent in their particular spe cialty. Most inexperienced production workers in the baking industry are hired as helpers. They may be assigned such tasks as washing and greasing pans, carrying ingredients to mixing machines, pushing troughs of dough to the proofing room, and otherwise assisting bakers in the shop. By working alongside skilled bak ers, helpers are able to pick up baking skills over a period of several years. Some bakeries train their bakers through formal apprenticeship programs. Apprentices generally are selected from among the helpers in the plant. Employers usually require that ap prentice applicants be between 18 and 26 years of. age, have a high school or vocational school education, and show an interest in baking. Ap prenticeship programs last 3 or 4 years. They include on-the-job training in all baking oper ations and classroom instruction in related sub jects. Some workers acquire baking skills by tak ing courses in vocational school or by learning the trade in the Armed Forces. Such training may not qualify a young man as a skilled baker, but it may help him to become an apprentice and perhaps shorten his apprenticeship period. Bakers may be promoted to such jobs as fore man, production manager, and eventually plant superintendent. Some bakers who have devel oped special skill in fancy cakemaking or pie making may find jobs in hotel or restaurant bakeries. All-round bakers with some business ability sometimes open their own bakeshops. Good health is important for a young man or woman planning to enter one of the baking jobs. Most States require a health certificate for anyone handling food. Such certificates in dicate that workers are free from communicaable diseases. Good health is also necessary be cause of irregular working hours and the ex tremes in temperatures found in bakeries. Maintenance workers, such as machinists, electricians, and auto mechanics, who have al ready acquired their skills, are sometimes hired directly by baking firms. Some bakeries have 596 apprentice training programs to meet the needs of their maintenance shops. Other plants hire new workers as helpers to skilled main tenance employees; they gain experience and know-how while working with skilled mechan ics. For jobs as driver-salesmen or truckdrivers, baking firms generally hire inexperienced young men with a high school education. Often, inexperienced workers may start out as stock clerks, packers, or checkers and be pro moted to one of the driving jobs as vacancies occur. Some young men take summer and part-time jobs as driver-helper to gain experi ence. Applicants for these jobs must be able to get a commercial driving permit (chauf feur’s license). Large baking companies often give tests to their applicants to determine whether they are safe drivers. A pleasant ap pearance and the ability to get along well with people are preferred qualifications for the new worker who wants to sell as well as drive. New driver-salesmen may be given classroom in struction in sales, display, and delivery proce dures. Most training, however, is given on the job by route supervisors. Driver-salesmen may be promoted to jobs as route supervisor and sales manager. Jobs at the administrative level are usually filled by upgrading personnel already employed in the firm. Some owners and production man agers of bakeries have risen from the ranks of baking craftsmen. Others have started their careers in sales departments. In recent years, large baking firms have required that their new administrative workers have a college degree in one of the administrative fields such as mar keting, accounting, labor relations, personnel, or advertising. Several colleges offer courses in baking science and management; one col lege offers a 4-year course in this field. Young women who have completed a com mercial course in high school, junior college, or a business school usually are preferred for secretarial, stenographic, and other office jobs. Employment Outlook Young people will have many thousands of to get jobs in the baking industry opportunities OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK during the 1960’s. Some of these openings will result from the anticipated expansion in the in dustry, but most of them will arise from re placement needs. Retirements and deaths alone may provide about 4,000 to 5,000 jobs each year. Many other opportunities will arise as workers leave the industry for other jobs or open their own bakeshops. A continued expansion in the demand for the products of the baking industry is expected in the 1960’s mainly because population will in crease. Also, because of the anticipated rise in income, people will be able to buy more baked foods, including the “ bake-and-serve” type. Since the early part of this century, there has been a trend toward buying bread and cake at stores rather than baking these products* at home. This trend is the result of more women working outside the home as well as the shift from farm to city living. Today, 95 percent of all bread consumed is bought from stores. Although the total demand for factorybaked foods is expected to rise, it will continue to increase at a slower rate than population. During the past several decades, people have been eating less bread; as a result, consumption per person has dropped considerably. Proba bly, the main reason for this drop in bread con sumption is the increasing weight conscious ness of the American consumer. The trend to ward the use of prepared flour mixes for bak ing cakes and pastries at home has also re duced the demand for factory-baked foods. Total employment in the baking industry is expected to grow slowly during the 1960 de cade as the demand for baked foods increases. Employment in some occupational groups in the industry will grow, whereas in others it will decline. For example, as families move in to suburbs farther away from cities, salesmen’s territories will expand and more driversalesmen will be needed to cover them. Some increases may occur among clerical workers as a result of additional recordkeeping require ments. As plants become more mechanized, the number of maintenance workers will proba bly expand to keep the machinery and equip ment in operating order. The anticipated in creases in these occupations will more than off 597 OCCUPATIONS IN THE BAKING INDUSTRY set the expected decline in the number of bak ery production workers. It is expected that employment in some baking’ production jobs will continue to decline as a result of the in stallation of mechanized processing and mate rials handling equipment. For example, there has been a sharp drop in the employment of laborers and helpers because machines now do many of the strenuous tasks formerly done by these workers. Other technological changes may also affect employment in this industry. Bakers and bak ing specialists have been able to produce more baked foods per worker not only because of the use of mechanized equipment but also because of changes in methods of processing these foods. For example, the method of fermenting a yeast broth rather than a dough mixture has cut processing time from several hours to a matter of minutes. In addition, the process of freezing baked foods for storage until ready for sale permits bakeries to prepare a week's requirements at one time rather than small batches daily. This results in a more efficient use of workers and machinery because fewer man-hours are spent on cleaning vats and ket tles between each batch of dough. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of production workers in the bak ing industry averaged $89.06 a week, or $2.21 an hour, in 1960. This average was about the same as that for all manufacturing employees. Size of city and geographic location affect earnings of bakery workers. In general, the larger the city, the higher the wage rate. Wage rates also tend to be higher in the Far West and the Northeast than in the South or South west. Because of these geographic variations, the highest and the lowest hourly wage rates vary widely. For example, according to a pri vate survey of nearly 100 union-management contracts covering employees in wholesale bakeries in 1961, hourly wage rates for bench hands ranged from $1.66 to $3.18, and those for mixers ranged from $1.58 to $3.27. However, minimum hourly rates in the major baking oc cupations were concentrated in the following ranges: M in im u m h o u r ly r a te s Baking foremen and all-round bakers______ $2.25-$2.75 Baking specialists: Mixers _________________________________ 2.10- 2.60 Dividermen ____________________________ 1.95- 2.45 Molders ________________________________ 1.95- 2.40 Benchmen ______________________________ 2.05- 2.50 Ovenmen _______________________________ 2.00- 2.60 leers and decorators_________________________ 1.80- 2.15 Wrapping machine operators______________ 1.70- 2.10 Maintenance workers: 2.15- 2.60 Automobile mechanics ________________ All maintenance trades________________ 2.30- 2.55 Helpers ________________________________ 1.95- 2.35 Some plant employees work night shifts and weekends because baking is done around the clock in many plants. Workers receive from 5 to 20 cents an hour extra pay for night work. Most plant workers are on a 40-hour workweek, although some work 44 or 48 hours regularly. Time and a half is paid for work over 40 hours a week. Driver-salesmen are usually paid a guaran teed minimum salary plus a percentage of their dollar sales. According to a 1961 survey of baking firms in 13 Eastern States, driversalesmen for both wholesale and home-service bakeries had minimum weekly salaries of from $50 to $98. By selling more baked products to their customers and by increasing the number of customers on their routes, driver-salesmen can increase their earnings considerably. Com panies usually pay for uniforms. Truckdrivers for baking plants are paid by the hour for the time worked. Hourly rates and hours worked vary from city to city. In mid-1960, the minimum wage rates and hours per week, provided by union-management con tracts in 10 selected cities, were as follows: Minimum wage rates Atlanta, Ga. ______________________ ... $2.22 1.96 Birmingham, A l a .________________ Cleveland, Ohio __________________ ... 2.68 Dallas, Tex. ______________________ ... 2.12 Detroit, Mich. ____________________... 2.60 Houston, Tex. ____________________... 2.17 Little Rock, Ark---------------------------- ... 1.96 New York, N .Y. (cake deliveries).... 2.50 Oklahoma City, Okla_____________ ... 1.96 Pittsburgh, Pa. __________________ ... 1.95 Hours per week 45 48 40 45 45 45 48 40 48 44 Home-service driver-salesmen and truckdriv ers work mostly out of doors. Wholesale driver- 598 salesmen spend much of their time arranging bakery foods on grocers' display shelves. Many jobs in baking plants involve some strenuous physical work, despite the considerable mech anization of baking processes. Work near ov ens may be unpleasantly hot. Paid vacations for employees are almost uni versal in industrial baking firms. Vacation pe riods range from 1 to 4 weeks, according to length of service. The number of paid holidays ranges from 6 to 11 days, depending on locality. Most baking firms have adopted some type of insurance or pension arrangement for their employees. Some provide life insurance plans; others have health insurance programs or re tirement pension plans. A large number of em ployees are covered by joint union-industry health and welfare plans and pension systems which are paid for entirely by employer con tributions. Most plant workers and drivers belong to a labor union. Bakers, baking specialists, and other plant workers have been organized by the American Bakery and Confectionery Work ers' International Union or the Bakery and Confectionery Workers' International Union of America (Ind.). Driver-salesmen and trans port drivers are generally members of the In OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ternational Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf feurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America. Some maintenance workers are members of craft unions such as the International Associ ation of Machinists and the International Un ion of Operating Engineers. Where To Go for More Information Information on local job openings in the bak ing industry may be obtained directly from bakeries in the community. High school students— or adults interested in evening courses— may obtain information on courses relating to baking by writing to the Director of Vocational Education or to the Su perintendent of Schools in their local commu nity, or to the State Director of Vocational Ed ucation in the Department of Education in the State capital. General information on opportunities in the baking industry and on requirements for en tering accredited schools which offer courses or degrees in baking science and technology may be obtained by writing t o : American Bakers Association, 20 North Wacker Dr., Chicago 6, 111. BANKING OCCUPATIONS More than 680,000 people worked in late 1960 in the Nation's banks, which provide many kinds of financial services to business men and other individuals, and to organiza tions. Nearly all businessmen and great num bers of other people maintain accounts with banks in order to earn interest on their money, insure its safekeeping, and to pay bills more conveniently. Many also obtain loans from banks, rent safe-deposit boxes, or rely on banks for such help as the administration of estates and trusts, analysis and handling of securities, and foreign banking operations. The compli cated financial transactions of our presentday business world could not be carried on without banking services. Banks and Their Workers Though several types of banks are found in most cities today, commercial banks, which of fer the most varied services, lead in numbers and employment. About 23,000 insured com mercial banks (including branch offices) were operating at the end of 1959. They employed more than half a million workers, about half of whom were women. Mutual savings banks are another type of bank offering some of the serv ices of commercial banks. These banks handle savings deposit accounts, and may also furnish safe-deposit facilities and administer trusts. There are workers in many other financial institutions with the same occupational skills as in banks. Among these institutions are loan associations of various kinds, most of which in vest customers' funds in first-mortgage loans made on real estate; personal finance compa nies, which specialize in making short-term loans to individuals; and investment banking organizations which underwrite, buy, and sell corporation stocks and bonds and State and lo cal government bonds. Some Government or quasi-Government agencies also have positions of the same kinds as are found in banks; among these are the housing and farm financing agen cies, the Export-Import Bank, the Federal De posit Insurance Corporation, and the Federal Reserve System. Federal Reserve Banks, oper ating as bankers' banks in 12 districts, had about 19,000 full-time employees in 1959. The Federal and State agencies concerned with the supervision of banks employed about 3,000 per sons as bank examiners. Banking involves an enormous amount of paperwork and approximately two-thirds of all bank employees are clerical workers. Many of these workers handle checks, withdrawals, and deposits; keep records of transactions; and take care of correspondence, telephone calls, and other office duties. The Nation's commer cial banks handle about 14 billion checks a year. The clerks who sort, record, file, mail, and otherwise process these checks make up one of the largest groups of bank clerks. Some of them operate equipment designed especially for banks, such as proof machines which are used to sort checks; others operate adding, cal culating, and other kinds of office machines which are used in many types of offices. Two other large groups of clerical employees do bookkeeping or are secretaries, stenographers, and typists. Their skills are, of course, much the same as those required for similar work in other industries. Tellers are a large group unique to banking. Other bank workers in the clerical category include credit analysts, loan examiners, telephone operators, and messen gers. Bank officers— presidents, vice presidents, treasurers, comptrollers, and cashiers— are di rectly responsible for the management of banks. About one-sixth of all bank employees are officers. In addition, various professional specialists, such as accountants, lawyers, stat isticians, economists, and engineers are em 599 600 ployed to advise, conduct research, and pre pare reports. This chapter gives information about sever al of the principal occupations unique to bank ing— Bank Clerks and Related Workers, Tell ers, and Bank Officers. Other occupations mentioned previously, which are found in many other business enterprises, are described elsewhere in this Handbook. (See index for page numbers.) Where Employed Most cities and towns in the United States have one or more banks. However, approxi mately one-third of the employees of insured commercial banks are in New York, California, Pennsylvania, and Illinois, the States with the largest population. The more than 500 mutual savings banks and their workers are located chiefly in the Northeastern States. There are far more bank employees in New York City, the financial capital of the Nation, than in any other city. Banking employment is concentrated to a considerable extent in a relatively limited num ber of very large banks. In late 1959, half of all workers in insured commercial banks were employed by the 267 largest banks of this kind, and only one-tenth by the 8,000 smallest banks. The 267 largest institutions, which represented only about 2 percent of all insured commercial banks, averaged well over 1,000 employees each; and the 8,000 smallest, which accounted for about two-thirds of all banks of this kind, av eraged only 8 employees each. Employment Outlook Bank employment is expected to grow rapidly during the 1960’s. In addition to the new jobs thus created, an even greater number of open ings will arise as employees, many of them women, leave their jobs to take care of their families, to retire, or for other reasons. Alto gether, banks may well have more than 100,000 jobs to fill each year during the next decade. These openings will be chiefly in large city banks, which account for the bulk of bank em ployment. However, many opportunities are OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK likely to arise also in smaller communities, particularly in branch banks. The number of branch banks has been increasing for many years, and will probably continue to do so, as more people move to the suburbs of large cities, and new business centers are established to serve these communities. Most of the openings in banks during the next 10 years will be in clerical occupations. In addition, young college graduates should find an increasing number of opportunities to begin in trainee jobs which may eventually lead to officer positions. There will also be some open ings for professional and specialized personnel, including lawyers, accountants, programmers, and personnel workers. The anticipated rise in bank employment will continue a trend which has been observed for many years, and the reasons for it will be much the same as in the past. Population growth and the accompanying rise in produc tion, sales, and national income will unquestion ably lead to a growth in banking business and employment. More jobs will also be created as banks further expand their services to custom ers and seek new business. The “ auto bank” branches and “ drive-up” banking facilities built during recent years for the convenience of customers with parking problems, and the economy checking accounts introduced for people with moderate incomes are both bring ing new business to many banking firms. Other services introduced by banks include accepting payments for utility bills, handling charge ac counts for retail stores, and doing bookkeeping for business firms. More employees may be needed also as banks expand their services in such fields as the investment of employee pen sion funds and financing of housing develop ments. As their business increases, banks will use more and more new and improved office ma chines— electronic equipment to sort and proc ess checks, for example. Equipment of this kind is expected to save considerable worktime, particularly in large city banks, and may well reduce the number of clerks needed to handle a given volume of work. In the banking indus try as a whole, however, mechanization is un likely to eliminate the need for more workers. BANKING OCCUPATIONS Bank employees can anticipate steadier em ployment than workers in many other fields, because they are less likely to be affected by layoffs during periods when the general level of business activity is low. Even when a bank is sold or merged with another bank, it usually continues to do business, and there is little like lihood that workers will lose their jobs. When ever bank officials find it necessary to curtail employment, they usually do so by not replac ing employees who retire or quit their jobs for other reasons; although this serves to reduce the number of openings for new employees, it also avoids the necessity of laying off expe rienced personnel. Earnings and Working Conditions Information on the earnings of nonsupervisory clerical employees is available from a 1960 survey covering banks in 27 metropolitan areas throughout the country. Women employed as routine file clerks— one of the jobs often filled by beginners— averaged from $45.50 to $62 a week in the different cities surveyed. The city averages for transit clerks, who also do routine work, were roughly the same as for file clerks in most of these cities, or else slightly higher; and for proof machine operators and bookkeep ers doing routine work, average earnings were a little higher still. In most cities, the highest paid of all the nonsupervisory office workers in cluded in the survey were secretaries, whose av erage earnings ranged from $69 to $91 a week. For experienced men tabulating machine oper ators, the averages were almost as high— $63 to $89 a week. In most cities, the average earnings of men employed as transit clerks and proof machine operators were from $1 to $5 or more a week higher than the earnings of women in comparable positions. Among tellers, many of whom are on spe cialized jobs, salary differences were even greater than among office employees. In many cases, men were paid salaries somewhat higher than the salaries of women in comparable jobs. Average salaries ranged all the way from $49.50 a week for women with less than 5 years’ ex perience, who were employed as commercial and savings tellers in one city surveyed, to $106 for 601 experienced men employed in another as note tellers— generally the highest paid of all spe cialized teller jobs. Salary levels for all of these nonsupervisory clerical workers varied considerably in differ ent sections of the country. In the cities sur veyed, salaries were generally highest in New York City and Chicago, and in the Los AngelesLong Beach and San Francisco-Oakland areas, and lowest in Providence, St. Louis, and in the South (except for Houston and Washington, D.C.) Recent college graduates hired as executive trainees in large city banks usually started at $4,000 to $5,500 a year in 1960, according to the limited information available. Most execu tive trainees, after they have gained experience and assumed the responsibilities of bank offi cers, can expect considerable salary advance ment. A junior executive in a large city bank, earning about $10,000 a year, may, after some years’ experience and promotion to a more re sponsible position, earn more than twice that figure. For senior bank officers, salaries may be still higher. Salaries for officers as well as other employees are generally lower in small town banks than in big city banks. Most bank employees work a 40-hour week, according to the 1960 survey previously men tioned. Many banks, particularly in the north eastern part of the country, have a scheduled 37V^-hour week and a few, principally around the New York City area, a 35-hour week. In some banks, however, daily hours may be ir regular. Tellers and other employees may have to work late hours at least once a week, and accounting department employees may work overtime during peak periods which occur at the end of each month. The number of paid holidays for bank em ployees in the cities surveyed ranged all the way from 5 a year in two cities to 12 or more in several others. In the South and North Central parts of the country, it was fairly common for banks to pay their employees for 5 or 6 holidays a year, in the West for 7 or 8, and in the North east (as well as in some large cities elsewhere) for 11 or 12. Usually, bank employees are given a 2-week paid vacation after 1 year’s service. Many OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 602 banks allow a 3-week vacation after 10 or 15 years’ service, and a 4-week one after 25 years. Group life insurance and hospitalization and surgical benefit plans are available to many em ployees. Retirement plans, frequently financed jointly by employer and employee contributions, are also common in banking. Work in banks is generally carried on in clean, well-lighted, and often air-conditioned office space. Most clerical work in banks re quires no strenuous physical exertion, and a number of jobs can be performed by moving about in a limited work area. This affords some job opportunities for people with certain physi cal handicaps. Where To Go for More Information Information on jobs in banking may be ob tained from your local bank and your State bankers’ association. General information on banking occupations and on training oppor tunities offered by the banking industry is available from : American Bankers Association, 12 East 36th St., New York 16, N .Y. For additional information on salaries of clerical workers in banking, see: Wage Structure: Banking Industry, Mid-1960, (BLS Report 179). Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington 25, D.C. Bank Clerks and Related Workers Nature of Work Many thousands of employees in banks are bookkeepers, office machine operators, messen gers, or clerks who are assigned to specialized functions. The exact duties they perform vary with the size of the bank and the nature of its business. In a small bank, a clerk may work in a combination job as both messenger and clerk, for example, or as proof machine and bookkeeping machine operator; still other clerks may file materials, operate the switch board, give routine information to the public, operate duplicating or other office machines, and help with sorting and listing of checks and other items. In large banks, clerks are usually assigned to specific jobs such as those discussed below. Bookkeeping clerks may cancel and file checks, sort and list various items, and alphabetize ma terial for experienced bookkeepers. Transit clerks (D.O.T. 1-01.43; 1-06.21, .22, and .24; 1-25.03) sort checks and drafts on other banks according to routine instructions, list sorted items on cash letters, and mail checks and cash letters for collection purposes. Mortgage clerks (D.O.T. 1-37.34) may type legal papers affecting title to real estate, record the trans action, and maintain a record card file. Some of the office machines commonly used in banks are adding machines, proof machines, and bookkeeping machines. Most check sorting Bank clerk verifying customers' signatures and checking bank balances. is done by proof machine operators (D.O.T. 1-25.68). The proof machines which they oper ate have keys for sorting checks and for adding and recording amounts involved, in a single operation. Proof machine operators may also help prepare monthly statements of customers’ accounts for mailing. Bookkeeping machine operators maintain rec ords of customers’ accounts. The proof depart ment forwards deposit slips and paid checks to BANKING OCCUPATIONS the bookkeeping machine operator who ar ranges them in proper order. Then, using the bookkeeping machine, the operator adds deposits and subtracts withdrawals on statement cards kept for each customers' account. The book keeping machine operator may also cancel and file checks, furnish information about balances in customers' accounts and prepare customers’ statements for mailing. In many banks, the title of bookkeeper is assigned to these workers and, in some cases, to bookkeeping clerks as well. Very few hand bookkeepers are employed in banks today. Bank messengers (D.O.T. 1-06.27) are re sponsible for the safe delivery of banking items such as checks, drafts, and letters. They make trips to other banks, branches of the same bank, business firms, and often govern ment agencies in the local area. Messengers in many banks are older men who, although still active, can do only light work. Inside messen gers or pages, who may be men or women, run errands within the bank and may also do simple clerical tasks. Other bank clerks do work similar to that performed by people in the same occupations in all industries. (Information about some of these occupations is given in the chapter on Clerical and Related Occupations in this Handbook. See index for page references to statements on Book keeping Workers, Office Machine Operators, and Electronic Computer Operating Personnel.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduation is adequate prepara tion for most clerical entry jobs in banks. For the majority of jobs, business education courses such as bookkeeping, shorthand, typing, and business arithmetic are considered desirable. In addition, since bookkeeping, adding, and calculating machines are widely used in banks, courses in machine operation are helpful. Before an applicant is hired, he is usually given a per sonal interview by at least one bank official and may be given an intelligence test and a clerical aptitude test— the latter to determine his speed and accuracy. Young men and women without previous ex perience may http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ be hired for many of the jobs Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 603 already mentioned, such as file clerk, bookkeep ing clerk, and transit clerk. They may also be hired and trained by the bank to operate proof, bookkeeping, and other office machines designed especially for use in banks. Whereas formerly most beginners were hired as inside messengers, now only a limited number of bank employees start out in such work. An employee in a routine clerical job may eventually be promoted to a minor supervisory position, next to teller or credit analyst, and then to a senior supervisory position. A limited number of opportunities for advancement to bank officer also exist for outstanding em ployees, although an increasing number of banks give preference to persons with college training in selecting officers. Additional edu cation obtained while employed, particularly the completion of courses offered by the Ameri can Institute of Banking, may be helpful in ad vancement. Since most banks follow a “ promotion-from-within" policy, length of service is also an important factor in advancement. Employment Outlook Thousands of openings for bank clerks and related workers can be expected each year through the mid-1960's. Most of them will prob ably result from high turnover rates— com mon in many clerical occupations where the majority of workers are women. Other jobs will arise as new banks and branch banks are opened, particularly in suburban areas of large cities, and as long-established banks expand their services. Over the long run, the number of clerical workers will probably continue to rise, with the continued expansion in banking business. How ever, the increased use of automatic office equip ment is likely to cause some changes in the kinds of clerical job openings that occur in banks. As more mechanical equipment is in troduced, there will be relatively fewer routine and repetitive jobs for clerical workers such as check sorters, file clerks, and some kinds of office machine operators. The jobs thus elimi nated are unlikely to be numerous enough to result in any reduction in total clerical employ 604 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ment; in the past, it has been apparent that, as machines have taken over work handled by clerical employees, many banks— particularly the largest ones— have been quick to reassign their clerks to jobs as operators of their newly acquired mechanical equipment or to other duties related to the many new functions and services they have introduced for their custom ers. They will undoubtedly continue to do so for some years to come. For bank clerks and related workers as a group, employment will continue to rise, although somewhat less rapidly than in the past. (See introductory section of this chapter for more information on Employment Outlook, Where Employed, Earnings and Working Con ditions, and Where To Go for More Informa tion.) Tellers (D.O.T. 1-06.02 through .04) Nature of Work Every bank— no matter how small— has at least one teller to receive and pay out money and record these transactions. The great ma jority of people in this occupation are the paying and receiving tellers with whom most people deal when they transact business at banks. A paying and receiving teller begins work on a typical day by obtaining his cash box from the vault. If he thinks he will need more money in the course of the day’s work, he orders more cash. During the hours the bank is open to the public, a teller is mainly occupied with cashing customers’ checks and handling deposits and withdrawals. Before he cashes a check, he must verify the signature and identity of the person to whom he makes payment, and be certain that the bank ac count against which the check is drawn is ade quate to cover the payment. In handling a de posit, the teller checks the accuracy of the de posit slip and makes an entry in a passbook or on a deposit receipt. Sometimes tellers use ma chines to make change and total deposits. After public banking hours, a paying and receiving teller “ proves” his cash. He usually counts the cash on hand, lists the currencyreceived tickets on a settlement sheet and makes any adjustments necessary to balance his day’s accounts, and takes the settlement sheet to the proof department. He may also perform other incidental tasks such as sorting checks and de posit slips, filing new account cards, and re moving closed account cards from files. A pay ing and receiving teller may supervise one or more clerks assigned to assist him. Other kinds of tellers, employed mostly in large banks, are usually identified by the special kinds of financial transactions which they handle or the department to which they are assigned. Some, for example, deal only with Christmas club accounts, or deposits and with drawals from regular savings accounts. Trust tellers specialize in receiving and issuing re ceipts for payments on promissory notes, while the work of discount tellers involves issuance and collection of customers’ notes. Among the Tellers receive deposits and cash checks for customers. BANKING OCCUPATIONS 605 most responsible tellers jobs is that of the note teller, who computes interest on notes and handles collateral and payments on loans. An estimated 75,000 tellers were employed in banks of all types in 1960. Probably at least half of them were women. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In filling teller positions, banks generally follow a “ promotion-from-within” policy. Em ployees with experience in bookkeeping or other clerical bank work— positions which usually re quire at least a high school education— are the ones most often promoted to teller jobs. Both seniority and ability, as demonstrated on the job, are considered in selecting employees for such advancement. A new teller usually learns his duties by working under the supervision of an experi enced one. However, some banks conduct for mal training programs for these employees. Much of the teller's work involves contact with the public, and it is therefore important that these workers be neat in appearance, and tactful and courteous in manner. Many custom ers judge a bank’s services principally by th£ impressions they receive in their dealings with tellers. Accuracy, quickness, and a good memory are all important in this job. Also, since they handle large sums of money, tellers must be able to meet the standards established by bonding companies. A teller who performs ably for several years is in line for promotion to head teller or to some other supervisory position, except in banks too small to have such positions. Experienced tel lers may eventually qualify for promotion to bank officer positions, particularly if they have had college training or are high school grad uates who have taken the specialized courses of fered by the banking industry. Employment Outlook The number of tellers in the Nation’s banks is expected to increase during the 1960’s with rising volume of banking transactions. In creased use of mechanical equipment, such as change-dispensing and adding machines, can be expected to take over some routine work now done by many tellers, but mechanization is likely to have less effect on employment in this occupation than in many other types of cleri cal positions. Many additional employment opportunities will arise as workers retire or leave their jobs for other reasons. Among the thousands of women tellers, many are likely to stop working after a few years because of family responsi bilities which require them to remain at home. (See introductory section of this chapter for further information on Employment Outlook, Where Employed, Earnings and Working Con ditions, and Where To Go for More Informa tion.) Bank Officers (D.O.T. 0-85.10; 0-97.01 through .05, .14; 0-98.01 through .06, .08, .11 through .13) Nature of Work Practically every bank has at least three kinds of officers— a president, who exercises general direction over all operations, one or more vice-presidents, who either act as general bank managers or have charge of particular departments; and a comptroller or cashier who (unlike cashiers in stores and other businesses) is an executive officer generally responsible for bank funds. Small banks are sometimes man aged almost entirely by such officers. Large banks may also have treasurers and other senior officers, as well as several assistant offi cers, in departments such as trust, credit, in vestments, and real estate. A bank officer makes decisions within the framework of policy as set by the board of directors. His job requires a broad knowledge of business activities, which he must relate to the operations of the particular department involved. For example, the loan officer must exercise his best judgment in approving loans, bearing in mind general business conditions and the local community situation. He must 606 Bank officer and young couple discussing details of a loan. evaluate carefully the reports of credit analysts (who may be executive trainees) on the individ ual or business firm applying for a loan, and balance the favorable and unfavorable elements in reaching a decision. Similarly, the trust of ficer must have a thorough understanding of a particular trust agreement, in order to manage a fund or estate properly. Moreover, only the wise investment of trust funds will make it possible to carry out trust agreements, which may involve provision for sending a young person to college or paying pensions to employees. Besides supervising financial serv ices, bank officers are frequently cafied upon to advise individuals and businessmen and to participate in community projects. Banking institutions of all kinds employed about 115,000 officers in late 1960. Women, most of whom were assistant cashiers, repre sented about one-tenth of the total. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In recent years, banks have shown a marked preference for college graduates in selecting per sons to be trained for officer positions. Many of them send representatives to college campuses to recruit members of the graduating class for this training. However, outstanding individuals with experience in banking, even though not college graduates, are sometimes considered for executive trainee jobs also. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Specialized college education is seldom re quired for executive trainee positions. A busi ness administration curriculum with a major in banking is considered excellent preparation; other helpful majors are accounting, finance, or statistics. A liberal arts curriculum with some courses in the fields mentioned and in economics, political science, and commercial law, is usually considered good preparation. Courses in Eng;lish composition are also desirable. In-service training aimed at developing fu ture bank officers is given in most banks. Pro grams are generally designed to give a trainee the “ feel” of banking and to help bank officers determine the position for which the employee is best suited in the long run. Most large city banks have well-organized training programs, ranging from 6 months to 2 years in length. Trainees may work as credit or investment analysts, or be rotated among various jobs in several bank departments. In smaller banks, trainees may be assigned to teller positions. In other programs, trainees study, observe, and write reports on the operations of the depart ments to which they are assigned. Though many small banks cannot operate formal officertrainee programs, they usually have some plan designed to help promising employees gain enough understanding of various banking oper ations to qualify for later advancement. Advancement to officer positions may come slowly in small town banks, which are often operated largely as family enterprises and in which little turnover occurs. In large city banks with special training programs, initial promo tions may come more quickly. However, many years of service are usually required to obtain the thorough knowledge of bank operations, bank customers, and the community needed to qualify for senior officer positions. Although experience, ability, and leadership qualities receive great emphasis when promo tions are made, advancement may also be ac celerated by special study. Courses in every phase of banking are offered by the American Institute of Banking, a long-established, in dustry-sponsored school. The courses are us ually offered locally and most banks pay the tuition fees for employees who have success fully completed their courses. More advanced BANKING OCCUPATIONS training is offered in programs sponsored jointly by universities and bankers’ associa tions; one of the better known is the Stonier Graduate School of Banking conducted each summer at Rutgers University, by the American Bankers Association. Employment Outlook The number of bank officers in the country is expected to increase fairly rapidly during the 1960’s. Some new positions will be created by the expected expansion of banking activities. Others will probably develop because of the increasing use of electronic computers which makes possible more extensive analysis and planning of banking operations. In addition to these new positions, about 5,000 openings can 607 be expected each year, according to an industry estimate, because of the need to replace officers who retire or leave their jobs for other reasons. Most of the officer positions which become available will continue to be filled by promoting people who have already acquired experience in banking operations. Competition for such pro motion is likely to remain keen, particularly in the largest banks. College graduates who meet the standards for executive trainees should find good opportunities for entry positions, how ever. (See introductory section of this chapter for more information on Employment Outlook, Where Employed, Earnings and Working Con ditions, and Where To Go for More Infor mation.) OCCUPATIONS IN THE ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POW ER INDUSTRY Electricity has been a vital force in America’s tremendous technological develop ment over the past 75 years. It not only provides power for the production of the Nation’s goods and services, but also heats, cools, and lights homes, offices, factories, and farms. More than 58 million customers are .served today by our electric utility systems. Many different types of workers are needed to provide and maintain electric utility services. These include power plant operators, linemen, meter readers, electricians, engineers, research scientists, technicians, and workers in office occupations. In many communities, the local utility system offers men and women opportuni ties for interesting and steady jobs. Nature and Location of the Industry The electric light and power industry is made up of approximately 3,800 private and govern ment (Federal, State, and municipal) utility sys tems. These systems include powerplants in which electric energy is made (generated), substations where the voltage (measure of elec tric power) is increased or decreased as needed, and a vast network of transmission and distribu tion lines. The delivery of electricity to the user at the instant he needs it is the distinctive feature of the operation of electric power systems. Elec tricity is a form of energy which cannot be efficiently stored but must be used at the same moment it is produced. A customer can begin to use electric power or increase his use at any time by merely flicking a switch. For this reason, a utility system must have sufficient capacity to meet peak consumer needs at any time during the day or night. Some utilities generate, transmit, and dis tribute only electrical energy; others produce 608 both electricity and gas. This chapter is con cerned with employment opportunities only in those jobs relating to the making and sending of electric light and power in both types of utilities. In 1960, private and government utility sys tems employed approximately 460,000 workers to provide electric light and power. Privately owned systems which generate and distribute electricity only, employed about 260,000 of these workers. Private systems which produce both gas and electricity employed about 115,000 workers in connection with electric services. Federal, State, and municipal government sys tems employed the remainder— an estimated 85,000 workers. A few large manufacturing in dustries which produce electric power for their own use also employed some electric light and power workers. Electric utility service now reaches into al most every locality. Electric utility jobs are found in small towns and in rural areas as well as in urban communities throughout the Nation. Most of them, however, are in the more heavily populated areas, especially where there are many industries. Cities have a larger share of electric utility jobs, not only because they have more customers, including large industrial users, but also because the headquarters of most of the large systems are in the cities. The extension of electric service into rural areas in recent years has brought more jobs into the smaller towns. Hydroelectric power projects have created some electric utility jobs in rela tively isolated areas. Electric Light and Power Processes and Activities The production and distribution of large quantities of electric power involves many proc esses and activities. To carry on these proc 609 ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER INDUSTRY esses, workers are needed in many different jobs. In 1960, about 12 percent of the workers were employed in jobs in generating plants. About 21 percent were in jobs related to the transmission and distribution of power to cus tomers. Because of the need to keep the great amount of equipment and the plants in good working order, about 18 percent of the workers were employed in maintenance, repair, and other jobs. About 10 percent were in customer servicing jobs. More than 30 percent were em ployed in administrative and clerical jobs and about 9 percent were in engineering and techni cal jobs. The following brief description of how an electric utility system operates provides a clearer picture of the nature and organization of the jobs in this industry. Chart 28 shows how electric energy is generated, and how it travels from the generating station through the transmission and distribution systems to the individual users. Powerplant Operations. The first step in pro viding electric power for consumers is the pro duction of electricity in powerplants by gen erators. Most electric power is generated by means of steam power or water power. Some small generators are operated by internal com bustion engines— the Diesel engine is the most common type used. Today, electricity is pro duced primarily in steam-powered generating plants which use coal, gas, or oil to produce the steam power. It is also produced in hydroelectric CHART 28 H O W ELECTRICITY IS MADE AN D BROUGHT TO THE USERS HOMES STORES SCHOOLS 610 powerplants which use water power to generate electricity. Atomic energy is also used as a fuel to produce steam power, but accounts for only a very small proportion of the total electric power generated in the United States today. After electricity is generated, but before it flows through the power lines leading away from the generating station, it passes through a “ switchyard” where the voltage is increased. Basic equipment used in power generating plants includes boilers; turbines; generators, auxiliary equipment such as condensers (which change the steam back to water), fans, blowers, compressors, water pumps, and coal handling equipment; and switchboards. Jobs which are basic to the operation of a powerplant include those of boiler operator, turbine operator, and auxiliary equipment oper ator. These operators watch over, check, and take readings on the operation of this equip ment. Another basic powerplant job is that of switchboard operator. From a switchboard in the control room of the plant, he controls the flow of the electric current from the generators to the powerlines. Watch engineers supervise powerplant operations and employees. Transmission and Distribution Operations. After electricity leaves the powerplant, it passes onto transmission lines which link the generating plant to the distribution network serving the individual customers. Transmission lines may carry electricity from a distant powerplant to the city where it is to be used, or they may carry the electricity from a power station in a city to distribution substations in the various neighborhoods or in outlying areas. Transmission lines also tie together the gener ating stations of a single utility system or the power facilities of separate systems. In this way, power can be interchanged to meet vary ing demands. Electric power is sent from the generating plants through a transformer in a step-up sub station in which the voltage is raised in order to send electricity over transmission lines with out excessive loss of power. Transmission lines may be carried on tall steel towers or wooden poles across the countryside or they may be buried in underground cables in cities. The OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK transmission system ends at a step-down sub station where transformers reduce the voltage to a point at which the power can be passed on to the distribution lines which carry it to the consumers. Large factories, apartment houses, hotels, and office buildings may receive their electric cur rent by direct wire from substations. Schools, stores, farms, and homes get their current from distribution lines leading away from the sub stations. However, the current, even though its voltage has been reduced at the substation, is still too high to use for lights and appliances. Therefore, the voltage is further reduced by small transformers mounted at points where secondary lines branch off to individual cus tomers. Distribution lines are usually strung from cross arms mounted on wooden poles, but in heavily populated sections of cities, they may be carried in underground cables. The most important jobs in the transmission and distribution operations are those of the men who control the flow of electricity— the load dispatchers and the substation operators— and the men who construct and maintain the powerlines— the linemen, cable splicers, troublemen, and their helpers. Customer Service. As the electric power enters the wiring system of a customer’s building, the amount of electricity is measured by a meter installed by the local utility company, so that the customer can be charged for the power he has used. Workers in customer service jobs include meter readers, metermen, and district representatives. The duties and training of, and employment outlook for, workers engaged in powerplant, transmission, and distribution operations, and in customer services are discussed separately later in this chapter. Maintenance and Other Activities. A consider able number of workers are engaged in main taining and repairing the equipment used by the electric utilities. The duties of these skilled craftsmen are similar to those of maintenance workers in other industries. Among the more important skilled workers are electricians, in strument repairmen, maintenance mechanics, ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER INDUSTRY machinists, plumbers, and boilermakers. Some of the other workers employed are guards, watchmen, and janitors. Engineering and Scientific Activities. Many interesting job opportunities are available for engineers and technical workers in electric utilities. Engineers plan generating plant addi tions and installations of new transmission and distribution equipment, and supervise their con struction and installation. They develop im proved operating methods and test the efficiency of the many types of electrical equipment. They may also plan entire utility systems. In such work, engineers deal with problems such as the selection of plant sites, type of fuel, and type of plant. Engineers also help industrial and commercial customers make the best use of electric power for equipment and lighting. They stimulate greater use of electricity by demon strating the advantages of electrical equipment and suggesting places where electricity can be more effectively used. About 8 percent of the total industry employment is made up of engi neering, scientific, and technical personnel such as engineers, chemists, draftsmen, and engi neering aids. Administrative and Clerical Activities. Be cause of the enormous amount of recordkeeping necessary to run the business operations, elec tric utilities employ a greater proportion of ad ministrative and clerical personnel than many other industries. Nearly a third of the in dustry’s work force is employed in clerical and administrative jobs. Many of the workers in these jobs are women. Large numbers of ste nographers, typists, bookkeepers, office machine operators, file clerks, accounting and auditing clerks, and cashiers are employed. These work ers keep records of the services rendered by the company, make up bills for customers, and prepare a variety of statements and statistical reports. An increasing amount of this work is now being performed by the electronic dataprocessing equipment recently introduced in this industry. This has generally resulted in more clerical work being done with the same or fewer employees. The use of this equipment is creating some new jobs such as programmer 611 and console operator. Administrative employees include specialized workers such as account ants, personnel officers, purchasing agents, lawyers, and salesmen. (Detailed discussions of professional, techni cal, mechanical, and other occupations found in the electric light and power industry as well as in many other industries are given elsewhere in this Handbook, in the sections covering the individual occupations. See index for page numbers.) Employment Outlook Several thousand job opportunities for new workers in electric utilities will occur each year during the 1960’s. Overall employment in the industry is expected to increase only slightly above the approximate 460,000 employed in 1960. Job opportunities will arise mainly be cause of the need to replace workers who retire, die, or leave the industry for other employment. The electric light and power industry has grown rapidly since its beginning in 1882, but its greatest growth has been since World War II. The capacity of electric generators and the production of power tripled between 1947 and 1960. Future needs for electricity can best be understood by considering the needs of the principal groups of customers. In 1960, industrial customers such as chemi cal plants, metal processing plants which pro duce aluminum and steel, and automobile plants purchased nearly half of all electric power sold by utility systems. These plants are expected to increase their use of electricity during the 1960’s because of its many new uses in indus trial processes and the favorable outlook for industrial growth. Residential customers purchased more than a fourth of the electric power produced by utility systems in 1960. The rapid growth in population, increase in new family units, in troduction of new electric appliances, and wider use of all electric appliances will create an increased need for electric power by this group of customers during the 1960’s. Commercial customers such as stores, office buildings, hotels, and theaters used more than 17 percent of the electric power produced in 612 1960 for light, heat, air conditioning, and elec tric display signs. The expected construction of new stores and office buildings and the mod ernization of present buildings during the 1960's will increase the use of electric power by com mercial customers. Local, State, and Federal agencies, farms, and electrified railroads, consumed the remainder of the electric energy produced in 1960. Many of these customers are expected to increase their use of electric power during the 1960's. Employment in the electric light and power industry has generally grown at a much slower rate than the increase in capacity and produc tion. There are several reasons for this differ ence. The most important has been the use of large, mechanized equipment in generating plants and transmission and distribution de partments. Since operators are needed chiefly to check gages and to control instruments, im provements in equipment have made possible great increases in the industry's capacity and production with only a small increase in the number of workers. Continuing developments of larger, more mechanized, and automated equipment will af fect the number of new workers needed in gen erating plants. The introduction of new equip ment for the transmission and distribution of power, requiring less maintenance and line work; more efficient billing and recordkeeping systems; and the increasing use of electronic data processing equipment will result in only a small .increase in employment despite the ex pected doubling of capacity and production dur ing the 1960's, owing to the increased use of electricity. However, there will be some differences in the rates of growth among the various occupa tional groups employed by the electric utilities. For example, employment of maintenance craftsmen will increase at a faster rate than most other occupational groups because of the need to maintain the growing amount of com plex machinery and equipment. On the other hand, employment of substation operators will decline. Since completely automatic equipment is being installed in all but the largest sub stations, the number of substation operators will be reduced considerably. (The employment OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK outlook for some of the important electric util ity occupations is discussed at the end of this chapter.) Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings in the electric utility industry are generally higher than in other public utility in dustries and in many manufacturing industries. In January 1961, nonsupervisory employees of electric light and power utilities averaged $2.76 an hour or $112.61 a week. Most nonsupervisory electric utility workers in the production, transmission, and distribution departments are union members. The bargain ing representative for most of these workers is either the International Brotherhood of Electri cal Workers or the Utility Workers Union of America, both affiliated with the American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Or ganizations (AFL-C IO ). Some utility workers are represented by independent, unaffiliated unions. Because electric utility companies give con tinuous service to their customers, supplying electricity is a 24-hour, 7-day-a-week activity. Therefore, some employers must work schedules which include evenings, nights, and weekends. Most union contracts with electric utilities pro vide a higher rate of pay for evening and night work than the basic day rate. In 1960, workers on the second shift received from 6 to 12 cents an hour more than the basic day rate, and those on the third shift, from 9 to 15 cents an hour more. Overtime work is sometimes required in this industry, especially during emergencies such as floods, hurricanes, or storms. During an “ emergency callout," which is a short-notice request to report to work during nonscheduled hours, the worker is generally guaranteed a minimum of 3 or 4 hours' pay at 11/2 times his basic hourly rate, and travel time to and from the job is counted as worktime. In addition to these provisions which affect the workers' pay, other benefits are provided by electric companies. Annual vacations are granted to workers according to length of serv ice. Usually, contracts provide for a 1-week va cation for 6 months to 1 year of service, 2 ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER INDUSTRY weeks for 1 to 10 years, 3 weeks for 10 to 25 years, and 4 weeks for more than 25 years. The number of paid holidays ranges from 5 to 12 days a year, depending on locality. Nearly all companies have benefit plans for their em ployees. A typical program provides life, hos pitalization, and surgical insurance and paid sick leave. Retirement pension plans supple ment Federal social security payments, and are generally paid for by the employer. The number of injuries per million man-hours worked is much lower in this industry than in most manufacturing industries. Workers in some occupations in this industry are more sub ject to accidents than others. Accidents occur most frequently among the line and cable splic ing crews. Because of the dangers of electrocu tion and other hazards, electric companies and unions have made intensive efforts to enforce safe working practices. Utility companies have set up safety rules for employees to follow. Strict adherence to safety standards is required. 613 As a result, the accident rate has been declin ing in recent years. In 1958, there were 5.5 disabling injuries per million man-hours worked among the employees of electric utility systems, compared with an average of 10.9 in all manu facturing industries. Where To Go for More Information More information about jobs in the electric light and power industry may be obtained from local electric utility companies or from the local offices of unions which have electric utility workers among their membership. If no local offices of the unions are listed in the tele phone directory, write to the national head quarters of the following unions and ask them to refer your letter to their nearest branch: International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1200 15th St. N W ., Washington 5, D.C. Utility Workers Union of America, 1413 K St. N W ., Washington 5, D.C. Powerplant Occupations Nature of Work Powerplant operators are the key workers in a powerplant. They are responsible for watching, checking, controlling, and keeping records of the operation of various kinds of equipment. They must see that the equipment is functioning efficiently and detect instantly any trouble which may arise. There are four basic classes of powerplant operators— boiler, turbine, auxiliary equipment, and switchboard operators. Other powerplant workers include maintenance and repair men, coal handlers, and cleaners. Supervision of powerplant operations is handled by a chief engineer and by his as sistants, the watch engineers. Boiler operators (D.O.T. 5-72.930) regulate the fuel, air, and water supply used in the boilers, and maintain proper steam pressure needed to turn the turbines, on the basis of information shown by control valves, meters, and other instruments mounted on panelboards. One man may operate one or more boilers. In some powerplants, coal is fed to the boilers by http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ coal stokers. mechanical In more modern Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis plants, pulverized coal, oil, or gas is piped into the boilers. Boiler operators, of course, are em ployed only where steam, produced in boilers, is used to generate electricity. None are needed in hydroelectric plants because in such plants waterpower instead of steam is used to gen erate electricity. Turbine operators (D.O.T. 5-51.120) operate the turbines and generators. (In small plants, they may also operate auxiliary equipment or a switchboard.) Modern steam turbines and gen erators operate at extremely high speeds, pres sures, and temperatures; therefore, close atten tion must be given the pressure gages, thermom eters, and other instruments which show the operations of the turbogenerator unit. Turbine operators record the information shown by these instruments, check the oil pressure at bearings, the speed of the turbines, and the circulation and amount of cooling water in the condensers which change the steam back into water. They are also responsible for starting and shutting down the turbines and generators as directed by the switchboard operator in the 614 control room. Other workers, such as helpers, and junior operators assist the turbine opera tors. Auxiliary equipment operators (D.O.T. 5 51.115) operate pumps, fans, and blowers, con densers, evaporators, water conditioners, com pressors, and coal pulverizers. They check and record the reading of instruments which show how the equipment is functioning. Since auxiliary equipment may go out of order oc casionally, the operators must be able to detect trouble quickly, make accurate judgments, and sometimes make repairs. This equipment, which is used only in steam operating plants, is es sential to the powerplant operations since it is directly connected with the operation of the boilers and the turbines. As powerplants be come larger, auxiliary equipment increases in complexity and size and more of it is required to operate the plants. In some of the smaller plants, there are no separate auxiliary equipment operators. The turbine operators handle this work along with their other duties. In large plants, however, auxiliary equipment operators often outnumber turbine operators. Switchboard operators (D.O.T. 5-51.130) con trol the flow of electric power in the generating station from generators to outgoing powerlines. They usually work in a control room which is equipped with switchboards and instrument panels. Switches control the movement of elec tricity through the generating station circuits and onto the transmission lines. Instruments mounted on panelboards show the power demands on the station at any in stant, the powerload on each line leaving the station, the amount of current being produced by each generator, and the voltage. The opera tors use switches to distribute the power de mands among the generators in the station, to combine the current from two or more genera tors, and to regulate the flow of the electricity onto various powerlines to meet the demands of the users served by each line. When power requirements on the station change, they order generators started or stopped and at the proper time connect them to the power circuits in the station or disconnect them. In doing this work, they follow telephone orders from the load dis OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK patcher who directs the flow of current through out the system. The switchboard operators and their assist ants also check their instruments frequently to see that electricity is moving through and out of the powerplant properly and that correct voltage is being maintained. Among their other duties, switchboard operators keep records of all switching operations and of load condi tions on generators, lines, and transformers. They obtain this information by making regular meter readings. Plants with high generating capacity gener ally have more varied and complex equipment than smaller plants. Disturbances in the sys tem may have far-reaching effects, and cause interruptions in service over a large area. Therefore, these operators check their lines and test their equipment more frequently than op erators in smaller plants, and thus must have a greater degree of skill. In some new powerplants, the duties of the switchboard operator are combined with those of boiler operator, turbine operator, and aux iliary equipment operator. In such cases, he is called a control room operator. Generally, these powerplants have controls for all departments centralized in the control room. From this cen- Control room operator regulating output of generating unit. 615 ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER INDUSTRY tral control room, through closed television cir cuits, the control room operator, with several assistants, watches all powerplant controls and directs repairmen to make repairs on boilers, turbines, and other equipment when the instru ments show that such equipment is not operat ing properly. Watch engineers (D.O.T. 5-95.320) are the principal supervisory workers in a powerplant. They supervise the employees responsible for the operation and maintenance of boilers, tur bines, generators, auxiliary equipment, switch boards, transformers, and other machinery and equipment. Watch engineers are supervised by a chief engineer or a plant superintendent who is in charge of the entire plant. In small plants, the watch engineer may be the top supervisory employee. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement New powerplant workers generally begin at the bottom of the ladder— usually on cleanup jobs. Such work gives beginners an opportu nity to become familiar with the equipment and the operations of a powerplant. They advance to the more responsible job of helper as job openings occur. Formal apprenticeships in these jobs are rare. It takes from 1 to 3 years to become a fully qualified auxiliary equipment operator and from 4 to 8 years to become a boiler operator, turbine operator, or switchboard operator. A person learning to be a boiler operator gener ally spends from 2 to 6 months as a laborer before being promoted to the job of helper. Depending on openings and the worker's apti tude, the helper may advance to junior boiler operator and eventually to boiler operator, or transfer to the maintenance department and work his way up to boiler repairman. Most large cities require that boiler operators be licensed. In many plants, turbine operators are selected from among the auxiliary equipment operators. The line of advancement in other companies is from laborer to turbine helper. The helper then may advance either to junior turbine op erator and eventually to turbine operator,' or transfer to turbine repairman, depend he may ing on job openings and his aptitude. Where a system has a number of generating plants of different size, operators first get experience in the smaller stations and then are promoted to jobs in the larger stations as vacancies occur. Most large cities require that turbine operators be licensed. Switchboard operators work first as helpers, then as junior operators, and finally as senior operators. They also may advance from jobs in small stations to those in larger stations where operating conditions are much more complex. Some utility companies promote sub station operators to switchboard operating jobs. The duties of both classes of operators have much in common. In the larger plants, switch board operators can advance to the job of chief switchboard operator. Watch engineers are selected from among experienced powerplant operators. At least 5 to 10 years of experience as a first-class opera tor are usually required to qualify for a watch engineer's job. Employment Outlook There will be a moderate number of oppor tunities for new workers to obtain employment as powerplant operators during the 1960's. Several hundred job openings will occur each year because of the need to replace operators who retire, die, or leave the industry for other fields of work. The total number of jobs for powerplant operators is not expected to in crease, and may even decrease somewhat, al though the capacity and production of electric utility systems is expected to double during this decade. The use of larger and more efficient equip ment has made possible great increases in capac ity and production without corresponding in creases in the number of workers. For example, one operator can control a large modern turbo generator unit which produces 200,000 kilo watts as well as he can control a unit that produces half that amount. Also, the growing use of new equipment which has many auto matic operating features reduces the number of operators needed. For example, in some gener ating plants, all operating processes are con 616 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK trolled from a central control room. In this room, electronically operated instruments re port and make a permanent record of the opera tions of boilers, turbines, and auxiliary equip ment. Television screens even make it possible to watch the boiler fires from the control rooms. Thus, in plants with highly automatic equip ment, one control room operator and his assist ants do the work of boiler operator, turbine operator, auxiliary equipment operator, and switchboard operator. The introduction of atomic energy as a fuel to replace coal, gas, and oil will not greatly affect the number or skill requirements of powerplant employees. Generally, about the same number and types of operators will be required to run an atomic-powered steam-gen erating plant as are required to operate steam generating plants using more common fuels. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of powerplant workers depend on the type of job they have, the part of the country in which they work, and many other factors. The following tabulation shows esti mated average hourly earnings for selected powerplant occupations in the United States in 1960: Average hourly earnings Auxiliary equipment operator_______________ Boiler operator ______________________________ Control room operator_______________________ Switchboard operator________________________ Turbine operator____________________________ Watch engineer______________________________ $2.51 2.80 3.16 2.94 2.86 3.48 A powerplant is typically well lighted and ventilated and its interior is clean and orderly. Even steam plants are generally clean, since coal is handled by mechanical equipment sep arated from principal work areas. The turbine room is airy and clean, but there is usually considerable noise from the whirring turbines. Switchboard operators in the control room often sit at the panel boards, but boiler and turbine operators are almost constantly on their feet. The work of powerplant operators is generally not strenuous, particularly in the newer powerplants. Since generating stations operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, powerplant employees sometimes must work nights and weekends, since they work on a schedule of three 8-hour shifts. Transmission and Distribution Occupations Nature of Work More than a fifth of the workers employed by electric light and power systems are in trans mission and distribution jobs. These workers are primarily employed in getting electric power to the users. The principal workers in transmission and distribution jobs are those who control the flow of electricity— load dis patchers and substation operators— and the men who construct and maintain powerlines— linemen, cable splicers, troublemen, groundmen, and helpers. Linemen make up the largest single occupation in the industry. Load dispatchers (D.O.T. 5-51.520) (some times called system operators or power dis patchers) are the key operating workers of the transmission and distribution departments. They control the flow of electricity. The load dispatcher's room is the nerve center of the en tire utility system. From this location, the dis patcher controls the plant equipment used to generate electricity and directs its flow through out the system. He telephones his instructions to the switchboard operators at the generating plants and the substations. His instructions tell operators how power is to be routed and when additional boilers and generators are to be started or shut down in line with the total power needs of the systems. The load dispatcher must anticipate demands for electric power so the system will be pre pared to meet them. Power demands on utility systems may change from hour to hour. A sudden afternoon rainstorm can cause a mil lion lights to be switched on in a matter of minutes, but boilers often must be heated for 2 hours before they are ready to produce suffi cient steam for generating. Therefore, the load ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER INDUSTRY dispatcher must keep in touch with weather re ports from hour to hour. He must also be able to direct the handling of any emergency situa tion, such as a transformer or transmission line failure, and to route current around the affected area. Load dispatchers are also in charge of the interconnections with other sys tems, and they direct the transfer of current between systems as the need arises. The load dispatcher’s source of information for the entire transmission system centers in the pilot board. This pilot board which domi nates the load dispatcher’s room, is a complete map of the utility transmission system. It en ables the dispatcher to determine at a glance the conditions that exist at any point in the system. Meters on the board show the output of individual power stations, the total amount of power being produced, and the amount of current flowing through the principal trans mission lines. Red and green lights may show the positions of switches which control gener ating equipment and transmission circuits as well as high voltage connections with substa tions and large industrial customers. The board may also have several recording instru ments which make a graphic record of opera tions for future analysis and study. Substation operators (D.O.T. 5-51.210) are generally in charge of a substation and are responsible for its operation. Under orders from the load dispatcher, they direct the flow of current out of the station by means of a switchboard. Incoming energy from the powerplant is switched to the outgoing lines on which it is needed. Depending upon the type of sub station, electrical voltage may be either raised or lowered. The flow of electricity from the incoming to the outgoing lines is controlled by the circuit breakers. The substation operators connect or break the flow of current by pushing or pulling the switches which control the cir cuit breakers. Ammeters, voltmeters, and other types of instruments located on the switchboard register the amount of electric power flowing through each line. In some sub stations, where alternating current is changed to direct current to meet the needs of special users, the operator controls converters which perform the change simultaneously. 617 In addition to switching duties, the substa tion operators check the operation of all equip ment to make sure that it is in good working order. They supervise the activities of the other substation employees on the same shift, assign tasks, and direct their work. However, in small substations the substation operator may be the only employee. Linemen (D.O.T. 5-53.420) construct and maintain the network of powerlines which carry electricity from the generating plants to the consumers. However, construction of trans mission lines— the erection of the steel towers and the stringing of the lines between them— is generally contracted out to companies spe cializing in this work. Groundmen (D.O.T. 9 54.10) dig postholes and assist the linemen and apprentices to erect the wooden poles which carry the distribution lines. The linemen bolt crossarms to the poles or towers, and nail or clamp insulators in place on the crossarms. With the assistance of the groundmen, they raise the wires and cables and install them on the poles or towers by attaching them to the insulators. In addition, linemen attach a wide variety of equipment to the poles and towers, such as lightning arrestors, transformers, and switches. Although the installation of new lines and equipment is important, much of the linemen’s Linemen attdehing transmission cable to insulator. 618 work consists of repairs and routine mainte nance. When wires, cables, or poles break, it means an emergency call for a line crew. Line men splice or replace broken wires and cables and replace broken insulators or other damaged equipment. In some power companies, linemen specialize in particular types of work. Those in one crew may work only on new construction and others may do only repair work. In some instances, linemen specialize on high voltage lines using special “ hot line” tools to avoid interruptions in the flow of current. Troublemen (D.O.T. 5-53.422) are linemen with several years of experience who are as signed to special crews which handle emer gency calls for service. They move from one special job to another, as ordered by a central service office which receives reports of line trouble. Often troublemen receive their orders by direct radio communication with the cen tral service office. These workers must have a thorough knowl edge of the company’s transmission and distri bution network. They first locate and report the source of trouble and then attempt to re store service by making the necessary repairs. Depending on the nature and extent of the trouble, a troubleman may restore service in the case of minor failure, or he may simply disconnect and remove damaged equipment. He must be familiar with all the circuits and switching points so that he can safely discon nect live circuits in case of line breakdowns. Cable splicers (D.O.T. 5-53.950) install and repair underground lines, performing about the same service as the linemen do on the over head lines. When cables are installed, the cable splicers pull the cable through the conduit in which the cable is carried. The splicers then join the cables at connecting points in the trans mission and distribution systems. At each con nection or break in the cable, they wrap insula tion around the wiring. They splice the wires leading away from each junction of the main cable, insulate the splices, and connect the in sulated splices to the cable sheathing by means of a lead joint. Most of the actual physical work in the placing of new cables is done by the cable laying crew. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Cable splicers spend most of their time in re pairing and maintaining the cables and chang ing the layout of the cable systems. Splicers must know the arrangement of the wiring sys tems, where the lines are connected, and where they lead to and come from. They test pairs of wires for electrical continuity and to make sure that the insulation is in good condition. They connect the ends of the wires to numbered terminals, making certain that they have the same identifying number at the remote panel box in an underground vault as they have in the control office. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Load dispatchers are selected from among the experienced switchboard operators and op erators of the larger substations. Usually, 7 to 10 years of experience as a senior switchboard or substation operator is required for promo tion to load dispatcher. To qualify for this job, an applicant must demonstrate his knowledge of the entire utility system. Substation operators generally begin as as sistant or junior operators. It usually takes 3 to 7 years of on-the-job training to advance to the job of operator in a large substation. Work ers begin in small substations and are promoted to larger stations as they become more experi enced. Skilled linemen (journeymen) usually quali fy for such jobs after about 4 years of on-thejob training. In some companies, this training consists of a formal apprenticeship program. Under formal apprenticeship, there is a writ ten agreement, usually worked out with a la bor union, which covers the content of the training and the length of time the apprentice works in each stage of the training. The ap prenticeship program combines on-the-job training with classroom instructions. Such in struction includes courses in blueprint reading, elementary electrical theory, electrical codes, and methods of transmitting electrical cur rents. At the beginning of 1960, 745 linemen were receiving training under formal appren ticeship programs. The apprentice usually begins his training as a groundman; he assists the lineman by ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER INDUSTRY helping to set poles in place and by passing tools and equipment up to him. After a training period of approximately 6 months, the appren tice begins to do simple linework on lines with low voltage. While on this work, he is under the immediate supervision of a journeyman line man or the line foreman. After about a year, he is assigned more difficult work, but is still under close supervision. During the last part of his apprenticeship, the trainee does about the same kind of work as the journeyman line man, but with more supervision. When he be gins to work independently, he is first assigned less difficult routine tasks. After he acquires several years of experience and demonstrates a thorough knowledge of the company’s trans mission and distribution systems, he may ad vance from lineman to troubleman. The training of linemen under the informal method is generally similar to the apprentice ship program; it usually takes about the same length of time, but it does not involve classroom instruction. The worker begihs as a groundman and progresses through increasingly dif ficult stages of linework before becoming a skilled lineman. Candidates for linework should be strong and in good physical condition since climbing poles and lifting lines and equipment is strenuous work. They must also have steady nerves and good balance to work at the tops of the poles and to avoid the hazards of live wires and falls. Most cable splicers get their training on the job, usually taking about 4 years to become ful ly qualified. Workers begin as helpers and are then promoted to assistant or junior splicers. In these jobs, they are gradually assigned more difficult tasks as their knowledge of the work increases. At the beginning of 1960, there were about 290 cable splicers receiving training under for mal apprenticeship programs. Employment Outlook A continued slow increase in the employment of transmission and distribution workers is ex pected during the 1960’s. Even though the total these workers is expected to increase number of 619 only slightly during the 1960’s, there will be job opportunities for new workers. The need to replace workers who retire, die or transfer to other fields of work should provide a few thousand job opportunities each year. There will be differences in the rate of em ployment growth among the various transmis sion and distribution occupations. Because of the need to construct and maintain the growing number of transmission and distribution lines which are anticipated in the 1960’s, the num ber of linemen and troublemen are expected to increase more rapidly than the other occupa tions. However, even for linemen, the increase will be moderate. Little increase in the num ber of cable-splicers is expected because most large cities are already equipped with under ground line installations and little expansion of underground construction is anticipated be cause of its high cost compared with overhead wire installations. The need for substation op erators will be substantially reduced because of the introduction of improved and more auto matic equipment, and the growing number of completely automatic substations. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of transmission and distribu tion workers depend on the type of job they have and the part of the country in which they work. The following tabulation shows the av erage hourly earnings in the United States for major transmission and distribution occupa tions in 1960: Average hourly earnings $2.06 Groundman__________________________________ Lineman _______________________________________ 3.00 Load dispatcher_______________________________ 3.54 Substation operator ___________________________ 2.90 Troubleman ___________________________________ 3.05 No recent earnings data are available for cable splicers; however, their earnings are generally about the same as those for linemen. Load dispatchers and substation operators generally work indoors in pleasant surround ings. Linemen, troublemen, and groundmen work outdoors in all kinds of weather. Cable 620 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK splicers do most of their work in manholes be neath city streets— often in cramped quarters. Safety standards developed over the years by utility companies, with the cooperation of unions, have greatly reduced the accident haz ards of these jobs. Customer Service Occupations Nature of Work Workers in customer service jobs include those who install, test, and repair meters and those who read the meters. Also in this group are company agents in rural areas and appli ance servicemen working in company-operated shops which repair electrical equipment owned by customers. Metermen (D.O.T. 5-83.456) (or meter re pairmen) are the most skilled workers in this group. They install, test maintain, and repair meters on customers’ premises, particularly those of large industrial and commercial estab lishments. Some metermen can handle all types of meters, including the more complicated ones used in industrial plants and in other places where large quantities of electric power are used. Others specialize in repairing the sim pler kinds, like those used to record consump- Meterman checking accuracy of meter installed outside customer’s residence. tion of electricity in homes. Often, some of the large systems have meter specialists, such as meter installers (D.O.T. 5-83.450, .451) and meter testers (D.O.T. 5-83.452). Meter install ers install and remove meters. Meter testers specialize in testing not only the small meters on homeowners’ property, but also the more complicated ones used in relay testing and con trol operations of the utility systems. Meter readers (D.O.T. 1-49.94) go to cus tomers’ premises— homes, stores, and factories — to read the figures on the meters which reg ister the amount of electric current used. They record the amount of current used in a specific period so that each customer can be charged for the amount he used. Meter readers also watch for, and report, any tampering with meters. District representatives usually serve as company agents in outlying districts, in local ities where the utility company does not have an office and where the small number of cus tomers does not justify the use of more special ized workers. Their work includes reading me ters, collecting overdue bills, connecting and disconnecting meters, and making minor re pairs on them. They receive complaints about service and reports of line trouble and send them to a central office for handling. Appliance servicemen (D.O.T. 5-83.041) are employed by some electric utility companies to install, repair, and service electrical appli ances either in the company’s shop or on the customers’ premises. In a large city where many appliance servicemen are employed, they may specialize in servicing only one type of ap pliance; however, the companies generally re quire that the servicemen know how to fix many types of appliances. (A detailed discus sion of the duties, training, and employment opportunities in Appliance Servicemen Jobs ap pears elsewhere in this Handbook. See index for page numbers.) ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER INDUSTRY Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Metermen begin their jobs as helpers in the meter testing and meter repair departments. Young men entering this field should have a basic knowledge of electricity. About 4 years of on-the-job training is required to become a fully qualified meterman. Some companies have formal apprenticeship programs for this occupation in which the worker advances along well-defined lines of progression. Utility companies usually employ inexperi enced men to work as meter readers. They gen erally learn the job by accompanying the ex perienced meter reader on his rounds until they have learned the job well enough to go out on their rounds alone. This job can be learned in a relatively short time. The duties of district representatives can be learned on the job in a relatively short time. An important qualification for men in these jobs is the ability to deal tactfully with the public in handling service complaints and col lecting overdue bills. Employment Outlook Slowly rising employment is expected in this field of work in the 1960’s. Because many new customers— homes, offices, factories, hotels, and stores— will be served by utility systems; a large number of meters will be needed. How ever this will require only a slight increase in the number of meter readers because of the 621 trend toward reading meters every other month. Furthermore, since the new meters now being installed are better constructed and require less maintenance, there will be only a limited growth in the number of metermen needed. The need to replace workers who re tire, die, or transfer to other fields of work will provide a small number of job openings for new workers each year. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of customer service workers vary according to the type of job and the part of the country in which they work. The follow ing tabulation shows the average hourly earn ings in the United States for major customer service jobs in 1960: Average hourly earnings District representative______________________ $2.87 Meterman ______________________________________ 2.98 Appliance serviceman ________________________ 2.73 Little information is available on wages of me ter readers, but an examination of a few unionemployer contracts indicates that their hourly rates averaged from $2.14 to $2.39 in 1960. The job of the meter reader is not physically hard, but involves considerable walking and some stair climbing. Metermen and appliance servicemen work indoors under typical repair shop conditions except when repairing or in stalling meters or appliances on customers’ premises. ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS Job opportunities in electronics manufactur ing are expected to continue to expand rapidly over the 1960-70 decade. Electronic products, such as radar, television, radio, and computers, are being used increasingly in the Nation's de fense— for example, in missiles and satellites — and in factories, offices, homes, schools, and hospitals. Opportunities will be particularly good for scientists, engineers, and technicians, as well as for skilled craftsmen. Women will find many opportunities in this field, mainly in production jobs, such as assembler, and in cler ical jobs. Nature of Electronics Manufacturing Before World War II, the principal elec tronic products were radios, broadcasting equipment, other receiving and transmitting equipment, and electron tubes. With the rapid development of new electronic products during and after the war, the broader term “ electron ics manufacturing” or “ electronics industry" came into general use. Approximately 550,000 workers were em ployed in 1960 in plants which principally pro duced electronic end products, such as radios, radio and television equipment, radar and other detection apparatus, phonographs, and radio tubes. Many thousands of other electronics workers were employed in industries which principally produced nonelectronic equipment but also made electronic devices. For example, pknts manufacturing computing and account ing machines also produced electronic comput ers. The heart of every electronic product is an electronic circuit or system which includes electron (vacuum or gas filled) tubes, semi conductors, or photo-sensitive devices. These tubes and other electronic devices discharge, control, or direct the flow of small, active par ticles of negative electricity (electrons) 622 through the circuit. Because of their unique functions, electronic devices are finding many applications. For example, they are used in computers which can perform hundreds of thousands of calculations per second; in con trol systems which guide missiles traveling at supersonic speed; and in equipment which can transmit, over hundreds of miles, clear pic tures of events as they happen. Electronic products may be grouped into five major categories: (1) military equipment, (2) consumer products, (3) industrial and commercial equipment, (4) electron tubes and semiconductor devices, and (5) other electronic components. Military products include elec tronic guidance systems for aircraft and mis siles, radar and other detection devices, auto matic communications and computing systems, navigational equipment, and fire controls (in cluding rocket launching and guidance equip ment and air-to-air target-seeking and detonat ing equipment). Consumer products include television sets, radios, phonographs, high fidel ity and stereophonic equipment, tape recorders, automatic garage door openers, and hearing aids. Some important commercial and indus trial electronic products are commercial radio and television broadcasting equipment, commer cial and private aircraft communications and navigational apparatus, electronic computers, and industrial testing, measuring, and produc tion control equipment. Electron tubes include receiving tubes, power tubes, television picture tubes, and special purpose tubes, such as those used in ultra-high frequency equipment; semi conductors include transistors, diodes, and rec tifiers. Other electronic components include ca pacitors, resistors, transformers, relays, con nectors, and switches. Military equipment accounted for almost one-half of the nearly $6 billion total electronic equipment output in 1959, excluding research, development, test, and evaluation expendi- ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS CHART 29 MILITARY EQUIPMENT REPRESENTS ALMOST ONE-HALF OF THE TOTAL ELECTRONICS OUTPUT... 1 Estimates of value of output based on data from the U.S. Department of Commerce. Business and Defense Services Administration. 2‘ Excludes research and developm ent expenditures', and sales of phonograph records and m agnetic tape. tures estimated at more than $2 billion in 1960. (See chart 29.) Research, development, and related expenditures resulted in large de mand for components and for industrial elec tronic equipment. Electronics manufacturing plants are lo cated in nearly every State, but the largest num bers of electronics workers are in New York, New Jersey, California, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Indiana, and Ohio. Metropol itan areas with large numbers of electronics workers include Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, Philadelphia, Newark, Boston, and Balti more. Many of the newer plants are in subur ban and rural areas. How Electronic Products Are Made Many plants manufacturing electronic prod ucts specialize in one type of end product, such as television sets, radios, or electronic computers; or one type of component, such as television picture tubes, power tubes, semi conductors, and other electronic components. 623 In plants which produce several types of end products or components, each type is general ly made in a separate department. Subassemblies such as tuners and record changers are often made by firms specializing in these products. Special types of subassemblies, such as those in military and in dustrial equipment, are usually made in the plants assembling these products. A large proportion of workers in plants manu facturing end products are engaged in assembly operations. Inspecting and testing of subas semblies and end products are also important activities. Some of these plants have fabri cating and processing departments in which workers do machining, sheet-metal work, and cleaning and coating of metals. In assembling television sets and other end products, components and major subassemblies (such as tuners and speakers) are attached mainly by hand onto a chassis or printed cir cuit board or panel. Assembled units are then placed into metal, plastic, or wooden cabinets. In large quantity production, a moving con veyor is used to move the chassis from one work station to another. Where production lots are smaller, workers push the product along the work table. Much of the assembly of military and industrial equipment is done by hand. In electronic equipment manufacturing plants, semiautomatic and automatic ma chinery is being used more and more to per form certain assembly operations. For example, in the manufacture of printed circuit boards, punch presses are used to make holes in thin sheets of plastic (one side of which is coated with a thin layer of copper) so that components can be attached. Many of these presses operate automatically. Electrical circuits are etched on the boards by machines, replacing wires. Ma chines also position components into the proper holes in the circuit boards. Mechanical devices bend the wires or metal “ ears” on the bottom of the components, thus locking them into place on the board. The wire leads on the components are soldered to the etched circuits in one con tinuous operation (called “ dip” or “ wave” soldering). Parts used in end products are usually brought to the assembly line by hand truck 624 since most electronic parts are not bulky. They may be loose in boxes, fed from hoppers (recep tacles for parts), or held in special containers or jigs. During the movement of the product down the assembly line, it passes frequent visual inspection and electrical testing stations where workers locate faulty parts or connec tions. Electronic tubes are the last components added to the unit prior to placement into a cabinet. Some electronic products, particularly scien tific and research devices and some military equipment, are made in small lots. These prod ucts are assembled entirely by hand by assem blers who frequently work under the direction of an electronics technician. This work is often performed in engineering laboratories. In component manufacturing plants, parts are assembled primarily by hand. Most types of transistors, as well as other semiconductors which have very tiny parts, are usually assem bled by women using tweezers and other small handtools. Also, special purpose tubes, as well as experimental components, generally are as sembled by hand. Machinery is used to put to gether certain types of components, partic ularly standardized items made in large quan tities, such as many types of resistors, capac itors, connectors, and related components. Some automatic equipment has been introduced in recent years. Electronic components, subassemblies, and end products are thoroughly inspected and tested many times so that the product being manufactured meets specifications. Inspecting and testing begin with visual inspection of raw materials or components as they enter the plant and continue through all stages of manu facture. Electronics Manufacturing Occupations A wide variety of occupations, requiring a broad range of training and skills, are found in plants manufacturing electronic products. Ap proximately three out of five workers in elec tronics manufacturing are in plant jobs (pro duction, maintenance, transportation, and serv ice) ; the rest are in white-collar jobs (engi neering, scientific, and other technical jobs, and OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK administrative, clerical, and sales jobs). Ap proximately one-half of all the white-collar workers are engaged in research and develop ment work. The proportions of plant and office workers differ from one establishment to another, depending on the products being manu factured. For example, the proportion of plant workers in establishments producing consumer products, such as television sets, is generally higher than in plants manufacturing military and industrial products, since more assembly, fabrication, and processing workers are needed. About half of the workers employed in elec tronics manufacturing plants are women and, in some plants, particularly those producing semiconductors, women account for more than 60 percent of the total employment. Most wom en are employed as semiskilled production workers, chiefly as assemblers and as office workers. However, some opportunities exist for women in nearly all types of jobs. Professional and Technical Occupations. A large proportion of electronics workers are in engineering, scientific, and other technical jobs. Engineers and scientists alone made up about 15 percent of all electronics workers in 1960, according to an estimate by the Electronics Industries Association. Generally, they account for a much larger proportion of employment in plants making military and industrial-commer cial electronic products than in those producing consumer products. Also, a higher proportion of scientists and engineers are employed in es tablishments engaged entirely in research and development work, and in manufacturing plants which have such activities. The largest group of engineers are electrical or electronics engineers who are generally em ployed in research and development, although considerable numbers are also engaged in pro duction, sales, and liaison work. Many elec tronics engineers work as design engineers; others work as test methods and quality con trol engineers in production operations. Elec tronics engineers also work outside the plants as field engineers, sales engineers, and engi neering liaison men. Substantial numbers of mechanical engineers and industrial engineers are also employed in ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS electronics manufacturing plants. Mechanical engineers work as design engineers in product development and in tool and equipment design. They work also as plant engineers— chiefly con cerned with the maintenance, design, and opera tion of plant equipment. Most industrial engi neers work as production engineers or as effi ciency, methods, or time-study engineers. Other engineers employed in electronics manu facturing are chemical engineers and ceramic engineers. Physicists make up the largest group of scien tists. Many of them work on the development of microwave tubes and the design and fabri cation of micro-miniaturized components and circuits (developing lighter weight, increas ingly smaller electronic devices which consume less power). Devices have already been devel oped so small that they are measured in terms of layers of molecules. A large proportion of the scientists are chemists and metallurgists, who are employed mainly in research work and in materials testing. Mathematicians and stat isticians work with engineers and scientists on complex mathematical and statistical problems, especially in the field of military equipment and computer design. Statisticians are also em ployed in the field of quality control. Industrial designers work on the design of electronic equipment. Many thousands of technicians and drafts men are employed by electronics manufacturing firms, mainly to assist engineers and scientists. Draftsmen are usually employed in engineering departments to prepare drawings from sketches or specifications furnished by engineers. Manu facturers of military equipment generally em ploy a higher proportion of draftsmen than manufacturers of other types of electronic prod ucts. Electronics technicians comprise a large group among technicians. Many are engaged in research and development work, assisting en gineers in the design and construction of ex perimental models. They are also employed by manufacturers to work on electronic equipment in customers’ establishments. Other electronics technicians work in certain highly technical inspecting, testing, and assembly jobs in the 625 engineering laboratories of firms manufactur ing electronic products. Engineering aids are another important group of technicians. They assist engineers by making calculations, sketches, and drawings, and by conducting performance tests on com ponents and systems. Laboratory technicians assist physicists, chemists, and engineers by performing standard and, frequently, routine laboratory analyses. Some laboratory techni cians set up apparatus and conduct experi ments. Mathematical assistants help to solve mathematical problems, following procedures that have been outlined by mathematicians. They also operate test equipment used in the development of electronic computers. Technical writers work closely with engi neers, particularly in plants making military and industrial products and in establishments doing research and development work only. They prepare training and technical manuals describing the operation and maintenance of electronic equipment. They also prepare cata logs, product literature, and project reports and proposals. Technical writers often have technical school or college training in science or engineering; others are usually college grad uates with a flair for writing who acquire a knowledge of electronics on the job. Specifica tions writers compile lists of required measure ments and materials. Technical artists or illus trators draw pictures of electronic equipment. Administrative, Clerical, and Related Occupa tions. A large number of the white-collar workers in electronics manufacturing plants are in administrative or other office jobs. Ad ministrative workers include purchasing agents, sales executives, personnel workers, and adver tising personnel. Clerks, secretaries, stenog raphers, typists, and business machine opera tors are among the thousands of other office workers employed by electronics manufacturing firms. More than half of the office workers are women. Plant Occupations. About three-fifths of the employees in electronics manufacturing are plant workers. They work in assembly, ma chining, fabricating, processing, inspecting and 626 testing, maintenance, and other types of plant operations. The proportion of workers in each of these operations differs among electronics plants, depending largely on whether end prod ucts or components are produced, and the type of end product or component that is manu factured. For example, the proportion of as semblers is higher in plants making consumer end products than in plants producing military equipment. It is also higher in plants producing semiconductors and receiving tubes than in plants making other electronic components, such as connectors and relays. The proportion of machining, fabricating, and processing workers is usually higher among manufacturers of components than of end products. Assembly occupations (D.O.T. 6-98.010 through 350; 7-00.007 through .970). Assem blers make up the largest group of plant Workers. Both electronic end product and com ponent manufacturing firms employ assem blers with many different skills. However, most assemblers are semiskilled workers. Most end products are assembled mainly by hand. Assembly line workers put together end products with small handtools, soldering irons, and light welding devices. They use diagrams, models, and color coded parts and wires to help them in their work. Both dip soldering proc esses and hand soldering may be used. In the assembly of certain subassemblies for end prod ucts, such as printed circuit boards, automatic machines are often used to position components on the boards. Here the assemblers work as machine operators or loaders. Precision assemblers put together compo nents and subassemblies into end products in which moving parts and mechanisms must oper ate within clearances measured in thousandths of an inch. Some of these assembly workers do repair work, experimental and developmental work, and modjel assembly work. Most precision assemblers are employed in the manufacture of military and industrial electronic equipment. Electronics technicians may do some types of assembling in engineering laboratories of plants manufacturing end products. They work chiefly on the assembly of small quantities of complex, often experimental, equipment, par ticularly where some knowledge of electronics OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK theory is required to understand the operation of the equipment. Some electronics technicians put together subassembjies into complex sys tems such as those in guided missiles. Assemblers employed by component manu facturers range from machine operators, fre quently called machine loaders, to electronics technicians who hand assemble experimental components. Most components are assembled by machines, since their assembly involves many separate but simple and repetitive operations. Even some types of miniaturized transistors and other components, made with parts small enough to pass through the eye of a needle, are now assembled on highly complex machines. Some of these machines are automatically con trolled. Many hand assemblers are needed to put to gether certain components, such as receiving tubes, special purpose tubes, and many types of transistors, diodes, capacitors, and resistors. Assemblers usually perform a single operation on the component as it moves down the assem bly line, but some may completely assemble a particular type of component. Tiny components Assembler installing printed circuit board in warning radar system unit. ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS Assemblers putting together transistors under a microscope in dust-free room. are often hand-assembled under magnifying glasses or powerful microscopes. Hand assemblers are also employed in elec tronics research laboratories and in the research and development departments of component manufacturers. These workers— frequently called electronics technicians— generally do dif ficult assembly work on small quantities of components for experimental purposes. They may also work on the development of new ways to assemble large quantities of such components by machine. These assemblers usually must know enough electronics theory to understand how the components operate. Most assemblers are women. They are em ployed mainly as machine operators or tenders and as hand assemblers of components made in large quantities. Men are chiefly employed in experimental assembly work, in model as sembly, and in assembly jobs requiring rela tively heavy work. Men are also employed in assembly departments as “ trouble shooters.” These workers analyze end products and subassemblies which have failed routine perform ance tests, to pinpoint the exact cause of faulty operation. Men assemblers employed in plants which manufacture military and industrial 627 electronic systems connect units into major electronic systems. Machining occupations. Metal machining jobs account for a significant number of plant jobs in electronics manufacturing plants. Ma chine tool operators and machinists operate power-driven machine tools to produce metal parts for electronic products. Toolmakers con struct and repair jigs and fixtures used in the fabrication and assembly of parts. Diemakers specialize in making metal forms (dies) used in punch and power presses to shape metal parts. Fabricating occupations. Many different fabricating occupations are found in electronics manufacturing, but the number of workers in each of these jobs is not large. Among the fabricating workers are sheet-metal workers who make frames, chassis, and cabinets. Glass blowers and glass lathe operators (D.O.T. 7 00.035) are used chiefly in electronic tube ex perimentation and development work; in the manufacture of special purpose tubes, which are made in small numbers; and in rebuilding television picture tubes. Other fabricating workers include punch press operators, blank ing machine operators (D.O.T. 8-98.01), and shear operators. Some fabricating jobs involve the molding, firing, and glazing of ceramics which are used as insulating materials in many components. Workers may also mold plastic components. In tube manufacturing, special fabricating workers are employed. For example, grid lathe opera tors (D.O.T. 6-98.251) make grids (devices in electronic tubes which control the flow of elec trons) by winding fine wire around two heavy parallel wires. Other fabricating workers in clude spot welders, coil winders (D.O.T. 6-98. 250 and 6-99.013 through .016), and crystal grinders and finishers (D.O.T. 6-98.080, .084, and .085). Processing occupations. Many workers in electronics manufacturing occupations are en gaged in processing activities, chiefly in plants producing electronic components. Electroplat ers and tinners (D.O.T. 6-74.120) coat many parts with metal. Anodizers (D.O.T. 4-74.910) treat parts in electrolytic and chemical baths to prevent corrosion. Silk screen operators 628 print patterns on circuit boards and on parts of electronic components. Etching equipment operators do chemical etching of copper on the printed circuit boards. Some processing workers impregnate or coat coils and other electronic components with waxes, oils, or other materials. Such operations are important in tube manufacturing. Another group of processing workers oper ates furnaces, ovens, and kilns, which are used chiefly to harden ceramics, to bake on coatings, and to eliminate contamination by gases and foreign materials. Operators of infrared ovens, and hydrogen furnace firers (D.O.T. 6-98.280) rid tubes of foreign deposits. In tube manufac turing, exhaust operators (D.O.T. 7-00.018) and sealers (D.O.T. 7-00.025 and .054) operate gas flame machines which seal the mount (the part of an electronic tube consisting of a Bakelite base and stem) in the tube, clear the tube of impurities, exhaust the gas, and seal the tube. Testing and inspection. Testing and inspec tion in electronics manufacturing begin when raw materials enter the plants, and continue throughout the fabricating operations. Finished components and end products undergo thorough testing and inspection before they are shipped. In component plants, testers are employed in Inspector, using magnifying glass, checks negative used in printing electrical circuits on circuit boards. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK various types of jobs— for example, coil tester, transformer tester, and magnetic component tester. Many others are simply called compo nent testers. Inspectors of raw materials and components make up a major group of inspectors. Some of these workers have job titles which indicate the work they do, such as incoming materials in spector, plating inspector, and machine parts inspector. In end product manufacturing plants, compo nents and subassemblies are generally tested individually. Final assemblies are also tested separately; frequently they are operated for a period of time before they are packaged and shipped. Among the occupations involving test ing in the manufacture of radios and television sets are trouble shooter or analyzer, final tester, prealine tester, tuner tester, and operational tester. Electronic assembly inspectors (D.O.T. 4 98.101) examine assembled electronic units to make certain that they conform to blueprints and specifications, and check wire routing, electrical connections, and quality of units. Mechanical and precision inspectors check mechanical assemblies and precision parts. Final inspectors provide the last visual inspec tion of the plant’s products. Testers use voltmeters, oscilloscopes, and other test meters to make certain that electronic components, subassemblies, and end products conform with specifications. Automatic testing devices are also used. Some testing jobs require technically trained workers who have had several years of experi ence in electronic testing. In research and de velopment activities, electronics technicians test circuits and systems as part of their over all responsibility. In skilled production testing jobs, missile testers and other systems testers test, adjust, and aline complicated systems. Missile component testers and certain other component testers perform similar work on elec tronic units. Maintenance occupations. Many mainte nance workers with different types of training are employed in electronics manufacturing plants to take care of machinery and equip ment. Skilled electricians are responsible for ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS 629 occupations include boiler operator and station ary engineer. (Detailed discussions of professional, techni cal, mechanical, and other occupations found in electronics manufacturing plants as well as in many other industries are given elsewhere in this Handbook, in sections covering the individ ual occupations. See index for page numbers.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Tester checking and adjusting test pattern on T V picture tube. , the proper operation of electrical equipment. Machine and equipment repairmen perform mechanical repairs. Hydraulic mechanics spe cialize in maintaining hydraulic equipment. Maintenance machinists and welders build and repair equipment, jigs, and fixtures. Air-con ditioning and refrigeration mechanics are em ployed in some electronics plants, particularly in component plants and those engaged in re search and development work, which are air conditioned and have special refrigerated and dust-free rooms. Painters, plumbers, pipefitters, carpenters, sheet-metal workers, and other building maintenance craftsmen are also em ployed in electronics plants. Other plant occupations. Parts changer and repairman are other important occupations in electronics plants. These workers repair as sembled electronic products which have been tagged by trouble shooters, inspectors, ana lyzers, and testers for replacement of parts or for other repairs. Women are frequently em ployed as parts changers. Many workers are employed in materials movement and handling. These include oper ators of plant trucks and tractors; forklift op erators who stack crates and load and unload trucks and boxcars; and truckdrivers who han dle transportation outside of the plant. Other Electronics manufacturing plants employ many engineers, scientists, and technicians, be cause of the technical nature of plant produc tion operations and the great emphasis on re search and development work. Beginning en gineering jobs are usually filled by recent grad uates of engineering colleges (some with ad vanced degrees). A small number of workers without college degrees have been upgraded to professional engineering classifications from such occupations as engineering assistant and electronics technician. Workers who have be come engineers in this way usually have taken advanced electronics courses in night school or under other training programs. To keep up with new developments in their fields and to help them qualify for promotion, professional and technical personnel obtain additional train ing, read technical publications, and attend lec tures and technical demonstrations. Almost all mathematicians, physicists, and other scientists employed in electronics manu facturing plants have college degrees and many have advanced degrees. Job prospects are usu ally better for scientists with at least a mas ter’s degree than for those with only a bach elor’s degree. Technicians generally need some specialized training to qualify for their jobs. Most elec tronics technicians have attended either a pub lic, private, or Armed Forces technical school. Two years of training in a technical school and 5 or 6 years of experience are often the require ments for the more highly technical jobs. Some electronics technicians obtain their train ing through apprenticeships. Some testers and experimental assemblers have been upgraded to the job of electronics technician after they have developed required skills on the job and 630 acquired the necessary knowledge in basic elec tronics theory, mathematics, drafting, and reading of schematic diagrams, by attending company-operated evening classes, or taking night school, junior college, technical school, correspondence, or other courses. Some techni cians who do final testing that requires the op eration of radio transmitting equipment must hold licenses from the Federal Communications Commission as first- or second-class commer cial radiotelephone operators. Chemical and physics laboratory technicians, engineering and scientific aids, and mathemat ical assistants frequently have had 1 or more years of college training in a scientific or engi neering field, but have not completed the course requirements for a degree; in other cases, these workers have been upgraded from jobs as lower grade assistants in engineering laboratories or as high-grade testers in production depart ments. In hiring lower grade assistants, elec tronics firms give preference to high school graduates who have completed high school courses in mathematics, physics, and chemis try. Draftsmen usually have entered their trade by taking a course in drafting at a trade or technical school; a few have completed a 3- or 4-year apprenticeship. Some have qualified for their jobs under an informal arrangement with their employers which provided for a combina tion of on-the-job training and part-time schooling. Because many draftsmen must understand the basic principles of electronic circuits to do their work, they should study bas ic electronics theory and circuits and the read ing of electronic schematic diagrams. Technical writers must have a flair for writ ing and are usually required to have some tech nical training. Electronics firms prefer to hire those who have had some technical institute or college training in science or engineering. Some have college engineering degrees. Many have college degrees in English or journalism and have received their technical training on the job and by attending company-operated evening classes. Technical illustrators have usually http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ attended special schools of art or design. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Many tool and die makers, machinists, elec tricians, pipefitters, carpenters, and other craftsmen in electronics manufacturing have learned their trades by completing a 4- or 5-year apprenticeship. Some have entered these trades through upgrading from helpers’ jobs. Some have taken courses at vocational schools which have helped them learn their trades. Employers look for job applicants with an avocation in electronics for production as well as some office jobs. Employees with hobbies or other interests involving electronics, such as assembling radios, repairing radio and televi sion sets, and “ ham” radio operation tend to show considerable interest in their jobs. Such employees are often given preference in promo tion. Because of the nature of their work, as semblers, testers, inspectors, and electronics technicians need good vision, including good color vision; patience; manual dexterity; and good eye-hand coordination. Electronics tech nicians and other technical workers must be able to understand technical publications. Formal training in electronics is not neces sary for workers entering many of the plant jobs, but employers frequently require appli cants to have completed high school. Some times, job applicants must pass aptitude tests and demonstrate skill for particular types of jobs. On-the-job training, usually for a short period, is generally provided for workers who have had no previous experience. Requirements for filling administrative and other office jobs are similar to those in other industries. Certain beginning jobs in adminis trative activities in electronics manufacturing are generally open only to college graduates with degrees in business administration, ac counting, or engineering. More and more em ployers are requiring college training for ad ministrative jobs in advertising, personnel, ac counting, and sales. For clerical jobs, employ ers usually prefer applicants who are high school graduates with special training in ste nography, typing, bookkeeping, and the oper ation of office machines. Women hold many of these jobs. ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS Employment Outlook Many thousands of job opportunities will be available for new workers in electronics manu facturing plants each year over the 1960-70 decade. Electronics employment is expected to grow much more rapidly than manufacturing employment as a whole, but it probably will not increase as rapidly as it did over the 195060 decade. Because of the large number of workers in electronics manufacturing, thou sands of job openings will also become avail able each year as a result of the need to replace workers who transfer to jobs in other indus tries, or who retire or die. Since women make up a high proportion of electronics employ ment, many people will be hired to replace the large number of women workers who leave their jobs to marry or, if they are already mar ried, to raise families. One of the main reasons why employment in electronics manufacturing will expand will be rising expenditures for military electronic equipment. Particularly large increases in ex penditures are expected for electronic equip ment in guided missiles, and supporting equip ment, and in detection and communications systems. Also, the Nation’s expanding space’ program will require larger quantities of elec tronic equipment. Substantial growth in electronics production for industrial use is also expected because the trend toward modernization and automation of production processes will stimulate spending for new plants and equipment. An increasing proportion of these expenditures will be for the newer types of electronic equipment, such as computers and automatically controlled ma chine tools. Also, the demand for industry’s older and more developed industrial products, such as broadcasting equipment, radio commu nications equipment, test instruments, and nav igational equipment, will continue to expand. For example, the use of two-way radio commu nications equipment by police and fire depart ments, public utilities, taxicab and trucking companies, pipeline firms, and others is ex pected to spread rapidly. Production of elec tronic equipment for the medical field will also expand greatly. 631 More home television sets, radios, phono graphs, and stereophonic and high fidelity equipment will be purchased as population and the standard of living continue rising over the 1960-70 decade. These products will remain the principal electronic consumer items. In ad dition, other electronic consumer products which are already on the market or being de veloped (e.g., electronic ovens, garage door openers, dishwashers, lighting equipment, and air conditioners) may become standard house hold equipment in the years ahead. Rising expenditures for research and devel opment in the electronics field will stimulate employment in electronics manufacturing. Al so, research and development will result in new military, industrial, and consumer prod ucts and in new types of components, all of which will provide more employment in elec tronics manufacturing. The increase in employment probably will not be as great as the expansion in output be cause technological improvements in produc tion methods are expected to increase output per worker. Also, increasing mechanization of operations formerly done by hand (such as many of those in assembly, processing, or ma terials movement) could reduce labor require ments. However, fabrication of many electron ic products will be difficult to adapt to highly automatic manufacturing processes, where such products are made in small quantities and require frequent design changes. The rates of employment growth will differ among the occupational groups and individual occupations in electronics manufacturing. En gineering, scientific, and other technical jobs will show the greatest rise over the next de cade, because of the growing volume of re search and development in electronics manu facturing and the increasing application of sci entific and engineering principles to produc tion operations. Employment of electronics en gineers and electronics technicians will rise more quickly than that of most other technical workers. However, there will also be many job opportunities for other types of engineers, and for physicists, chemists, mathematicians, and their technical assistants. Engineers, as well as people with backgrounds in marketing, will 632 also have many opportunities to work in the fields of sales and product application (finding new uses and markets for electronic products). Among those in plant jobs, semiskilled work ers, particularly hand assemblers, will increase the fastest. However, the number of semi skilled workers is expected to rise more slowly than over the 1950-60 decade, because of in creasing mechanization of manufacturing op erations in electronics plants. Although the number of skilled workers probably will rise slowly, employment opportunities will be fa vorable for the highly skilled workers needed to maintain and repair the growing amounts of complex machinery used to manufacture electronic products. The number of unskilled workers is expected to drop, because of the growing mechanization. Earnings and Working Conditions Production workers in plants manufacturing radios, phonographs, television sets, radar and related detection equipment earned an average of $89.78 per week or $2.25 an hour in January 1961. Those employed in plants making elec tronic tubes averaged $85.39 per week or $2.14 an hour. In the same month, production work ers in all manufacturing industries had aver age weekly earnings of $90.25 or average hourly earnings of $2.32. Hourly earnings of workers in many occupa tions in the manufacture of electronic equip ment vary considerably because of differences in the types of work performed and in the levels of skill and training required. Earnings also differ among plants depending upon their geo graphical location and the type of product manufactured. The following data collected from a number of union-management agree ments illustrate the approximate range of hourly wage rates of workers in selected oc cupational groups and individual occupations in plants manufacturing electronic equipment in 1960: M achinists_______________ ____________________ $1.90-$2.90 Troubleshooters ____________________________ 2.00- 2.60 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Assembling occupations ____________________ Inspecting occupations_____________________ Testing occupations_________________________ 1.50- 2.45 1.65- 2.70 1.50- 2.55 Trainees and apprentices may have rates below these ranges; other workers, such as highly qualified craftsmen, as well as troubleshooters, testers, and inspectors, may receive higher rates. Electronics workers generally receive premi um pay for overtime work and for work on Sundays and holidays. Virtually all plants pay a differential for evening and night shift work. Many workers in electronics manufacturing plants receive 2 or 3 weeks’ vacation with pay, depending on their length of service, and from 6 to 8 paid holidays a year. The benefits are more liberal for some workers, less liberal for others. Almost all electronics workers are cov ered by health and life insurance plans. Working conditions in electronics manu facturing compare favorably with those in other industries. Plants are usually well light ed and relatively clean and quiet. Plants, or plant departments, where sterile conditions or air temperature control is necessary for the manufacture of some types of electronic equip ment, are air conditioned. The work in most electronics occupations is not strenuous. How ever, many assembly line operations are repeti tious. Some plants provide music during work ing hours. Cafeterias, recreational facilities, and social programs are provided for employees by some electronics manufacturing firms. The frequency of injuries in electronics man ufacturing, for each million man-hours worked, is far below the average in manufacturing as a whole, and injuries are usually less severe. Many of the workers in electronics manufac turing are employed in unionized plants and are covered by collective bargaining agree ments. The principal unions involved are the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; International Associa tion of Machinists; and the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America (Ind.).
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