The full text on this page is automatically extracted from the file linked above and may contain errors and inconsistencies.
Occupational Outlook for
College Graduates, 1976-77 Edition
Occupational Outlook for
College Graduates, 1976-77 Edition
U.S. Department of Labor
W. J. Usery, Jr., Secretary
Bureau of Labor Statistics
Julius Shiskin, Commissioner
1977
Bulletin 1878
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $3.30
Stock Number 029-001-01407-4/ Catalog No. L2.3:1878
Preface
Career planning is becoming increasingly essential to college graduates who seek a rewarding
career. Changing economic conditions, the emergence of new occupations, and an expected
oversupply of graduates in some fields will affect the number and kinds of job opportunities that
will be available.
The Occupational Outlookfor College Graduates is a guide to career opportunities in a broad range
of occupations for which a college degree is, or is becoming, the usual background for
employment. It contains a brief summary of the expected changes in the economy, in addition to
an analysis of the overall supply and demand situation for college graduates through the mid1980’s. Each occupational statement presents information on the nature of the work, places of
employment, education and training required, employment outlook, earnings, and working
conditions. This volume can be an important aid to career planning for students attending or
expecting to attend college, as well as their counselors, teachers, and parents.
m
Contents
Page
I. How this book is organized........................ 1
II.
Tomorrow’s jobs for college graduates.... 11
III. Occupations................................................. 21
OFFICE OCCUPATIONS......................... 21
Administrative and related occupations.....
Accountants.........................................
Advertising workers............................
Bank officers........................................
Buyers...................................................
City managers......................................
College student personnel workers.....
Credit managers...................................
Hotel managers and assistants.............
Industrial traffic managers...................
Lawyers................................................
Marketing research workers................
Personnel and labor relations workers
Public relations workers......................
Purchasing agents................................
Urban planners.....................................
Computer and related occupations..............
Programmers........................................
Systems analysts..................................
Insurance occupations.................................
Actuaries..............................................
Claim representatives ...........................
Underwriters........................................
21
21
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
37
39
41
43
47
49
51
54
54
56
58
58
60
63
SERVICE OCCUPATIONS....................... 66
FBI special agents............................... 66
Police officers...................................... 67
State police officers............................... 70
Health and regulatory inspectors
(Government)................................... 71
Occupational safety and health work
ers.........................................................75
EDUCATION AND RELATED OCCU
PATIONS ................................................ 78
Kindergarten and elementary school
teachers................................................78
Page
Secondary school teachers................... 80
College and university teachers........... 82
Librarians...............................................84
SALES OCCUPATIONS............................ 88
Insurance agents and brokers..............
Manufacturers’ salesworkers...............
Real estate salesworkers and brokers ..
Securities salesworkers.........................
88
90
92
94
OCCUPATIONS IN TRANSPORTA
TION A CTIV ITIES............................... 97
Air traffic controllers........................... 97
Airplane pilots..................................... 98
Merchant marine officers......................101
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL OC
CUPATIONS ........................................... 105
Conservation occupations............................ 105
Foresters................................................ 106
Range managers.................................... 107
Soil conservationists..............................109
Engineers...................................................... I ll
Aerospace.............................................. 113
Agricultural........................................... 114
Biomedical............................................. 114
Ceram ic................................................. 115
Chemical................................................ 115
C ivil.......................................................116
Electrical................................................ 117
Industrial............................................... 118
Mechanical............................................. 119
Metallurgical......................................... 120
M ining................................................... 121
Petroleum.............................................. 121
Environmental scientists...............................123
Geologists...............................................123
Geophysicists.........................................125
Meteorologists.......................................127
Oceanographers......................................129
Contents— Continued
Page
Life scientists................................................. 132
Biochemists........................................... 132
Life scientists........................................ 134
Soil scientists......................................... 137
Mathematics occupations ............................ 139
Mathematicians......................................139
Statisticians............................................141
Physical scientists.........................................143
Astronomers..........................................143
Chemists............................................... 145
Food scientists......................................147
Physicists.............................................. 149
Other scientific and technical occupations 152
Broadcast technicians...........................152
D rafters................................................ 153
Engineering and science technicians ..155
Surveyors............................................. 160
HEALTH OCCUPATIONS......................163
Medical and dental practitioners................ 164
Chiropractors........................................164
Dentists................................................. 165
Optometrists..........................................167
Osteopathic physicians......................... 169
Physicians..............................................170
Podiatrists..............................................173
Veterinarians.........................................174
Other health occupations............................177
Dental hygienists..................................177
Dietitians...............................................179
Health services administrators............. 181
Medical laboratory workers................183
Medical record administrators............ 185
Occupational therapists........................187
Pharmacists.....................................
189
Physical therapists.................................191
Registered nurses................................. 193
Respiratory therapy workers...............195
Speech pathologists and audiologists.. 197
SOCIAL SCIENTISTS..............................200
Anthropologists....................................200
Economists............................................202
Page
Geographers.......................................... 203
Historians.............................................. 206
Political scientists................................. 207
Psychologists........................................ 209
Sociologists........................................... 211
SOCIAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS.....214
Counselors......................................................214
School counselors..................................214
Employment counselors........................ 216
Rehabilitation counselors...................... 218
College career planning and place
ment counselors..................................220
Clergy............................................................ 223
Protestant ministers............................... 223
Rabbis..................................................... 225
Roman Catholic priests.........................226
Other social service occupations.................228
Cooperative extension service workers 228
Home economists................................. 229
Recreation workers.............................. 231
Social w orkers...................................... 234
ART, DESIGN, AND COMMUNICA
TIONS—RELATED
OCCUPA
TIONS
238
Performing artists..........................................238
Actors and actresses..............................238
D ancers................................................. 240
Musicians............................................... 242
Singers.................................................... 244
Design occupations........................................247
Architects.............................................. 247
Commercial artists................................ 249
Industrial designers................................251
Interior designers.................................. 253
Landscape architects.............................255
Communications—related occupations.......258
Interpreters............................................ 258
Newspaper reporters............................ 260
Radio and television announcers.........262
Technical writers.................................. 264
I. HOW
THIS
This chapter describes the con
tents and organizations of the Oc
cupational Outlook for College
Graduates. The first section tells
how the information was assem
bled and discusses a number of
points that need to be kept in mind
while interpreting the occupational
statements that make up the main
body of the book. The second sec
tion of this chapter gives sugges
tions regarding supplementary
sources of occupational informa
tion and tells how you can keep up
to date on developments affecting
the employment outlook in differ
ent occupations. The third section
provides information on the
sources and methods used to ana
lyze the occupational outlook in
different fields of work.
The second introductory chapter
describes some of the most important
occupational and industrial employ
ment trends—and their relationship
to college graduates—to provide a
background for interpreting the re
ports on individual occupations.
OCCUPATIONAL
OUTLOOK STATEMENTS
The occupational statements that
follow the two introductory chap
ters are reprinted from the 1976-77
edition of the Occupational Out
look Handbook. These reports are
grouped into 10 “clusters” of occu
pations: Office occupations; service
occupations; education and related
occupations; sales occupations; oc
cupations in transportation activi
ties; scientific and technical
occupations; health occupations; so
cial science occupations; social ser
BOOK
IS
vice occupations; and art, design,
and communications related occupa
tions. These career clusters help re
late outlook materials to college
curriculums and occupational train
ing programs, career ladders and
lattices, and fields of interest for
college or potential college students
engaged in career exploration and
planning. The clusters are based on a
concept of related activities. Physi
cians, for example, are in the same
cluster as hospital administrators and
all other health employees. Within
some of these career clusters, occu
pations are further grouped into re
lated subfields. For example, within
the office occupation cluster, there
are groups for administrative and
related occupations, computer and
related occupations, and insurance
occupations.
The occupations discussed in
this volume generally are those of
greatest interest to college students
and graduates, and include those
for which a college education is
required, is becoming increasingly
necessary, or is the usual educa
tional background for employment.
Occupations
covered
include
workers in professional and related
occupations, sales occupations,
managerial and administrative oc
cupations, and service occupations.
The statements in this publication
account for about 90 percent of all
workers in professional and related
occupations, and for smaller pro
portions of workers in other major
groups. More than three-fifths of
all college graduates work in pro
fessional and related occupations;
smaller proportions are in other
major occupational groups.
ORGANIZED
Points to Bear in Mind in
Using Occupational Statements
A detailed list of the occupation
al reports by field of work is pro
vided in the table of contents at
the front of the book.
Once you have chosen an occu
pation you’d like to learn more
about—you can use the Occupa
tional Outlook for College G radu
ates to find out what the job is
like, what education and training is
necessary, and what the advance
ment possibilities, earnings, and
employment outlook are likely to
be. Each section of the book fol
lows a standard format, making it
easier to compare different jobs
with one another.
It is important to bear in mind
that the information in the Occupa
tional Outlook for College Gradu
ates is designed for career guid
ance purposes. In the effort to pre
sent a meaningful overview of
each of the many occupations stud
ied, details are omitted, and some
distinctions are glossed over.
Moreover, each statement has its
own limitations, mostly because of
imperfect data sources and limits
on length. What follows is a de
scription of the type of information
presented in each statement, with a
few words of explanation.
The numbers in parentheses
which appear just below the title
of most statements are D.O.T.
code numbers. D.O.T. stands for
Dictionary o f Occupational Titles,
now in its third edition, a U.S. De
partment of Labor publication
which “defines” each of about
35,O X jobs according to a system
C)
which uses code numbers to classi
fy each job in terms of the type of
work performed, training required,
physical demands, and working
conditions. Revision of the D.O.T.
is underway, and the fourth edition
is scheduled to appear in 1976. It
will include thousands of new jobs
which have emerged as a result of
technological and other changes in
the past 10 years. D.O.T. numbers
are used primarily by public em
ployment service agencies for clas
sifying applicants and job open
ings, and for reporting and other
operating purposes. They are in
cluded in the Occupational Outlook
for College Graduates since career
information centers and libraries
frequently use them for filing oc
cupational information.
The Nature of the Work section
describes the major duties of work
ers in the occupation. It tells what
workers do on the job and how
they do it. Although each job de
scription is typical of the occupa
tion, duties are likely to vary by
employer and size of employing
organization, geographic location,
and other factors. In some occupa
tions, individual workers specialize
in certain tasks. In others they per
form the entire range of work in
the occupation. Of course, job du
ties continually change as technol
ogy advances, new industrial pro
cesses are developed, and products
or services change. In preparing
the Occupational Outlook for Col
lege Graduates every effort is made
to include the most recent informa
tion available, but because of the
rapid rate of change in some fields,
this is not always possible.
The Places of Employment sec
tion provides information on the
number of workers in an occupa
tion and tells whether they are
concentrated in certain industries
or geographic areas. Whether an
occupation is large or small is im
portant to a jobseeker because
large occupations, even those
growing slowly, offer more open
ings than small ones because of the
many workers who retire or die
each year.
Some occupations are concen
trated in particular industries. Most
aerospace engineers, for example,
are employed in the aircraft and
parts industry while accountants
are widely dispersed throughout
all industries. If an occupation is
found primarily in certain indus
tries, this section lists them.
A few occupations are concen
trated in certain parts of the coun
try. Actors and actresses, for ex
ample, usually work in California
and New York. This information is
included for the benefit of people
who have strong preferences about
where they live—because they do
not wish to be separated from their
families and friends, for example.
For most occupations, however,
employment is widely scattered
and generally follows the same
pattern as the distribution of the
population.
In addition, the proportion of
women employed is mentioned in a
number of statements. Information
on part-time employment is includ
ed because it is important to stu
dents, homemakers, retired per
sons, and others who may want to
work part time. Knowing which
occupations offer good opportuni
ties for part-time work can be a
valuable lead.
The Training, Other Qualifica
tions, and Advancement section
should be read carefully because it
often is necessary to start early in
planning toward your career goal.
It’s a good idea to look closely at
the college courses or major fields
of study that are regarded as useful
preparation for the career you
have in mind. Nearly all statements
provide this information.
The Training, Other Qualifica
tions, and Advancement section
generally presents the minimum
level and type of education re
quired for the various occupations
and the preferred background for
entry. In many cases, alternative
ways of attaining training are listed
as well. It is worth remembering
that the level at which you enter
an occupation and the speed with
which you advance often are de
termined by the amount of training
you have.
In an effort to protect the pub
lic, all States have certification or
licensing requirements for some
occupations to assure that workers
are properly qualified. Physicians
and nurses, and elementary and
secondary schoolteachers are ex
amples of occupations that are li
censed. If you are considering oc
cupations that require State licens
ing, be sure to check the require
ments in the State which you plan
to work.
An important factor in career
choice is the extent to which a
particular job suits your personal
ity. Although it is often difficult
for people to assess themselves,
your counselor undoubtedly is
familar with tests that can help.
Each statement provides informa
tion which allows you to match
your own unique personal charac
teristics—your likes and dislikes—
with the characteristics of the job.
For a particular job, you may need
the ability to:
make responsible decisions,
motivate others,
direct and supervise others,
work under close supervision,
work in a highly competitive
atmosphere.
enjoy working with ideas and solv
ing problems.
enjoy working with people,
enjoy working with things—good
coordination and manual dexterity
are necessary.
work independently— initiative and
self-discipline are necessary,
work as part of a team,
enjoy working with detail, either
numbers or technical written material,
enjoy helping people,
use creative talents and ideas and en
joy having an opportunity for selfexpression.
derive satisfaction from seeing the
physical results of your work,
work in a confined area,
perform repetitious work,
enjoy working outside, regardless of
the weather.
When you decide on an occupa
tion, the “continuing education”
that will be required in order to
reach the desired level in the occu
pation is as important a consider
ation as the initial education re
quirements. If for example, you see
yourself as a college president and
begin working as an assistant to
the registrar after receiving your
bachelor’s degree, you should be
prepared to spend several years in
graduate school. Once the require
ments necessary to advance to the
desired level of the chosen occupa
tion are determined, you should
decide whether you have the natu
ral talents and personal qualities
needed, and whether you are will
ing to put in the time and effort to
meet those requirements. If a formal
education is involved, will your em
ployer pay for it, and if not, can you
afford the cost? Also, you must de
cide whether you have the academic
ability to complete the education.
The Employment Outlook section
discusses prospective job opportu
nities. Knowing whether or not
the job market is likely to be fa
vorable is quite important in decid
ing whether to pursue a specific
career. While your interests, your
abilities, and your career goals are
extremely important, you also need
to know something about the
availability of jobs in the fields that
interest you most.
The employment outlook section
of most statements in the Occupa
tional Outlook for College Gradu
ates begins with a sentence about
anticipated
employment growth
through 1985. The occupation is climate. It helps to bear in mind
described as likely to grow about that employment in many—but not
as fast as the average for all occu all—occupations and industries is
pations; faster than the average; or directly affected by an economic
slower than the average (figure I). downturn. A sharp improvement
Job opportunities in a particular oc in the outlook for these occupa
cupation usually are favorable if em tions and industries is likely as the
ployment increases at least as rapidly economy picks up. However, other
as the economy as a whole. Occupa occupations and industries are less
tions in which employment stays vulnerable to changes in the busi
about the same or declines generally ness cycle. Other factors influence
offer less favorable job prospects than their well-being. These matters are
in a number
of
growing occupations, because the explored
only openings are those due to statements.
For some occupations, it is pos
turnover.
Some statements take note of the sible to observe trends in the num
effect of fluctuations in the busi ber of people pursuing relevant
ness cycle. This information is types of education or training and
valuable to people looking into subsequently entering the profes
long-range career possibilities at a sion. When supply as well as de
time when the economy is in a re mand information is available, the
cession. Young people understand Occupational Outlook for College
ably wonder: What will the econo Graduates describes prospective
my be like when I enter the labor job opportunities in terms of the
market? Will it be harder to find a anticipated demand-supply rela
job 5 to 10 years from now than it tionship. the prospective job situa
is today? The Occupational Outlook tion is termed “excellent” when
for College Graduates gives infor demand is likely to greatly exceed
mation, wherever feasible, on oc supply; “keenly competitive” when
cupations and industries whose lev supply is likely to exceed demand.
els of employment fluctuate in re Other terms used are shown in
sponse to shifts in the economic figure II.
Figure I
Projected 1974-85
change in employment
requirements
Description
Much faster than the average for all occupations.............
Faster than the average for all occupations.......................
About as fast as the average for all occupations * ............
Slower than the average for all occupations...............................
Little change is expected......................................................
Expected to decline...............................................................
50.0 percent or greater
25.0 to 49.9 percent
15.0 to 24.9 percent
4.0
to 14.9 percen
3.9 to —3.9 percent
- 4 .0 percent or greater
1The average increase projected for all occupations for the 1974-85 period is 20.3
percent.
Figure II
Job opportunities
Excellent
Very good
Good or favorable
May face competition
Keen competition
Prospective demand-supply relationship
Demand much greater than supply
Demand greater than supply
Rough balance between demand and supply
Likelihood of more supply than demand
Supply greater than demand
The information in this section
should be used carefully, however.
The prospect of relatively few
openings, or of strong competition,
in a field that interests you should
make you take a second look at
your career choice. But this infor
mation alone should not prevent
you from pursuing a particular ca
reer if you feel that your aptitudes
and interests justify your goal.
Getting a job may be difficult if
the field is so small that openings
are few (actuaries and range man
agers are examples) or so popular
that it attracts many more jobseek
ers than there are jobs (radio and
television broadcasting, journalism,
and the performing arts). Getting a
job also can be difficult in occupa
tions and industries in which em
ployment is declining (merchant
marine), although this is not al
ways the case.
Remember, even occupations
which are small or overcrowded
provide some jobs. So do occupa
tions in which employment is
growing very slowly or even de
clining, for there always is a need
to replace workers who leave the
occupation. If the occupation is
large, the number of job openings
due to turnover can be quite sub
stantial. Accountants and real es
tate salesworkers and brokers are
examples of large occupations
which provide a significant num
ber of job openings each year be
cause of turnover. On the average,
openings resulting from replace
ment needs account for 70 percent
of all job openings.
In other words, don't rule out a
potentially rewarding career sim
ply because the prospective out
look in an occupation is not favor
able. Do discuss your abilities and
aptitudes with your counselor.
Checking further is a good idea,
too. Suggestions for additional in
formation on the job market are
given in the following section,
Where
to
go
For
More
Information.
How reliable is the information
on the outlook for employment
over the next 10 years? No one
can predict future labor market
conditions with perfect accuracy.
In every occupation and industry
the number of jobseekers and the
number of job openings constantly
changes. A rise or fall in the de
mand for a product or service af
fects the number of workers need
ed to produce it. New inventions
and technological innovations cre
ate some jobs and eliminate others.
Changes in the size or age distribu
tion of the population, work atti
tudes, training opportunities, or re
tirement programs determine the
number of workers available. As
these forces interact in the labor
market, some occupations experi
ence a shortage, some a surplus,
some a balance between jobseekers
and openings. Methods used by
economists to develop information
on future occupational prospects
differ, and judgments which go
into any assessment of the future
also differ. Therefore, it is impor
tant to understand what underlies
each statment on outlook.
For every occupation and indus
try covered in the Occupational
Outlook for College Graduates, an
estimate of future employment
needs is developed. These esti
mates are consistent with a set of
assumptions about the future of the
economy and the country. For
more detail, see the section enti
tled, Assumptions and Methods
Used In Preparing the Employ
ment Projections.
Finally, you should remember
that job prospects in your commu
nity or State may not correspond
to the description of employment
outlook in the Occupational Out
look for College Graduates. For the
particular job you are interested in,
the outlook in your area may be
better, or worse. This publication
does not discuss the outlook in lo
cal areas because the analysis is far
too much for a centralized staff to
handle. Such information has been
developed, however, by many
States and localities. The local of
fice of your State Employment
Service is the best place to ask
about local-area employment pro
jections. Be sure to check with
your parents and counselors, too.
The Earnings section helps an
swer many of the questions that
you may ask when choosing a ca
reer. Will the income be high
enough to maintain the standard of
living I want and justify my train
ing costs? How much will my
earnings increase as I gain experi
ence? Do some areas of the coun
try or some industries offer better
pay than others for the same type
of work?
Like most people, you probably
think of earnings as money. But
money is only one type of financial
reward for work. Paid vacations,
health insurance, uniforms, and dis
counts on clothing or other mer
chandise also are part of the total
earnings package.
About 9 out of 10 workers re
ceive money income in the form of
a wage or salary. A wage usually is
an hourly or daily rate of pay,
while a salary is a weekly, month
ly, or yearly rate. Most craft work
ers, operatives, and laborers are
wage earners, while most profes
sional, technical, and clerical
workers are salary earners.
In addition to their regular pay,
wage and salary workers may re
ceive extra money for working
overtime, more than their usual
number of hours, or on a night
shift or irregular schedule. In some
occupations, workers also may re
ceive tips or be paid a commission
based on the amount of sales or
services they provide to customers.
Factory workers are sometimes
paid a piece rate which is an extra
payment for each item they pro
duce. For many workers, these
types of pay amount to a large part
of their total earnings.
The remaining 10 percent of all
workers are in business for them
selves and earn self-employment
income instead of wages or sala
ries. This group includes workers
in a wide variety of occupations:
Physicians, shopkeepers, barbers,
writers, photographers, and farm
ers, are examples of workers who
frequently are self-employed.
Workers in some occupations
earn self-employment income in ad
dition to their wages or salaries.
For example, electricians and car
penters often do small repair or re
modeling jobs during evenings or
weekends, and college professors
frequently are paid for publishing
articles based on independent re
search.
Besides money income, most
wage and salary workers receive a
variety of fringe benefits as part of
their earnings on the job. Several
are required by Federal and State
law, including Social Security,
Worker’s Compensation, and Un
employment
Insurance.
These
benefits provide income to persons
who are not working because of
old age, work-related injury or dis
ability, or lack of suitable jobs.
Among the most common fringe
benefits are paid vacations, holi
days, and sick leave. In addition,
many workers are covered by life,
health, and accident insurance; par
ticipate in retirement plans; and
are entitled to supplemental unem
ployment benefits. All of these
benefits are provided—in part or in
full—through their employers.
Some employers also offer stock
options and profit-sharing plans,
savings plans, and bonuses.
Workers in many occupations
receive part of their earnings in the
form of goods and services, or pay
ments in kind. Salesworkers in de
partment stores, for example, often
receive discounts on merchandise.
Workers in other jobs may receive
free meals, housing, business ex
pense accounts, or free transporta
tion on company-owned planes.
Which jobs pay the most? This
is a difficult question to answer be
cause good information is available
for only one type of earnings—
wages and salaries—and for some
occupations even this is unavail
able. Nevertheless, the Occupation
al Outlook for College Graduates
does include some comparisons of
earnings among occupations. Most
statements indicate whether earn
ings in an occupation are greater
than or less than the average earn
ings of workers who are not super
visors and work in private indus
try, but not in farming. This group
represented more than 80 percent
of all workers in 1974 and had the
most reliable earnings data current
ly available for comparison pur
poses.
Besides differences among occu
pations, many levels of pay exist
within each occupation. Beginning
workers almost always earn less
than those who have been on the
job for some time because pay
rates increase as workers gain ex
perience or do more responsible
work.
Earnings in an occupation also
vary by geographic location. The
average weekly earnings of begin
ning computer programmers, for
example, vary considerably from
city to city. (See table 1.) The
highest earnings of the 10 cities
listed, occurred in Detroit, Michi
gan and the lowest in Little Rock,
Ark. Although it is generally true
that earnings are higher in the
North Central and Northeast re
gions than in the West and South,
there are exceptions. You should
also remember that those cities
which offer the highest earnings
are often those in which it is most
expensive to live.
In addition, workers in the same
occupation may have different
earnings depending on the industry
in which they work. For example,
senior drafters in 1973-74 averaged
$250 a week in public utilities,
$245.50 a week in manufacturing,
$238 a week in services, and $218
a week in wholesale trade.
Salaries also vary by the type of
work a person performs. The sala
ries of Ph.D. chemists, for exam
ple, vary considerably depending
on the specific nature of the job, as
shown in table 2. In 1974, chemists
in management jobs earned $4,000
a year more than those in market
ing and production. Chemists in re
search and development, however,
Table 1. Average weekly earnings of beginning computer programmers, 1973-74,
by selected city
City
Average weekly earnings
D etroit..................................................................................................
Atlanta..................................................................................................
Cleveland..............................................................................................
N ew ark................................................................................................
Seattle...................................................................................................
Washington, D .C .................................................................................
Omaha...................................................................................................
Milwaukee...........................................................................................
Chattanooga......................................... ...............................................
Little Rock...........................................................................................
$212.00
202.50
198.00
190.00
184.00
179.00
169.50
164.50
147.00
129.50
SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Table 2.
1974
and that seem to suit you. If so,
you probably have located appro
priate occupational outlook state
Annual salaries
ments and given some thought to
the information they contain—ei
$27,000
23,000
ther on your own or with the help
21,500
of your counselor. If you want
16,800
more information on the job itself,
20,300
on places in your own locality to
look for this kind of work, or on
schools which offer appropriate
training—or, if instead, you simply
such as hunting, fishing, or garden want to explore the file a little
ing.
more—you’re ready to go beyond
the Occupational Outlook for Col
Environment. Work settings vary
lege Graduates.
from clean, air-conditioned offices
A great deal of career informa
to places that are dirty, greasy, or
tion is available in the form of
poorly ventilated. By knowing the
books, pamphlets and brochures,
setting of jobs you find interesting,
magazine articles, filmstrips, tapes,
you can avoid an environment that
and cassettes. Computer-assisted
you may find particularly unpleas occupational information systems
ant.
have been installed in some schools
and career information centers.
Outdoor work. Persons who work
Most occupational reports in this
outdoors are exposed to all types publication suggest organizations
of weather. This may be preferred
you can write to for additional ca
to indoor work, however, by those reer information. This is a good
who consider outdoor work more
way to begin. Then investigate
healthful.
other sources of information, many
of which you’ll find close to home:
Hazards. In some jobs employees schools, libraries, business estab
are subject to possible burns, cuts,
lishments, trade unions, employer
falls, and other injuries and must associations, professional societies,
be careful to follow safety precau private employment agencies, and
tions.
State Employment Services.
College libraries and placement
Physical demands. Some jobs re
offices usually have extensive col
quire standing, stooping, or heavy
lections of career information. In
lifting. You should be sure that
addition, college career planning
you have the physical strength and
stamina required before seeking and placement counselors general
ly know of any special information
one of these jobs.
assembled on job opportunities in
Considering working conditions
your locality. Professors of special
when you make up your mind
subjects such as art, drama, or mu
about a career can help you
sic often can give information
choose a job that brings you satis
about occupations related to the
faction and enjoyment.
subjects they teach.
Public libraries have books,
Where to Go for More
pamphlets, and magazine articles
Information
with occupational information.
By now, you may have some The librarian can help you a great
ideas about jobs that interest you deal in directing you to the infor
Average annual salaries of chemists, with Ph.D. degrees, by type of work,
Type of work
SOURCE: American Chemical Society.
earned $1,500 less than those in
marketing and production, but
$4,700 more than chemistry profes
sors.
Because of these variations in
earnings, you should check with
your counselor or with local em
ployers if you are interested in spe
cific earnings information for occu
pations in your area.
The Working Conditions section
provides information that can af
fect job satisfaction because prefer
ences for working conditions vary
considerably among individuals.
Some people, for example, prefer
outdoor work while others prefer
working in an office. Some people
like the variety of shift work, and
others want the steadiness of a 9to-5 job. Following is a list of sev
eral different types of working
conditions that apply to some of
the occupations in the Occupational
Outlook for College Graduates.
Overtime work. When overtime is
required on a job, employees must
give up some of their free time and
need to be flexible in their personal
lives. Overtime, however, does
provide the opportunity to increase
earning power.
Shift work. Evening or night work
is part of the regular work sched
ule in some jobs. Employees who
work on these shifts usually are
working while most other people
are off. Some persons prefer shift
work, however, because they can
pursue certain daytime activities,
mation best suited to your needs.
Business establishments are often
willing to supply information about
the work they perform, the types
of jobs they have available, and
the qualifications needed. The
names of local firms can be found
in the classified section of your
telephone directory or can be ob
tained from your local chamber of
commerce. If the firm is a large
one, it’s a good idea to contact the
director of personnel.
Trade unions, employers* associtions, and professional societies
frequently have local branches. Of
ten, staff members can supply ca
reer information for the occupa
tions or industries with which they
are concerned.
Private employment agencies
can provide a great deal of infor
mation and assistance to jobseek
ers. These agencies, which ordi
narily charge a fee for their ser
vices, employ counselors to assist
clients with their career planning
and placement. Because they are
located in cities and towns
throughout the country, private
employment agencies can be an ex
cellent source of information about
job opportunities in local areas.
They are listed in local telephone
directories, and advertise in news
papers and magazines.
State Employment Service of
fices are in particularly good posi
tion to provide information about
jobs, hiring standards, and wages
in your locality. Public Employ
ment Service agencies in each
State are affiliated with the U.S.
Employment Service of the U.S.
Department of Labor, and provide
their services without charge. Op
erating through a network of local
offices, State agencies help job
seekers find employment and help
employers find qualified workers.
Whether you are looking for a
job right now, or exploring career
possibilities for the future, your lo
cal Employment Service office can
help. Depending on your particu
lar needs, you can obtain informa
tion on jobs in your local area, em
ployment counseling, referral to
training programs, and placement
services, as follows:
Information on local job opportu
nities can be obtained from the Job
Information Service (JIS). These
special units have been set up in
many local offices of the Employ
ment Service. They permit job
seekers to select jobs from a com
puterized listing of opportunities in
the area. These listings, which are
updated daily, provide information
from employers on specific open
ings. The JIS also furnishes general
information
on
occupational
trends, industrial developments,
job opportunities in State and Fed
eral government, and promotional
materials from associations and
unions. Information on jobs in oth
er parts of the country is available
as well.
Employment counseling is avail
able from trained Employment
Service counselors to assist young
people starting their careers, as
well as experienced workers inter
ested in changing jobs. Counselors
help people determine their actual
and potential abilities, interests,
and personal traits, to help them
make the best use of their capaci
ties in the light of available jobs.
Most counselors in Employment
Service offices make use of USES
aptitude tests when appraising an
individual’s aptitudes, interests, and
clerical and literary skills.
Referral to training programs is
another service. When individuals
seek work for which they are not
qualified, the Employment Service
may suggest programs that provide
a specific skill.
Placement services also are avail
able. Placing workers in jobs is a
primary objective of the public
Employment Service, and regis
tered applicants are directed to em
ployers who have vacancies to fill.
Requests are received from em
ployers for many different kinds of
workers. As a result, registered ap
plicants have access to knowledge
of a variety of vacancies, just as
the employer has access to many
applicants.
Certain groups of jobseekers are
given special consideration by pub
lic employment offices. These in
clude veterans legally entitled to
priority in all services, with prefer
ential treatment for disabled veter
ans over others. In addition, the
Vietnam Era Veterans Readjust
ment Assistance Act requires that
some specific form of assistance,
designed to enhance employment
prospects, be given to each veteran
who applies to the Employment
Service. Each local office has a
Veterans’ employment representa
tive assigned the responsibility of
seeing that these priority services
are provided by all local office
staff.
The Employment Service also
maintains a year-round program of
services for youth, including coun
seling, job development, place
ment, training, and referral to oth
er agencies. Special efforts include
the Summer Employment Pro
gram, in which the Employment
Service tries to develop as many
jobs as possible for disadvantaged
youth. Another special program
provides placement services to
graduating seniors, school drop
outs, and potential dropouts who
want to work.
Other groups facing special diffi
culties in obtaining suitable em
ployment are given special consid
eration by the Employment Serv
ice too. This may include referral
for supportive services, such as
provision of child care to enable
the parent to work, or health ex
aminations or referral to training
which will help develop the job
seeker’s employability. For individ
uals with mental or physical dis
abilities, assistance in making real
istic job choices and overcoming
problems related to getting and
holding jobs is available. For mid
dle-aged and older workers place
ment efforts which take into ac
count their particular problems
have been developed. Similar at
tention, is given to the unique em
ployment problems of minority
group members, and to the diffi
culties encountered by disadvan
taged jobseekers.
ASSUMPTIONS AND
METHODS USED IN
PREPARING THE
EMPLOYMENT
PROJECTIONS
Although the discussions of fu
ture job prospects contained in this
publication are written in qualita
tive terms, the analyses upon
which they are based begin with
quantitative estimates of projected
employment, replacement open
ings, and—in a few cases—supply.
These projections were devel
oped using data on population, in
dustry and occupational employ
ment, productivity, consumer ex
penditures, technological innova
tion, and other factors expected to
affect employment growth. The
Bureau’s other research programs
provided much of this data, but
many other agencies of the Federal
Government were important con
tributors, including the Bureau of
Apprenticeship and Training and
the U.S. Employment Service,
Employment and Training Admin
istration, Department of Labor; the
Bureau of the Census, Department
of Commerce; the Office of Educa
tion and the Rehabilitation Ser
vices Administration, Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare;
the Veterans Administration; the
Civil Service Commission; the In
terstate Commerce Commission;
the Civil Aeronautics Board; the
Federal Communications Commis
sion; the Department of Transpor
tation; and the National Science
Foundation.
In addition, experts in industry,
unions, professional societies, and
trade associations furnished data
and supplied information through
interviews. Many of these individ
uals also reviewed preliminary
drafts of the statements. The infor
mation presented in each statement
thus reflects the knowledge and
judgement not only of the Bureau
of Labor Statistics staff, but also of
leaders in the fields discussed, al
though the Bureau, of course takes
full responsibility.
After the information from these
sources was compiled, it was ana
lyzed in conjunction with the Bu
reau’s model of the economy in
1985. Like other models used in
economic forecasting, it encom
passes the major facets of the
economy and represents a compre
hensive view of its projected struc
ture. The Bureau’s model is com
prised of internally consistent pro
jections of gross national product
(GNP) and its components—con
sumer expenditures, investment,
government expenditures, and net
exports; industrial output and pro
ductivity; labor force; average
weekly hours of work; and em
ployment for detailed industry
groups and occupations. The meth
ods used to develop the employ
ment projections in this publication
are the same as those used in other
Bureau of Labor Statistics studies
of the economy. A detailed de
scription of these methods appears
in The U.S. Economy in 1985,
BLS Bulletin 1809.
the U.S. economy will not change
radically.
Current social, technological,
and scientific trends will continue,
including values placed on work,
education, income, and leisure.
The economy will gradually re
cover from the high unemploy
ment levels of the mid-1970’s and
reach full employment (defined as
4 percent unemployment) in the
mid-1980’s.
No major event such as wide
spread or long-lasting energy
shortages or war will significantly
alter the industrial structure or the
rate of economic growth.
Trends in the occupational struc
ture of industries will not be al
tered radically by changes in rela
tive wages, technological changes,
or other factors.
Methods. Beginning with popula
tion projections by sex, and race
developed by the Bureau of the
Census, a projection of the total
labor force is derived using expect
ed labor force participation rates
for each of these groups. In devel
oping the participation rates, the
Bureau takes into account a variety
of factors that affect a person’s de
cision to enter the labor market,
such as school attendance, retire
ment practices, and family respon
sibilities.
The labor force projection is
then translated into the level of
GNP that would be produced by a
fully employed labor force. Unem
ployed persons are subtracted from
the labor force estimate and the
result is multiplied by a projection
of output per worker. The esti
mates of future output per worker
are based on analysis of trends in
productivity growth among indus
tries and changes in the average
Assumptions. The Bureau’s projec weekly hours of work.
tions to 1985 are based on the fol
Next, the projection of GNP is
lowing general assumptions:
divided among its major compo
The institutional framework of nents: Consumer expenditures,
business investment, government
expenditures—Federal, State, and
local—and net exports. Each of
these components is broken down
by producing industry. Thus, con
sumer expenditures, for example, is
divided among industries produc
ing goods and services such as
housing, food, automobiles, medi
cal care, and education.
Once estimates are developed
for these products and services,
they are translated into detailed
projections of industry output, not
only for the industries producing
the final product, but also for the
intermediate and basic industries
which provide the raw materials,
electric power, transportation, and
other inputs required in the pro
duction process. To facilitate this
translation, the Department of
Commerce has developed inputoutput tables which indicate the
amount of output produced by
each industry—steel, glass, plastics,
etc.—that is required to produce a
final product, automobiles for ex
ample.
By using estimates of future out
put per man-hour based on studies
of productivity and technological
trends, for each industry, it is pos
sible to derive industry employ
ment projections from the output
estimates.
These projections are then com
pared with employment projec
tions derived using regression anal
ysis. This analysis develops equa
tions that relate employment by in
dustry to combinations of econom
ic variables, such as population and
income, that are considered deter
minants of long-run changes in em
ployment. By comparing projec
tions resulting, input-output and re
gression analysis, it is possible to
identify areas where one method
produces a projection inconsistent
with past trends or the Bureau’s
economic model, and adjust the
projection accordingly.
Occupational employment projec
tions. Projections of industry em
ployment are translated into occu
pational employment projections
from using an industry occupation
matrix. This matrix, which is divid
ed into 200 industry sectors and
400 occupation sectors, describes
the current and expected occupa
tional structure of each industry.
By applying the projected patterns
of occupational structure for each
industry to the industry employ
ment projection and aggregating
the resulting estimates, employ
ment projections for each of the
400 occupations contained in the
matrix can be obtained.
In some cases employment is re
lated directly to one of the compo
nents of the Bureau’s model—for
example, the number of cosmetolo
gists is related to consumers expen
ditures for beauty shop services. In
others, employment is related to an
independent variable not explicitly
projected in the model, but be
lieved to be a primary determinant
of employment in that occupation.
The projection of automobile me
chanics, for example, is based on
the expected stock of motor vehi
cles. Projections that are devel
oped independently are compared
with those in the matrix and re
vised, if necessary, to assure con
sistency.
Replacement needs. In addition to
developing an estimate of project
ed employment for each occupa
tion, a projection is made of the
number of workers who will be
needed as replacements. Separa
tions constitute a significant source
of openings. In most occupations,
more workers are needed to re
place those who retire, die, or
leave the occupation that are need
ed to fill jobs created by growth.
Consequently,
even
declining
occupations offer employment
opportunities.
To estimate replacement open
ings, the Bureau has developed ta
bles of working life based on actu
arial experience for deaths and on
decennial census data on general
patterns of labor force participa
tion by age and sex. Withdrawals
from each occupation are calculat
ed separately for men and women
by age group and used to compute
an overall separation rate for the
occupation. These rates are used to
estimate average annual replace
ment needs for each occupation
over the projection period.
The effects of interoccupational
transfers are not taken into account
when
calculating
replacement
needs because little information is
as yet available on this type of
separation.
Supply. Supply estimates used in
analysis of many of the occupa
tions presented in this publication
represent the numbers of workers
who are likely to enter a particular
occupation if past trends of entry
to the occupation continue. These
estimates are developed indepen
dently of the demand estimates.
Thus, supply and demand are not
discussed in the usual economic
sense in which wages play a major
role in equating supply and de
mand. Statistics on college enroll
ments and graduations by field are
the chief sources of information on
the potential supply of personnel in
professional, technical, and other
occupations requiring extensive
formal education.
II. TOMORROW’S JOBS FOR
GRADUATES
Selecting what courses to take in
college implicitly entails the task
of preparing to meet the challenges
of working life. Many potholes and
detours can be encountered on the
road from college to work if ca
reer planning is done haphazardly.
The task of preparing for a future
career is made more difficult if un
certainty exists about tomorrow’s
jobs and alternative occupational
choices that will be available.
Many questions are important to
young persons as they attempt to
match their abilities and interests
with the variety of occupational
choices. What fields look promis
ing for employment opportunities?
What jobs does a college education
prepare one for? Would additional
graduate education greatly en
hance career prospects in a par
ticular occupation? How do earn
ings in certain occupations com
pare with earnings in others requir
ing similar training? What types of
employers provide which kinds of
jobs? Does employment in a par
ticular job mean steady, yearround work or is the job seasonal
or affected by minor swings in
economic activity?
The answers to these questions
change as our economy grows.
New goods, services, and im
proved methods of production, as
well as changes in living standards,
life styles, and government policy
constantly alter the fvpes of jobs
that become available, lid s chap
ter explores how changes in our
industrial and economic framework
affect the outlook for employment
in specific occupations. It also dis
cusses briefly the implications of
these changes for employment op
portunities for college graduates.
No one can forecast the future
with certainty. Nevertheless, by
using the wealth of information
available, and economic and statis
tical analysis, the work future can
be broadly sketched. Of course,
some aspects of the future can be
predicted more accurately than
others. For example, the popula
tion in 1985 can be estimated with
a high degree of accuracy because
changes in the rate of population
growth occur very slowly. On the
other hand, forecasting employ
ment in a specific occupation is
quite difficult. The demand for sci
entists, for example, would change
quite rapidly if a major research
and development program were
initiated.
But before projecting the de
mand for workers in the economy,
a number of basic assumptions
must be made about broad national
policy and social, technological,
and business conditions. The em
ployment outlook pictured in this
publication is drawn within the fol
lowing fundamental assumptions:
COLLEGE
1970’s and reach full employment (4
percent unemployment) in the mid-1980’s.
—No major event such as widespread or
long-lasting shortages or war will
significantly alter the industrial structure
of the economy or alter the rate of
economic growth.
—Trends in the occupational structure of
industries will not be altered radically by
changes in relative wages, technological
changes, or other factors.
The following assessment of in
dustrial and occupational outlook
begins with a projection of the total
labor force. By 1985, approximately
109.7 million persons will be in the
labor force. About 2.1 million will be
members of the Armed Forces; the
remainder makes up the civilian la
bor force—107.6 million. This repre
sents a projected 18 percent increase
in the civilian labor force over the
1974-85 period.
The growth of individual indus
tries and occupations will differ,
however, from that of the total labor
force. The following sections discuss
the projected growth of industries
and occupations, and describe the
effect of this growth on tomorrow’s
jobs.
INDUSTRIAL PROFILE
—The institutional framework of the U.S.
economy will not change radically.
—Current
social,
technological,
and
scientific trends will continue including
values place on work, education, income,
and leisure.
—The economy will gradually recover from
the high unemployment levels of the mid-
To help understand the Nation’s
industrial composition, industries
may be viewed as either goodsproducing or service-producing.
They may be further grouped into
nine major divisions according to
product or service. (See chart 1.)
Most of the Nation’s workers are
in industries that produce services—
in activities such as education, health
care, trade, repair and maintenance,
government, transportation, bank
ing, and insurance. The production
of goods—raising food crops, build
ing, extracting minerals, and manu
facturing—requires only about onethird of the country’s work force.
(See chart 2.) In general, job growth
through the mid-1980’s is expected to
continue to be faster in the serviceproducing industries than in the
goods-producing industries. How
ever, among industry divisions with
in both the goods-producing and
service-producing
sectors,
the
growth patterns will continue to
vary. (See chart 3.)
Service-producing industries
In 1974, about 53.7 million work
ers, almost 20 million more than in
1960, were on the payroll of serviceproducing industries—trade; gov
ernment; services and miscellaneous;
transportation and other utilities; and
finance, insurance, and real estate.
The major factors underlying this workers by 1985, an increase of
rapid growth were (1) population about 33 percent over the 1974 level.
growth, (2) increasing urbanization
In 1974, nearly 20 percent of all
with its accompanying need for more workers in service-producing indus
city services, and (3) rising incomes tries, or about 10.5 million, were
and living standards accompanying a college graduates. Through the mid
demand for improved services, such 1980’s, employment of college grad
as health and education. These fac uates is expected to increase more
tors are expected to continue to rapidly than other groups in the
result in rapid growth of service service-producing industries.
industries as a group, and they are
Trade, the largest division within
expected to employ 71.5 million the service-producing industries, has
expanded sharply since 1960. Whole
sale and retail outlets have multiplied
in large and small cities to satisfy the
need of our highly urban society.
Employment in trade was about 17
million in 1974, about 49 percent
above the 1960 level. Nearly 1.1
million workers, 6.2 percent of all
employment in trade in 1974, were
college graduates.
Employment in trade is expected
to grow by about 22 percent between
1974 and 1985. Although an everincreasing volume of merchandise
will be distributed as a result of
increases in population and consum
er expenditures, the rate of increase
in manpower needs will be slowed by
laborsaving technology such as the
greater use of electronic data pro
cessing equipment and automated
warehousing equipment, and by
growth in the number of self-service
stores, and vending machines. Tech
nological advances and upgrading
the educational requirements for
many trade jobs should produce rap
id growth in the employment of
college-educated workers in whole
sale and retail trade.
Government employment has
grown faster than employment in
any other industry division, in
creasing between 1960 and 1974 by
about 70 percent from 8.4 million
to 14.3 million. Growth has been
mostly at the State and local lev
els, which together expanded by
90 percent. Employment growth
has been greatest in agencies pro
viding education, health, sanitation,
welfare, and protective services.
Federal Government employment
increased about 20 percent be
tween 1960 and 1974.
Government is a major area of
employment for college-educated
workers. Nearly a third of all gov
ernment employees, 4.6 million in
1974, were college graduates. Gov
ernment will continue to be a ma
jor source of new jobs through the
mid-1980’s for both college gradu
ates and persons with less educa
tion. Employment in government
is expected to grow faster than the
average for other industries, rising
about 35 percent over the 1974 to
tal. Most of the growth is pro
jected to occur in state and local
agencies; at the Federal level, em
ployment is expected to grow
more slowly than the average for
all industries.
Service and miscellaneous indus
tries have increased rapidly as a
result of growing needs for health
services, maintenance and repair
services, advertising, and domestic
help. From 1960 to 1974, total em
ployment in this industry division
rose over 80 percent, from 7.4 mil
lion to about 13.5 million. About
3.6 million, more than one-fourth
of those employed in these indus
tries in 1974, were college gradu
ates.
Service and miscellaneous indus
tries are projected to continue to
be among the fastest-growing in
dustries through the mid-1980’s.
More than half again as many
workers are expected to be em
ployed in this industry division in
1985 as in 1974, and requirements
Through the Mid-fj|80's Employment Growth
Will Vary Widely, by Industry
PERCENT CHANGE, 1974-85 PROJECTED
-4 0
-3 0
I
Services
Government
Finance, insurance and real estate
Contract construction
Trade
Mining
Manufacturing
Transportation and public utilities
Agriculture
Source: Bureau of Labor StaBfctics
-20
-10
I
I
0
10
20
30
40
for
college-educated
workers
should increase substantially. Em
ployment requirements in health
services are expected to grow rap
idly due to population growth and
the increasing ability of persons to
pay for health care. Business serv
ices, including accounting, data
processing, and maintenance ser
vices, also are expected to grow
rapidly.
Transportation and public utility
employment of 4.7 million in 1974
was about 17 percent higher than
in 1960. Different parts of this in
dustry, however, have experienced
different growth trends. For exam
ple, employment increased rapidly
in air transportation, but declined
in the railroad industry. In 1974,
7.4 percent, or 340,000, were col
lege graduates.
The number of jobs in transpor
tation and public utilities as a
whole is expected to increase 11
percent by 1985, less than the aver
age for other industries. Widely
differing employment trends will
continue to be experienced among
individual industries within the di
vision. A continued increase in em
ployment is expected in air trans
portation but a decline is expected
to continue in railroad employ
ment. A slight decline also is ex
pected in water transportation.
Finance, insurance, and real es
tate, smallest of the service-pro
ducing industry divisions, grew 56
percent from 1960, to more than
4.1 million in 1974. Employment
has grown especially rapidly in
banks, in credit agencies, and
among security and commodity
brokers, dealers, exchanges, and
services. In 1974, college graduates
comprised 21 percent of the work
ers in these industries, or 880,000
workers.
Job growth in finance, insur
ance, and real estate is expected to
outpace the overall increases in
nonfarm employment through the
mid-1980’s. Employment is project
ed to be about 35 percent higher
than in 1974.
Goods-Producing Industries
Employment in the goods-producing
industries—agriculture,
manufacturing, construction, and
mining—which totaled more than
28.1 million in 1974, has increased
slowly in recent years. Significant
gains in productivity resulting
from automation and other techno
logical developments as well as the
growing skills of work force have
permitted large increases in output
without corresponding increases in
employment. In 1974, 8.2 percent
of workers employed in goods-producing industries, 2.3 million per
sons, were college graduates.
Overall, employment in goodsproducing industries is expected to
increase more slowly than the
average for other industries. How
ever, widely different patterns of
employment change have occurred
and will continue among the indus
try divisions in the goods-producing sector.
Agriculture, which until the late
1800’s employed more than half of
all workers in the economy, em
ployed about 4 percent, in 1974, or
3.5 million workers. The more
than 200,000 college graduates
comprised only 5.9 percent of all
agricultural workers. Increases in
the average size of farms, rapid
mechanization, and improved fer
tilizers, feeds, and pesticides have
created large increases in output
even though employment has fal
len sharply.
The worldwide demand for food
is increasingly rapidly. Although
farm employment in 1985 is ex
pected to be below the 1974 level,
the rate of decline will probably be
slower than during the 1960’s. Col
lege FRASER
Digitized foreducated workers are expect
ed to comprise an increasing pro
portion of agricultural employ
ment, however, as a result of con
tinuing technological advances and
increasingly sophisticated manage
ment techniques.
Mining employed about 672,000
workers in 1974, nearly 12 percent
of them college graduates. Mining
employment has declined nearly 6
percent since 1960, primarily be
cause of labor-saving technological
changes. The overall trend is ex
pected to change, and mining em
ployment in 1985 should be about
17 percent higher than in 1974.
Coal mining is expected to provide
many new jobs as the cost of other
fuels continues to rise and efficient
ways are found to minimize the
environmental impact of mining.
Contract construction employ
ment, about 4 million in 1974, has
increased about 38 percent since
1960 as a result of the Nation’s
growing needs for homes, apart
ments, offices, stores, highways,
and other structures. In 1974, 5.9
percent of all persons employed in
contract construction were college
graduates—more than 200,000
workers.
Between 1974 and 1985, employ
ment in contract construction is
expected to grow about as fast as
the average for other industries,
rising by 26 percent.
Manufacturing, the largest divi
sion within the goods-producing
sector, employed about 20 million
workers in 1974, an increase of
about 19 percent over 1960. Of all
those employed in manufacturing
in 1974, 1.8 million workers, or 9
percent, were college graduates.
New products for industrial and
consumer markets and the rapid
growth of government expendi
tures for defense and space pro
grams spearheaded growth during
the 1960’s.
Manufacturing employment is
expected to increase more slowly
than the average for other indus
tries through the mid-1980’s and to
reach about 22.2 million in 1985.
Employment in durable goods
manufacturing is projected to in
crease at a slightly faster rate than
total manufacturing, and nondura
ble goods, somewhat slower; how
ever, the rate of growth will vary
among the individual manufactur
ing industries.
OCCUPATIONAL PROFILE
As industries continue to grow,
changes will take place in the Na
tion’s occupational structure. Jobs
will become more complex and
specialized, offering an even great
er number of occupational choices
to persons planning a career. By
first studying the outlook for broad
occupational groups, the task can
be made more manageable. (See
chart 4.)
Among the broad occupational
groups, white-collar jobs have
grown most rapidly over the past
decade. In 1974, white-collar
workers—professional, managerial,
clerical, and sales—outnumbered
blue-collar workers—craftworkers,
operatives,, and laborers by almost
12 million. (See chart 5.)
Through the mid-1980’s, we can
expect a continuation of the rapid
growth of service and white-collar
occupations, a slower-than-average
growth of blue-collar occupations,
and a further decline of farm
workers. The rapid growth expect
ed for service workers and whitecollar workers reflects continuous
expansion of the service-producing
industries, which employ large
numbers of these workers. The
growing demand for workers to
perform research and develop
ment, to provide education and
health services, and process the in
creasing amount of paperwork
throughout all types of enterprises,
also will be significant in the
Em ploym ent H a s Shifted T ow ard
W h ite -C o lla r O ccupations
WORKERS On millions)
5 0 ------
White-collar
Blue-collar
o i—
1945
1950
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics.
growth of service and white-collar
jobs. The slower-than-average
growth of blue-collar and farm
workers reflects the expanding use
of labor saving equipment in our
Nation’s industries and the relative
ly slow growth of the goodsproducing industries that employ
large proportions of blue-collar
workers. (See chart 6.)
The following sections describe
in greater detail the changes that
are expected to occur among the
broad occupational groups through
the mid-1980’s.
White-Collar Workers
White-collar workers, who num
bered 41.7 million in 1974, includ
ed about 11 out of every 12 em
ployed college graduates. More
than one quarter, or 12.1 million,
of all white-collar jobs were filled
by college graduates in 1974. By
the mid-1980’s, college graduates
are expected to hold about onethird, or 17.5 million, of the 53.2
million white-collar jobs. Although
the number of college graduates in
white-collar jobs is expected to
grow about 45 percent, their em
ployment in some white-collar oc
cupations will increase more rapid
ly. (See chart 5.) The employment
outlook varies greatly for college
graduates among the major whitecollar occupational groups of pro
fessional and technical workers,
managers and administrators, salesworkers, and clerical workers.
Professional and technical work
ers were the third largest occupa
tional group in 1974, but contained
the largest proportion of college
graduates. (See chart 6.) Among
w
the 12.3 million professional and
technical workers were more than
7.7 million college graduates—over
60 percent of the total. They in
clude such highly trained person
nel as teachers, dentists, accoun
tants, and engineers.
Professional and technical occu
pations are expected to grow by
about 30 percent by 1985, while
requirements for college graduates
in this field are expected to in
crease 40 percent and reach 10.9
million in 1985. Workers in this
area will be in great demand as the
Nation makes greater efforts in
transportation, energy production,
rebuilding the cities, and enhancing
the beauty of the land. The quest
for scientific and technical knowl
edge is bound to grow, raising the
demand for workers in scientific
and technical specialties. The late
1970’s and early 1980’s should see
a continuing emphasis on the social
sciences and medical services.
Managers and administrators to
taled about 8.9 million in 1974;
more than one-quarter of them, or
2.5 million, were college graduates.
Overall, the number of managers is
projected to increase about as fast
as the average for other occupa-
_
...
Faster Than A ve rage Em ploym ent G row th is
Expected for C ollege Graduates
5
PERCENT CHANGE, 1974-85 PROJECTED
-7 5
WHITE-COLLAR W O RKERS
Professional and technical
Managers and administrcdors
-------------------- Sales workers
Clerical workers
BLUE-COUAR W ORKERS
Craft
Operatives
Nonfarm laborers
SERVICE W O RKERS
III K
F A R M W ORKERS
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics
' 1 .-■
<ftilMBl
College G rad u ate s W o rk Prim arily in
Professional and Technical Jo b s
WORKERS 1974 (in millions)
0
WHITE-COLLAR W ORKERS
Source: Bureau of Labor Statictics.
5
were college graduates. Many new
clerical positions are expected to
open up as industries employing
large numbers of clerical workers
continue to expand. The demand
should be strong for those qualified
to handle jobs created by electron
ic data processing operations. The
need for clerical workers as a
group is expected to increase by
about 34 percent—faster than any
other occupational group—be
tween 1974 and 1985. Because no
developments which would require
a college education are expected,
the proportion of college graduates
in this group is not expected to
grow.
Blue-Collar Workers
tions between 1974 and 1985. Re
quirements for college graduates in
managerial and administrative jobs,
primarily salaried positions, are ex
pected to increase 60 percent over
the period. As in the past, require
ments for salaried managers are
likely to continue to increase rap
idly because of the growing depen
dence of business organizations and
government agencies on manage
ment specialists. On the other
hand, the number of self-employed
managers is expected to continue
to decline as the trend toward
larger businesses continues to re
strict growth of the total number
of firms, and as supermarkets con
tinue to replace small groceries
and general stores.
Salesworkers, accounting for
about 5.4 million workers in 1974,
are found primarily in retail stores,
manufacturing
and
wholesale
firms, insurance companies, and
real estate agencies, as well as of
fering goods door-to-door. In 1974,
the nearly 900,000 college gradu
ates employed comprised about 16
percent of all salesworkers.
Salesworkers are expected to in
crease about 16 percent between
1974 and 1985. Salesworker em
ployment will grow as population
Workers employed in skilled
growth and business expansion in
crease the demand for a wide craft jobs, semiskilled machine and
vehicle operative jobs, and laborer
range of goods and services.
jobs totaled 29.8 million in 1974—
Employment of college gradu
ates in sales jobs is expected to 35 percent of the employed labor
grow more than 50 percent by the force. The 620,000 college gradu
mid-1980’s. Over 21 percent, or 1.35 ates employed, however, com
million, of the 6.3 million sales prised only about 2 percent of all
workers expected to be employed blue-collar workers.
Blue-collar employment is ex
in 1985 will be college graduates.
pected to increase through the
The rising number of college grad
uates expected in sales positions re mid-1980’s, though at a slower rate
flects to some extent the trend for than the average for all occupa
employers to hire persons with the tions. By 1985, blue-collar workers
highest educational qualifications. are expected to comprise 32 per
An increase in the proportion of cent of all employed, or 33.7 mil
salesworkers who are college grad lion workers. Industrial growth
uates, however, also reflects the and increasing business activity are
changing nature of sales occupa generally expected to produce
tions. Sales personnel are increas growth of blue-collar occupations.
ingly required to have technical Technological development en
knowledge of the product or serv abling greater automation of pro
ice being sold, especially in the duction, however, are expected to
manufacturing and computer fields. repress employment of blue-collar
Clerical workers, numbering 15 workers while raising their pro
million in 1974, include workers ductivity. About 720,000 college
who operate computers and office graduates are expected to occupy
machines, keep records, take dicta blue-collar jobs in 1985.
tion, and type. Clerical workers
Service Workers
made up the largest group of
workers in 1974, but only 6.5 per
Service workers include men
cent of them, or 1 million workers, and women who assist professional
nurses in hospitals, give haircuts expected to require persons who requirements. Two out of every
and beauty treatments, serve food, have completed 4 years or more of three growth openings are expect
clean and care for homes, and pro college. College graduates are ex ed to arise in professional and
vide protective services. This di pected to fill one-third of all white- technical occupations, reflecting
verse group, which totaled 11.4 collar job openings. Nearly 3 out of 4 the expectation of continued
million in 1974, is expected to in openings in professional and techni growth of occupations which pres
crease 28 percent by 1985. Factors cal occupations, and almost half of ently employ substantial numbers
expected to increase requirements the job openings in managerial and of college graduates.
More than half of the require
for service workers to 14.6 million administrative occupations, are ex
by 1985 include rising demand for pected to require workers who have ments for college graduates over
hospital and other medical care; earned their college degrees. (See the 1974 to 1985 period are expect
greater need for protective serv chart 7.) The increasing require ed to result from the need to re
ices as urbanization continues and ments for college graduates reflect a place college graduates who die,
cities become more crowded; and continuing trend. The proportion of retire or otherwise leave the labor
more frequent use of restaurants, all employed persons who were col force. The bulk of the replacement
beauty parlors, and other services lege graduates grew from 10 percent openings are also expected to arise
as income levels rise and an in in 1959 to 15.5 percent in 1974; the in professional and technical occu
creasing number of homemakers expectation is that this proportion pations.
will keep increasing, reaching almost
About 18 percent of the require
take jobs outside of the home.
In 1974, less than 3 percent of 19 percent by the mid-1980’s. (See ments for college graduates are ex
pected to come from increasing
all service workers, or 330,000, table 1.)
Job openings for college-educat education prerequisites in jobs not
were college graduates. This pro
portion is expected to increase ed workers will stem from three previously requiring a college de
slightly between 1974 and 1985. sources: employment growth, re gree. “Educational upgrading,” or
Expected growth of college gradu placement needs, and educational rising entry requirements, results
ate employment in service jobs upgrading. Over the 1974 to 1985 primarily from the changing nature
will stem from increasingly sophis period, requirements for college or content of existing jobs. College
ticated techniques used in law en graduates from these three sources graduates will be sought for some
are expected to total 12.1 million. jobs traditionally held by less edu
forcement and other services.
Growth of employment in jobs tra cated workers due to the increas
ditionally held by college gradu ingly complex skills required for
Farm Workers
ates is expected to require 3.5 mil those jobs. For example, as com
Farm workers—including farm
lion graduates, 29 percent of total puters and other technical aders, farm managers, and laborers
numbered 3.0 million in 1974. Al
most 5 percent, or about 140,000
farm workers, were college gradu
M o s t Jo b O p e n in g s for C olle ge G raduates
ates in 1974. Employment require
T h ro u gh the M id - 1 9 8 0 s W ill Be in
ments for farm workers are expect
W h ite -C ollar J o b s
7
ed to decline to 1.9 million in 1985
OPENINGS, 19 7 4 -8 5 PROJECTED {in millions)
in response to continued improve
20
ments in farm technology. And
WHITE-COLLAR W ORKERS
although the proportion of college
Professional and technical
graduates is expected to increase
N College graduates
M anagers and administrators
substantially between 1974 and
1985, employment of college grad
Sales workers
Less than 4 years of college
uates in farm jobs is not expected
Clerical workers
to grow significantly.
BLUE-COLLAR W ORKERS
COLLEGE GRADUATES:
DEMAND AND SUPPLY,
1974-85
More than one-fifth of all job
openings between 1974 and 1985 are
SERVICE W ORKERS
FA R M W O R K E R S1
' Despite a projected overati rapid decline in employment, about 2 8 ,0 0 0 openings are expected for college graduates in farming occupations.
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Table 1.
Percent of workers in major occupational groups having 4 years or more of college education, selected years,
1959-74, and projected 1985
Year
1959....................................
1962....................................
1964....................................
1965....................................
1966....................................
1968....................................
1969....................................
1970....................................
1971....................................
1972....................................
1973....................................
1974....................................
Projected 1985..................
All
occupa
tional
groups
10.0
11.5
11.7
12.0
12.1
12.8
12.9
12.8
14.1
14.)
14.6
15.5
18.6
Profes Managers,
Sales
and
sional,
workers
admini
and
technical strators
56.1
57.5
59.2
58.8
59.1
59.4
59.1
59.8
60.2
60.3
62.4
62.9
68.0
13.1
15.5
16.2
17.7
19.6
20.6
20.1
20.1
23.5
25.7
26.4
28.0
36.2
10.1
11.7
10.6
9.8
11.3
10.7
11.0
11.8
13.3
15.2
15.5
16.5
21.5
Clerical
workers
Service
workers
Craft
workers
Opera
tives
Labor
ers
Farm
workers
4.9
5.8
5.3
5.5
4.8
4.7
4.5
4.7
5.0
5.8
5.5
6.5
6.5
1.4
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.1
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.8
2.2
2.5
2.9
3.5
2.1
1.6
1.6
2.1
1.7
1.6
2.0
1.8
1.9
2.1
2.7
3.1
3.1
0.8
.9
1.0
.8
.6
.7
.7
.8
.9
1.1
1.2
1.5
1.5
0.5
.7
.8
.9
.4
.7
.6
.7
1.6
1.5
1.3
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.5
2.2
1.7
1.8
1.2
2.2
1.2
2.3
2.8
4.3
4.8
6.1
NOTE: Data for 1960, 1961, 1963 and 1967 not available.
SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics
vances continue to effect an everbroadening range of jobs, collegeeducated workers will be needed
to use their capabilities efficiently.
For other jobs, an understanding
of complex legal and regulatory
constraints imposed on business
and industry is becoming increas
ingly essential.
Educational upgrading in a wide
range of managerial and adminis
trative jobs, as well as professional
and technical jobs, is anticipated.
For example, increasing reliance
by business and government on sal
aried management specialists and
the historical decline in the number
of self-employed managers both
suggest continued educational up
grading in managerial occupations.
Upgrading of many sales jobs also
is expected as sales workers are in
creasingly required to have techni
cal knowledge in order to better
demonstrate and adequately ex
plain the product or service they
are selling. Professional and techni
cal jobs will continue to be up
graded as certification and licens
ing requirements become more
widespread in many occupations,
and increasing numbers of new
college curriculums will be devel
oped to meet the specialized edu
cational needs of occupations.
What might be considered edu
cational upgrading, however, may
simply be a reflection of employ
ers’ response to the greater avail
ability of college graduates in the
labor market. Many employers
have long preferred to hire college
graduates for various jobs, but
were not able to hire them in the
1960’s when supply-demand condi
tions favored the college gradu
ates. However, as a surplus of col
lege graduates began to appear in
the early 1970’s employers have
hired college graduates to fill an
increasing number of positions tra
ditionally not requiring a college
degree.
The projection of 12.1 million
openings for college graduates, dis
cussed above, is based on the as
sumption that the percent of col
lege graduates in clerical and bluecollar occupations will remain at
1974 levels through 1985. Propor
tions for other groups are expected
to increase as they have done in
the past. (See table 1.)
The supply of college graduates
in the labor force is expected to
continue to increase by record
numbers each year through the
1970’s as increasing number of col
lege degrees are awarded. By 1985,
college degrees awarded each year
are expected to have increased by
15 percent over the number award
ed in 1974.
Between 1974 and 1985, 16.1
million college degrees are expect
ed to be awarded: 11.4 million
bachelor’s, 3.6 million master’s,
440,000 doctor’s, and 690,000 first
professional degrees such as law,
medicine, or theology. Although
these expected college graduates
represent potential new entrants to
the labor force, not all can be con
sidered part of the effective new
supply of college educated work
ers. For example, most master’s
and doctor’s degree recipients are
employed before receiving their
advanced degrees and are already
considered part of the supply of
college graduates in the labor
force. Many other degree recipi
ents, especially those holding bach
elor’s degrees, delay entry into the
civilian labor force to continue
their education, enter the Armed
Forces, or become full-time home
makers.
The supply of college graduates
expected to actually enter the ci-
vilian labor force from 1974 to
1985 will total 13.1 million. (See
chart 8.) On the basis of past pat
terns of entry into the labor force
by college graduates, 8 out of 10
of the entrants are expected to
come directly from college. Ex
pected are 9.1 million bachelor’s
degree recipients, more than 1.2
million master’s degree recipients,
15.000 doctor’s degree recipients,
and 540,000 holders of first profes
sional degrees. In addition, 2.25
million college graduates are ex
pected to enter or re-enter the ci
vilian labor force from sources
other than the Nation’s colleges
and universities. They include re
entrants to the labor force, persons
separating from the Armed Forces,
and immigrants and persons return
ing to the United States after living
in a foreign country.
Based on this analysis, the num
ber of persons with college degrees
entering the labor force over the
1974-85 period would be about
950.000 above the number of pro
jected job openings. This does not
necessarily mean that college grad
uates will experience significant
levels of unemployment. The un
employment rate of college gradu
ates has always been lower than
that of workers with less educa
tion. (See chart 9.) Instead, prob
lems for college graduates will
center on underemployment and
job dissatisfaction which will likely
result in increasing movement
among occupations rather than un
employment. Many individuals
may be forced to take jobs for
which a college degree is not re
quired—jobs in which their train
ing is not fully utilized.
In fact, a “spillover” of college
graduates into non-traditional fields
has already become apparent. For
example, between 1970 and 1974,
the proportion of workers having
four or more years of college edu
cation has increased by more than
60 percent in clerical, service and
blue-collar
occupations—areas
which have traditionally had very
small proportions of college gradu
ates. Although the proportions
have remained relatively small,
more than one-half of all workers
are employed in these three major
groups. Consequently, the numeri
cal effect of these increases has
been great; the estimated number
of college graduates currently em
ployed in these occupations is
More Than 13 Million College Graduates are
Expected to Enter the Civilian Labor Force
Between 1974 and 1985 _________________
LABOR FORCE ENTRANTS, 1974-85 PROJECTED
ST Other
'
entrants-^
First professional degree recipients
5 4 0 ,0 0 0
t
2.22 million
I
Doctor’s degree recipients
1 5,000
Bachelor’s degree
recipients
9.07 million
Master's degree recipients
1.26 million
il Indudes reentrants and persons separating from military services.
Source: Bureau Of Labor Statistics.
w
about 750,000 higher than would
have been expected had trends
during the 1960’s continued.
It is likely that some spillover
has even occurred in major groups
which have characteristically em
ployed larger proportions of col
lege graduates. Growth since 1970
in the proportions of college grad
uates in the professional-technical,
managerial and sales groups has
been substantially faster than it was
through the 1960’s, indicating per
haps that some occupations in
these groups have helped to absorb
a surplus of college graduates.
The
“spillover” has been
caused—at least in part—by gener
ally poor economic conditions dur
ing the 1970-75 period. Aerospace
cutbacks and the recession of
1970-71, followed by an oil embar
go in 1973-74 and recession in
1974-75 have dramatically slowed
the economy’s growth during the
first half of this decade. As a re
sult, employers’ hiring needs have
been significantly reduced.
Just as job offers to new college
graduates have suffered a general
decline, the number of college
graduates entering the labor force
each year (including re-entrants)
has increased rapidly, nearly dou
bling since 1970. Some persons
with college degrees, having lost
their jobs because of economic
conditions, have begun to seek al
ternative employment. Moreover,
in addition to the ever increasing
number of new college graduates
seeking jobs, many persons have
entered the labor force who in bet
ter times would not have looked
for work. For example, an increas
ing number of graduate students
have likely been forced to supple
ment educational grants and loans
with at least part-time employ
ment. Economic necessity has also
helped to draw many homemakers
into the labor force—a significant
number of whom hold college de-
U nem ploym ent R ate s Are Low e st for
C ollege-Educated W o rk e rs
grees and would be expected to
compete directly with new college
graduates for the best jobs.
The oversupply also is likely to
have an adverse effect on those
with less education. In the future,
workers without college degrees
are expected to have fewer oppor
tunities to advance to professional
positions in fields such as engineer
ing and accounting, as well as to
higher level managerial, sales, and
service jobs. Thus, while college
graduates are expected to face
competition for jobs, those without
a college education are likely to
encounter even greater competi
tion for the better jobs.
On the other hand, in some oc
cupations, graduates of four-year
colleges are likely to face unprec
edented competition from commu
nity and junior college graduates.
Community colleges and other
post-secondary institutions have
shown that they can train students
for many occupations in 2 years or
even less, and the number of stu
dents completing career education
programs in these institutions is in
creasing rapidly.
The remainder of this publica
tion discusses the outlook for var
ious occupations requiring a col
lege degree for entry. Although an
oversupply of college graduates is
generally expected, the outlook for
individual occupations varies a
great deal. For example, shortages
of graduates with the education re
quired to become engineers is ex
pected, if past trends continue. On
the other hand, a surplus of gradu
ates in teaching and the biological
sciences is expected. This high
lights the importance of careful ca
reer planning while in high school
and college. By selecting courses
of study in light of what the future
world of work will be like, stu
dents can graduate from college
with the most marketable types of
education and training. The Occu
pational Outlook for College Grad
uates and career guidance counsel
ors can provide valuable assistance
in this regard.
III. OCCUPATIONS
OFFICE OCCUPATIONS
ACCOUNTANTS
(D.O.T. 160.188)
Office workers perform a wide
range of tasks that are needed to
keep business and other organiza
tions running on a day to day basis.
Clerical workers, such as secreta
ries and typists, maintain files, type,
and operate office machines.
Professional and technical em
ployees give legal advice, prepare
and analyze financial reports,
design computer systems, and ar
range bank loans.
Opportunities in office work exist
for people with widely different
educational backgrounds. Some
jobs can be entered with only a high
school education; many others,
however, require at least a college
degree.
Many clerical employees work
with things and often do detailed,
repetitive tasks. Most professional
office workers, on the other hand,
work with ideas; they apply their
skills to solving problems and devis
ing ways to provide better services
to those who depend on them.
Besides the technical skills required
to do their jobs, office workers need
judgment and the ability to commu
nicate their ideas to others.
This section describes a number of
administrative occupations, including
city managers, accountants, credit of
ficials, and personnel workers.
ADMINISTRATIVE
AND RELATED
OCCUPATIONS
Nature of the Work
Managers must have up-to-date
financial information to make im
portant decisions. Accountants
Most administrative workers are prepare and analyze financial re
professional office employees who ports that furnish this kind of infor
run, or help run, business and other mation.
organizations. Some are managers,
Three major accounting fields
who supervise, plan operations and are public, management, and
make company policy. Others pro government accounting. Public ac
vide assistance to management, countants have their own busi
such as personnel workers who nesses or work for accounting
recruit and hire staff members and firms. Management accountants,
handle employee problems. The also called industrial or private ac
success or failure of an organization countants, handle the financial
depends heavily on the way ad records of the company they work
ministrative workers do their jobs.
for. Government accountants ex
Nearly all administrative jobs amine the records of government
require a college degree, although agencies and audit private busi
employers vary in the specific area nesses and individuals whose
of study they prefer. Some seek dealings are subject to government
business administration or liberal regulations.
arts graduates; others want a
Accountants often concentrate
background in technical area such on one particular phase of account
as engineering or science.
ing. For example, many public ac
Many administrative workers countants specialize in auditing
solve problems and make decisions, (r e v ie w in g a client’s financial
using numbers and technical data. records and reports to judge their
In addition, these workers must be reliability). Others specialize in tax
tactful and able to get along with matters, such as preparing income
others. They must be able to handle tax forms and advising their clients
the uneven flow of work in offices.
of the advantages and disad
This section describes several ad vantages of certain business deci
ministrative occupations including sions. Still others become spe
City
Managers,
Accountants, cialists in management consulting
Credit Officials, and Personnel and and give advice on a variety of mat
Labor Relations workers.
ters. They might develop or revise
an accounting system to serve the
number teach in colleges and
universities. Opportunities are plen
tiful for part-time work in account
ing, particularly in smaller firms.
Accountants are found in all
business, industrial, and govern
ment organizations. Most, however,
work in large urban areas where
many public accounting firms and
central offices of large businesses
are concentrated. For example,
over 20 percent of all accountants
are employed in just four major cit
ies: Chicago, Los Angeles; New
York; and Washington, D.C.
needs of clients more effectively or
give advice about different types of
accounting equipment.
Management accountants pro
vide the financial information ex
ecutives need to make sound busi
ness decisions. They may choose to
work in areas such as taxation,
budgeting, or investments. Internal
auditing is an area of specialization
within management accounting
which is rapidly growing in im
portance. Accountants who work as
internal auditors examine and eval
uate their firm’s financial systems
and
management
control
procedures to ensure efficient and
economical operation.
Many accountants in the Federal
Government work as Internal
Revenue agents, investigators, and
bank examiners; other government
accountants have regular account
ing positions.
Places of Employment
About 805,000 people worked as
accountants in 1974; almost 20 per
cent were Certified Public Accoun
tants (CPA’s). About 4 percent of
CPA’s and nearly 24 percent of all
accountants are women. Since the
early 1960’s, employment of
women accountants has increased
more rapidly than that of men, and
there is every indication that
women will continue to play an in
creasingly active role in the occupa
tion.
About 60 percent of all account
ants do management accounting
work; one-fifth of these work as in
ternal auditors. An additional 20
percent are engaged in public ac
counting as proprietors, partners,
or employees of independent ac
counting firms. Other accountants
work for Federal, State, and local
government agencies, and a small
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Training in accounting is availa
ble at colleges and universities, ac
counting and business schools, and
correspondence schools. Although
many graduates of business and
correspondence schools are suc
cessful in small firms, most large
public accounting and business
firms require applicants to have at
least a bachelor’s degree in ac
counting or a closely related field.
Many employers prefer those with
the master’s degree in accounting.
A strict accounting background
usually is not required for starting
jobs as internal a u d ito rs; h o w e v e r ,
training in business management,
industrial relations, business law,
and mathematics is helpful. A grow
ing number of large employers
prefer applicants who are familiar
with computer technology for both
accounting and internal auditor
positions. For beginning accounting
positions, the Federal Government
requires 4 years of college training
(including 24 semester hours in ac
counting or related subjects) or an
equivalent combination of educa
tion and experience. For teaching
positions, most colleges and univer
sities require at least the master’s
degree or the Certified Public Ac
countancy Certificate.
Previous work experience in ac
counting can help an applicant get a
job. Many colleges offer students an
opportunity to gain experience
through internship programs con
ducted by public accounting or
business firms.
Anyone working as a “certified
public accountant” must hold a cer
tificate issued by the State board of
accountancy. All states use the
CPA examination, administered by
the American Institute of Certified
Public Accountants, to establish
certification. Most successful can
didates have college degrees, and
three-fourths of the States require
CPA candidates to be college grad
uates. Nearly all States require ap
plicants to have at least 2 years of
public accounting experience for a
CPA certificate.
Requirements vary, but more
than half the States restrict the title
“public accountant” to those who
are licensed or registered. Some
States require only a high school
diploma while others require 2
years of college or more. Informa
tion on requirements may be ob
tained directly from individual
State boards of accountancy or
from the National Society of Public
Accountants.
The recognized mark of com
petence and experience in the field
of internal auditing is the designa
tion, Certified Internal Auditor
(CIA). The Institute of Internal Au
ditors, Inc. confers this designation
upon
candidates
who
have
completed 3 years’ experience in
internal auditing and who have
passed a 4-part examination.
Beginning in 1978, a bachelor’s
degree from an accredited college
or university also will be required.
Persons planning a career in ac
counting should have an aptitude
for mathematics. Neatness and ac
curacy also are necessary. Em
ployers seek applicants who can
handle responsibility and work with
little supervision.
To get to the top in the profes
sion, accountants usually must con
tinue their study of accounting even
though they already have college
degrees or professional certificates.
They may participate in seminars
sponsored by various professional
associations or take courses offered
by their employers. A growing
number of States require both
CPA’s and licensed public accoun
tants to complete a certain number
of hours of continuing education
courses before their licenses can be
renewed. An increasing number of
accountants study computer opera
tion and programming to adapt ac
counting procedures to new data
processing
methods.
Although
capable accountants should ad
vance rapidly, those having in
adequate academic preparation
may be assigned routine jobs and
find promotion difficult.
Junior public accountants usually
start by assisting with auditing work
for several clients. They may ad
vance to intermediate positions
with more responsibility in 1 or 2
years and to senior positions within
another few years. In larger firms,
those who deal successfully with
top industry executives often
become supervisors, managers, or
partners, or transfer to executive
positions in private firms. Some
open their own public accounting
offices.
Beginning management account
ants often start as ledger account
ants, junior internal auditors, or as
trainees for technical accounting
positions. They may advance to
jobs such as chief plant accountant,
chief cost accountant, budget
director, or manager of internal au
diting. Some become controllers,
treasurers,
financial
vice-pre
sidents, or corporation presidents.
In the Federal Government, begin
ners are hired as trainees and
usually are promoted in a year or
so. In college and university
teaching, those having minimum
training and experience may
receive the rank of instructor
without tenure; advancement and
permanent faculty status depend
upon
further education
and
teaching experience.
Employment Outlook
Employment is expected to in
crease about as fast as the average
for all occupations through the mid1980’s as businesses and govern
ment agencies continue to expand
in size and complexity. In addition
to jobs resulting from growth, many
thousands of openings will result
each year when workers die, retire,
or leave the occupation.
Demand for skilled accountants
will rise as managers rely more on
accounting information to make
business decisions. For example, of
ficers of large corporations base
their
decisions
concerning
proposals such as plant expansion,
mergers, or foreign investments on
information about the financial
condition of the firm, tax implica
tions of the proposed action, and
other considerations. On a smaller
scale, owners of small businesses
are expected to rely more and more
on the expertise of public account
ants in planning their operations.
Government legislation to monitor
business activity also is expected to
add to the demand for accountants.
An example is the Pension Reform
Act of 1974, which establishes
minimum standards for private pen
sion plans. This and other legisla
tion should create many new jobs
for management accountants to
maintain new systems and public
accountants to audit them.
Because of the growing complex
ity of business, college graduates
will be in greater demand than ap
plicants who lack this training.
Many employers prefer graduates
who have worked part time in a
business or accounting firm while in
school. Those who have been
trained in a specific phase of ac
counting should find ample oppor
tunities.
As data processing systems con
tinue to replace manual preparation
of accounting records and state
ments, the need for some accoun
tants to perform routine tasks, par
ticularly in large firms, may be
reduced. However, many opportu
nities will arise for accountants
without a college degree, mainly in
small businesses and public ac
counting firms.
for their clients. The majority, how
ever, work in one office between 35
and 40 hours a week, under the
same general conditions as fellow
office workers.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Sources of Additional
Information
Starting salaries of beginning ac
countants in private industry were
$9,700 a year in 1974, according to
a survey in urban areas. Earnings of
experienced accountants ranged
between $13,300 and $19,600, de
pending on their level of responsi
bility and the complexity of the ac
counting system. In general, ex
perienced accountants earn about
twice as much as nonsupervisory
workers in private industry, except
farming. Chief accountants who
direct the accounting program of a
company or one of its establish
ments earned between $17,600 and
$29,000, depending upon the scope
of their authority and size of profes
sional staff.
According to the same survey,
beginning
auditors
averaged
$10,400 a year, while experienced
auditors’ earnings ranged between
$14,400 and $17,500.
Salaries generally are higher for
accountants who travel a great deal
or who hold a graduate degree or a
CPA certificate.
In the Federal Civil Service, the
entrance salary for junior accoun
tants and auditors was about
$10,200 in late 1974. Candidates
who had superior academic records
received a starting salary of about
$ 11,200. Applicants with a master’s
degree or 2 years’ professional ex
perience began at about $12,800.
Accountants in the Federal
Government
averaged
about
$23,000 a year in 1974.
Accountants who specialize in in
come tax preparation often work
long hours under heavy pressure
during the tax season; those em
ployed by national accounting firms
may travel extensively to conduct
audits and perform other services
Information about CPA’s and
about aptitude tests in high schools,
colleges, and public accounting
firms may be obtained from:
American Institute o f Certified Public Ac
countants, 666 Fifth Ave., New York,
N .Y .10019.
Further information on special
ized fields of accounting is available
from:
National Association of Accountants, 919
Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022.
National Society of Public Accountants,
1717 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washing
ton, DC. 20006.
Institute of Internal Auditors, 5500 Diplomat
Circle, Orlando, Fla. 32810.
ADVERTISING WORKERS
(D.O.T. 050.088; 132.088;
141.081 and .168; 162.158; and
164.068 through .168)
Nature of the Work
Almost every business does some
form of advertising to pursuade
people to buy its products or use its
services. A wide variety of workers
in many industries create and
produce advertisements, or make
arrangements for them to be broad
cast on radio and television or
published in newspapers and
magazines. The following occupa
tions are those most commonly as
sociated with advertising.
Advertising managers direct the
advertising program of the busi
nesses for which they work. They
determine the size of the advertis
ing budget, the type of ads and
media to be used, and the advertis
ing agency, if any, that will be em
ployed. Managers who decide to
employ an agency work closely with
the account executives assigned to
their firms. They also may supervise
the preparation of pamphlets,
brochures, or other materials
developed to promote the firm’s
products or services. Advertising
managers working for newspapers,
radio stations, and other communi
cations media have somewhat dif
ferent duties. They are responsible
for selling advertising time or space,
and their work is similar to that of
sales managers in other businesses.
Account executives are employed
by advertising agencies to develop
advertising programs for clients.
They study the client’s sales, public
image, and advertising problems
and create a program that meets the
client’s approval. In most agencies,
the actual artwork and slogans are
developed by artists and copy
writers, but in some small agencies,
account executives are responsible
for this aspect of the job. Account
executives may be supervised by ac
count supervisors; usually, how
ever, they report directly to agency
heads.
Research directors and their
assistants study the market for the
product or service being sold. They
review its possible uses, advantages
or disadvantages compared to those
of competitors, and ways of
reaching potential buyers. These
workers may survey buying habits
and motives of customers, or try out
sample advertisements to find the
selling theme or medium that best
sells the product. (See the state
ment on Marketing Research Work
ers for more information on this
occupation.)
Advertising copywriters develop
the slogans and text to be used in
the ads. By studying information
about the product and its potential
customers, they are able to write
copy aimed at the particular group
of customers the advertiser seeks to
attract. They may specialize in writ
ing copy for certain groups, such as
business managers, teenagers, or
sports lovers, or for a class of
products, such as cars or computer
equipment. Copywriters usually
work closely with account execu
tives. In some agencies they may be
supervised by copy chiefs.
Artists and layout workers create
the visual impact of an advertise
ment by selecting photographs,
drawing symbols or figures, and
selecting the size or type of print to
be used in a magazine or newspaper
ad. When television commercials
are planned, they usually sketch
sample scenes for the client to con
sider. (See the statements on Com
mercial Artists and Photographers
for more information on this type of
work.)
Media directors (or space buyers
and time buyers ) negotiate con
tracts for advertising space or air
time. They determine, for example,
the day and time when a television
commercial would reach the largest
group of prospective buyers at the
least cost. To select the best medi
um for the advertiser, they must
know the costs of using various
media and the characteristics of the
audience that would be reached by
specific publications or television
stations.
Production managers and their
assistants arrange to have the ad
printed for publication or filmed for
television use. They must know
which firms or freelance workers
will be able to produce the best ad
for the least cost.
Places of Employment
In 1974, about 170,000 people
worked in jobs requiring considera
ble knowledge of advertising. More
than one-third were employed in
advertising agencies, largely con
centrated in New York City and
Chicago.
The rest worked for a variety of
firms and industries. Many advertis
ing workers are employed directly
by organizations with products or
services to sell, such as manufac
turers and retail stores. Others work
for television or radio stations,
newspapers, and magazines and sell
air time or space to advertisers.
Some work for printers, art studios,
and package design firms that help
advertisers create their ads.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Most employers prefer college
graduates who have liberal arts
training or majors in advertising,
marketing, journalism, or business
administration. No particular edu
cational background, however, is
equated with success in advertising.
Preparing or selling ads for school
publications or a summer job with a
marketing research service can be
helpful experience.
Some large organizations recruit
outstanding college graduates for
training programs that cover all
aspects of advertising work. Some
beginners start as research or
production assistants or as space or
time buyers. A few begin as junior
copywriters.
Many advertising jobs require
imagination, creativity, and a flair
for language. Persons interested in
becoming advertising managers, ac
count executives, media buyers,
and production managers must be
able to get along well with people
and be able to sell their ideas.
Research directors and their
assistants must have an understand
ing of human behavior. Creativity is
especially important to artists,
layout workers, and account execu
tives. Advertising workers must be
able to accept criticism of their
work and be able to function as part
of a team.
Copywriters and account execu
tives may advance to more respon
sible work in their specialties, or to
managerial jobs, if they demon
strate ability in dealing with clients.
Some who are especially capable
may become partners in an existing
agency, or establish their own.
Employment Outlook
Employment of advertising work
ers is expected to increase about
as fast as the average for all occupa
tions through the mid-1980’s, as the
growing number of consumer goods
and increasing competition in some
product or service markets cause
advertising expenditures to rise.
Employment in these occupations is
strongly affected by general busi
ness conditions because firms ex
pand or contract their advertising
budgets according to their financial
success. Although opportunities
should be favorable for highly
qualified applicants, others seeking
entry jobs will face keen competi
tion because many persons are at
tracted to the field. Most openings
will result from the need to replace
workers who die, retire, or leave the
occupation for other reasons.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
ecutives, copywriters, and layout
workers may become frustrated by
a client’s inability to define the type
of ad he or she wants for a product.
Advertising can be a satisfying
career for persons who enjoy
variety, excitement, creative chal
lenges, and competition. Unlike
workers in many other occupations,
advertising workers experience the
satisfaction of having their work in
print, on television, or on radio,
even though they remain unknown
to the public at large.
Sources of Additional
Information
Information on advertising agen
cies and the careers they offer is
available from:
A m e r i c a n A s s o c ia t io n o f A d v e r t is in g A g e n
cie s, 2 0 0
10017.
P a rk A v e . N e w Y o rk , N .Y .
For a list of schools that provide
training in advertising, contact:
A m e ric a n
A d v e r t is in g
C o n n e c t ic u t A v e .
F e d e ra t io n ,
1225
N W . , W a s h in g t o n ,
D . C . 20036.
According to the limited infor
mation available, annual salaries for
beginning advertising workers with
BANK OFFICERS
bachelor’s degrees ranged from
$8,000 to $10,000 in 1974. The
(D.O.T. 186.118, .138, .168, and
higher starting salaries generally .288; 161.118, 189.1 18 and .168)
were paid by the largest firms or ad
vertising agencies to outstanding
Nature of the Work
applicants.
Practically every bank has a pres
Salaries of experienced advertis
ing workers employed by agencies ident who directs operations; one
varied by size of firm and type of or more vice presidents who act as
job. For example, account execu general managers or who are in
tives averaged $18,000 to $25,000 charge of bank departments such as
a year and media directors, trust or credit; and a comptroller or
$20,000, according to limited infor cashier who, unlike cashiers in
mation.
Copywriters’
salaries stores and other businesses, is an
ranged from $15,000 for beginners executive officer generally respon
to as much as $50,000 for those sible for all bank property. Large
having print and television ex banks also may have treasurers and
other senior officers, as well as jun
perience.
People in advertising work under ior officers, to supervise the vari
great pressure. They are expected ous sections within different depart
to produce quality ads in as short a ments. Banks employed almost
time as possible. Sometimes they 240,000 officers in 1974; women
must work long or irregular hours in were about one-fifth of the total.
Bank officers make decisions
order to meet deadlines or make
last-minute changes. Account ex within a framework of policy set by
the board of directors and existing
laws and regulations. They must
have a broad knowledge of business
activities to relate to the operations
of their department. For example,
loan officers evaluate the credit and
collateral of individuals and busi
nesses applying for a loan.
Similarly, trust officers must un
derstand each account before they
invest funds to support families,
send young people to college, or
pay retirement pensions. Besides
supervising financial services, of
ficers advise individuals and busi
nesses and participate in communi
ty projects.
Because banks offer many serv
ices, a wide choice of careers is
available to workers who specialize.
Loan officers may handle install
ment, commercial, real estate, or
agricultural loans. To evaluate loan
applications properly, officers need
to be familiar with economics,
production, distribution, merchan
dising, and commercial law. Also,
they need to know business opera
tions and should be able to analyze
financial statements.
Bank officers in the field of trust
management require knowledge of
financial planning and investment
for purposes of investment research
and for estate and trust administra
tion.
Operations officers plan, coor
dinate, and control the work flow,
update systems, and strive for ad
ministrative efficiency. Careers in
bank operations include electronic
data processing manager and other
positions involving internal and
customer services.
A correspondent bank officer is
responsible for relations with other
banks; a branch manager, for all
functions of a branch office; and an
international officer, for advising
customers with financial dealings
abroad. A working knowledge of a
foreign country’s financial system,
trade relations, and economic con
ditions is beneficial to those in
terested in international banking.
Other career fields for bank of
ficers are auditing, economics, per
sonnel administration, public rela
tions, and operations research.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Bank officer positions are filled
by management trainees or by
promoting outstanding bank clerks
or tellers. College graduation
usually is required for management
trainees. A business administration
major in finance or a liberal arts
curriculum including accounting,
economics, commercial law, politi
cal science, and statistics serves as
excellent preparation for officer
trainee positions. Valuable ex
perience may be gained through
summer employment programs.
Many banks have well-organized
officer-training programs usually
ranging from 6 months to 1 year.
Trainees may start as credit or in
vestment analysts or may rotate
among bank departments to get the
“feel” of banking; bank officials
then can determine the position for
which each employee is best suited.
Persons planning to become bank
officers should like to work inde
pendently and analyze detailed in
formation. They also need tact and
good judgment in order to counsel
customers.
Advancement to officer may
come slowly in small banks where
the number of positions is limited.
In large banks that have special
training programs, promotions may
come more quickly. For a senior of
ficer position, however, an em
ployee usually needs many years of
experience.
Although experience, ability, and
leadership are emphasized for
promotion, advancement also may
be accelerated by special study.
Courses in every phase of banking
are offered by the American In
stitute of Banking, a longestablished,
industry-sponsored
school.
Employment Outlook
Through the mid-1980’s, employ
ment of bank officers is expected to
increase faster than the average for
all occupations. The increasing de
pendence on computers and an ex
pansion in the services offered by
banks will require growing numbers
of officers to provide sound
management and effective quality
control. Opportunities also will
arise as experienced officers leave
their jobs. College graduates who
meet the standards for management
trainees should find good opportu
nities for entry positions. However,
many senior officer positions will be
filled by promoting people already
experienced in banking. Competi
tion for these promotions, particu
larly in large banks, is likely to be
keen.
Earnings
Large banks, insurance compa
nies, and other financial institutions
paid executive trainees who were
college graduates starting salaries
ranging from about $730 to $930 a
month in 1974, according to the
limited information available.
Salaries of senior bank officers
may be several times as great as
these starting salaries. For officers,
as well as for other bank employees,
earnings are likely to be lower in
small towns than in big cities.
BUYERS
(D.O.T. 162.158 and 185.168)
Nature of the Work
Buyers determine which products
are on display in retail stores.
Although all buyers seek to satisfy
their stores’ customers and sell at a
profit, the kind and variety of goods
they purchase depend on the store
where they work. A buyer for a
small clothing store, for example,
may purchase its complete stock of
merchandise from sportswear to
formal evening clothes. Buyers who
work for larger retail businesses
often handle one or a few related
lines of goods, such as men’s wear,
ladies’ sportswear, or children’s
toys. Some, known as f o r e ig n
b u y e r s , purchase merchandise out
side the United States.
In order to purchase the best
selection of goods for their stores,
buyers must be familiar with the
manufacturers and distributors who
handle the merchandise they need.
They also must keep informed
about changes in existing products
and the development of new ones.
To learn about merchandise, buyers
attend fashion and trade shows and
visit manufacturers’ showrooms.
They usually order goods during
buying trips, and also place orders
with wholesale and manufacturers’
salesworkers who call on them to
display their merchandise.
Buyers must be able to assess the
resale value of goods after a brief
inspection and make a purchase
decision quickly. They are aware of
their stores’ profit margins and try
to select merchandise that will sell
quickly at well above the original
cost. Since most buyers work within
a limited budget, they must plan
their purchases to keep needed
items always in stock but also allow
for unexpected purchases when a
“good buy” presents itself.
Because
buyers
purchase
merchandise for their firms to resell
(unlike purchasing agents who buy
goods for direct use by the firm—
see the statement on Purchasing
Agents elsewhere in this book),
they must know what motivates
customers to buy. Before ordering a
particular line of merchandise,
buyers study market research re
ports and analyze past sales records
to determine what products are cur
rently in demand. They also confer
with assistant buyers and sales
clerks whose daily contact with
customers furnishes information
about consumer likes and dislikes.
In addition, buyers read fashion and
trade magazines to keep abreast of
style and manufacturing trends; fol
low ads in newspapers and other
media to check retail competitors’
sales activities; and watch general
economic conditions to anticipate
consumer buying patterns.
M e r c h a n d is e m a n a g e r s (D.O.T.
185.168) plan and coordinate buy
ing and selling activities for large
and medium-sized stores. They di
vide the budget among buyers, de
cide how much merchandise to
stock, and assign each buyer to
purchase certain goods. Merchan
dise managers may review buying
decisions to insure that needed
categories of goods are in stock,
managers usually have very busy
schedules and deal with many dif
ferent people in the course of a day.
and help buyers to set general pric
ing guidelines.
Buyers and merchandise managers
usually have very busy schedules and
deal with many different people in the
course of a day. They work with
manufacturers' represenatives, other
store personnel including store execu
tives and salesworkers, and custom
ers. Assisting with sales promotions
and creating enthusiasm among sales
personnel are part of the buyer's job,
and he or she may be asked to provide
information such as dress sizes and
product descriptions to the advertis
ing department for a sales promotion,
or to meet with floor salesworkers be
fore a new line of merchandise is in
troduced. Some buyers direct assis
tants who handle routine aspects of
purchasing such as verifying ship
ments; others supervise department
managers.
Some buyers represent large
stores or chains in cities where
many manufacturers are located.
The duties of these “market
representatives” vary by employer;
some purchase goods, while others
supply information and arrange for
store buyers to meet with manufac
turers when they are in town.
Places of Employment
In 1974, almost 110,000 buyers
and merchandise managers worked
Linen buyer in a large department store
d iscu sse s special order with a c u s
tomer.
for retail firms—half of them for
clothing and general department
stores.
About 2 out of every 5 people in
the occupation were women.
Although jobs for buyers are
found in all parts of the country,
most jobs are in major metropolitan
areas were retail stores are concen
trated.
Market representatives
work for buying offices in major
market areas such as New York,
Chicago, and Dallas.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
A job which traditionally has at
tracted career-minded people, buy
ing offers good opportunities to
begin a career in merchandising.
Most retail stores prefer college
or junior college graduates for buy
ing jobs. Courses in merchandising
or marketing may help in getting a
first job, but most employers accept
graduates in any field of study and
train them on the job. Promising
salesworkers sometimes are con
sidered for promotion to jobs at the
management level, and begin as
assistant buyers.
Many stores have formal training
programs for all management or ex
ecutive trainees, including buyers.
These programs usually last from 6
to 8 months and combine classroom
instruction in merchandising and
purchasing with short rotations to
various jobs in the store. This train
ing introduces the new worker to
store operations and policies, and
provides the fundamentals of
merchandising and management as
well.
The trainee’s first job is likely to
be that of assistant buyer. The du
ties include supervising saleswork
ers, checking invoices on material
received, and keeping account of
stock on hand. Assistant buyers
gradually
assume
purchasing
responsibilities, depending upon
their individual abilities and the size
of the department where they work.
Training as an assistant buyer
usually lasts about a year. After
about 5 years of working as a buyer,
those who show exceptional ability
may advance to merchandise
manager. A few find further promo
tion to top executive jobs such as
general merchandise manager for a
retail store or chain. The length of
time it takes to reach any of these
levels depends not just on the in
dividual’s ability but on the store’s
need for management personnel.
The faster growing the company,
the more opportunity there is for a
worker to acquire responsibility.
Buyers should be good at
planning and decisionmaking and
have an interest in merchandising.
They need leadership ability and
communications skills to supervise
salesworkers and assistant buyers
and to deal effectively with manu
facturers’ representatives and store
executives. Because of the fast pace
and constant pressure of their work,
buyers need physical stamina and
emotional stability.
Employment Outlook
Earnings, which frequently in
clude a bonus in addition to regular
salary, vary according to the sales
volume of the store and the type of
merchandise purchased. Buyers in
single-store companies with yearly
sales of $5-15 million earned about
$10,500 in 1974; merchandise
managers in these stores averaged
nearly $24,000.
Buyers for discount department
stores and other mass merchandis
ing firms are among the most highly
paid in the industry. Those working
for mass merchandising firms with
annual sales of $40-400 million
earned over $21,000 in 1974, while
merchandise
managers earned
about $36,000. A 1972 survey con
ducted by the Mass Retailing In
stitute shows that in firms with an
nual sales of $4 million or more,
average earnings for buyers ranged
from about $16,000 to $24,000, de
pending on the type of merchandise
purchased; most buyers earned
between $19,000 and $21,000.
Merchandise managers made con
siderably more.
Buyers regulate their own hours,
and often work more than 40 hours
a week because of sales, con
ferences, and travel. The amount of
traveling a buyer does varies with
the type of merchandise bought and
the location of suppliers, but most
spend 4 or 5 days a month on the
road. Merchandise managers also
travel frequently, averaging several
trips a month in many cases.
Employment of buyers is ex
pected to grow faster than the
average for all occupations through
the mid-1980’s, as retail stores seek
to promote sales by offering their
customers a broader selection of
goods. In addition to opportunities
created by this growth, many job
openings will arise each year from
the need to replace workers who
leave the occupation. Competition
for these jobs is expected to be
keen, for merchandising attracts
large numbers of college graduates
every year. Prospects are likely to
be best for qualified applicants who
enjoy the competitive nature of
retailing, and work best in a de
manding, fast-paced job.
Employment of buyers will grow
as retailers put greater emphasis on
the selection, display, and promo
tion of the goods they have for sale.
This is likely to spur demand for
buyers with the professional exper
tise to discover new sources of
merchandise and select goods that
will appeal to customers and make
a profit for the retailer. The de
mand for astute buyers and
merchandise managers will grow
even though chain stores and other
Sources of Additional
large firms are centralizing their
Information
purchasing functions and turning to
General information about a
the computer for routine buying
career in retailing is available from:
and for compiling and tabulating
N a t io n a l R e t a il M e r c h a n t s A s s o c ia t io n , 1 0 0
data on past sales.
W e s t 3 1st St., N e w Y o r k , N . Y . 1 0 0 0 1 .
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Newly hired buyers who were
college graduates started at $8,300
to $9,000 a year in 1974. Some who
showed unusual promise started at
annual salaries of $ 12,000 or more.
M a s s R e t a ilin g In stitu te , 5 7 0 S e v e n t h A v e .,
N ew Y o rk , N .Y . 10018.
CITY MANAGERS
(D.O.T. 188.118)
Nature of the Work
Population growth and industrial
expansion place increasing pressure
on housing, transportation, and
other facilities of cities. Problems
associated with growing modern
communities, such as air and water
pollution and rising crime rates,
also demand attention. To cope ef
fectively with these problems, many
communities hire a specialist in
management techniques—the city
manager.
A city manager is responsible to
the community’s elected officials
who appoint him. Although duties
vary by city size, city managers
generally administer and coor
dinate the day-to-day operations of
the city. They are responsible for
functions such as tax collection and
disbursement, law enforcement,
and public works; hire department
heads and their staffs; and prepare
the annual budget to be approved
by elected officials. They also study
current problems, such as traffic
congestion,
crime, or urban
renewal, and report their findings to reports, receive visitors, answer
the elected council.
correspondence, and generally help
City managers must plan for fu to keep the city functioning
ture growth and development of cit smoothly. Assistant city managers
ies and surrounding areas. To pro organize and coordinate city pro
vide for an expansion of public serv grams, supervise city employees,
ices, they frequently appear at and act for the city manager in their
civic meetings to advocate certain absence. They also may assume
programs or to inform citizens of responsibility for some projects,
current government operations.
such as the development of a
City managers work closely with preliminary annual budget. Depart
planning departments to coordinate ment head assistants generally are
new and existing programs. In responsible for one activity, such as
smaller cities that have no per personnel, finance, or law, but also
manent planning staff, coordination may assist in other areas. Adminis
may be assumed entirely by the trative assistants, also called execu
manager.
tive assistants or assistants to the
Many cities employ assistant city city manager, usually do adminis
managers,
department
head trative and staff work in all depart
assistants,
and
administrative ments under the city manager. For
assistants to aid city managers. instance, they may compile operat
Under the manager’s direction, ing statistics, or review and analyze
they administer programs, prepare work procedures.
Places of Employment
About 2,900 city managers were
employed in 1974. Although nearly
all of them were men, in recent
years a growing number of women
have entered the occupation. In ad
dition, several thousand persons
worked as administrative assistants,
department head assistants, and
assistant city managers. Most city
managers worked for cities and
counties having a council-manager
form of government, in which the
council appoints a manager who is
responsible for the day-to-day
operation of the government as well
as for the hiring and firing of
assistants, department heads, and
other staff. Most of the remainder
worked in municipalities having
other forms of government, such as
mayor-council
government
in
which the mayor appoints the city
manager as his administrative
assistant or chief administrative of
ficer. A few city managers also
worked for metropolitan or re
gional planning organizations and
councils of governments.
Although over three-quarters of
all city managers work for small cit
ies having 25,000 or less inhabit
ants, many larger cities also em
ploy a city manager. About half of
the cities having a population of
between 10,000 and 500,000 have
city managers. City managers work
in all States, but one-half are con
centrated in the eastern part of the
Nation.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
A master’s degree, generally in
public or business administration, is
becoming increasingly important
for those seeking a career in city
management. Although some appli
cants with only a bachelor’s degree
may find employment, strong com
petition for positions, even among
master’s recipients, will make the
graduate degree a requirement for
most entry level jobs. In some cases,
employers may hire a person with
training in a field related to public
administration, such as engineering,
recreation, social work, or political
s c ie n c e .
In 1974, over 150 colleges and
universities offered graduate degree
programs in public or municipal ad
ministration. Degree requirements
in some schools include successful
completion of an internship pro
gram in a city manager’s office.
During this internship period,
which may last from 6 months to a
year, the degree candidate observes
local government operations and
does research under the direct su
pervision of the city manager.
Most new graduates work as ad
ministrative assistants to city
managers for several years and gain
experience
in solving
urban
problems, coordinating public serv
ices, and management techniques.
Others work in an area of govern
ment operations such as finance,
public works, or public planning.
They may acquire supervisory skills
and additional experience by work
ing as assistant city manager or de
partment head assistant in opera
tions. City managers often are first
employed in small cities, but during
their careers, they may work in
several cities of increasing size.
Young persons who plan a career
in city management should like to
work with detail and as part of a
team. They must have sound
judgment, self-confidence, and be
able to perform well under stress.
To handle emergency situations,
city managers must quickly isolate
problems, identify their causes, and
provide alternate solutions. City
managers should be tactful and able
to communicate with and work well
with people.
City managers also must be
dedicated to public service since
they often put in long, hard hours in
times of crises.
Employment Outlook
This small occupation is expected
to expand faster than the average
for all occupations to the mid1980’s as problems of our growing
cities become more complex. Ex
amples of more sophisticated ways
of dealing with these problems in
clude computerized data collection
of police information, advances in
technology of traffic control, and
the application of systems analysis
to urban problems. The demand for
city managers also will increase as
cities convert to the councilmanager form of government, cur
rently the fastest growing form of
city government. Furthermore, city
managers will be needed in places
having other forms of government
to help elected officials cope with
day-to-day operations of govern
ment.
Persons who seek beginning city
management jobs as administra
tive assistants, department head
assistants, or assistant city man
agers may face strong competi
tion through the mid-1980’s, espe
cially if they do not have a graduate
degree in public administration or
related management experience.
However, many of those unable to
find employment in this area should
find jobs in other fields of public ad
ministration. Competition should
be keen among the growing number
of administrative assistants, depart
ment head assistants, and assistant
city managers for the relatively few
city manager positions.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Salaries of city managers and
their assistants vary according to
their education and experience as
well as job responsibility and size of
city. Generally, city managers’
earnings are very high relative to
the average earnings for nonsupervisory workers in private industry,
except farming. In 1974, annual
salaries of city managers ranged
from about $12,000 in cities of
5,000 to more than $40,000 in cit
ies of over 250,000, according to
the International City Management
Association. The average annual
salary for all city managers is al
most $20,000. City managers in
cities not having council-manager
governments received slightly less.
Salaries
of
assistant
city
managers and department head
assistants ranged from about
$ 10,000 in small cities to more than
$25,000 in large ones. They were
generally paid about three-fourths
the salaries paid city managers. Ad
ministrative assistant salaries typi
cally ranged from $8,500 to
$ 10,000, annually.
City managers often work more
than 40 hours a week. Emergency
problems may require evening and
weekend work and meetings with
individuals and citizen’s groups
consume additional time.
Fringe benefits usually include
health and life insurance programs,
pension plans, sick leave, vacation
time, and often a car for official
business. Managers generally are
reimbursed for expenses incurred
while
attending
professional
meetings and seminars.
Sources of Additional
Information
For information on a career in
city management, contact:
In t e r n a t io n a l C it y M a n a g e m e n t A s s o c ia t io n ,
1 1 4 0 C o n n e c t ic u t A v e . N W . , W a s h i n g
to n , D C . 2 0 0 3 6 .
For further information on the
council manager form of govern
ment, contact:
N a t io n a l M u n ic ip a l L e a g u e , 4 7 E . 6 8 t h St.,
N e w Y o rk , N .Y . 10021.
COLLEGE STUDENT
PERSONNEL WORKERS
(D.O.T. 045.108, 090.118,
090.168, 129.108, and 166.168)
Nature of the Work
A student’s choice of a particular
institution of higher education for
further study is influenced by many
factors. Availability of a specific
educational program, quality of the
school, and cost, as well as proximi
ty to home, may all play important
roles.
For many students, an equally
important factor is the institution’s
ability to provide for their housing,
social, cultural, and recreational
needs. Development and adminis
tration of these services, including
educational and similar programs,
provide a wide variety of jobs for
college student personnel workers.
The admissions officer, registrar,
the dean of students, and the career
planning and placement counselor
are probably the best known among
these. Some other types of workers
that may make up this broad occu
pational field are student activities
and college union personnel, stu
employment, fellowships, teaching
dent housing officers, counselors in
and research assistantships. They
the college counseling center,
work closely with administrators
financial aid officers, and foreign
and with the admissions, counsel
student advisers.
ing, business, and academic office
Titles of student personnel work
staffs.
ers vary from institution to institu
Career planning and placement
tion and from program to program
counselors, sometimes called col
within a single school. Titles also
lege placement officers, assist stu
vary with the level of responsibility
dents in making long-range career
within a certain student personnel
selections and may also help stu
program. The more common titles
dents get part-time and summer
include dean, director, officer, as
jobs. On many campuses, they ar
sociate dean, assistant director, and
range for prospective employers to
counselor.
visit the school to discuss their
The dean o f students, or the vice
firm’s personnel needs and to inter
president for student affairs, heads
view applicants. (For further infor
the student personnel program at a
mation on this field, see statement
school. Among his or her duties is
on College Career Planning and
evaluating the changing needs of
Placement Counselors.)
the students and helping the pre
sident of the college develop in
The student personnel staff in
stitutional policies. The dean of stu charge of student activities work
dents generally coordinates a staff with members of proposed and
of associate or assistant deans; established student organizations,
these are in charge of the specific
especially with student government.
programs that deal directly with the They help the student groups to
students.
plan, implement, and evaluate their
At some schools, the admissions activities. Often, the student activi
office and the records office are ties staff will assist in the orienta
separate. Admissions counselors in tion of new students.
terview and evaluate prospective
College union staff members work
students and process their applica with students to provide intellec
tions. They may travel extensively tual, cultural, and recreational pro
to recruit high school, junior col grams. Many college union staff
lege, and older students and to members are responsible for direct
acquaint them with opportunities ing the operation of the physical
available at their college. They facilities and services of the build
work closely with faculty, adminis ing, such as food and recreational
trators, financial aid personnel, and services, building maintenance,
public relations staff to determine fiscal planning, conference facili
policies for recruiting and admitting ties, and employee supervision.
students. Personnel in the office of
Student housing officers some
the registrar maintain the academic times live in the dormitories and, in
records of students, and provide general, help the students to live
current enrollment statistics for together in harmony. They may
communication both within the col serve as counselors to individual
lege and between the college and students with personal problems.
the community.
Housing officers also may be in
Student financial aid personnel volved in managing the fiscal, food
assist students in obtaining financial service, and housekeeping opera
support to pay for their education. tions of student residences.
Workers in this field must keep well
Counselors help students with
informed about sources of financial personal, educational, and voca
aid, funding, and about manage tional problems. Students may
ment of all forms of financial aid— come to the counselors on their
scholarships, grants, loans, student own or be referred by a faculty
international associations and na
tionality groups and for U.S. stu
dents interested in study, educa
tional travel, work, or service pro
jects abroad.
Places of Employment
member, a residence hall coun
selor, or a friend. Counseling needs
may arise from lack of self-con
fidence or motivation on the part of
the student, failure in academic
work, desire to leave college or
transfer to another college, inability
to get along with others, loneliness,
drug abuse, or marriage problems.
In addition, there is a growing trend
for counselors to try to reach more
students by establishing group sen
sitivity sessions and telephone
“hotlines.” Counselors often ad
minister tests that indicate ap
titudes and interests to students
having trouble understanding them
se lv e s . Some a lso te a c h in th e col
lege or assist with admissions,
orientation, and training of res
idence hall staff. (For further in
formation on this field, see state
ment on Psychologists.)
F o r e ig n
s tu d e n t
a d v is e r s
ad
minister and coordinate many of
the services which are crucial in in
suring a successful academic and
social experience for students from
other countries. They usually assist
with foreign student admissions,
orientation, financial aid, housing,
English as a foreign language,
academic and personal counseling,
student-community relationships,
placement, and alumni relations. In
addition they may be an adviser for
An estimated 50,000 college stu
dent personnel workers, roughly
one-third of them women, were em
ployed in 1974. Every college and
university, whether a 2-year or a 4year school, has a staff performing
student personnel functions. They
are not always organized as a
unified program. Large colleges
and universities generally have spe
cialized staffs for each personnel
function. However, in many small
colleges a few persons may carry
out the entire student personnel
program.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Because of the diversity in duties,
the education and backgrounds of
college student personnel workers
vary considerably. A bachelor’s
degree is the minimum require
ment; however, for some student
personnel programs it is necessary
to have a master’s degree, and
others in the field have doctoral
degrees.
In 1974, more than 100 colleges
and universities offered graduate
programs in student personnel
work. However, many employers
prefer instead a graduate degree in
a specific academic field added to
some courses in student personnel
work. A master’s degree in clinical
or counseling psychology is usually
required for work as a college coun
selor. This degree also is helpful in
other student personnel fields such
as career planning and placement.
Business administration also is help
ful, especially for those who wish to
go into the admissions, records, col
lege union, financial aid, or student
housing fields. Familiarity with data
processing is an asset especially for
work in admissions, records, or
financial aid. Social science and
recreation degrees also are useful,
as is work experience in business,
government, or educational as
sociations. The majority, however,
have degrees in education or the so
cial sciences.
College student personnel work
ers must be interested in, and able
to work with, people of all
backgrounds and ages. They must
have the patience to cope with con
flicting viewpoints of students,
faculty, and parents. People in this
field often deal with the unexpected
and the unusual; therefore emo
tional stability and the ability to
function while under pressure are
necessities.
Entry level positions are usually
those of student activities advisers,
admissions counselors, financial aid
counselors, residence hall directors,
and assistants to deans. Persons
without graduate degrees may find
advancement opportunities limited.
A doctorate is usually necessary for
the top student personnel positions.
Employment Outlook
The employment outlook of col
lege student personnel workers is
likely to be somewhat competitive
through 1985. Employment is ex
pected to remain relatively stable.
Tightening budgets, in both public
and private colleges and universi
ties, is the chief factor underlying
this expected lack of growth in em
ployment. Student personnel posi
tions least likely to be affected if
some reduction in number becomes
necessary are those most closely
tied to the academic function of the
school—admissions, financial aid,
and records. Over the short run,
until colleges and universities
resolve their financial difficulties,
most openings each year will result
from the need to replace personnel
who transfer to other positions,
retire, or leave the field for other
reasons.
During the early 1980’s, how
ever, employment of student per
sonnel workers is expected to in
crease as colleges provide more
services for students, especially the
growing number from low-income
and minority families who often
require special counseling and
assistance. The increasing number
of college students, in junior and
community colleges, is a factor
which also could contribute to
some growth in the student person
nel occupations, especially if finan
cial problems should ease. Twoyear public colleges, for the most
part, have less serious financial
problems because, unlike most 4year institutions, their enrollments
are growing and their operating
costs are moderate.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Median salaries of c h i e f s t u d e n t
ranged from $ 13,700
in small private colleges to $29,900
in large public universities in 1974,
according to a National Education
Association survey of public and
private colleges and universities.
Median salaries of d e a n s o f a d m i s
s io n s ranged from $12,700 to
$22,300; for r e g is tr a r s , from $9,400
to $20,400. D ir e c t o r s o f s t u d e n t
te s tin g a n d c o u n s e lin g had median
salaries of $ 11,400 to $22,800. The
median salaries of the other student
personnel workers were somewhat
lower. New entrants to the field
received about $8,500 in 1974.
College student personnel work
ers frequently work more than a
40-hour week; often irregular hours
and overtime work are necessary.
Employment in these occupations is
usually on a 12-month basis. In
many schools, they are entitled to
retirement, group medical and life
insurance, and sabbatical and other
benefits.
a ff a ir s o f f ic e r s
Sources of Additional
Information
A pamphlet,
C a r e e r s in
H ig h e r
by the applicant, interviews a
representative of the company
T h e A m e r i c a n P e r s o n n e l a n d G u id a n c e A s
about its management, and reviews
s o c ia tio n , 1 6 0 7 N e w H a m p s h ir e A v e .
credit agency reports to determine
N W . , W a s h in g t o n , D C . 2 0 0 0 9 .
the firm’s record in repaying debts.
The manager also checks at banks
where the company has deposits or
previously was granted credit. In
extending credit to individuals
CREDIT MANAGERS
(consumer credit), detailed finan
(D.O.T. 168.168)
cial reports usually are not availa
ble. The credit manager must rely
Nature of the Work
more on personal interviews, credit
Both businesses and individuals bureaus, and banks to provide in
may require credit to meet their formation about the person apply
daily needs for a variety of goods ing for credit.
Particularly in large organiza
and services. In most forms of
executive
level
credit
credit granting, a credit manager tions,
has final authority over the decision managers are responsible for for
to accept or reject a credit applica mulating a credit policy. They must
establish financial standards to be
tion.
In extending credit to a business met by applicants and thereby
(commercial credit), the credit determine the amount of risk that
manager, or an assistant, analyzes their company will accept when of
detailed financial reports submitted fering its products or services for
E d u c a ti o n ,
is available from:
sale on credit. Managers usually
cooperate with the sales depart
ment in developing a credit policy
liberal enough to allow the com
pany’s sales to increase and yet
strict enough to deny credit to
customers whose ability to repay
their debts is questionable. Many
credit managers establish office
procedures and supervise workers
who gather information, analyze
facts, and perform general office
duties in a credit department; they
include application clerks, collec
tion workers, bookkeepers, and
secretaries.
In smaller companies that handle
a limited number of accounts,
credit managers may do much of
the work of granting credit them
selves. They may interview appli
cants, analyze the information
gained in the interview, and make
the final lending decision. They
frequently must contact customers
who are unable or refuse to pay
their debts. They do this through
writing, telephoning, or personal
contact. If these attempts at collec
tion fail, credit managers may refer
the account to a collection agency
or assign an attorney to take legal
action.
Places of Employment
About 66,000 persons, nearly a
third of them women, worked as
credit managers in 1974. About
one-half were employed in whole
sale and retail trade, but many
others, almost one-third of the
total, worked for manufacturing
firms and financial institutions.
Although goods and services are
sold on credit, and cash loans
granted, throughout the United
States, most credit managers work
in urban areas where many finan
cial and business establishments are
located.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
A college degree is becoming in
creasingly important for entry level
jobs in credit management. Em
ployers usually seek persons who
have majored in business adminis
tration, economics, or accounting,
but may also hire graduates holding
liberal arts degrees. Some em
ployers promote high school gradu
ates to credit manager positions if
they have experience in credit col
lection or processing credit infor
mation.
Newly hired workers normally
begin as management trainees and
work under the guidance of more
experienced personnel in the credit
department. Here they gain a
thorough understanding of the
company’s credit procedures and
policies. They may analyze previous
credit transactions to learn how to
recognize which applicants should
prove to be good customers.
Trainees also learn to deal with
credit bureaus, banks, and other
businesses that can provide infor
mation on the past credit dealings
of their customers.
Many formal training programs
are available through the educa
tional branches of the associations
that serve the credit and finance
field. This training includes home
study, college and university pro
grams, and special instruction to
improve beginners’ skills and keep
experienced credit managers aware
of new developments in their field.
A person interested in a career as
a credit manager should be able to
analyze detailed information and
draw valid conclusions based on
this analysis. Because it is necessary
to maintain good customer relation
ships, a pleasant personality and the
ability to speak and write effective
ly also are characteristics of the
successful credit manager.
The work performed by credit
managers allows them to become
familiar with almost every phase of
their company’s business. Highly
qualified
and
experienced
managers can advance to top-level
executive positions. However, in
small and medium-sized companies,
Employment Outlook
Credit management is an expand
ing field. Through the mid-1980’s
employment is expected to grow
faster than the average for all occu
pations. In addition to opportunities
created by this growth, many jobs
will open each year from the need
to replace persons who leave the
occupation. Although there will be
employment opportunities through
out the country, prospects should
continue to be best for wellqualified jobseekers in metropolitan
areas.
The volume of credit extended
rose very rapidly during the past
decade. In the years ahead, busi
nesses can be expected to require
increasing amounts of credit to
secure raw materials for production
and obtain finished goods for even
tual resale. Consumers, whose per
sonal incomes have risen, are ex
pected to finance greater numbers
of high-priced items. In addition,
the use of credit for everyday
purchases is expected to grow as
demand increases for recreation
and household goods as well as a
wide range of consumer services.
Although the increasing use of
computers for storing and retriev
ing information will allow in
dividual credit managers to serve
more customers, this should not
slow the growth of the occupation.
As companies handle greater num
bers of credit transactions, credit
managers will spend more time
managing and supervising the credit
handling process in their firms.
Moreover, many duties of credit
managers, such as customer coun
seling and interviewing applicants,
demand the tact and good judgment
only personal contact can provide.
In addition, attractive credit
terms are a major tool for increas
ing the sales volume of almost any
business. As firms strive to max
imize their sales in the face of com
petition, there will be a greater de
mand for skilled credit managers
who can establish credit policies
strict enough to minimize bad debt
losses.
HOTEL MANAGERS AND
ASSISTANTS
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Nature of the Work
Hotel managers are responsible
for operating their establishments
profitably and satisfying guests.
They determine room rates and
credit policy, direct the operation
of the kitchen and dining rooms,
and manage the housekeeping, ac
counting, and maintenance depart
ments of the hotel. They also are
responsible
for
solving
any
problems that may arise.
Managers who work in small
hotels may do much of the front of
fice clerical work, such as taking
room reservations and assigning
rooms. In some small hotels and
many motels, the manager is also
the owner and may be responsible
for all aspects of the business.
General managers of large hotels
usually have several assistants who
manage various parts of the opera
tion. Because the hotel restaurant
and cocktail lounge are important
to the success of the entire
establishment, they almost always
are operated by managers with ex
perience in the restaurant field.
Other areas that usually are han
dled separately are advertising,
rental of banquet and meeting
facilities, personnel, and account
ing.
Large hotel and motel chains
often centralize some activities,
such as purchasing and advertising,
so that individual hotels in the chain
may not need managers for these
departments. Managers who work
for chains may be assigned to or
ganize a newly built or purchased
hotel or to reorganize an existing
hotel or motel that is not operating
successfully.
About 120,000 hotel and motel
managers, one-third of them
women, were employed in 1974.
More than a third were self-em
ployed.
In 1974, beginning credit man
agers earned annual salaries that
ranged from about $7,500 to over
$10,000, depending on the type of
employer and the geographic loca
tion of the job.
As credit managers gain ex
perience and reach middle manage
ment positions, their earnings
usually range from $10,000 to
$20,000 a year; with the largest em
ployers, earnings may be as high as
$25,000 or more. Some individuals
in top-level positions earned sala
ries well over $40,000 a year.
Credit managers normally work
the standard workweek of their
company—35-40 hours, but some
work longer hours. In wholesale
and retail trade, for example, a
seasonal increase in credit sales can
produce a greater work volume. In
addition, some credit managers at
tend conferences sponsored by in
dustry and professional organiza
tions where managers meet to
develop and discuss new techniques
for the management of a credit de
partment.
Sources of Additional
Information
Information about training pro
grams available in consumer credit
may be obtained from:
S o c ie t y o f C e r t ifie d C o n s u m e r C r e d it E x e c u
tive s, 7 4 0 5
U n iv e r s it y
D r., St. L o u is ,
M o . 63130.
For information about training
programs available in commercial
credit, write:
C r e d it R e s e a r c h F o u n d a t io n , 3 0 0 0 M a r c u s
A v e ., L a k e Su c ce ss, N . Y . 11040.
(D.O.T. 163.118 and 187.118,
.168)
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Although experience is generally
the most important consideration in
selecting managers, employers in
creasingly emphasize college edu
cation. Many believe that acquiring
a 4-year college degree in hotel and
restaurant administration is the best
educational preparation. The cours
es in hotel work that are available
in a few junior colleges and through
the American Hotel and Motel As
sociation also are considered help
ful.
A college program in hotel
management usually includes cours
es in hotel administration, ac
counting, economics, food service
management and catering, and
hotel maintenance engineering.
Students are encouraged to work in
hotels or
restaurants during
summer vacations because the ex
perience gained and the contacts
made with employers may help
them to get better hotel jobs after
graduation.
Managers should have initiative,
self-discipline, and the ability to or
ganize work and direct the work of
others. They must be able to con
c e n tr a te
on details and solve
problems.
Some large hotels have special
on-the-job management trainee
programs in which trainees rotate
among various departments to
acquire a thorough knowledge of
the hotel’s operation. Outstanding
employees who have not had col
lege training may receive financial
assistance to help them acquire a
degree.
Most hotels promote employees
with proven ability, usually front of
fice clerks, to assistant manager and
eventually to general manager.
Hotel chains may offer better opportunites for advancement than in
dependent hotels, because em
ployees can transfer to another
hotel in the chain or to the central
office if an opening occurs.
Hotel manager personally greets an association representative who is considering
his hotel as a convention site.
Employment Outlook
Employment of hotel managers is
expected to grow about as fast as
the average for all occupations
through the mid-1980’s as addi
tional hotels and motels are built
and chain and franchise operations
spread. Many openings also will
occur as experienced managers die,
retire, or transfer to other jobs. Ap
plicants having college degrees in
hotel administration will have an
advantage in seeking entry posi
tions and later advancement.
INDUSTRIAL TRAFFIC
MANAGERS
(D.O.T. 184.168)
Nature of the Work
Industrial firms want to receive
raw
materials
and
deliver
customers’ goods promptly, safely,
and with minimum cost. Arranging
the transportation of materials and
finished products is the job of an in
dustrial traffic manager. Industrial
traffic managers analyze various
transportation possibilities and
choose the most efficient type for
their companies’ needs—rail, air,
road, water, pipeline, or some com
bination. Then they select the route
and the particular carrier. To make
their decisions, m a n a g e r s c o n s id e r
factors such as freight classifica
tions
and
regulations,
time
schedules, size of shipments, and
loss and damage rates. (This state
ment does not cover traffic
managers who sell transportation
services for railroads, airlines,
trucking firms, and other freight
carriers.)
Activities of industrial traffic
managers range from checking
freight bills to deciding whether the
company should buy its own fleet of
trucks or contract for services.
They route and trace shipments, ar
range with carriers for transporta
tion services, prepare bills of lading
and other shipping documents, and
handle claims for lost or damaged
goods. Traffic managers keep
records of shipments, freight rates,
commodity classifications, and ap
plicable government regulations.
They also must stay informed about
changing transportation technolo
gy, such as containerization (the
use of containers packed with many
individual items). Some traffic
managers (called physical distribu
tion managers) are responsible for
packaging shipments and maintain
ing warehouse facilities and trans
portation equipment.
Traffic managers often consult
with other company officials about
the firm’s transportation needs.
They may, for example, work with
production department personnel
to plan shipping schedules, or with
members of the purchasing depart
ment to determine what quantities
of goods can be transported most
economically.
Since many aspects of transporta
tion are subject to Federal, State,
and local government regulations,
traffic managers must know about
these and any other legal matters
that apply to their companies’
shipping operations. High level traf
fic managers represent their com
panies before ratemaking and regu
latory bodies such as the Interstate
Commerce Commission,
State
commissions, and local traffic bu
reaus.
Places of Employment
More than 20,000 persons were
industrial traffic managers in 1974.
Although most jobs are found in
manufacturing firms, some traffic
managers work for large stores. A
few are self-employed consultants,
or work for firms that handle trans
portation problems for clients.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Although high school graduates
with experience in traffic depart
ments sometimes are hired as traffic
managers, a college education is in
creasingly important in this field.
For some kinds of work, college
training is required. To argue cases
before the Interstate Commerce
Commission, for example, a traffic
manager must meet standards that
include at least 2 years of college.
Although some employers prefer
graduates who have a degree in
traffic management, others seek
liberal arts majors who have had
courses in transportation, manage
ment, economics, statistics, market
ing, or commercial law.
Industrial traffic training is
available through colleges and
universities, traffic management
schools, and seminars sponsored by
private organizations. More than
100 colleges, universities, and ju
nior colleges offer a degree in traf
fic management.
Industrial traffic managers should
be able to analyze numerical and
technical data such as freight rates
and classifications to solve trans
portation problems. The job also
requires the ability to work inde
pendently and to present facts and
figures in a convincing manner.
Newly hired traffic specialists
often complete shipping forms and
calculate freight charges. After
gaining experience, they do more
technical work such as analyzing
transportation statistics. A com
petent worker may advance to a su
pervisory job such as supervisor of
rates and routes; a few are
promoted to assistant general traf
fic manager and eventually to
general traffic manager. Industrial
traffic managers can sometimes
help their chances for advancement
by participating in company-spon
sored training programs or taking
advanced courses in traffic manage
ment.
Employment Outlook
Industrial traffic management is a
relatively small occupation and is
expected to grow more slowly than
the average for all occupations
through the mid-1980’s. A few
openings will become available
each year as new jobs are created,
and as traffic managers die, retire,
or leave the field for other reasons.
College graduates with a major in
traffic management or transporta
tion can expect first consideration
for the available jobs.
Growth in the occupation will
stem from an increasing emphasis
on reducing the cost of receiving
raw materials and distributing
finished products. As the distance
between markets becomes greater
and rate schedules and regulations
governing transportation more
complex, manufacturers increas
ingly will require traffic specialists
with the expertise to obtain the
lowest possible freight rates.
in 1974, according to the limited in
formation
available.
Although
earnings of experienced traffic
managers vary, in general they are
much higher than the average for
all nonsupervisory workers in
private industry, except farming.
Some traffic executives earned
$40,000 a year or more.
Although industrial traffic man
agers usually have a standard
workweek, some of them have to
spend time outside regular working
hours preparing reports, attending
meetings, and traveling to hearings
before State and Federal regulatory
agencies.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Information on education and
technical training is available from:
Industrial traffic managers’ sala
ries started at about $ 15,000 a year
A m e r i c a n S o c ie t y o f T r a f f ic a n d T r a n s p o r t a
tio n , In c ., 5 4 7 W e s t J a c k s o n B lv d .,
C h i c a g o , III. 6 0 6 0 6 .
Sources of Additional
Information
investigators, or claim examiners. A
legal background also is an asset to
those seeking or holding public of
fice.
Places of Employment
Over 340,000 persons worked as
lawyers in 1974. Although the
majority were men, increasing num
bers of women are choosing careers
in law. In 1974, for example, about
1 of every 5 students in American
Bar Association (ABA) approved
law schools was a woman.
Most lawyers are in private prac
tice, either self-employed (alone or
in partnerships) or working for
other lawyers or law firms. In addi
tion, about 22,000 lawyers worked
for the Federal Government,
chiefly in the Justice, Defense, and
Treasury Departments, and the
Veterans Administration; another
32,000 were employed by State and
local governments. Others worked
for private companies or taught in
law schools. Some salaried lawyers
also have independent practices;
others do legal work part time while
in another occupation.
LAWYERS
(D.O.T. 110.108, .118, and
1 19.168)
Nature of the Work
At some time in our life, each of
us may need a lawyer for advice
about our rights and responsibilities
when we buy property, make a will,
or settle an estate. In addition,
lawyers, also called attorneys,
negotiate the settlement of legal
problems out of court or, when
necessary, represent clients in court
or before government agencies.
Most lawyers are engaged in
general practice and handle all
kinds of legal work for clients.
However, a significant number spe
cialize in one branch of law, such
as corporation, criminal, labor,
patent, real estate, tax, or interna
tional law. Some attorneys devote
themselves entirely to trying cases
in the courts. Others never appear
in court but instead draw up wills,
trusts, contracts, mortgages, and
other legal documents; conduct
out-of-court negotiations; and do
investigative and other legal work
to prepare for trials. Some may act
as trustees by managing a person’s
property and funds, or as executors
by seeing that the provisions of
their client’s will are carried out.
Still others teach, do research or
write, or perform administrative
work. Government attorneys help
develop Federal and State laws and
programs; they prepare drafts of
proposed legislation, establish law
enforcement procedures, and argue
cases.
Many people who have legal
training do not work as lawyers but
use their knowledge of law in other
occupations. They may, for exam
ple, be insurance adjusters, tax col
lectors, probation officers, credit
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
In order to practice law in the
courts of any State, a person must
be admitted to its bar. Applicants
for admission to the bar must pass a
written examination; however, a
few States drop this requirement for
graduates of their own law schools.
Lawyers who have been admitted to
the bar in one State usually can be
admitted in another without taking
an examination provided they meet
that State’s standards of good moral
character and have a specified
period of legal experience. Each
Federal court or agency sets its own
qualifications for those practicing
before it.
To qualify for the bar examina
tion in most States, an applicant
must have completed 3 years of col
lege and have graduated from a law
school approved by the American
Bar Association or the proper State
authorities. A few States accept the
study of law wholly in a law office
or in combination with study in a
law school; only California accepts
the study of law by correspondence
as qualification for taking the bar
exam. Several States require regis
tration and approval of students by
the State Board of Examiners,
either before they enter law school,
or during the early years of legal
study. In a few States, candidates
must complete clerkships before
they are admitted to the bar.
The required college and law
school work usually takes 7 years of
full-time study after high school—4
years of college followed by 3 years
in law school. Although a number
of law schools accept students after
3 years of college, an increasing
number require applicants to have a
bachelor’s degree. To meet the
needs of students who can attend
only part time, a number of law
schools have night or part-time divi
sions which usually require 4 years
of study. In 1974, about one-fifth of
all law students in ABA-approved
schools were enrolled in evening
classes.
Law schools seldom specify col
lege subjects that must be included
in students’ prelegal education.
However,
English,
history,
economics
and
other
social
sciences, logic, and public speaking
are important for prospective
lawyers. Students interested in a
particular aspect of the law may
find it helpful to take related cours
es; for example, engineering and
science courses for the prospective
patent attorney, and accounting for
the future tax lawyer. Acceptance
by most law schools depends on the
applicant’s ability to demonstrate
an aptitude for the study of law,
usually through the “Law School
Admissions Test.” In 1974, 156 law
schools were approved by the
American
Bar
Association.
Others—chiefly night schools—
were approved by State authorities
only.
should find salaried positions with
law firms, on the legal staffs of cor
porations and government agen
cies, and as law clerks for judges.
Graduates of less prominent
schools and those with lower
scholastic ratings will experience
some difficulty in finding salaried
jobs. However, many will find op
portunities in fields where legal
training is an asset but not normally
a requirement.
The employment of lawyers is ex
pected to grow faster than the
average for other occupations
through the mid-1980’s as in
creased business activity and popu
lation create a demand for attor
neys to deal with a growing number
of legal questions. Supreme Court
decisions extending the right to
counsel for persons accused of
lesser crimes, the growth of legal
action in the areas of consumer pro
tection, the environment, and
safety, and an expected increase in
the use of legal services by middle
income groups through prepaid
legal service programs also should
provide employment opportunities.
Other jobs will be created by the
need to replace lawyers who retire
or leave the occupation for other
reasons.
Prospects for establishing a new
practice probably will continue to
be best in small towns and expand
ing suburban areas. In such commu
nities competition is likely to be less
than in big cities and new lawyers
may find it easier to become known
to potential clients; also, rent and
other business costs are somewhat
lower. Salaried positions, on the
Employment Outlook
other hand, will be limited largely
to urban areas where the chief em
A rapid increase in the number of
ployers of legal talent—government
law school graduates has created
agencies, law firms, and big cor
keen competition for the available porations—are concentrated.
jobs. In the years ahead, the
number of graduates is expected to
Earnings and Working
increase further and intensify this
Conditions
competition.
Lawyers entering practice in
Employers will be very selective
in hiring new lawyers. Graduates of 1974 earned starting salaries rang
well-known law schools and those ing from about $10,000 to $12,000
who rank high in their classes a year. Factors affecting the salaries
The first year or year and a half
of law school generally are devoted
to fundamental courses such as
constitutional law, contracts, pro
perty law, and judicial procedure.
In the third year, students may elect
specialized courses in fields such as
tax, labor, or corporation law. Prac
tical experience is often acquired
by participation in school-spon
sored legal aid activities, in the
school’s practice court where stu
dents conduct trials under the su
pervision of experienced lawyers,
and through writing on legal issues
for the school’s law journal. Gradu
ates receive the degree of j u r i s d o c
to r (J.D.) from most schools as the
first professional degree. Advanced
study is often desirable for those
planning to specialize, do research,
or teach in law schools.
The practice of law involves a
great deal of responsibility. Persons
planning careers in law should like
to work with people and ideas, and
be able to win the confidence of
their clients.
Most beginning lawyers start in
salaried positions, although some
go into independent practice im
mediately after passing the bar ex
amination. Newly hired salaried at
torneys usually act as research
assistants (law clerks) to ex
perienced lawyers or judges. After
several years of progressively
responsible salaried employment,
many lawyers go into practice for
themselves. Some lawyers, after
years of practice, become judges.
offered to new graduates include:
Their academic records; types,
sizes, and locations of their em
ployers; and whether the new
lawyer has any specialized educa
tional background that the em
ployer requires. Lawyers with at
least a year’s experience working in
manufacturing and business firms
earned about $16,000 a year; those
with a few years of experience
earned over $20,000 annually. In
the Federal Government, annual
starting salaries for attorneys were
$12,841 or $15,481 in late 1974,
depending upon their academic and
personal qualifications. Those with
a few years of experience earned
$21,816 a year. On the average,
lawyers earn over three times as
much as nonsupervisory workers in
private industry, except farming.
Beginning lawyers engaged in
legal aid work usually receive the
lowest starting salaries. New
lawyers starting their own practices
may earn little more than expenses
during the first few years and may
need to work part time in other oc
cupations.
Lawyers on salary receive in
creases as they assume greater
responsibility. In 1974, those in
charge of legal staffs in private in
dustry averaged more than $37,200
a year. Incomes of lawyers in
private practice usually grow as
their practices develop. Private
practitioners who are partners in
law firms generally earn more than
those who practice alone.
Lawyers often work long hours
and are under considerable pres
sure when a case is being tried. In
addition, they must keep abreast of
the latest laws and court decisions.
However, since lawyers in private
practice can determine their own
hours and workload, many stay in
practice well past the usual retire
ment age.
Sources of Additional
Information
The specific requirements for ad
mission to the bar in a particular
State may be obtained at the State help decide on the design and price
capital from the clerk of the of a new line of television sets, mar
Supreme Court or the secretary of keting research workers may survey
consumers to find out what styles
the Board of Bar Examiners.
Information on law as a career is and price ranges are most popular.
This type of survey usually is super
available from:
vised by marketing researchers who
In fo r m a t io n S e rv ic e , T h e A m e r i c a n B a r A s
specialize in consumer goods; that
s o c ia t io n , 1 1 5 5 E a s t 6 0 t h St., C h ic a g o ,
III. 6 0 6 3 7 .
is, merchandise sold to the general
Information on financial aid and public. They may be helped by
law school accreditation is available statisticians who select a group (or
from:
sample) to be interviewed and
A s s o c ia t io n o f A m e r i c a n L a w S c h o o ls , S u it e
“motivational research” specialists
3 7 0 , 1 D u p o n t C ir c le N W . , W a s h in g t o n ,
who phrase questions to produce
D C. 20036.
reliable information. Once the in
vestigation is underway, the mar
keting research worker may super
vise the interviewers as well as
MARKETING RESEARCH direct the office workers who tabu
WORKERS
late and analyze the information
collected.
(D.O.T. 050.088)
Marketing surveys on products
used by business and industrial
Nature of the Work
firms may be conducted somewhat
Businesses require a great deal of differently from consumer goods
information to make sound deci surveys. Marketing researchers
sions on how to market their often conduct the interviews them
products. Marketing research work selves to gather opinions of the
ers provide much of this informa product. They also may speak to
tion by analyzing data on products company officials about new uses
and sales, making surveys, and con for it. They must therefore have
ducting interviews. They prepare specialized knowledge of both mar
sales forecasts and make recom keting techniques and the industrial
mendations on product design and uses of the product.
advertising.
Most marketing research starts
Places of Employment
with the collection of facts from
About 25,000 full-time market
sources such as company records,
published materials, and experts on ing research workers were em
the subject under investigation. For ployed in 1974. Most jobs for mar
example, marketing research work keting research workers are found
ers making sales forecasts may in manufacturing companies, ad
begin by studying the growth of vertising agencies, and independent
sales volume in several different research organizations. Large num
cities. This growth may then be bers are employed by stores, radio
television
firms,
and
traced to increases in population, and
size of the company’s sales force, or newspapers; others work for univer
amount of money spent on advertis sity research centers and govern
ing. Other marketing research ment agencies. Marketing research
workers may study changes in the organizations range in size from
quantity of company goods on one-person enterprises to firms with
store shelves or make door-to-door a hundred employees or more.
New York City has the largest
surveys to obtain information on
number of marketing research
company products.
Marketing research workers are workers. Many major advertising
often concerned with customers’ agencies, independent marketing
opinions and tastes. For example, to organizations, and central offices of
large manufacturers are located
there. The second largest concen
tration is in Chicago. However,
marketing research workers are
employed in many other cities as
well—wherever there are central
offices of large manufacturing and
sales organizations.
f
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Although a bachelor’s degree is
required for marketing research
trainees, graduate training is neces
sary for many specialized positions
and for advancement to higher level
positions. Many graduates qualify
for jobs through previous ex
perience in other types of research,
while employers may hire university
teachers of marketing or statistics
to head new marketing research de
partments.
College courses considered to be
valuable preparation for work in
marketing research are statistics,
English
composition,
speech,
psychology, and economics. Some
marketing
research
positions
require skill in specialized areas,
Either alone or as part of a team, when business activity and personal
such as engineering, or substantial
sales experience and a thorough marketing research workers must incomes are rapidly expanding. In
knowledge of the company’s be resourceful as they analyze periods of slow economic growth,
and apply various however, the demand for marketing
products. Knowledge of data problems
techniques to their solution. As ad services may be reduced and limit
processing is helpful because of the
growing use of computers in sales visers to management, they should the hiring of research workers.
Over the long run, our growing
forecasting, distribution, and cost be able to write clear reports in
forming company officials of their population and the increased
analysis.
variety of goods and services that
Trainees usually start as research findings.
businesses and individuals will
assistants or junior analysts. At first,
Employment Outlook
require is expected to stimulate a
they may do considerable clerical
Opportunities should be best for high level of marketing activity. As
work, such as copying data from
published sources, editing and cod applicants with graduate training in a result, employment of marketing
ing questionnaires, and tabulating marketing research or statistics. research workers is expected to
survey returns. They also learn to The growing complexity of market grow much faster than the average
conduct interviews and write re ing research techniques also will ex for other occupations through the
ports on survey findings. As they pand opportunities in this field for mid-1980’s.
The competition among manu
gain experience, assistants and jun psychologists, economists, and
facturers of both consumer and in
ior analysts may assume responsi other social scientists.
Marketing research employment dustrial products will make it in
bility for specific
marketing
research projects, or advance to su rises as new products and services creasingly important to appraise
pervisory positions. An excep are developed requiring informa marketing situations. As techniques
tionally able worker may become tion to identify potential buyers. improve and more statistical data
marketing research director or vice The demand for new products and accumulate, company officials are
services will grow most quickly likely to turn more often to market
president for marketing and sales.
ing research workers for informa
tion and advice.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Starting salaries for marketing
research trainees were about
$10,000 a year in 1974, according
to the limited information available.
Persons with master’s degrees in
business administration and related
fields usually started with somewhat
higher salaries.
Experienced workers such as
senior analysts received salaries
over $16,000 a year. Earnings were
highest, however, for workers in
management positions of great
responsibility. Vice presidents of
marketing research earned well
over $25,000 a year in 1974.
Marketing research workers
usually work in modern, centrally
located offices. Some, especially
those employed by independent
research firms, do a considerable
amount of traveling in connection
with their work. Also, they may
frequently work under pressure and
for long hours to meet deadlines.
Sources of Additional
Information
Additional
information
on
careers in marketing research is
available from:
A m e r i c a n M a r k e t i n g A s s o c ia t io n , 2 2 2 S o u t h
R iv e r s id e P la z a , C h ic a g o , III. 6 0 6 0 6 .
PERSONNEL AND LABOR
RELATIONS WORKERS
(D.O.T. 166.088 through .268;
169.118)
Nature of the Work
Attracting the best employees
available and matching them to the
jobs they can do best is important
for the success of any organization.
Today, most businesses are much
too large for close contact between
owners and their employees. In
stead, personnel and labor relations
workers provide the link between
management and employees—
assisting management to make ef
fective use of employees’ skills, and
helping employees to find satisfac
tion in their jobs and working con
ditions. Although some jobs require
only limited contact with people
outside the office, most jobs in this
field involve frequent contact with
other people. Dealing with people is
an essential part of the job.
Personnel workers and labor
relations workers concentrate on
different aspects of employer-em
ployee relations. Personnel workers
interview, select, and recommend
applicants to fill job openings. They
handle wage and salary administra
tion, training and career develop
ment, and employee benefits.
“Labor relations” usually means
union-management relations, and
people who specialize in this field
work for the most part in unionized
establishments. They help company
officials prepare for collective bar
gaining sessions, participate in con
tract negotiations with the union,
and handle labor relations matters
that come up everyday.
In a small company, personnel
work consists mostly of interview
ing and hiring, and one person
usually can handle it all. By con
trast, a large organization needs an
entire staff, which might include
recruiters, interviewers, counselors,
job analysts, wage and salary
analysts, education and training
specialists, and labor relations spe
cialists, as well as technical and
clerical workers.
Personnel work often begins with
the p e r s o n n e l r e c r u ite r or e m p l o y
m e n t i n t e r v i e w e r (D.O.T. 166.268),
who works on a person-to-person
basis with present and prospective
employees.
Recruiters
travel
around the country, often to college
campuses, in the search for promis
ing job applicants. Interviewers talk
to applicants, and select and recom
mend those who appear qualified to
fill vacancies. They often ad
minister tests to applicants and in
terpret the results. Hiring and
placement specialists need to be
thoroughly familiar with the or
ganization and its personnel poli
cies, for they must be prepared to
discuss wages, working conditions,
and promotional opportunities with
prospective and newly hired em
ployees. They also need to keep in
formed about equal employment
opportunity and affirmative action
guidelines. Equal employment op
portunity is a complex and sensitive
area of personnel work which in
some large organizations is handled
by special EEO counselors or coor
dinators. The work of Employment
Counselors, which is similar in a
number of ways, is described in a
separate statement elsewhere in this
book.
J o b a n a ly s ts (D.O.T. 166.068)
and s a la r y a n d w a g e a d m i n is tr a t o r s
(D.O.T. 169.118) do very exacting
work. Job analysts collect and
analyze detailed information on
jobs, job qualifications, and worker
characteristics in order to prepare
job descriptions, sometimes called
position classifications. Job descrip
tions tell applicants, interviewers,
supervisors, and others basically
what the duties of a job are and
what training and skills it requires.
Whenever a government agency or
large business firm introduces a
new job or evaluates existing ones,
it calls upon the expert knowledge
of the job analyst. Accurate infor
mation about job duties also is
required when a firm evaluates its
pay system and considers changes
in wages and salaries. Establishing
and maintaining pay systems is the
principal job of wage administra
tors. They devise ways of making
sure that pay rates within the firm
are fair and equitable, and conduct
surveys to see how their pay rates
compare with those elsewhere.
Being sure that the firm’s pay
system complies with laws and
regulations is another part of the
job, one which requires knowledge
of compensation structures and
labor law.
Training specialists supervise or
conduct training sessions, prepare
manuals and other materials for
these courses, and look into new
methods of training. They also
counsel employees on training op
portunities, which may include onthe-job, apprentice, supervisory, or
management training.
Employee-benefits
supervisors
and other personnel specialists han
dle the employer’s benefits pro
gram, which often includes health
insurance, life insurance, disability,
and pension plans. These workers
also coordinate a wide range of em
ployee services, including cafeterias
and snack bars, health rooms,
recreational facilities, newsletters
and communications, and counsel
ing for work-related personal
problems. Counseling employees
who are approaching retirement
age is a particularly important job
of these workers.
Occupational safety and health
programs are handled in various
ways. Quite often, in small compa
nies especially, accident prevention
and industrial safety are the respon
sibility of the personnel depart
ment—or of the labor relations spe
cialist, if the union has a safety
representative. Increasingly, how
ever, there is a separate safety de
partment under the direction of a
safety and health professional,
generally a safety engineer or indus
trial hygienist. (The work of Occu
pational Safety and Health Workers
is discussed elsewhere in this book.)
Labor
r e la tio n s
cluding arbitration decisions, and
maintaining continuing liaison with
union officials.
Personnel workers in government
agencies generally do the same kind
of work as those in large business
firms. There are some differences,
however. Public personnel workers
deal with employees whose jobs are
governed by civil service regula
tions. Civil service jobs are strictly
classified as to duties, training, and
pay. This requires a great deal of
emphasis on job analysis and wage
and salary classification; many peo
ple in public personnel work spend
their time classifying and evaluating
jobs, or devising, administering, and
scoring competitive examinations
given to job applicants.
Knowledge of rules and regula
tions pertaining to affirmative ac
tion and equal opportunity pro-
s p e c ia lis ts
(D.O.T. 169.118) advise manage
ment on all aspects of unionmanagement relations. When the
contract is up for negotiation, they
provide background information
and technical support, a job that
requires extensive knowledge of
economics, labor law, and collec
tive bargaining trends. Actual
negotiation of the agreement is con
ducted at the top level, with the
director of labor relations or other
top-ranking official serving as the
employer’s representative,
but
members of the company’s labor
relations staff play an important
role throughout the negotiations.
Much of the everyday work of
the labor relations staff concerns in
terpretation and administration of
the
contract,
the
grievance
procedures in particular. Members
of the labor relations staff would
work with the union on seniority
rights under the layoff procedure
set forth in the contract, for exam
ple. Later in the day, they might
meet with the union steward about
a worker’s grievance. Doing the job
well means staying abreast of cur
rent developments in labor law, in
Job analyst reviews new job descriptions with a company official.
grams is important in public person
nel work. In 1972, the U.S. Civil
Service Commission established a
specialization for Federal personnel
workers concerned with promoting
equal opportunity in hiring, train
ing, and advancement. Similar at
tention to equal employment op
portunity, accompanied by a need
for qualified staff, is evident in State
and local government agencies.
Labor relations is an increasingly
important specialty in public per
sonnel administration. Labor rela
tions in this field have changed con
siderably in recent years, as union
strength among government wor
kers has grown. This has created a
need for more and better trained
workers to handle negotiations,
grievances, and arbitration cases on
behalf of Federal, State, and local
government agencies.
Places of Employment
In 1974, over 320,000 people
were personnel and labor relations
workers. Three out of four worked
in private industry, for manufac
turers, banks, insurance companies,
airlines,
railroads,
department
stores, and other business concerns.
Some worked for private employ
ment agencies, including executive
job-search agencies, “office tem
poraries” agencies, and others.
A large number of personnel and
labor relations workers, over
80,000 in 1974, worked for Federal,
State, and local government agen
cies. Most of these were in person
nel administration, and handled
recruitment, interviewing, testing,
job classification, training, and
other personnel matters for the Na
tion’s 14.5 million public em
ployees. Some were on the staff of
the U.S. Employment Service and
State employment agencies. Still
others worked for agencies which
oversee compliance with labor
laws. Some, for example, were
wage-hour compliance officers;
their work is described in another
part of this book, in the statement on
Health and Regulatory Inspectors
(Government). Other public employ
ees in this field carried out research
in economics, labor law, personnel
practices, and related subjects, and
sought new ways of ensuring that
workers' rights under the law are
understood and protected.
In comparison with private indus
try, labor unions do not employ a
large number of professionally
trained labor relations workers. An
elected union official generally han
dles labor relations matters at the
company level. At national and in
ternational union headquarters,
however, the research and educa
tion staff usually includes specialists
with degrees in industrial and labor
relations, economics, or law.
A few personnel and labor rela
tions workers are in business for
themselves as management con
sultants or labor-management rela
tions experts. In addition, some
people in the field teach college or
university courses in personnel ad
ministration, industrial relations,
and related subjects.
Most jobs for personnel and labor
relations workers are located in the
highly industrialized sections of the
country.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Many employers seek to fill
beginning positions in personnel
and labor relations with college
graduates who have the potential to
move into management jobs. Some
employers look for graduates who
have majored in personnel adminis
tration or industrial and labor rela
tions, while others prefer college
graduates with a general business
background. Still other employers
feel that a well-rounded liberal arts
education is the best preparation
for personnel work. A college
major in personnel administration,
political science, or public adminis
tration can be an asset in looking
for a job with a government agency.
At least 200 colleges and univer
sities have programs leading to a
degree in the field of personnel and
labor relations. (While personnel
administration is widely taught, the
number of programs which focus
primarily on labor relations is quite
small.) In addition, many schools
offer course work in closely related
fields.
An
interdisciplinary
background is appropriate for work
in this area, and a combination of
courses in the social sciences,
behavioral sciences, business, and
economics is useful.
Prospective personnel workers
might include courses in personnel
management, business administra
tion,
public
administration,
psychology, sociology, political
science, economics, and statistics.
Courses in labor law, collective bar
gaining, labor economics, labor his
tory, and industrial psychology pro
vide valuable backgound for the
prospective labor relations worker.
Graduate study in industrial rela
tions, economics, business, or law
provides sound preparation for
work in labor relations. While the
law degree seldom is required for
jobs at the entry level, most of the
people with responsibility for con
tract negotiations are lawyers, and
the industrial relations plus law
degree combination is becoming
highly desirable.
A college education is important,
but it is not the only way to enter
personnel work. Some people enter
the field at the clerical level, and
advance to professional positions
on the basis of experience. They
often find it helpful to take college
courses part time, however.
New personnel workers usually
enter formal or on-the-job training
programs to learn how to classify
jobs, interview applicants, or ad
minister employee benefits. After
the training period, new workers
are assigned to specific areas in the
company’s employee relations de
partment. After gaining experience,
they usually can advance within
their own company or transfer to
Recent legislation setting stand
another employer. At this point, ards for employment practices in
some people move from personnel the areas of occupational safety and
to labor relations work.
health, equal employment opportu
Some people enter the labor rela nity, and pensions has stimulated
tions field directly, as trainees. demand for personnel and labor
workers.
Continued
They are usually graduates of relations
master’s degree programs in indus growth is foreseen, as employers
trial relations, or may have a law throughout the country review ex
degree. Quite a few people, how isting programs in each of these
ever, begin in personnel work, gain areas and, in many cases, establish
experience in that area, and sub entirely new ones. This has created
sequently move into a labor rela job opportunities for people with
appropriate expertise. The effort to
tions job.
end discriminatory employment
Workers in the middle ranks of a
large organization often transfer to practices, for example, has led to
a top job in a smaller one. Em scrutiny of the testing, selection,
and
promotion
ployees with exceptional ability placement,
procedures in many companies and
may be promoted to executive posi
tions, such as director of personnel government agencies. The findings
are causing a number of employers
or director of labor relations.
to modify these procedures, and to
Personnel and labor relations take steps to raise the level of
workers should speak and write ef professionalism in their personnel
fectively and be able to work with departments.
people of all levels of education and
Substantial employment growth
experience. They also must be able is foreseen in the area of public per
to see both the employee’s and the sonnel administration. Opportuni
employer’s points of view. In addi ties probably will be best in State
tion, they should be able to work as and local government, areas which
part of a team. They need super are expected to experience strong
visory abilities and must be able to employment growth over the next
accept responsibility. Integrity and decade. By contrast, Federal em
fairmindedness are important quali ployment
will
grow
slowly.
ties for people in personnel and Moreover, as union strength among
labor relations work. A persuasive, public employees continues to
congenial personality can be a great grow, State and local agencies will
asset.
need many more workers qualified
to deal with labor relations. Enact
Employment Outlook
ment of collective bargaining
The number of personnel and legislation for State and local
employees
could
labor relations workers is expected government
to grow faster than the average greatly stimulate demand for labor
for all occupations through 1985, as relations workers knowlegeable
employers, increasingly aware of about public sector negotiations.
Although the number of jobs in
the benefits to be derived from
good labor-management relations, both personnel and labor relations
continue to support sound, capably is projected to increase over the
staffed employee relations pro next decade, competition for these
grams. In addition to new jobs jobs also is increasing. Particularly
created by growth of the occupa keen competition is anticipated for
tion, many openings will become jobs in labor relations. A small field,
available each year because of the labor relations traditionally has
need to replace workers who die, been difficult to break into, and op
retire, or leave their jobs for other portunities are best for applicants
with a master’s degree or a strong
reasons.
undergraduate major in industrial
relations, economics, or business. A
law degree is an asset.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Beginning job analysts in private
industry started at $9,800 a year in
1974, according to a Bureau of
Labor Statistics
survey.
Ex
perienced job analysts earned
$17,300 a year, about twice the
average for all nonsupervisory
workers in private industry, except
farming. Directors of personnel
earned between $15,600 and
$27,300 a year; top labor relations
executives in large corporations
earned considerably more.
Beginning job analysts employed
by State governments had starting
salaries ranging from $8,000 to
$10,000 in 1974, according to a
survey of public service pay con
ducted by the International Person
nel Management Association. In
the Federal Government, new grad
uates with a bachelor’s degree
generally started at $8,500 a year in
late 1974. Those with a master’s
degree started at about $10,500 a
year, or in some cases, at $12,800 a
year.
Average salaries of Federal em
ployees in several different areas of
personnel work ranged from about
$19,000 to $22,500 in late 1974, as
follows:
Staffing specialists........................... $19,100
Position classifiers........................... 20,300
Personnel management
specialists...................................... 21,500
Employee development
specialists...................................... 21,500
Salary and wage administrators... 22,500
Federal employees in the field of
labor relations had generally com
parable salaries. Labor-manage
ment and employee relations spe
cialists and labor-management rela
tions officers averaged $21,500 a
year in late 1974. Federal media
tors’ salaries were higher: about
$30,000 a year, on the average.
Employees in personnel offices
generally work 35 to 40 hours a
week. As a rule, they are paid for
holidays and vacations, and share in
retirement plans, life and health in
surance plans, and other benefits
available to all professional workers
in their organizations.
Sources of Additional
Information
For general information on
careers in personnel and labor rela
tions work, write to:
A m e r i c a n S o c ie t y fo r P e r s o n n e l A d m in is t r a
tio n , 19 C h u r c h St., B e re a , O h i o 4 4 0 1 7 .
Information about careers in
public personnel administration is
available from:
In t e r n a t io n a l P e r s o n n e l M a n a g e m e n t A s
s o c ia t io n , 1 3 1 3 E. 6 0 t h St., C h i c a g o , ill.
60637.
A brochure describing a career in
labor-management relations as a
field examiner is available from:
tions, and workers must tailor their
programs to an employer’s particu
lar needs. A public relations
director for a college or university,
for example, may devote most of his
or her energies to attracting addi
tional students, while one in a large
corporation may handle the em
ployer’s relations with stockhold
ers, government agencies, and
community groups.
Public relations workers put
together information that keeps the
public aware of their employer’s ac
tivities and accomplishments. After
preparing the information, they
contact people in the media who
might be interested in publicizing
their material. Many television
commercials or special reports,
newspaper items, and magazine ar
ticles start at public relations work
ers’ desks. Sometimes the subject
is a company and its policies
towards its employees or its role in
the community. Often the subject is
a public issue, such as health, nutri
tion, energy, or the environment.
Public relations workers also ar
range and conduct programs in
which company representatives will
have direct contact with the public.
Such work includes setting up
speaking engagements for company
officials and writing speeches for
them. These workers often serve as
an employer’s representative during
community projects and occa
sionally show films at school assem
blies, plan conventions, or manage
fund-raising campaigns.
Public relations staffs in very
large firms may number 200 or
more, but in most firms the staff is
much smaller. The director of
public relations may develop
D ir e c t o r o f P e r s o n n e l, N a t io n a l L a b o r R e l a
t io n s B o a r d , 1 7 1 7 P e n n s y lv a n ia
N W „ W a s h in g t o n , D C ., 2 0 5 7 0 .
Ave.
PUBLIC RELATIONS
WORKERS
(D.O.T. 165.068)
Nature of the Work
How successfully an organization
presents itself may affect its public
acceptance and influence. Public
relations workers help organiza
tions build and maintain positive
public images. Public relations is
more than telling the employer’s
“story,” however. Understanding
the attitudes and concerns of
customers, employees, and various
other “publics”—and communicat
ing this information to manage
ment—is an important part of the
job.
Public relations departments are
found in many different organiza
Public relations worker reviews copy for new stockholders report with company
officials.
overall plans and policies with a top
management executive having the
authority to make final decisions. In
addition, large public relations de
partments employ writers, research
workers, and other specialists who
prepare material for the different
media or write reports sent to
stockholders.
Workers who handle publicity for
an individual or direct public rela
tions for a university or small busi
ness may handle all aspects of the
job. They make contacts with peo
ple outside the organization, do the
necessary planning and research,
and prepare material for publica
tion. These workers may combine
public relations duties with adver
tising or sales promotion work;
some are top-level officials and
others have lower level positions.
The most skilled public relations
work of making overall plans and
maintaining contacts usually is
done by the department director
and highly experienced staff mem
bers.
Places of Employment
More than 100,000 persons—
about 30 percent of them women—
were public relations workers in
1974. Manufacturing firms, public
utilities and transportation compa
nies, insurance companies, and
trade and professional associations
employ the majority of public rela
tions workers. However, a sizeable
number work for government agen
cies, or for schools, colleges, muse
ums, and many other kinds of edu
cational, religious, and welfare or
ganizations. The rapidly expanding
health field also offers opportuni
ties for public relations work, in
hospitals, pharmaceutical compa
nies, and medical associations, for
example. A number of public rela
tions workers are employed by con
sulting firms, which furnish public
relations services to clients for a
fee.
Public relations workers are con
centrated in large cities where press
services and other communications
facilities are readily available, and
where many businesses and trade
associations have their headquar
ters. More than half of the esti
mated 1,700 public relations con
sulting firms in the United States
are in New York, Los Angeles,
Chicago, and Washington, D.C.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
enthusiasm necessary to motivate
people. Public relations workers
need a highly developed sense of
competitiveness and the ability to
function as part of a team.
Some
companies—particularly
those with large public relations
staffs—have formal training pro
grams for new workers. In other
firms, new employees learn by
working under the guidance of ex
perienced staff members. Beginners
often maintain files of material
about company activities, scan
newspapers and magazines for ap
propriate articles to clip, and as
semble information for speeches
and pamphlets. After gaining ex
perience, they work on more dif
ficult assignments, such as writing
press releases, speeches, and arti
cles for publication.
Promotion to supervisory jobs
may come as workers show they
can handle more demanding and
creative assignments. Some ex
perienced public relations workers
start their own consulting firms.
A college education combined
with journalism experience is an ex
cellent preparation for public rela
tions work. Although most begin
ners have a college degree in jour
nalism, English, or public relations,
some
employers
prefer
a
background in a field related to the
firm’s business—science or en
gineering, for example. Some firms
want college graduates with at least
1 year’s experience working for the
news media.
In 1974, over 80 colleges and
more than 30 graduate schools of
fered degree programs or special
curriculums in public relations. In
addition, nearly 200 colleges of
Employment Outlook
fered at least one course in this
field.
Employment of public relations
Courses in journalism, business workers is expected to increase
administration, psychology, and about as fast as the average for all
public speaking help in preparing occupations through the midfor a public relations career. Ex 1980’s. In addition to new jobs
tracurricular activities such as writ created by this growth, openings
ing for a school publication provide will occur every year because of the
valuable experience. Part-time or need to replace workers who leave
summer jobs in public relations pro the field.
vide training that can help in com
Demand for public relations wor
peting for entry positions.
kers may be affected by economic
Creativity, initiative, and the conditions, slackening as employers
ability to express thoughts clearly delay expansion or impose staff cuts
and simply are important to the during business slowdowns. Over
public relations worker. Fresh ideas the long run, however, public rela
are so vital in public relations that tions spending is expected to in
some experts spend all their time crease substantially. Corporations,
developing new ideas, leaving the associations, and other large or
job of carrying out programs to ganizations are likely to expand
others.
their public relations efforts to gain
People who choose public rela public support and approval.
tions work as a career need an out
Competition for beginning jobs is
going personality, self-confidence, keen, for public relations work has
and an understanding of human an aura of glamour and excitement
psychology. They should have the which attracts large numbers of job
seekers. Prospects for a career in
public relations are best for enthu
siastic people with sound academic
preparation and some media ex
perience.
Salary data and other statistics
are available from:
P R R e p o r t e r , M e r id e n , N . H . 0 3 7 7 0 .
Earnings and Working
Conditions
PURCHASING AGENTS
Starting salaries for college grad
uates beginning in public relations
(D.O.T. 162.158, 180.118,
work ranged from $7,500 to $9,000
191.118, and 252.358)
a year in 1974, according to the
limited data available.
Nature of the Work
The salaries of experienced work
If materials, supplies, or equip
ers generally are highest in large
organizations with extensive public ment are not on hand when needed,
relations programs. Directors of an organization’s work may be in
public relations for medium-sized terrupted or halted. Maintaining an
firms earned $15,000 to $30,000 a adequate supply of items a firm
year; those at large companies had needs to operate is the purchasing
salaries in the $20,000 to $50,000 agent’s job.
range. Salaries for some officials,
Purchasing agents, also called in
such as vice-presidents in charge of dustrial buyers, and their assistants
public relations, can range from obtain goods and services of the
$25,000 to $75,000 a year or more.
required quality at the lowest possi
The median salary for directors ble cost, and see that adequate sup
of public relations was about plies are kept on hand. Agents who
$23,000 in 1974. Public relations work for manufacturing firms buy
consulting firms often pay higher machinery, raw materials, and
salaries than organizations with product components; those work
their own public relations depart ing for government agencies may
ments. In social welfare agencies, purchase office supplies, furniture,
nonprofit organizations, hospitals, and business machines. Informa
and universities, salaries generally tion on retail buyers, who purchase
are lower.
merchandise for resale in its
Although the workweek for original form, is presented in the
public r e la tio n s sta ffs u su a lly is 35 statement on B u y e r s elsewhere in
to 40 hours, overtime may be this book.
necessary to prepare or deliver
Purchasing agents buy when
speeches, attend meetings and com stocks on hand reach a predeter
munity activities, or travel out of mined reorder point, or when a de
town. Occasionally, the nature of partment in the organization
their regular assignments or special requisitions items it needs. Because
events requires public relations agents often can purchase from
workers to be on call around the many sources, their main job is
clock.
selecting the seller who offers the
best value.
Sources of Additional
Purchasing agents use a variety of
Information
means to select among suppliers.
For career information and a list They compare listings in catalogs
of schools offering degrees and and trade journals and telephone
courses in the field, write:
suppliers to get information. They
also meet with salespersons to ex
C a r e e r In fo r m a t io n , P u b lic R e la t io n s S o c ie t y
o f A m e r ic a , In c., 8 4 5 T h ir d A v e ., N e w
amine samples, watch demonstra
Y o rk , N .Y . 10022.
tions of equipment, and discuss
items to be purchased. Sometimes
agents invite suppliers to bid on
large orders; then they select the
lowest bidder among those who
meet requirements for quality of
goods and delivery date.
In some cases, however, purchas
ing agents must deal directly with a
manufacturer to obtain specially
designed items made exclusively for
their company. These agents must
have a high degree of technical ex
pertise to insure that all product
specifications are met.
It is important that purchasing
agents develop good business rela
tions with their suppliers. This can
result in savings on purchases,
favorable terms of payment, and
quick delivery on rush orders or
materials in short supply. They also
work closely with personnel in vari
ous departments of their own or
ganization. For example, they may
discuss product design with com
pany
engineers
or shipment
problems with workers in the
shipping and receiving or traffic de
partments.
Once an order has been placed
with a supplier, the purchasing
agent makes periodic checks to in
sure that it will be delivered on
time. This is necessary to prevent
work flow interruptions due to lack
of materials. After an order has
been received and inspected, the
purchasing agent authorizes pay
ment to the shipper.
Because of its importance,
purchasing usually is designated as
a separate responsibility within a
firm. In a large firm, the purchasing
manager directs the work of a staff
which includes purchasing agents,
purchasing assistants, and clerical
workers. In such a firm, purchasing
agents usually are responsible for
buying one or more specific items—
for example, steel, lumber, cotton,
or petroleum products. In smaller
firms, agents generally are assigned
certain categories of goods, such as
all raw materials or all office sup
plies, furniture, and business
machines.
Places of Employment
Nearly 190,000 persons—18 per
cent of them women—worked as
purchasing agents in 1974. Over
half worked in manufacturing in
dustries. Large numbers also were
employed by government agencies,
construction companies, hospitals,
and schools. Since the early 1960’s,
employment of women purchasing
agents has increased much faster
than that of men. Particularly im
pressive employment gains have
been made by women with college
degrees, and every indication points
toward continuing job opportuni
ties for women.
About half of all purchasing
agents work in organizations that
have fewer than five employees in
the purchasing department. Many
business firms and government
agencies, however, have much
larger purchasing departments;
some employ as many as 100 spe
cialized buyers or more.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Most large employers seek col
lege graduates for entry positions as
assistant purchasing agents. A
growing number of large companies
look for applicants who have done
graduate work in purchasing
management or related fields.
Although companies that manufac
ture complex machinery or chemi
cals may prefer a background in en
gineering or science, other compa
nies hire business administration or
liberal arts majors for trainee jobs.
Courses in accounting, economics,
and
purchasing
are
helpful.
Familiarity with the computer and
its uses also is.desirable. Some small
firms prefer experience with the
company, and select purchasing
workers from among their own per
sonnel, whether or not they have a
college education. For advance
ment to management positions,
however, a college degree is
becoming increasingly important.
Regardless of previous training,
beginning purchasing assistants
must spend considerable time
learning about their company’s
operations
and
purchasing
procedures. They may be assigned
to the storekeeper’s section to learn
about purchasing forms, inventory
records, and storage facilities. Next
they may work with experienced
buyers to learn about types of goods
purchased, prices, and suppliers.
Following the initial training
period, assistant purchasing agents
are given responsibility for purchas
ing standard catalog items. As they
gain experience and demonstrate
good judgment in performing vari
ous purchasing tasks, they may be
promoted to purchasing agent.
Purchasing agents with proven
ability can move into a job as
manager of a purchasing depart
ment; some advance to executive
positions as corporate director of
p u r c h a sin g an d m a te r ia l manage
ment.
The purchasing agent must be
able to analyze numbers and techni
cal data in order to make buying
decisions and take responsibility for
spending large amounts of company
money. The job requires the ability
to work independently and a good
memory for details. In addition, a
purchasing agent must be tactful in
dealing with salespersons and able
to motivate others.
Employment Outlook
Employment
of
purchasing
agents is expected to increase much
faster than the average for all occu
pations through the mid-1980’s.
Several thousand jobs will be open
every year due to growth of the oc
cupation and the need to replace
those who die, retire, or transfer to beginning purchasing agents who
other work.
had college degrees earned $8,500
Growth in demand for industrial or $10,500 in late 1974, depending
machinery, including engines and on scholastic achievement and rele
turbines,
electronic
computer vant work experience. The average
equipment, and communications salary for all purchasing agents in
equipment, will increase employ the Federal Service was $18,600.
ment opportunities. For example, Salary levels vary widely among
purchasing agents will be needed to State
governments;
however,
develop reliable new sources of average earnings range from $9,000
supply for materials which are in to $ 11,700 for purchasers of stand
short supply. In addition, the grow ard items, $11,900 to $15,600 for
ing specialization of manufacturing senior buyers purchasing highly
processes will spur demand for complex items, and $18,000 to
purchasing agents with a technical $21,900 for State purchasing
background and those who have directors.
completed graduate level courses in
purchasing management.
Sources of Additional
Many opportunities also should
Information
occur in firms providing personal,
Further information about a
business, and professional services.
Strong growth is expected for this career in purchasing is available
sector of the economy, and a grow from:
ing number of employers are recog N a t io n a l A s s o c ia t io n o f P u r c h a s in g M a n a g e
m en t, 11 P a rk P la c e , N e w Y o r k , N . Y .
nizing the importance of profes
10007.
sional purchasers in relatively small
N a t io n a l In stitu te o f G o v e r n m e n t a l P u r c h a s
firms.
in g,
1001
C o n n e c t ic u t
W a s h in g t o n , D C . 2 0 0 3 6 .
Earnings and Working
Conditions
College graduates hired as as
sistant purchasing agents in large
firms earned about $8,500 a year in
1974, according to the limited data
available.
Experienced agents purchasing
stan d ard
ite m s
averaged
about
$10,000 a year; buyers purchasing
complex
or technical
goods
averaged between $12,100 and
$14,700. Those responsible for the
purchase of highly complex and
specialized items earned about
$17,400 in 1974. Managers of
purchasing departments earned
substantially more and many top
purchasing executives earned over
$50,000 a year. Salaries generally
are lower in small companies. In
1974, earnings of purchasing agents
were about one and one-half times
as much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private in
dustry, except farming.
In the Federal Government,
Ave.
N W .,
URBAN PLANNERS
(D.O.T. 199.168)
Nature of the Work
Urban planners, often called
community or regional planners,
develop programs to provide for fu
ture growth and revitalization of
urban, suburban and rural commu
nities. They help local officials
make decisions to solve social,
economic
and
environmental
problems.
Planners examine community
facilities such as health clinics and
schools to be sure these facilities
can meet the demands placed upon
them. They also keep abreast of the
legal issues involved in community
development or redevelopment and
any changes in housing and building
codes. Because suburban growth
has increased the need for better
ways of traveling to the urban
center, the planner’s job often in
cludes designing new transportation
and parking facilities.
Urban planners prepare for situa
tions or needs that are likely to
develop as a result of population
growth or social and economic
change. They estimate, for exam
ple, the community’s long-range
needs for housing, transportation,
and business and industrial sites.
Working within a framework set by
the community government, they
analyze and propose alternative
ways to achieve more efficient and
attractive urban areas.
Before preparing plans for longrange community development,
urban planners prepare detailed
studies that show the current use of
land for residential, business, and
community purposes. These reports
present information such as the ar
rangement of streets, highways, and
water and sewer lines, and the loca
tion of schools, libraries, and
playgrounds. They also provide in
formation on the types of industries
in the community, characteristics of
the population, and employment
and economic trends. With this in
formation, urban planners propose
ways of using undeveloped land and
design the layout of recommended
buildings and other facilities such as
subways. They also prepare materi
als that show how their programs
can be carried out and the approxi
mate costs.
Urban planners often confer with
private land developers, civic
leaders, and officials of public agen
cies that do specialized planning.
They may prepare materials for
community relations programs,
speak at civic meetings, and appear
before legislative committees to ex
plain and defend their proposals.
In small organizations, urban
planners must be able to do several
kinds of work. In large organiza
tions, planners usually specialize in
areas such as physical design, com
munity relations, or the reconstruc
tion of run-down business districts.
Places of Employment
About 13,000 persons—about 10
percent of them women—were
urban planners in 1974. Most work
for city, county, or regional
planning agencies. A growing
number are employed by States or
by the Federal Government in
agencies dealing with housing,
transportation, or environmental
protection.
Many planners do consulting
work, either part time in addition to
a regular job, or full time working
for a firm that provides services to
private developers or government
agencies. Urban planners also work
for large land developers or
research organizations and teach in
colleges and universities.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Employers often seek workers
who have advanced training in
urban planning. Two years of grad
uate study in city planning, or the
equivalent in work experience, are
required for most entry jobs in
Federal, State, and local govern
ment agencies. Although the
master’s degree in planning is the
usual requirement at the entry
level, some people who have a
bachelor’s degree in city planning,
architecture, landscape architec
ture, or engineering may qualify for
beginning positions.
In 1974, over 60 colleges and
universities gave a master’s degree
in urban planning. Although stu
dents holding a bachelor’s degree in
architecture or engineering may
earn a master’s degree after 1 year,
most graduate programs in urban
planning require 2 or 3 years to
complete. Graduate students spend
considerable time in workshops or
laboratory courses learning to
analyze and solve urban planning
problems. Students often are
required to work in a planning of
fice part time or during the summer
while they are earning the graduate
degree.
Candidates for jobs in Federal,
State, and local government agen
cies usually must pass civil service
examinations to become eligible for
appointment.
Planners must be able to think in
terms of spatial relationships and to
visualize the effects of their plans
and designs. They should be flexible
in their approaches to problems and
be able to cooperate with others
and reconcile different viewpoints
to achieve constructive policy
recommendations.
After a few years’ experience,
urban planners may advance to as
signments requiring a high degree
of independent judgment, such as
outlining proposed studies, design
ing the physical layout of a large
development, or recommending
policy, program, and budget op
tions. Some are promoted to jobs as
planning directors, and spend a
great deal of time meeting with offi
cials in other organizations, speak
ing to civic groups, and supervising
other professionals. Further ad
vancement is more difficult at this
level and often occurs through a
transfer to a large city, where the
problems are more complex and the
responsibilities greater.
Employment Outlook
Employment of urban planners is
expected to grow faster than the
average for other occupations
through the mid-1980’s. In addition
to opportunities created by future
growth of this relatively small occu
pation, some jobs will open up
because of the need to replace plan
ners who leave their jobs.
The number of persons enrolled
in graduate planning programs has
risen rapidly in recent years. If this
trend continues, the number of ap
plicants may begin to outstrip
available openings, leading to in
creased competition for jobs in this
field. However, well qualified appli
cants should continue to find good
employment prospects.
Future growth of the occupation
will depend on the availability of
money for the development of new
communities and the restoration of
older urban areas. Funding for
these projects can be affected by
shortages of mortgage money and
higher costs for land, building
materials, and necessary communi
ty services such as education and
police and fire protection. Further,
government programs to aid the
development
of
community
planning are subject to frequent
review. Future levels of Federal
spending will greatly influence the
growth of urban planning projects.
Over the long run, however, the
Nation’s need for good quality
housing, transportation systems,
health care, and other social ser
vices is expected to spur the de
mand for additional urban planners.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Starting salaries for urban plan
ners were about $ 1 1,000 a year in
1974. Planners with a master’s
degree were hired by the Federal
Government at $12,841 a year in
late 1974. In some cases, persons
having less than 2 years of graduate
work could enter Federal service as
interns at yearly salaries of either
$8,500 or $10,520.
The salaries of directors of
planning depend largely on the size
of the city where they work. In
1974, for example, the median
earnings of planning directors in the
Nation’s largest cities were well
over $30,000 a year. In smaller
towns, earnings may be less than
half as large. Consultants earn fees
that vary according to their reputa
tion and previous experience.
Most planners have sick leave
and vacation benefits and are
covered by retirement and health
plans. Although most city planners
have a scheduled workweek of 40
hours, they sometimes work in the
evenings and on weekends to attend
meetings with citizens’ groups.
Sources of Additional
Information
Facts about careers in planning
and a list of schools offering train
ing are available from:
A m e r i c a n In stitu te o f P la n n e r s, 1 7 7 6 M a s
s a c h u s e t ts A v e . N W . , W a s h in g t o n , D C .
20036.
A m e r i c a n S o c ie t y o f P la n n in g O f f ic ia ls ,
1 3 1 3 E a s t 6 0 t h St., C h ic a g o , III. 6 0 6 3 7 .
COMPUTER
AND RELATED
OCCUPATIONS
Since 1951, when the first com
puter was installed for commercial
use, computer systems have
become an increasingly important
part of everyday life. Today these
machines bill customers, pay em
ployees, record airline and hotel
reservations, and monitor factory
production processes. Scientific
and engineering research relies on
computer systems to solve complex
equations as well as to collect,
store, and sort vast amounts of data.
Workers in computer and related
occupations design data processing
systems, write instructions and
translate data into machine-reada
ble language, and operate compu
ters and peripheral equipment.
Most computer careers require
some type of specialized training.
Although not a universal require
ment, a college degree is increas
ingly important for systems analysts
and programmers—especially for
those who work in scientific and
technical
research
operations.
For all computer occupations, em
ployers stress the importance of
learning on the job.
In addition to technical knowledge
and skills, computer personnel must
be able to concentrate on their work
and should enjoy working with de
tails. Programmers and systems ana
lysts must be abe to think logically
and enjoy solving problems.
This section describes two com
puter occupations: Programmers and
Systems Analysts.
Programmers sometimes use a terminal to enter data and instructions directly into
the computer.
PROGRAMMERS
(D OT. 020.188)
Nature of the Work
Computers can process masses of
information rapidly and accurately,
but only if they are given step-bystep instructions to follow. Because
the machines cannot think for
themselves, computer programmers
must write detailed instructions
called programs that list in a logical
order the steps the machine must
follow to solve a problem.
When a new problem is to be
given to a computer, an ex
perienced programmer first care
fully examines the problem and
determines the steps necessary to
reach a solution. Programmers
whose work includes a considerable
amount of this preliminary analysis
are sometimes called program
analysts. Once this part of the job is
finished, an applications pro
grammer writes detailed instruc
tions for processing the data, using
one of the languages developed
especially for computers.
Programs vary with the type of
problem to be solved because the
mathematical calculations involved
in payroll accounting procedures,
for example, are different from
those required to determine the
flight path of a space probe. A busi
ness
applications
programmer
developing instructions for billing
customers would first decide what
company records the computer
would need and then draw a flow
chart or diagram showing the steps
the computer must follow to obtain
old balances, add new charges, cal
culate finance charges, and deduct
payments before determining a
customer’s bill. Using the flow
chart, the programmer writes the
actual instructions the computer
will follow.
The programmer then checks the
operation of the program to be sure
the instructions are correct and will
produce the desired information.
This check is called “debugging.'’
The programmer tries a sample of
the data with the program and
reviews the results to see if any er
rors are made. If errors occur, the
program must be changed and
rechecked until it produces the cor
rect results.
Finally, an instruction sheet is
prepared for the computer operator
who will run the program.
Although simple programs can be
written in a few days, programs
which use complex mathematical
formulas or many data files may
require more than a year of work.
In such cases, several programmers
often work together under an ex
perienced programmer’s supervi
sion.
Programmers usually specialize
in either business or scientific
operations because they require dif
ferent
types
of
educational
backgrounds. Some programmers
who have had training in systems
analysis specialize in writing in
structions for an entire operating
system and are called systems pro
grammers. These workers write
programs that tell the computer
how to schedule the jobs it has been
given and when to switch from one
to another. They also develop new
computer languages.
Places of Employment
In 1974, about 200,000 per
sons—about three-fourths of them
men—worked as computer pro
grammers. Most were employed by
manufacturing firms, banks and
financial
institutions,
data
processing service organizations,
and government agencies.
Programmers usually work in
large firms that need and can afford
extensive computer systems. Small
firms generally require computers
only for payroll or billing purposes
and frequently pay data processing
service organizations to do this
work. Systems programmers usually
work in research organizations and
computer manufacturing firms.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
There are no universal training
requirements
for
progammers
because employers’ needs vary.
Some programmers are college
graduates; others have taken spe
cial courses in computer work to
supplement their experience in
fields such as accounting or inven
tory control.
Employers using computers for
scientific or engineering applica
tions prefer college graduates with
degrees in the physical sciences,
mathematics, engineering, or com
puter science. Graduate degrees are
required for some jobs. Very few
scientific organizations are in
terested in applicants with no col
lege training.
Although many employers who
use computers for business applica
tions do not require college
degrees, they prefer applicants who
have had college courses in data
processing, accounting, and busi
ness administration. Occasionally,
workers who are experienced in
machine tabulation or payroll ac
counting but have no college train
ing are promoted to programming
jobs; however, they need additional
data processing courses to become
fully qualified programmers.
Computer programming is taught
at a growing number of technical
schools, colleges, and universities.
Instruction ranges from introducto
ry home study courses to advanced
courses at the graduate level. High
schools in many parts of the
country also offer courses in com
puter programming.
In hiring programmers, em
ployers look for people who can
think logically and are capable of
exacting analytical work. The job
also calls for patience, persistence,
and the ability to work with ex
treme accuracy even under pres
sure. Ingenuity and imagination are
particularly important when pro
grammers must find new ways to
solve a problem.
Beginning programmers usually
spend their first weeks on the job
attending training classes. After this
initial instruction, they work on
simple assignments while complet
ing further specialized training pro
grams. Programmers generally must
spend at least a year working under
close supervision before they can
handle all aspects of their job. Once
skills have been acquired, however,
the prospects for further advance
ment are good. In large organiza
tions, they may be promoted to lead
programmers or systems analysts
and have supervisory responsibili
ties.
Employment Outlook
Employment of programmers is
expected to grow faster than the
average for all occupations through
the mid-1980’s as computer usage
expands, particularly in medical,
educational, and data processing
services. In addition to job openings
resulting from growth of the occu
pation, several thousand openings
will arise each year from the need
to replace workers who leave the
occupation. Because many pro
grammers are relatively young, few
openings will result from deaths or
retirements.
The demand for applications pro
grammers will increase as many
processes once done by hand are
automated, but employment will
not grow as rapidly as in the past for
several reasons. Improved pro
gramming languages that can be
used by other than data processing
personnel will simplify or eliminate
some programming tasks. Also,
many programs for business opera
tions have been standardized and
are sold to computer users by
computer
manufacturers
and
“software” companies that special
ize in writing programs. Job oppor
tunities will be best for systems pro
grammers and applications pro
grammers who have had some
training in systems analysis.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Sources of Additional
Information
Additional information about the
occupation of programmer is
available from:
A m e r ic a n
F e d e ra t io n
of
In f o r m a t io n
P r o c e s s in g S o c ie tie s , 2 1 0 S u m m it A v e . ,
M o n t v a le , N.J. 0 7 6 4 5 .
SYSTEMS ANALYSTS
and handling the results. Analysts
begin an assignment by discussing
the data processing problem with
managers or specialists in the area
concerned. If a new inventory
system is desired, for example,
analysts must determine what new
data need to be collected, the
equipment needed for processing,
and the procedure to be followed in
using the information.
Analysts use various techniques,
such as cost accounting, sampling,
and mathematical model building
to analyze the problem and devise a
new system. Once a system has
been developed, they prepare
charts and diagrams that describe
its operation in terms that managers
or customers can understand.
If the system is accepted, analysts
prepare instructions for program
mers and test the operation of the
system.
The problems systems analysts
must solve range from monitoring
(D.O.T. 003.187, 012.168,
Average weekly earnings of
020.081 and 020.088)
beginning programmers in private
industry ranged from $170 to $240
in 1974, according to surveys con
ducted in urban areas by the Bu
Nature of the Work
reau of Labor Statistics and firms
engaged in research on data
Many essential business functions
processing
occupations.
Ex and scientific research projects de
perienced workers earned from pend on systems analysts to plan ef
$260 to $335 weekly, and lead pro ficient methods of processing data
grammers earned from $295 to
$360. Earnings of applications pro
grammers are generally at the lower
end of the scale, systems program
mers at the higher end.
Salaries in the Federal Govern
ment are comparable to those in
private industry.
Programmers
working in the North and West
earned somewhat more than those
working in the South. Those work
ing for data processing services and
manufacturing firms had higher
earnings than programmers em
ployed in banks, advertising, or
educational institutions. Overall,
programmers earned about twice as
much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private indus
try, except farming.
Programmers work about 40
hours a week, but their hours are
not always from 9 to 5. Once or
twice a week a programmer may re
port early or work late to use the
computer when it is available. Oc
casionally, they work on weekends
or are telephoned to advise com
puter operators working a second Systems analyst checks results of a sales forecasting program with data processing
or third shift.
manager.
nuclear fission in a powerplant to
forecasting sales for an appliance
manufacturing firm. Because the
work is so varied and complex,
most analysts specialize in either
business or scientific and engineer
ing applications.
Some analysts improve systems
already in use by developing better
procedures or adapting the system
to handle additional types of data.
Others do research, called ad
vanced systems design, to devise
new methods of systems analysis.
Places of Employment
About 115,000 persons— 10 per
cent of them women—worked as
systems analysts in 1974. Most
worked in urban areas for manufac
turing firms, wholesale and retail
businesses, and data processing ser
vice organizations. In addition,
large numbers worked for banks,
insurance companies, and educa
tional institutions.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
There is no universally accepta
ble way of preparing for a job as a
systems analyst because employers’
preferences depend on the work
being done. Employers usually want
analysts with backgrounds in ac
counting, business, or economics
for work in finance, while persons
with backgrounds in the physical
sciences, mathematics, computer
science,
or
engineering
are
preferred for work in scientifically
oriented organizations. Some em
ployers prefer applicants who have
a bachelor’s degree and work ex
perience in one of these fields.
Others stress a graduate degree.
Applicants also may qualify on the
basis of professional experience as a
programmer or computer operator.
Most employers prefer people
who have had some experience in
computer programming. Beginning
analysts without this experience can
learn to use electronic data
processing equipment on the job, or
can take special courses offered by
their employers, computer manu
facturers, or colleges. In the
Federal Government and many in
dustries, systems analysts begin
their careers as programmers and
are promoted to analyst trainees
after gaining some experience and
acquiring additional training. Later
they are promoted to systems
analysts.
Systems analysts must be able to
think logically and should like
working with ideas. Although most
systems analysts work independ
ently, they sometimes work in
teams on large projects. The ability
to concentrate and pay close atten
tion to details also is important.
In large data processing depart
ments, persons who begin as junior
systems analysts may be promoted
to senior or lead systems analysts
after several years of experience.
Systems analysts who show leader
ship ability also can advance to jobs
as managers of systems analysis or
data processing departments.
Employment Outlook
Employment of systems analysts
is expected to grow faster than the
average for all occupations through
the mid-1980’s as computer usage
expands, particularly in medical,
educational, and data processing
services. In addition to opportuni
ties that will result from growth,
some openings will occur as systems
analysts advance to managerial
positions or enter other occupa
tions. Because many of these work
ers are relatively young, few posi
tions will result from retirement or
death.
The demand for systems analysts
is expected to increase as users
become more familiar with com
puter capabilities and expect
greater efficiency and performance
from their data processing systems.
Advances in hardware and com
puter programs will result in ex
panded computer applications in
manufacturing and small busi
nesses, and this, too, will contribute
to employment growth.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Average weekly earnings for
beginning systems analysts in
private industry ranged from $230
to $250 in 1974, according to sur
veys conducted in urban areas by
the Bureau of Labor Statistics and
private firms engaged in research
on computer occupations. Ex
perienced workers earned from
$300 to $335, and lead systems
analysts earned from $335 to $360
weekly. Earnings in the Federal
Government were comparable to
those in private industry.
Systems analysts working in the
North and West earned somewhat
more than those in the South and
generally their earnings were
greater in data processing or manu
facturing firms than in banks or
educational institutions. Overall,
systems analysts earn more than
twice as much as the average for all
nonsupervisory workers in private
industry, except farming.
Systems analysts usually work
about 40 hours a week—the same
as other professional and office
workers. Unlike many computer
operators, systems analysts are not
assigned to evening or night shifts.
Occasionally, however, evening or
weekend work may be necessary to
complete emergency projects.
Sources of Additional
Information
Further information about the
occupation of systems analyst is
available from:
A m e ric a n
F e d e ra t io n
of
In f o r m a t io n
P r o c e s s in g S o c ie t ie s , 2 1 0 S u m m it A v e . ,
M o n t v a l e , N .J. 0 7 6 4 5 .
INSURANCE
OCCUPATIONS
ACTUARIES
(D.O.T. 020.188)
Nature of the Work
Insurance protection is an integral
part of the American way of life. It
frees policyholders and their ben
eficiaries from worry and financial
burdens that may result from death,
illness, or other losses beyond their
control. Businesses could not oper
ate, nor could most people buy homes
or other major items, without the as
surance of protection from sudden
disaster. Insurance workers adapt
policies to meet changing needs, de
cide which applications can be ac
cepted and establish premium rates on
the policies, and investigate and settle
claims.
A college degree is increasingly im
portant for professional, technical,
and managerial jobs in insurance, al
though some positions are open to
high school graduates who have ap
propriate experience. Regardless of
their previous training, insurance
workers must continually learn while
on the job. Many professional associ
ations sponsor courses in all phases of
insurance work; employees are en
couraged to participate to prepare
themselves for more responsible jobs.
This section describes three insur
ance occupations: Actuaries, Claim
Representatives, and Underwriters.
Why do young persons pay more
for automobile insurance than older
persons? How much should an in
surance policy cost? Answers to
these and similar questions are pro
vided by actuaries who design in
surance and pension plans that can
be maintained on a sound financial
basis. They assemble and analyze
statistics to calculate probabilities
of death, sickness, injury, disability,
unemployment, retirement, and
property loss from accident, theft,
fire, and other potential hazards.
Actuaries use this information to
determine the expected insured
loss. For example, they may calcu
late how many persons who are 21
years old today can be expected to
live to age 65—the probability that
an insured person might die during
this period is a risk to the company.
They then calculate a price for as
suming this risk that will be profita
ble to the company yet be competi
tive with other insurance compa
nies. Finally, they must make sure
that the price charged for the in
surance will enable the company to
pay all claims and expenses as they
occur. In the same manner, the ac
tuary calculates premium rates and
policy contract provisions for each
type of insurance offered. Most ac
tuaries specialize in either life and
health insurance or in property and
liability (casualty) insurance.
To perform their duties effective
ly, actuaries must keep informed
about general economic and social
trends, and legislative, health, and
other developments that may affect
insurance practices. Because of
their broad knowledge of in
surance, actuaries may work on
problems arising in the company’s
investment, group underwriting, or
pension planning departments. Ac
tuaries in executive positions help
determine general company policy.
In that role, they may be called
upon to explain complex technical
matters to company executives,
government officials, and the
public. They may testify before
public agencies on proposed legisla
tion affecting the insurance busi
ness, for example, or explain in
tended changes in premium rates or
contract provisions.
Actuaries who work for the
Federal Government usually deal
with a particular insurance or pen
sion program, such as social securi
ty or life insurance for veterans and
members of the Armed Forces. Ac
tuaries in State government posi
tions regulate insurance companies,
supervise the operations of State
retirement or pension systems, and
work on problems connected with
unemployment insurance or work
ers’ compensation. Consulting ac
tuaries set up pension and welfare
plans and make periodic evalua
tions of these plans for private com
panies, unions, and government
agencies.
Places of Employment
Approximately 10,700 persons
worked as actuaries in 1974. Four
of every 10 actuaries worked in five
major cities—New York, Hartford,
Chicago, Philadelphia, and Boston.
About two-thirds of all actuaries
worked for private insurance com
panies. Almost 90 percent of them
worked for life insurance compa
nies; the rest worked for property
and liability (casualty) companies.
The number of actuaries employed
by an insurance company depends
on the volume of its business and
the number and types of insurance
policies it offers. Large companies
may employ over 100 actuaries on
their staffs or rely instead on rating
bureaus or consulting firms.
Consulting firms and rating bu
reaus (associations that supply ac
tuarial data to member companies)
employed about one-fifth of all ac
tuaries. Other actuaries work for
private organizations administering
independent pension and welfare
plans or for Federal and State
government agencies. A few teach
in colleges and universities.
cover general mathematics, special
ized actuarial mathematics, and all
phases of the insurance business.
The minimum requirement for Those considering an actuarial
beginning jobs in large life or career should take at least the
casualty companies is a bachelor’s beginning examination covering
degree with a major in mathematics general mathematics while still in
or statistics. Some companies will college. Success in passing the first
hire applicants with a major in two examinations helps beginners
economics or business administra to evaluate their potential as actu
tion who demonstrate a thorough aries. Those who pass these exami
foundation in calculus, probability, nations usually have better oppor
and statistics (20-25 hours). Other tunities for employment and receive
desirable courses are insurance law, a higher starting salary. Advanced
economics,
and
accounting. examinations, usually taken by
Although only 17 colleges and those in junior actuarial positions,
universities offer training specifi require extensive home study and
cally designed for actuarial careers, experience in insurance work.
several hundred schools offer some
The Society of Actuaries gives 10
of the necessary courses.
actuarial examinations for the life
It usually takes from 5 to 10 years insurance and pension field; the
after beginning an actuarial career Casualty Actuarial Society also
to complete the entire series of ex gives 10 for the property and liabili
aminations required for full profes ty field. Since the first parts of the
sional status. These examinations examination series of either society
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Actuaries discussing a problem.
are the same, students may defer
the selection of their insurance spe
cialty until they become more
familiar with the field. Persons who
complete five examinations in the
life insurance series or six in the
casualty
series
are
awarded
“associate” membership in their
respective society. Those who have
passed an entire series receive full
membership and the title “fellow.”
Beginning actuaries often rotate
among different jobs to learn vari
ous actuarial operations and to
become familiar with different
phases of insurance work. At first,
their work may be rather routine,
such as preparing calculations or
tabulations for actuarial tables or
reports. As they gain experience,
they may supervise actuarial clerks,
prepare correspondence and re
ports, and do research.
Advancement to more responsi
ble work as assistant, associate, and
chief actuary depends largely on
job performance and the number of
actuarial examinations passed.
Many actuaries, because of their
broad knowledge of insurance and
related fields, are selected for ad
ministrative positions in other com
pany activities, particularly in un
derwriting, accounting, or data
processing departments. Many ac
tuaries advance to top executive
positions.
Employment Outlook
Employment of actuaries is ex
pected to rise faster than the
average for all occupations through
the mid-1980’s. In addition to job
openings resulting from this growth,
several hundred actuaries will be
needed each year to replace those
who retire, die, or transfer to other
occupations. Job opportunities will
be best for new college graduates
who have passed at least one ac
tuarial examination while still in
school and have a strong mathe
matical and statistical background.
However, because of the large
number of persons expected to
receive degrees in mathematics,
and the large number of students
taking actuarial examinations, com
petition for beginning jobs should
remain keen.
Employment in this occupation is
influenced by the volume of in
surance sales, which will continue
to grow over the next decade. Shifts
in the age distribution of the popu
lation over the next decade will
result in many more people with
established careers and family
responsibilities. This is the group
traditionally responsible for the
bulk of private insurance sales.
Increased sales, however, are
only one determinant of demand.
Changes in existing insurance prac
tices are creating a need for more
actuarial services. For example,
passage of a “no-fault” automobile
insurance plan would require com
panies writing automobile in
surance to reevaluate their pricing
structures in light of no-fault
requirements. It is uncertain at this
time whether Federal no-fault
legislation will be enacted; how
ever, the growing number of States
enacting their own plans indicates
continued strong demand for actu
aries to make these analyses. The
Pension Reform Act of 1974 is like
ly to stimulate employment of ac
tuaries, particularly in consulting
firms. As more States pass competi
tive rating laws, companies which
previously relied on rating bureaus
for actuarial data will expand exist
ing actuarial departments or create
new ones.
Changes in the way medical mal
practice insurance is handled also
may generate additional demand
for actuaries.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
In 1974, actuaries had average
salaries over twice as high as the
average for all nonsupervisory
workers in private industry, except
farming. New college graduates en
tering the life insurance field
without having passed any actuarial
exams averaged $9,800 in 1974, ac
cording to a survey of U.S. compa
nies by the Life Office Management
Association (LOMA). Applicants
who had successfully completed the
first exam received $10,400 and
those who had passed two exams
averaged $11,100. Salaries for ac
tuaries in casualty companies
generally are comparable to those
offered by life companies.
In the Federal Government, new
graduates with the bachelor’s
degree could start at $8,500 a year
in late 1974. Applicants with either
1 year of graduate study or relevant
work experience were hired at
$10,500, and those with the
master’s degree started at $12,800
a year. Actuaries in the Federal
Government averaged $22,800 a
year in late 1974.
Beginning actuaries can look for
ward to a marked increase in
earnings as they gain professional
experience and successfully ad
vance in either society’s examina
tion program. Insurance companies
usually give merit increases averag
ing from $400 to $800 to their ac
tuaries as they pass each successive
examination leading to membership
in either society.
Associates
averaged $16,400 a year in 1974;
salaries for actuaries who were
awarded full fellowship during that
year averaged $22,700. Fellows
with additional years of experience
earned substantially more, and
many top actuarial executives were
paid over $35,000.
CLAIM
REPRESENTATIVES
(D.O.T. 168.288, 191.268,
241.168, and 249.268)
Nature of the Work
Fast and fair settlement of all
claims is essential to any insurance
company if it is to meet its commit
ments to policyholders and also
protect its own financial well-being.
The people who investigate claims,
negotiate settlement with policy
holders, and authorize payment are
known as claim representatives—a
group which includes claim ad
justers and claim examiners.
When
a
property-liability
(casualty)
insurance
company
receives a claim, the c la im a d ju s te r
determines the amount of the loss
and whether the policy covers it.
Adjusters use reports, physical
evidence, and testimony of wit
nesses in investigating a claim.
When their company is liable, they
negotiate with the claimant and set
tle the case.
Adjusters must make sure that
settlements are in line with the real
extent of the loss. They must pro
tect their company from false or in
flated claims but, at the same time,
settle valid claims fairly and
promptly. Some adjusters are al
lowed to issue checks on company
funds; most, however, submit their
findings to claim examiners who
review them to insure that proper
procedures have been followed and
then authorize payment.
Sources of Additional
Some adjusters work with all
Information
lines of insurance. Others specialize
For facts about actuarial oppor in claims from property damage by
fire, marine loss, automobile
tunities and qualifications, contact:
damage, workers’ compensation
Casualty Actuarial Society, 200 East 42nd
loss, or bodily injury. Several States
St , New York, N.Y. 10017.
have “no-fault” automobile in
Society of Actuaries, 208 South LaSalle St.,
surance plans that relieve the ad
Chicago, 1 1 60604.
1.
juster from determining responsi
bility for a loss. Adjusters in these
States still must decide the amount
of loss, however. A growing number
of casualty companies employ spe-
Adjuster determines extent of auto body
damage.
cial claims people to settle small
claims, usually minor automobile or
homeowner damage claims. These
claim workers, generally called
“inside adjusters” or “telephone
adjusters,” contact claimants by
telephone or mail and have the pol
icyholder send repair costs, medical
bills, and other statements to the
company. Many companies central
ize this operation in a drive-in
claims center where the cost of
repair is determined and a check is
issued on the spot.
Adjusters work away from the of
fice most of the time. They may be
called to the site of an accident or
to the location of a fire or burglary.
Adjusters make their own schedules
of the activities needed to dispose
of a claim properly. They also keep
written or taped records of informa
tion obtained from witnesses and
other sources and prepare reports
of their findings.
In life insurance companies, the
counterpart of the claim adjuster is
the c la im e x a m i n e r , who in
vestigates the details surrounding
questionable claims or those ex
ceeding a specified amount. They
may check claim applications for
completeness and accuracy, inter
view medical specialists, consult
policy files to verify information on
a claim, or calculate benefit pay
ments. Generally, examiners are
authorized to investigate and ap
prove payment on all claims up to a
certain limit; larger claims are
referred to a senior examiner.
Examiners checking incorrect or
questionable claims may cor
respond with investigating compa
nies, field managers, agents, or the
family of the insured. Claim ex
aminers occasionally travel to ob
tain information by personal inter
view, or contact State insurance de
partments and other insurance
companies. In addition to verifying
claims and approving payment, ex
aminers also maintain records of
settled claims and prepare reports
to be submitted to their company’s
data processing department. Some
experienced examiners serve on
committees, conduct surveys of
claim practices within their com
pany, and help devise more effi
cient ways to process claims. They
sometimes testify in court on con
tested claims.
Places of Employment
About 125,000 persons worked
as claim representatives in 1974.
The majority of claim adjusters
worked for insurance companies
that sell property and liability
coverage. Some were employed by
independent adjusting firms that
contract their services for a fee.
These independents range from na
tional companies employing hun
dreds of adjusting specialists to
small 3- or 4-person operations. A
relatively small number of adjusters
represent the insured rather than
the insurance company. These
‘public adjusters1 usually are
retained by banks, financial or-
Claim examiner calculates benefit payment.
ganizations, and other business
firms to handle fire and other losses
to property. They negotiate claims
against insurance companies and
deal with adjusters for such compa
nies.
Most claim examiners worked for
life insurance companies in large ci
ties such as New York, Hartford,
Chicago, San Francisco, and Dallas,
where most home offices are
located.
Adjusters may travel to almost
any area of the United States, since
claims must be settled locally. Oc
casionally, the adjuster may travel
to the scene of a disaster, such as a
hurricane or a riot, to work with
local personnel. Some cases result
in travel outside the United States.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Although a growing number of
insurance companies prefer claim
representatives to have a college
degree, many hire those without
college training, particularly if they
have specialized experience. For
example, persons experienced in
automobile repair work may qualify
as auto adjusters, and those with
clerical work experience might be
hired as inside adjusters.
No specific field of college study
is recommended. Although courses
in insurance, economics, or other
business subjects are helpful, a
major in almost any college field is
adequate preparation. An adjuster
who has a business or accounting
background might specialize in loss
from business interruption or
damage to merchandise. Those with
college training in engineering will
find their education helpful in ad
justing industrial claims.
Most large insurance companies
provide beginning claim adjusters
and examiners on-the-job training
and home study courses. Claim
representatives are encouraged to
take courses designed to enhance
their professional skills. For exam
ple, the Insurance Institute of
America offers a 6-semester study
program leading to a diploma in in
surance loss and claim adjusting
upon successful completion of six
examinations.
Adjusters
can
prepare for these examinations by
independent home study or through
company or public classes. A
professional Certificate in In
surance Adjusting also is available
from the College of Insurance in
New York City.
The Life Office Management As
sociation (LOMA) in cooperation
with the International Claim As
sociation offers a claims education
program for life and health ex
aminers. The program is part of the
LOMA Institute Insurance Educa
tion Program leading to the profes
sional designation, FLMI (Fellow,
Life Management Institute) upon
successful completion of eight writ
ten examinations.
About three-fourths of the States
require adjusters to be licensed.
Despite wide variation in State
licensing requirements, applicants
usually must comply with one or
more of the following: Pass a writ
ten examination covering the fun
damentals of adjusting; furnish
character references; be 20 or 21
years of a g e an d a r e sid e n t of th e
State; offer proof that they have
completed an approved course in
insurance or loss adjusting; and file
a surety bond.
Because they often work closely
with claimants, witnesses, and other
insurance professionals, representa
tives must be able to adapt to many
different persons and situations.
They should be able to commu
nicate effectively and gain the
respect and cooperation of people
from different backgrounds. For ex
ample, when adjusters’ evaluations
of claims differ from those of the
persons who have suffered the loss,
they should be able to explain their
conclusions tactfully. Examiners
need to be familiar with medical
and legal terms and practices and
Federal and State insurance laws
and regulations. Because they may
have to check premium payments,
policy values, and other numerical
items in processing a claim, ex
aminers should be adept at making
mathematical calculations. Both
adjusters and examiners should
have a good memory and enjoy
working with details.
Beginning adjusters and ex
aminers work on small claims under
the supervision of an experienced
worker. As they learn more about
claim investigation and settlement,
they are assigned claims that are
higher in loss value and more dif
ficult. Trainees are promoted as
they demonstrate competence in
handling assignments and progress
in the courses they take. Because of
the complexity of insurance regula
tions and claims procedures, work
ers who lack formal academic
training may advance more slowly
than those with 2 years or more of
college. Employees who show
unusual competence in claims work
or outstanding administrative skills
may be promoted to department su
pervisor in a field office or to a
managerial position in the home of
fice. Qualified adjusters and ex
aminers can transfer to other de
partments, such as underwriting or
data processing.
Employment Outlook
Employment of claim representa
tives is expected to grow about as
fast as the average for all occupa
tions through the mid-1980’s as the
number of insurance claims con
tinues to increase. In addition to
jobs created by growth of the occu
pation, many others will result from
the need to replace workers who
die, retire, or transfer to other jobs.
Several factors point to a growing
volume of insurance and a resulting
need for claim adjusters. Shifts in
population patterns over the next
decade will insure a steadily rising
number of workers entering their
most productive years. These work
ers and their families are likely to
seek insurance protection as they
purchase homes, automobiles, and car or are reimbursed for use of career as a claim examiner or ad
other consumer durables. Expand their own vehicles for business pur juster is available from the home of
ing business will need protection for poses. Salaries of claim adjusters fices of many life and property and
new plants and equipment and for are about one and one-half times liability insurance companies.
Information
about
licensing
insurance covering workers’ com the average earnings for all nonsupensation and product liability. As pervisory workers in private indus requirements for claim adjusters
more people live and work in try, except farming; salaries of in may be obtained from the depart
densely populated areas, the in side adjusters are slightly above this ment of insurance in each State.
Information about career oppor
creased risk of automobile acci average.
A survey of life insurance compa tunities in these occupations also
dent, fire, or theft should result in a
nies by the Life Office Management may be obtained from:
greater number of claims.
Growth of this occupation may Association revealed that claim ex Insurance Information Institute, 1 10 William
be slower than in recent years as aminers earned average salaries of
St., New York, N.Y. 10038.
no-fault automobile insurance plans $11,200 a year in 1974. According
For information about public in
enable adjusters to handle more to the survey of property and liabili surance adjusting, contact:
cases. The growing emphasis on ty companies, casualty claim ex National Association of Public Adjusters,
drive-in claim centers and claim aminers averaged $13,300. Claim
1613 Munsey Building, Baltimore, Md.
21202 .
handling by telephone also should supervisors in casualty companies
Career information on life in
reduce the demand for automobile and life companies averaged
adjusters while it stimulates de between $14,000 and $15,000 and surance claim examining is availa
mand for inside adjusters. Indepen many earned more than $20,000 a ble from:
dent adjusters who specialize in au year. Claim examiners earn nearly Institute of Life Insurance, 277 Park Ave.,
tomobile damage claims should twice as much as the average for all
New York, N.Y. 10017.
continue to suffer some loss of busi nonsupervisory workers in private
ness. Prospects are expected to be industry, except farming.
quite good for adjusters who spe
Claim adjusting is not a desk job.
UNDERWRITERS
cialize in other types of claims or It requires that a person be physi
those who can move into other lines cally fit because much of the day
(D.O.T. 169.188)
of adjusting.
may be spent in traveling from one
Prospects are much less favora place to another, walking about
Nature of the Work
ble for claim examiners. Employ outdoors, and climbing stairs. Ad
Insurance companies assume mil
ment of examiners in casualty com justers may have to work evenings
panies should rise about as fast as or weekends in order to interview lions of dollars in risks each year, by
for adjusters; however, much witnesses and claimants when they transferring chance of loss from
slower growth is expected for life are available. Since most compa their policyholders to themselves.
insurance examiners as increased nies provide 24-hour claim service Underwriters appraise and select
use of computers enables them to to their policyholders, some ad the risks their company will insure.
process more claims, especially justers always must be on call. (See (The term u n d e r w r ite r s o m e tim e s is
routine ones and those that arise the statement on the Insurance In used in referring to insurance
under group policies.
dustry for additional information on agents; see the statement on In
working conditions and employee surance Agents and Brokers else
Earnings and Working
where in this book for a discussion of
benefits.)
Conditions
that occupation.)
Claim examiners have desk jobs
Underwriters decide whether
According to an American In
that require no unusual physical ac
surance Association-American Mu tivity. Although the average work their companies will accept risks
tual Insurance Alliance-National week for examiners is 35 to 40 after analyzing information in in
Association of Independent In hours, they may work longer at surance applications, reports from
surers survey of property and lia times of peak claim loads or when loss control consultants, medical re
bility companies, claim adjusters quarterly and annual statements are ports, and actuarial studies (reports
averaged about $ 11,900 a year in prepared. They also may need to that describe the probability of in
sured loss). Some routine applica
1974; inside adjusters earned travel occasionally.
tions that require very little inde
average salaries of about $8,300.
pendent judgment are handled by
Most public adjusters are paid a
Sources of Additional
computers. Generally, however, un
percentage of the amount of the
Information
derwriters use considerable per
settlement—generally 10 percent.
sonal judgment in making deci
General information about a
Adjusters are furnished a company
sions. Because these decisions are
seldom reviewed at a higher level,
underwriters have great responsi
bility. Their companies may lose
business to competitors if they ap
praise risks too conservatively or
have to pay many future claims if
their underwriting actions are too
liberal.
When deciding that a policy is an
acceptable risk, an underwriter may
outline the terms of the contract,
including the amount of the premi
um. Underwriters frequently cor
respond with policyholders, agents,
and managers about policy cancel
lations or requests for information.
In addition, they sometimes accom
pany salespeople on appointments
with prospective customers.
Most underwriters specialize in
one of three major categories of in
surance: life, property and liability,
or health. Life insurance un
derwriters may further specialize in
one type of life insurance or more,
such as group or individual policies.
The property and liability un
derwriter specializes by type of risk
insured, such as fire, automobile,
marine, or workers’ compensation.
Some underwriters, called commer
cial account underwriters, handle
business insurance exclusively.
They often must evaluate a firm’s
entire operation in appraising its in
surance application.
A standard group insurance pol
icy insures all persons in a specified
group through a single contract at
uniform premium rates; this type of
group policy generally provides life
or health insurance protection. The
group underwriter analyzes the
overall composition of the group to
be sure that total risk is not exces
sive. A different type of group pol
icy finding increasing acceptance is
the policy that provides the mem
bers of a group—a labor union, for
example—with an individual policy
geared to their own circumstances.
These policies generally are in the
casualty field, covering automo
biles, pleasure boats, and homes.
The casualty underwriter analyzes
Underwriter analyzes information pre
sented on policy application.
the application of each group
member and makes individual ap
praisals. Some group underwriters
attend meetings with union or em
ployer representatives to discuss
the types of policies available to
their groups.
Places of Employment
An estimated 20,000 persons
worked as insurance underwriters
in 1974. Over three-fourths were
property and liability underwriters
working in regional or home offices
throughout the United States; most
life insurance underwriters are in
home offices in a few large cities,
such as Hartford, New York,
Chicago, Dallas, and Los Angeles.
graduates who begin as underwrit
ing clerks may be trained as un
derwriters after they demonstrate
an aptitude for the work.
College graduates usually start as
trainees or junior underwriters.
They study claim files to learn the
factors associated with certain
types of losses, and carry out their
work assignments under an ex
perienced risk appraiser. Many sup
plement on-the-job training with
courses and instruction at home of
fice schools or local colleges and
universities. Many firms pay tuition
and the cost of books for those who
satisfactorily complete underwrit
ing courses. Some companies offer
salary increases as an incentive. In
dependent study programs are
available through the American In
stitute of Property and Liability Un
derwriters, the American College of
Life Underwriters, the Home Office
Life Underwriters Association, the
Institute of Home Office Un
derwriters, and the Life Office
Management Association.
Underwriting can be a satisfying
career for persons who like working
with details and enjoy relating and
evaluating information. In addition
to analyzing problems, underwriters
must make prompt decisions and be
able to communicate their ideas to
others. They must also be imagina
tive and aggressive, especially when
they have to get additional informa
tion from outside sources.
Experienced underwriters who
complete study courses may ad
vance to chief underwriter or un
derwriting manager. Some un
derwriting managers are promoted
to senior managerial jobs after
several years.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Employment Outlook
For beginning underwriting jobs,
most insurance companies seek col
lege graduates who have degrees in
liberal arts or business administra
tion, but a major in almost any field
provides
a
good
general
background. Some high school
Employment of underwriters is
expected to rise about as fast as the
average for all occupations through
the mid-1980’s as insurance sales
continue to expand. Each year
many jobs will become available as
the occupation grows and as those
who die, retire, or transfer to other
work are replaced.
Several factors underlie the ex
pected growth in the volume of in
surance and the resulting need for
underwriters. Over the next decade,
a much larger portion of our popu
lation will enter their most produc
tive years. As this traditional mar
ket for life insurance expands, the
volume of insurance sales also
should rise. This will occur as more
individuals purchase life insurance
to protect their families’ standard of
living, finance their childrens’ edu
cation, or provide retirement in
come. Property and liability in
surance sales also should expand as
purchases of automobiles, pleasure
boats, and other consumer durables
increase. Both spending for new
home construction and the Amer
ican public’s growing security con
sciousness should contribute to de
mand for more extensive insurance
protection. Expanding businesses
will need protection for new plants
and equipment and insurance for
workers’
compensation
and
product liability. Heightened com
petition among insurance compa
nies and changes in regulations af
fecting investment profits also are
expected to increase the insurance
industry’s need for competent un
derwriters.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Underwriters in life insurance
averaged $12,500 a year in 1974,
according to a Life Office Manage
ment Association (LOMA) survey.
Senior life underwriters (those with
5 years’ experience) averaged
$14,300, while senior group un
derwriters earned average salaries
of $14,800. Supervisors of un
derwriting in life insurance compa
nies averaged $15,000 to $20,000.
In most cases, underwriters in
larger companies earned higher
salaries.
An American Insurance Association-American Mutual Insurance
Alliance-National Association of
Independent Insurers survey of
companies that sell property and
liability insurance showed that ex
perienced underwriters averaged
$11,300 a year in 1974. Earnings
varied substantially by underwriting
specialty; senior commercial lines
underwriters averaged $13,100,
while personal lines underwriters
earned average salaries of $10,900.
Experienced underwriters earn
over 1 1/2 times the average
earnings of nonsupervisory workers
in private industry, except farming.
Underwriting supervisors in proper
ty and liability companies averaged
$15,100 a year in 1974; many
earned over $ 17,500.
Most underwriters have desk jobs
that require no unusual physical ac
tivity. Although the average week is
37 hours, underwriters sometimes
work overtime. Most insurance
companies have liberal vacation
policies and other employee
benefits. (See the statement on the
Insurance Industry for additional
information on working conditions
and employee benefits.)
Sources of Additional
Information
General information about a
career as an insurance underwriter
is available from the home offices
of many life insurance and property
and liability insurance companies.
Information about career opportu
nities as an underwriter also may be
obtained from:
Institute of Life Insurance, 277 Park Ave.,
New York, N.Y. 10017.
Insurance Information Institute, 110 William
St., New York, N.Y. 10038.
American Mutual Insurance Alliance, 20 N.
Wacker Dr., Chicago, 11 . 60606.
1
where field office headquarters are
located or in resident agencies
(suboffices) established under field
office supervision to provide
prompt and efficient handling of in
matters
arising
radio or telephone as the circum vestigative
throughout the field office territory.
stances dictate. In performing
potentially dangerous duties, such Some agents are assigned to the Bu
as arrests and raids, two or more reau headquarters in Washington,
agents are assigned to work D.C., which supervises all FBI ac
tivities.
together.
SERVICE OCCUPATIONS
FBI SPECIAL AGENTS
(D.O.T. 375.168)
Nature of the Work
Federal Bureau of Investigation
(FBI) Special Agents investigate
violations of Federal laws such as
bank robberies, kidnappings, frauds
against the Government, thefts of
Government property, espionage,
and sabotage. The FBI, which is
part of the U.S. Department of
Justice, has jurisdiction over many
different Federal investigative mat
ters. Special Agents, therefore, may
be assigned to any type of case,
although those with specialized
training usually work on cases re
lated to their background. Agents
with an accounting background, for
example, may investigate bank em
bezzlements or fraudulent bank
ruptcies.
Because the FBI is a fact-gather
ing agency, its Special Agents func
tion strictly as investigators, collect
ing evidence in cases in which the
United States is or may be an in
terested party. (The FBI does not
give personal protection to in
dividuals or do police work to in
sure that the law is obeyed. Such
matters are handled by local and
State law enforcement agencies.) In
their casework, Special Agents may
interview people, observe the ac
tivities of suspects, and participate
in raids. Because the FBI’s work is
highly confidential, Special Agents
may not disclose any of the infor
mation gathered in the course of
their official duties to unauthorized
persons, including members of their
families. At times, agents have to
testify in court about cases which
they investigate.
Although they work alone on
most assignments, agents commu
nicate with their supervisors by
Places of Employment
About 8,600 persons were Spe
cial Agents in 1974. The FBI has
been accepting applications from
women since 1972, and 30 women
now work as Special Agents.
Most agents were assigned to the
FBI’s 59 field offices located
throughout the Nation and in Puer
to Rico. They worked in cities
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
To be considered for appoint
ment as an FBI Special Agent, an
applicant usually must be a gradu
ate of a State-accredited law school
or a college graduate with a major
in accounting. The law school train
ing must have been preceded by at
least 2 years of undergraduate col-
FBI special agent photographs a weapon.
lege work. Accounting graduates
must have at least 1 year of ex
perience in accounting, auditing, or
a combination of both.
From time to time, as the need
arises, the FBI accepts applications
from persons who have a 4-year
college degree with a physical
science major or fluency in a
foreign language, and also from
persons who have 3 years of profes
sional, executive, complex in
vestigative, or other specialized ex
perience.
Applicants for the position of FBI
Special Agent must be citizens of
the United States, at least 23 and
not more than 35 years old, and
willing to serve anywhere in the
United States or Puerto Rico. They
must be capable of strenuous physi
cal exertion, and have excellent
hearing and vision, normal color
perception, and no physical defects
which would prevent their using
firearms or participating in dan
gerous assignments. All applicants
must pass a rigid physical examina
tion, as well as written and oral ex
aminations testing their knowledge
of law or accounting and their ap
titude for meeting the public and
conducting investigations. All of
the tests except the physical ex
aminations are given by the FBI at
its facilities. Background and
character investigations are made
of all applicants. Appointments are
made on a probationary basis and
become permanent after 1 year of
satisfactory service.
Each newly appointed Special
Agent is given about 14 weeks of
training at the FBI Academy at the
U.S. Marine Corps Base in Quantico, Va. before assignment to a
field office. During this period,
agents receive intensive training in
defensive tactics and the use of
firearms. In addition, they are
thoroughly schooled in Federal
criminal law and procedures, FBI
rules and regulations, fingerprint
ing, and investigative work. After
assignment to a field office, the new
agent usually works closely with an
experienced agent for about 2
weeks before handling any assign
ments independently.
All administrative and superviso
ry jobs are filled from within the
ranks by selecting those FBI Special
Agents who have demonstrated the
ability to assume more responsibili
ty-
Sources of Additional
Information
The Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S.
Department of Justice, Washington,
D.C. 20535.
POLICE OFFICERS
Employment Outlook
The jurisdiction of the FBI has
expanded greatly over the years.
Although it is impossible to forecast
Special Agent personnel require
ments, employment may be ex
pected to increase with growing FBI
responsibilities.
The FBI provides a career service
and its rate of turnover is tradi
tionally low. Nevertheless, the FBI
is always interested in applications
from qualified persons who would
like to be considered for the posi
tion of Special Agent.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
The entrance salary for FBI Spe
cial Agents was $13,379 in late
1974. Special Agents are not ap
pointed under Federal Civil Service
r e g u la tio n s, b u t, lik e o th e r F e d e r a l
employees, they receive periodic
within-grade salary raises if their
work performance is satisfactory;
they can advance in grade as they
gain experience.
Special Agents are subject to call
24 hours a day and must be availa
ble for assignment at all times.
Their duties call for some travel, for
they are assigned wherever they are
needed in the United States or Puerto
Rico. They frequently work longer than
the customary 40-hour week and, under
specified conditions, receive overtime
pay up to about $3,350 a year. They are
granted paid vacations, sick leave, and
annuities on retirement.
(D.O.T. 375.1 18 through .868
and 377.868)
Nature of the Work
The security of our Nation’s cit
ies and towns greatly depends on
the work of local police officers
whose jobs range from controlling
traffic to preventing and investigat
ing crimes. Whether on or off duty,
these officers are expected to exer
cise their authority whenever
necessary.
Police officers who work in a
small community have many duties.
In the course of a day’s work, they
may direct traffic at the scene of a
fire, investigate a housebreaking,
and give first aid to an accident vic
tim. In a large police department,
by contrast, officers usually are as
signed to a specific type of duty.
Most officers are detailed either to
patrol or traffic duty; smaller num
bers are assigned to special work
such as accident prevention or
operation
of
communications
systems. Others work as detectives
(plain-clothes officers) assigned to
criminal investigation; still others,
as experts in chemical and micro
scopic analysis, firearms identifica
tion, and handwriting and finger
print identification. In very large
cities, a few officers may work with
special units such as mounted and
motorcycle police, harbor patrols,
helicopter patrols, canine corps,
mobile rescue teams, and youth aid
services.
Most newly recruited police of
ficers begin on patrol duty. Recruits
may be assigned to such varied
areas as congested business districts
or outlying residential areas. They
may cover their beats alone or with
other officers, and they may ride in
a police vehicle or walk on “foot”
patrol. In any case, they become
thoroughly familiar with conditions
throughout their area and, while on
patrol, remain alert for anything
unusual. They note suspicious cir
cumstances, such as open windows
or lights in vacant buildings, as well
as hazards to public safety such as
burned-out street lights or fallen
trees. Officers also watch for stolen
automobiles and enforce traffic
regulations. At regular intervals,
they report to police headquarters
through call boxes, by radio, or by
walkie-talkie. They prepare reports
about their activities and may be
called on to testify in court when
cases result in legal action.
Places of Employment
About 480,000 full-time officers
worked for local police depart
ments in 1974. Although most were
men, an increasing number of
women are employed in police
work.
Some cities have very large po
lice forces. For example, New York
has over 30,000 police officers and
Chicago over 13,000. Hundreds of
small communities employ fewer
than 25 each. Women police of
ficers work mainly in large cities.
Because personal characteristics
such as honesty, good judgment,
and a sense of responsibility are
especially important in police work,
candidates are interviewed by a
senior officer at police headquar
ters, and their character traits and
background are investigated. In
some police departments, can
didates also may be interviewed by
a psychiatrist or a pyschologist, or
Training, Other Qualifications,
be given a personality test.
and Advancement
Although police officers work inde
Local civil service regulations pendently, they must perform their
govern the appointment of police duties in line with laws and depart
officers in practically all large cities mental rules. They should enjoy
and in many small ones. Candidates working with people, and should
must be U.S. citizens, usually at want to serve the public.
least 21 years of age, and must meet
In large police departments,
certain height and weight stand where most jobs are found, appli
ards. Eligibility for appointment cants usually must have a high
depends on performance in com school education. A few cities
petitive examinations as well as on require some college training and
education and experience. The some hire law enforcement students
physical examinations often include as police interns. A few police de
tests of strength and agility.
partments accept applicants who
have less than a high school educa
tion as recruits, particularly if they
have worked in a field related to
law enforcement.
More and more, police depart
ments are encouraging applicants
to take post-high school training in
sociology and psychology. As a
result, more than 500 junior col
leges, colleges, and universities now
offer programs in law enforcement.
Other courses helpful in preparing
for a police career include English,
American history, civics and
government, business law, and
physics. Physical education and
sports are especially helpful in
developing the stamina and agility
needed for police work.
Young
persons
who
have
completed high school can enter
police work in some large cities as
police cadets, or trainees, while still
in their teens. As paid civilian em
ployees of the police department,
they attend classes to learn police
skills and do clerical work. They
may be appointed to the regular
force at age 21 if they have all the
necessary qualifications.
Before their first assignments, of
ficers usually go through a period of
training. In small communities,
recruits learn by working for a short
time with experienced officers.
Training provided in large city po
lice departments is more formal and
may last several weeks or a few
months. This training includes
classroom instruction in constitu
tional law and civil rights; in State
laws and local ordinances; and in
accident investigation, patrol, and
traffic control. Recruits learn how
to use a gun, defend themselves
from attack, administer first aid,
and deal with emergencies.
Police officers usually become
eligible for promotion after a
specified length of service. In a
large department, promotion may
allow an officer to specialize in one
type of police work such as labora
tory work, traffic control, commu
nications, or work with juveniles.
Promotions to the rank of sergeant,
lieutenant, and captain usually are
made according to a candidate’s
position on a promotion list, as
determined by scores on a written
examination and on-the-job per
formance.
Many types of training help po
lice officers improve their per
formance on the job and prepare
for advancement. Through training
given at police department acade
mies and colleges, officers keep
abreast
of
crowd-control
techniques, civil defense, legal
developments that affect their
work, and advances in law enforce
ment equipment. Many police de
partments encourage officers to
work toward college degrees, and
some pay all or part of the tuition.
Employment Outlook
Police work is attractive to many.
The job frequently is challenging
and involves much responsibility.
Furthermore, layoffs are rare. In
periods of relatively high unem
ployment, the number of persons
seeking police employment may be
greater than the number of
openings. However, the written ex
aminations and strict physical
requirements always eliminate
many applicants. The outlook
should be good for persons having
some college training in law en
forcement. Opportunities should
also be available for women and
minority applicants as many depart
ments recruit these workers to
make police departments more
representative of the populations
they serve.
Law enforcement is complex and
requires an approach tailored to the
particular problems of each city.
The police department of a city
with a large mobile population is
likely to emphasize traffic control,
preventive patrol, and cooperation
with police agencies in the sur
rounding areas. In smaller cities, or
those with well established commu
nities and fewer employment and
recreation centers, police work may
be less specialized. In either case,
however, the usual way of increas
ing police protection is to provide
more officers for duty.
The number of officers employed
will depend on the amount of
money made available by local
governments. Because of the essen
tial nature of police work, it is likely
that funding for law enforcement
will have high priority and that the
employment of city police officers
will rise faster than the average for
other occupations through the mid1980’s.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
In 1974, entry level salaries for
police officers varied widely from
city to city. In some smaller com
munities, officers earned less than
$600 a month, while some major cit
ies offered over $ 1,000 a month to
new employees. Most officers
receive regular salary increases dur
ing the first few years of employ
ment until they reach a set max
imum for their rank. Maximum
earnings ranged from about $800 to
over $ 1,200 a month in 1974.
Promotion to a higher rank
brings a higher basic salary. Serge
ants, for example, started at a salary
as high as $1,300 a month in 1974
and in the largest cities, lieutenants
began at over $1,400 a month. In
general, police officers are paid
about one and one-half times as
much as nonsupervisory workers in
private industry, except farming.
Police departments usually pro
vide officers with special al
lowances for uniforms and furnish
revolvers, night sticks, handcuffs,
and other required equipment.
The scheduled workweek for po
lice officers usually is 40 hours.
Because police protection must be
provided around the clock, in all
but the smallest communities some
officers are on duty over weekends,
on holidays, and at night. Police of
ficers are subject to call any time
their services are needed and may
work overtime in emergencies. In
some departments, overtime is paid
at straight time or time and onehalf; in others, officers may be
given an equal amount of time off
on another day of the week.
Police officers generally are
covered by liberal pension plans,
enabling many to retire at half pay
by the time they reach age 55. In
addition, paid vacations, sick leave,
and health and life insurance plans
frequently are provided.
Police officers may have to work
outdoors for long periods in all
kinds of weather. The injury rate is
higher than in many occupations
and reflects the risks officers take in
pursuing speeding motorists, cap
turing lawbreakers, and dealing
with public disorder.
Sources of Additional
Information
Information
about
entrance
requirements may be obtained from
local civil service commissions or
police departments.
Additional information describ
ing careers as police officers is
available from:
International Association of Chiefs of Police,
11 Firstfield Rd., Gaithersburg, Md.
20760.
Fraternal Order of Police, National
Headquarters, 3094 Bertha St., Flint,
Mich. 48504.
STATE POLICE OFFICERS
(D.O.T. 375.118, .138, .168,
.228, .268, and .388)
not have a police force. They some
times help city or county police
catch lawbreakers and control civil
disturbances. State highway patrols,
however, normally are restricted to
vehicle and traffic matters.
Some police officers work with
special State police units such as
the mounted police, canine corps,
and marine patrols. Others instruct
trainees in State police schools,
pilot police aircraft, or specialize in
fingerprint classification or chemi
cal and microscopic analysis of
criminal evidence.
State police officers also write re
ports and maintain police records.
Some officers, including division or
Nature of the Work
The laws and regulations that
govern the use of our Nation’s road
ways are designed to insure the
safety of all citizens. State police of
ficers (sometimes called State
troopers) patrol our highways and
enforce these laws.
State police officers issue traffic
tickets to motorists who violate the
law. At the scene of an accident,
they direct traffic, give first aid, call
for emergency equipment including
ambulances, and write reports to be
used in determining the cause of the
accident.
In addition, State police officers
provide services to motorists on the
highways. For example, they radio
for road service for drivers in
mechanical trouble, direct tourists
to their destination, or give infor
mation about lodging, restaurants,
and tourist attractions.
State police officers also provide
traffic assistance and control during
road repairs, fires, and other emer
gencies, as well as for special occur
rences such as parades and sports
events. They sometimes check the
weight of commercial vehicles, con
duct driver examinations, and give
information on highway safety to
the public.
In addition to highway responsi
bilities, State police may investigate
crimes, particularly in areas that do
bureau chiefs responsible for train
ing or investigation and those who
command police operations in an
assigned area, have administrative
duties.
Places of Employment
About 45,500 State police of
ficers were employed in 1974.
Although almost all were men, posi
tions for women are expected to in
crease in the future.
The size of State police forces va
ries considerably. The largest force
(in California) has over 5,000 of
ficers; the smallest (in North
Dakota) has fewer than 100. One
State (Hawaii) does not maintain a
police force.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
State civil service regulations
govern the appointment of State
police officers. All candidates must
be citizens of the United States.
Other entry requirements vary, but
most States require that applicants
have a high school education or an
equivalent combination of educa
tion and experience and be at least
21 years old.
Officers must pass a competitive
examination and meet physical and
personal qualifications. Physical
requirements include standards of
height, weight, and eyesight. Tests
of strength and agility often are
required. Because honesty and a
sense of responsibility are impor
tant in police work, an applicant’s
character and background are in
vestigated.
Although State police officers
work independently, they must per
form their duties in line with de
partment rules. They should want
to serve the public and be willing to
work outdoors in all types of
weather.
In all States, recruits enter a for
mal training program for several
months. They receive classroom in
struction in State laws and jurisdic
tions, and they study procedures for
accident investigation, patrol, and
traffic control. Recruits learn to use
guns, defend themselves from at
tack, handle an automobile at high
speeds, and give first aid. After
gaining experience, some officers
take advanced training in police
science, administration, law en
forcement, or criminology. Classes
are held at junior colleges, colleges
and universities, or special police
institutions such as the National
Academy of the Federal Bureau of
Investigation.
High school and college courses
in English, government, psycholo
gy, sociology, American history,
and physics help in preparing for a
police career. Physical education
and sports are useful for developing
stamina and agility. Completion of
a driver education course and train
ing received in military police
schools also are assets.
Police officer recruits serve a
probationary period ranging from 6
months to 3 years. After a specified
length of time, officers become
eligible for promotion. Most States
have merit promotion systems that
require officers to pass a competi
tive examination to qualify for the
next highest rank. Although the or
ganization of police forces varies by
State, the typical avenue of ad
vancement is from private to cor
poral, to sergeant, to first sergeant,
to lieutenant, and then to captain.
Police officers who show adminis
trative ability may be promoted to
higher level jobs such as commis
sioner or director.
In some States, high school grad
uates may enter State police work
as cadets. These paid civilian em
ployees of the police organization
attend classes to learn various
aspects of police work and are as
signed nonenforcement duties.
Cadets who qualify may be ap
pointed to the State police force at
age 21.
This is the result of a growing, more
mobile population. In ever increas
ing numbers, Americans are using
the motor vehicle as a source of
recreation. Motorcycles, campers,
and other recreational vehicles will
continue to add to the Nation’s traf
fic flow and require additional of
ficers to insure the safety of
highway users.
Because law enforcement work is
becoming more complex, spe
cialists will be needed in crime
laboratories and electronic data
processing centers to develop ad
ministrative and criminal informa
tion systems. However, in many de
partments, these jobs will be filled
by civilian employees rather than
uniformed officers.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
In 1974, beginning salaries for
State police officers ranged from al
most $600 to about $1,000 a
month. The most common entry
rates ranged from $600 to $700 a
month. Although starting salaries
are normally higher in the West and
lower in the South, State police of
ficers on the average earn about 1
1/2 times as much as nonsupervisory workers in private industry, ex
cept farming.
Employment Outlook
State police generally receive
State police employment is ex regular increases, based on ex
pected to grow much faster than the perience and performance, until a
average for other occupations. specified maximum is reached. In
Although most jobs will result from 1974, maximum rates ranged from
this growth, some openings will be about $750 to over $ 1,200 a month;
created as officers retire, die, or maximum rates were most com
leave the occupation for other monly between $900 and $ 1,000 a
reasons. As job openings are filled month. Earnings increase with
from the ranks of available appli promotions to higher ranks. The
cants, the increased interest of most common maximum salaries
women in police work will result in for State police sergeants in 1974
greater employment of women for were between $1,000 and $1,200.
Lieutenants earned more, often
patrol duties.
Although some State police will between $1,200 and $1,300 a
be needed in criminal investigation month.
and other nonhighway functions,
State police agencies usually pro
officers
with
uniforms,
the greatest demand will be for of vide
ficers to work in highway patrol. firearms, and other necessary
equipment, or give special al
lowances for their purchase.
In many States, the scheduled
workweek for police officers is 40
hours. Although the workweek is
longer in some States, hours over
40 are being reduced. Since police
protection must be provided
around the clock, some officers are
on duty over weekends, on
holidays, and at night. Police of
ficers also are subject to emergency
calls at any time.
State police usually are covered
by liberal pension plans. Paid vaca
tions, sick leave, and medical and
life insurance plans frequently are
provided.
The work of State police officers
is sometimes dangerous. They al
ways run the risk of an automobile
accident while pursuing speeding
motorists or fleeing criminals. Of
ficers also face the risk of injury
while apprehending criminals or
controlling disorders.
Sources of Additional
Information
Information about specific en
trance requirements may be ob
tained from State civil service com
missions or State police headquar
ters, usually located in each State
capital.
HEALTH AND
REGULATORY
INSPECTORS
(GOVERNMENT)
(D.O.T. 168.168, and .287)
Nature of the Work
Protecting the public from health
and safety hazards, prohibiting un
fair trade and employment prac
tices, and raising revenue are in
cluded in the wide range of respon
sibilities of government. Health and
regulatory inspectors help insure
observance of the laws and regula
tions that govern these responsibili
ties.
The duties, titles, and responsi
bilities of Federal, State, and local
health and regulatory inspectors
vary widely. Some types of inspec
tors work only for the Federal
Government while others also are
employed by State and local
governments. Many other workers
employed as accountants, agricul
tural cooperative extension service
workers, and other agricultural
professionals also have inspection
duties.
Health Inspectors. Health inspec
tors work with engineers, chemists,
microbiologists, and health workers
to insure compliance with public
health and safety regulations
governing food, drugs, and various
other consumer products. They also
administer regulations that govern
the quarantine of persons and
products entering the United States
from foreign countries. The major
types of health inspectors are: food
and drug, meat and poultry, agricul
tural quarantine inspectors, and
sanitarians. In addition, some in
spectors work in a field which is
closely related to food inspection—
agricultural commodity grading.
Most f o o d a n d d r u g in s p e c to r s
specialize in one area of inspection
such as food, feeds and pesticides,
weights and measures, or drugs and
cosmetics. Some, especially those
who work for the Federal Govern
ment, may be proficient in several
of these areas. Working individually
or in teams under the direction of a
senior or supervisory inspector they
travel throughout a geographical
area to check periodically firms
that produce, handle, store, and
market food, drugs, and cosmetics.
They look for evidence of inaccu
rate product labeling, decomposi
tion, chemical or bacteriological
contamination, and other factors
that could result in a product
becoming harmful to consumer
health. They assemble evidence of
violations, using portable scales,
cameras, ultraviolet lights, con
tainer sampling devices, thermome
ters, chemical testing kits, and
other types of equipment.
Product samples collected as part
of their examinations are sent to
laboratories for analysis. After
completing their inspection, inspec
tors discuss their observations with
the management of the plant and
point out any areas where cor
rective measures are needed. They
prepare written reports of their
findings, and, when necessary, com
pile evidence that may be used in
court if legal actions must be taken
to effect compliance with the law.
Federal and State laws empower
m e a t a n d p o u lt r y in s p e c to r s to in
spect meat, poultry, and their
byproducts to insure that they are
wholesome and safe for public con
sumption. Working as part of a con
stant onsite team under the general
supervision of a veterinarian, they
inspect meat and poultry slaughter
ing, processing, and packaging
operations. They also check to see
that products are labeled correctly
and that proper sanitation is main
tained
in
slaughtering
and
processing operations.
A g r ic u ltu r a l q u a r a n t in e in s p e c to r s
protect
American
agricultural
products from the introduction and
spread of foreign plant pests and
animal diseases. To safeguard the
health of crops, forests, and
gardens, they inspect ships, aircraft,
railroad cars, and motor vehicles
entering the United States for the
presence of restricted or prohibited
plant or animal materials.
S a n ita r ia n s , working primarily
for State and local governments,
perform a variety of inspection du
ties to help insure that the food peo
ple eat, the water they drink, and
the air they breathe meet govern
ment standards. They check the
cleanliness and safety of food and
beverages produced in dairies and
processing plants, or served in
restaurants, hospitals, and other in
stitutions. They often examine the
handling, processing, and serving of
food for compliance with sanitation
rules and regulations.
Sanitarians concerned with waste
control oversee the treatment and
disposal of sewage, refuse, and gar
bage. They examine places where
pollution is a danger, perform tests
to detect pollutants, and collect air
or water samples for analysis.
Sanitarians determine the nature
and cause of the pollution, then
initiate action to stop it.
In large local and State health or
agriculture departments, sanitari
ans may specialize in areas of work
such as milk and dairy products,
food sanitation, waste control, air
pollution, institutional sanitation,
and occupational health. In rural
areas and small cities, they may be
responsible for a wide range of en
vironmental health activities.
A g r ic u ltu r a l
c o m m o d ity
g ra d ers
apply quality standards to various
commodities to insure that retailers
and consumers receive good and re
liable products. They generally spe
cialize in an area such as egg
products, processed or fresh fruits
and vegetables, grain, or dairy
products. They inspect samples of a
particular product to determine its
quality and grade, and issue official
grading certificates. Graders also
may inspect the plant and equip
ment to insure that adequate sanita
tion standards are maintained.
Regulatory Inspectors. Regulatory
inspectors insure compliance with
various laws and regulations that
protect the public welfare. Impor
tant types of regulatory inspectors
are: immigration; customs; aviation
safety; mine; wage-hour com
pliance; alcohol, tobacco, and
firearms; and occupational safety
inspectors.
I m m i g r a ti o n in s p e c to r s interview
and examine people seeking admis
sion, readmission, or the privileges
of passing through or residing in the
United States. They inspect the
passports of those seeking to enter
the United States to determine
whether they are legally eligible to
enter and to verify their citizenship,
status, and identity. Immigration in
spectors also prepare reports, main
tain records, and process applica
tions and petitions by aliens for
privileges such as immigrating to or
living temporarily in the United
States.
C u s to m s in s p e c to r s enforce the
laws governing U.S. imports and ex
ports.
Stationed
at
airports,
seaports, and border crossing
points, they count, weigh, gauge,
measure, and sample commercial
cargoes entering and leaving the
United States to determine the
amount of tax that must be paid.
They also inspect baggage and arti
cles worn or carried by the passen
gers and crew of ships, aircraft, and
motor vehicles to insure that all
merchandise being brought through
ports of entry is declared and the
proper taxes paid.
A v ia t io n s a f e t y o f f ic e r s insure that
Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) regulations that govern the
quality and safety of aircraft equip
ment and personnel are maintained.
Aviation safety officers may inspect
aircraft
manufacturing,
main
tenance, or operations procedures.
They usually specialize in inspect
ing either commercial or general
aviation aircraft. They are responsi
ble for the inspection of aircraft
manufacturing and of major
repairs. They also certify aircraft
pilots and schools, pilot examiners,
flight instructors, and instructional
materials.
M in e in s p e c to r s work to enhance
the health and safety of miners and
to promote good mining practices.
To insure compliance with safety
laws and regulations, mine inspec
tors visit mines and related facilities
to obtain information on health and
safety conditions.
Mine inspectors discuss their
findings with the management of
the mine, prepare written reports
that incorporate their findings and
decisions, and issue notices of
findings that describe violations and
hazards that must be corrected.
They also investigate and prepare
reports on mine accidents and
direct rescue and firefighting opera
tions when fires or explosions
occur.
W a g e -h o u r c o m p lia n c e o ffic e r s in
spect the employer’s time, payroll,
and personnel records to insure
compliance with the provisions of
various Federal laws on minimum
wages, overtime, pay, employment
of minors, and equal employment
opportunity. They often interview
employees to verify the employer’s
records and to check for any com
plaints.
A lc o h o l, to b a c c o , a n d f i r e a r m s i n
s p e c to r s insure that the industries
which manufacture these products
comply with the provisions of
revenue laws and other regulations
on operating procedures, unfair
competition, and trade practices.
They spend most of their time in
specting distilleries, wineries, and
breweries; cigar and cigarette
manufacturing plants; wholesale
liquor dealers and importers;
firearms and explosives manufac
turers, dealers, and users; and other
regulated facilities. They periodi
cally audit these establishments to
determine that appropriate taxes
are correctly determined and paid.
Places of Employment
Over 110,000 people, 5 percent
of them women, worked as health
and regulatory inspectors in 1974.
The largest single employer of food
and drug inspectors is the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration, but
the majority work for State govern
ments. Meat and poultry inspectors
and commodity graders who work
in processing plants are employed
mainly by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture. Agricultural quaran
tine inspectors work either for the
U.S. Public Health Service or the
U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Sanitarians work primarily for State
and local governments.
Regulatory inspectors work for
various agencies within the Federal
Government, mainly in regional
and district offices distributed
throughout the United States. For
example, aviation safety officers
work for the Federal Aviation Ad
ministration;
wage-hour
com
pliance officers, for the Department
of Labor; mine inspectors, the De
partment of the Interior; and al
cohol, tobacco, and firearms in
spectors, the Treasury Department.
Immigration, customs, and agricul
tural quarantine inspectors work at
U.S. airports, seaports, border
crossing points, and at foreign air
ports and seaports. They are em
ployed by the Justice and Treasury
Departments.
Training, Advancement, and
Other Qualifications
Because inspectors perform such
wide ra n g e of duties, qualifica
tions for employment in these posi
tions vary greatly. The Federal
Government requires a passing
score on the Professional and Ad
ministrative Career Examination
(PACE) for several inspector occu
pations, including immigration;
customs; wage and hour com
pliance; alcohol, tobacco, and
firearms; occupational safety; and
consumer safety (food and drug).
To take this examination, a
bachelor’s degree or 3 years of
responsible work experience, or a
combination of the two, are
required. In some cases, agencies
will give preference to an applicant
whose course work or work ex
a
perience is related to the field of
employment.
Other Federal inspectors must
pass an examination based on spe
cialized knowledge, in addition to
having work experience in related
fields. These include commodity in
spectors such as those in meat,
poultry,
livestock,
and
egg
products.
Air safety inspectors must have
considerable experience in aviation
maintenance, and an FAA Air
Frame and Power Plant certificate.
In addition, various pilot cer
tificates and considerable flight ex
perience are required, with the type
dependent on the inspection duties.
Many air safety inspectors receive
both their flight training and
mechanical training in the Armed
Forces. No written examination is
required.
Applicants for mine safety in
spector positions generally must
have specialized work experience in
mine management or supervision,
or possess a skill such as electrical
engineering (for mine electrical in
spectors). In some cases, a general
aptitude test may be required. Ad
vancement to a supervisory position
is competitive.
Some Civil Service registers in
cluding those for agricultural
quarantine inspectors and fruit and
vegetable graders, rate applicants
solely on their experience and edu
cation and require no written ex
amination.
Qualifications for inspectors at
the State and local level are usually
similar to those for Federal em
ployees. However, this may vary
among government employers, par
ticularly at the local level.
All inspectors are trained in the
laws and inspection procedures re
lated to their specific field through
a combination of classroom and onthe-job training. In general, people
who want to become health and
regulatory inspectors should be
able to accept responsibility and
like detailed work. They should be
neat and personable and able to ex
press themselves well orally and in
writing.
All Federal Government inspec
tors are promoted on a Civil Service
“career ladder.” This means that,
assuming satisfactory work per
formance, workers will advance au
tomatically, usually at 1-year inter
vals, to a specified maximum level.
Above this level (usually superviso
ry positions), advancement is com
petitive, based on needs of the
agency and individual merit.
Employment Outlook
Employment of health and regu
latory inspectors as a group is ex
pected to increase faster than the
average for all occupations through
the mid-1980’s. The growth in em
ployment of health inspectors is ex
pected to be more rapid than that of
regulatory inspectors. In addition to
job opportunities stemming from
growth, many inspectors will be
needed each year to replace those
who die, retire, or transfer to other
occupations.
Increased food consumption
caused by population growth and
greater public concern over poten
tial health hazards, should create
additional jobs for food and drug,
meat and poultry, and other com
modity inspectors and graders.
Public concerns for improved quali
ty and safety of consumer products
also should result in new legislation
in these areas, requiring additional
inspectors to insure compliance.
Aviation industry growth, in
creased international travel, and in
creases in the volume of U.S. im
ports and exports should continue
to create new openings for aviation
safety officers, quarantine and im
migration inspectors, and customs
inspectors. Increasing coal mining
activity and concern over mine
safety should create additional
mine inspector jobs. Continued
public pressure for equal employ
ment rights should cause a growing
need for wage-hour compliance of
ficers.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
With the exception of mine in
spectors and aviation safety of
ficers, the Federal Government
paid health and regulatory inspec
tors and graders starting salaries of
$8,500 or $10,520 a year in late
1974, depending on the type of
position and the qualifications of
the applicant. Aviation safety of
ficers and mining inspectors usually
received
starting
salaries
of
$12,841.
Salaries of experienced meat and
poultry inspectors, egg product in
spectors, agricultural quarantine in
spectors, alcohol, tobacco, and
firearms inspectors, and customs
and immigration inspectors were al
most $13,000 a year in late 1974.
Experienced food and drug inspec
tors (consumer safety officers),
agricultural quarantine inspectors,
and wage-hour compliance officers
usually received salaries of about
$15,500 from the Federal Govern
ment in late 1974. Mine inspector
and aviation safety officers earned
between $18,500 and $22,000.
Nonsupervisory sanitarians had
average starting salaries of almost
$10,000 in late 1974, according to
a survey by the International Per
sonnel Management Association in
selected U.S. cities and counties.
Those working for State govern
ments earned about $ 1,000 less.
Most health and regulatory in
spectors live an active life, meeting
many people and working in a
variety of environments. Many
travel frequently and are usually
furnished with an automobile or
reimbursed for travel expenses.
At times inspectors must work
under unfavorable working condi
tions. For example, meat and
poultry, and alcohol, tobacco, and
firearms
inspectors
frequently
come in contact with strong, un
pleasant odors; mine inspectors
often spend a great deal of time in
mines where they are exposed to
the same hazards as miners. Many
inspectors work long and often ir cerned with preventing acci manufacture, handling, and storage
regular hours.
dents, their specific tasks de of flammable materials. Fire pro
pend on where they work. For tection engineers in the field use
Sources of Additional
example, the safety engineer these research findings to identify
Information
working in a large manufacturing hazards and devise ways to correct
plant (D.O.T. 012.081) may them. For example, new findings
For facts about inspector careers
develop a comprehensive safety concerning flashpoints (the tem
in the Federal Government, con
program covering several thousand perature at which different materi
tact:
employees. This usually entails als will ignite) are valuable to the
Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Ex detailed analysis of each job in the engineer designing storage facilities
aminers for Washington, D.C., 1900 E
plant to identify potential hazards in a chemical plant.
St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20415.
Like safety engineers, fire protec
so that preventive measures can be
More detailed information on taken. When accidents do occur, tion engineers may have different
qualifications for Federal jobs is safety engineers in manufacturing job duties depending on where they
available from local Civil Service plants investigate to determine the work. One who works for a fire
Commission offices or from in cause. If poor design, improper equipment manufacturing company
dividual Federal agencies.
maintenance, or mechanical failure may design new fire protection
Information about career oppor is involved, they use their technical devices, while engineers in consult
tunities as inspectors in State and skills to correct the situation and ing firms work with architects and
local governments is available from prevent its recurrence. When others to insure that fire safety is
State civil service commissions, human error is the cause of an ac built into new structures. In con
usually located in each State cident, safety engineers may trast, fire protection engineers
capital, or from local government establish training courses for plant- working for insurance rating bu
workers and supervisors or re reaus (organizations that calculate
offices.
basic costs of insurance coverage in
emphasize existing ones.
Safety engineers who work for particular areas) inspect private,
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY trucking
companies
(D.O.T. commercial, and industrial proper
AND HEALTH WORKERS 909.128) study schedules, routes, ties to evaluate the adequacy of fire
loads, and speeds to determine their protection for the entire area. Many
(D.O.T. 010.081; 012.081 and
fire protection engineers have spe
.188; 079.188; 168.168, .268, and influence on trucking accidents.
They also inspect heavy rigs, such cial expertise in one area or more of
.284; 379.387; 821.387; and
as trucks and trailers, to suggest fire protection, such as sprinkler or
909.128)
ways of safer operation. In the min fire detection systems.
ing industry, safety engineers
Losses in the workplace cannot
Nature of the Work
(D.O.T. 010.081) may inspect un be reduced without measures to
People in the occupational safety derground or open-pit areas to in eliminate hazards to workers’
and health field have the challeng sure compliance with State and health. Designing and maintaining a
ing job of insuring a safe and Federal laws, design protective healthful work environment is the
healthful environment for workers equipment and safety devices for job of the in d u s tr i a l h y g ie n i s t
and safe products for consumers. mine machinery, or lead rescue ac (D.O.T. 079.188). These health
Safety and health workers in a tivities during emergencies.
professionals are concerned with
Many safety engineers are how noise, dust, vapors, and other
number of different occupations
strive to control occupational ac directly concerned with the safety hazards common to the industrial
cidents and diseases, property of their company’s product. They setting affect workers’ health. After
losses, and injuries from unsafe work closely with design engineers a problem is detected, perhaps by
products. This statement discusses to develop models which meet all analyzing
employee
medical
both professional and paraprofes- safety standards and they monitor records, the industrial hygienist at
sional occupations in private indus the manufacturing process to insure the jobsite may take air samples,
monitor noise levels, or measure
try; for a discussion of related occu the safety of the finished product.
pations in government, see the
Safeguarding life and property radioactivity levels in the areas
statement on Health and Regula against loss from fire, explosion, under investigation.
tory Inspectors elsewhere in the and related hazards is the job of the
Other industrial hygienists work
book.
in private laboratories or in those
f i r e p r o t e c ti o n e n g in e e r (D.O.T.
The largest number of safety 012.188). Those who specialize in maintained by large insurance com
workers are s a f e t y e n g in e e r s .
research investigate problems such panies or industrial firms. Labora
Although all of them are con as fires in high-rise buildings or the tory hygienists analyze air samples,
the professional designation, Cer
tified Safety Professional, Certified
Industrial Hygienist, or Member,
Society of Fire Protection En
gineers. Many others who are not
certified performed professional
level work, while a relatively small
number were employed in the occu
pational safety and health field as
technicians and inspectors. Proper
ty and liability insurance companies
employ many occupational safety
and health workers to provide en
gineering, consulting, and inspec
tion services to their clients. Others
worked for a variety of industrial,
manufacturing, and commercial
concerns.
These workers are needed wher
ever large numbers of people are
concentrated
and
industrial
development occurs. Insurance
consultants generally have their
headquarters in a region’s major
city and travel to and from the sites
they visit.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Industrial hygienist taking an air sample.
do research on the reliability of
health equipment such as respira
tors, or investigate the effects of ex
posure to chemicals or radiation.
Some hygienists specialize in
problems of air and water pollution.
For example, these health profes
sionals may work with government
officials, environmental groups, or
ganized labor, and plant manage
ment to develop a system to screen
harmful substances before they
enter and pollute a river.
L o s s c o n tr o l and o c c u p a tio n a l
h e a lth
c o n s u l ta n t s
(D.O.T.
168.168) in property-liability in
surance companies perform many
services for their clients. These
range from correcting a single
hazard in a small business to devis
ing a program to eliminate or
reduce all losses arising out of a
large firm’s operation. When deal
ing with a new account, the con
sultant makes a thorough inspec
tion of the plant and then confers
with management to formulate a
program that meets the company’s
needs. The consultant may, for ex
ample, help set up plant health pro
grams and medical services, assist
plant personnel to insure that a new
facility meets all safety require
ments, or train plant safety people.
Safety and health consultants also
help their company’s underwriters
determine whether a risk is ac
ceptable and the amount of premi
um to charge.
Places of Employment
An
were
safety
About
estimated 25,000 persons
engaged in occupational
and health work in 1974.
one-quarter of these carried
Entry level safety and health
professionals generally need at least
a bachelor’s degree in engineering
or a science. A more specialized
degree, such as one in safety
management, industrial safety, or
fire protection engineering, often is
helpful in getting a good job. Many
employers prefer applicants with a
graduate degree in areas such as in
dustrial hygiene, safety engineering,
or occupational safety and health
engineering, or those with prior in
dustrial work experience. Some em
ployers will hire graduates of 2-year
college curriculums as technicians,
particularly if they have work ex
perience related to the job.
Continuing education is necessa
ry to stay abreast of changing
technologies, new ideas, and
emerging trends. Many insurance
companies offer training seminars
and correspondence courses for
their staffs. The Occupational
Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) conducts courses for
safety and health workers on topics
such as occupational injury in
vestigation and radiological health
hazards. The recognized marks of
achievement in the field are the
designations
Certified
Safety
Professional; Certified Industrial
Hygienist; and Member, Society of
Fire Protection Engineers. Certifi
cation is conferred by the Board of
Certified Safety Professionals, the
American Board of Industrial Hy
giene, or the Society of Fire Protec
tion Engineers after the candidate
completes the required experience
and passes an examination.
In addition to technical com
petence, safety and health workers
must be able to communicate well
and motivate others. They should
be able to adapt quickly to different
situations, being equally at ease
with a representative of a local
union, a supervisor in the welding
shop, or a corporate executive.
Because physical activity is basic to
the job, good physical condition is
necessary.
Workers with proven ability will
find much room for advancement.
In the insurance business, safety
and health workers can be
promoted to department manager
in a small branch office, move up to
larger branch offices, and finally
take an executive position in the
home office. In industrial firms,
they can advance to plant safety
and health manager or corporate
manager over several plants.
Although extensive experience is
required, technicians can advance
to professional safety and health
positions.
Employment Outlook
Employment of safety and health
workers is expected to increase
faster than the average for all occu
pations through the mid-1980’s as
growing concern for occupational
safety and health and consumer
safety continues to generate pro
grams and jobs. Many openings will
arise also to replace workers who
die, retire, or leave their jobs for
other reasons.
Much of the employment growth
is expected to occur in industrial
and manufacturing firms. Many
firms now without a safety and
health program are expected to
establish one, and others will up
grade and expand existing programs
in response to government require
ments, union interest, and rising in
surance costs. The number of safety
and health workers in casualty in
surance companies also will in
crease as more small employers
request the services of their in
surer’s engineering or loss control
department. Prospects should be
best for graduates of occupational
safety or health curriculums.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Salariesof safety and health
workers vary widely accord
ing to education, experience,
and specialty. In manufacturing
firms, persons with a bachelor’s
degree generally started at about
$10,000 a year in 1974, accord
ing to the limited data available.
Those with a graduate degree
salaries, and technicians somewhat
lower ones. Safety and health
workers with several years’
experience
averaged
$15,000
to $20,000, and corporate man
agers well over $20,000 a year.
Insurance
companies
started
their loss consultant trainees
at about $9,000; senior con
sultants earned $12,000 to $16,-
000; and department managers
were paid over $20,000 in 1974.
The amount of travel required
depends upon job specialty and
geographic location. For example,
the plant safety engineer may travel
only to seminars and conferences,
while the insurance consultant may
spend about half the time traveling
between worksites. Usually, a car is
furnished or safety professionals are
reimbursed for the expenses of
using their own vehicles.
Sources of Additional
Information
For general information about
professional safety careers, write to:
American Society of Safety Engineers, 850
Busse Highway, Park Ridge, 111. 60068.
Also available from the Society is
a booklet which lists colleges and
universities offering degree pro
grams in the occupational safety
and health field.
Information concerning a career
in industrial hygiene is available
from:
American Industrial Hygiene Association,
665 Miller Rd., Akron, Ohio 44313.
Career information concerning
fire protection engineering may be
obtained from:
Society of Fire Protection Engineers, 60 Batterymarch St., Boston, Mass. 02110.
Career information on insurance
loss control consulting is available
from the home offices of many
property-liability insurance com
panies.
EDUCATION AND RELATED
OCCUPATIONS
More and more people are going
to school for a greater portion of
their lives than ever before, as in
creasingly complex and specialized
skills and knowledge are called for
in our growing economy. In addi
tion, people of all ages are seeking
to use their leisure time for personal
growth and development. Teachers
and librarians play vital roles in the
educational process; their occupa
tions are discussed in the following
sections.
KINDERGARTEN AND
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
TEACHERS
(D.O.T. 092.228)
Nature of the Work
Kindergarten and elementary
school teachers introduce children
to numbers, language, science and
social studies, and develop stu
dents’ capabilities in these subject
areas. Their primary job is to pro
vide a good learning environment
and to plan and present programs of
instruction using materials and
methods designed to suit the stu
dents’ needs.
Most elementary school teachers
instruct a single group of 25 to 30
children in several subjects. In some
schools two teachers or more “team
teach” and are jointly responsible
for a group of students or for a par
ticular subject. A recent survey in
dicates that about 1 public elemen
tary school teacher in 6 is a member
of a teaching team
An increasing number of elemen
tary school teachers specialize in
one or two subjects and teach these
subjects to several classes; 1
teacher in every 5 teaches on this
departmentalized basis. Some teach
special subjects such as music, art,
or physical education, while others
teach basic subjects such as
English, mathematics, or social
studies.
Besides the actual student in
struction, teachers participate in
many activities outside the class
room. They generally must attend
regularly
scheduled
faculty
meetings and may serve on faculty
committees. They must prepare les
sons and evaluate student per
formance. They also work with stu
dents who require special help and
confer with parents and other
school staff. To stay up-to-date on
educational materials and teaching
techniques, they participate in
workshops and other inservice ac
tivities.
New forms of instructional media
give teachers more opportunities to
work with students. Also, about 4
out of every 10 public elementary
school teachers have aides who
generally do secretarial work and
help
supervise
lunch
and
playground activities. Thus, grow
ing numbers of teachers are freed
from routine duties and can give
more individual attention to stu
dents.
Places of Employment
About 1.3 million people—85
percent of them women—worked
as elementary school teachers in
1974. An increasing number of
men, concentrated heavily in the
upper grades, teach at the elemen
tary level.
Most teachers work in public ele
mentary schools that have six
grades; however, some teach in
middle schools—schools that cover
the 3 or 4 years between the lower
elementary grades and 4 years of
high school. Only about 12 percent
of elementary school teachers work
in nonpublic schools.
More than one-third of all public
elementary teachers teach in urban
areas; about one-fifth in cities of
250,000 or more; one-eighth in
rural areas; and the remainder in
small towns or suburban areas.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
All 50 States and the District of
Columbia require public elementa
ry school teachers to be certified by
the department of education in the
State in which they work. Some
States also require certification of
teachers in private and parochial
schools.
To qualify for certification, a
teacher must study 4 years at an in
stitution with an approved teacher
education program. Besides a
bachelor’s degree which provides
the
necessary
liberal
arts
background, States require that
prospective teachers have student
teaching and education courses.
In 1974, 13 States required
teachers to get supplementary post
graduate education—usually a
master’s degree or a fifth year of
study—within a certain period after
their initial certification. Some
States required U.S. citizenship;
some an oath of allegiance; and
several a health certificate.
Local school systems sometimes
have additional requirements for
employment. Students should write
to the local superintendent of
schools and to the State department
of education for information on
specific requirements in the area in
which they want to teach.
In addition to educational and
certification
requirements,
a
teacher should be dependable, have
good judgment, and should have
the desire and ability to work with
children. Enthusiasm for teaching
and the competence to handle
classroom situations also are impor
tant.
Opportunities for advancement
in elementary teaching come prin
cipally with experience. Teachers
vey, they expect to continue having
smaller families than were common
10 years ago.
Teachers will be needed to fill
new positions created by larger en
rollments; to replace those who are
not now certified; to meet the ex
pected pressure for an improved
pupil-teacher ratio; and to fill posi
tions vacated by teachers who
retire, die, or leave the profession
for other reasons.
While the outlook based on past
trends points to a competitive em
ployment situation through the
mid-1980’s, several factors could
influence the demand for teachers.
Increased emphasis on early child
hood education, on special pro
grams for disadvantaged children,
and on individual instruction may
result in larger enrollments, smaller
student-teacher ratios, and con
sequently an increased need for
teachers. However, possible budget
restraints for educational services
might limit expansion.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
may advance within a school system
or transfer to another which recog
nizes experience and has a higher
salary scale. Some teachers may ad
vance to supervisory, administra
tive, or specialized positions. Ad
vancement for most teachers con
sists of higher pay rather than more
responsibility or a higher position,
however.
Employment Outlook
Kindergarten and elementary
school teachers are expected to
face competition for jobs through
the mid-1980’s. If patterns of entry
and reentry to the profession con
tinue in line with past trends, the
number of persons qualified to
teach in elementary schools will ex
ceed the number of openings.
The basic sources of teacher
supply are recent college graduates
qualified to teach at the elementary
level and teachers seeking reentry
to the profession. Reentrants,
although more experienced, will
face increasing competition from
new graduates who command lower
salaries and have more recent train
ing.
Pupil enrollment is the basic fac
tor underlying the need for
teachers. Because of fewer births in
the 1960’s, elementary enrollments
have been on the decline since they
peaked at nearly 32 million in 1967.
The National Center of Education
Statistics projects that by 1979 the
downward enrollment trend will
halt at a level of 27 million, and en
rollments again will advance to
nearly 29 million by 1985.
However, a decline in the pro
jected number of children born
over the next decade could lessen
the demand for teachers. While the
trend has not been clearly
established, since 1970 women
have continued to have fewer chil
dren, and according to a recent sur
According to the National Edu
cation Association, public elemen
tary school teachers in 1974-75
averaged $11,234 a year. Average
earnings in 1974 were over one and
one-third times as much as the
average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry,
except farming. In the five highest
paying States (Alaska, New York,
Hawaii, California, and Illinois),
teachers’ salaries averaged more
than $12,600; in the 10 States hav
ing the lowest salaries (Mississippi,
Arkansas, Vermont, South Dakota,
Kentucky,
Oklahoma,
North
Dakota, South Carolina, West Vir
ginia,
and
Nebraska),
they
averaged less than $9,200.
Public schools systems enrolling
6,000 or more pupils paid teachers
with a bachelor’s degree average
starting salaries of $7,720 a year in
1973-74; those with a master’s
degree earned a starting average of
$8,586.
Public
elementary
school
teachers worked an average of
about 36-1/2 hours a week in 1974.
Additional time spent preparing les
sons, grading papers, making re
ports, attending meetings, and su
pervising extra-curricular activities
increased the total number of hours
to about 46.
The elementary school teacher
usually works 9 months and
averages 181 days in the classroom
and 4 workdays on nonteaching ac
tivities. In addition, many teach
summer sessions, and others take
courses for professional growth or
work at other jobs during the
summer months.
Employment in teaching is
steady, and business conditions
usually do not affect the market for
teachers. In 1974, 38 States and the
District of Columbia had tenure
laws that insured the jobs of
teachers who had successfully
taught for a certain number of
years.
Collective bargaining agreements
cover an increasingly large number
of teachers. In 1974, 31 States had
enacted laws which required collec
tive bargaining in the teacher con
tract negotiation process. Most
public school systems that enroll
1,000 students or more bargain
with teacher organizations over
wages, hours, and the terms and
conditions of employment.
Sources of Additional
Information
Information on schools and cer
tification requirements is available
from local school systems and State
departments of education.
Information on the Teacher
Corps, internships, graduate fellow
ships, and other information on
teaching may be obtained from:
U S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, National Center for Education
Statistics, Washington, D C. 20202.
Other sources of general infor
mation are:
American Federation of Teachers, 1012
14th St. NW„ Washington, D C. 20005.
National Education Association, 1201 16th
St. NW„ Washington, D C. 20036.
SECONDARY SCHOOL
TEACHERS
(D O T. 091.228)
Nature of the Work
school personnel. Often they work
with student groups outside of class.
Teachers also participate in activi
ties, such as workshops and college
classes, to keep up-to-date on their
subject specialty and on current
trends in education.
Increasingly, in recent years,
teachers have been able to devote
more time towards improved in
struction due to the increased
availability of teacher aides who
perform secretarial work, grade
papers, and do other routine tasks.
Developments
in
educational
technology also have provided
teachers with instructional media
and other new materials and
techniques to improve student
learning.
Secondary school teachers help
prepare their students for future
roles as citizens and jobholders.
They introduce students to subjects
ranging from world history and ele
mentary algebra to anthropology
and computer mathematics.
Secondary
school
teachers
Places of Employment
usually specialize in a particular
field. English, mathematics, social
More than 1 million teachers
studies, and science are the subjects
worked in secondary schools in
most commonly taught. Other spe
1974. Of these, about one-half were
cialties include health and physical
women.
education, business education,
According to a recent survey,
home economics, foreign lan
slightly more than one-half of all
guages, and music. Increasingly,
public secondary teachers work in
teachers are developing courses
senior high schools; about one-third
which deal with particular areas
teach at the junior high level. About
within the broad subjects so stu
one-tenth teach in junior-senior
dents may acquire in-depth as well
high schools, and a very small
as general knowledge of a field.
number are elementary-secondary
Secondary
school
teachers
combination teachers.
usually conduct classes in their spe
Of those in public schools, about
cialty for five groups of students a
1 teacher in 5 works in a city with a
day. The average daily pupil load
population of 250,000 or more—1
for public shool teachers is 136 stu
in 8 in a city of less than 250,000.
dents.
Over one-half teach in small-town
Teachers design their classroom
or suburban schools; and about 1 in
presentation to meet the demands
7 in a rural location. Only about 1
of balanced curriculum and to suit
teacher in 14 works in a nonpublic
the individual student’s needs.
school.
Secondary school teachers instruct
students at a single grade level or
Training, Other Qualifications,
from different grades. They must
and Advancement
consider instructional methods and
materials that best meet the stu
All 50 States and the District of
dent’s needs, as well as the subject Columbia require the certification
matter.
of
public
secondary
school
Secondary school teachers also teachers. Many States also require
supervise
study
halls
and certification of secondary teachers
homerooms, prepare lessons, grade in private and parochial schools.
papers, evaluate students, and at
In every State, the minimum edu
tend meetings with parents and cational requirement for certifica-
tion is a bachelor’s degree.
Moreover, 14 States have specified
that a secondary school teacher
must get additional education,
usually a fifth year of study or a
master’s degree, within a certain
period after beginning employment.
In 1974, the District of Columbia
was the only jurisdiction requiring a
master’s degree for initial certifica
tion as a senior high school teacher.
However, according to a recent na
tional survey, 2 out of every 5
public secondary school teachers
had a master’s or higher degree.
The educational qualifications
for secondary school teachers vary
by State and by school system. Ap
proved colleges and universities in
every State offer programs which
include the education courses and
student-teaching
that
States
require. They also offer the
academic courses which qualify
teachers in subject specialties
taught at the secondary level.
States and local jurisdictions
often have general teacher require
ments, such as the recommendation
of the college, a certificate of
health, and citizenship. Prospective
teachers may get complete informa
tion on such educational and
general requirements from each
State department of education and
from the superintendent of schools
in each community.
Personal qualifications which a
secondary teacher must have in
clude a desire to work with young
people, an interest in a special sub
ject, and the ability to motivate stu
dents and to relate knowledge to
them.
For secondary teachers, educa
tion and experience provide the pri
mary bases for advancement. Ad
vancement to supervisory and ad
ministrative
positions
usually
requires at least 1 year of profes
sional education beyond the
bachelor’s degree and several years
of successful classroom teaching.
Some experienced teachers with
special preparation may work as
special school service personnel,
such as school psychologists, read
ing specialists, or guidance coun
selors. Often these jobs require spe
cial certification as well as special
education.
the need to replace teachers who
die, retire, or leave the profession
for other reasons. As a result, an in
creasing proportion of prospective
teachers will have to consider alter
natives
to secondary
school
teaching. However, pressures for an
improved pupil-teacher ratio and
replacement
of
noncertified
teachers could create additional
openings.
Although the overall outlook for
secondary teachers indicates a
highly competitive market, employ
ment conditions may be more
favorable in certain fields. Accord
ing to a recent survey, teacher
supply was least adequate in mathe
matics, natural and physical
sciences, industrial arts, special
education, and some vocationaltechnical subjects.
Employment Outlook
Earnings and Working
Conditions
The supply of secondary school
teachers through the mid-1980’s
will greatly exceed anticipated
requirements if past trends of entry
into the profession continue. As a
result, prospective teachers are
likely to face keen competition for
jobs.
The prime sources of teacher
supply are recent college graduates
qualified to teach secondary school
and teachers seeking to reenter the
profession. Although reentrants
have experience in their favor,
many schools may prefer to hire
new graduates who command lower
salaries and whose training is more
recent.
Pupil enrollment is the basic fac
tor underlying the demand for
teachers. The National Center for
Education Statistics’ projections in
dicate that enrollments in seconda
ry schools will begin to decline in
the mid-1970’s after continuous
growth through the 1960’s and into
the early 1970’s. This decline in en
rollments is expected to reduce the
demand for teachers. As a result,
over the 1974-85 period, nearly all
teaching positions will stem from
According to the National Edu
cation Association, public seconda
ry school teachers in 1974-75
averaged $11,826. This is one and
one-half times the average for nonsupervisory workers in private in
dustry, except farming. In the five
highest paying States (New York,
California, Alaska, Illinois, and
Michigan),
teachers’
salaries
averaged more than $13,000; in the
five States having the lowest sala
ries (Arkansas, Kentucky, Missis
sippi,
South
Dakota,
and
Oklahoma), they averaged under
$9,300 a year.
Beginning teachers with a
bachelor’s degree in school systems
with enrollments of 6,000 or more
earned average salaries of $7,720 in
the school year 1973-74. New
teachers with a master’s degree
started at $8,586 a year. Beginning
teachers could expect regular salary
increases as they gained experience
and additional education.
A recent survey of public school
teachers indicated that the average
required school week for those in
secondary schools was 37 hours.
However, when all teaching duties,
including meetings, lesson prepara
tion, and other necessary tasks are
taken into consideration, the total
number of hours spent working
each week was slightly more than
48.
In some schools, teachers receive
supplementary pay for certain
school-related activities such as
coaching students in sports and
working with students in extracur
ricular activities, in music, dra
matics, or school publications.
About one-fourth of the public
secondary teachers receive pay for
extra duties, such as supervising ex
tracurricular activities, and onethird supplement their incomes
with earnings from additional
school work.
One-sixth of public school
teachers also work in their school
systems during the summer. More
than one-fourth hold summer jobs
outside the school system. In all,
about three-fifths of public secon
dary school teachers have extra
earnings from summer work, addi
tional school-year work, or a com
bination of the two.
During the school year, teachers
work an average of 181 days. They
average 26 teaching periods and 5
unassigned periods a week. Laws in
38 States and the District of Colum
bia ensure the employment of those
who have achieved tenure status.
Laws requiring collective bargain
ing of wages, hours, and the terms
and conditions of employment
cover increasing numbers of
teachers.
Sources of Additional
Information
Information on schools and cer
tification requirements is available
from local school systems and State
departments of education.
Information on the Teacher
Corps, internships, graduate fellow
ships, and other information on
teaching may be obtained from:
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, National Center for Education
Statistics, Washington, D.C. 20202.
Other sources of general infor
mation are:
American Federation of Teachers, 1012
14th St. NW., Washington, D C. 20005.
National Education Association, 1201 16th
St. NW., Washington, D C. 20036.
COLLEGE AND
UNIVERSITY TEACHERS
(D O T. 090.168 through .999)
Nature of the Work
About 30 percent of all persons
in the United States between the
ages of 18 and 21 attended college
in 1974. To meet the demand of
students for higher education, col
leges and universities hire teachers
to provide instruction in many
fields. The most common subjects
include social sciences, teacher
education, the physical sciences,
health professions, fine and applied
arts,
English,
the
biological
sciences, mathematics, foreign lan
guages, and business and com
merce.
Slightly more than one-half of all
college and university teachers in
struct undergraduates; another onethird teach both graduates and un
dergraduates; and about one-tenth
work only with graduate students.
Most teachers lecture and con
duct classroom discussions to
present subject matter effectively.
Many work with students in labora
tories. Some teachers provide in
dividual instruction or supervise in
dependent study. Nearly one-third
of the faculty in universities have
teaching assistants. Some college
and university teachers use closedcircuit television. In 2-year colleges
especially, instruction is frequently
machine-aided.
To be effective, college teachers
must keep up with developments in
their field by reading current
material, participating in profes
sional activities, and conducting
research. Some publish books and
articles.
The
importance
of
research and publication varies
from one institutional level to
another. In universities, about 70
percent of the faculty have
published professional articles com
pared to 25 percent of 2-year col
lege faculty. Also, in certain fields
such as engineering and the physi
cal sciences, the demand for
research is strong.
In addition to time spent on
preparation,
instruction,
and
evaluation, college and university
teachers participate in faculty ac
tivities; work with student organiza
tions and individual students out
side of classes; work with the col
lege administration; and in other
ways serve the institution and the
community. Some are department
heads and have supervisory duties.
Places of Employment
In 1974, about 622,000 teachers
worked in more than 2,600 colleges
and universities. About one-fourth
of all college and university
teachers are women. An estimated
399,000—nearly two-thirds—were
full-time senior staff. Of the
remainder, about 112,000 were
part-time senior staff, and nearly
16,000 were full-time junior in
structors; the rest generally worked
as part-time assistant instructors,
teaching
fellows,
teaching
assistants, or laboratory assistants.
Of full-time faculty, about onethird teach in universities; nearly
one-half work in 4-year colleges;
and about one-seventh teach in 2year colleges. About two-thirds of
the faculty in universities and 4year colleges teach in public institu
tions; nearly nine-tenths of the
faculty in 2-year institutions work
in public junior and community col
leges.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Most
college
and
university
faculty are classified in four
academic
ranks:
instructors,
assistant
professors,
associate
professors, and full professors.
About 75 percent of all faculty are
assistant, associate, or full profes
sors, with the three ranks equally
distributed. Ten percent are in
structors.
To get an initial appointment, in
structors generally must have a
master’s degree. For advancement
to higher ranks, they need further
academic training plus experience.
Assistant professors usually need a
year of graduate study beyond the
master’s degree and at least a year
or two of experience as an instruc
tor. Appointments as associate
professors frequently demand the
doctoral degree and an additional 3
years or more of college teaching
experience. For a full professorship,
the doctorate
and extensive
teaching experience are essential.
In addition to advanced study
and college-level teaching ex
perience, outstanding academic,
administrative, and professional
contributions influence advance
ment. Research, publication, and
work experience in a subject area
may hasten advancement.
The ranks of college and univer
sity teachers and their educational
backgrounds differ by institutional
level. In universities, more than 50
percent of the faculty have doctoral
degrees compared with about 10
percent in 2-year colleges. Cor
respondingly, more than 50 percent
of the faculty in universities are
either professors or associate
professors, while in 2-year colleges,
only 1 teacher in 4 is within these
upper ranks. Conversely, in com
munity and junior colleges, where
the master’s is the highest degree
held by nearly three-fourths of the
faculty, instructors constitute a
relatively large faculty segment.
Employment Outlook
College and university teaching
candidates are expected to face
keen competition through the mid1980’s. The demand for college and
university teachers is expected to
fall. However, the principal source
of teacher supply—master’s and Ph.
D. degree recipients—is expected
to continue to grow. Consequently,
a smaller proportion of each year’s
degree recipients will be needed for
college teaching. An increasing
proportion of prospective college
teachers, therefore, will have to
seek nonacademic jobs. Govern
ment and private industry should
provide some positions, but some
persons holding graduate degrees
may find it necessary to enter occu
pations that have not traditionally
required advanced study.
The basic factor underlying the
demand for teachers is college en
rollment. During the 1960’s and
early 1970’s, teacher employment
expanded due to growth in both the
number of college-age persons and
the proportion of 18- to 21-yearolds enrolled in college. The
number of college-age persons will
decline after 1978, and by the early
1980’s, enrollment will taper off
and begin to fall. As a result, the
total number of college teachers
needed over the 1974-85 period
will decline, as compared with an
80-percent increase over the previ
ous 11-year period.
The type and level of the institu
tion and the extent to which it
wishes to upgrade its faculty also
will influence the demand for
teachers. Although enrollments in
the 1970’s are expected to stabilize
in 4-year colleges and universities,
many institutions, including junior
and community colleges, may hire
additional Ph. D.’s to upgrade their
faculties. Master’s degree holders
also will continue to find jobs in 2year colleges. Public institutions are
expected to continue to attract an
systems. Of the full-time teachers
employed in these institutions, over
one-half are tenured. Under a
tenure system, a teacher usually
receives 1-year contracts during a
probationary period ranging from 3
Earnings and Working
to 7 years; some universities award
Conditions
2- or 3-year contracts. After the
In 1974-75, full-time college and probationary period, institutions
university faculty on 9-10 month consider teachers for tenure (the
contracts averaged $16,704, or assurance of continuing employ
twice the average earnings for all ment with freedom from dismissal
nonsupervisory workers in private without cause).
industry, except farming. Salaries
The working hours and environ
varied, however, by teacher rank ment of college teachers generally
and by institutional level. Average
are favorable. Classrooms, office
salaries were:
facilities, and laboratories usually
Instructors..................................... $12,825
are well-equipped and teachers
Assistant professors....................
13.104
have access to library facilities and
Associate professors...................
15,920
clerical assistance.
20,653
Professors......................................
College teachers usually have
In general, larger institutions paid flexible teaching schedules. Ac
higher salaries. Salaries of teachers cording to a recent survey, the un
in 4-year colleges tended to be dergraduate faculty in 4-year col
higher than those in 2-year colleges; leges and universities normally
university teachers averaged the teach 12 hours a week and seldom
more than 14 or 15 hours. Graduate
most.
College and university teachers’ faculty have a teaching load of
salaries also vary by geographic re about 10 hours a week. In addition
gion. According to a recent survey to time spent in the classroom, col
of 4-year colleges and universities, lege and university teachers devote
schools in the Mideast, New Eng much time to preparation and other
land, and Pacific regions paid the duties. Overall, full-time faculty
spend about 40 hours a week on
highest full-time faculty salaries.
Since about 2 out of 3 college school-related activities. For facul
teachers have 9 to 10-month con ty in junior and community col
tracts, many have additional leges, the normal teaching load is
summer earnings from research, slightly heavier, but the total
writing for publication, or other number of hours on the job are
employment. Royalties and fees for fewer.
speaking engagements may provide
additional earnings. Some teachers
Sources of Additional
Information
also undertake additional teaching
or research projects or work as con
Information on college teaching
sultants.
as a career is available from:
College and university teachers
also may enjoy certain benefits, in U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, National Center for Education
cluding tuition waivers for depen
Statistics, Washington, D.C. 20202.
dents, housing allowances, travel al
lowances, and leaves of absence. American Council on Education, 1 Dupont
Circle NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.
Colleges typically
grant
a
American Federation of Teachers, 1012
semester’s leave after 6 or 7 years
14th St. N W , Washington, D.C. 20065.
of employment.
Professional societies in the vari
About 85 percent of all college
and university teachers work in in ous subject fields will generally pro
stitutions which have tenure vide information on teaching
increasing proportion of total col
lege enrollment. Thus, opportuni
ties in public colleges will be
greater than in private institutions.
requirements and employment op
portunities in their particular fields.
Names and addresses of societies
are given in the statements on
specific professions elsewhere in
this book.
LIBRARIANS
(D.O.T. 100.118 through .388)
Nature of the Work
Making information available to
people is the job of librarians. They
select and organize collections of
books, pamphlets, manuscripts,
periodicals, clippings, and reports,
and assist readers in their use. In
many libraries, they also provide
phonograph records, maps, slides,
pictures, tapes, films, paintings,
braille
and
talking
books,
microfilms, and computer tapes.
User services and technical
services are the two principal
kinds of library work. Librarians
in user services—
for example,
reference and children’s librar
ians—work directly with the
public. Librarians in technical
services—
for example, catalogers
and acquisitions librarians —
deal
less frequently with the public;
they order, classify, catalog, and
in other ways prepare the materials
for use.
The size of the library determines
to a large extent the scope of a
librarian’s job. In small libraries, the
job may include both user and
technical services. The librarian
may select and organize materials,
publicize services, do research, and
give reference help to groups and
individuals. In large libraries,
librarians usually specialize in
either user or technical services.
They may specialize further in cer
tain areas, such as science, busi
ness, the arts, or medicine. Their
work may involve reviewing and ab
stracting published materials and
preparing bibliographies in their
specialty.
Librarians generally are classified
according to the type of library in
which they work: public libraries,
school media centers, college and
university libraries, and special
libraries.
P u b lic lib r a r ia n s serve all kinds of
people—children,
students,
research workers, teachers, and
others. Increasingly, public librari
ans are providing special materials
and services to culturally and edu
cationally deprived persons, and to
persons who because of physical
handicaps cannot use conventional
print.
The professional staff of a large
public library system may include
the chief librarian, an assistant
chief, and several division heads
who plan and coordinate the work
of the entire library system. The
system also may include librarians
who supervise branch libraries and
specialists in certain areas of library
users find what they are looking for.
R e f e r e n c e lib r a r ia n s answer specific
questions and suggest sources of in
formation that may be useful.
Some librarians work with
specific groups of readers. C h il
d r e n 's lib r a r ia n s serve the special
needs of young people by finding
books they will enjoy and showing
them how to use the library. They
may plan and conduct special pro
grams such as story hours or film
programs. Their work in serving
children often includes working
with school and community or
ganizations. A d u lt s e r v ic e s lib r a r ia n s
suggest materials suited to the
needs and interests of adults. They
may cooperate in planning and con
ducting education programs, such
as community development, public
affairs, creative arts, problems of
the aging, and home and family.
Y o u n g a d u lt s e r v ic e s lib r a r ia n s help
junior and senior high school stu
dents select and use books and
other materials. They may organize
programs of interest to young
adults, such as book or film discus
sions or concerts of recorded popu
lar and classical music. They also
may coordinate the library’s work
with school programs. E x te n s io n o r
o u tr e a c h lib r a r ia n s w o r k in g in b o o k
m o b ile s offer library services to
work. The duties of some of these
specialists are briefly described in
the following paragraphs.
A c q u is itio n lib r a r ia n s purchase
books and other materials and
maintain a well-balanced library
that meets the needs and interests
of the public. C a ta lo g e r s classify
these materials by subject and
otherwise describe them to help
people not adequately served by a
public library such as those in inner
city neighborhoods, migrant camps,
rural communities, and institutions,
including hospitals and homes for
the aged.
S c h o o l lib r a r ia n s instruct students
in the use of the school library and
help them choose from the media
center’s collection of print and non
print materials items that are re
lated to their interests and to class
room subjects. Working with
teachers and supervisors, school
librarians familiarize students with
the library’s resources. They
prepare lists of materials on certain
subjects and help select materials
for school programs. They also
select, order, and organize the
library’s materials. In some schools,
they may work with teachers to
develop units of study and indepen
dent study programs, or they may
participate in team teaching. Very
large high schools may employ
several school librarians, each
responsible for a particular function
of the library program or for a spe
cial subject area.
C o lle g e a n d u n iv e r s it y lib r a r ia n s
serve students, faculty members,
and research workers in institutions
of higher education. They may pro
vide general reference service or
may work in a particular subject
field, such as law, medicine,
economics, or music. Those work
ing on university research projects
operate documentation centers that
use computers and other modern
devices to record, store, and
retrieve specialized information.
College and university librarians
may teach classes in the use of the
library.
S p e c ia l lib r a r ia n s work in libraries
maintained by government agencies
and by commercial and industrial
firms, such as pharmaceutical com
panies, banks, advertising agencies,
and research laboratories. They
provide materials and services
covering subjects of special interest
to the organization. They build and
arrange the organization’s informa
tion resources to suit the needs of
the library users. Special librarians
assist users and may conduct litera
ture searches, compile bibliogra
phies, and in other ways provide in
formation on a particular subject.
Others called in f o r m a t io n s c ie n c e
s p e c i a li s ts , like special librarians,
work in technical libraries or infor
mation centers of commercial and
industrial firms, government agen
cies,
and
research
centers.
Although they perform many duties
of special librarians, they must pos
sess a more extensive technical and
scientific
background and a
knowledge of new techniques for
handling information. Information
science specialists abstract com
plicated information into con
densed, readable form, and in
terpret and analyze data for a highly
specialized clientele. Among other
duties, they develop classification
systems, prepare coding and pro
gramming techniques for compu
terized information storage and
retrieval systems, design informa
tion
networks,
and
develop
microfilm technology.
Places of Employment
Of the estimated 125,000 profes
sional librarians employed in 1974,
school librarians accounted for
nearly one-half; public libraries and
colleges and universities each em
ployed about one-fifth. An esti
mated one-seventh worked in spe
cial libraries, including libraries in
government agencies. Some librari
ans worked in correctional institu
tions, hospitals, and State institu
tions, while a small number served
as consultants, and State and
Federal Government administrators
and faculty in schools of library
science. The Federal Government
employed about 3,200 professional
librarians.
More than 85 percent of all
librarians are women. In college
and university libraries, however,
men make up about 35 percent of
the total professional staff. Men
also are relatively numerous in law
libraries and in special libraries
concerned with science
and
technology.
Most librarians work in cities and
towns. Those attached to bookmo
bile units serve widely scattered
population groups.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
A professional librarian ordinari
ly must complete a 1-year master’s
degree program in library science.
A Ph. D. degree is an advantage to
those who plan a teaching career in
library schools or who aspire to a
top administrative post, particularly
in a college or university library or
in a large library system. For those
who are interested in the special
libraries field, a master’s degree or
doctorate in the subject of the libra
ry's specialization is highly desira
ble.
In 1974, 53 library schools in the
United States were accredited by
the American Library Association
and offered a master’s degree in
library science (M.L.S.). In addi
tion, many other colleges offer
graduate programs or courses
within 4-year undergraduate pro
grams.
Most graduate schools of library
science require graduation from an
accredited 4-year college or univer
sity, a good undergraduate record,
and a reading knowledge of at least
one foreign language. Some schools
also require introductory un
dergraduate courses in library
science. Most prefer a liberal arts
background with a major in an area
such as the social sciences, the arts,
or literature. Some schools require
entrance examinations.
Special librarians and informa
tion science specialists must have
extensive knowledge of their sub
ject matter as well as training in
library science. In libraries devoted
to scientific information, librarians
should be proficient in one foreign
language or more. They also must
be well informed about compu
terized methods for storing and
retrieving technical information.
Most States require that public
school librarians be certified and
trained both as teachers and librari
ans. The specific education and ex
perience necessary for certification
vary according to State and the
school district. The local superin
tendent of schools and the State de
partment of education can provide
information about specific require
ments in an area.
In the Federal Government,
beginning positions require comple
tion of a 4-year college course and a
master’s degree in library science,
or demonstration of the equivalent
in experience and education by a
passing grade on an examination.
Many students attend library
schools under cooperative workstudy programs that combine the
academic program with practical
work experience in a library.
Scholarships for training in library
science are available under certain
State and Federal programs and
from library schools, as well as from
a number of the large libraries and
library
associations.
Loans,
assistantships, and financial aid also
are available.
Librarians should be intellec
tually curious and able to express
themselves verbally, and should
have the desire and ability to help
others use library materials.
Experienced librarians may ad
vance to administrative positions or
to specialized work. Promotion to
these positions, however, is limited
primarily to those who have
completed graduate training in a
library school, or to those who have
specialized training.
Employment Outlook
The employment outlook for
librarians is expected to be
somewhat competitive through the
mid-1980’s. Although employment
in the field is expected to grow over
the period, the supply of persons
qualified for librarianship is likely
to expand as an increasing number
of new graduates and labor force
reentrants seek jobs as librarians.
The anticipated increase in de
mand for librarians in the late
1970’s and early 1980’s will not be
nearly as great as it was in the
1960’s. Then, school enrollments
were rising rapidly and Federal ex
penditures supported a variety of
library programs.
Fewer births during the 1960’s
will result in a slight decline in ele
mentary and secondary school en
rollments through the remainder of
the 1970’s and early 1980’s. The ef
fect of birth rates in the 1960’s will
begin to be manifested in colleges
and universities in the early 1980’s,
when total degree-credit enroll
ment is expected to level off. In
both the schools and the colleges
and universities, as a result, the de
mand for librarians will increase at
a slower pace than in the past.
On the other hand, requirements
for public librarians are expected to
increase through 1985. The growth
of a better educated population will
necessitate an increased number of
librarians to serve the public. The
educationally disadvantaged, hand
icapped, and various minority
groups also will need qualified
librarians to provide special serv
ices. Also, the expanding use of
computers to store and retrieve in
formation will contribute to the in
creased demand for information
specialists and library automation
specialists in all types of libraries.
In addition to openings from
growth, replacements will be
needed each year for librarians who
retire, die, transfer to other types of
work, or leave the labor force.
Employment opportunities will
vary not only by type of library but
also by the librarian’s educational
qualifications and area of spe
cialization. Although the overall
employment outlook is competi
tive, persons who are willing to seek
positions in other geographical
areas and in different types of libra
ries will have better opportunities.
New graduates having more recent
training may have an employment
advantage over reentrants, delayed
entrants, or transfers to the profes
sion. Their lower beginning salaries,
compared to more experienced
workers, may also be an employ
ment advantage.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Salaries of librarians vary by type
of library, the individual’s qualifica
tions, and the size and geographical
location of the library.
Starting salaries of graduates of
library school master’s degree pro
grams accredited by the American
Library
Association
averaged
$9,423 a year in 1974, ranging from
$8,956 in public libraries to $9,864
in special libraries. The average an
nual salary for special librarians was
$13,900 in 1974. For librarians in
college and university libraries,
average salaries ranged from
$8,700 a year for those with limited
experience working in private 4year colleges to over $13,000 for
university librarians with more ex
tensive experience. Salaries for
library
administrators
ranged
somewhat
higher.
Department
heads in college libraries earned
between $10,000 and $14,000 a
year. In general, librarians earned
about one and one-half times as
much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private indus
try, except farming.
In the Federal Government, the
entrance salary for librarians with a
master’s degree in library science
was $12,841 a year in late 1974.
The average salary for all librarians
in the Federal Government was
$17,013.
The typical workweek for librari
ans is 5 days, ranging from 35 to 40
hours. The work schedule of public
and college librarians may include
some weekend and evening work.
School librarians generally have the
same workday schedule as class
room teachers. A 40-hour week
during normal business hours is
common for government and other
special librarians.
The usual paid vacation after a
year’s service is 3 to 4 weeks. Vaca
tions may be longer in school libra
ries, and somewhat shorter in those
operated by business and industry.
Many librarians are covered by sick
leave; life, health, and accident in
surance; and pension plans.
Sources of Additional
Information
Additional information, particu
larly on accredited programs and
scholarships or loans, may be ob
tained from:
American Library Association, 50 East
Huron St., Chicago, III. 60611.
For information on requirements
for special librarians, write to:
Special Libraries Association, 235 Park
Ave., South, New York, N Y. 10003.
Information
on
Federal
assistance for library training under
the Higher Education Act of 1965
is available from:
Office of Libraries and Learning Resources,
Office of Education, U.S. Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare,
Washington, D.C. 20202.
Those interested in a career in
Federal libraries should write to:
Secretariat, Federal Library Committee,
Room 310, Library of Congress,
Washington, D.C. 20540.
Material on information science
specialists may be obtained from:
American Society for Information Science,
1140 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washing
ton, D .C .20036.
Individual State library agencies
can furnish information on scholar
ships available through their of
fices, on requirements for certifica
tion, and general information about
career prospects in their regions.
State boards of education can
furnish information on certification
requirements and job opportunities
for school librarians.
SALES OCCUPATIONS
Saleswork offers career opportu
nities for people who have
completed high school as well as for
college graduates, for those who
want to travel and those who do
not, and for salaried workers as well
as for men and women who wish to
run their own businesses.
Workers in these jobs may sell for
manufacturers,
service
firms,
wholesalers, or retailers. In 1974,
over 5.4 million people were in
sales occupations; almost 30 per
cent worked part time.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Training
requirements
for
saleswork are as varied as the work
itself. Salesworkers who sell stan
dardized merchandise such as
magazines, candy, cigarettes, and
cosmetics usually are trained on the
job by experienced salesclerks; in
some large stores, they may attend
brief
training
courses.
The
salesworker who sells complex
products or services, such as elec
tronic equipment or liability in
surance, needs more education and
training than most retail salesclerks.
For some positions, salesworkers
must be college graduates with
majors in a field such as engineer
ing. Others get the necessary
technical knowledge from universi
ty or manufacturers’ courses. Still
others learn through years of onthe-job experience, often supple
mented by home study. Thus, a real
estate agent may take university ex
tension courses; a department store
beauty counselor may participate in
an industry-sponsored training pro
gram; or a jewelry salesworker may
learn through years of observation
and study on the job.
Salesworkers must understand
the needs and viewpoints of their
customers and be poised and at
ease with strangers. Other impor
tant attributes for selling are ener
gy, self-confidence, imagination,
self-discipline, and the ability to
communicate. Arithmetic skills are
an asset. In almost all saleswork ex
cept retail trade, salesworkers need
initiative to locate prospective
customers and to plan work
schedules. Four sales occupations in
which college graduates are increas
ingly employed are discussed in this
section.
INSURANCE AGENTS
AND BROKERS
(D.O.T. 250.258)
Nature of the Work
tection against the costs of hospital
and medical care or loss of income
due to illness or injury, and most
life agents and casualty agents offer
this type of insurance to their
customers. Many agents also offer
securites, such as mutual fund
shares or variable annuities.
An insurance agent may be either
an insurance company employee or
an independent business person
authorized to represent one or
more insurance companies. Brokers
are not under exclusive contract
with any single company; instead,
they place policies directly with the
company that best meets a client’s
needs. Otherwise, agents and
brokers do much the same kind of
work.
They spend most of their time
discussing insurance policies with
prospective and existing customers.
Some time must be spent in officework to prepare reports, main
tain records, plan insurance pro
grams that are tailored to prospects’
needs, and draw up lists of prospec
tive customers. Specialists in group
policies may help an employer’s ac
countants set up a system of payroll
deductions for employees covered
by the policy.
Insurance agents and brokers sell
policies that protect individuals and
businesses against future losses and
financial pressures. They may help
plan financial protection to meet
the special needs of a customer’s
family; advise about insurance pro
tection for an automobile, home,
business, or other property; or help
a policyholder obtain settlement of
an insurance claim.
Places of Employment
Agents and brokers usually sell
one or more of the three basic types
As many as 450,000 agents and
of insurance: life, property-liability
brokers sold insurance full time in
(casualty), and health. Life in
1974. In addition, thousands of
surance agents, sometimes called
others worked part time. About half
life underwriters, offer policies that
pay survivors when a policyholder of the agents and brokers special
dies. Depending on the pol ized in life insurance; the rest, in
icyholder’s
individual
circum some type of property/liability in
stances, a life policy can be surance. A growing number of
designed to provide retirement in agents offer both life and propertycome, funds for the education of liability policies to their customers.
Agents and brokers are employed
children, or other benefits. Casualty
in cities and towns throughout the
agents sell policies that protect in
country, but most work near large
dividual policyholders from finan
population centers.
cial losses as a result of automobile
accidents, fire or theft, or other
Training, Other Qualifications,
losses. They also sell industrial or
and Advancement
commercial lines, such as workers’
compensation, product liability, or
Although many employers prefer
medical malpractice insurance. college graduates for jobs selling in
Health insurance policies offer pro surance, most will hire high school
given by the American Institute for
Property
and
Liability
Un
derwriters, Inc. The CLU and
CPCU designations are recognized
marks of achievement in their
respective fields.
Agents and brokers should be
enthusiastic, self-confident, and
able to communicate effectively.
Because agents usually work
without supervision, they need in
itiative to locate new prospects. For
this reason, many employers seek
people who have been successful in
other jobs.
Insurance agents who show
unusual sales ability and leadership
may become a sales manager in a
district office or assume a
managerial job in a home office. A
few agents may advance to top posi
tions as agency superintendents or
company vice-presidents. Many
who have built up a good clientele
prefer to remain in saleswork.
Some, particularly in the propertyliability field, eventually establish
their own independent agencies or
brokerage firms.
graduates with work experience.
College training may help the agent
grasp the
fundamentals and
procedures of insurance selling
more quickly. Courses in account
ing, economics, finance, business
law, and insurance subjects are
helpful.
All agents and most brokers must
be licensed in the State where they
plan to sell insurance. In most
States, licenses are issued only to
applicants who pass written ex
aminations covering insurance fun
damentals and the State insurance
laws. Agents who plan to sell mu
tual fund shares and other securities
also must be licensed by the State.
New agents usually receive training
at insurance company home offices
or at the agencies where they will
work. Beginners sometimes attend
company-sponsored
classes
to
prepare for examinations. Others
study on their own and accompany
experienced salesworkers when
they call on prospective clients.
Agents and brokers can broaden
their knowledge of the insurance
business by taking courses at col
leges and universities and attending
institutes,
conferences,
and
seminars sponsored by insurance
organizations.
The
Life
Un
derwriter
Training
Council
(LUTC) awards a diploma in life in
surance marketing to agents who
successfully complete the Council’s
2-year life program. They also offer
courses in health insurance and
equity products. As agents or
brokers gain experience and
knowledge, they can qualify for the
Chartered Life Underwriter (CLU)
designation by passing a series of
examinations given by the Amer
ican College of Life Underwriters.
In much the same way, a propertyliability agent can qualify for the
Chartered Property Casualty Un
derwriter (CPCU) designation by
passing a series of examinations
Employment Outlook
Employment of insurance agents
and brokers is expected to grow
about as fast as the average for all
occupations through the mid1980’s as the volume of insurance
sales continues to expand. Many
additional jobs will open as agents
and brokers die, retire, or leave
their jobs to seek other work. Due
to the competitive nature of in
surance selling, beginners often
leave their jobs because they have
been unable to establish a suffi
ciently large clientele. Therefore,
opportunities should be quite
favorable for ambitious people who
enjoy saleswork.
Future demand for agents and
brokers depends on the volume of
insurance sales. Volume should in
crease rapidly over the next decade
as a larger proportion of the popu
lation enters the period of peak
earnings and family responsibilities.
Life insurance sales should grow as
more families select policies work more than the customary 40 line of merchandise. A salesworker
who handles crackers or cookies,
designed to provide educational hours a week.
for example, emphasizes the
funds for their children and retire
Sources of Additional
wholesomeness, attractive packag
ment income. Rising incomes also
Information
ing, and variety of these products.
should stimulate the sale of equity
Sometimes salesworkers promote
products such as mutual funds, vari
General occupational informa
their products by displays in hotels
able annuities, and other invest
tion about insurance agents and
ments. Sales of property-liability in brokers is available from the home and conferences with wholesalers
surance should rise as more con office of many life and property-lia and other customers.
Salesworkers who deal in highly
sumer purchases are insured and as bility insurance companies. Infor
commercial coverages, such as mation on State licensing require technical products, such as elec
product liability and workers’ com ments may be obtained from the de tronic equipment, often are called
sales engineers or industrial
pensation, are expanded.
partment of insurance at any State
salesworkers. In addition to having
However, employment of agents capital.
a thorough knowledge of their
and brokers will not keep pace with
Information about a career as a
the rising level of insurance sales life insurance agent also is available firms’ products, they must be able
to help prospective buyers with
because more policies will be sold from:
technical problems. For example,
to groups and by mail. Also, agents
Insurance,
should be able to handle more busi Institute of LifeN.Y. 10017. 227 Park Ave., they may try to determine the
New York,
proper materials and equipment for
ness as computers relieve them of
Life Insurance Marketing and Research As a firm’s manufacturing process.
time-consuming clerical tasks.
sociation, 170 Sigourney St., Hart
They then present this information
ford, Conn. 06105.
The National Association of Life Under to company officials and try to
Earnings and Working
writers, 1922 F St., NW„ Washington,
negotiate a sale. Often, sales en
D.C. 20006.
Conditions
gineers work with the research-andFor career information on pro- development departments of their
Beginners in this occupation perty/liability agents, contact:
often are guaranteed moderate Insurance Information Institute, 1 10 William own companies to devise ways to
adapt products to a customer’s spe
salaries or advances on commis
St., New York, N.Y. 10038.
sions while they are learning the National Association of Insurance Agents, cialized needs. Salesworkers who
handle technical products some
business and building a clientele.
Inc., 85 John St., New York, N.Y.
times train their customers’ em
Thereafter, most agents are paid a
10038.
ployees in the operation and main
commission. The size of the com
tenance of new equipment, and
mission depends on the type and
make frequent return visits to be
amount of insurance sold, and
certain that it is giving the desired
MANUFACTURERS’
whether the transaction is a new
service.
SALESWORKERS
policy or a renewal. After a few
Although
manufacturers'
years, an agent’s commissions on
(D O T. 260. through 298.458)
salesworkers spend most of their
new policies and renewals may
time visiting prospective customers,
Nature of the Work
range from $10,000 to $20,000 an
they also do paperwork including
Practically all manufacturers— reports on sales prospects or
nually. A number of established and
highly successful
agents and whether they make computers or customers’ credit ratings. In addi
brokers earn more than $30,000 a can openers—employ salesworkers. tion, they must plan their work
year.
Manufacturers’ salesworkers sell schedules, draw up lists ot
Agents and brokers generally pay mainly to other businesses—facto
prospects, make appointments,
their own automobile and traveling ries, railroads, banks, wholesalers,
handle some correspondence, and
expenses. In addition, those who and retailers. They also sell to
study literature relating to their
own and operate independent busi hospitals, schools, libraries, and products.
nesses must pay office rent, clerical other institutions.
Most manufacturers’ saleswork
salaries, and other operating expen
Places of Employment
ers sell nontechnical products.
ses out of their earnings.
Almost 380,000 people—10 per
Although
insurance
agents They must be well informed about
usually are free to arrange their their firms’ products and also about cent of them women—were manu
own hours of work, they often the special requirements of their facturers’ salesworkers in 1974.
schedule
appointments during customers. When salesworkers visit About 21,000 were sales engineers.
evenings and weekends for the con firms in their territory, they use an Some work out of home offices,
venience of clients. Some agents approach adapted to the particular often located at manufacturing
specialized training. Drug Sales
workers usually need training
at a college of pharmacy. Man
ufacturers of electrical equip
ment, heavy machinery, and
some types of chemicals prefer
to hire college-trained engineers
or chemists. (Information on
chemists, engineers, and others
with the technical training suitable
for work as manufacturers’ sales
workers is given elsewhere in this
book.
Beginning salesworkers take spe
cialized training before they start
on the job. Some companies, espe
cially those that manufacture com
plex technical products, have for
mal training programs that last 2
Training, Other Qualifications,
years or longer. In some of these
and Advancement
programs, trainees rotate among
Although high school graduates jobs in several departments of the
can be successful manufacturers’ plant and office to learn all phases
salesworkers, college graduates are of production, installation, and dis
preferred as trainees.
tribution of the product. Other
Manufacturers of nontechnical trainees take formal class instruc
products often hire college gradu tion at the plant, followed by onates who have a degree in liberal the-job training in a branch office
arts or business administration. under the supervision of field sales
Some positions, however, require managers.
plants. The majority, however,
work out of branch offices, usually
in big cities near prospective
customers.
More salesworkers are employed
by companies that produce food
products than by any other indus
try. Large numbers also work in the
printing and publishing, chemicals,
fabricated metal products, and
electrical and other machinery in
dustries. Most sales engineers work
for companies that produce heavy
machinery, transportation equip
ment, fabricated metal products,
and professional and scientific in
struments.
A pleasant personality and ap
pearance, and the ability to meet
and get along well with many types
of people are important. Because
salesworkers may have to walk or
stand for long periods or carry
product samples, some physical
stamina is necessary. As in most
selling jobs, arithmetic skills are an
asset.
Sales representatives who have
good sales records and leadership
ability may advance to sales super
visors, branch managers, or district
managers. Those with managerial
ability eventually may advance to
sales manager or other executive
positions; many top executive jobs
in industry are filled by people who
started as salesworkers.
Because of frequent contact with
business people in other firms,
salesworkers often transfer to other
jobs. Some go into business for
themselves
as
manufacturers’
agents selling similar products of
several manufacturers. Other ex
perienced salesworkers find oppor
tunities in advertising and market
ing research.
Employment Outlook
Persons with sales ability should
find the best opportunities for jobs
as manufacturers salesworkers over
the next 10 years. Although
thousands of sales openings will
arise each year because of employ
ment growth and the need to
replace experienced workers who
leave their jobs, manufacturers are
expected to be selective in hiring.
They will look for ambitious people
who are well trained and tempera
mentally suited for the job.
Employment growth in this field
is expected to be slower than the
average for all occupations, chiefly
because of the trend toward
wholesale
distribution.
Some
growth will occur, however,
because of the rising demand for
technical products and the resulting
need for trained salesworkers. In
addition, industrial firms, chain
stores,
and
institutions
that
purchase large quantities of goods
at one time frequently buy directly
from the manufacturer. The need
for salesworkers will increase as
manufacturers emphasize sales ac
tivities to compete for the growing
number of these valuable accounts.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
According to the limited infor
mation available, salaries for
beginning salesworkers averaged
about $9,000 a year in 1974, exclu
sive of commissions and bonuses.
The highest starting salaries
generally were paid by manufac
turers of electrical and electronic
equipment, construction materials,
hardware and tools, and scientific
and precision instruments.
Some manufacturing concerns
pay experienced salesworkers a
straight commission, based on their
dollar amount of sales; others pay a
fixed salary. The majority, however,
use a combination of salary and
commission, salary and bonus, or
salary, commission, and bonus.
Commissions vary according to the
salesworkers’ efforts and ability, the
commission rate, location of their
sales territory, and the type of
product sold. Bonus payments may
depend on individual performance,
on performance of all salesworkers
in the group or district, or on the
company’s sales. Some firms pay
annual bonuses; others offer
bonuses as incentive payments on a
quarterly or monthly basis. In
general, the earnings of manufac
turers’ salesworkers are higher than
the average for all nonsupervisory
workers in private industry, except
farming.
Some manufacturers’ saleswork
ers have large territories and do
considerable
traveling.
Others
usually work in the neighborhood
of their “home base.” When on
business trips, salesworkers are
reimbursed for expenses such as
transportation and hotels. Some
companies provide a car or pay a
mileage allowance to salesworkers
who use their own cars.
Manufacturers’ salesworkers call
at the time most convenient to
customers and may have to travel at
night or on weekends. Frequently,
they spend evenings writing reports.
However, some plan their schedules
for time off when they want it. Most
salesworkers who are not paid a
straight commission receive 2 to 4
weeks’ paid vacation, depending on
their length of service. They usually
share in company benefits, includ
ing life insurance, pensions, and
hospital, surgical, and medical
benefits.
Sources of Additional
Information
For more information on the occu
pation of manufacturers’ salesworker,
write:
Sales and Marketing Executives Interna
tional, Student Education Division, 380
Lexington Ave., New York, N.Y.
10017.
REAL ESTATE
SALESWORKERS AND
BROKERS
(D.O.T. 250.358)
Nature of the Work
Real estate salesworkers and
brokers represent property owners
in selling or renting their properties.
They also are called real estate
agents or, if they are members of
the National Association of Real
tors, “realtors” or “realtor as
sociates.”
Brokers are independent business
people who not only sell real estate,
but also rent and manage proper
ties, make appraisals, and develop
new building projects. In closing
sales, brokers usually arrange for
loans to finance the purchases, for
title searches, and for meetings
between buyers and sellers, when
details of the transaction are agreed
upon and the new owners take pos
session. Brokers also must manage
their own offices, advertise the pro
perties they list, and handle other
business operations. Some combine
other types of work such as selling
insurance or practicing law with
their real estate business.
Salesworkers or agents work for
brokers. They show and sell real
estate, handle rental properties, and
obtain “listings” (owner agree
ments to place properties for sale
with the firm). Because obtaining
listings is an important job duty,
salesworkers may spend much time
on the telephone exploring leads
gathered from advertisements and
personal contacts. They also answer
inquiries about properties over the
telephone.
A worker who sells real estate or
handles rental properties often
must leave the office to call on
prospects and drive them to inspect
properties for sale. When a number
of houses are for sale in a new
development, the agent may
operate from a model home.
Most real estate salesworkers and
brokers sell residential property. A
few, usually in large firms, special
ize in commercial, industrial, or
other types of real estate. Each spe
cialty requires knowledge of that
particular type of property. Selling
or leasing business property, for ex
ample, requires an understanding of
leasing practices, business trends,
and location needs. Agents who sell
or lease industrial properties must
know about transportation, utilities,
and labor supply. To sell residential
properties, the agent must know the
location of schools, churches,
shopping facilities, and public
transportation. Familiarity with tax
rates and insurance coverages also
is important.
Places of Employment
Nearly 400,000 persons sold real
estate full time in 1974; many
others sold on a part-time basis.
The number of people licensed to
sell totaled about 1.4 million in
1974, according to the National As
sociation of Real Estate License
Law Officials.
Most real estate salesworkers
work for small establishments;
some, particularly in urban areas,
work for large firms with several of
fices. A few sales agents are em
ployed by builders to sell new
homes in a particular development.
Real estate is sold in all areas, but
employment is concentrated in
large urban areas and in smaller but
rapidly growing communities.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Real estate salesworkers and
brokers must be licensed in every
State and in the District of Colum
bia. All States require prospective
agents to pass written tests. The ex
amination—more comprehensive
for brokers than for salesworkers—
includes questions on basic real
estate transactions and on laws af
fecting the sale of property. A
majority of States require can
didates for a broker’s license to
have a specified amount of ex
perience in selling real estate or the
equivalent in related experience or
education (generally 1 to 3 years).
State licenses usually can be
renewed annually without reex
amination.
Employers prefer applicants with open their own offices. Training
at least a high school education. As and experience in estimating pro
real estate transactions have perty value can lead to work as a
become more complex, many of the real estate appraiser, and people
large firms have turned to college familiar with operating and main
graduates to fill sales positions. taining rental properties may spe
Most agents have some college cialize in property management.
training and the number of college Those who gain general experience
graduates has risen substantially in in real estate, and a thorough
recent years. However, many em knowledge of business conditions
ployers consider personality traits and property values in their locali
as important as academic training. ties, may enter mortgage financing
They look for applicants who pos or real estate counseling.
sess such positive characteristics as
a pleasant personality, honesty, and
Employment Outlook
a neat appearance. Maturity, tact,
Employment of real estate
and enthusiasm for the job are
required in order to motivate salesworkers and brokers is ex
prospective customers in this pected to rise about as fast as the
keenly competitive field. Agents average for all occupations in order
also should have a good memory for to satisfy a growing demand for
names and faces and business housing and other properties. In ad
details such as taxes, zoning regula dition to opportunities that result
from this growth, several thousand
tions, and local land-use laws.
Young men and women in openings will occur each year as
terested in beginning jobs as real employees die, retire, or leave for
estate salesworkers often apply in other reasons. Replacement needs
their own communities, where their are high, because a relatively large
knowledge of local neighborhoods number of people retire from the
is an advantage. The beginner real estate business every year.
usually learns the practical aspects Moreover, many beginners transfer
of the job under the direction of an to other work after a short time
selling real estate.
experienced agent.
The favorable outlook for em
Many firms offer formal training
programs for both beginners and ployment in this field will stem
experienced salesworkers. About primarily from increased demand
360 universities, colleges, and jun for home purchases and rental
ior colleges offer courses in real units. Shifts in the age distribution
estate. At some, a student can earn of the population over the next
an associate’s or bachelor’s degree decade will result in a larger
with a major in real estate; several number of young adults with
offer advanced degrees. Many local careers and family responsibilities.
real estate boards that are members This is the group that traditionally
of the National Association of Real makes the bulk of home purchases.
tors sponsor courses covering the As their incomes rise, these families
fundamentals and legal aspects of also can be expected to purchase
the field. Advanced courses in ap larger homes and vacation proper
praisal, mortgage financing, and ties. During periods of declining
property development and manage economic activity and tight credit,
ment also are available through the volume of sales and the result
various National Association af ing demand for salesworkers
usually declines. During these
filiates.
Trained
and
experienced periods, the number of persons
salesworkers can advance in many seeking sales positions may out
large firms to sales or general number openings. Over the long
manager. Licensed brokers may run, however, the outlook for
salespeople is favorable.
Many job opportunities should
occur for both college graduates
and mature workers transferring
from other kinds of saleswork. This
field is likely to remain highly com
petitive and prospects will be best
for well-trained, ambitious people
who enjoy selling. The proportion
of part-time real estate salesworkers may decline, however, as State
licensing requirements change and
agents need more specialized
knowledge to handle real estate
transactions.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Commissions on sales are the
main source of earnings—very few
real estate agents work for a salary.
The rate of commission varies ac
cording to the type of property and
its value; the percentage paid on the
sale of farm and commercial pro
perties or unimproved land usually
is higher than that paid for selling a
home.
Commissions may be divided
among several salespersons in a real
estate firm. The person who obtains
the listing often receives a part
when the property is sold; the
broker who makes the sale either
gets the rest of the commission, or
else shares it with the agent who
handles the transaction. Although
an agent’s share varies greatly from
one firm to another, often it is
about half of the total amount
received by the firm.
Earnings of full-time real estate
agents generally range between
$12,000 and $20,000 a year, ac
cording to the limited data availa
ble. Beginners usually earn less.
Many experienced real estate
salesworkers earn $30,000 or more
a year. Full-time agents and brokers
earn nearly three times as much as
average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry,
except farming.
Income usually increases as an
agent gains experience, but in
dividual ability, economic condi
tions, and the type and location of
the property also affect earnings.
Salesworkers who are active in
community organizations and local
real estate boards can broaden their
contacts
and
increase
their
earnings. A beginner’s earnings
often are irregular because a few
weeks or even months may go by
without a sale. Although some
brokers allow a salesworker a draw
ing account against future earnings,
this practice is not usual with new
employees. The beginner, there
fore, should have enough money to
live on until commissions increase.
Brokers provide office space, but
salesworkers generally furnish their
own automobiles. Agents and
brokers often work in the evenings
and during weekends to suit the
convenience of customers. Some
firms, especially the large ones,
furnish group life, health, and ac
cident insurance.
Sources of Additional
Information
Details on licensing requirements
for real estate salesworkers and
brokers are available from most
local real estate organizations or
from the real estate commission or
board located in each State capital.
Many States can furnish manuals
helpful to applicants who are
preparing for the required written
examinations.
For more information about op
portunities in real estate work, as
well as a list of colleges and univer
sities offering courses in this field,
contact:
National Association of Realtors, 155 E. Su
perior St., Chicago, 1 1 60611.
1.
SECURITIES
SALESWORKERS
(D.O.T. 251.258)
Nature of the Work
When investors buy or sell
stocks, bonds, or shares in mutual
funds, they call on securities
salesworkers to put the “market
machinery” into operation. Both
the individual who invests a few
hundred dollars and the large in
stitution with millions to invest
need such services. Often these
workers are called r e g is te r e d
r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s ,
account
execu
t i v e s ,or c u s t o m e r s ' b r o k e r s .
In initiating buy or sell transac
tions, securities salesworkers relay
orders through their firms’ offices
to the floor of a securities
exchange. When the trade takes
place in the over-the-counter mar
ket instead, they send the order to
the firm’s trading department. In
either case,
the salesworker
promptly notifies the customer of
the completed transaction and the
final price.
In addition, they provide many
related services for their customers.
They may explain to new investors
the meaning of stock market terms
and trading practices; offer the
client complete financial counsel
ing; devise an individual financial
portfolio including securities, life
insurance, and other investments
for the customer; and advise on the
purchase or sale of a particular
security. Some individuals may
prefer
long-term
investments
designed for either capital growth
or income over the years; others
might want to make short-term in
vestments which seem likely to rise
in
price
quickly.
Securities
salesworkers furnish information
about the advantages and disad
vantages of each type of investment
based on each person’s objectives.
They also supply the latest stock
and bond quotations on any securi
ty in which the investor is in
terested, as well as information on
the activities and financial positions
of the corporations these securities
represent.
Securities salesworkers may
serve all types of customers or they
may specialize in one type only,
such as institutional investors. They
also may specialize in handling only
certain kinds of securities such as
mutual funds. Some handle the sale
of “new issues,” such as corpora
tion securities issued for plant ex
pansion funds.
Beginning securities salesworkers
spend much of their time searching
for customers. Once they have
established a clientele, however,
they put more effort into servicing
existing accounts and less into seek
ing new ones.
Places of Employment
About 100,000 persons—about
10 percent of them women—sold
securities full time in 1974. It is esti
mated that an additional 100,000
persons sold securities less than full
time. These include partners and
branch office managers in securities
firms, insurance agents and brokers
offering
securities
to
their
customers, and part-time mutual
fund representatives.
Securities salesworkers are em
ployed by brokerage firms, invest
ment bankers, and mutual funds in
all parts of the country. Many of
these firms are very small. Most
salesworkers, however, work for a
small number of large firms with
main offices in big cities (especially
in New York) or the approximately
6,000 branch offices in other areas.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Because a securities salesworker
must be well informed about
economic conditions and trends, a
college education is increasingly
important, especially in the larger
securities firms. This is not true,
however, for part-time work selling
mutual funds. Although employers
seldom require specialized training,
courses in business administration,
economics, and finance are helpful.
Almost all States require persons
who sell securities to be licensed.
State licensing requirements may
include passing an examination and
furnishing a personal bond. In addi
tion, salesworkers usually must
register as representatives of their
firms according to regulations of
the securities exchanges where they
do business or the National As
sociation of Securities Dealers, Inc.
(NASD). Before beginners can
qualify as registered representa
tives, they must pass the Securities
and
Exchange
Commission’s
(SEC’s) General Securities Ex
amination,
or
examinations
prepared by the exchanges or the
NASD. These tests measure the
prospective
representative’s
knowledge of the securities busi
ness. Character investigations also
are required. Before securities
salesworkers can sell insurance,
they must be licensed by the State
in which they live.
Most employers provide training
to help salesworkers meet the
requirements for registration. In
member firms of all major
exchanges the training period is at
least 4 months. Trainees in large
firms may receive classroom in
struction in security analysis and ef
fective speaking, take courses of
fered by schools of business and
other institutions and associations,
and undergo a period of on-the-job
training. In small firms, and in mu
tual funds and insurance compa
nies, training programs may be brief
and informal. Beginners read as
signed materials and watch other
salesworkers transact business.
Many employers consider per
sonality traits as important as
academic training. Employers seek
applicants who are well groomed,
able to motivate people, and ambi
tious. Because maturity and the
ability to work independently also
are important, many emexployers
prefer to hire those who have
achieved success in other jobs. Suc
cessful sales or managerial ex
perience is very helpful to an appli
cant.
The principal form of advance
ment for securities salesworkers is
an increase in the number and the
size of the accounts they handle.
Although beginners usually service
the accounts of individual investors,
eventually they may handle very
large accounts such as those of
banks and pension funds. Some ex
perienced salesworkers advance to
positions
as
branch
office
managers, who supervise the work
of other salesworkers while execut
ing “buy” and “sell” orders for
their own customers. A few
representatives may become part
ners in their firms or do administra
tive work.
Employment Outlook
The
number of
securities
salesworkers is expected to grow
faster than the average for all occu
pations through the mid-1980’s as
investment in securities continues
to increase. In addition to jobs
resulting from growth, several
thousand salesworkers will be
needed annually to replace those
who die, retire, or transfer to other
jobs. Replacement needs are rela
tively large, due to the competitive
nature of the occupation. Many
salesworkers leave their jobs each
year because they are unable to
establish a successful clientele.
Employment
of
securities
salesworkers is expected to expand
as economic growth and rising per
sonal incomes increase the funds
available for investment. The for
mation of investment clubs, which
enable small investors to make
minimum
monthly
payments
toward the purchase of securities,
also will contribute to the demand
for securities salesworkers. Growth
in the number of institutional in
vestors will be particularly strong as
more people purchase insurance;
participate in pension plans; con
tribute to the endowment funds of
colleges and other nonprofit institu
tions; and deposit their savings in
banks. In addition, more workers
will be needed to sell securities is
sued by new and expanding cor
porations and by State and local
governments financing public im
provements.
The demand for securities
salesworkers fluctuates as the
economy expands and contracts.
Thus, in an economic downturn,
the number of persons seeking jobs
may exceed the number of
openings—sometimes by a great
deal. Over the long-run, however,
job opportunities for securities
salesworkers are expected to be
favorable. During severe slumps in
market activity, job prospects and
income stability will be greater for
salesworkers who are qualified to
provide their clients with complete
financial services than those who
rely strictly on commissions from
stock transactions.
Mature individuals with success
ful work experience should find
many job opportunities. Demand
will be strongest for well-rounded
persons who are willing to learn all
aspects of the securities business.
Those seeking part-time work will
be limited to selling shares in mu
tual funds.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Trainees usually are paid a salary
until they meet licensing and regis
tration requirements. After regis
tration, a few firms continue to pay
a salary until the new representa
tive’s commissions increase to a
stated amount. The salaries paid
during training usually range from
$800 to $1,000 a month; those
working for large securities firms
may receive higher salaries.
After candidates are licensed and
registered, their earnings depend on
commissions from the sale or
purchase of stocks and bonds, life
insurance, or other securities for
customers. Commission earnings
are likely to be high when there is
much buying and selling, and lower
when there is a slump in market ac
tivity. Most firms provide sales
workers with a steady income by
paying a “draw against com
mission” —that is, a minimum
salary based on the commissions
which then can be expected to
earn. A few firms pay salesworkers
only salary and bonuses, that
usually are determined by the
volume of company business.
Earnings
of full-time,
ex
perienced securities salesworkers
averaged about $21,000 a year in
1974, according to the limited data
available. Many earned more than
$30,000 a year. Full-time securities
salesworkers earn about three times
as much as average earnings for
nonsupervisory workers in private
industry, except farming.
Securities salesworkers usually
work in offices where there is much
activity. In large offices, for exam
ple, rows of salesworkers sit at
desks in front of “quote boards”
which continually flash information
on the prices of securities transac
tions.
Although
established
salesworkers usually work the same
hours as others in the business com
munity, beginners who are seeking
customers may work longer. Some
salesworkers
accommodate
customers by meeting with them in
the evenings or on weekends.
Sources of Additional
Information
Further information concerning a
career as a securities salesworker
may be obtained from the person
nel departments of individual secu
rities firms.
OCCUPATIONS IN TRANSPORTATION
ACTIVITIES
Transportation offers a wide range
of career opportunities. Jobs in air,
rail, highway, and water transporta
tion vary from those that require
many workers who have at least a
college degree.
Although this field includes a vari
ety of jobs, most workers drive
trucks and buses, fly for airlines,
operate trains and ships, or keep this
equipment in good working condition.
As our economy expands and popu
lation grows, demand for freight and
passenger service will rise, and more
transportation workers will be
needed. Employment trends, how
ever, will vary by type of business.
Employment in most air and highway
transportation jobs will increase,
while employment in the merchant
marine and many jobs on railroads
will decline. Even in most declining
occupations, however, new workers
will be hired to replace those who
retire, die, or transfer to other fields.
Transportation offers excellent op
portunities for persons with a college
education. Working conditions are
generally good and the pay is fairly
high. Many employees do a lot of
traveling on the job and meet new
and interesting people.
AIR TRAFFIC
CONTROLLERS
(D.O.T. 193.168)
Nature of the Work
Air traffic controllers are the
guardians of the airways. They
coordinate flights to prevent ac
cidents and minimize delays in
takeoffs and landings. Some regu
late airport traffic; others regulate
flights between airports.
Airport traffic controllers work
in a tower near the runway to keep
track of planes that are on the
ground and in the air nearby. They
radio pilots to give them permission
to taxi, take off, or land. To assure
safe conditions, they must consider
many factors including weather,
and the number, size, and speed of
the planes in the area. They also
must keep track of positions of
planes both on the ground and in
the air to control several aircraft
simultaneously.
After a plane takes off, airport
traffic controllers notify enroute
controllers to take charge. Route
controllers
communicate
with
pilots by radio and use radar and
other electronic equipment to help
keep planes on course. They also
warn pilots about nearby planes and
other possible hazards. Each en
route controller is assigned a cer
tain amount of airspace. One, for
example, might be responsible for
all planes that are 30 to 100 miles
north of the airport and flying
between 6,000 and 18,000 feet. As
the flight progresses, the controller
responsible for the aircraft notifies
the controller who next will be
responsible. Through this coordina
tion, one enroute controller after
another takes charge until the plane
has safely arrived at its destination
and airport traffic controllers are
again in charge.
Places of Employment
About 22,000 persons worked as
air traffic controllers for the
Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) in 1974. Almost all worked
at major airports and air route traf
fic control centers located near
large cities. A few were assigned to
control towers and centers outside
the United States.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Air traffic controller trainees are
selected through the competitive
Federal Civil Service System. Ap
plicants must be less than 31 years
old and must pass a written test that
measures their ability to learn and
perform the controller’s duties. In
addition, applicants must have 3
years of progressively responsible
work experience that demonstrates
potential for learning and perform
ing air traffic control work, or 4
years of college, or a combination
of both. Applicants must be in ex
cellent health, have vision correcta
ble to 20/20, and must be able to
speak clearly and precisely.
Successful applicants receive a
combination of on-the-job and for
mal training to learn the fundamen
tals of the airway system, Federal
aviation regulations, controller
equipment, and aircraft per
formance
characteristics.
All
receive intensive training in simula
tors at the FAA Academy in
Oklahoma City. It usually takes 2 to
3 years to become a fully qualified
controller. Each year, controllers
must pass a physical examination
each year; they must pass a job per
formance examination twice each
year.
Controllers can transfer to jobs at
different locations and advance to
the job of chief controller. Some
advance to more responsible
management jobs in air traffic con-
service, they receive 13 to 26 days
of paid vacation and 13 days of paid
sick leave each year, life insurance,
health benefits, and a more liberal
retirement program than other
Federal employees.
Controllers work a basic 40-hour
week; however, they may work ad
ditional hours for which they
receive overtime pay or equal time
off. Because control towers and
centers must be operated 24 hours
a day, 7 days a week, controllers are
assigned to night shifts on a rotating
basis.
Air traffic controllers work under
great stress. They must keep track
of several planes at the same time
and make certain all pilots receive
correct instructions.
Many controllers belong to the
Professional Air Traffic Controllers
Organization.
Sources of Additional
Information
Air traffic controllers use radar to follow planes in flight.
trol and a few to top administrative
jobs in the FAA.
Employment Outlook
Employment of air traffic con
trollers is expected to increase at
about the same rate as the average
for all occupations through the mid1980’s. In addition to openings
resulting from growth, many others
will arise as experienced controllers
retire, die, or transfer to other jobs.
Competition for jobs should be
keen because the number of
qualified applicants is expected to
be much greater than the number of
openings.
As the number of aircraft in
creases, the skyways will become
more congested. To prevent colli
sions, the FAA has created spaces,
near certain airports and above cer
tain altitudes which require all
pilots to receive directions from air
traffic controllers. If, as expected,
the number and size of these spaces
are expanded, more controllers will
be needed despite the greater use of
new, automated control equipment.
College graduates who have
civilian or military experience as
controllers, pilots, or navigators,
will have the best employment op
portunities.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
In 1974 controller trainees
earned $7,700 or $9,500 a year; the
average earnings for all controllers
was $21,800 a year, or over twice
the average for all nonsupervisory
workers in private industry, except
farming. Depending on length of
A pamphlet providing general in
formation about controllers and in
structions for submitting applica
tions is available from any U.S.
Civil Service Commission Job In
formation Center. Look under U.S.
Government, Civil Service Com
mission, in your telephone book to
obtain a local Job Information
Center telephone number and call
for a copy of Announcement 418. If
there is no listing in your telephone
book, dial the toll-free number 800555-1212 and request the toll-free
number of the U.S. Civil Service
Commission
Job
Information
Center for your location.
AIRPLANE PILOTS
(D.O.T. 196.168, .228, .268, and
.283)
Nature of the Work
Pilots are skilled, highly trained
professionals who have been care-
fully selected for their ability to fly
safely. They transport passengers
and cargo, and perform other tasks
such as crop dusting and inspecting
power lines. The pilot in command
(called captain by the airlines) is in
charge of the plane and supervises
any other crew members. On larger
planes, a copilot assists the pilot in
air-to-ground communications, in
monitoring flight and engine instru
ments, and in operating the plane’s
controls. Most large airliners have a
third pilot serving as flight engineer.
The flight engineer makes sure the
many mechanical and electrical
devices aboard the plane work
properly.
Pilots must do a great deal of
planning before a flight. They
confer with a weather forecaster
and choose a route, speed, and al
titude that will give a safe, smooth
flight. The pilot in command then
coordinates the route with air traf
fic control personnel.
Before takeoff, pilots check the
engines, controls, instruments, and
other components to make sure
everything is working properly. If
any faulty equipment is located, a
mechanic is called to make the
repairs. During the flight, they radio
to ground control stations to report
their plane’s altitude, air speed,
weather conditions, or other flight
details. Pilots steer the plane to
each point on the flight plan and
change altitude and speed as neces
sary. In addition, pilots frequently
look at instruments to check the
amount of fuel and condition of the
engines.
If visibility during the flight is
poor, pilots must rely completely on
instruments. For example, they use
the altimeter to fly safely above any
mountains or other obstacles. A
special navigation radio gives pilots
information which, with the help of
special maps, tells them exactly
where the plane is. During landings
in bad weather, airline pilots may
use sophisticated landing equip
ment which provides directions to a
point just above the runway. After
landing and parking the plane, they
go to the airline office and
complete flight records required by
the company or the Federal Avia
tion Administration (FAA).
Some specially trained airline
pilots are “evaluators” or “check
pilots.” They fly with each captain
at least twice a year to make sure
FAA and company regulations are
obeyed. Other pilots are instructors
and spend much of their time giving
flying lessons.
Although pilots employed by
businesses usually fly smaller planes
than airline pilots, their duties are
much alike. These pilots, however,
may perform minor maintenance
and repair work on their planes.
Places of Employment
About 79,000 civilian pilots
worked full-time in 1974. About
one-half worked for airline compa
nies; most of the remainder trained
student pilots or worked for large
corporations that use their own air
planes to transport company execu
tives. Others performed a variety of
services for many different em
ployers throughout the country
such as flying air taxis or crop dust
ing planes, inspecting pipelines, or
conducting
sightseeing
trips.
Federal, State, and local govern
ments also employed pilots.
Most pilots work at major air
ports close to cities. Over one-third
of all pilots work near Los Angeles,
San Francisco, New York, DallasFort Worth, Chicago, Miami, and
Atlanta.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Before take-off pilots make sure all equipment is working properly.
All pilots who are paid to trans
port passengers or cargo must have
at least a commercial airplane
pilot’s license from the FAA. To
qualify for a commercial pilot’s
license, applicants must be at least
18 years old and have at least 250
hours of flight experience. They
also must pass a strict physical ex
amination to make sure they have
20/20 vision with or without
glasses, good hearing, and no physi
cal handicaps that prevent quick
reactions. Applicants then must
pass a written test covering subjects
such as the principles of safe flight,
navigation techniques, and FAA
regulations. As the final step in
getting a commercial license, appli
cants must demonstrate their flying
ability to examiners.
In addition to a commercial
license, pilots who fly in bad
weather must be licensed by the
FAA to fly by instruments. Pilots
may qualify for this license after
practicing flying by instruments for
as least 40 hours, passing a written
examination on instrument flying
procedures and FAA regulations,
and demonstrating their ability to
fly by instruments to an examiner.
Licensing requirements for air
line captains are different from
those for other pilots. Captains
must have an airline transport
pilot’s license as well as an instru
ment license from the FAA. Appli
cants must be at least 23 years old
and have a minimum of 1,500 hours
of flying experience during the
previous 8 years, including night
and instrument flying.
All licenses remain in effect as
long as the pilot can pass the
required physical examinations and
the periodic tests of flying skills
required by government regula
tions. The airline transport license,
however, is not issued to pilots
when they reach age 60.
Flying can be learned in military
or civilian flying schools. Either
kind of training satisfies the flight
experience
requirements
for
licensing, but those trained in the
armed services may have the added
opportunity to gain experience on
large aircraft similar to airliners.
Pilots hired by airlines must be
high school graduates; however,
most airlines require 2 years of col
lege and prefer to hire college grad
uates. Airline companies use
psychological tests to determine an
applicant’s ability to make quick
decisions and accurate judgments
under pressure.
New airline pilots usually start as
flight engineers. In the past, flight
engineers were not required to be
pilots. However, since the introduc
tion of jet aircraft, union contracts
require all new engineers to be
qualified pilots.
Pilots working as flight engineers
must obtain a flight engineer’s
license from the FAA. After several
weeks of instruction in simulators
and classrooms, they must pass
FAA written and flight examina
tions to qualify for the license.
Although airlines favor applicants
who already have a flight engineer’s
license and a commercial pilot’s
license, they may train those who
have only the commercial license.
Companies other than airlines
generally require less total flying
experience than airlines. However,
a commercial pilot’s license is
usually required and companies
prefer applicants with experience in
the type of plane they will be flying.
New employees generally start as
copilots if the planes are less com
plex than airliners and do not
require flight engineers.
Advancement for all new pilots is
generally limited to other flying
jobs. In the airlines, advancement
opportunities usually depend on
seniority provisions established by
union contracts. After 5 to 10
years, flight engineers advance on
the basis of seniority, to co-pilot
and, after 10 to 20 years, to captain.
In other than airline jobs, copilots
may advance to pilot and, in large
companies, to chief pilot who is in
charge of aircraft scheduling, main
tenance, and flight procedures.
Employment Outlook
Employment of pilots is expected
to increase faster than the average
for all occupations through the mid1980’s. In addition to the jobs from
employment growth, openings will
result as experienced pilots retire,
die, or change occupations. How
ever, competition for job openings
should be keen because the number
of qualified pilots seeking jobs is ex
pected to exceed the number of
openings.
More than half the jobs will occur
outside the airlines. Companies are
expected to increase the number of
planes they operate and the number
of pilots they employ to transport
executives and cargo to places
without scheduled airline service.
Additional jobs will result from the
need for more flight instructors to
train new pilots and to insure that
qualified pilots meet FAA profi
ciency standards.
The expected growth in airline
passenger and cargo traffic will
create a need for more airliners and
more pilots to fly them. However,
for the next few years airlines will
be able to transport more people by
buying bigger planes rather than
more planes. Because the number
of planes is not expected to increase
immediately, opportunities should
be limited until the late 1970’s
when airlines begin increasing the
number of planes in operation.
Recent college graduates who
have experience flying large, mul
tiengine aircraft and who possess a
commercial pilot’s license and a
flight engineer’s license can expect
first consideration for jobs with the
major airlines. Other companies
generally have fewer formal educa
tion and experience requirements
than airlines. However, these com
panies prefer applicants with flying
experience in the type of plane they
will be flying on the job.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Earnings of pilots and copilots
are among the highest in the Na
tion. In 1974, the average salary for
all airline pilots was $38,200 a year. make decisions quickly.
Starting salaries for flight engineers
Most airline pilots are members
ranged from $8,000 to $10,000 a of the Air Line Pilots Association,
year, while some senior captains on International. Those employed by
the largest aircraft earned more one major airline are members of
than $70,000. Based on limited in the Allied Pilots Association.
formation, earnings of pilots in
other than airline companies
Sources of Additional
ranged from $10,000 for copilots
Information
on small planes to $40,000 for chief
Information about job opportuni
pilots of companies with large jets.
ties in a particular airline and the
Earnings depend on factors such
qualifications required may be ob
as the type, size, and speed of the
tained by writing to the personnel
planes, and the number of hours
manager of the company. Ad
and miles flown. Extra pay is given
dresses of companies are available
for night and international flights.
in the booklet T h e P e o p le o f th e A ir
As an additional benefit, pilots and
lin e s . For a copy, write to:
their immediate families usually are
entitled to a limited amount of Public Relations Department, Air Transport
Association of America, 1709 New
reduced fare transportation on their
York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C.
own and other airlines.
20006.
Airlines operate flights at all
For information about the duties,
hours of the day and night, so work
as well as the physical and educa
schedules are often irregular.
tional requirements for airline
Under FAA rules airline pilots can pilots contact:
not fly more than 85 hours a month.
International,
Most actually fly only about 70 Air Line Pilots Association, Ave. NW.,
1625
Massachusetts
hours a month, and, as a result, they
Washington, D.C. 20036.
have many work-free days. How
For information about job oppor
ever, airline pilots may be away tunities in companies other than
from their home bases about one- airlines, consult the classified sec
third of the time or more. When tion of aviation trade magazines
they are away from home, the com and apply to companies which
pany provides hotel accommoda operate aircraft at local airports.
tions and an allowance for expen
To obtain information about jobs
ses.
with the Federal Aviation Adminis
Although pilots employed out tration, telephone the Federal Job
side the airlines are prohibited by Information Center listed in your
FAA regulations from flying more local phone book under United
than 100 hours a month, their States Government, Civil Service
schedules are irregular and some fly Commission. If no center is listed,
30 hours while others may fly 90 dial the toll-free number 800-555hours per month. These pilots 1212 and request the toll-free
frequently are responsible for main number of the center that serves
taining records or scheduling your area.
flights, and do not have as much
free time as airline pilots. They also
may work irregular hours. Instruc
tors for example, may give lessons
on weekends or at night. However,
MERCHANT MARINE
with the exception of pilots who
OFFICERS
transport executives, most do not
remain away from home overnight.
Nature of the Work
Although flying does not involve
In command of every ocean
much physical effort, the pilot often
is subject to mental stress and must going vessel is the c a p ta in (D.O.T.
be constantly alert and prepared to 197.168) or m a s t e r who is the
shipowner’s sole representative.
The captain has complete authority
and responsibility for the ship’s
operation, including discipline and
order, and the safety of the crew,
passengers, cargo, and vessel.
While in port, the captain may
serve as the shipowner’s agent in
conferring with custom officials,
and in some cases, act as paymaster
for the ship. Although not techni
cally members of a specific depart
ment, captains generally are as
sociated with the deck department,
from whose ranks they have been
promoted.
Deck Department. Deck officers or
“mates,” as they are traditionally
called, direct the navigation of the
ship and the maintenance of the
deck and hull. They maintain the
authorized speed and course; plot
the vessel’s position at frequent in
tervals; post lookouts; record infor
mation in the “log” of the voyage;
and immediately notify the captain
of any unusual occurrences. Deck
officers must be familiar with
modern navigational devices, such
as sonar and radio directional fin
ders, to operate ships safely and ef
ficiently.
The
c h ie f
m a te
(D.O.T.
197.133), also known as the first
mate or chief officer, is the cap
tain’s key assistant in assigning du
ties to the deck crew and maintain
ing order and discipline. The chief
mate also plans and supervises the
loading and unloading of cargo, and
assists the captain in taking the ship
in and out of port. On some ships,
the chief mate also may be in
charge of first-aid treatment.
By tradition, the s e c o n d m a t e
(D.O.T. 197.133) is the navigation
officer. The second mate sees that
the ship is provided with the neces
sary navigation charts and that
navigating equipment is maintained
properly.
T h ir d m a t e s (D.O.T. 197.133),
the most junior-rated deck officers,
are responsible for the care and the
maintenance of the navigating
bridge and the chartroom. They act
Captain plots vessel’s course.
as the signal officer and are in
charge of all signaling equipment.
They also assist in the supervision
of cargo loading and unloading.
The third mate frequently inspects
lifesaving equipment to be sure it is
ready for use in fire, shipwreck, or
other emergencies.
Engine Department. Marine en
gineers operate and maintain all en
gines and machinery aboard ship.
The
c h ie f
e n g in e e r
(D.O.T.
197.130) supervises the engine de
partment, and is responsible for the
efficient operation of engines and
other mechanical equipment. The
chief engineer oversees the opera
tion of the main powerplant and
auxiliary equipment while the ves
sel is underway and keeps records
of equipment performance and fuel
consumption.
The f i r s t a s s is t a n t e n g in e e r
(D.O.T. 197.130) supervises en
gineroom personnel and directs
operations
such
as
starting,
stopping, and controlling the speed
of the main engines. The first
assistant engineer also oversees and
inspects the lubrication of engines,
pumps, generators, and other
machinery and, with the aid of the
chief engineer, directs all types of
repairs.
The s e c o n d a s s is t a n t e n g in e e r
(D.O.T. 197.130) has charge of the
boiler and associated equipment
such as the water-feed system and
pumps. The second assistant en
gineer also makes sure proper
steam pressure and oil and water
temperatures are maintained and
supervises the cleaning of boilers.
The th ir d a s s is t a n t e n g in e e r
(D.O.T. 197.130) supervises the
operation and maintenance of the
lubrication system and a variety of
other
engineroom
equipment.
Some third assistant engineers are
responsible for the electrical and
refrigeration systems aboard ships.
O th e r o ff ic e r s . A ship keeps con
tact with the shore and other vessels
through its r a d io o f f ic e r (D.O.T.
193.282), who also maintains radio
equipment. A passenger ship car
ries three to six radio officers; the
average cargo vessel employs one.
These officers send and receive
messages by voice or Morse code.
They periodically receive and
record time signals, weather re
ports, position reports, and other
information. Radio officers also
may maintain depth recording
equipment and electronic naviga
tion equipment.
Some freighters and all passenger
vessels carry p u r s e r s (D.O.T.
197.168). The purser or staff of
ficer does the extensive paperwork
that is required before a ship enters
or leaves a port. They prepare
payrolls and assist passengers as
required. In recent years, the Staff
Officers Association has established
a program to train pursers to act
also as pharmacists’ mates. This in
struction is designed to improve the
medical care aboard freighters and
tankers and facilitate U.S. Public
Health Service clearance when a
ship arrives in port. All passenger
ships must carry licensed doctors
and nurses.
Places of Employment
Nearly 7,500 officers were em
ployed aboard U.S. oceangoing ves
sels in late 1974. Deck officers and
engineering officers accounted for
more than four-fifths of the total,
and radio officers made up most of
the remainder.
About one-thirds of the officers
were aboard freighters and most of
the remainder were aboard tankers.
Only a small percentage were on
passenger vessels.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Applicants for an officer’s license
in the deck or engineering depart
ments of oceangoing vessels must
meet certain legal requirements.
Captains, chief and second mates,
and chief and first assistant en
gineers must be at least 21 years
old. The minimum age for third
mates, third assistant engineers, and
radio operators is 19. In addition,
applicants must present proof of
U.S. citizenship and obtain a U.S.
Public Health Service certificate at
testing to their vision, color percep
tion, and general physical condi
tion.
Besides legal and medical
requirements, candidates must also
have at least 3 years of appropriate
sea experience or be a graduate of
an approved training program.
Deck officer candidates must pass
Coast Guard examinations that
require extensive knowledge of
navigation, cargo handling, and
deck
department
operations.
Marine engineering officer can
didates must demonstrate in-depth
knowledge of propulsion systems,
electricity, plumbing and steam
fitting, metal shaping and assembly,
and ship structure. To advance to
higher ratings, officers must pass
progressively more difficult ex
aminations.
For a Coast Guard license as a
radio officer, applicants must have
a first or second-class radiotele
graph operator’s license issued by
the Federal Communications Com
mission. For a license to serve as
the sole radio operator aboard a
cargo vessel, the Coast Guard also
requires 6 months of radio ex
perience at sea.
Unlike most professions, no edu
cation requirements have been
established for officers. A sailor
with 3 years’ experience in the deck
or engine department may apply for
either a third mate’s license or for a
third assistant engineer’s license.
However, because of the complex
machinery, and navigational and
electronic equipment on modern
ships, formal training usually is
needed to pass the Coast Guard’s
examination for these licenses.
The fastest and surest way to
become a well-trained officer is
through an established training pro
gram. Such programs are available
at the U.S. Merchant Marine
Academy at Kings Point, N.Y., and
at five State merchant marine
academies: California Maritime
Academy, Vallejo, Calif.; Maine
Maritime
Academy,
Castine,
Maine; Massachusetts Maritime
Academy, Hyannis, Mass.; Texas
Maritime Academy, Galveston,
Tex.; and New York Maritime Col
lege, Fort Schuyler, New York,
N.Y. About 550 students graduate
each year from these schools; about
one-half are trained as deck officers
and one-half as marine engineers.
Admission to the Federal academy
is through nomination by a member
of Congress, whereas entrance to
the other academies is made
through written application directly
to the school.
Most of the academies offer 4year programs in nautical science
or marine engineering, which in
clude courses such as navigation,
mathematics, electronics, propul
sion systems, electric il engineering,
languages, history, and shipping
management, as we 1 as practical
experience at sea. After Coast
Guard examination: are passed,
licenses are issued f :> either third
r
mate or third assistant engineer. In
addition, graduates may receive
commissions as ensigns in the U.S.
Naval Reserve.
Because of thoir thorough
grounding in theory and its practi
cal application, academy graduates
are in the best positi }n to move up
to master and c lief engineer
ratings. Their well-rounded educa
tion also helps qu< lify them for
shoreside jobs such as marine su
perintendent, opera :ing manager,
or shipping executive.
Graduates of the J.S. Merchant
Marine Academy have an obliga
tion to serve a minimum of 3 years
as officers in the merchant marine
or in a uniform, of the United
States.
A number of trade unions in the
maritime industry provide officer
training. These unions include the
International
Organization
of
Masters, Mates and Pilots; the
Seafarers’ International Union of
North America; the Brotherhood of
Marine Officers; and the National
Marine Engineers’ Beneficial As
sociation. Most union programs are
designed to upgrade experienced
sailors to officer ratings, although
some programs accept inex
perienced young persons. For ex
ample, the National Marine En
gineers’ Beneficial Association
(MEBA) operates the Calhoon
MEBA Engineering School in Bal
timore, Md., which offers high
school graduates a 3-year ap
prenticeship training program in
preparation for a third assistant en
gineer’s license. The program con
sists of both classroom instruction
and sea experience and provides
free room, board, medical care, and
text books in addition to a monthly
grant. Trainees must agree to serve
at least 3 years in the U.S.
Merchant Marine after the 3-year
training period.
The U.S. Merchant Marine
Academy now selects about 10 per
cent of the approximately 300 per
sons who enter the academy each
year
to
be
trained
as
“omnicompetent” officers. They
are taught both navigational and
technical skills so they can work in
either the deck or engine depart
ment.
Advancement for deck and en
gine officers is along well-defined
lines and depends primarily upon
specified sea experience, passing a
Coast Guard examination, and
leadership ability. Deck officers
start as third mates. After 1 year’s
service they are eligible to take a
second mate examination. A
second mate may apply for a cap
tain’s license after 1 year of service.
Officers in the engine department
start as third assistant engineers.
After 1 year of service, they may
apply for a second assistant’s
license and finally a chief engineer’s
license.
Employment Outlook
Little change in the employment
of ships’ officers is anticipated
through the mid-1980’s because the
number of ships in our merchant
fleet is not expected to increase sig
nificantly. (See introduction on
merchant marine occupations.)
Nevertheless, many job openings
will arise due to the need to replace
experienced officers who retire,
die, or take shoreside employment.
Replacement needs are relatively
high because ships’ officers are
somewhat older, on the average,
than workers in other occupations
and the liberal pension plans of
fered by the merchant marine in
dustry encourage early retirement.
Employment opportunities will
be best for graduates of maritime
academies, particularly the U.S.
Merchant Marine Academy. Grad
uates who cannot find jobs on
merchant ships may find jobs in re
lated fields. For example, trained
officers are needed on oceano
graphic research vessels, on vessels
that carry supplies to offshore oil
drilling rigs, and on dredges
operated by the Army Corps of En
gineers.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Earnings of officers depend upon
their rank and the type of ship.
Wages are highest on large ships.
The
accompanying
tabulation
shows monthly base wages for of
ficers aboard an average freighter
in 1974. Additional payments for
overtime or for assuming extra
responsibilities generally average
about 50 percent of base pay. For
example, a second mate with a
monthly base pay of $1,159 may
regularly earn about $1,739 each
month.
B ase p a y '
Captain..............................................
Chief engineer..................................
First assistant engineer...................
First mate..........................................
Radio officer.....................................
Second assistant engineer..............
Second mate.....................................
Third assistant engineer.................
Third mate........................................
Purser................................................
$3,009
2,734
1,635
1.635
1,225
1.159
1,159
1.041
1.041
872
1 East Coast wages in September, 1974
aboard a 12,000-17.000 power ton single
screw ship.
Officers and their dependents
enjoy substantial pension and wel
fare benefits. Vacations range from
90 to 180 days a year. Officers with
20 years of service have the option
of a monthly pension of $325 or 37
1/2 percent of their monthly rate of
pay. Those who have 25 years of
service are eligible for $425 a
month or 50 percent of their
monthly rate. Officers forced to
retire prematurely due to a per
manent disability receive partial
pensions. Comprehensive medical
care and hospitalization are pro
vided for officers and their families
through union programs.
The workweek aboard ship is
considerably different from the
workweek on shore. At sea, most
officers are required to stand
watch. Watchstanders work 7 days
a week. Generally, they work two 4hour watches (shifts) during every
24-hour period and have 8 hours off
between each watch. Some officers
are day workers. They work 8 hours
a day, Monday through Friday.
Both watchstanders and dayworkers are paid overtime for work
over 40 hours a week. When the
ship is in port, the basic workweek
is 40 hours for all crewmembers.
The duties aboard ship are
hazardous compared to other in
dustries. At sea, there is always the
possibility of injuries from falls or
the danger of fire, collision, or sink
ing.
A number of labor organizations
represent merchant marine officers.
The two largest are the Interna
tional Organization of Masters,
Mates and Pilots, representing deck
officers, and the National Marine
Engineers’ Beneficial Association,
representing engineering officers.
The Brotherhood of Marine Of
ficers represents deck and engine
officers on some ships. The Staff
Officers Association and the
Marine Staff Officers Association
represents pursers aboard certain
freighters. Radio officers are
represented by the American Radio
Association and the Radio Officers
Union. In addition, a number of in
dependent unions organize officers
on tankers. Officers’ unions may
require initiation fees as high as
$
1, 0 0 0 .
Sources of Additional
Information
For general information about
merchant marine officer’s jobs,
write to:
Office of Maritime Manpower, Maritime Ad
ministration, U.S. Department of Com
merce, Washington, D C. 20235.
Information about job openings,
qualifications for employment,
wage scales, and other particulars is
available from local maritime of
ficers’ unions. If no maritime union
is listed in the local telephone
directory, contact:
International Organization of Masters, Mates
and Pilots, 39 Broadway, New York,
N .Y .10006.
National Marine Engineers’ Beneficial As
sociation, 17 Battery PI., New York,
N .Y .10004.
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL
OCCUPATIONS
Progress in every facet of Amer
ican life depends to some degree on
our scientific and technical work
force. An increased standard of liv
ing, greater defense capabilities, ex
ploration of outer space, and ad
vancement in atomic energy,
health, and communications are
just some of the results of the work
done by scientists, engineers, and
technicians.
About 2.5 million people or
nearly one-quarter of all profes
sional workers were engineers,
scientists, or other scientific and
technical workers in 1974. Employ
ment in these occupations increased
much more rapidly than did total
employment over the past 25 years;
the number of scientists and engi
neers, for example, almost tripled,
while the total number of workers in
the United States grew by less than
half. The growth of our scientific and
technical work force resulted from
many factors, including overall eco
nomic growth, increased research and
development (R&D) expenditures;
growth of college and university fa
culties; the race to put a man on the
moon; and the development of so
phisticated defense systems. Many
technological innovations, such as the
widespread use of computers, also
contributed to this growth.
Training
A bachelor’s degree is usually
needed to enter scientific and en
gineering jobs. However, increasing
emphasis is being placed on ad
vanced degrees in some fields, espe
cially in mathematics, physics, and
the life sciences. For some occupa
tions, such as astronomers, a doc
torate is required for full profes
sional status. A bachelor’s degree is
sufficient for entry into most en
gineering jobs, however, and some
senior engineering technicians with
less than a bachelor’s degree are
promoted to engineerir g jobs.
Undergraduate
training
for
scientists and engineers includes
courses in their major field and in
related science areas, including
mathematics. Courses in statistics
and computer programming are
becoming more important. Stu
dents are usually required to take
courses in English and a foreign lan
guage, as well.
In graduate school, students
usually take several courses in their
major area of study. Requirements
for the master’s or doctor’s degree
vary by institution, but usually in
clude a thesis based or independent
research. Students who want to spe
cialize in a particular area of study
should select their schools care
fully. For example, those who plan
to become biomedic al engineers
and biochemists ar d work in
medicine should study at a universi
ty affiliated with a hospital. Those
who want to be agricultural
scientists can get the most practical
training at State universities that
have agricultural experiment sta
tions.
Technicians acquire training in
many ways. Some complete on-thejob training programs, take formal
courses part time while working, or
obtain training in the Armed
Forces. Many employers, however,
seek graduates of spe :ialized train
ing programs. One- to four-year
training programs aie offered in
post-secondary scho< >ls—technical
institutes, junior and community
colleges, area vocational technical
schools, and colleges and universi
ties.
Outlook
Opportunities in scientific and
technical occupations are expected
to expand through the mid-1980’s,
based on the assumption that addi
tional numbers of engineers,
scientists, and technicians will be
needed to carry out research and
development (R&D) work. In the
past, growth in these occupations
has been related to increased R&D
expenditures, especially by the
Federal Government. R&D expen
ditures of government and industry
are expected to continue to in
crease through the mid-1980’s,
although more slowly than during
the 1960’s. If actual R&D levels
and patterns differ significantly
from those assumed, the outlook in
many occupations would be al
tered.
Scientists, engineers, and other
scientific and technical workers will
be needed to develop new
technologies and better products.
In- addition, many technically
trained people will be required to
solve urgent problems such as air,
water, and noise pollution, to
develop new sources of energy, and
to combat disease.
The following sections provide de
tailed information for 3 conservation
occupations, 12 engineering special
ties, 13 scientific occupations includ
ing life, physical, environmental, and
mathematical scientists, and 4 related
scientific and technical occupations.
CONSERVATION
OCCUPATIONS
Forests, rangelands, wildlife, soil,
and water are important natural
resources. Conservationists protect,
develop,
and
manage
these
resources to assure that future
needs will be met.
A young person interested in a
career in conservation must have
specialized training or experience.
Foresters, range managers, and soil
conservationists generally need
bachelor’s degrees in their fields.
Technical school or on-the-job
training is usually required for other
conservation occupations. In addition
to technical knowledge and skills,
conservationists must have a sincere
interest in the environment and the
desire to protect it. They should
enjoy dealing with others and like
public service, since they often work
with people in the community. Flexi
bility is also important, since a con
servationist may work in a remote
camping area one week, speak to a
community group the next, and fight
a forest or brush fire the next.
This section describes three con
servation occupations—forester,
range manager, and soil conservation
ist.
professions.
Places of Employment
About 24,000 persons—most of
them men—worked as foresters in
1974. Over one-third worked in
private industry, mainly for pulp
and paper, lumber, logging, and
milling companies. About onefourth worked for the Federal
Government, primarily in the
Forest Service of the Department of
Agriculture. The remainder worked
for State and local governments,
colleges and universities, or con
sulting firms or were self-employed,
either as consultants or forest
owners.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
A bachelor’s degree with a major
in forestry is the minimum educa
tional requirement for those desir
ing professional careers in forestry.
An advanced degree is usually
required for teaching and research
positions.
Education in forestry leading to a
bachelor’s or higher degree was of
fered in 1974 by 51 colleges and
universities, of which 40 were ac
credited by the Society of Amer
ican Foresters. Curriculums stress
the liberal arts and communications
skills as well as technical forestry
subjects. Most programs also in
clude courses in forest economics
and business administration to sup
plement the student’s scientific and
technical knowledge. Many col
leges require students to spend one
summer in a field camp operated by
the college. All schools encourage
summer jobs that give firsthand ex
perience in forest or conservation
work.
Forestry graduates often work
under the supervision of ex
perienced foresters before advanc
ing to more responsible positions in
FORESTERS
(D.O.T. 040.081)
Nature of the Work
Forests are a vital resource. They
can be used repeatedly without
being
destroyed—if
properly
managed. The condition of our en
vironment has become a major na
tional concern, and foresters play
an important role in protecting that
environment by ensuring that our
forests are properly used. They
manage, develop, and protect these
lands and their resources—timber,
water, wildlife, forage, and recrea
tional areas.
Foresters also do research, pro
vide forestry information to forest
owners and to the general public
(called extension work), and teach
at colleges and universities.
Foresters often specialize in one
area of work, such as timber
management, outdoor recreation,
or forest economics. Some of these
areas are recognized as distinct
Forester instructs forest crew in core sampling procedure.
forest management or research.
In addition to meeting the intel
lectual demands of forestry work,
foresters must have enthusiasm for
outdoor work and be physically
hardy.
Employment Outlook
As in the past, employment
requirements for foresters are ex
pected to grow about as fast as the
average for all occupations through
the mid-1980’s. In recent years,
however, the number of degrees in
forestry has exceeded occupational
requirements, creating competition
for jobs. If the number of degrees
granted each year remains at
present levels, competition is ex
pected to persist throughout the
period. Opportunities will be better
for those who can offer an em
ployer either an advanced degree or
several years’ experience.
The country will need more
foresters in the future to ensure an
increasing
output
of
forest
products. Employment also may in
crease as we become more aware of
the need to conserve and replenish
our forest resources, and to im
prove the environmental quality of
our forest lands.
Private owners of timberland
may well employ more foresters as
they recognize the need for—and
the higher profitability of—im
proved forestry and logging prac
tices. The forest products industry
will require additional foresters to
apply new techniques for using the
entire forest crop, to develop
methods of growing superior trees
in a shorter period of time, and to
do research in the fields of plant
genetics and fertilization.
Employment of foresters will
probably continue to grow faster in
private industry than in the Federal
Government where budget limita
tions may restrain growth. State
government agencies will probably
hire more foresters through
Federal-State cooperative pro
grams for fire control, protection
against insects and disease, recrea
tion, and technical assistance to
owners of forest lands.
The expected rapid increase in
the employment of ferest techni
cians will reduce the amount of
time spent by professic nal foresters
in performing routine lasks, but the
forester will have to ievote more
and more time to supervisory work
and to the general management of
the forest.
Earnings and Working
Condition s
Foresters starting in private in
dustry in 1974 earned about $9,500
per year, while the median annual
salary in private industry was over
$16,000.
Graduates entering the Federal
Government as fores ers in 1974
with just a bachelor’s degree started
at $8,500 a year. However, because
of keen competition, most foresters
hired by the Federal Government
either held a master’s degree or had
some experience, and generally
started at $10,500 a jear. Ph. D.’s
generally started at $12,841 or
$15,481 a year. The nredian annual
salary in 1974 for f;derally em
ployed foresters exceeded $ 18,000.
In local government, foresters
generally began at abaut $9,200 a
year, while their medi m annual sa
lary was $13,750. State govern
ments paid about $8,600 annually
to start, and State median salaries
were $13,200 per >ear. College
professors generally started at
about $9,300 annually, while their
median salary was ove r $ 18,000 per
year. Many faculty forssters supple
ment their regular salaries with in
come from lecturing, consulting,
and writing.
The
forester—especially
in
beginning jobs—spends considera
ble time outdoors in all kinds of
weather, sometimes in remote
areas. Foresters ma i also work
extra hours on emergency duty, as
in firefighting or search and rescue
missions.
Sources of Additional
Information
General information about the
forestry profession, lists of reading
materials, and lists of schools offer
ing education in forestry are availa
ble from:
Society of American Foresters, 1010 16th St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.
National Forest Products Association, 1619
Massachusetts Ave., NW., Washington,
D.C. 20036.
General career information is
also available from:
American Forest Institute, 1619 Mas
sachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C.
20036.
American Forestry Association, 1319 18th
St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.
For information on forestry
careers in the Forest Service, con
tact:
U .S.
D e p a rtm e n t
of
A g r ic u lt u r e ,
Forest
S e r v ic e , W a s h in g t o n , D . C . 2 0 2 5 0 .
RANGE MANAGERS
(D.O.T. 040.081)
Nature of Work
Rangelands cover more than 1
billion acres of the United States,
mostly in the Western States and
Alaska. They contain many natural
resources: grass and shrubs for
animal
grazing,
habitats
for
livestock
and
wildlife,
vast
watersheds, facilities for water
sports and other kinds of recrea
tion, valuable minerals and energy
resources, and areas for scientific
study of the environment. These
resources can yield their full poten
tial only if properly managed.
Range managers, sometimes
called r a n g e c o n s e r v a tio n i s t s , r a n g e
s c ie n tis ts ,
or r a n g e e c o lo g is ts ,
manage, improve, and protect
range resources. They determine
the number and kind of animals to
be grazed, the grazing system to be
used, and the best season for graz
ing in order to yield a high produc
tion of livestock. At the same time,
they must conserve soil and vegeta
tion for other uses such as wildlife
grazing, outdoor recreation, and
timber
production.
Range
managers restore or improve rangelands through techniques such as
controlled burning, reseeding, and
the
biological,
chemical,
or
mechanical control of undesirable
plants. For example, rangelands
with natural sagebrush vegetation
may be plowed up and reseeded
with a more productive grass. They
also determine and carry out range
conservation and development
needs such as providing for animal
watering facilities, erosion control,
and fire prevention.
Because of the multiple use of
rangelands, range managers often
work in such closely related fields
as wildlife and watershed manage
ment, forest management, and
recreation. Some also work on the
ecological restoration of areas for
merly devoted to mineral extrac
tion. Some range managers teach,
conduct research in range manage
ment and improvement, and give
technical assistance to holders of
privately owned grazing lands.
Range manager reviews grazing permit with rancher.
Places of Employment
About 2,500 persons worked as
range managers in 1974. Additional
numbers were involved in jobs
closely allied to range management.
The majority worked for Federal,
State, and local government agen
cies. In the Federal Government,
most worked in the Forest Service
and the Soil Conservation Service
of the Department of Agriculture
and the Bureau of Land Manage
ment of the Department of the In
terior. Range managers in State
governments are employed in game
and fish departments, State land
agencies, and extension services.
An increasing number of range
managers are working with coal and
oil companies to help restore an
ecological balance to mined out
areas. Some range managers are
employed by private ranches, while
others work as appraisers for banks
and real estate firms.
A few range managers teach and
do research at colleges and univer
sities. Others work overseas with
United States and United Nations
agencies and with foreign govern
ments.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
A bachelor’s degree with a major
in range management or range con
servation is the usual minimum edu
cational requirement for range
managers. In the Federal Govern
ment, a degree in a closely related
field, such as agronomy or forestry,
including courses in range manage
ment and range conservation, may
also be accepted. Graduate degrees
are generally required for teaching
and research, and may be helpful
for advancement in other jobs.
In 1974, 34 colleges and universi
ties belonged to the Range Science
Education Council. About half
these schools offered full programs
leading to degrees in range manage
ment or range science. The rest
generally offered supplementary
range science courses.
A degree in range management
requires a basic knowledge of biolo
gy, chemistry, physics, mathe
matics, and communication skills.
Specialized courses combine plant,
animal, and soil sciences with prin
ciples of ecology and resource
management. Desirable electives
include
economics,
computer
science, forestry, wildlife, and
recreation.
Federal Government agencies,
primarily the Forest Service, the
Soil Conservation Service, and the
Bureau of Land Management, hire
some college juniors and seniors for
summer jobs in range management.
This experience may help them
qualify for jobs when they graduate.
Besides having a love for the out
doors, range managers should be
able to write and speak effectively
and work with others.
Employment Outlook
Employment opportunities for
range managers are expected to be
good through the mid-1980’s. In
creasing pressures for an abundant
supply of meat and other rangeland
animal products should stimulate
demand for range managers. Since
the amount of rangeland is
generally fixed, range managers will
be needed to increase the output of
rangelands while protecting their
ecological balance.
As oil and coal exploration ac
celerates, and with the exploitation
of oil shale fields; private industry
will probably require many more
range specialists to rehabilitate
ecologically disturbed areas.
The use of rangelands for other
purposes such as wildlife protection
and recreation could create addi
tional needs for range managers.
Federal hiring, however, depends
heavily upon legislation designed to
protect, control, and manage range
resources.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
In the Federal Government,
range managers with the bachelor’s
degree start at either $8,500 or
$10,520, depending on their col
lege grades. Those having 1 or 2
years of graduate work begin at
$10,520 or $12,841; persons with
Ph. D. degrees start at either
$15,481 or $18,463 a year.
Starting salaries for range
managers who work for State
governments are about the same as
those paid by the Federal Govern
ment and private corporations. Ac
soil
deterioration,
rebuilding
eroded and depleted soils, and sta
bilizing runoff and sedimentproducing areas. They also help im
prove cover on lands devoted to
raising crops, and maintaining
forest, pasture, and range land and
the wildlife these lands support.
They help plan water handling, con
serving water for farm and ranch
use, reducing damage from flood
water and sediment, and draining or
irrigating farms or ranches as
needed.
The types of technical services
provided by soil conservationists
are many. They prepare maps
which present inventories of soil,
Sources of Additional
water, vegetation, and other details
Informat on
essential in conservation planning
Information about a career as a and application. They develop in
range manager as wsll as a list of formation
concerning
proper
schools offering training is available methods of land utilization depend
from:
ing on the planned use of the land,
Society for Range Man, gement, 2120 S. for areas varying from field or par
Birch St., Denver, Colo. 80222.
tial farm or ranch through groups of
For information about career op farms or ranches to entire
portunities in the Federal Govern watersheds. They help estimate
ment, contact:
relative costs and expected returns
of various alternatives of land use
Bureau of Land Managem:nt, Denver Serv
ice Center, Federal Center Building
and treatment.
50, Denver, Col. 802 55.
After the landowner or operator
Forest Service, U S. Department of Agricul decides which conservation pro
ture, 1621 N. Kent :>t., Arlington, Va.
gram to use, the conservationist
20415.
records the relevant facts as part of
Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Department
a plan. This, together with the maps
of Agriculture, Washington, DC.
and other supplemental informa
20250.
tion, constitutes a plan of action for
conservation farming or ranching.
The soil conservationist then gives
the
land
manager
technical
guidance in applying and maintain
ing these conservation practices.
cording to limited data, those who
work on private ranches earn
somewhat lower salaries than per
sons who work fo* government
agencies. In colleges and universi
ties, Ph. D.’s general y start around
$14,000 a year. Range managers in
educational institutions sometimes
supplement their rtgular salaries
with income from part-time con
sulting and lecturing and from writ
ing books and article;.
Range managers it ay spend con
siderable time awa;/ from home
working outdoors in i emote parts of
the range.
SOIL
CONSERVATIONISTS
(D.O.T. 040.081)
Nature of the Work
Soil conservationists provide far
mers, ranchers, and others with
technical assistance in the conser
vation of soil and water. Farmers
and other land managers use this
technical assistant in adjusting
land use, protecting land against
Where Employed
An estimated 8,500 soil conser
vationists were employed in 1974,
mostly by the Federal Government
in the U.S. Department of Agricul
ture’s Soil Conservation Service
and the Department of the Interi
or’s Bureau of Indian Affairs. Some
are employed by colleges and State
and local governments, and others
by banks and public utilities.
Training and Advancement
A bachelor of science degree
with a major in soil conservation or
one of the closely related agricul
tural or natural resource sciences,
such as agronomy, forestry, wildlife
biology, regional planning, agricul
tural education, or agricultural en
gineering. Study must include 30semester hours or the equivalent in
natural resources or agricultural
fields, including the equivalent of 3semester hours in soils.
Employment Outlook
Employment opportunities for
well-trained soil conservationists
are good. Opportunities in the
profession will expand because
public utility companies, banks, and
other organizations are becoming
interested in conservation and are
adding conservationists to their
staffs. Some new openings will
occur in college teaching at the un
dergraduate level. In addition, some
openings will result because of the
normal turnover in personnel.
Earnings
Earnings of well-qualified Federal
soil conservationists with several
years’ experience range from
$15,481 to $25,581 a year.
Sources of Additional
Information
Additional information on em
ployment as a soil conservationist
may be obtained from the U.S. Civil
Service Commission, Washington,
D.C. 20415; Employment Division,
Office of Personnel, U.S. Depart
ment of Agriculture, Washington,
D.C. 20250; or any office of the
Soil conservationists having a
bachelor’s degree and employed by
the Federal Government received
$8,500 a year in late 1974. Ad
vancement to $10,520 could be ex Department’s Soil Conservation
pected after 1 year of satisfactory
Service.
service. Further advancement de
pends upon the individual’s ability
to accept greater responsibility.
Nature of the Work
ENGINEERS
The work of engineers affects our
lives in thousands of different ways.
Their past accomplishments have
enabled us to drive safer automo
biles, reach the moon, and even
prolong
life
through special
machinery. Future accomplish
ments could help us obtain energy
self-sufficiency, develop more pol
lution-free powerplants and aid
medical science’s fight against dis
ease.
In 1974, more than 1.1 million
persons were employed as en
gineers, the second largest profes
sional occupation exceeded only by
teachers. About 1 percent of all en
gineers were women. The number
of women engineers is expected to
increase in the future, since enroll
ments of women in engineering pro
grams have increased sharply over
the past several years.
Most engineers specialize in one
of the more than 25 specialties
recognized by professional socie
ties. Within the major branches are
over 85 subdivisions. Structural, en
vironmental,
hydraulic,
and
highway engineering, for example,
are subdivisions of civil engineer
ing. Engineers may also specialize
in the engineering problems of one
industry, such as motor vehicles, or
in a particular field of technology,
such as propulsion or guidance
systems. Since knowledge of basic
engineering principles is required
for all areas of engineering, it is
possible for engineers to shift from
one branch or field of specialization
to another, especially during the
early stages of their careers. This
section, which contains an overall
discussion of engineering, is fol
lowed by separate statements on 12
branches of the professionaerospace, agricultural, biomedical,
ceramic, chemical, civil, electrical,
industrial, mechanical, metallurgi
cal, mining, and petroleum en
gineering.
Engineers
develop
electric
power, water supply, and waste
disposal systems to meet the
problems of urbar living. They
design machines ard artificial or
gans which save coi ntless numbers
of lives. They design industrial
machinery and equ pment used to
manufacture goods, and heating,
air-conditioning, and ventilation
equipment for mo e comfortable
living. Engineers also develop
scientific equipmeni to probe outer
space and the oce in depths, and
design, plan, and supervise the con
struction of buildings, highways,
and rapid transit systems. They
design and develop consumer
products such a: automobiles,
television sets, an i refrigerators,
and systems for control and auto
mation of manufacturing, business,
and management processes.
Engineers must consider many
factors in developing a new
product. For example, in develop
ing new devices to educe automo
bile exhaust emissions, engineers
must determine the general nature
of the device, calculate and test all
components, and f i: them together
in an integrated plan. They must
then evaluate the o erall effective
ness of the new devi :e, as well as its
cost and reliability These factors
are applicable to me st products, in
cluding those as different as artifi
cial hearts, electro lie computers,
or industrial machin ;ry.
In addition tc design and
development, engi leers work in
testing, production, or operation
and maintenance. S:ill others are in
administrative and management
jobs
where
ai
engineering
background is nece sary, or in sales
where they discus; the technical
aspects of a product and assist in
planning its installation of use. (See
statement
on
Manufacturers’
Salesworkers elsewhi re in this book.)
Engineers with con: iderable experi
ence sometimes wor < as consultants
or teach in the engin :ering schools of
colleges and universities.
Engineers within each of the
branches may apply their special
ized knowledge to many fields.
Electrical engineers, for example,
work in medicine, computers, mis
sile guidance, or electric power dis
tribution.
Because engineering
problems are usually complex, the
work in some fields cuts across the
traditional branches. Using a team
approach to solve problems, en
gineers in one field often work
closely with specialists in other
scientific, engineering, and business
occupations.
Places of Employment
More than half of all engineers
work in manufacturing industries—
mostly in the electrical equipment,
aircraft and parts, machinery,
chemicals, scientific instruments,
primary metals, fabricated metal
products, and motor vehicle indus
tries. Over 330,000 were employed
in nonmanufacturing industries in
1974, primarily in construction,
public utilities, engineering and
architectural services, and business
and management consulting ser
vices.
Federal, State, and local govern
ments
employed
more
than
150,000
engineers. Over half
worked for the Federal Govern
ment, mainly in the Departments of
Defense,
Interior, Agriculture,
Transportation, and in the National
Aeronautics and Space Administra
tion. Most engineers in State and
local government agencies worked
in highway and public works de
partments.
Colleges and universities em
ployed about 43,000 engineers in
research and teaching jobs, and a
small number worked for nonprofit
research organizations.
Engineers are employed in every
State, in small and large cities and
in rural areas. However, about twothirds of all engineers in private in
dustry are employed in 10 States,
and of these almost one-third are in
California, New York, and Pennsyl
vania. Some branches of engineer
ing are concentrated in particular
industries, as discussed in the state
ments later in this chapter.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
A bachelor’s degree in engineer
ing is the generally accepted educa
tional requirement for beginning
engineering jobs. College graduates
trained in one of the natural
sciences or mathematics also may
qualify for some beginning jobs. Ex
perienced technicians with some
engineering education are some
times able to advance to engineer
ing jobs.
Graduate training is being
emphasized for an increasing
number of jobs; it is essential for
most beginning teaching and
research positions, and desirable
for advancement. Some specialties,
such as nuclear engineering, are
taught mainly at the graduate level.
About 280 colleges and universi
ties offer a bachelor’s degree in en
gineering. Although programs in
the larger branches of engineering
are offered in most of these institu
tions, some small specialties are
taught in only a very few. There
fore, students desiring specialized
training should investigate curriculums before selecting a college. Ad
missions requirements for un
dergraduate engineering schools
usually include high school courses
in advanced mathematics and the
physical sciences.
In a typical 4-year curriculum,
the first 2 years are spent studying
basic
sciences—mathematics,
physics, chemistry, introductory en
gineering—and the humanities, so
cial sciences, and English. The last
2 years are devoted, for the most
part, to specialized engineering
courses. Some programs offer a
general engineering curriculum,
permitting the student to choose a
specialty in graduate school or
acquire it on the job.
Some engineering curriculums
require more than 4 years to
complete. A number of colleges
and universities now offer 5-year
master’s degree programs. In addi
tion, several engineering schools
have formal arrangements with
liberal arts colleges whereby a stu
dent spends 3 years in liberal arts
and 2 years in engineering and
receives a bachelor’s degree from
each.
Some schools have 5- or even 6year cooperative plans where stu
dents coordinate classroom study
and practical work experience. In
addition to gaining useful ex
perience, students can finance part
of their education. Because of the
need to keep up with rapid ad
vances in technology, engineers
often continue their education
throughout their careers in pro
grams sponsored by employers, or
in colleges and universities after
working hours.
All 50 States and the District of
Columbia require licensing for en
gineers whose work may affect life,
health, or property, or who offer
their services to the public. In 1974,
about 350,000 engineers were re
gistered. Generally, registration
requirements include a degree from
an accredited engineering school, 4
years of relevant work experience,
and the passing of a State examina
tion.
Engineering graduates usually
begin work under the supervision of
experienced engineers. Many com
panies have special programs to
acquaint new engineers with special
industrial practices and to deter
mine the specialties for which they
are best suited. Experienced en
gineers may advance to positions of
greater responsibility; those with
proven ability often become ad
ministrators and increasingly larger
numbers are being promoted to top
executive jobs. Some engineers ob
tain graduate degrees in business
administration to improve their ad
vancement opportunities, while still
others obtain law degrees and
become patent attorneys.
Engineers should be able to work
as part of a team and have creativi
ty, an analytical mind, and a capaci
ty for detail. They should be able to
express their ideas well orally and in
writing.
Employment Outlook
Employment opportunities for
engineers are expected to be good
through the mid-1980’s. Opportuni
ties for recent graduates of en
gineering schools are expected to
be very good since the number of
new graduates is expected to fall
short of the number needed to fill
the thousands of openings created
by employment growth, and the
need to replace those who die,
retire, or transfer to other occupa
tions. Because of the expected
shortage, many openings will be
filled by upgraded technicians and
college graduates from related
fields.
Employment requirements for
engineers are expected to grow
faster than the average for all occu
pations through the mid-1980’s.
Much of this growth will stem from
industrial expansion to meet the de
mand for more goods and services.
More engineers will be needed in
the design and construction of fac
tories, electric powerplants, office
buildings,
and
transportation
systems, as well as in the develop
ment and manufacture of more ad
vanced computers, scientific instru
ments, industrial machinery, chemi
cal products, and motor vehicles.
Many engineers will be required
in energy-related activities develop
ing new sources of energy as well as
designing energy-saving systems for
automobiles, homes, and other
buildings. Engineers also will be
needed to solve environmental pol
lution problems.
Defense spending will also affect
the outlook for engineers, since a
large number work in defense-re
lated activities. The long-range out
look for engineers given here is
based on the assumption that
defense spending will increase from
its 1974 level by the mid-1980’s,
but will still be somewhat lower
than the peak levels of the 1960’s.
If, however, defense activity differs
substantially from the level as
sumed, the demand for engineers
will differ from that now expected.
Since so many factors affect
overall employment requirements,
opportunities for engineers fluctu
ate periodically. In the short run,
the available engineering jobs can
either exceed or fall short of the
number of persons looking for jobs,
but over the long run, engineers can
look forward to good job opportu
nities.
(The
outlook
for
various
branches is discussed in the
separate statements later in this sec
tion.)
Earnings and Working
Conditions
New engineering graduates with
a bachelor’s degree and no ex
perience were offered average
starting salaries of $ 11,940 a year in
private industry in 1974, according
to the College Placement Council.
Master’s degree graduates with no
experience
averaged
almost
$13,700 a year; Ph. D. graduates
averaged about $18,000. Starting
offers for those with the bachelor’s
degree vary by branch as shown in
the accompanying table.
college records. Those with a
master’s degree could start at
$10,520 or $12,841. Those having
a Ph. D. degree coi Id begin at
$15,481 or $18,463. The average
salary for experienced engineers in
the Federal Government varied by
engineering branch, ranging from
$20,300 for agricultural engineers
to $26,900 for nuclear engineers.
In colleges and universities in
1974, engineers start ;d at about
$10,550 a year as instructors, or
$13,050 a year as assistant profes
sors for a 9- or 10- month academic
year. (See statement on College
and University Teachers elsewhere
in this book.
Engineers can expec t an increase
in earnings as they gain experience.
According to an Engineering Man
power Commission Survey, the
average salary for engineers with 21
to 23 years of experience was
$22,900 in 1974. Some in top-level
executive positions had much
higher earnings.
Many engineers wore under quiet
conditions in modern offices and
research laboratories. Others, how
ever, spend time in more active
work—in a factory or mine, at a
construction site, or some other
outdoor location.
A e r o n a u t ic a l e n g in e e r in g .......
$ 1 1 ,5 0 0
1 2 ,5 0 0
C i v i l e n g in e e r in g ....................
1 1 .6 0 0
E le c t r ic a l e n g in e e r in g ............
1 1 .8 0 0
In d u s t r ia l e n g in e e r in g ............
1 1 ,7 0 0
M e c h a n ic a l e n g in e e r in g ..........
1 2 ,0 0 0
M e t a llu r g ic a l e n g in e e r in g ......
1 2 ,0 0 0
In the Federal Government in
late 1974, engineers with a
bachelor’s degree and no ex
perience could start at $8,500 or
$10,520 a year, depending on their
E n g in e e r s ’
C o u n c il
D e v e lo p m e n t , 3 4 5
Y o rk , N .Y . 10017.
E n g in e e r in g
M anpow er
fo r
P r o f e s s io n a l
E
4 7 t h St., N e w
C o m m is s io n ,
A m e ric a n
S o c ie t y fo r E n g in e e r in g E d u c a
tio n , O n e D u p o n t C ir c le ,
W a s h in g t o n , D . C . 2 0 0 3 6 .
S u it e
400,
Societies representing the in
dividual branches of the engineer
ing profession are listed later in this
chapter. Each can provide informa
tion about careers in the particular
branch. Many other engineering or
ganizations are listed in the follow
ing publications available in most
libraries or from the publisher:
D ir e c t o r y
of
E n g in e e r i n g
S o c ie t ie s ,
p u b lis h e d b y E n g in e e r s J o in t C o u n c il,
3 4 5 E . 4 7 t h St., N e w Y o r k , N . Y . 1 0 0 1 7 .
S c ie n tif ic
and
T e c h n ic a l
S o c ie tie s
of
th e
U n ite d S ta t e s a n d C a n a d a , p u b lis h e d b y
the N a t io n a l A c a d e m y o f S c ie n c e s , N a
t io n a l R e s e a r c h C o u n c il.
Some engineers are members of
labor unions. Information on en
gineering unions is available from:
In t e r n a t io n a l F e d e r a t io n o f P r o f e s s io n a l a n d
T e c h n ic a l E n g in e e r s , 1 1 2 6 1 6 th St.
N W . , W a s h in g t o n , D . C . 2 0 0 3 6 .
AEROSPACE ENGINEERS
(D.O.T. 002.081)
Nature of the Work
Sources of Additional
Information
General information on engineer
ing careers—including
student
Starting salaries for engineers, by branch,
selection and guidance, profes
1 9 7 3 -7 4
sional training, and salaries—is
A verage starting
available from:
Branch
salaries
C h e m i c a l e n g in e e r in g ............
For information about graduate
study, contact:
En
g in e e r s J o in t C o u n c il, 3 4 5 E . 4 7 t h St.,
N e w Y o rk . 10017.
N a t io n a l S o c ie t y o f P r o f e s s io n a l E n g in e e r s ,
2 0 2 9 K St. N W . , W a s h in g t o n , D . C .
20006.
Information on registration of en
gineers may be obtain2 d from:
N a t io n a l C o u n c il o f E n g in e e r in g E x a m in e r s ,
P .O . B o x 7 5 2 , C le m s o n , S .C . 2 9 6 1 3 .
Aerospace engineers play a vital
role in America’s defense and space
activities. They work on all types of
aircraft and spacecraft including
missiles, rockets, and military and
commercial planes. They develop
aerospace products from initial
planning and design to final as
sembly and testing.
Aerospace engineers generally
specialize in an area of work like
structural
design,
navigational
guidance and control, instrumenta
tion and communication, or
production methods. They also may
specialize in one type of aerospace
product such as passenger planes,
launch vehicles, satellites, manned
space capsules, or landing modules.
Places of Employment
About 52,000 aerospace en
gineers were employed in 1974,
mainly in the aircraft and parts in
dustry. Some worked for Federal
Government agencies, primarily the
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration and the Department
of Defense. A few worked for com
mercial airlines, consulting firms,
and colleges and universities.
Employment Outlook
Employment of aerospace en
gineers is expected to rise above
recent levels by the mid-1980’s.
Employment of aerospace en
gineers is largely determined by the
level of Federal expenditures on
defense and space programs: in the
past, rapid changes in spending
levels have usually been accom
panied by sharp employment fluc
tuations. Expenditures for the space
program are expected to increase
only slightly from 1974 to the mid1980’s, while defense spending will
probably
increase moderately.
Although neither defense nor space
expenditures are expected to reach
their peak levels of the 1960’s,
many additional workers will be
required to fill openings created by
growth of the aerospace industry
and by deaths, retirements, and
transfers. (See introductory section
of this chapter for discussion of
training requirements and earnings.)
Sources of Additional
Information
A m e r i c a n In s titu te o f A e r o n a u t ic s a n d A s
tro n a u tic s , In c ., 1 2 9 0 A v e n u e o f the
A m e r ic a s , N e w Y o r k , N . Y . 1 0 0 1 9 .
AGRICULTURAL
ENGINEERS
(D.O.T. 013.081)
Nature of the Work
Agricultural engineers develop
machinery,
equipment,
and
methods to improve efficiency in
the production, processing, and dis
tribution of food and other agricul
tural products. They design farm
machinery, equipment, and struc
tures, and develop methods for
utilizing electrical energy on farms
and in food and feed processing
plants. Agricultural engineers also
are concerned with the conserva
tion and management of soil and
water resources. They work in
research and development, produc
tion, sales, or management.
Places of Employment
Most of the 12,000 agricultural
engineers employed in
1974
worked for manufacturers of farm
and household equipment, electric
utility companies, and distributors
of farm equipment and supplies.
Some worked for engineering con
sultants who supply services to far
mers and farm-related industries;
others were independent con
sultants.
The Federal Government em
ploys about 600 agricultural en
gineers in the Soil Conservation
Service and Agricultural Research
Service of the Department of
Agriculture. Some are employed by
colleges and universities, and a few
are employed by State and local
governments.
Employment Outlook
Employment of agricultural en
gineers is expected to grow faster
than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1980’s. Increasing
demand for agricultural products,
modernization of farm operations,
increasing emphasis on conserva
tion of resources, and the use of
agricultural products and wastes as
industrial raw materials should pro
vide opportunities for additional
engineers. (See introductory part of
this section for information on
training requirements and earnings.)
Sources of Additional
Information
A m e r i c a n S o c ie t y o f A g r ic u lt u r a l E n g in e e r s ,
2 9 5 0 N ile s R d . , St. J o se p h , M ic h .
49085.
BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERS
Nature of the Work
Biomedical engineers use en
gineering principles to solve medi
cal and health-related problems.
Many do research, along with life
scientists, chemists, and members
of the medical profession, on the
engineering aspects of the biologi
cal systems of man and animals.
Some design and develop medical
instruments and devices including
artificial hearts and kidneys, lasers
for surgery, and pacemakers that
regulate the heartbeat. Other
biomedical engineers adapt compu
ters to medical science, and design
and build systems to modernize
laboratory, hospital, and clinical
procedures. Most engineers in this
field require a sound background in
one of the major engineering
disciplines (mechanical, electrical
or chemical) in addition to special
ized biomedical training.
Places of Employment
There were 3,000 biomedical en
gineers in 1974. Most teach and do
research in colleges and universi
ties. Some work for the Federal
Government, primarily in the Na
tional Aeronautics and Space Ad
ministration, or in State agencies.
An increasing number work in
private industry developing new
devices, techniques, and systems
for improving health care. Some
work in sales positions.
Employment Outlook
Employment of biomedical en
gineers is expected to grow faster
than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1980’s, but the ac
tual number of openings is not like
ly to be very large. Those who have
master’s and Ph. D. degrees will be
in strong demand to teach and to fill
jobs resulting from increased ex
penditures for medical research. In
creased research funds could also
create new positions in instrumen
tation and systems for the delivery
of health services. (See introducto
ry part of this chapter for informa
tion on training requirements and
earnings.)
Sources of Additional
Information
Alliance for Engineering in Medicine and
Biology, 3900 Wisconsin Ave. NW.,
Suite 300, Washington, D.C. 20016.
Biomedical Engineering Society, P.O. Box
2399, Culver City, Calif. 90230.
Foundation for Medical Technology, Mt.
Sinai Medical Center, 100 St., 5th Ave.,
New York, N.Y. 10029.
nuclear reactors. They also design
and supervise the construction of
plants and equipment lo manufac
ture these products.
Ceramic engineers generally spe
cialize in one or more products—
for example, products of refracto
ries (fire-and heat-resistant materi
als such as firebrick); white wares
(porcelain and china di inerware or
high voltage electrical insulators);
structural materials (such as brick
tile, and terra cotta) electronic
ceramics (ferrites fcr memory
systems and microwa\e devices);
protective and refractory coatings
for metals; glass; abrasives; cements
technology; or fuel e ements for
atomic energy.
Places of Employment
About 12,000 ceramic engineers
were employed in 1974, mostly in
the stone, clay, and glass industries.
Others work in industries that
produce or use ceramic products
such as the iron and ste;l, electrical
equipment, aerospace, and chemi
cals industries. Some ars in colleges
and
universities,
ndependent
research organizations., and the
Federal Government.
Employment Outlook
CERAMIC ENGINEERS
(D.O.T. 006.081)
Nature of the Work
Ceramic
engineers
develop
methods for processing ceramic
materials into useful products.
Although to some, the word ceram
ics means pottery, ceramics ac
tually include a wide range of
products with thousands of uses.
Ceramics include all non-metallic,
inorganic materials which require
the use of high temperature in their
processing. Thus, ceramic en
gineers work on diverse products
such as glassware, heat-resisting
materials for missile nose cones,
electronic components and materi
als used in medical devices, and
Employment of ceramic en
gineers is expected to grow faster
than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1980’s.
Programs related to nuclear ener
gy, electronics, defense, and medi
cal science will provide job oppor
tunities for ceramic engineers. Ad
ditional ceramic engineers will be
required to improve and adapt
traditional ceramic products, such
as white wares and abrasives, to new
uses. The developmer t of filters
and catalytic surfaces to reduce
pollution, and the development of
ceramic materials for jnergy con
version and conserva.ion should
create additional openings for
ceramic engineers. (See introducto
ry part of this section l or informa
tion on training requirements and
earnings.)
Sources of Additional
Information
American Ceramic Society, 65 Ceramic Dr.,
Columbus, Ohio 43214.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERS
(D.O.T. 008.081)
Nature of the Work
Chemical engineers are involved
in many phases of the production of
chemicals and chemical products.
They design equipment and chemi
cal plants as well as determine
methods of manufacturing the
product. Often, they design and
operate pilot plants to test their
work
and develop
chemical
processes such as those for remov
ing chemical contaminants from
waste materials. Because the duties
of chemical engineers cut across
many fields, these professionals
must have a working knowledge of
chemistry, physics, and mechanical
and electrical engineering.
This branch of engineering is so
diversified and complex that chemi
cal engineers frequently specialize
in a particular operation such as ox
idation or polymerization. Others
specialize in a particular area such
as environmental control or in the
production of a specific product
like plastics or rubber.
Places of Employment
Most of the 50,000 chemical en
gineers working in 1974 were in
manufacturing industries, primarily
those producing chemicals, petrole
um, and related products. Some
worked in government agencies or
taught and did research in colleges
and universities. A small number
worked for independent research
institutes and engineering consult
ing firms, or as independent con
sulting engineers.
CIVIL ENGINEERS
(D.O.T. 005.081)
Nature of the Work
Civil engineering is one of the ol
dest branches of the profession.
Civil engineers design and supervise
the construction of roads, harbors,
airports, tunnels, bridges, water
supply and sewage systems, and
buildings. Major specialties within
civil engineering are structural,
hydraulic, environmental (sanitary),
transportation (including highways
and railways), geotechnical and soil
mechanics.
Many civil engineers are in super
visory or administrative positions
ranging from site supervisor of a
construction project or city en
gineer to top-level executive.
Others teach in colleges and univer
sities or work as consultants.
Places of Employment
Sources of Additional
Information
Nearly 170,000 civil engineers
were employed in 1974. Most work
for Federal, State, and local govern
ment agencies or in the construc
tion industry. Many work for con
sulting engineering and architec
tural firms or as independent con
sulting engineers. Others work for
public utilities, railroads, educa
tional institutions, and manufactur
ing industries.
Civil engineers work in all parts
of the country, usually in or near
major industrial and commercial
centers. They often work at con
struction sites, sometimes in remote
areas or in foreign countries. In
some jobs, they must often move
from place to place to work on dif
ferent projects.
American Institute of Chemical Engineers,
345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y.
10017.
Employment Outlook
Chemical engineer checks production instructions on chemical plant.
Employment Outlook
Employment of chemical en
gineers is expected to grow faster
than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1980’s. A major
factor underlying this growth is in
dustry expansion—the chemicals
industry in particular.
The growing complexity and au
tomation of chemical processes will
require additional chemical en
gineers to design, build, and main
tain the necessary plants and equip
ment. Chemical engineers also will
be needed in solving problems of
environmental protection, synthetic
food processing, and in the design
and development of nuclear reac
tors. In addition, development of
new chemicals used in the manufac
ture of consumer goods, such as
plastics and man-made fibers,
probably will create additional
openings. (See introductory part of
this section for information on
training requirements and earnings.
See also the statement on Chemists
elsewhere in this book.)
Employment of civil engineers is
expected to increase faster than the
average for all occupations through
the mid-1980’s. Job opportunities
instrumentation, radar, computers,
lasers,
and missile guidance
systems; and electrical appliances
of all kinds. They also design and
operate facilities for generating and
distributing electric power.
Electrical engineers generally
specialize in a major area of work
such as electronics, computers,
electrical equipment manufactur
ing, communications, or power.
Others specialize in subdivisions of
these broad areas like microwaves
or missile guidance and tracking
systems. Many are engaged in
research, development, and design
activities. Some are in administra
tive and management jobs; others
work in manufacturing operations,
in technical sales, or in college
teaching.
Places of Employment
Civil engineers design a variety of projects such as roads, bridges, a id air fields.
will result from the growing needs
for housing, industrial buildings,
electric power generating plants,
and transportation systems created
by an increasing population and an
expanding economy. Work related
to solving problems of environmen
tal pollution and energy self-suffi
ciency will also require additional
civil engineers. Increasing develop
ment of offshore drilling facilities
will create additional openings for
civil engineers in this specialized
area.
Many civil engineers also will be
needed each year to replace those
who retire or die. (See introductory
part of this section for information
on training requirements and
earnings.)
Sources of Additional
Information
American Society of Civil Engineers, 345 E.
47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017.
Electrical engineering is the larg
est branch of the profession. Near
ly 290,000 electrical engineers
were employed in 1974, mainly by
manufacturers of electrical and
electronic equipment, aircraft and
parts, business machines, and
professional and scientific equip
ment. Many work for telephone,
telegraph, and electric light and
power companies. Large numbers
are employed by government agen
cies and by colleges and universi
ties. Others work for construction
firms, for engineering consultants,
or as independent consulting en
gineers.
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS
(D.O.T. 003.081, .151 and .187)
Employment Outlook
Nature of the V/ork
Employment of electrical en
gineers is expected to increase
faster than the average for all occu
pations through the mid-1980’s. In
creased demand for products such
as computers, communications and
electric power generating equip
ment, and military electronics is ex
pected to be the major factor con
tributing to this growth. The de-
Electrical
engineeis
design,
develop, and supervise the manu
facture of electrical and electronic
equipment. These include electric
motors and generators communi
cations
equipment;
electronic
equipment
such
as
heart
pacemakers, pollution measuring
mand for electrical and electronic
consumer goods, along with in
creased research and development
in nuclear power generation, should
create additional jobs for electrical
engineers. Many electrical en
gineers also will be needed to
replace personnel who retire, die,
or transfer to other fields of work.
The long-range outlook for elec
trical engineers is based on the as
sumption that defense spending in
the mid-1980’s will increase from
the 1974 level, but will still be
somewhat lower than the peak level
of the late 1960’s. If defense activi
ty should differ substantially from
the projected level, the demand for
electrical engineers will differ from
that now expected.
(See introductory part of this sec
tion for information on training
requirements and earnings.)
Sources of Additional
Information
Institute of Electrical and Electronic En
gineers, 345 East 47th St., New York,
N Y . 10017.
INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERS
(D.O.T. 012.081, .168, and .188)
Nature of the Work
Industrial engineers determine
the most effective ways for an
organization to use the basic
factors of production—personnel,
machines, and materials. They are
more concerned with people and
methods of business organization,
than are engineers in other special
ties who generally are concerned
more with particular products or
processes, such as metals, or power
and mechanics.
Industrial
engineers
design
systems for data processing and
apply
operations
research
techniques
to
organizational,
production, and related problems.
They also develop management
control systems to aid in financial
planning and cost analysis, design
production planning and control
systems to coordinate activities and
control product quality, and design
or improve systems for the physical
distribution of goods and services.
Other activities include plant loca
tion surveys, where they must con
sider sources of raw materials,
transportation, and taxes, and the
development of wage and salary ad
ministration concepts and job
evaluation programs.
Places of Employment
About 180,000 industrial en
gineers were employed in 1974;
more than two-thirds worked in
manufacturing industries. Because
their skills can be used in almost
any type of company, they are more
widely distributed among industries
than are those in other branches of
engineering. For example, some
work for insurance companies,
banks, construction and mining
firms, and public utilities. Hospitals,
retail organizations, and other large
business firms employ industrial en
gineers to improve operating effi
ciency. Still others work for govern
ment agencies and colleges and
universities. A few are independent
consulting engineers.
Employment Outlook
Industrial engineer reviews film of production process to check for problems.
Employment of industrial en
gineers is expected to grow faster
than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1980’s. The in
creasing complexity of industrial
operations and the expansion of au-
tomated processes, along with in
dustry growth, are factors con
tributing to employment growth. In
creased recognition of the im
portance of scientific management
and safety engineering in reducing
costs and increasing productivity,
and the need to solve problems of
environmental pollution, should
create additional opportunities.
Additional numbers of industrial
engineers will be required each year
to replace those who retire, die, or
transfer to other occupations. (See
introductory part of this section for
information on training require
ments and earnings.)
Sources of Additional
Information
American Institute of Industrial Engineers,
Inc., 25 Technology Park, Atlanta, Norcross, Ga. 30071.
MECHANICAL
ENGINEERS
(D.O.T. 007.081, .151, .168, and
.187)
Nature of the Work
Mechanical engineers are con
cerned with the production, trans
mission, and use of power. They
design and develop machines that
produce power, such as internal
combustion engines, steam and gas
turbines, jet and rocket engines,
and nuclear reactors. They also
design and develop a great variety
of machines that use power—
refrigeration and air-conditioning
equipment, elevators, machine
tools, printing presses, steel rolling
mills, and many others.
Many specialized areas of work
have developed within this field
and, since mechanical engineers are
employed in nearly all industries,
their work varies with the industry
and the function performed.
Among these specialties are motor
Mechanical engineers test a mockup of equipment.
vehicles, marine equipment, steampower, heating, ventilating and airconditioning, instrumentation, and
machines for specialize! 1 industries,
such as petroleum, rubber and
plastics, and construction.
Large numbers of mechanical en
gineers do research, test, and design
work. Many are admir istrators or
managers, while others work in
maintenance, technical sales, and
production operations. Some teach
in colleges and universities or work
as consultants.
Places of Employment
About 185,000 mechanical en
gineers were employed in 1974. Al
most three-fourths werj employed
in manufacturing—ma nly in the
primary and fabricated metals,
machinery, transportal ion equip
ment, and electrical equipment in
dustries. Others work for govern
ment agencies, educational institu
tions, and consulting engineering
firms.
Employment Outlook
Employment of mechanical en
gineers is expected to increase
faster than the average for all occu
pations through the mid-1980’s.
The growing demand for industrial
machinery and machine tools and
the increasing complexity of indus
trial machinery and processes will
be major factors supporting in
creased employment opportunities.
Growing demand for nuclear
power, as well as the need to solve
environmental pollution problems,
will also contribute to employment
growth.
Large numbers of mechanical en
gineers also will be required each
year to replace those who retire,
die, or transfer to other occupa
tions. (See introductory part of this
section for information on training
requirements and earnings.)
Sources of Additional
Information
The American Society of Mechanical En
gineers, 345 E. 47th St., New York,
N .Y .10017.
METALLURGICAL
ENGINEERS
(D.O.T. 011.081)
Nature of the Work
Metallurgical engineers, increas
ingly referred to as materials en
gineers, develop methods to
process and convert metals into
useful products. These engineers
generally work in one of the three
main branches of metallurgy—ex
tractive or chemical, physical, and
mechanical. Extractive metallur
gists are concerned with extracting
metals from ores, and refining and
alloying them to obtain useful
metal. Physical metallurgists deal
with the nature, structure, and
physical properties of metals and
their alloys, and with methods of
converting refined metals into final
products. Mechanical metallurgists
develop methods to work and shape
metals such as casting, forging,
rolling, and drawing. Scientists
working in this field are known as
metallurgists or materials scientists,
but
the
distinction
between
scientists and engineers is small.
Places of Employment
The metalworking industries—
primarily the iron and steel and
nonferrous metals industries—em
ployed over one-half of the esti
mated 17,000 metallurgical and
materials engineers in 1974. Metal
lurgical engineers also work in in
dustries that manufacture machin
ery, electrical equipment, and air
craft and parts, and in the mining
industry. Some work for govern
ment agencies and colleges and
universities.
Employment Outlook
Employment of metallurgical and
materials engineers is expected to
grow about as fast as the average for
all occupations through the mid1980’s. An increasing number of
these engineers will be needed by
the metalworking industries to
develop new metals and alloys as
well as to adapt current ones to new
needs. For example, communica
tions equipment, computers, and
spacecraft
require
lightweight
metals of high purity. Metallurgical
engineers also will be needed to
solve problems associated with the
efficient use of nuclear energy. As
the supply of high-grade ores
diminishes, more metallurgical en
gineers will be required to develop
new ways of recycling solid waste
materials in addition to processing
low-grade ores now regarded as un
profitable to mine. (See introducto
ry part of this section for informa
tion on training requirements and
earnings.)
Sources of Additional
Information
The Metallurgical Society of the American
Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and
Petroleum Engineers, 345 E. 47th St.,
New York, N.Y. 10017.
American Society for Metals, Metals Park,
Ohio 44073.
MINING ENGINEERS
(D.O.T. 010.081 and .187)
Nature of the Work
Mining engineers find, extract,
and prepare minerals for manufac
turing industries to use. They design
the layouts of mines, supervise the
construction of mine shafts and tun
nels in underground operations,
and devise methods for transporting
minerals to processing plants. Min
ing engineers are responsible for
the efficient operation of mines and
mine safety, including ventilation,
water supply, power, communica
tions, and equipment maintenance.
Some mining engineers work with
geologists and metallurgical en
gineers to locate and appraise new
ore deposits. Others develop new
mining equipment and devise im
proved methods to process ex
tracted minerals. Mining engineers
frequently specialize in the extrac
tion of specific metal ores, coal, and
other nonmetallic minerals.
With increased emphasis on pro
tecting the environment, many min
ing engineers have been working to
solve problems related to minedland reclamation and water and air
pollution.
is expected to increase through the
mid-1980’s. Efforts to attain energy
self-sufficiency should spur the de
mand for coal, and therefore for
mining engineers in the coal indus
try. The increase in demand for
coal will depend, to a j'reat extent,
Places of Employment
on the availability and price of
About 5,000 mining engineers other domestic energy sources such
were employed in 1974. Most work as petroleum, natural gas, and
in the mining industry. Some work nuclear energy. More technologi
for firms that produce equipment cally advanced mining systems and
for the mining industry, while further enforcement of mine health
others work in colleges and univer and safety regulations will also in
sities, in government agencies, or as crease the need for mining en
independent consultants.
gineers. In addition, exploration for
Mining engineers are usually em all other minerals is alsD increasing.
ployed at the location of mineral Easily mined deposits are being
deposits, often near small commu depleted, creating a r eed for en
nities. However, those in research, gineers to devise more efficient
teaching, management, consulting, methods for mining low-grade ores.
or sales are often located in large Employment opportunities also will
metropolitan areas.
arise as new alloys and new uses for
metals increase the demand for less
widely used ores. P ecovery of
Employment Outlook
metals from the sea and the
Employment of mining engineers development of recentl / discovered
oil shale deposits could present
major challenges to the mining en
gineer. (See introductory part of
this section for information on
training requirements and earnings.)
Sources of Additional
Information
The Society of Mining Engineers of the
American Institute of Mining, Metallur
gical, and Petroleum Engineers, 345 E.
47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017.
PETROLEUM ENGINEERS
(D.O.T. 010.081)
Nature of the Work
Petroleum engineers are mainly
involved in drilling for and produc
ing oil and gas. They work to
achieve the maximum profitable
suiting engineers, and for Federal
and State governments.
The petroleum engineer’s work is
concentrated in places where oil
and gas is found. Almost threefourths of all petroleum engineers
are employed in the oil producing
States of Texas, Oklahoma, Loui
siana, and California. There are
many American petroleum en
gineers working overseas in oil
producing countries.
Employment Outlook
Petroleum engineer examines a cross section plot of a petroleum reservoir.
recovery of oil and gas from a
petroleum reservoir by determining
and developing the best and most
efficient drilling methods.
Since only a small proportion of
the oil and gas in a reservoir will
flow out under natural forces,
petroleum engineers develop and
use various artificial recovery
methods such as flooding the oil
field with water to force the oil to
the surface. Even when using the
best recovery methods, about half
the oil is still left in the ground.
Petroleum engineers’ research and
development efforts to increase the
proportion of oil recovered in each
reservoir can make a significant
contribution to increasing available
energy resources.
Places of Employment
Over 12,000 petroleum engineers
were employed in 1974, mostly in
the petroleum industry and closely
allied fields. Their employers in
clude not only the major oil compa
nies, but also the thousands of
smaller independent oil exploration
and production companies. They
also work for companies that
produce drilling equipment and
supplies. Some petroleum engineers
work in banks and other financial
institutions, which need their
knowledge of the economic value
of oil and gas properties. A small
number work for engineering con
sulting firms or as independent con-
The employment of petroleum
engineers is expected to grow faster
than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1980’s. Economic
expansion will require increasing
supplies of petroleum and natural
gas, even with energy conservation
measures. With efforts to attain
energy self-sufficiency, and high
petroleum prices, increasingly so
phisticated and expensive recovery
methods will be used. Also, new
sources of oil such as oil shale and
new offshore oil sources may be
developed. All of these factors will
contribute to increasing demand for
petroleum engineers. (See in
troductory part of this section for
information on training require
ments and earnings.)
Sources of Additional
Information
Society of Petroleum Engineers of A1ME,
6200 North Central Expressway, Dallas,
Tex. 75206.
ENVIRONMENTAL
SCIENTISTS
Environmental scientists help us
understand our physical environ
ment. They play an important role
in solving environmental pollution
problems. These scientists, some
times known as earth scientists, are
concerned with the history, com
position, and characteristics of the
earth’s surface, interior, and at
mosphere. Some do basic research
to increase scientific knowledge,
while others do applied research
and use knowledge gained from
basic research to help solve practi
cal problems. Geologists, for exam
ple, explore for new sources of oil,
other fuels, and ores. Most
meteorologists
forecast
the
weather.
Many
environmental
scientists teach in colleges and
universities.
This chapter discusses four en
vironmental science occupations—
geologists, geophyscists, meteor
ologists, and oceanographers.
GEOLOGISTS
(D.O.T. 024.081)
Nature of the Work
Geologists study the structure,
composition, and history of the
earth’s crust in order to locate natu
ral resources, give warnings of natu
ral disasters, and insure that
buildings are constructed on firm
foundations. By examining surface
rocks and drilling to recover rock
cores, they determine the distribu
tion, thickness, and slope of the
rocks beneath the earth’s surface.
They also identify rocks and
minerals, conduct geological sur
veys, draw maps, take measure
ments, and record data.
Geologists use many tools and in
struments such as hammers, chisels,
levels, transits (mounted telescopes
used to measure angles), gravity
meters, cameras, compasses, and
seismographs (instruments that
record the intensity an i duration of
earthquakes and ear h tremors).
They may evaluate information
from photographs taksn from air
craft and satellites anc use compu
ters to record and analyze data.
Geologists may aho work in
laboratories where they examine
the chemical and phys ical proper
ties of specimens under controlled
temperature and pressure. They
may study fossil remai is of animal
and vegetable life or experiment
with the flow of water and oil
through rocks. Laboratory equip
ment used by geologists includes
complex instruments si ch as the Xray diffractometer, uhich deter
mines the structure of minerals, and
the petrographic microscope for
close study of rock formations.
Besides locating re sources and
working in laboratories, geologists
are also called on to advise con
struction companies and govern
mental agencies on the suitability of
certain locations for constructing
buildings, dams, or higl sways. Some
geologists administer md manage
research and exploration programs.
Others teach and work on research
projects in colleges and universities.
Geologists usually specialize in
one or a combinaticn of three
general areas—earth materials,
earth processes, and earth history.
E c o n o m ic g e o lo g i s t s locate earth
materials such as minerals and solid
fuels. P e tr o le u m g e o lo g is ts search
for and recover oil and natural gas.
Some petroleum geologists work
near drilling sites and others corre
late petroleum related geologic in
formation for entire regions. E n
g in e e r in g g e o lo g is ts determine suita
ble sites for the construction of
roads, airfields, tunnels, dams, and
other structures. They decide, for
example, whether underground
rocks will bear the weight of a
building or whether a proposed
structure may be in an ^earthquake
prone-area. M in e r a lo g is ts analyze
and classify minerals and precious
stones according to composition
and structure. G e o c h e m is ts study
the chemical composition and
changes in minerals and rocks to
understand the distribution and
migration of elements in the earth’s
crust.
Geologists concerned with earth
processes study landforms and their
rock masses, sedimentary deposits
(matter deposited by water or
wind) and eruptive forces such as
volcanoes. V o lc a n o lo g is ts study ac
tive and inactive volcanoes, and
lava flows and other eruptive activi
ty. G e o m o r p h o l o g is t s examine landforms and those forces, such as ero
sion and glaciation, which cause
them to change.
Other geologists are primarily
concerned with earth history.
P a le o n t o lo g i s ts
study plant and
animal fossils to trace the evolution
and development of past life.
G e o c h r o n o lo g is ts determine the age
of rocks and landforms by the
radioactive decay of their elements.
S tr a ti g r a p h e r s study the distribution
and arrangement of sedimentary
rock layers by examining their fossil
and mineral content.
Many geologists specialize in new
fields that require knowledge of
another science as well. A s tr o g e o lo g i s t s study geological conditions on
other planets. G e o lo g ic a l o c e a n o g
r a p h e r s study the sedimentary and
other rock on the ocean floor and
continental shelf. (See statements
on Oceanographers and Mining
elsewhere in this book.)
Places of Employment
More than 23,000 people worked
as geologists in 1974, approximate
ly 10 percent of them women. Al
most three-fifths of all geologists
work in private industry. Most in
dustrial geologists work for petrole
um companies. Geologists also
work for mining and quarrying
companies. Some are employed by
construction firms. Others are inde
pendent consultants to industry and
government.
The Federal Government em
ploys over 1,600 geologists. Two-
thirds work for the Department of
the Interior in the U.S. Geological
Survey, the Bureau of Mines, and
the Bureau of Reclamation. State
agencies also employ geologists,
some working on surveys in
cooperation with the U.S. Geologi
cal Survey.
Colleges and universities employ
almost 7,500 geologists. Some work
for nonprofit research institutions
and museums.
Employment of geologists is con
centrated in those States with large
oil and mineral deposits. Almost
two-thirds work in five States:
Texas,
California,
Louisiana,
Colorado, and Oklahoma. Some are
employed by American firms over
seas for varying periods of time.
research assistants in laboratories.
With experience, they can be
promoted to project leader, pro
gram manager, or other manage
ment and research positions.
Employment Outlook
Employment opportunities in
geology are expected to be good for
those with a bachelor’s degree in
geology or in a related science with
courses in geology; they are ex
pected to be very good for those
with advanced degrees in geology
or a related science. The employ
ment of geologists is expected to
grow faster than the average for all
occupations through the mid1980’s, creating several hundred
new openings each year. In addi
tion, a thousand or so openings will
be created each year by geologists
who retire, die, or transfer to other
occupations.
Consumer and industrial demand
for petroleum and minerals will
continue to rise and efforts to attain
energy self-sufficiency will mean
that increased supply will come
from domestic rather than foreign
sources. Geologists will be required
to locate and recover new deposits
to fill this increased demand. Addi
tional geologists will be needed to
discover new resources and their
potential uses. For example, geolo
gists will help determine the feasi
bility of using geothermal energy
(steam from the earth’s interior) to
generate electricity. Geologists are
Training, Qualifications, and
Advancement
A bachelor’s degree in geology or
a related field is adequate for entry
into many geology jobs. An ad
vanced degree is helpful for ad
vancement in most types of work,
and is essential for college teaching
and some research positions.
About 300 colleges and universi
ties offer a bachelor’s degree in
geology. Undergraduate students
devote about one-fourth of their
time to geology courses, including
historical geology, structural geolo
gy, mineralogy, petrology, and in
vertebrate paleontology. Students
spend about one-third of their time
taking
mathematics,
related
sciences—such as physics and
chemistry—and engineering; they
spend the remainder on general
academic subjects.
More than 160 universities award
advanced degrees in geology. Grad
uate students take advanced cours
es in geology and specialize in one
branch of the science.
Students planning careers in ex
ploration geology should like the
outdoors, and must have physical
stamina.
Geologists usually begin their
careers in field exploration or as
Geologists sometimes work in remote places such as this offshore oil rig.
needed to devise techniques for ex
ploring deeper within the earth’s
crust and to develop more efficient
methods of mining resources. They
also are needed to develop
adequate water supplies and waste
disposal methods, and to do site
evaluation for construction activi
ties.
Demand for geologists in Federal
agencies will continue to grow, par
ticularly in the U.S. Geological Sur
vey. Growth in college and universi
ty employment will be at a slower
rate than in the past, however.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Geologists have relatively high
salaries, with average earnings over
twice those of nonsupervisory
workers in private industry, except
farming.
Starting salaries for new gradu
ates in private industry averaged
$10,500 a year in 1974 for those
having
a bachelor’s degree,
$ 12,200 for those having a master’s
degree, and $16,000 for those hav
ing a doctorate, according to the
American Geological Institute.
In the Federal Government in
late 1974, geologists having a
bachelor’s degree could begin at
$8,500 or $10,520 a year, depend
ing on their college records. Those
having a master’s degree could start
at $ 10,520 or $ 12,841 a year; those
having the Ph. D. degree at $ 15,481
or $18,463. In late 1974, the
average salary for geologists em
ployed in the Federal Government
was almost $24,000 a year.
Conditions of work vary. Ex
ploration geologists often work
overseas. Geologists travel to
remote sites by helicopter and jeep,
and cover large areas by foot, often
working in teams. Geologists in
mining sometimes work un
derground. When not working out
doors, they are in comfortable,
well-lighted, well-ventilated offices
and laboratories.
tion of nuclear explosions, and pro
vide information for use in con
structing bridges, dams, and
General information on career buildings. For example, in con
opportunities,
training,
and structing a dam, seismologists
earnings for geologists is available determine where bedrock (solid
from:
rock beneath Lhe soil) is closest to
American
Geological
Institute,
5205 the surface so the best dam site can
Leesburg Pike, Falls Church, Va. be selected. They use explosives to
22041.
create sound waves which reflect
For information on Federal off bedrock; the time it takes for the
Government careers, contact:
shock wave to return to the surface
Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Ex indicates the depth of bedrock.
aminers for Washington, D.C., 1900 E
G e o d e s is ts study the size, shape,
St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415.
and gravitational field of the earth
and other planets. Their principal
task is mapping the earth’s surface.
GEOPHYSICISTS
With the aid of satellites, geodesists
(D.O.T. 024.081)
determine the positions, elevations,
and distances between points on the
Nature of the Work
earth, and measure the intensity
Geophysicists study the composi and direction of gravitational at
tion and physical aspects of the traction.
H y d r o lo g is ts are concerned with
earth and its electric, magnetic, and
gravitational fields. Geophysicists the fluid earth. They may study the
use highly complex instruments distribution, circulation, and physi
such as the magnetometer which cal properties of underground and
measures variations in the earth’s surface waters, including glaciers,
magnetic field, and the gravimeter snow, and permafrost. They may
which measures minute variations also study rainfall and its rate of in
in gravitational attraction. They filtration into soil. Some are con
often use satellites to conduct tests cerned with water supplies, irriga
in outer space and computers to tion, flood control, and soil erosion.
(See statement on Oceanographers,
collect and analyze data
Geophysicists usually specialize sometimes classified as geophysical
in 1 of 3 general phases of the scientists, elsewhere in this book.)
science—solid earth, lluid earth,
Geophysicists study the at
and upper atmosphere. Some may mosphere, investigate the earth’s
also study other planets.
magnetic and electric fields, and
S o lid e a r th g e o p h y s i c is t s search
compare its outer atmosphere with
for oil and mineral deposits, map those of other planets. G e o m a g n e ti the earth’s surface, and study c ia n s study the earth’s magnetic
earthquakes. E x p l o r a t i o n g e o p h y s field. P a le o m a g n e tic ia n s learn about
i c i s t s use seismic prospecting tech
past magnetic fields from rocks or
niques to locate oil and mineral lava flows. P la n e to lo g is ts study the
deposits. They send scund waves composition and atmosphere of the
into the earth and *ecord the moon, planets, and other bodies in
echoes bouncing off the rock layers the solar system. They gather data
below to determine if conditions from
geophysical
instruments
are favorable for the ac emulation placed on interplanetary space
of oil.
probes or from equipment used by
S e is m o lo g is ts study the earth’s in
astronauts during the Apollo mis
terior and earth vibratians caused sions. M e t e o r o lo g i s t s are sometimes
by earthquakes and manmade ex classified as geophysical scientists.
plosions. They explore for oil and (See statement on Meteorologists
minerals, study underground detec elsewhere in this book.)
Sources of Adcitional
Information
Geophysicist prepares a portable seismograph for field operation.
Places of Employment
About 8,200 people worked as
geophysicists in 1974. Most work in
private industry, chiefly for petrole
um and natural gas companies. Oth
ers are in mining companies, explora
tion and consulting firms, and re
search institutes. A few are inde
pendent consultants and some do
geophysical prospecting on a fee or
contract basis.
Geophysicists are employed in
many southwestern and western
States, including those on the Gulf
Coast, where large oil and natural
gas fields are located. Some
geophysicists are employed by
American firms overseas for vary
ing periods of time.
Almost
2,000
geophysicists,
geodesists, and hydrologists worked
for Federal Government agencies in
1974, mainly the U.S. Geological
Survey; the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric
Administration
(NOAA); the Army Map Service;
and the Naval Oceanographic Of
fice. Other geophysicists work for
colleges and universities, State
governments,
and
nonprofit
research institutions.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
A
bachelor’s
degree
in
geophysics or a geophysical special
ty is sufficient for most beginning
jobs in geophysics. A bachelor’s
degree in a related field of science
or engineering also is adequate
preparation, provided the person
has courses in geophysics, physics,
geology, mathematics, chemistry,
and engineering.
Geophysicists doing research or
supervising exploration activities
should have graduate training in
geophysics or a related science.
Those planning to teach in colleges
or do basic research should acquire
a Ph. D. degree.
About 50 colleges and universi
ties award the bachelor’s degree in
geophysics. Other programs offer
ing
training
for
beginning
geophysicists include geophysical
technology, geophysical engineer, engineering geology, petroleum
geology, and geodesy.
More than 60 universities grant
the master’s and Ph. D. degree in
geophysics. Candidates with a
bachelor’s degree which includes
courses in geology, mathematics,
physics, engineering, or a combina
tion of these subjects can be ad
mitted.
Geophysicists generally work as
part of a team. They should be per
sons with curious and analytical
minds and be able to communicate
effectively.
Most new geophysicists begin
their careers doing field mapping or
exploration. Some assist senior
geophysicists in research laborato
ries. With experience, geophysicists
can advance to such jobs as project
leader or program manager, or
other management and research
jobs.
Employment Outlook
Employment opportunities are
expected to be excellent for gradu
ates with a degree in geophysics, as
well as for those with a degree in a
related field and courses in this spe
cialty. Combined openings, from
both occupational growth and
replacement needs, are not ex
pected to be numerous in any one
year. Nevertheless, new entrants to
the field will fall short of require
ments if present trends in the
number obtaining suitable degrees
continue.
Employment of geophysicists is
expected to grow faster than the
average for all occupations through
the mid-1980’s. Petroleum and
mining companies will
need
geophysicists for exploration activi
ties, expected to increase over the
next decade. As the need for fuel
and
minerals
grows,
more
geophysicists will be needed, using
sophisticated electronic techniques,
to find the less accessible fuel and
mineral deposits.
In addition, geophysicists with
advanced training will be needed to
do research on radioactivity and
cosmic and solar radiation and to
investigate the use of geothermal
power (steam from the earth’s in
terior) as a source of energy to
generate electricity.
Federal Government agencies
are expected to hire more
geophysicists for new or expanding
programs. Jobs for geophysicists in
the Federal Government are heavi
ly dependent on funds for research
and development in the earth
sciences, which are expected to in
crease through the mid-1980’s. The
Government is expected to support
energy
research
into
both
established and alternative sources.
The Government also may fund
research to locate more natural
resources as well as to prevent en
vironmental damage through better
land use.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Geophysicists have relatively
high salaries, with average earnings
more than twice those of nonsupervisory workers in private industry,
except farming.
Starting salaries in 1974 for
geophysics graduates averaged
$10,500 a year in private industry
for those having a bachelor’s
degree, $12,200 for those having a
master’s degree and $16,000 for
those having a doctorate, according
to the American Geological In
stitute.
In the Federal Government in
late 1974, geophysicists having a
bachelor’s degree could begin at
$8,500 or $10,520 a year, depend
ing on their college records.
Geophysicists having a master’s
degree could start at $10,520 or
$12,841 a year; those having a Ph.
D. degree, at $ 15,481 oi $ 18,463. In
late 1974, the average salary for
geophysicists employed by the
Federal Government was almost
$24,000 a year.
Many geophysicists work out
doors and must be will ng to travel
for extended periods of time. Some
of them work at research stations in
remote areas, or aboard ships and
aircraft equipped with sophisticated
geophysical equipment. When not
in the field, geophysicists work in
modern,
well-equipped,
welllighted laboratories and offices.
Sources of Additional
Information
General informatior on career
opportunities,
training,
and
earnings for geophysicists is availa
ble from:
American Geophysical Unicn, 1909 K St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20006
Society of Exploration Geophysicists, P.O.
Box 3098, Tulsa, Okla. 74 101
For information cn Federal
Government careers, contact:
Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Ex
aminers for Washington, D.C., 1900 E
St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20415.
METEOROLOGISTS
(D.O.T. 025.088)
Nature of the Work
Meteorology is the study of the
atmosphere, which is the air that
surrounds the earth. Meteorologists
describe and try to understand the
atmosphere’s physical composition,
motions, and processes and deter
mine the way these elements affect
the rest of our physical environ
ment. This knowledge is applied in
understanding and forecasting the
weather and climate to help solve
many practical problems in agricul
ture, transportation, communica
tions, health, and national defense.
Meteorologists who specialize in
forecasting the weather, known
professionally
as
s y n o p t ic
m e t e o r o l o g is t s , are the largest group
of specialists. They study current
weather information, such as air
pressure, temperature, humidity,
and wind velocity, in order to make
short- and long-range predictions.
Their data come from weather
satellites and observers in many
parts of the world. Although some
forecasters still prepare and analyze
weather maps, most data now are
plotted and analyzed by computers.
Meteorology however, involves
many activities other than weather
forecasting. Some meteorologists
are engaged in basic and applied
research. For example, p h y s i c a l
m e t e o r o l o g is t s study the chemical
and electrical properties of the at
mosphere. They do research on the
effect of the atmosphere on trans
mission of light, sound, and radio
waves, as well as study factors af
fecting formation of clouds, rain,
snow,
and
other
weather
phenomena. Other meteorologists,
known as c li m a t o lo g i s ts , study cli
matic trends and analyze past
records on wind, rainfall, sunshine,
and temperature to determine the
general pattern of weather that
makes up an area’s climate. These
studies are useful in planning heat
ing and cooling systems, designing
buildings, and aiding in effective
land utilization.
Other meteorologists apply their
knowledge in the study of the rela
tionship between weather and
specific human activities, biological
processes, and agricultural and in
dustrial operations. For example,
they may make weather forecasts
for individual companies, or may
work on problems such as smoke
control and air pollution abate
ment.
About one-third of all civilian
meteorologists work primarily in
weather forecasting, and another
one-third work in research and
development. Almost one-fifth of
all civilian meteorologists are in ad
ministrative or management posi
tions.
Some meteorologists teach or do
research—frequently
combining
both activities—in colleges and
universities. In colleges without
separate departments of meteorolo
gy, they may teach geography,
mathematics, physics, chemistry, or
geology, as well as meteorology.
Places of Employment
About 5,600 persons—10 per
cent of them women—worked as
meteorologists in 1974. In addition
to these civilian meteorologists,
about 2,000 officers and 7,000 en
listed members of the Armed
Forces did forecasting and other
meteorological work.
The largest employer of civil
ians was the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA), where over
1,800
meteorologists worked at stations in
all parts of the United States and in
a small number of foreign areas.
The Department of Defense em
ployed over 200 civilian meteorolo
gists.
Almost 2,000 meteorologists
worked for private industry. Com
mercial airlines employed several
hundred to forecast weather along
flight routes and to brief pilots on
atmospheric conditions. Others
worked for private weather consult
ing firms, for companies that design
and manufacture meteorological in
struments, and for firms in
aerospace, insurance, engineering,
utilities, radio and television, and
other industries.
Colleges and universities em
ployed over 1,100 meteorologists in
research and teaching. A few
worked for State and local govern
ments and for nonprofit organiza
tions.
Although meteorologists work in
all parts of the country, nearly onefifth live in just two States—Califor
nia and Maryland. Almost onetenth of all meteorologists work in
the Washington, D.C. area.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
A bachelor’s degree with a major
in meteorology is the usual
minimum
requirement
for
beginning jobs in weather forecast
ing. However, a bachelor’s degree
in a related science or engineering,
along with some courses in
meteorology, is acceptable for
some jobs. For example, the
Federal Government’s minimum
requirement for beginning jobs is a
bachelor’s degree with at least 20
semester hours of study in
meteorology and additional training
in physics and mathematics, includ
ing calculus. However, an advanced
degree is increasingly necessary for
advancement.
For research and college teach
ing and for many top-level positions
in other meteorological activities,
an advanced degree is essential,
preferably in meteorology. How
ever, people with graduate degrees
in other sciences also may qualify
if they have advanced courses in
meteorology, physics, mathemat
ics, and chemistry.
In 1974, 44 colleges and universi
ties offered a bachelor’s degree in
meteorology; 59 schools offered ad
vanced degrees in atmospheric
science. Many other institutions of
fered some courses in meteorology.
The Armed Services give and
support meteorological training,
both undergraduate education for
enlisted personnel and advanced
study for officers.
NOAA has a program under
which some of its meteorologists
may attend college for advanced or
specialized training. College stu
dents can obtain summer jobs with
this agency or enroll in its coopera
tive education program in which
they work at NOAA part of the year
and attend school part of the year.
In addition to helping students
finance their education, this pro
gram gives them valuable ex
perience for finding a job when they
graduate.
Meteorologists in the Federal
Government usually start in 2-year
training positions at weather sta
tions. They observe weather condi
tions, receive training in forecast
ing, and release weather informa
tion to the public, agriculture, in
dustry, airlines, and other users.
They may advance to assistant
forecaster and forecaster.
Airline
meteorologists
have
somewhat limited opportunities for
advancement. However, after con
siderable work experience, they
may advance to flight dispatcher or
to various supervisory or adminis
trative jobs. A few very well
qualified meteorologists with a
background in science, engineer
ing, and business administration
may establish their own weather
consulting services.
Employment Outlook
Job opportunities for meteorolo
gists should be favorable through
the mid-1980’s. Although the
number of openings created by
growth in the occupation and
replacement needs is not expected
to be large in any one year, the
number of persons obtaining
degrees in meteorology also is
small. If trends in the number of
degrees granted continue, entrants
to the field will about equal require
ments.
Employment in the field, as a
w h o le ,
is
e x p e c te d
to
in c r e a se
about as fast as the average for all
occupations.
Employment
of
meteorologists in industry and in
weather consulting firms is ex
pected to grow as private industry
realizes the importance of meteor
ology to understanding and pre
venting air pollution. Many compa
nies are also recognizing the value
of having their own weather fore
casting and meteorological serv
ices which can be tailored to fit
their needs. There also should be
some openings in radio and televi
sion as stations increasingly rely on
their own meteorologists to prepare
and deliver their weather reports.
State and local government em
ployment of meteorologists should
also grow, and colleges and univer
sities will offer some job opportuni
ties, especially for those with ad
vanced degrees. The employment
of civilian meteorologists by the
Federal Government is not ex
pected to grow significantly,
although there will be openings
created by replacement needs.
Personnel Division AD 41, National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration, 6010
Executive Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20852.
Details
about
Air
Force
meteorological training programs
are available from any Air Force
recruiting office or from:
Air Weather Service, Information Office,
Scott Air Force Base, III. 62225.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Meteorologists have relatively
high earnings; their salaries are
about twice the average for nonsupervisory workers in private indus
try, except farming.
In early 1974, meteorologists in
the Federal Government with a
bachelor’s degree and no ex
perience received starting salaries
of $8,500 or $10,520 a year, de
pending on their college grades.
Those with a master’s degree could
start at $10,520 or $12,841, and
those with the Ph. D. degree at
$15,481 or $18,463.
Airline meteorologists had aver
age starting salaries of about
$14,400 a year in 1974, and ex
perienced airline meteorologists
could receive up to $21,600 a year.
Jobs in weather stations, which
are operated around the clock 7
days a week, often involve
nightwork and rotating shifts. Most
stations are at airports or in or near
cities; some are in isolated and
remote areas. Meteorologists in
smaller weather stations generally
work alone; in larger ones, they
work as part of a team.
Sources of Additional
Information
General information on career
opportunities and schools offering
education in meteorology is availa
ble from:
American Meteorological Society,
Beacon St., Boston, Mass. 02108.
with the NOAA National Weather
Service and its student cooperative
education program, contact:
45
American Geophysical Union, 1909 K St.
NW„ Washington, D C. 20006.
For facts about job opportunities
OCEANOGRAPHERS
(D.O.T. 024.081 and 041.081)
Nature of the Work
Oceans cover more than twothirds of the earth’s surface and
provide people with valuable foods,
fossil fuels, and minerals. They also
influence the weather, serve as a
“highway” for transportation, and
offer many kinds of recreation.
Oceanographers use the principles
and techniques of natural science,
mathematics, and engineering to
study oceans—their movements,
physical properties, and plant and
animal life. Their research not only
extends basic scientific knowledge,
but also helps develop practical
methods for forecasting weather,
developing fisheries, mining ocean
resources, and improving national
defense.
Some oceanographers make tests
and observations and conduct ex
periments from ships or stationary
platforms in the sea. They may
study and collect data on ocean
tides,
currents,
and
other
phenomena. Some study undersea
mountain ranges and valleys,
oceanic interaction with the at
mosphere, and layers of sediment
on and beneath the ocean floor.
Oceanographers also work in
laboratories on land where, for ex
ample, they measure, dissect, and
photograph fish. They also study
exotic sea specimens and plankton
(floating microscopic plants and
animals). Much of their work en
tails identifying, cataloging, and
analyzing different kinds of sea life
and minerals. At other laboratories,
oceanographers plot maps or use
computers to test theories about the
ocean. For example, they may study
and test the theory of continental
drift, which states that the con
tinents were once joined together,
have drifted apart, and continue to
drift apart causing the sea floor to
spread. To present the results of
their
studies,
oceanographers
prepare charts, tabulations, and re
ports, and write papers for scientific
journals.
Oceanographers explore and
study the ocean with aircraft, sur
face ships, and various types of un
derwater craft. They use specialized
instruments to measure and record
the findings of their explorations
and studies. Special cameras
equipped with strong lights are used
to photograph marine life and the
ocean floor. Sounding devices are
used to measure, map, and locate
ocean materials.
Most oceanographers specialize
in one branch of the science.
B io lo g ic a l o c e a n o g r a p h e r s (marine
biologists) study plant and animal
life in the ocean. They search for
ways to extract drugs from marine
plants or animals, investigate life
processes of marine animals, and
determine the effects of radioactivi
ty and pollution on marine life.
P h y s ic a l o c e a n o g r a p h e r s (physicists
and geophysicists) study the physi
cal properties of the ocean. Their
research on the relationships
between the sea and the at
mosphere may lead to more accu
rate prediction of the weather.
G e o lo g ic a l o c e a n o g r a p h e r s (marine
geologists) study the ocean’s moun
tain ranges, rocks, and sediments.
Locating regions where minerals,
oil, and gas might be found under
the ocean floor is an application of
their work. C h e m ic a l o c e a n o g
r a p h e r s investigate the chemical
composition of ocean water and
Oceanographers collect samples of sea life.
sediments as well as chemical reac
tions in the sea. O c e a n o g r a p h ic e n
g in e e r s and e le c tr o n ic s p e c ia lis ts
design and build instruments for
oceanographic research and opera
tions. They also lay cables and su
pervise underwater construction.
Most oceanographers work in
States that border on the ocean,
although there are some oceanog
raphers employed in almost every
State. Four out of ten oceanog
raphers work in just three States—
California, Maryland, and Virginia.
Places of Employment
About 2,500 persons—about 5
percent of them women—worked
as oceanographers in 1974. About
one-half worked in colleges and
universities, and more than one-
fourth for the Federal Government.
Federal agencies employing sub
stantial numbers of oceanographers
include the Navy and the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis
tration (NOAA). Some oceanog
raphers work in private industry; a
few work for fishery laboratories of
State and local governments.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
The minimum requirement for
beginning professional jobs in
oceanography is a bachelor’s
degree with a major in oceanog
raphy, biology, earth or physical
sciences, mathematics, or engineer
ing. Professional jobs in research,
teaching, and high-level positions in
most other types of work require
graduate training in oceanography
or a basic science.
Only 35 colleges and universities
offered undergraduate degrees in
oceanography or marine sciences in
1974. However, since oceanog
raphy is an interdisciplinary
science, undergraduate training in a
basic science and a strong interest
in oceanography may be adequate
preparation for some beginning
jobs and would be a good
background for graduate training in
oceanography.
Important college courses for
graduate study in oceanography
include mathem atics, physics,
chemistry, geophysics, geology,
meteorology, and biology. In
general, students should specialize
in the particular science that is
closest to their area of oceano
graphic interest. For example, stu
dents interested in chemical
oceanography could obtain a
degree in chemistry.
In 1974, about 65 colleges of
fered advanced degrees in oceanog
raphy and marine sciences. In grad
uate schools, students take ad
vanced courses in oceanography
and in a basic science.
Graduate students usually work
part of the time aboard ship, where
they do oceanographic research
and become familiar with the
sea and with techniques used to
obtain oceanographic information.
Universities having oceanographic
research facilities along our coasts
offer summer courses for both grad
uates and undergraduate students,
which are especially beneficial for
students from inland universities.
Oceanographers should have the
curiosity needed to do new research
and the patience to collect data and
conduct experiments.
Beginning oceanographers with
the bachelor’s degree usually start
as research or laboratory assistants,
or in jobs involving routine data
collection, computation, or analy
sis. Most beginning oceanographers
receive on-the-job training. The ex
tent of the training varies with the
background and needs of the in
dividual.
Experienced oceanographers
often direct surveys and research
programs or advance to administra
tive or supervisory jobs in research
laboratories.
Employment Outlook
Persons seeking jobs in oceanog
raphy may face competition
through the mid-1980’s. Those with
a Ph. D. degree should have more
favorable employment opportuni
ties than others, while those with
less education may find opportuni
ties limited to routine analytical
work as research assistants or
technicians.
Employment of oceanographers
is expected to grow about as fast as
the average for all occupations.
This growth will result from in
creased awareness of the need for
ocean research for understanding
and controlling pollution, for
recovering natural resources, and
for national defense. However,
growth in employment may not be
rapid enough to create enough
openings for all those expected to
seek entry into this relatively small
field. Since the Federal Govern
ment finances most oceanographic
research, a large increase in Federal
spending in oceanography could
improve employment prospects.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Oceanographers have relatively
high earnings. Their average sala
ries were more than twice the
average received by nonsupervisory
workers in private industry, except
farming.
In late 1974, oceanographers in
the Federal Government with the
bachelor’s degree received starting
salaries of $8,500 or $10,520 a
year, depending on their college
grades. Those with the master’s
degree could start at $10,520 or
$12,841; and those with the Ph. D.
degree at $15,481 or $18,463. The
average salary for experienced
oceanographers in the Federal
Government in late 1974 was about
$21,800 a year.
Beginning oceanographers in
educational institutions generally
receive the same salaries as other
faculty members. (See statement on
College and University Teachers
elsewhere in this book.) In addition
to regular salaries, many experienced
oceanographers earn extra income
from consulting, lecturing, and writ
ing.
Oceanographers
engaged
in
research that requires sea voyages
are frequently away from home for
weeks or months at a time. Some
times they live and work in
cramped quarters. People who like
the sea and oceanographic research
often find these voyages satisfying
and do not consider the time spent
at sea a disadvantage of their work.
Sources of Additional
Information
For information about careers in
oceanography, contact:
Office of Sea Grant, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, Rockville,
Md. 20852.
Dr. George W. Saunders, Secretary, Amer
ican Society of Limnology and
Oceanography, P.O. Box 85 3 ,Gaithers
burg, Md. 20760.
Federal Government career in
formation is available from any re
gional office of the U.S. Civil
Service Commission or from:
U.S. Civil Service Commission, Washington
Area Office, 1900 E St. NW„ Washing
ton, D C. 20415.
The booklet, Training and
Careers in Marine Science, is availa
ble for a small charge from:
International Oceanographic Foundation, 10
Rickenbacker Causeway, Virginia Key,
Miami, Fla. 33149.
Some information on oceano
graphic specialties is available from
professional societies listed else
where in this book. (See statements
on Geologists, Geophysicists, Life
Scientists, Meteorologists, and
Chemists.)
LIFE SCIENCE
OCCUPATIONS
Life scientists study living organ
isms and their life processes. They
are concerned with the origin and
preservation of life, from the largest
animal to the smallest living cell.
The number and variety of plants
and animals is so large, and their
processes so varied and complex,
that life scientists usually work in
one of the three broad areas—
agriculture, biology, or medicine.
Life scientists teach, perform
basic research
to
expand
knowledge of living things, and
apply knowledge gained from
research to the solution of practical
problems. New drugs, special varie
ties of plants, and a cleaner en
vironment result from the work of
life scientists.
This section discusses life scientists
as a group. It also contains separate
statements on biochemists and soil
scientists.
BIOCHEMISTS
(D.O.T. 041.081)
Nature of the Work
Biochemists study the chemical
behavior and chemical nature of
living things. Since life is based on
complex chemical combinations
and reactions, the work of
biochemists is vital for an un
derstanding of the basic functions
of living things such as reproduc
tion and growth. As part of their
study of the chemistry of living
things, biochemists may also in
vestigate the effects of substances
such as food, hormones, or drugs on
various organisms.
The methods and techniques of
biochemistry are applied in areas
such as medicine and agriculture.
For instance, biochemists develop
diagnostic procedures or find cures
for diseases or identify the nutrients
necessary to maintain good health.
More than 3 out of 4 biochemists
work in basic and applied research
activities. The distinction between
basic and applied research is often
one of degree and biochemists may
do both types. Most, however, are
in basic research. The few doing
strictly applied research use the
results of basic research for practi
cal uses. For example, the
knowledge of how an organism
forms a hormone is used to develop
a process for synthesizing the hor
mone and producing it on a mass
scale.
Laboratory research involves
weighing, filtering, distilling, dry
ing, and culturing (growing micro
organisms). Some experiments also
require sophisticated tasks such as
designing and constructing labora
tory apparatus or performing tests
using
radioactive
tracers.
Biochemists use a variety of instru
ments,
including
electron
microscopes, and may devise new
instruments and techniques as
needed. They usually report the
results of their research in scientific
journals or before scientific groups.
Some
biochemists
combine
research with teaching in colleges
and universities. A few work in in
dustrial production and testing ac
tivities.
Places of Employment
About 12,400 biochemists were
employed in the United States in
1974. Although the exact number
of women working in the profession
is not known, nearly one-fourth of
those receiving advanced degrees in
biochemistry in recent years have
been women.
More than half of all biochemists
are employed in colleges and
universities, and most of these do
basic and applied research and
development in university-operated
laboratories and hospitals. Almost
one-quarter of all biochemists work
in private industry, primarily in
companies manufacturing drugs, in
secticides, and cosmetics. Non
profit research institutes and foun
dations employ some biochemists
and some also work for Federal,
State, and local government agen
cies. Most government biochemists
do research for Federal agencies
concerned with health and agricul
tural problems. There are a few
self-employed biochemists who are
consultants to industry and govern
ment.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
The
minimum educational
requirement for many beginning
jobs as a professional biochemist,
especially in research or teaching, is
an advanced degree. A Ph. D.
degree is a virtual necessity for per
sons who hope to make significant
contributions
to
biochemical
research and for advancement to
many management and administra
tive jobs. A bachelor’s degree with
a major in biochemistry or chemis
try, or with a major in biology and a
minor in chemistry, may qualify
some persons for entry jobs as
research assistants or technicians.
More than 50 schools award the
bachelor’s degree in biochemistry,
and nearly all colleges and universi
ties offer a major in biology or
chemistry. Regardless of their col
lege major, future biochemists
should take undergraduate courses
in chemistry, biology, biochemistry,
mathematics, and physics.
About 200 colleges and universi
ties offer graduate degrees in
biochemistry. Graduate students
generally are required to have a
bachelor’s degree in biochemistry,
biology, or chemistry. Many gradu
ate schools offer programs that
emphasize some fields or specialties
of biochemistry
over others
because of the influence of the type
of research being done at the
school. Therefore, students wishing
to specialize should select their
schools carefully. Graduate training
requires actual research in addition
to advanced science courses. For
the doctoral degree, the student
specializes in one
field of
biochemistry by doing intensive
research and writing a thesis.
Young people planning careers
as biochemists should be able to
work independently or as part of a
team. Precision, keen powers of ob
servation, and mechanical aptitude
also are important. Biochemists
should have analytical abilities and
curious minds, as well as the pa
tience and perseverance needed to
complete the hundreds of experi
ments that may be necessary to
solve one problem.
Graduates with advanced degrees
may begin their careers as teachers
or researchers in colleges or univer
sities. In private industry, most
begin in research jobs and with ex
perience may advance to positions
in which they plan and supervise
research.
New graduates with a bachelor’s
degree usually start work as
research assistants or technicians.
These jobs in private industry often
involve testing and analysis. In the
drug
industry,
for
example,
research assistants analyze the in
gredients of a product to verify and
maintain its purity or quality.
Biochemist builds a model of a complex molecule.
Employment Outlook
1960’s. If actual research and
development expenditures differ
significantly from those assumed,
the outlook for biochemists would
be altered.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Job opportunities for biochemists
Biochemists have relatively high
with advanced degrees should be
salaries; average earnings were
favorable through the mid-1980’s.
about twice the average for all nonThe employment of biochemists is
supervisory workers in private in
expected to grow faster than the
The anticipated growth in this dustry, except farming. According
average for all occupations during field should result from the effort to to a 1974 survey by the American
this period, creating hundreds of find cures for cancer, heart disease, Chemical Society, salaries for ex
job openings each year. There also and other diseases, and from public perienced biochemists averaged
will be many openings each year concern with environmental pro $15,000 for those with a bachelor’s
resulting from biochemists who tection. Biochemists will also be degree; $15,100 for those with a mas
retire, die, or transfer to other oc needed in the drug and other indus ter's degree; and $21,500 for those
cupations.
The
outlook
for tries and in hospitals and health with a Ph. D.
biochemists is based on the assump centers. There will also be some
Starting salaries paid to biochemists
tion that research and development teaching opportunities in colleges employed by colleges and universities
expenditures in biochemistry and and universities, but the recent are comparable to those for other fa
related sciences, primarily by the slowdown in the growth in college culty members. Biochemists in educa
Federal Government, will increase enrollments may mean fewer tional institutions often supplement
through the mid-1980’s, although at teaching opportunities than in the their incomes by engaging in outside
a slower rate than during the past.
research or consulting work.
Sources of Additional
information
For general information on
careers in biochemistry, contact:
American Society of Biological Chemists,
9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md.
20014.
LIFE SCIENTISTS
(D.O.T. 040.081,041.081,
041.168,
041.181,041.281)
Nature of the Work
Life scientists study all aspects of
living organisms, emphasizing the
relationship of animals and plants
to their environments.
Almost one-half of all life
scientists are in research and
development. Many work in labora
tories conducting basic research
aimed at adding to our knowledge
of living organisms. Knowledge
gained from this research is applied
in medicine, in improvement of
crop yields, and to the betterment
of the natural environment. When
working in laboratories,
life
scientists must be familiar with
research techniques and complex
laboratory equipment such as elec
tron microscopes. Knowledge of
computers also is useful in conduct
ing some experiments. Not all
research, however, is performed in
laboratories. For example, a
botanist who explores the volcanic
Alaskan valleys to see what plants
grow there also is doing research.
Teaching in a college or universi
ty is the major area of work for
more than one-fourth of all life
scientists, many of whom also do in
dependent research. Almost onefifth are in some type of manage
ment and administrative work that
ranges from planning and ad
ministering programs for testing
foods and drugs to directing activi
ties at zoos or botanical gardens.
Some life scientists work as con
sultants to business firms or to
government in their areas of spe
cialization. Others write for techni
cal publications or test and inspect
foods, drugs, and other products.
Some work in technical sales and
services jobs for industrial compa
nies where, for example, they
demonstrate the proper use of new
chemicals or technical products.
Scientists working in many areas
of the life sciences often call them
selves biologists. However, the
majority are classified by the type
of organism they study or by the
specific activity performed.
Life scientists dealing primarily
with plants are botanists. Some
study all aspects of plant life, while
others work in specific areas such
as identifying and classifying plants
or studying the structure of plants
and plant cells. Some botanists con
centrate on the cause and cure of
plant diseases.
Some life scientists are con
cerned with the mass development
of plants. Agronomists improve the
quality and yield of crops by
developing new growth methods or
by controlling disease, pests, and
weeds. They also analyze soils to
determine ways of increasing acre
age yields and decreasing soil ero
sion. Horticulturists work with
orchard and garden plants such as
fruit and nut trees, vegetables, and
flowers. They seek to improve plant
culture methods for the purposes of
beautification of communities,
homes, parks, and other areas as
well as for increasing crop quality
and yields.
Zoologists concentrate on animal
life—its origin, behavior, and life
processes. Some conduct experi
mental studies with live animals and
others examine dissected animals in
Life scientist examines animal tissue.
laboratories. Zoologists are usually
identified by the animal group stu
died—ornithologists (birds), en
tomologists (insects), and mammalogists (mammals).
Animal husbandry specialists do
research on the breeding, feeding,
and diseases of domestic farm
animals. Veterinarians study dis
eases and abnormal functioning in
animals.
(See
statement
on
Veterinarians elsewhere in this
book.)
Life scientists who investigate the
growth and characteristics of
microscopic organisms such as bac
teria, viruses, and molds are called
microbiologists. They isolate organ
isms and grow them for close ex
amination under a microscope.
Medical microbiologists are con
cerned with problems such as the
relationship between bacteria and
disease or the effect of antibiotics
on bacteria. Other microbiologists
may specialize in soil bacteriology
(effect of micro-organisms on soil
fertility), virology (viruses), or im
munology (mechanisms that fight
infections).
Anatomists study the structure of
organisms, from cell structure to
the formation of tissues and organs.
Many specialize in human anatomy.
Research methods may entail dis
sections or the use of electron
microscopes.
Some life scientists apply their
specialized knowledge across a
number of areas, and may be clas
sified by the functions performed.
Ecologists, for example, study the
mutual relationship among organ
isms and their environments. They
are interested in the effects of en
vironmental influences such as rain
fall, temperature, and altitude on
organisms. For example, ecologists
extract samples of plankton
(microscopic plants and animals)
from bodies of water to determine
the effects of pollution, and meas
ure the radioactive content of fish.
Embryologists study the develop
ment of an organism from a fertil
ized egg through the hatching
process or gestation period. They
investigate the causes of healthy
and abnormal development in or
ganisms.
Nutritionists examine the bodily
processes through which food is
utilized and transformed into ener
gy. They learn how vitamins,
minerals, proteins, and other
nutrients build and repair tissues.
Pharmacologists conduct tests on
animals such as rats, guinea pigs,
and monkeys to determine the ef
fects of drugs, gases, poisons, dusts,
and other substances on the func
tioning of tissues and organs. They
may develop new or improved
drugs and medicines.
Pathologists specialize in the ef
fects of diseases, parasites, and in
sects on human cells, tissues, and
organs. Others may investigate
genetic variations caused by drugs.
Biochemists
and
biological
oceanographers, who are also life
scientists, are included in separate
statements elsewhere in this book.
Places of Employment
An estimated 190,000 persons
worked as life scientists in 1974. Al
most 50,000 were agricultural
scientists, about 75,000 were
biological scientists, and almost
65,000 were medical scientists.
About one-fifth of all biological and
agricultural scientists were women.
Colleges and universities employ
nearly three-fifths of all life
scientists, in both teaching and
research jobs. Medical schools and
hospitals also employ large num
bers of medical investigators. Siza
ble numbers of agronomists, hor
ticulturists, animal husbandry spe
cialists, entomologists, and other
agriculture-related specialists work
for State agricultural colleges and
agricultural experiment stations.
About 25,000 life scientists
worked for the Federal Govern
ment in 1974. Of these, almost half
worked for the Department of
Agriculture, with large numbers
also in the Department of the Interi
or, and in the National Institutes of
Health. State and local govern
ments combined employed 21,000
life scientists.
Approximately
25,000
life
scientists work in private industry,
mostly in the pharmaceutical, in
dustrial
chemical,
and
food
processing industries. More than
4,000 work for nonprofit research
organizations and foundations and
a few are self-employed.
Life scientists are fairly evenly
distributed across the United
States, but there are employment
concentrations
in
some
metropolitan areas—for example,
nearly 6 percent of all agricultural
and biological scientists work in the
Washington, D.C. metropolitan
area. Life science teachers are con
centrated in communities with large
universities.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Young people seeking a career in
the life sciences should plan to ob
tain an advanced degree. The Ph.
D. degree generally is required for
college teaching and for indepen
dent research. It is also necessary
for many jobs administering
research programs. A master’s
degree is sufficient for some jobs in
applied research and college
teaching. A professional health
degree is necessary for some jobs in
medical research (See section on
Health Occupations elsewhere in
this book.)
The
bachelor’s
degree
is
adequate preparation for some
beginning jobs, but promotions
often are limited for those who hold
no higher degree. New graduates
with a bachelor’s degree can start
their careers in testing and inspect
ing jobs, or become technical sales
and service representatives. They
also may become advanced techni
cians, particularly in medical
research or, with courses in educa
tion, a high school biology teacher.
(See statement on Secondary
School Teachers elsewhere in this
book.)
Most colleges and universities
offer life science curriculums. How
ever, courses differ from one col
lege to another. For example,
liberal arts colleges may emphasize
the biological sciences, while many
State universities and land grant
colleges offer good programs in
agricultural science.
Young people seeking careers in
the life sciences should obtain the
broadest possible undergraduate
background in biology and other
sciences. Courses taken should in
clude biology, chemistry, physics,
and mathematics.
Many colleges and universities
confer advanced degrees in the life
sciences. Requirements for ad
vanced degrees usually include field
work and laboratory research as
well as classroom studies and
preparation of a thesis.
Young people planning careers
as life scientists should be able to
work independently or as part of a
team and must be able to commu
nicate well. Physical stamina is
necessary for those interested in
research in remote places.
Life scientists who have ad
vanced degrees usually begin in
research or teaching jobs. With ex
perience, they may advance to jobs
such as supervisors of research pro
grams.
Employment Outlook
Employment opportunities for
life scientists are expected to be
good for those with advanced
degrees through the mid-1980’s,
but those with lesser degrees may
experience competition for availa
ble jobs. However, a degree in life
science is also useful for entry to
occupations related to life science
such as research assistant, laborato
ry technologist, and the health care
occupations. Employment in the
life sciences is expected to increase
faster than the average for all occu
pations over this period, creating
Life scientist measures the sensitivity of an instrument designed to detect the
presence of life in the upper atmosphere.
many new jobs. In addition, some
openings will occur as life scientists
retire, die, or transfer to other oc
cupations.
The growth in employment in the
life sciences will be influenced by
the increased interest in preserving
the natural environment and by a
continuing interest in medical
research. Employment opportuni
ties in industry and government
should increase because of a need
for research and development in
environmentally related areas and
to administer new laws and stand
ards for environmental protection.
Greater interest in the environment
on the part of college, junior col
lege, and high school students could
result in some increased opportuni
ties for life science teachers in these
schools. While employment in col
leges and universities is expected to
increase, it will grow at a slower
rate than in the past, primarily
because of the anticipated slower
overall rate of growth in college and
university enrollments.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Life scientists receive relatively
high salaries; their average earnings
are more than twice those of nonsupervisory workers in private indus
try, except farming.
Beginning salary offers in private
industry in 1974 averaged $9,420 a
year
for
bachelor’s
degree
recipients in agricultural science
and $8,640 a year for bachelor’s
degree recipients in biological
science.
In the Federal Government in
late 1974, life scientists having a
bachelor’s degree could begin at
$8,500 or $10,520 a year, depend
ing on their college records. Life
scientists having the master’s
degree could start at $10,520 or
$12,841, depending on their
academic records or previous work
experience. Those having the Ph.
D. degree could begin at $ 15,481 or
$18,463. Agricultural and biologi
cal scientists in the Federal Govern
ment averaged $20,300 a year.
Earnings
of
all
biological
scientists averaged about $ 18,500 a
year in 1974. Life scientists who
have the M.D. degree generally
earn more than other life scientists
but less than physicians in private
practice.
Most life scientists work in welllighted, well-ventilated, and clean
laboratories. Some jobs, however,
require working outdoors under ex
treme weather conditions, doing
strenuous physical work.
SOIL SCIENTISTS
(D.O.T. 040.081)
Nature of the Work
Soil scientists study the physical,
chemical, and biological charac
teristics and behavior of soils. They
investigate soils both in the field
and in the laboratory and classify
them according to a national system
of soil classification. From their
research, scientists can classify soil
to
respond
to
management
questions concerning its capability
to produce crops, grasses, and
trees, and its suitability for the
erection
of
foundations
for
buildings and other structures. Soil
scientists prepare maps, usually
based on aerial photographs, on
which they plot the individual kinds
of soil and other landscape features
significant to soil type and manage
Sources of Additional
ment in relation to land ownership
Information
lines, field boundaries, roads, and
General information on careers other conspicuous features.
Soil scientists also conduct
in the life sciences is available from:
research to determine the physical
American Institute of Biological Sciences, and chemical properties of soils to
1401 Wilson Boulevard, Arlington, Va. understand their behavior and
22209.
origin. They predict the yields of
American Society for Horticultural Science, cultivated crops, grasses, and trees,
National Center for American Horticul under alternative combinations of
ture, Mt. Vernon, Va. 22121.
management practices.
American Physiological Society, Education
Soil science offers opportunities
Office, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda,
for those who wish to specialize in
Md. 20014.
soil classification and mapping, soil
Dr. J. Frank McCormick, Director, Gradu
ate Program in Ecology, University of geography, soil chemistry, soil
physics, soil microbiology, and soil
Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn. 37916.
Special information on Federal management. Training and ex
perience in soil science also will
Government careers is available prepare persons for positions as
farm managers, land appraisers,
from:
U.S. Civil Service Commission, Washington and many other professional posi
Area Office, 1900 E St. NW., Washing tions.
ton, D.C. 20415.
Places of Employment
An estimated 3,500 soil scientists
were employed in 1974. Most soil
scientists are employed by agencies
of the Federal Government, State
experiment stations, and colleges of
agriculture. However, many are
employed in a wide range of other
public and private institutions, in
cluding
fertilizer
companies,
private research laboratories, in
surance companies, banks and
other lending agencies, real estate
firms, land appraisal boards, State
conservation departments, and
farm management agencies. A few
are independent consultants, and
others work for consulting firms.
An increasing number are em
ployed in foreign countries as
research leaders, consultants, and
agricultural managers.
Training and Advancement
Training in a college or university
of recognized standing is important
in obtaining employment as a soil
scientist. For Federal employment,
the minimum qualification for en
trance is a bachelor’s degree with a
major in soil science or in a closely
related field of study, and with 30semester hours of course work in
the biological, physical, and earth
sciences, including a minimum of
15 semester hours in soils. In the
case of soils research, those having
graduate training—especially those
with the doctorate—can be ex
pected to advance into a responsi
ble and high paying position. Soil
scientists who are qualified for
work with both field and laboratory
data have a special advantage.
Many colleges and universities
offer fellowships and assistantships
for graduate training, or employ
graduate students for part-time
teaching or research.
Employment Outlook
The demand is increasing for soil
scientists to help complete the
scientific classification and evalua
tion of the soil resources in the
United States. One of the major
program objectives of the Soil Con
servation Service of the U.S. De
partment of Agriculture is to
complete the soil survey of all rural
lands in the United States. This pro
gram includes soil classification and
soil interpretation for use by
agriculturists, engineers, and landuse planners.
Also, demand is increasing for
both basic and applied research to
increase the efficiency of soil use.
Earnings
The incomes of soil scientists de
pend upon their education, profes
sional experience, and individual
abilities. The entrance salary in the
Federal service for graduates hav
ing a B.S. degree was $8,500 in late
1974. They may expect advance
ment to $10,520 after 1 year of
satisfactory performance. Further
promotion depends upon the in
dividual’s ability to do high quality
work and to accept responsibility.
Earnings of well-qualified Federal
soil scientists with several years of
experience range from $15,481 to
$25,581 a year.
Sources of Additional
Information
Additional information may be
obtained from the U.S. Civil Serv
ice Commission, Washington, D.C.
20415; Office of Personnel, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Wash
ington, D.C. 20250; any office of
the Department’s Soil Conserva
tion Service; any college of agricul
ture; or the American Society of
Agronomy, 677 S. Segoe Rd.,
Madison, Wis. 5371 1.
See also statements on Chemists
and Life Scientists.
MATHEMATICS
OCCUPATIONS
Mathematics is both a science
and a tool essential for many kinds
of work. As a tool, mathematics is
necessary for understanding and ex
pressing ideas in science, engineer
ing, and, increasingly, in human af
fairs. The application of mathemati
cal techniques in these fields has in
creased greatly because of the
widespread use of computers,
which enable mathematicians to do
complex problems rapidly and effi
ciently. As a result, employment
opportunities for persons trained in
mathematics have expanded rapidly
in recent years.
Young
people
considering
careers in mathematics should be
able to concentrate for long periods
of time. They should enjoy working
independently with ideas and solv
ing problems, and must be able to
present their findings in written re
ports.
This section describes two
occupations— mathematician and
statistician. A statement on ac
tuaries, a closely related mathema
tics occupation, is discussed in the
section on Insurance Occupations.
Entrance into any of these fields re
quires college training in mathema
tics. For many types of work,
graduate education is necessary.
Many other workers in the natu
ral and social sciences and in data
processing use mathematics exten
sively, although they are not pri
marily mathematicians. These oc
cupations are discussed elsewhere
in this book, as are jobs for high
school mathematics teachers, covered
in the statement on Secondary
School Teachers.
MATHEMATICIANS
(D.O.T. 020.088)
Nature of the Work
Mathematicians today are en
gaged in a wide variety of activities,
ranging from the creation of new
theories to the translation of scien
tific and managerial problems into
mathematical terms.
There are two broad classes of
mathematical work: pure (theoreti
cal) mathematics; and applied
mathematics, which includes solv
ing numerical problems. Theoretical
mathematicians advance mathemat
ical science by developing new
principles and new relationships be
tween existing principles of
mathematics. They seek to increase
basic knowledge without necessar
ily considering its practical use.
Yet, this pure and abstract know
ledge has been instrumental in pro
ducing many scientific and engineer
ing achievements. For example, in
1854 Bernard Riemann invented
a seem ingly impractical nonEuclidian geometry that was to be
come part of the theory of relativity
developed by Albert Einstein more
than a half-century later.
Mathematicians in applied work
use mathematics to develop theo
ries, techniques, and approaches to
solve problems in natural science,
social science, management, and
engineering. Their work ranges
from analysis of the reliability of
space vehicle systems to studies of
the effects of new drugs on disease.
Much work in applied mathe
matics, however, is carried on by
persons other than mathematicians.
In fact, the number of workers who
depend to a greater or lesser extent
upon mathematical expertise is
many times greater than the
number actually designated as
mathematicians.
Places of Employment
About 40,000 persons worked as
mathematicians in 1974, about onefifth of them women.
Roughly three-fourths of all
mathematicians worked in colleges
and
universities.
Most
were
teachers; some worked mainly in
research and development with few
or no teaching duties.
Mathematician considers technical problem as explained by engineer.
Most
other
mathematicians
worked in private industry and
government. In the private sector,
major
employers
were
the
aerospace,
communications,
machinery, and electrical equip
ment industries. The Department of
Defense employed most of the
mathematicians working in the
Federal Government.
Mathematicians work in all
States, but are concentrated in
those with large industrial areas and
large college and university enroll
ments. Nearly half of the total are
employed in seven States—Califor
nia, New York, Massachusetts,
Pennsylvania, Illinois, Maryland,
and New Jersey. Of the total, onefourth live in three metropolitan
areas—New York City; Washing
ton, D.C.; and Los Angeles-Long
Beach, California.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
An advanced degree is the basic
requirement for beginning teaching
jobs, as well as for most research
positions. In most colleges and
universities, the Ph. D. degree is
necessary for full faculty status.
Advanced degrees are also
required for an increasing number
of jobs in industry and government,
in research, and in many areas of
applied mathematics. However, the
bachelor’s degree is adequate
preparation for many positions in
private industry and the Federal
Government.
Some new graduates having a
bachelor’s degree assist senior
mathematicians by performing
computations "and solving less ad
vanced
problems in applied
research. Others work as research
or teaching assistants in colleges
and universities while studying for
an advanced degree.
The bachelor’s degree in mathe
matics is offered by most col
leges and universities. Mathematics
courses usually required for a de
gree are analytical geometry, cal
culus, differential equations, prob
ability and statistics, mathematical
analysis, and modem algebra. A
prospective college mathematics
student should take as many math
ematics courses as possible while
still enrolled in high school.
More than 400 colleges and
universities have programs leading
to the master’s degree in mathe
matics; about 150 also offer the Ph.
D. In graduate school, students
build upon the basic knowledge
acquired in earlier studies. They
usually concentrate on a specific
field of mathematics, such as al
gebra, mathematical analysis, or
statistics, by conducting research
and taking advanced courses.
For work in applied mathematics,
training in the field in which the
mathematics will be used is very im
portant. Fields in which applied
mathematics is used extensively in
clude physics, engineering, and
operations research; of increasing
importance are business and indus
trial
management,
economics,
statistics, chemistry and life
sciences, and the behavioral
sciences. Training in numerical
analysis and programming is espe
cially desirable for mathematicians
working with computers.
Mathematicians
need
good
reasoning ability, persistence, and
the ability to apply basic principles
to new types of problems. They
must be able to communicate well
with others since they often must
listen to a non-mathematician
describe a problem in general
terms, and check and recheck to
make sure they understand the
mathematical solution that is
needed.
Employment Outlook
Although employment of mathe
maticians is expected to increase
about as fast as the average for all
occupations through the mid1980’s, this rate of growth is slower
than occurred in the past. Even if
the number of degrees granted in
mathematics each year remains at
its present level, the number of peo
ple seeking employment is expected
to exceed job openings. As a result,
persons seeking employment as
mathematicians are expected to
face keen competition throughout
the period.
Theoretical mathematicians are
expected to have the most difficulty
in finding employment. They have
traditionally worked in colleges and
universities, where employment
growth is now expected to be
slowest.
Holders of advanced degrees in
applied mathematics should have
the least difficulty in finding
satisfactory employment. Private
industry and governmental agencies
will need applied mathematicians
for work in operations research, nu
merical analysis, computer systems
programming, applied mathemati
cal physics, market research and
commercial surveys, and as con
sultants in industrial laboratories.
Work in applied mathematics
requires both a high degree of
mathematical competence and a
knowledge of the field of applica
tion.
College graduates with degrees in
mathematics should be able to find
jobs in other fields, because the
education necessary for a degree in
mathematics is also a good
background for other jobs that rely
heavily on the application of mathe
matical theories and methods.
Mathematics majors are likely to
find openings in statistics, actuarial
work, computer programming,
systems analysis, economics, en
gineering, and physical and life
sciences. Employment opportuni
ties in these fields will probably be
best for those who combine a major
in mathematics with a minor in one
of these subjects.
New graduates will also find
openings as high school mathe
matics teachers after completing
professional education courses and
other requirements for a State
teaching certificate. (See section on
Secondary School teachers elsewhere
in this book.)
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Mathematical Sciences is available
for 25 cents from:
In 1974, mathematicians earned
average salaries over twice as high
as the average for nonsupervisory
workers in private industry, except
farming. Starting salaries for mathe
maticians with a bachelor’s degree
averaged about $10,300 a year.
Those with a master’s degree could
start at about $12,500 annually.
Salaries for new graduates having
the Ph. D., most of whom had some
experience, averaged over $ 16,000.
In the Federal Government in
1974, mathematicians having the
bachelor’s degree and no ex
perience could start at either
$8,500 or $10,520 a year, depend
ing on their college records. Those
with the master’s degree could start
at $12,841 or $15,481; and persons
having the Ph. D. degree could
begin at either $15,481 or $18,463.
The average salary for all mathe
maticians in the Federal Govern
ment was about $21,500 in 1974.
Salaries paid to college and
university teachers vary greatly de
pending both on the quality and lo
cation of the school and the ability
and experience of the individual.
According to the American Mathe
matical Society, college and univer
sity teachers generally earned from
as low as $8,000 a year
(instructors) to as high as $25,000 a
year (professors)in 1974. Some
were paid over $30,000 annually.
Mathematicians on college and
university staffs often supplement
their regular salaries with income
from summer teaching, special
research projects, consulting, and
writing.
American Mathematical Society, P.O. Box
6248, Providence, R.l. 02940.
Sources of Additional
Information
Several brochures are available
that give facts about the field of
mathematics, including career op
portunities, professional training,
and colleges and universities with
degree programs.
Seeking Employment in the
Professional Opportunities in
Mathematics (50 cents) and Guide
Book to Departments in the Mathe
matical Sciences (75 cents) are pro
vided by:
Mathematical Association of America, 1225
Connecticut Ave. NW„ Washington,
D C. 20036.
For specific information on
careers in applied mathematics,
contact:
Society for Industrial and Applied Mathe
matics, 33 S. 17th St., Philadelphia, Pa.
19103.
For Federal Government career
information, contact any regional
office of the U.S. Civil Service
Commission or:
Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Ex
aminers, 1900 E St. NW„ Washington,
D C. 20415.
STATISTICIANS
(D.O.T. 020.188)
Nature of the Work
Statistics are numbers that help
describe the characteristics of the
world and its inhabitants. Statisti
cians devise, carry out and analyze
surveys and experiments, and in
terpret their numerical results. In
doing so, they apply their
knowledge of statistical methods to
a particular subject area, such as
economics, human behavior, natu
ral science, or engineering. They
may use statistical techniques to
predict population growth or
economic
conditions,
develop
quality control tests for manufac
tured products, or help business
managers and government officials
make decisions and evaluate the
results of new programs.
Often statisticians are able to ob
tain accurate information about a
group of people or things by survey
ing a sample, rather than the whole
group. For example, television rat-
Statistician assembles data for market
research project.
ing services ask only a few thousand
families, rather than all viewers,
what programs they watch. Statisti
cians decide where to get the data,
determine the type and size of the
sample group, and develop the sur
vey questionnaire or reporting
form. They also prepare instruc
tions for workers who will tabulate
the returns. Statisticians who design
experiments prepare mathematical
models to test a particular theory.
Those in analytical work interpret
collected data and summarize their
findings in tables, charts, and writ
ten reports. Some statisticians,
called mathematical statisticians,
use mathematical theory to design
and improve statistical methods.
Because the field of statistics has
such a wide application, it is some
times difficult to distinguish statisti
cians from specialists in other fields
who use statistics. For example, a
statistician working with data on
economic conditions may have the
title of economist.
Places of Employment
Approximately 24,000 persons—
about one-third of them women—
worked as statisticians in 1974.
About 2 out of 3 statisticians were
in private industry, primarily in
manufacturing, public utilities,
finance, and insurance companies.
Roughly one-eighth worked for the
Federal Government, primarily in
the Departments of Commerce;
Agriculture; Defense; and Health,
Education, and Welfare. Others
worked in State and local govern
ment and colleges and universities.
Although statisticians work in all
parts of the country, most are in
metropolitan areas, and about onefourth lived in three areas—New
York City; Washington, D.C.; and
Los Angeles-Long Beach, Califor
nia.
economics and business administra
tion are helpful.
Over 100 colleges and universi
ties offered graduate degrees in
statistics in 1974, and many other
schools offered one or two graduate
level statistics courses. The usual
requirement for entering a graduate
program is a bachelor’s degree with
a good background in mathematics.
Beginning statisticians who have
only the bachelor’s degree often
spend much of their time perform
ing routine work under the supervi
sion of an experienced statistician.
Through experience, they may ad
vance to positions of greater techni
cal and supervisory responsibility.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Employment Outlook
A bachelor’s degree with a major
in statistics or mathematics is the
minimum educational requirement
for many beginning jobs in
statistics. For other beginning
statistical
jobs,
however, a
bachelor’s degree with a major in
an applied field such as economics
or natural science and a minor in
statistics is preferable. A graduate
degree in mathematics or statistics
is essential for college and universi
ty teaching and helpful for promo
tion to top administrative and con
sulting jobs.
About 120 colleges and universi
ties offered statistics as a concen
tration for a bachelor’s degree in
1974. Schools offer either a degree
in mathematics or a sufficient
number of courses in statistics to
qualify graduates for beginning
positions. Required subjects for
statistics majors include mathe
matics through differential and in
tegral calculus, statistical methods,
and probability theory. Courses in
computer uses and techniques are
useful for many jobs. For quality
control positions, training in en
gineering or a physical or biological
science and in the application of
statistical methods to manufactur
ing processes is desirable. For many
market research, business analysis,
and forecasting jobs, courses in
Employment opportunities for
persons who combine training in
statistics with knowledge of a field
of application are expected to be
favorable through the mid-1980’s.
Besides the faster than average
growth expected in this field, addi
tional statisticians will be needed to
replace those who die, retire, or
transfer to other occupations.
Private industry will require in
creasing numbers of statisticians for
quality control in manufacturing.
Statisticians with a knowledge of
engineering and the physical
sciences will find jobs working with
scientists and engineers in research
and development. Business firms
will rely more heavily than in the
past on statisticians to forecast
sales, analyze business conditions,
modernize accounting procedures,
and help solve
management
problems.
Government agencies will need
statisticians for existing and new
programs in fields such as social
security, health, education, and
economics. Colleges and universi
ties will employ others to teach a
growing number of students, as the
broader use of statistical methods
makes such courses increasingly
important to persons majoring in
fields other than mathematics and
statistics.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
In 1974, the average salary of
statisticians exceeded $21,000 a
year, much higher than the average
for all nonsupervisory workers in
private industry, except farming.
New college graduates averaged
about $10,000 a year, according to
the limited information available.
Those with the master’s degree
could start at about $ 12,500 a year,
while Ph. D. recipients could start
at around $ 16,000.
In the Federal Government in
1974, statisticians who had the
bachelor’s degree and no ex
perience could start at either
$8,500 or $10,520 a year, depend
ing on their college grades.
Beginning statisticians with the
master’s degree could start at
$12,841 or $ 15,481. Those with the
Ph. D. could begin at $15,481 or
$18,463.
Statisticians employed by col
leges and universities generally
receive salaries comparable to
those paid other faculty members.
(See statement on College and
University Teachers.) In addition to
their regular salaries, statisticians in
educational institutions sometimes
earn extra income from outside
research projects, consulting, and
writing.
Sources of Additional
Information
For information about career op
portunities in statistics, contact:
American Statistical Association, 806 15th
St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005.
Facts on Federal Government
jobs are available from:
Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Ex
aminers for Washington, D.C., 1900 E
St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20414. For
information on a career as a mathemati
cal statistician, contact:
Institute of Mathematical Statistics, 1367
Laurel St., San Carlos, Calif. 94070.
PHYSICAL
SCIENTISTS
Physical scientists deal with the
basic principles of science. Many
do basic research to increase man’s
knowledge of the properties of
matter and energy. Others do basic
and applied research, and develop
new products and processes. For
example, chemists in applied
research use their knowledge of the
interactions of various chemicals to
improve the quality of products.
Besides research and development,
many physical scientists, particu
larly chemists and food scientists,
work in production and sales-related activities in industry.
This section describes four physi
cal science occupations—chemists,
physicists, astronomers, and food
scientists. Engineers, life scientists,
and environmental scientists also
require a background in the physi
cal sciences; these occupations are
described in separate sections else
where in this book.
ASTRONOMERS
(D.O.T.021.088)
Nature of the Work
Astronomers seek answers to
questions about the fundamental
nature of the universe, such as its
origin and history and the evolution
of our solar system. Astronomers—
sometimes called astrophysicists—
use the principles of physics and
mathematics to study and deter
mine the behavior of matter and
energy in distant galaxies. One ap
plication of the information they
gain is to prove or disprove theories
of the nature of matter and energy
such as Einstein’s theory of relativi
tyTo make observations of the
universe, astronomers use large
telescopes, radiotelescopes, and
other instruments which can detect
electromagnetic radiation from
distant sources. Astronomers of
today spend little time visually ob
serving stars through telescopes
because photographic and elec
tronic light detecting equipment is
more effective with dim or distant
stars and galaxies. By using spec
troscopes to analyze light from stars
astronomers can determine their
chemical
composition.
As
tronomers also use radiotelescopes
and other electronic means to ob
serve radio waves, X-rays, and
cosmic rays. Electronic computers
are used to analyze data and to
solve complex mathematical equa
tions that astronomers develop to
represent various theories. Compu
ters also are useful for processing
astronomical data to calculate or
bits of asteroids or comets, guide
spacecraft, and work out tables for
navigational handbooks.
Astronomers usually specialize in
one of the many branches of the
science such as instruments and
techniques, the sun, the solar
system, and the evolution and in
teriors of stars.
Astronomers who work on obser
vational programs begin their stu
dies by deciding what stars or other
objects to observe and the methods
and instruments to use. They may
need to design optical measuring
devices to attach to the telescope to
make the required measurements.
After completing their observa
tions, they analyze the results,
present them in precise numerical
form, and explain them on the basis
of some theory. Astromomers
usually spend relatively little time in
actual observation and relatively
more time in analyzing the large
quantities of data that observatory
facilities collect.
Some astronomers concentrate
on theoretical problems and seldom
visit observatories. They formulate
theories or mathematical models to
explain observations made earlier
by other astronomers. These as
tronomers develop mathematical
equations using the laws of physics
to compute, for example, theoreti
cal models of how stars change as
their nuclear energy sources
become exhausted.
Almost all astronomers do
research or teach; those in colleges
and universities often do both. In
schools that do not have separate
departments of astronomy or only
small enrollments in the subject,
they often teach courses in mathe
matics or physics as well as astrono
my. Some astronomers administer
research programs, develop and
design astronomical instruments,
and do consulting work.
Places of Employment
Astronomy is the smallest physi
cal science; only 2,000 persons,
roughly 7 percent of them women,
worked as astronomers in 1974.
Most astronomers work in colleges
and universities. Some work in ob
servatories operated by universities,
nonprofit organizations, or the
Federal Government.
The Federal Government em
ployed almost 600 astronomers in
1974. Most worked for the National
Aeronautics and Space Administra
tion. Others worked for the Depart
ment of Defense, mainly at the U.S.
Naval Observatory and the U.S.
Naval Research Laboratory. A few
astronomers worked for firms in the
aerospace field, or in museums and
planetariums.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
The usual requirement for a job
in astronomy is a Ph.D. degree. Per
sons with less education may quali
fy for some jobs; however, highlevel positions in teaching and
research and advancement in most
areas are open only to those with
the doctorate.
Many students who undertake
graduate study in astronomy have a
bachelor’s degree in astronomy. In
1974, about 50 colleges and univer
sities had programs leading to the
bachelor’s degree in astronomy.
However, most students with a
Employment Outlook
Persons seeking positions as as
tronomers will face keen competi
tion for the few available openings
expected through the mid-1980’s.
Employment of astronomers is ex
pected to grow slowly, if at all,
because the funds available for
basic research in astronomy, which
come mainly from the Federal
Government, are not expected to
increase enough to create many
new positions. Most openings will
occur as replacements for those
who die or retire. Since astronomy
is such a small profession, there will
be few openings needed for
replacements. There will be a large
number of people competing to fill
these openings because the number
of degrees granted in astronomy
probably will continue to exceed
available openings.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
bachelor’s degree in physics, or in
mathematics with a physics minor,
can usually qualify for graduate
programs in astronomy. Students
planning to become astronomers
usually study physics, mathematics,
and chemistry. Courses in statistics,
computer science, optics, and elec
tronics also are useful. In schools
with astronomy departments, stu
dents also take introductory cours
es in astronomy and astrophysics,
and in astronomical techniques and
instruments.
About 55 universities offer the
Ph. D. degree in astronomy. These
programs include advanced courses
in astronomy, physics, and mathe
matics. Some schools require that
graduate students spend several
months working at an observatory.
In most institutions, the work pro
gram leading to the doctorate is
flexible and allows students to take
courses in their own particular area
of interest.
Persons planning careers in as
tronomy should have imagination
and an inquisitive mind. Per
severance and the ability to concen
trate on detail and to work indepen
dently also are important.
New graduates with a bachelor’s
or master’s degree in astronomy
usually begin as assistants in ob
servatories, planetariums, large de
partments of astronomy in colleges
and universities, Government agen
cies, or industry. Some work as
research assistants while studying
toward advanced degrees. New
graduates with the doctorate can
qualify for teaching and research
jobs in colleges and universities and
for research jobs in Government
and industry.
Astronomers have relatively high
salaries, with average earnings
much higher than the average for
nonsupervisory workers in private
industry, except farming.
In the Federal Government in
late 1974, astronomers holding the
Ph. D. degree could begin at
$15,481 or $18,463, depending on
their college record. Those having
the bachelor’s degree could start at
$8,500 or $10,520; with the
master’s degree at $10,520 or
$ 12,841. The average annual salary
for astronomers and space scientists
in the Federal Government was
about $27,600 in late 1974. As
tronomers teaching in colleges and
universities
received
salaries
equivalent to those of other faculty
members. (See statement on Col
lege and University Teachers else
where in this book.)
Most astronomers spend most of
their time working in offices or
classrooms, although astronomers
who make observations may need
to travel to the observing facility
and may occasionally work at night.
Sources of Additional
Information
They may develop, for example,
materials to use in solid state elec
tronic
components.
Physical
chemists study energy transforma
tions to find new and better energy
sources. Increasingly, however,
chemists consider themselves mem
bers of new specialties which in
clude two of the preceding fields or
more. Biochemists, often con
sidered as either chemists or life
scientists, are discussed elsewhere
in this book. Some chemists special
ize in the chemistry of foods. (See
statement on Food Scientists else
where in this book.)
For information on careers in as
tronomy and on schools offering
training in the field, contact:
American Astronomical Society, 211 FitzRandolph Rd.. Princeton, N.J. 08540.
CHEMISTS
(D.O.T. 022.081, .168, .181,
and.281)
Nature of the Work
The clothes we wear, the foods
we eat, the houses in which we
live—in fact most things that help
make our lives better, from medical
care to a cleaner environment—
result, in part, from the work done
by chemists.
Chemists search for and put into
practical use new knowledge about
substances. They develop new com
pounds, such as rocket fuel; im
prove foods; and create clothing
that is chemically treated against
flammability, soil, and wrinkles.
Over one-half of all chemists
work in research and development.
In basic research, chemists in
vestigate the properties and com
position of matter and the laws that
govern the combination of ele
ments. Basic research often has
practical uses. For example,
synthetic rubber and plastics have
resulted from research on small
molecules uniting to form larger
ones (polymerization). In research
and development, new products are
created or improved. The process
of developing a product begins with
descriptions of needed items. If
similar products exist, chemists test
samples to determine their in
gredients. If no such product exists,
experimentation with various sub
stances yields a product with the
required specifications.
Nearly one-fifth of all chemists
work in production and inspection.
In production, chemists prepare in-
Chemists study model of ethylene dinitramine.
Places of Employment
structions (batch sheets) for plant
Nearly 135,000 persons worked
workers which specify the kind and as chemists in 1974; about 10 per
amount of ingredients to use and cent were women. Nearly threethe exact mixing time for each stage fourths of all chemists work in
in the process. At each step, sam private industry; almost one-half
ples are tested for quality control to are in the chemicals manufacturing
meet industry and government industry. Most others work for
standards. Records and reports companies manufacturing food,
scientific instruments, petroleum,
show results of tests.
Others work as marketing or paper, and electrical equipment.
sales representatives to obtain
Colleges and universities em
technical knowledge of products ployed 25,000 chemists. Smaller
sold. A number of chemists teach in numbers worked for nonprofit
colleges and universities. Some research organizations; and State
chemists are consultants to private and local governments, primarily in
industry and government agencies.
health and agriculture; Federal
Chemists often specialize in one agencies, chiefly the Departments
of the subfields of chemistry. of Defense; Health, Education, and
Analytical chemists determine the Welfare; Agriculture; and Interior.
Chemists are employed in all
structure, composition, and nature
of substances, and develop new parts of the country, but they are
techniques. An outstanding exam concentrated in large industrial
ple was the analysis of moon rocks areas. Nearly one-fifth of all
by an international team of analyti chemists were located in four
cal chemists. Organic chemists metropolitan areas—New York,
originally studied the chemistry of Chicago,
Philadelphia,
and
living things, but this area has been Newark. About half of the total
broadened to include all carbon worked in six States—New York,
compounds. When combined with New Jersey, California, Pennsyl
other elements, carbon forms an in vania, Ohio, and Illinois.
credible variety of substances.
Many
modern
commercial
Training, Other Qualifications,
products, including plastics and
and Advancement
other synthetics, have resulted from
this work. Inorganic chemists study
A bachelor’s degree with a major
compounds other than carbon. in chemistry or a related discipline
is sufficient for many beginning jobs
as a chemist. However, graduate
training is required for many
research and college teaching posi
tions. Beginning chemists should
have a broad background in
chemistry, with good laboratory
skills.
Over 1,100 colleges and universi
ties offer a bachelor’s degree in
chemistry. In addition to required
courses in analytical, inorganic, or
ganic, and physical chemistry, un
dergraduates usually study mathe
matics and physics.
More than 350 colleges and
universities
award
advanced
degrees in chemistry. In graduate
school, students generally special
ize in a particular subfield of
chemistry. Requirements for the
master’s and doctor’s degree
usually include a thesis based on in
dependent research.
Students planning careers as
chemists should enjoy studying
science and mathematics, and
should like working with their
hands building scientific apparatus
and performing experiments. Per
severance and the ability to concen
trate on detail and work indepen
dently are essential. Other desirable
assets include an inquisitive mind,
and imagination. Chemists also
should have good eyesight and eyehand coordination.
Graduates with the bachelor’s
degree generally begin their careers
in government or industry by
analyzing or testing products, work
ing in technical sales or service, or
assisting senior chemists in research
and development laboratories.
Many employers have special train
ing and orientation programs which
are concerned with the special
knowledge needed for the em
ployer’s type of work. Candidates
for an advanced degree often teach
or do research in colleges and
universities while working toward
advanced degrees.
Beginning chemists with the
master’s degree can usually go into
applied research in government or
private industry. They also may
qualify for teaching positions in 2year colleges, and some universi
ties.
The Ph. D. generally is required
for basic research, for teaching in
colleges and universities, and for
advancement to many administra
tive positions.
Employment Outlook
Employment opportunities in
chemistry are expected to be good
for graduates at all degree levels
through the mid-1980’s. The em
ployment of chemists is expected to
grow faster than the average for all
occupations during this period;
thousands of new jobs will be
created each year. In addition,
several thousand openings will
result each year as chemists retire,
die, or transfer to other occupa
tions.
The outlook for chemists is based
on the assumption that research
and development expenditures of
government and industry will in
crease through the mid-1980’s,
although at a slower rate than dur
ing the 1960’s. If actual R&D ex
penditures levels differ significantly
from those assumed, the outlook
for chemists would be altered.
Approximately three-fourths of
total employment is expected to be
in private industry to develop new
products. In addition, industrial
companies and government agen
cies will need chemists to help solve
problems
related
to
energy
shortages, pollution control, and
health care. Some also will work in
Federal, State, and local crime
laboratories.
Growth in college and university
employment is expected to be much
slower than in the past; competition
for teaching positions will be keen.
(See statement on College and
University Teachers elsewhere in
this book.)
New graduates also will find
openings in high school teaching
after completing professional edu
cation courses and other require
ments for a State teaching cer
tificate. However, they usually are
then regarded as teachers rather
than chemists. (See statement on
Secondary School Teachers else
where in this book.)
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Chemists averaged more than
Chemist regulates the pressure of a gas used in an experiment.
twice as much as nonsupervisory
workers in private industry, except
farming. According to the Amer
ican Chemical Society, experienced
chemists having a bachelor’s degree
averaged $17,500 a year in 1974;
for those with a master’s degree,
$18,400; and for those with a Ph.
D., $21,700.
Private industry paid chemists
with the bachelor’s degree starting
salaries averaging $ 10,200 a year in
1974; those with the master’s
degree, $12,000; and those with the
Ph. D., $16,800.
In colleges and universities, the
median salary of those with the
master’s degree was $ 13,300 and of
those with the Ph. D., $17,200. In
addition,
many
experienced
chemists in educational institutions
supplement their regular salaries
with income from consulting, lec
turing, and writing.
Depending on college records,
the annual starting salary in the
Federal Government in late 1974
for an inexperienced chemist with a
bachelor’s degree was either $8,500
or $10,520. Those who had 2 years
of graduate study could begin at
$12,841 a year. Chemists having
the Ph. D. degree could start at
$15,841 or $18,463. The average
salary for all chemists in the Federal
Government in late 1974 was
$21,500 a year.
Chemists
usually
work
in
modern, well-equipped, and welllighted laboratories, offices, or
classrooms. Hazards involve han
dling potentially explosive or highly
caustic chemicals. However, when
safety regulations are followed,
health hazards are negligible.
Sources of Additional
Information
General information on career
opportunities and earnings for
chemists is available from:
American Chemical Society, 1155 16th St.
NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.
Manufacturing Chemists Association, Inc.,
1825 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washing
ton, D .C .20009.
For specific information on
Federal Government careers, con
tact:
Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Ex
aminers for Washington, D.C., 1900 E
St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415.
For additional sources of informa
tion, see statements on Biochemists
and Chemical Engineers. Information
on chemical technicians may be
found in the statement on Engineer
ing and Science Technicians.
FOOD SCIENTISTS
(D.O.T. 022.081, 040.081, and
041.081)
Nature of the Work
pearance of foods. Food scientists
who work in applied research and
development create new foods and
develop new processing methods.
They also seek to improve existing
foods by making them more nutri
tious and enhancing their flavor,
color, and texture.
Food scientists insure that each
product will retain its charac
teristics and nutritive value during
storage. They also conduct chemi
cal and microbiological tests to see
that products meet industry and
government standards, and they
may determine the nutritive con
tents of products in order to comply
with Federal nutritional labeling
requirements.
In quality control laboratories,
food scientists check raw in
gredients for freshness, maturity, or
suitability for processing. They may
use machines that test for ten
derness by finding the amount of
force necessary to puncture the
item. Periodically, they inspect
processing line operations to insure
conformance with government and
industry standards. For example,
scientists test canned goods for
sugar, starch, protein, fat, vitamin,
and mineral content. In frozen food
plants, they make sure that, after
processing, various enzymes are in-
In the past, consumers processed
most food in the home, but today,
industry processes almost all foods.
A keyworker involved in the
development and processing of the
large variety of foods available
today is the food scientist or food
technologist.
Food scientists investigate the
chemical, physical, and biological
nature of food and apply this
knowledge to processing, preserv
ing, packaging, distributing, and
storing an adequate, nutritious,
wholesome, and economical food
supply. About three-fifths of all
scientists in food processing work in
research and development. Others
work in quality assurance laborato
ries or in production or processing
areas of food plants. Some teach or
do basic research in colleges and
universities.
Food scientists in basic research
study the structure and composition
of food and the changes it un
dergoes in storage and processing.
For example, they may develop new
sources of proteins, study the ef
fects of processing on microorgan
isms, or search for factors that af Food scientist does research to develop
fect the flavor, texture, or ap
new food product.
active so that the food will not spoil
during
storage.
Other
food
scientists are involved in developing
and improving packaging and
canning methods.
Food scientists in production
prepare production specifications,
schedule processing operations,
maintain proper temperature and
humidity in storage areas, and su
pervise sanitation operations, in
cluding the efficient and economi
cal disposal of wastes. To increase
efficiency, they advise management
on the purchase of equipment and
recommend new sources of materi
als.
Some food scientists apply their
knowledge in areas such as market
research, advertising, and technical
sales. Others teach in colleges and
universities.
in food science, or in one of the
physical or life sciences such as
chemistry and biology, is the usual
minimum
requirement
for
beginning jobs in food science. An
advanced degree is necessary for
many jobs, particularly research
and college teaching, and for some
management level jobs in industry.
About 60 colleges and universi
ties offered programs leading to the
bachelor’s degree in food science in
1974; the Institute of Food
Technologists approved over 40 of
these.
Undergraduate students
majoring in food science usually
take courses in physics, chemistry,
mathematics, biology, the social
sciences and humanities, and busi
ness administration, as well as a
variety of food science courses.
Food science courses cover areas
such as preservation, processing,
sanitation, and marketing of foods.
Places of Employment
Most of the colleges and universi
About 7,200 persons—more than ties that provide undergraduate
10 percent of them women— food science programs also offer
worked as food scientists in 1974. advanced degrees. Graduate stu
Food scientists work in all sectors dents usually specialize in a particu
of the food industry and in every lar area of food science. Require
State. The types of products on ments for the master’s or doctor’s
which they work may depend on degree vary by institution, but
the locality: for example, in Maine usually include laboratory work and
and Idaho they work with potato a th e s is .
processing; in the Midwest, with
Young people planning careers
cereal products and meatpacking; as food scientists should have
and in Florida and California, with analytical minds and like details
orange juice concentrates.
and technical work. Food scientists
Some food scientists do research must be able to express their ideas
for Federal agencies such as the clearly to others.
Food and Drug Administration and
Food scientists with a bachelor’s
the Departments of Agriculture and degree might start work as quality
Defense; others work in State regu assurance chemists or as assistant
latory agencies. A few work for production managers. After gaining
private consulting firms and inter experience, they can advance to
national organizations such as the more responsible management jobs.
United Nations. Some teach or do A food scientist might also begin as
research in colleges and universi a junior food chemist in a research
ties. (See statement on College and and development laboratory of a
University Teachers elsewhere in food company, and be promoted to
this book.)
section head or another research
management position.
People who have master’s
Training, Other Qualifications,
degrees may begin as senior food
and Advancement
chemists in a research and develop
A bachelor’s degree with a major ment laboratory. Those who have
the Ph. D. degree usually begin
their careers doing basic research
or teaching.
Employment Outlook
Employment of food scientists is
expected to grow faster than the
average for all occupations through
the mid-1980’s. In addition to
openings resulting from this growth,
some jobs will open each year
because of the need to replace
those who die, retire, or transfer to
other fields.
Employment is expected to grow
as the food industry responds to the
challenge of providing wholesome
and economical foods that can
meet
changing
consumer
preferences and food standards. In
addition, both private households
and food service institutions that
supply outlets such as airlines and
restaurants will demand a greater
quantity of quality convenience
foods.
Food scientists with advanced
degrees are expected to have more
favorable opportunities than those
with only the bachelor’s degree.
Also, those with degrees in food
science may have better opportuni
ties than those with degrees in re
lated fields such as chemistry or
biology.
An increasing number of food
scientists are expected to find jobs
in research and product develop
ment. In recent years, expenditures
for research and development in
the food industry have increased
moderately and probably will con
tinue to rise. Through research,
new foods are being produced from
modifications of wheat, corn, rice,
and soybeans. For example, food
scientists are working to improve
“meat” products made from
vegetable proteins. There will be an
increased need for food scientists in
quality control and production
because of the complexity of
products and processes and the ap
plication of higher processing stand
ards and new government regula
tions.
describe the fundamental forces
and laws of nature. Determining
such
basic
laws
governing
Earnings and Working
phenomena such as gravity, elec
Conditions
tromagnetism, and nuclear interac
Food scientists had relatively tion leads to discoveries and in
novations.
For instance, the
high earnings in 1974, much higher
development of irradiation therapy
than the average for all nonsuperequipment which destroys harmful
visory workers in private industry,
growths in humans without damag
except farming. Food scientists with
ing other tissues resulted from what
the bachelor’s degree had average
physicists know about nuclear
starting salaries of about $10,000 a
radiation. Physicists have con
year in 1974. Those with a master’s
tributed to scientific progress in
degree started at about $12,000,
recent years in areas such as
and those with the Ph. D. degree at
nuclear energy, electronics, com
about $15,200.
munications, aerospace, and medi
In the Federal Government in
cal instrumentation.
late 1974, food scientists with a
Two-thirds of all physicists work
bachelor’s degree could start at
in research and development. Some
$8,500 or $10,520 a year, depend
do basic research to increase scien
ing on their college grades. Those tific knowledge. For example, they
with a master’s degree could start at investigate the fundamentals of
$ 10,520 or $ 12,841, and those with nuclear structure and the forces
the Ph. D. degree could begin at between nucleons (nuclear dynam
$15,481 or $18,463. The average ics). The equipment that physicists
salary
for experienced
food develop for their basic research can
scientists in the Federal Govern often be applied to other areas. For
ment was about $22,500 a year in example, lasers (devices which am
late 1974.
plify light and emit electromagnetic
waves in a narrow, intense light
Sources of Additional
beam) are utilized in surgery;
Information
microwave devices are used for
and
measurement
For information on careers in ovens;
techniques
and
instruments
food science, contact:
developed by physicists can detect
Institute of Food Technologists, Suite 2120, and measure the kind and number
221 North LaSalle St., Chicago, 1 1
1.
of cells in blood or the amount of
60601.
mercury or lead in foods.
Some
engineering-oriented
physicists do applied research and
help develop new products. For in
PHYSICISTS
stance, their knowledge of solidstate physics led to the develop
(D.O.T. 023.081 and.088)
ment of transistors and microcir
cuits used in electronic equipment
Nature of the Work
that ranges from hearing aids to
The flight of astronauts through missile guidance systems.
Many physicists teach in colleges
space, the probing of ocean depths,
or even the safety of the family car and universities. A small number
depend on research by physicists. work in inspection, quality control,
Through systematic observation and other production-related jobs
and experimentation, physicists in industry. Some do consulting
describe in mathematical terms the work.
Most physicists specialize in one
structure of the universe and in
teraction of matter and energy. or more branches of the science—
physics;
Physicists develop theories that elementary-particle
nuclear physics; atomic, electron,
and molecular physics; physics of
condensed
matter;
optics,
acoustics, and plasma physics; and
the physics of fluids. Some special
ize in a subdivision of one of these
branches. For example, within
solid-state physics subdivisions in
clude ceramics, crystallography,
and semiconductors. However,
since all physics specialties rest on
the same fundamental principles, a
physicist’s work usually overlaps
many specialties.
Growing numbers of physicists
are specializing in fields combining
physics and a related science—such
as astrophysics, biophysics, chemi
cal
physics, and geophysics.
Furthermore, the practical applica
tions of physicists’ work have in
creasingly merged with engineer
ing.
Places of Employment
About 48,000 people worked as
physicists in 1974; about 4 percent
were women. Private industry em
ployed over 19,000; almost twofifths of these were in companies
manufacturing chemicals, electrical
equipment, and ordnance products.
Commercial laboratories and inde
pendent research organizations em
ploy more than one-fourth of the
physicists in private industry.
Nearly 21,000 physicists taught
or did research in colleges and
universities; some did both. About
6,200 physicists were in the Federal
Government in 1974, mostly in the
Departments of Defense and Com
merce. About 1,300 physicists
worked in nonprofit organizations.
Although physicists are em
ployed in all parts of the country,
their employment is greatest in
areas that have heavy industrial
concentrations and large college
and university enrollments. Nearly
one-fourth of all physicists work in
four metropolitan areas—Washing
ton, D.C.; Boston, Mass.; New
York, N.Y.; and Los Angeles-Long
Beach, Calif., and more than onethird are concentrated in three
Physicists develop equipment used in cancer research.
States—California, New York, and
Massachusetts.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Graduate training in physics or a
closely related field is almost essen
tial for most entry level jobs in
physics and for advancement in all
types of work. The doctorate is
usually required for full faculty
status at colleges and universities
and for industrial or government
jobs administering research and
development programs.
Those having master’s degrees
qualify for many research jobs in
private industry and in the Federal
Government. Some work in col
leges and universities, instructing
and assisting in research while
studying for their Ph.D.
Those having bachelor’s degrees
qualify for some applied research
and development jobs in private in
dustry and in the Federal Govern
ment. Some are employed as
research assistants in colleges and
universities while studying for ad
vanced degrees. Many with a
bachelor’s degree in physics apply
their physics training in jobs in
other scientific fields and in en
gineering. (See statements on En
gineers, Geophysicists, Program
mers, and Systems Analysts else
where in this book.)
About 900 colleges and universi
ties offer a bachelor’s degree in
physics. In addition, many en
gineering schools offer a physics
major as part of the general curricu
lum. The undergraduate program in
physics
provides
a
broad
background in the science and
serves as a base for later specializa
tion either in graduate school or on
the job. Some typical physics cours
es are mechanics, electricity and
magnetism, optics, thermodynam
ics, and atomic and molecular
physics. Students also take courses
in chemistry and mathematics.
Almost 300 colleges and univer
sities offer advanced degrees in
physics. In graduate school, the stu
dent, with faculty guidance, usually
works in a specific field. The gradu
ate student, especially the can
didate for the Ph. D. degree, spends
a large portion of his time in
research.
Students planning a career in
physics should have an inquisitive
mind, mathematical ability, and
imagination. They should be able to
work on their own, since physicists,
particularly in basic research, often
receive only limited supervision.
Young physicists often begin
their careers doing routine labora
tory tasks. After some experience,
they are assigned more complex
tasks and may advance to work as
project
leaders
or
research
directors. Some work in top
management jobs. Physicists who
develop new products frequently
form their own companies or join
new firms to exploit their own
ideas.
Employment Outlook
Employment opportunities in
physics are expected to be good
through the mid-1980’s. The em
ployment of physicists is expected
to grow faster than the average for
all occupations over this period,
creating more than a thousand new
openings each year. In addition,
some openings will result as
physicists retire, die, or transfer to
other occupations.
Some of the past growth in em
ployment of physicists resulted
from increases in Federal research
and development (R&D) expendi
tures. Through the mid-1980’s,
government R&D expenditures are
expected to increase, although at a
slower rate than during the 1960’s.
On this basis, more physicists will
continue to be required. However,
if actual R&D expenditure levels
and patterns were to differ signifi
cantly from those assumed, the out
look for physicists would be altered.
Some physicists with advanced
degrees will be needed to teach in
colleges and universities, but com
petition for these jobs is expected to
be keen.
New graduates also will find op
portunities as high school physics
teachers after completing the
required educational courses and
obtaining a State teaching cer
tificate. However, they are usually
regarded as teachers rather than as
physicists. (See statement on
Secondary School Teachers ,else
where in this book.)
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Physicists have relatively high
salaries, with average earnings
more than twice those of nonsupervisory workers in private industry,
except farming. Starting salaries for
physicists who had a bachelor’s
degree averaged about $10,700 a
year in manufacturing industries in
1974; a master’s degree, $12,800;
andaPh. D.,$ 17,800.
Depending on their college
records, physicists with a bachelor’s
degree could start in the Federal
Government in late 1974 at either
$8,500 or $10,520 a year.
Beginning physicists having a
master’s degree could start at
$10,520 or $12,841, and those hav
ing the Ph. D. degree could begin at
$15,481 or $18,463. Average
earnings for all physicists in the
Federal Government in 1974 were
$24,700 a year.
Starting salaries on college and
university faculties for physicists
having a master’s degree averaged
$9,600 in 1973, and for those hav
ing the Ph. D., $12,000. (See state
ment on College and University
Teachers elsewhere in this book.)
Many faculty physicists supplement
their regular incomes by working as
consultants and taking on special re
search projects.
Sources of Additional
Information
General information on career
opportunities in physics is available
from:
American Institute of Physics, 335 East 45th
St., New York, N.Y. 10017.
For information on Federal
Government careers, contact:
Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Ex
aminers for Washington, D C., 1900 E
St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20415.
OTHER SCIENTIFIC
AND TECHNICAL
OCCUPATIONS
BROADCAST
TECHNICIANS
(D.O.T. 194.168, .281, .282, and
782; 957.282; and 963.168
through .887)
Nature of the Work
Broadcast technicians operate
and maintain the electronic equip
ment used to record and transmit
radio and television programs. They
work with microphones, sound
recorders, light and sound effects,
television cameras, video tape
recorders, and other equipment.
In the control room, broadcast
technicians operate equipment that
regulates the quality of sounds and
pictures being recorded or broad
cast. They also operate controls
that switch broadcasts from one
camera or studio to another, from
film to live programming, or from
network to local programs. By
means of hand signals and, in televi
sion, by use of telephone headsets,
they give technical directions to
personnel in the studio.
When events outside the studios
are to be broadcast, technicians
may go to the site and set up, test,
and operate the equipment. After
the broadcast, they dismantle the
equipment and return it to the sta
tion.
As a rule, broadcast technicians
in small stations perform a variety
of duties. In large stations and in
networks, on the other hand,
technicians are more specialized,
although specific job assignments
may change from day to day. Trans
mitter technicians monitor and log
outgoing signals and are responsible
for transmitter operation. Main
tenance technicians set up, main
tain, and repair electronic broad
casting equipment. Audio control
technicians regulate sound pickup,
transmission, and switching and
video control technicians regulate
the quality, brightness, and contrast
of television pictures. The lighting
of television programs is directed
by lighting technicians. For pro
grams originating outside the stu
dio, field technicians set up and
operate broadcasting equipment.
Recording technicians operate and
maintain sound recording equip
ment; video recording technicians
operate and maintain video tape
recording equipment. Sometimes
the term “engineer” is substituted
for “technician.”
’
ri
\
i
>
^
V
■
J
..............
>*
1
1
j
vN
.
Broadcast technician gives technical
assistance to studio personnel.
(FCC). Federal law requires that
anyone who operates broadcast
Places of Employment
transmitters in television and radio
stations must hold such a license.
About 22,000 broadcast techni
cians were employed in radio and The FCC also issues a Third Class
television stations in 1974. Most Operator License which is all that is
radio stations employ fewer than 4 needed to operate a radio broadcast
technicians, although a few large transmitter. Some stations require
ones have more than 10. Nearly all all their broadcast technicians, in
television stations employ at least cluding those who do not operate
transmitters, to have one of these
10 broadcast technicians, and those
licenses. In addition, the chief en
in large metropolitan areas average
gineer of each broadcasting station
about 30. In addition to the techni
must have an FCC Radiotelephone
cians, some supervisory personnel,
First Class Operator License. Ap
with job titles such as chief engineer
plicants for these licenses must pass
or director of engineering, work in
a series of written examinations.
technical departments.
These cover construction and
Although broadcast technicians operation of transmission and
are employed in every State, most receiving
equipment;
charac
are located in large metropolitan
teristics of electromagnetic waves;
areas. The highest paying and most and regulations and practices, both
specialized jobs are concentrated in Federal Government and interna
New York, Los Angeles, and tional, which govern broadcasting.
Washington, D.C.—the originating
Among high school courses, al
centers for most of the network gebra, trigonometry, physics, elec
programs.
tronics, and other sciences provide
valuable background for persons
anticipating careers in this occupa
Training, Other Qualifications,
tion. Building and operating an
and Advancement
amateur radio station also is good
A person interested in becoming training. Taking an electronics
a broadcast technician should plan course in a technical school is still
to get a Radiotelephone First Class another good way to acquire the
Operator License from the Federal
knowledge for becoming a broad
Communications
Commission cast technician. Some persons gain
work experience as temporary em
Earnings and Working
ployees while filling in for regular
Conditions
broadcast technicians who are on
Salaries of beginning technicians
vacation.
Many schools give courses espe in commerical radio and television
cially designed to prepare the stu ranged from about $135 to $185 a
dent for the FCC’s first-class license week in 1974 and those of ex
test. Technical school or college perienced technicians from about
training is an advantage for those $170 to $350, according to the
who hope to advance to supervisory limited information available. As a
positions or to the more specialized rule, technicians’ wages are highest
jobs in large stations and in the net in large cities and in large stations.
Technicians employed by television
works.
Persons with FCC first-class stations usually are paid more than
licenses who get entry jobs are in those who work for radio stations
structed and advised by the chief because television work is generally
engineer or by other experienced more complex. Technicians em
technicians concerning the work ployed by educational broadcasting
procedures of the station. In small stations generally earn less than
stations, they may start by operat those who work for commercial sta
ing the transmitter and handling tions.
Most technicians in large stations
other technical duties, after a brief
work a 40-hour week with overtime
instruction period. As they acquire
more experience and skill they are pay for additional hours. Some
assigned to more responsible jobs. broadcast technicians in the larger
Those who demonstrate above- cities work a 37-hour week. In small
average ability may move into top- stations, many technicians work 4
level technical positions, such as su to 12 hours of overtime each week.
pervisory technician or chief en Evening, night, and weekend work
gineer. A college degree in en frequently is necessary since many
gineering is becoming increasingly stations are on the air as many as 24
important for advancement to su hours a day, 7 days a week. Net
work technicians may occasionally
pervisory and executive positions.
have to work continuously for many
hours and under great pressure in
Employment Outlook
order to meet broadcast deadlines.
Technicians generally work in
The number of broadcast techni
doors in pleasant surroundings. The
cians is expected to increase about
as fast as the average for all occupa work is interesting, and the duties
tions through the mid-1980’s. Most are varied. When remote pickups
job openings will result from the are made, however, technicians
need to replace experienced techni may work out of doors at some
cians who retire, die, or transfer to distance from the studios, under
less favorable conditions.
other occupations.
Some new job opportunities for
technicians will be provided as new
radio and television stations go on
Sources of Additional
the air. Demand for broadcast
Information
technicians also will increase as
For information about radio
cable television stations broadcast
telephone operator’s examinations,
more of their own programs. How
ever, laborsaving technical ad and guides to study for them, write
vances, such as automatic pro to:
gramming, automatic operation Federal Communications Commission.
Washington, D.C. 20036.
logging, and remote control of
For information on careers for
transmitters will limit the demand
broadcast technicians, write to:
for technicians.
National Association of Broadcasters, 1771
N St. NW„ Washington, D C. 20036.
Corporation for Public Broadcasting, 888
16th St. NW„ Washington, D C. 20006.
DRAFTERS
(D O T. 001.281,002.281,
003.281.005.281, 007.281,
010.281.014.281, and 017.)
Nature of the Work
When making a space capsule,
television set, building, or bridge,
workers follow drawings that show
the exact dimensions and specifica
tions of the entire object and each
of its parts. Workers who draw
these plans are drafters.
Drafters
prepare
detailed
drawings based on rough sketches,
specifications,
and
calulations
made by engineers, architects, and
designers. They also calculate the
strength, quality, quantity, and cost
of materials. Final drawings contain
a detailed view of the object as well
as specifications for materials to be
used, procedures followed, and
other information to carry out the
job.
In preparing drawings, drafters
use compasses, dividers, protrac
tors, triangles, and machines that
combine the functions of several
devices. They also use engineering
handbooks, tables, and slide rules
to help solve technical problems.
Drafters are classified according
to the work they do or their level of
responsibility. Senior drafters trans
late an engineer’s or architect’s
preliminary plans into design
“layouts” (scale drawings of the ob
ject to be built). Detailers draw
each part shown on the layout, and
give dimensions, materials, and
other information to make the
detailed
drawing
clear
and
complete. Checkers carefully ex
amine drawings for errors in com
puting or recording dimensions and
specifications. Under the supervi
sion of drafters, tracers make minor
corrections and trace drawings for
reproduction on paper or plastic
film.
Drafters may specialize in a par
ticular field of work, such as
mechanical, electrical, electronic,
aeronautical,
structural,
or
architectural drafting.
mainly in highway and public works
departments.
Another
several
thousand drafters worked for col
leges and universities and nonprofit
organizations.
Places of Employment
Persons interested in becoming
drafters can acquire the necessary
training in technical institutes, jun
ior and community colleges, ex
tension divisions of universities, and
vocational and technical high
schools. It is also possible to qualify
through on-the-job training pro
grams combined with part-time
schooling or 3- to 4-year ap
prenticeship programs.
Training for a career in drafting,
whether in a high school or posthigh school program, should in
clude courses in mathematics,
physical
sciences,
mechanical
drawing, and drafting. Shop prac
tices and shop skills also are helpful
About 313,000 persons—8 per
cent of them women—worked as
drafters in 1974. More than 9 out of
10 drafters worked in private indus
try, with engineering and architec
tural firms employing almost 30
percent of all drafters. Other major
employers included the fabricated
metals, electrical equipment, and
construction industries.
About 20,000 drafters worked
for Federal, State, and local govern
ments in 1974. Most drafters in the
Federal Government worked for
the Defense Department; those in
State and local governments were
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
since many higher level drafting
jobs require knowledge of manufac
turing or construction methods.
Many technical schools offer cours
es in structural design, strength of
materials, and metal technology.
Those planning careers in draft
ing should be able to do detailed
work requiring a high degree of ac
curacy; have good eyesight and eyehand coordination because most of
their work is done at the drawing
board; be able to function as part of
a team since they work directly with
engineers, architects, and skilled
workers; and be able to do freehand
drawings of three-dimensional ob
jects. Artistic ability is helpful in
some specialized fields.
High school graduates usually
start out as tracers. Those having
post-high school technical training
usually qualify as junior drafters.
After gaining experience, they may
advance to checkers, detailers,
senior drafters, or supervisors.
Some may become independent
designers. Courses in engineering
and mathematics sometimes enable
drafters to transfer to engineering
positions.
Employment Outlook
Drafter prepares final specifications for highway project
Employment of drafters is ex
pected to increase faster than the
average for all occupations. This
growth, along with the need to
replace those who retire, die, or
move into other fields of work,
should provide favorable job oppor
tunities through the mid-1980’s.
Holders of an associate (2-year)
degree in drafting will have the best
prospects. Many large employers
already require post-secondary
technical education, though wellqualified high school graduates who
have studied drafting will find op
portunities in some types of jobs.
Employment of drafters is ex
pected to rise rapidly as a result of
the increasingly complex design
problems of modern products and
processes. In addition, more draft
ers will be needed as supporting
personnel for engineering and
of production,
from
scientific
occupations.
Pho phases
toreproduction of drawings and ex research and design to manufactur
panding use of electronic drafting ing, sales, and customer service.
equipment and computers, how Although their jobs are more
ever, will reduce the need for less limited in scope and more practi
cally oriented than those of en
skilled drafters.
gineers or scientists, technicians
often do work that engineers or
Earnings
scientists might otherwise have to
do. Technicians frequently use
In private industry, beginning
drafters earned between $560 and complex electronic and mechanical
$740 a month in 1974; more ex instruments, experimental laborato
perienced drafters earned from ry equipment, and drafting instru
$700 to $900 a month. Senior draft ments. Almost all technicians
ers averaged roughly $1,000 a described in this statement must be
month, about one and one-half able to use engineering handbooks
times as much as the average and computing devices such as slide
earnings of nonsupervisory workers rules and calculating machines.
in private industry, except farming.
In research and development
The Federal Government paid (R&D), one of the largest areas of
drafters having an associate degree employment, technicians set up,
starting salaries of $7,596 a year in calibrate, and operate complex in
late 1974. Those with less educa struments, analyze data, and con
tion and experience generally duct tests. They also assist en
started at $6,764. The average gineers and scientists in developing
equipment
and
Federal Government salary for all experimental
models by making drawings and
drafters was $10,400 a year.
sketches; and under an engineer’s
direction they frequently do routine
Sources of Additional
design work.
Information
In
production,
technicians
usually follow the plans and general
General information on careers
directions
of
engineers
and
for drafters is available from:
scientists, but often without close
American Institute for Design and Drafting,
3119 Price Rd., Bartlesville, Okla. supervision. They may prepare
specifications for materials, devise
74003.
International Federation of Professional and tests to insure product quality, or
Technical Engineers, 1126 16th St. study ways to improve the efficien
NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036.
cy of an operation. They often su
See Sources of Additional Infor pervise production workers to
mation in the statement on En make sure they follow prescribed
gineering and Science Technicians plans and procedures. As a product
is built, technicians check to see
elsewhere in this book.)
that specifications are followed,
keep engineers and scientists in
formed as to progress, and in
ENGINEERING AND
vestigate production problems.
As sales workers or field
SCIENCE TECHNICIANS
representatives for manufacturers,
(D.O.T. 002. through 029.)
technicians give advice on installa
tion and maintenance problems of
Nature of the Work
complex machinery, and may write
and
technical
Knowledge of science, mathe specifications
matics, industrial machinery, and manuals. (See statement on Techni
processes enables engineering and cal Writers elsewhere in this book.)
Technicians may work in the en
science technicians to work in all
gineering field, in physical science,
or in life science. Within these
general fields, job titles may
describe the level (biological aid or
biological
technician),
duties
(quality control technician or time
study analyst), or area of work
(mechanical, electrical, or chemi
cal).
As an engineering technician,
one might work in any of the fol
lowing areas:
Aeronautical Technology. Tech
nicians in this area work with en
gineers and scientists to design
and produce aircraft, rockets,
guided missiles, and spacecraft.
Many aid engineers in preparing
design layouts and models of
structures, control systems, or
equipment installations by col
lecting information, making com
putations, and performing labora
tory tests. For example, under
the direction of an engineer, a
technician might estimate weight
factors, centers of gravity, and
other items affecting load capacity
of an airplane or missile. Other
technicians prepare or check
drawings for technical accuracy,
practicability, and economy.
Aeronautical
technicians
frequently work as manufacturers’
field service representatives, serv
ing as the link between their com
pany and the military services, com
mercial
airlines,
and
other
customers.
Technicians
also
prepare technical information for
instruction
manuals,
bulletins,
catalogs, and other literature. (See
statement on Aerospace Engineers
and Airplane Mechanics elsewhere in
this book.)
Air-Conditioning, Heating, and
Refrigeration Technology. Air
conditioning, heating, and refriger
ation technicians design, manu
facture, sell, and service equipment
to regulate interior temperatures.
Technicians in this field often
specialize in one area, such as
refrigeration, and sometimes in
a particular type of activity, such
as research and development.
When working for firms that
manufacture temperature con
trolling equipment, technicians
generally work in research and en
gineering departments, where they
assist engineers and scientists in the
design and testing of new equip
ment or production methods. For
example, a technician may con
struct an experimental model to test
its durability and operating charac
teristics. Technicians also work as
field salesworkers for equipment
manufacturers or dealers, and must
be able to supply engineering firms
and other contractors that design
and install systems with information
on
installation,
maintenance,
operating costs, and the per
formance specifications of the
equipment. Other technicians work
for contractors, where they help
design and prepare installation in
structions for air-conditioning,
heating, or refrigeration systems.
Still others work in customer serv
ice, and are responsible for super
vising the installation and main
tenance of equipment.
Civil Engineering Technology.
Technicians in this area assist
civil engineers in planning, design
ing, and constructing highways,
bridges, dams, and other structures.
During the planning stage, they
help estimate costs, prepare specifi
cations for materials, or participate
in surveying, drafting, or designing.
Once construction begins, they
assist the contractor or super
intendent in scheduling construc
tion activities or inspecting the
work to assure conformance to
blueprints and specifications. (See
statements on Civil Engineers,
Drafters, and Surveyors else
where in this book.)
Electronics Technology. Techni
cians in this field develop, manufac
ture, and service a wide range of
electronic equipment and systems.
They may work with radio, radar,
sonar, television, and other commu
nication equipment, industrial and
medical measuring or control
Physics technician adjusts spark chamber during research experiment.
devices, navigational equipment,
electronic computers, and many
other types of electronic equip
ment. Because the field is so broad,
technicians often specialize in one
area such as automatic control
devices or electronic amplifiers.
Furthermore, technological ad
vancement is constantly opening up
new areas of work. For example,
the development of printed circuits
stimulated the growth of miniatu
rized electronic systems.
When working in design, produc
tion, or customer service, elec
tronic technicians use sophisticated
measuring and diagnostic devices to
analyze and test equipment. In
many cases, they must understand
the requirements of the field in
which the electronic device is being
used. In designing equipment for
space exploration, for example,
they must consider the need for
minimum weight and volume and
maximum resistance to shock, ex
treme temperature, and pressure.
Some electronics technicians also
work in technical sales, while others
work in the radio and television
broadcasting industry. (See state
ment on Broadcast Technicians else
where in this book.)
Industrial Production Technology.
Technicians in this area, usually
called industrial or production
technicians, assist industrial engi
neers on problems involving the
efficient use of personnel, materials,
and machines to produce goods
and services. They prepare layouts
of machinery and equipment, plan
the flow of work, make statistical
studies, and analyze production
costs. Industrial technicians also
conduct time and motion studies
(analyze the time and move
ments a worker needs to accom
plish a task) to improve the effi
ciency of an operation.
Many
industrial
technicians
acquire work experience which
enables them to qualify for other
jobs. For example, those specializ
ing in machinery and production
methods may move into industrial
safety. Others, in job analysis, may
set job standards and interview,
test, hire, and train personnel. Still
others may move into production
supervision. (See statements on
Personnel Workers and Industrial
Engineers elsewhere in this book.)
Mechanical Technology. Mechani
cal technology is a broad term
which covers a large number
of specialized fields including au
tomotive
technology,
diesel
technology, tool design, machine
design, and production technology.
Technicians assist engineers in
design and development work by
making freehand sketches and
rough layouts of proposed machin
ery and other equipment and parts.
This work requires knowledge of
mechanical principles involving
tolerance, stress, strain, friction,
and vibration factors. Technicians
also analyze the costs and practical
value of designs.
In planning and testing experi
mental machines and equipment for
performance, durability, and effi
ciency, technicians record data,
make computations, plot graphs,
analyze results, and write reports.
They sometimes recommend design
changes to improve performance.
Their job often requires skill in the
use of instruments, test equipment
and gauges, as well as in the
preparation and interpretation of
drawings.
When a product is ready for
production,
technicians
help
prepare layouts and drawings of the
assembly process and of parts to be
manufactured. They frequently
help estimate labor costs, equip
ment life, and plant space. Some
mechanical technicians test and in
spect machines and equipment in
manufacturing departments or
work with engineers to eliminate
production problems. Others are
technical salesworkers.
Tool designers are among the
better
known
specialists
in
mechanical engineering technolo
gy. Tool designers design tools and
devices for mass production, and
frequently redesign existing tools to
improve their efficiency. They
prepare sketches of the designs for
cutting tools, jigs, dies, special fix
tures, and other attachments used
in machine operations. They also
make or supervise others in making
detailed drawings of tools and fix
tures.
Machine drafting, with some
designing, is another major area
often grouped under mechanical
technology and is described in the
statement on Drafters. (Also see
statements on Mechanical En
gineers, and Manufacturers’ Sales
workers elsewhere in this book.)
Instrumentation Technology. Au
tomated manufacturing and indus
trial processes, oceanographic
and space exploration, weather
forecasting, satellite communi
cation systems, environmental
protection, and medical research
have helped to make instrumenta
tion technology a fastgrowing
field for technicians. They help
develop and design complex
measuring and control devices such
as those in a spacecraft that sense
and measure changes in heat or
pressure, automatically record
data, and make necessary adjust
ments. These technicians have ex
tensive knowledge of physical
sciences as well as electrical-elec
tronic and mechanical engineering.
Several areas of opportunity exist
in the physical sciences:
Chemical technicians work with
chemists and chemical engineers
to develop, sell, and utilize chemi
cal and related products and equip
ment.
Most chemical technicians do
research and development, testing,
or other laboratory work. They
often set up and conduct tests on
processes and products being
developed or improved. For exam
ple, a technician may examine steel
for carbon, phosphorous, and sulfur
content or test a lubricating oil by
subjecting it to changing tempera
tures. The technician measures
reactions, analyzes the results of ex
periments, and records data which
will be the basis for decisions and
future research.
Chemical technicians in produc
tion generally put into commercial
operation
those
products or
processes developed in research
laboratories. They assist in making
the final design, installing equip
ment, and training and supervising
operators on the production line.
Technicians in quality control test
materials, production processes,
and final products to insure that
they meet the manufacturer’s
specifications and quality stand
ards. Many also work as technical
sales personnel, selling chemicals or
chemical products.
Many chemical technicians use
computers and instruments, such as
a dilatometer (which measures the
expansion of a substance). Because
the field of chemistry is so broad,
chemical technicians frequently
specialize in a particular industry
such as food processing or phar
maceuticals. (See statements on
Chemists and Chemical Engineers,
elsewhere in this book.)
Meteorological technicians sup
port meteorologists in the study of
atmospheric conditions. Techni
cians calibrate instruments, ob
serve,
record,
and
report
meteorological occurrences, and
assist in research projects and the
development of scientific instru
ments.
Geological
technicians
assist
geologists in evaluating earth
Drocesses. Currently much research
is being conducted in seismology,
petroleum and mineral exploration,
and ecology. These technicians in
stall seismographic instruments,
record measurements from these
instruments, assist in field evalua
tion of earthquake damage and sur
face displacement, or assist geolo
gists in earthquake prediction
research. In petroleum and mineral
exploration, they help conduct tests
and record sound wave data to
determine the likelihood of success
ful drilling, or use radiation detec
tion instruments and collect core
samples to help geologists evaluate
the economic possibilities of mining
a given resource.
Hydrologic technicians gather
data to help professional hydrolo
gists predict river stages and water
quality levels. They monitor instru
ments which measure water flow,
water table levels, or water quality,
they analyze these data and report
their findings to the hydrologist.
(See statement on Environmental
Scientists elsewhere in this book.)
Technician positions in the life
sciences are generally included in
two categories: Agricultural techni
cians work with agricultural
scientists in the areas of food
production and processing. Plant
technicians conduct tests and ex
periments to improve the yield and
quality of crops, or to increase re
sistance to disease, insects, or other
hazards. Technicians in soil science
analyse the chemical and physical
properties of various soils to help
determine the best uses for these
soils. Animal husbandry technicians
concern themselves mainly with the
breeding and nutrition of animals.
In addition, several thousand
technicians work in the food indus
try as food processing technicians.
They work in quality control or in
food science research, helping food
scientists develop better and more
efficient ways of processing food
material for human consumption.
(See statement on Food Scientists
elsewhere in this book.)
Biological
technicians
work
primarily in laboratories where they
perform tests and experiments
under
controlled
conditions.
Microbiological technicians study
microscopic organisms and may be
involved
in
immunology
or
parasitology research. Laboratory
Places of Employment
animal technicians study and report
Over 560,000 persons worked as
on the reaction of laboratory
animals to certain physical and engineering and science technicians
chemical stimuli. They also study in 1974. Almost 390,000 worked in
and conduct research to help biolo engineering fields, about 125,000 in
gists develop cures which may be the physical science occupations,
and about 50,000 in the life
applied to human diseases.
sciences. About 13 percent of all
Biochemical technicians assist
biochemists in the chemical analy engineering and science technicians
sis of biological substances (blood, were women. The proportion of
other body fluids, foods, drugs). women technicians, by field, was 30
Most of their work involves con percent in life science; 15 percent
ducting experiments and reporting in physical science; and 5 percent in
their results to a biochemist. As a engineering.
More than 375,000 (about 2 out
biological technician, one might
also work primarily with insects, of 3) technicians worked in private
studying insect control, developing industry. In the manufacturing sec
new insecticides, or determining tor, the largest employers were the
how to use insects to control other electrical equipment, chemicals,
insects or undesirable plants. (See machinery, and aerospace indus
statements on Life Scientists else tries. In nonmanufacturing, large
numbers worked in wholesale and
where in this book.)
Technicians also specialize in retail trade, communications, and
fields such as metallurgical (metal), in engineering and architectural
electrical, and optical technology. firms.
In 1974, the Federal Government
In the atomic energy field, techni
cians work with scientists and en employed about 87,000 techni
gineers on problems of radiation cians, chiefly as engineering aids
safety, inspection, and decon and technicians, equipment spe
tamination. New areas of work in cialists, biological technicians, car
tographic technicians (mapmaking),
clude environmental protection,
meteorological technicians, and
where technicians study the problems
physical science technicians. The
of air and water pollution, as well as
largest number worked for the De
the field of industrial safety.
partment of Defense; most of the
others worked for the Departments
of Transportation, Agriculture, In
terior, and Commerce.
State government agencies em
ployed nearly 50,000 engineering
and science technicians, and local
governments about 11,000. The
remainder worked for colleges and
universities and nonprofit organiza
tions.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Agricultural technician extracts grain
sample for lab test.
Persons can qualify for techni
cian jobs through many combina
tions of work experience and edu
cation because employers tradi
tionally have been flexible in their
hiring standards. However, most
employers prefer applicants who students for technician occupations
have had some specialized techni are similar to those in the freshman
cal training. Specialized training is and sophomore years of 4-year col
available at technical institutes, leges. After completing the 2-year
junior and community colleges, program, graduates can transfer to
area vocational-technical schools, 4-year colleges or qualify for some
extension divisions of colleges and technician jobs. Most large commu
universities, and vocational-techni nity colleges offer 2-year technical
cal high schools. Engineering and programs, and many employers
science students who have not prefer graduates having more spe
completed the bachelor’s degree cialized training.
and others who have degrees in Area Vocational-Technical Schools.
science and mathematics also are These post-secondary public institu
able to qualify for technician posi tions serve students from surround
tions.
ing areas and train them for jobs in
Persons can also qualify for the local area. Most of these schools
technician jobs by less formal require a high school degree or its
methods. Workers may learn equivalent for admission.
through on-the-job training pro
grams or courses in post-secondary Other Training. Some large cor
or correspondence schools. Some porations conduct training programs
qualify on the basis of experience and operate private schools to
gained in the Armed Forces. How meet their needs for technically
ever, post-secondary training is in trained personnel in specific
creasingly necessary for advance jobs; such training rarely includes
general studies. Training for some
ment to more responsible jobs.
Some of the types of post-secon technician occupations,for instance
dary and other schools which pro tool designers and electronic tech
vide
technical
training
are nicians, is available through for
discussed in the following para mal 2- to 4-year apprenticeship
programs. The apprentice gets
graphs:
on-the-job training under the close
Technical Institutes. Technical
supervision of an experienced
institutes offer training to qualify technician and related technical
students for a job immediately knowledge in classes, usually
after graduation with a minimum after working hours.
of on-the-job training. In general,
The Armed Forces have trained
students receive intensive technical many technicians, especially in
training but less theory and general electronics. However, military job
education than in engineering requirements are generally dif
schools or liberal arts colleges. ferent from those in the civilian
A few technical institutes and economy. Thus, military technician
community colleges offer coopera training may not be adequate for
tive programs; students spend part civilian technician work, and addi
of the time in school and part in tional training may be necessary for
paid employment related to their employment.
studies.
Technician training also is availa
Some technical institutes operate ble from many private technical
as regular or extension divisions of and correspondence schools that
colleges and universities. Other in often specialize in a single field
stitutions are operated by States such as electronics. Some of these
and municipalities, or by private or schools are owned and operated by
large corporations that have the
ganizations.
resources to provide very up-toJunior and Community Colleges. date training in a technical field.
Curriculums in junior and com
Those interested in a career as a
munity colleges which prepare technician should have an aptitude
for mathematics and science, and
enjoy technical work. An ability to
do detailed work with a high degree
of accuracy is necessary; for design
work, creative talent also is desira
ble. Since technicians are part of a
scientific team, they sometimes
must work under the close supervi
sion of engineers and scientists as
well as with other technicians and
skilled workers.
Engineering and science techni
cians usually begin work as trainees
in routine positions under the direct
supervision of an experienced
technician, scientist, or engineer.
As they gain experience, they
receive more responsibility and
carry out a particular assignment
under only general supervision.
Technicians may eventually move
into supervisory positions. Those
who have the ability and obtain ad
ditional education are sometimes
upgraded to professional science or
engineering positions.
Employment Outlook
Employment opportunities for
engineering and science technicians
are expected to be favorable
through the mid-1980’s. Opportuni
ties will be best for graduates of
post-secondary school technician
training programs. Besides the
openings resulting from faster than
average growth expected in this
field, additional technicians will be
needed to replace those who die,
retire, or leave the occupation.
Industrial expansion and the in
creasing complexity of modern
technology underlie the anticipated
increase in demand for technicians.
Many will be needed to work with
the growing number of engineers
and scientists in developing,
producing, and distributing new
and technically advanced products.
Automation of industrial processes
and growth of new work areas such
as environmental protection and
urban development will add to the
demand for technical personnel.
The anticipated growth of
research and development (R&D)
expenditures in industry and
government should increase de
mand for technicians. However,
this growth is expected to be slower
than in the past.
Because space and defense pro
grams are major factors in the em
ployment of technical personnel,
expenditures in these areas affect
the demand for technicians. The
outlook for technicians is based on
the assumption that defense spend
ing will increase from the 1974 level
by the mid-1980’s, but will still be
slightly lower than the levels of the
late 1960’s. If defense spending
should differ substantially from this
level, the demand for technicians
would be affected accordingly.
Earnings
In general, technicians’ earnings
depend on their education and
technical specialty, as well as their
ability and work experience, and
the industry in which they work.
In private industry in 1974,
average starting salaries for 2-year
graduates ranged from about
$8,200 to $9,800 a year, while non
graduates earned average starting
salaries from just over $6,000 to
about $8,500. Starting salaries for
bachelor’s
degree
recipients
averaged over $10,000 a year. Ac
cording to a 1974 Bureau of Labor
Statistics survey, experienced en
gineering technicians in private in
dustry earned average salaries of
about $ 13,500 a year.
Starting salaries for all techni
cians in the Federal Government
were fairly uniform in late 1974. A
high school graduate with no ex
perience could expect $5,996 an
nually to start. With an associate
degree, the starting salary was
$7,596, and if a bachelor’s degree
were held, the annual salary might
be $8,500 or $10,520 (depending
on the type of job vacancy and the
applicant’s education and other
qualifications). At higher ex
perience levels, however, dif
ferences in earnings are significant.
The average annual salary for all
Surveyors often work as party
chiefs; that is, they are in charge of
a field party that determines the
precise measurements and loca
tions of elevations, points, lines,
and contours on the earth’s surface,
$ 11 , 0 0 0 .
and distances between points. Sur
Sources of Additional
veyors are directly responsible for
Information
the field party’s activity and the ac
For information on careers for curacy of its work. They plan the
engineering and science technicians field work, select survey reference
points, and determine the precise
and engineering and technology
location of natural and man-made
programs, contact:
features of the survey region. They
Engineers Council for Professional Develop
record the information disclosed by
ment, 345 East 47th St., New York,
N .Y .10017.
the survey, verify the accuracy of
Information on schools offering the survey data, and prepare
technician programs is available sketches, maps, and reports.
A typical field party is made up of
from:
the party chief and three to six
National Association of Trade and Technical
Schools, Accrediting Commission, 2021
assistants and helpers. Instrument
L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.
workers (D.O .T. 018.188) adjust
U S. Department of Health, Education, and
and operate surveying instruments
Welfare, Office of Education, Washing
such as the theodolite (used to
ton, D C . 20202.
measure altitude). Chain workers
State departments of education
(D.O.T. 018.687) use a steel tape
also have information about ap or surveyor’s chain to measure
proved technical institutes, junior distances between surveying points.
colleges, and other educational in
Generally chain workers operate in
stitutions within the State offering
pairs, one holding the tape at the
post-high school training for
last established point, and the other
specific technical occupations.
marking an advanced measuring
Other sources include:
point. Chain workers also may
American Association of Community and
mark measured points with painted
Junior Colleges, Suite 410, 1 Dupont
stakes. R od workers (D .O .T .
Circle, Washington, D.C. 20036.
018.587) use a level rod, range
National Home Study Council, 1601 18th St.
pole, or other equipment to assist
NW., Washington, D.C. 20009.
instrument workers in determining
elevations,
distances,
and
directions. They hold and move the
SURVEYORS
range pole according to hand or
verbal signals of the instrument
(D.O.T. 018.188)
worker to help establish the exact
point of measurement. Rod workers
Nature of the Work
also may clear brush from the sur
Before engineers can plan high vey line.
ways or other construction proj
Surveyors often specialize in a
ects, they need complete and accu particular type of survey. Besides
rate information about boundaries, doing highway surveys, many per
land features, and other physical form land surveys and locate boun
characteristics of the construction daries of a particular tract of land.
site. Surveyors measure construc They then prepare maps and legal
tion sites, help establish official descriptions for deeds, leases, and
land boundaries, assist in setting other documents. Surveyors doing
determine
land valuations, and collect infor topographic surveys
elevations, depressions, and con
mation for maps and charts.
engineering technicians employed
by the Federal Government in late
1974 was $16,000; for physical
science technicians, $15,000; and
for life science technicians, about
tours of an area, and indicate the lo
cation of distinguishing surface fea
tures such as farms, buildings,
forests, roads, and rivers.
Several closely related occupa
tions are geodesy and photogrammetry. Geodesists measure im
mense areas of land, sea, or space
by taking into account the earth’s
curvature and its geophysical
characteristics. (See statement on
Geophysicists elsewhere in this
book.) Photogrammetrists measure
and interpret natural or man-made
features of an area. They make topo
graphic and thematic maps by apply
ing analytical processes and mathe
matical techniques to photographs
obtained from aerial, space, and
ground surveys. Control surveys on
the ground are made to determine the
accuracy of maps derived from photogrammatic techniques.
ploy about one-third of all sur
veyors. Among the Federal Govern
ment agencies employing these
workers are the U.S. Geological
Survey, the Bureau of Land
Management, the Army Corps of
Engineers, and the Forest Service.
Most surveyors in State and local
government agencies work for
highway departments and urban
planning and redevelopment agen
cies.
A large number of surveyors
work for construction companies
and for engineering and architec
tural consulting firms. A sizable
number either work for or own
firms that conduct surveys for a fee.
Significant numbers of surveyors
also work for crude petroleum and
natural gas companies, and for
public utilities.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Surveyor checks topography at con'
struction site.
Places of Employment
About 55,000 people worked as
surveyors in 1974; less than 5 per
cent were women. Federal, State,
and local government agencies em
A combination of post-secondary
school courses in surveying and ex
tensive on-the-job training is the
most common method of entering
surveying work. Junior colleges,
technical institutes, and vocational
schools offer 1-, 2-, and 3-year pro
grams in surveying. A few 4-year
colleges offer bachelor’s degrees
specifically in surveying, while
many offer several courses in the
field. Most surveying programs
admit only high school graduates,
preferably those who have studied
algebra, geometry, trigonometry,
calculus, drafting, and mechanical
drawing. With some post-secondary
school courses in surveying, begin
ners can generally start as instru
ment workers. After gaining ex
perience, they usually advance to
party chief, and may later seek to
become a registered surveyor. In
many instances, promotions to
higher level positions are based on
written examinations as well as ex
perience.
High school graduates with no
formal training in surveying usually
start as rod workers. After several
years of on-the-job experience and
some formal training in surveying, it
is possible to advance to chain
worker, instrument worker, and
finally to party chief.
For those interested in a profes
sional career in photogrammetry, a
bachelor’s degree in engineering or
the physical sciences is usually
needed.
All 50 States require licensing or
registration of land surveyors
responsible for locating and
describing land boundaries. Regis
tration requirements are generally
quite strict, because once re
gistered, surveyors can be held
legally responsible for their work.
In some States, applicants for licen
ses need to know other types of sur
veying in addition to land survey
ing. Requirements vary among the
States but in general they include a
combination of 4 to 8 years’ ex
perience in surveying and passing
an examination. Most States reduce
the experience needed to take the
licensing examination if the appli
cant has taken post-secondary
courses in surveying.
In 1974, about 20,000 land sur
veyors were registered. In addition,
about 13,000 engineers were re
gistered to do land surveying,
primarily as part of their civil en
gineering duties; however, these
workers are considered engineers
rather than surveyors. (See state
ment on Civil Engineers elsewhere
in this book.)
Qualifications for success as a
surveyor include ability to visualize
objects, distances, sizes, and other
abstract forms and to make mathe
matical calculations quickly and ac
curately. Leadership qualities also
are important as surveyors must su
pervise the work of others.
Members of a survey party must
be strong and healthy in order to
work outdoors and carry equipment
over difficult terrain. They also
need good eyesight, coordination,
and hearing in order to commu
nicate over great distances by hand
signals or voice calls.
Employment Outlook
Employment opportunities for
surveyors are expected to be
favorable through the mid-1980’s,
especially for those with postsecon
dary school training. Employment
of surveyors is expected to grow
much faster than the average for all
occupations through the mid1980’s. In addition to the openings
resulting from growth, many will
result from the need to replace
those who die, retire, or transfer to
other fields of work.
The rapid development of urban
areas and increased land values
should create jobs for surveyors to
locate boundaries for property
records. Others will be needed to
lay out streets, shopping centers,
schools, and recreation areas. Con
struction and improvement of the
Nation’s roads and highways also
will require many new surveyors.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
In the Federal Government in
late 1974, high school graduates
with little or no training or ex
perience started as rod workers or
chain workers with an annual salary
of $5,996. Those with 1 year of re
lated
post-secondary
training
earned $6,764. Those with an as
sociate degree which included
courses in surveying generally
started as instrument workers with
an annual salary of $7,596. The
majority of surveyors who worked
as party chiefs in the Federal
Government
earned
between
$9,500 and $13,000 per year and
some surveyors in high-level posi
tions earned more than $ 15,000 per
year.
Although salaries in private in
dustry vary by geographic area,
limited data indicate that salaries
are generally comparable to those
in Federal service and are above the
average earnings of nonsupervisory
workers in private industry, except
farming.
Surveyors usually work an 8hour, 5-day week. However, they
sometimes work longer hours dur
ing the summer months when
weather conditions are most suita
ble for surveying. The work of sur
veyors is active and sometimes
strenuous. They often stand for
long periods and walk long
distances or climb mountains with
heavy packs of instruments and
equipment. Because most work is
out-of-doors, surveyors are exposed
to all types of weather. Some duties,
such as planning surveys, preparing
reports and computations, and
drawing maps, usually are done in
an office.
Sources of Additional
Information
Information about training and
career opportunities in surveying is
available from:
American Congress on Surveying and
Mapping, Woodward Building, 733 15th
St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005.
General information on careers
in photogrammetry is available
from:
American Society of Photogrammetry, 150
North Virginia Ave., Falls Church, Va.
22046.
HEALTH OCCUPATIONS
When people are sick or injured,
having health services readily
available becomes very important
to them. The availability of these
services depends, not only on the
number of people employed in
health occupations, but also on
their geographic distribution. Num
bers employed have grown very
rapidly in recent years. How to im
prove their distribution remains a
problem which is being attacked on
the national, State, and local levels.
About 3.9 million people worked
in health-related occupations in
1974. Besides doctors, nurses,
dentists, and therapists, these in
clude
the
behind-the-scenes
technologists, technicians, adminis
trators, and assistants.
Registered nurses, physicians,
pharmacists, and dentists constitute
the largest professional health oc
cupations. In 1974 employment in
these occupations ranged from
105,000 for dentists to 855,000 for
registered
nurses.
Professional
health occupations also include
other
medical
practitioners—
osteopathic physicians, chiroprac
tors, optometrists, podiatrists, and
veterinarians. Therapists (physical
therapists, occupational therapists,
and speech pathologists and au
diologists)
and
administrators
(health services administrators and
medical record administrators) also
are professional health workers, as
are dietitians.
Other health service workers in
clude technicians of various types,
such as medical technologist, dental
hygienist, and respiratory therapist.
Hospitals employ about half of all
workers in the health field. Others
work in clinics, laboratories, phar
macies, nursing homes, public
health agencies, mental health cen
ters, private offices, and patients’
homes. Health workers are concen
trated in the more heavily popu
lated and prosperous areas of the
Nation.
Training
The educational and other
requirements for work in the health
field are as diverse as the health oc
cupations themselves. For example,
professional health workers—physi
cians, dentists, pharmacists, and
others —must complete a number
of years of preprofessional and
professional college education and
pass a State licensing examination.
On the other hand, some health ser
vice occupations can be entered
with little specialized training.
Many community and junior col
leges offer courses to prepare stu
dents for various health occupa
tions. In most of the occupations for
which on-the-job training has been
the usual means of preparation, em
ployers now prefer persons who
have completed one of these formal
programs.
Earnings
People in health occupations that
require graduation from college earn
from one-and-a-quarter times to twice
these average earnings. Among the
occupations for which average yearly
earnings are reported in this book,
the top 15 include 8 of the profes
sional health occupations, including
all 6 medical practitioners.
Outlook
Overall employment in the health
field is expected to grow much
faster than the average for all occu
pations through the mid-1980’s,
although the rates of growth will
differ considerably among in
dividual
health
occupations.
Among the factors that are ex
pected to contribute to an increase
in the demand for health care are
population growth and the public’s
increasing health consciousness.
Expansion of coverage under
prepayment programs that make it
easier for persons to pay for
hospitalization and medical care
also will contribute to growth in this
field. Other openings will be
created each year by the increasing
expenditures by Federal, State, and
local governments for health care
and services.
In addition to jobs created by em
ployment growth, many new wor
kers will be needed each year to
replace those who retire, die, or
leave the field for other reasons.
Recent expansion of training pro
grams in most of the occupations
will add to the supply of trained
health service personnel. The em
ployment outlook in the various oc
cupations ranges from excellent to
competitive, depending on the
balance between supply of workers
and expected openings. See the in
dividual statements for the outlook
for each occupation.
MEDICAL AND DENTAL
PRACTITIONERS
does not include the use of drugs or
surgery.
Places of Employment
About 18,000 persons, 6 percent
of
them
women,
practiced
chiropractic
in
1974.
Most
chiropractors are in private prac
tice. Some are salaried assistants of
established practitioners or work
for chiropractic clinics and industri
al firms. Others teach or conduct
research at chiropractic colleges.
More than two-fifths of all
chiropractors are located
in
California, Michigan, Missouri,
New York, Pennsylvania, and
Texas.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
CHIROPRACTORS
(D.O.T. 079.108)
Nature of the Work
Chiropractic is a system of treat
ment based on the principle that a
person’s health is determined large
ly by the nervous system, and that
interference with this system im
pairs normal functions and lowers
resistance to disease. Chiropractors
treat patients primarily by manual
manipulation of parts of the body,
especially the spinal column.
Because of the emphasis on the
spine and its position, most
chiropractors use X-rays extensive
ly to aid in locating the source of
patients’ difficulties. In addition to
manipulation, some chiropractors
use such supplementary measures
as water, light, and heat therapy,
and prescribe diet, exercise, and
rest. Most State laws restrict the
type of supplementary treatment
permitted
in
chiropractic.
Chiropractic as a system for healing
All 50 States and the District of
Columbia regulate the practice of
chiropractic and grant licenses to
chiropractors who meet certain
educational requirements and pass
a
State
board
examination.
Although the type of practice per
mitted and the educational require
ments for a license vary con
siderably from one State to another,
most States require successful
completion of a 4-year chiropractic
course following 2 years of
preprofessional college work. In ad
dition, several States require that
chiropractors pass a basic science
examination.
Chiropractors
licensed in one State may obtain a
license in most other States by
reciprocity.
In 1974, there were 12 chiroprac
tic colleges. All require 2 years of
college before entrance, and some
require that specific courses be
taken during these 2 years. Most
chiropractic colleges emphasize
courses in manipulation and spinal
adjustments. Others offer a broader
curriculum, including subjects such
as physiotherapy and nutrition. In
most chiropractic colleges, the first
2 years of the curriculum are
devoted chiefly to classroom and
laboratory work in subjects such as
anatomy,
physiology,
and
biochemistry. During the last 2
years, students obtain practical ex
perience in college clinics. The
degree of Doctor of Chiropractic
(D.C.) is awarded to students
completing 4 years of chiropractic
training.
Chiropractic requires considera
ble hand dexterity but not unusual
strength or endurance. Persons
desiring to become chiropractors
should be able to work indepen
dently and handle responsibility.
The ability to work with detail is im
portant. Sympathy and understand
ing are among personal qualities
considered desirable in dealing ef
fectively with patients.
Most newly licensed chiroprac
tors either set up a new practice or
purchase an established one. Some
start as salaried chiropractors to
acquire experience and funds
needed to establish their own prac
tice. A moderate financial invest
ment is usually necessary to open
and equip an office.
Employment Outlook
The number of chiropractors is
expected to increase faster than the
average for all occupations to the
mid-1980’s as public acceptance of
chiropractic healing continues to
grow. In addition to openings that
will result from increasing demand,
an even greater number of
chiropractors will be needed to
replace those who die, retire, or
leave the occupation for other
reasons.
The supply of chiropractors,
however, also has begun to expand
rapidly. Enrollments in chiropractic
colleges are growing dramatically,
in apparent response to the broader
public acceptance of the profes
sion. As more students graduate
and the number of active practi
tioners swells, new chiropractors
may find it increasingly difficult to
establish a practice in those areas
where other practitioners already
are located. The best opportunities
for new chiropractors may be in
form corrective surgery of the gums
and supporting bones. In addition,
they may clean teeth.
Dentists spend most of their time
Earnings and Working
with patients, but may devote some
Conditions
time to laboratory work such as
In chiropractic, as in other types making dentures and inlays. Most
of independent practice, earnings dentists, however—particularly in
are relatively low in the beginning, large cities—send their laboratory
but rise after the first few years. In work to commercial firms. Some
comes of chiropractors vary widely. dentists also employ dental hy
Earnings for beginning chiroprac gienists to clean patients’ teeth and
tors were between $12,000 and provide instruction for patient self$15,000 a year in 1974. Ex care. They also may employ other as
perienced chiropractors earned an sistants who perform office work, as
average of about $28,000, accord sist in “chairside” duties, and provide
ing to limited data available, therapeutic services under the super
although many earn considerably vision of the dentist.
more.
Most dentists are general practi
tioners who provide many types of
Sources of Additional
dental care; about 10 percent are
Information
specialists. The largest group of
The State board of licensing in specialists are orthodontists, who
the capital of each State can supply straighten teeth. The next largest
information on State licensing group, oral surgeons, operate on
the mouth and jaws. The remainder
requirements.
General
information
on specialize in pedodontics (dentistry
chiropractic as a career and a list of for children); periodontics (treating
schools of chiropractic are availa the gums); prosthodontics (making
artificial teeth or dentures); en
ble from:
dodontics (root canal therapy);
areas with comparatively
established practitioners.
few
American Chiropractic Association, 2200
Grand Ave., Des Moines, Iowa 50312.
International Chiropractors Association, 741
Brady St., Davenport, Iowa 52808.
For information on requirements
for admission to a specific
chiropractic college, contact the
admissions office of that school.
DENTISTS
(D.O.T. 072.108)
Nature of the Work
Dentists examine teeth and other
tissues of the mouth to diagnose dis
eases or abnormalities. They take
X-rays, fill cavities, straighten
teeth, and treat gum diseases.
Dentists extract teeth and substitute
artificial dentures designed for the
individual patient. They also per
public health dentistry; and oral
pathology (diseases of the mouth).
About 4 percent of all dentists
teach in dental schools, do
research, or administer dental
health programs on a full-time
basis. Many dentists in private prac
tice do this work on a part-time
basis.
Places of Employment
Over 105,000 dentists were at
work in the United States in 1974—
9 of every 10 were in private prac
tice. About 6,500 served as com
missioned officers in the Armed
Forces, and about 1,100 had other
types of Federal Government posi
tions—chiefly in the hospitals and
clinics of the Veterans Administra
tion and the Public Health Service.
Women dentists represent only
about 2 percent of the profession,
but their number is increasing.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
A license to practice dentistry is
required in all States and the Dis
trict of Columbia. To qualify for a
license, a candidate must be a grad
uate of an approved dental school
and pass a State board examination.
In 1974, 49 States and the District
of Columbia recognized the ex
amination given by the National
Board of Dental Examiners as a
substitute for the written part of the
State
board
examinations.
Delaware also requires new gradu
ates to serve 1 year of hospital in
ternship, in addition to passing the
written examination. Most State
licenses permit dentists to engage in
both general and specialized prac
tice. In 13 States, however, a dentist
cannot be licensed as a “specialist”
without 2 or 3 years of graduate
education and passing a special
State examination. Few States per
mit dentists licensed in other States
to practice in their jurisdictions
without further examination.
Dental colleges require from 2 to
4 years of predental education.
However, of those students entering
dental school in 1974, 76 percent
had a baccalaureate or master’s
degree. Predental education must
include courses in the sciences and
humanities.
Competition is keen for admis
sion to dental schools. In selecting
students, schools give considerable
weight to college grades and
amount of college education. In ad
dition, all dental schools participate
in a nationwide admission testing
program, and scores earned on
these tests are considered along
with information gathered about
the applicant through recommen
dations and interviews. Many Statesupported dental schools also give
preference to residents of their par
ticular States.
Dental school training generally
lasts 4 academic years although
some institutions condense this into
3 calendar years. Studies begin with
an emphasis on classroom instruc
tion and laboratory work in basic
sciences
such
as
anatomy,
microbiology, biochemistry, and
physiology. Courses in clinical
sciences and preclinical technique
also are provided at this time. The
last 2 years are spent chiefly in a
dental clinic, treating patients.
The degree of Doctor of Dental
Surgery (D.D.S.) is awarded by
most dental colleges. An equivalent
degree, Doctor of Dental Medicine
(D .M .D .), is conferred by 18
schools.
Dentists who want to do
research, teach, or become spe
cialists must spend an additional 2
to 4 years in advanced dental train
ing in programs operated by dental
schools, hospitals, and other institu
tions of higher education.
Dental education is very costly
because of the time required to earn
the dental degree. However, Federal
funds provide a limited number of
loans for dental students, and
scholarships are available for
qualifying students who agree to a
minimum of 2 years' Federal serv
ice.
The profession of dentistry
requires both manual skills and a
high level of intelligence. Dentists
should have good visual memory,
excellent judgment of space and
shape, delicacy of touch, and a high
degree of manual dexterity, as well
as scientific ability. Good business
sense, self-discipline, and the ability
to instill confidence are helpful for
success in private practice. High
school students who want to
become dentists are advised to take
courses in biology, chemistry,
health, and mathematics.
Most dental graduates open their
own offices or purchase established
practices. Some start in practice
with established dentists, to gain ex
perience and to save the money
required to equip an office; others
may enter residency or internship
training programs in approved
hospitals. Dentists who enter the
Armed Forces are commissioned as
captains in the Army and Air Force
and as lieutenants in the Navy.
Graduates of recognized dental
schools are eligible for Federal Civil
Service positions and for commis
sions (equivalent to lieutenants in
the Navy) in the U.S. Public Health
Service.
Employment Outlook
Employment opportunities for
dentists are expected to be excel
lent through the mid-1980’s. Dental
school enrollments have grown in
recent years because of federally
assisted construction of additional
training facilities. However, unless
schools expand beyond present
levels, the number of new entrants
to the field is expected to fall short
of the number needed to fill
openings created by growth of the
occupation and by those who die or
retire from the profession.
Employment of dentists is ex
pected to grow faster than the
average for all occupations due to
population
growth,
increased
awareness that regular dental care
helps prevent and control dental
diseases, and the expansion of
prepayment arrangements which
make it easier for people to afford
dental services. In addition, dental
public health programs will need
qualified administrators and dental
colleges will need additional faculty
members. Many dentists will con
tinue to serve in the Armed Forces.
Fluoridation of community water
supplies and improved dental hy
giene may prevent some tooth and
gum disorders, and preserve teeth
that might otherwise be extracted.
However, since the preserved teeth
will need care in the future, these
measures may increase rather than
decrease the demand for dental
care. New techniques, equipment,
and drugs, as well as the expanded
use of dental hygienists, assistants,
and laboratory technicians should
enable individual dentists to care
for more patients. However, these
developments are not expected to
offset the need for more dentists.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
American Dental Association, Council on
Dental Education, 211 East Chicago
Ave., Chicago, 1 1 6061 1.
1.
During the first year or two of
practice, dentists often earn little
more than the minimum needed to
cover expenses, but their earnings
usually rise rapidly as their practice
develops. Specialists generally earn
considerably more than general
practitioners. The average income
of dentists in 1974 was about
$38,000 a year, according to the
limited information available. In the
Federal Government, new gradu
ates of dental schools could expect
to start at $15,481 a year in late
1974.
Location is one of the major fac
tors affecting the income of dentists
who open their own offices. For ex
ample, in high-income urban areas,
dental services are in great demand;
however, a practice can be
developed most quickly in small
towns, where new dentists easily
become known and where they may
face
less
competition
from
established practitioners. Although
the income from practice in small
towns may rise rapidly at first, over
the long run the level of earnings,
like the cost of living, may be lower
than it is in larger communities.
Most dental offices are open 5
days a week and some dentists have
evening hours. Dentists usually
work between 40 and 45 hours a
week, although many spend more
than 50 hours a week in the office.
Dentists often work fewer hours as
they grow older, and a considerable
number continue in part-time prac
tice well beyond the usual retire
ment age.
American Association of Dental Schools,
1625
Massachusetts
Ave.
NW.,
Washington, D C. 20036.
Sources of Additional
Information
Persons who wish to practice in a
given State should obtain the
requirements for licensure from the
board of dental examiners of that
State. Lists of State boards and of
accredited dental schools, as well as
information on dentistry as a
career, is available from:
Students should contact the
director of student financial aid at
the school they attend to get infor
mation about Federal loans and
scholarships.
mologists are physicians who spe
cialize in medical eye care, eye dis
eases and injuries, perform eye sur
gery, and prescribe drugs or other
eye treatment, as well as lenses.
Dispensing opticians fit and adjust
eyeglasses according to prescrip
tions written by ophthalmologists or
optometrists; they do not examine
eyes or prescribe treatment. (See
statement on Dispensing Opti
cians.)
Places of Employment
In 1974, there were about 19,000
practicing optometrists. Although
OPTOMETRISTS
women currently make up only 3
percent of the profession, the pro
(D.O.T. 079.108)
portion of women enrolled in op
tometry schools has been increasing
Nature of the Work
in recent years.
Most optometrists are in solo
About 1 out of every 2 persons in
the United States needs eye care. practice. Others are in partnerships
Optometrists provide most of this or group practice with other op
care. They examine people’s eyes tometrists or doctors as part of a
for vision problems, disease, and professional health care team.
Some optometrists work in spe
other abnormal conditions, and test
for proper depth and color percep cialized hospitals and eye clinics or
tion and the ability to focus and teach in schools of optometry.
coordinate the eyes. When necessa Others work for the Veterans Ad
ry, they prescribe lenses and treat ministration, public and private
ment. Where evidence of disease is health agencies, and industrial
present, the optometrist refers the health insurance companies. About
patient to the appropriate medical 500 optometrists serve as commis
practitioner. Most optometrists sioned officers in the Armed
supply the prescribed eyeglasses Forces. Optometrists also may act
and fit and adjust contact lenses. as consultants to engineers spe
Optometrists also prescribe cor cializing in safety or lighting, educa
rective eye exercises or other treat tors in remedial reading, or serve as
ment not requiring drugs or sur members of health advisory com
gery.
mittees to Federal, State, and local
Although most optometrists are governments.
According to a recent survey,
in general practice, some specialize
in work with the aged or with chil about 2 optometrists out of 5 prac
dren. Others work only with per tice in towns of under 25,000 in
sons having partial sight who can be habitants.
helped with microscopic or tele
scopic lenses. Still others are con
Training, Other Qualifications,
cerned with the visual safety of in
and Advancement
dustrial workers. A few op
All States and the District of
tometrists teach or do research.
Optometrists should not be con Columbia require that optometrists
fused with either ophthalmologists, be licensed. Applicants for a license
sometimes referred to as oculists, or must have a Doctor of Optometry
with dispensing opticians. Ophthal degree from an accredited op-
tometric school and pass a State
board examination. In some States,
applicants are permitted to sub
stitute the National Board of Op
tometry examination, given in the
third and fourth year of optometric
school, for part or all of the written
State examination. Several States
allow applicants to be licensed
without lengthy examination if they
have a license in another State.
The Doctor of Optometry degree
requires a minimum of 6 years of
college consisting of a 4-year
professional
degree
program
preceded by at least 2 years of
preoptometric study at an ac
credited university, college, or ju
nior college. In 1974, there were 12
schools and colleges of optometry
approved by the Council on Op
tometric Education of the Amer
ican
Optometric
Association.
Requirements for admission to
these schools usually include cour
ses in English, mathematics,
physics, chemistry, and biology, or
zoology. Some schools also require
courses in psychology, social stu
dies, literature, philosophy, and
foreign languages.
Since most optometrists are selfemployed, business ability, selfdiscipline, and the ability to deal
with patients tactfully are necessary
for success.
Many beginning optometrists
enter into associate practice with an
optometrist or other health profes
sional. Others either purchase an
established practice or set up a new
practice. Some take salaried posi
tions to obtain experience and the
necessary funds to enter their own
practice.
Optometrists wishing to advance
in a specialized field may study for a
Master’s or Doctor of Philosophy
degree in physiological optics, neu
rophysiology, public health ad
ministration, health information
and communication, or health edu
cation. Optometrists who enter the
Armed Forces as career officers
have the opportunity to work
toward advanced degrees and to do
vision research, requirements.
mand for optometric services.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Employment Outlook
Employment opportunities for
optometrists are expected to be
favorable through the mid-1980’s.
The number of new graduates from
schools of optometry is expected to
be adequate to fill the positions
made available by employment
growth and the need to replace op
tometrists who die and retire.
Employment of optometrists is
expected to grow about as fast as
the average for all occupations. An
increase in the total population,
especially in the groups most likely
to need glasses—older people and
white-collar workers—is the main
factor contributing to the expected
growth in the occupation. Greater
recognition of the importance of
good vision for efficiency at school
and work, and the possibility that
more persons will have health in
surance to cover optometric ser
vices, also should increase the de
In 1974, net earnings of new op
tometry graduates averaged about
$13,500, while experienced op
tometrists averaged about $30,000
annually. Optometrists working for
the Federal Government earned an
average of $17,500 a year in late
1974. Incomes vary greatly, de
pending upon location, specializa
tion, and other factors. Op
tometrists entering solo practice
begin at approximately the same in
come level as those entering associateship or group practice. How
ever, after several years, op
tometrists in associateship or part
nership practice may earn substan
tially more than their solo practi
tioner counterparts.
Independent practitioners can set
their own work schedule. Some
work over 40 hours a week, includ
ing Saturday. Since the work is not
physically strenuous, optometrists
often can continue to practice after
the normal retirement age.
Sources of Additional
Information
Information on optometry as a
career and a list of scholarships and
loan funds offered by various State
associations, societies, and institu
tions are available from:
American Optometric Association, 7000
Chippewa St., St. Louis, Mo. 63119.
eluding internal medicine, neurolo
gy and psychiatry, ophthalmology,
pediatrics, anesthesiology, physical
medicine and rehabilitation, derma
tology, obstetrics and gynecology,
pathology, proctology, radiology,
and surgery.
Places of Employment
About 14,500 osteopathic physi
cians were practicing in the United
States in 1974; nearly 9 percent
were women. Nearly all osteopathic
physicians were in private practice.
Less than 5 percent had full-time
salaried positions in osteopathic
hospitals and colleges, private in
dustry, or government agencies.
Osteopathic
physicians
are
located chiefly in those States that
have osteopathic hospital facilities.
In 1974, almost half of all
osteopathic physicians were in
Michigan, Pennsylvania, New Jer
OSTEOPATHIC
sey, Ohio, and Missouri. Twentythree States and the District of
PHYSICIANS
Columbia each had fewer than 50
(D.O.T. 071.108)
osteopathic physicians. More than
half of all general practitioners are
Nature of the Work
located in towns and cities having
fewer than 50,000 people; spe
Osteopathic physicians diagnose
and treat diseases or maladies of the cialists, however, practice mainly in
human body. They are particularly large cities.
concerned about problems involv
Training and Other
ing the muscles or bones. One of
Qualifications
the basic treatments or therapies
used by osteopathic physicians cen
A license to practice as an
ters on manipulating these systems
with the hands. Osteopathic physi
cians also use surgery, drugs, and all
other accepted methods of medical
care.
Most osteopathic physicians are
“family doctors” who engage in
general practice. These physicians
usually see patients in their offices,
make house calls, and treat patients
in osteopathic and some city and
county hospitals. Some doctors of
osteopathy teach, do research, or
write and edit scientific books and
journals.
In recent years, specialization has
increased. In 1974, about 25 per
cent were practicing specialties in
Federal Health Professions Loans
are available for optometric stu
dents who meet certain financial
needs requirements. For informa
tion on this financial aid and on
required preoptometry courses,
contact
individual
optometry
schools. The Board of Optometry in
the capital of each State can supply
a list of optometry schools ap
proved by that State, as well as
licensing requirements.
osteopathic physician is required in
all States. To obtain a license, a
candidate must be a graduate of an
approved school of osteopathy and
pass a State board examination. In
13 States and the District of Colum
bia, candidates must pass an ex
amination in the basic sciences be
fore they are eligible to take the
professional examination; 35 States
and the District of Columbia also
require a period of internship in an
approved hospital after graduation
from an osteopathic school. The
National Board of Osteopathic Ex
aminers also gives an examination
which is accepted by some States as
a substitute for state examination.
All States except Alaska and
California grant licenses without
further examination to properly
qualified osteopathic physicians al
ready licensed by another State.
Although
3
years
of
preosteopathic college work is the
minimum entrance requirement for
schools of osteopathy, almost all
osteopathic
students
have
a
bachelor’s degree. Preosteopathic
education must include courses in
chemistry, physics, biology, and En
glish. Osteopathic colleges require
successful completion of 3 to 4
years of professional study for the
degree of Doctor of Osteopathy
(D.O.). During the first half of
professional training, emphasis is
placed on basic sciences such as
anatomy, physiology, pathology,
and on the principles of osteopathy;
the remainder of the study is
devoted largely to work with pa
tients in hospitals and clinics.
After graduation, nearly all doc
tors of osteopathic medicine serve a
12-month internship at 1 of the 73
osteopathic hospitals that the
American Osteopathic Association
has approved for intern training.
Those who wish to become spe
cialists must have 2 to 5 years of ad
ditional training, followed by 2
years of supervised practice in the
specialty.
The
osteopathic
physician’s
training is very costly because of
the length of time it takes to earn
the D.O. degree. However, Federal
funds provide a limited number of
loans for students of osteopathy, and
scholarships are available to those
who qualify and agree to a minimum
of 2 years’ Federal service.
The seven schools of osteopathy
admit students on the basis of
grades received in college, scores
on the required Medical College
Admissions Test, and the amount of
preosteopathic
college
work
completed. The applicant’s desire
to serve as an osteopathic physician
rather than as a doctor trained in
other fields of medicine is a very
important qualification. The col
leges also give considerable weight
to a favorable recommendation by
an osteopathic physician familiar
with the applicant’s background.
Newly qualified doctors of
osteopathic
medicine
usually
establish their own practice,
although a growing number are en
tering group practice. A few work
as assistants to experienced physi
cians or become associated with
osteopathic hospitals. In view of the
variation in State laws, persons who
wish to become osteopathic physi
cians should study carefully the
professional and legal requirements
of the State in which they plan to
practice.
The availability of
osteopathic hospitals and clinical
facilities also should be considered.
Persons who wish to become
osteopathic physicians must have a
strong
desire
to
practice
osteopathic principles of healing.
They must be willing to study a
great deal throughout their career
to keep up with the latest advances
in osteopathic medicine. They
should have a keen sense of touch,
emotional stability, and self-con
fidence. A pleasant personality,
friendliness, patience, and the abili
ty to deal with people also are im
portant.
Employment Outlook
Opportunities
for
osteopathic
physicians are expected to be very
good through 1980. With the
planned expansion of schools of
osteopathic medicine, by 1985 the
number of osteopathic physicians
available is expected to be in rough
balance with the openings created
by growth in the occupation and by
those who die or retire from the
profession.
Greatest
demand
probably will continue to be in
States where osteopathic medicine
is a widely accepted method of
treatment, such as Pennsylvania
and a number of Midwestern States.
Generally, prospects for beginning
a successful practice are likely to be
best in rural areas, small towns, and
city suburbs, where young doctors
of osteopathy may establish their
professional reputations more easi
ly than in the centers of large cities.
The osteopathic profession is ex
pected to grow faster than the
average for all occupations through
the mid-1980’s because of the ex
tension of prepayment programs for
hospitalization and medical care in
cluding Medicare and Medicaid,
population
growth,
and
the
establishment
of
additional
osteopathic hospital facilities.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
In osteopathic medicine, as in
many of the other health profes
sions, incomes usually rise mar
kedly after the first few years of
practice. Earnings of individual
practitioners are determined mainly
by ability, experience, geographic
location, and the income level of
the community served. In 1974, the
average income of general practi
tioners after business expenses was
about $31,000, according to the
limited data available. This income
is very high in comparison with
other
professions.
Specialists
usually had higher incomes than
general practitioners.
Many osteopathic physicians
work more than 50 or 60 hours a
week. Those in general practice
work longer and more irregular
hours than specialists.
Sources of Additional
Information
People who wish to practice in a
given State should find out about
the requirements for licensure
directly from the board of ex
aminers of that State. Information
on Federal scholarships and loans is
available from the Director of Stu
dent Financial Aid at the individual
schools of osteopathy. For a list of
State boards, as well as general in
formation on osteopathy as a
career, contact:
American Osteopathic Association, Office of
Osteopathic Education, 212 East Ohio
St., Chicago, 1 1 60611.
1.
American Association of Colleges of
Osteopathic Medicine, 4720 Mont
gomery Lane, Washington, D.C. 20014.
PHYSICIANS
(D.O.T. 070.101 and .108)
Nature of the Work
People in the United States visit a
physician on the average of about 5
times a year either for treatment of
an illness or injury or else for a rou
tine checkup. Physicians diagnose
diseases and treat people who are
suffering from injury or disease.
They also try to prevent illness by
advising patients on self-care re
lated to diet and exercise. Physi
cians generally examine and treat
patients in their own offices and in
hospitals, but they also may visit pa
tients at home.
A decreasing percentage of the
physicians who provide patient care
(about one-fifth in 1974) are
general practitioners; the others
specialize in one of the 52 fields for
which there is graduate training.
The largest specialties are internal
medicine, general surgery, ob
stetrics and gynecology, psychiatry,
pediatrics, radiology, anesthesiolo
gy, ophthalmology, pathology, and
orthopedic surgery.
Some physicians combine the
practice of medicine with research
or teaching in medical schools.
Others hold full-time research or
teaching positions or perform ad
ministrative work in hospitals,
professional associations, and other
organizations. A few are primarily
engaged in writing and editing
m e d ic a l b o o k s a n d m a g a z in e s .
Places of Employment
About 335,000 physicians were
professionally active in the United
States in 1974; about 7 percent of
them were women. The recent in
crease in female enrollment in
medical schools points to a larger
number of women doctors in the fu
ture.
About 9 out of 10 physicians pro
vided patient care services. Nearly
200,000 of these had office prac
tices; more than 91,000 others
worked as residents or full-time
staff in hospitals. The remaining
physicians—about 29,000—taught
license, a candidate must be a grad
uate of an approved medical
school, pass a licensing examina
tion, and in 34 States and the Dis
trict of Columbia serve a 1-year
hospital residency. Eleven States
require candidates to pass a special
examination in the basic sciences to
become eligible for the licensing ex
amination.
Licensing examinations are given
by State boards. The National
Board of Medical Examiners also
gives an examination which is ac
cepted by 48 States and the District
of Columbia as a substitute for
State
examinations.
Although
physicians licensed in one State
usually can get a license to practice
in another without further examina
tion, some States limit this
reciprocity.
In 1974, there were 114 ap
proved schools in the United States
in which students could begin the
study of medicine. Of these, 103
awarded the degree of Doctor of
Medicine (M.D.); one school of
fered a 2-year program in the basic
medical sciences to students who
or performed administrative or could then transfer to regular medi
cal schools for the last semesters of
research duties.
In 1975, 19,000 graduates of study.
Most medical schools require ap
foreign medical schools served as
plicants to have completed at least
hospital residents in this country.
To be appointed to approved re 3 years of college education; some
sidencies in U.S. hospitals, these require 4 years. A few medical
schools allow selected students who
g r a d u a t e s , except in special in
stances, must obtain a certificate have exceptional qualifications to
after passing an examination given begin their professional study after
by the Educational Commission for 2 years of college. Most students
who enter medical schools have a
Foreign Medical Graduates.
The Northeastern States have the bachelor’s degree.
Courses necessary for premedical
highest ratio of physicians to popu
study include undergraduate work
lation and the Southern States the
lowest. General practitioners are in English, physics, biology, and in
much more widely spread geo organic and organic chemistry. Stu
graphically than specialists, who dents should take courses in the hu
tend to be concentrated in large ci manities, mathematics, and the so
cial sciences to acquire a broad
ties.
general education. Other factors
Training and Other
considered by medical schools in
Qualifications
admitting students include their
All States and the District of college records and their scores on
Columbia require a license to prac the Medical College Admission
tice medicine. To qualify for a Test, which is taken by almost all
applicants. Consideration also is
given to the applicant’s character,
personality, and leadership quali
ties, as shown by personal inter
views, letters of recommendation,
and extracurricular activities in col
lege. Many State-supported medi
cal schools give preference to re
sidents of their particular States and
sometimes, those of nearby States.
The traditional 4-year course of
study leading to the M.D. degree is
offered by 50 medical schools. In
the remaining schools, students
with demonstrated ability may be
allowed to pursue a shortened cur
riculum. Most of these last 3 years,
but a few schools offer the M.D.
degree within 6 years of high school
graduation.
The first semesters of medical
school training are spent primarily
in laboratories and classrooms,
learning basic medical sciences
such as anatomy, biochemistry,
physiology,
pharamacology,
microbiology, and pathology. Dur
ing the last semesters, students
spend most of their time in hospitals
and clinics under the supervision of
experienced physicians. They learn
to take case histories, perform ex
aminations, and recognize diseases.
Many new physicians acquire
training beyond the 1-year hospital
residency. Those who plan to be
general practitioners often spend an
additional year or two as hospital
residents. To become certified spe
cialists, physicians must pass spe
cialty board examinations. To
qualify for these examinations, they
must spend from 2 to 4 years—de
pending on the specialty—in ad
vanced hospital training as re
sidents, followed by 2 years or more
of practice in the specialty. Some
doctors who want to teach or do
research take graduate work lead
ing to the master’s or Ph. D. degree
in a field such as biochemistry or
microbiology.
Medical training is very costly
because of the long time required to
earn the medical degree. However,
many private scholarships and loans
are available for medical education.
In addition, Federal funds provide
scholarships and loans for students
a limited number of loans for stu
dents, and scholarships are availa
ble to those who qualify and agree
to a minimum of 2 years’ Federal
service.
Persons who wish to become
physicians must have a strong
desire to serve the sick and injured.
They must be willing to study a
great deal to keep up with the latest
advances in medical science. Sin
cerity and a pleasant personality are
assets that help physicians gain the
confidence of patients. Prospective
physicians should be emotionally
stable and able to make decisions in
emergencies.
The majority of newly qualified
physicians open their own offices or
join associate or group practices.
Those who have completed 1 year
of graduate medical education (a 1year residency) and enter active
military duty initially serve as cap
tains in the Army or Air Force or as
lieutenants in the Navy. Graduates
of medical schools are eligible for
commissions as senior assistant sur
geons (equivalent to lieutenants in
the Navy) in the U.S. Public Health
Service, as well as for Federal Civil
Service professional medical posi
tions.
Employment Outlook
The employment outlook for
physicians is expected to be very
good through the mid-1980’s. How
ever, anticipated increases in the
numbers of graduates of existing
and developing U.S. medical
schools, combined with foreign
medical graduate entrants point to
a greatly improved supply situation.
This may result in an increasing
movement of physicians into rural
and other areas which have ex
perienced shortage conditions in
the past. Also, some specialties will
have sufficient numbers of practi
tioners by 1980 or 1985 so that new
graduates will be encouraged to
specialize in one of the primary
care areas such as family practice,
pediatrics, or internal medicine.
Foreign medical graduates are a
large part of the new supply of
physicians each year. In 1974, 2
new physicians out of 5 were
foreign medical graduates.
Even though the number of medi
cal schools has increased in the last
few years, the competition for firstyear places in medical school is in
tense. In 1974, there were about
40,000 applicants for 14,000 posi
tions.
Growth in population will create
much of the need for more physi
cians, and a larger percentage of
the population will be in the age
group over 65, which uses in
creased physicians’ services. Also,
the effective demand for physi
cians’ care will increase because of
greater ability to pay, resulting from
extension of prepayment programs
for hospitalization and medical
care, including Medicare and
Medicaid, and continued Federal
Government provision of medical
care for members of the Armed
Forces, their families, and veterans.
More physicians will be needed, in
addition, for medical research,
teaching in medical schools, and
the continuing growth in the fields
of public health, rehabilitation, in
dustrial medicine, and mental
health.
Recent concern over the distribu
tion of physicians between special
ties and general practice has
resulted in creation of Federal
funds for promotion of programs in
family medicine. The new specialty
of family practice has grown very
rapidly since 1971, in keeping with
the need for more M.D.’s who treat
a variety of the more common ill
nesses.
To some extent, the rise in the
demand for physicians’ services will
be offset by developments that will
enable physicians to care for more
patients. For example, increasing
numbers of medical technicians are
assisting physicians; new drugs and
new medical techniques are shor
tening illnesses; and growing num
bers of physicians are using their
time more effectively by engaging
in group practice or treating pa
tients in physicians’ offices or
hospitals, rather than making house
calls.
The extent to which the develop
ing health occupations, such as
those of physicians’ assistants and
nurse practitioners, will enable
each physician to treat more pa
tients is as yet unknown. It is possi
ble that these new health personnel
will decrease the physicians’ work
significantly. In addition, legislation
was passed in 1972 authorizing the
Veterans Administration to assist
States in the establishment of up to
eight new medical schools. As of
early 1975, plans were under way
for two of these schools to enroll
their first students in 1976. Either a
large increase in the number of
physicians or the ability of each
practitioner to treat more patients
could force more physicians to
establish their practice in sections
of the country which have few doc
tors and to choose general practice
or family medicine instead of one of
the other specialties.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
In 1974, medical school gradu
ates serving as residents earned
average annual salaries of $ 1 1,249
in hospitals affiliated with medical
schools, and $12,015 in nonaffiliated hospitals, according to the
American Medical Association.
Many hospitals also provided full or
partial room, board, and other
maintenance allowances to their
residents.
Graduates employed by the
Federal Government in late 1974
earned an annual starting salary of
about $15,500 if they had
completed a 1-year post-medical
school
residency, and about
$18,500 if they had completed 2
years of residency.
Newly qualified physicians who
establish their own practice must
make a sizable financial investment
to equip a modern office. During
the first year or two of independent
practice, physicians probably earn
little more than the minimum
needed to pay expenses. As a rule,
however, their earnings rise rapidly
as their practice develops.
Physicians have the highest
average annual earnings of any oc
cupational group. The net income
of physicians who provided patient
care services averaged about
$49,500 in 1974, according to the
limited
information
available.
Earnings of physicians depend on
factors such as the region of the
country in which they practice; the
patients’ income levels; and the
physician’s skill, personality, and
professional reputation, as well as
the length of experience. Self-em
ployed physicians usually earn
more than those in salaried posi
tions, and specialists usually earn
considerably more than general
practitioners. Many physicians have
long working days and irregular
hours. Most specialists work fewer
hours each week than general prac
titioners. As doctors grow older,
they may accept fewer new patients
and tend to work shorter hours.
However, many continue in prac
tice well beyond 70 years of age.
Sources of Additional
Information
Persons who wish to practice in a
given State should find out about
the requirements for licensure
directly from the board of medical
examiners of that State. Informa
tion on Federal scholarships and
loans is available from the director
of student financial aid at the in
dividual medical schools. For a list
of approved medical schools, as
well as general information on
premedical education, financial aid,
and medicine as a career, contact:
Council on Medical Education, American
Medical Association, 535 N. Dearborn
St., Chicago, 111. 60610.
Association of American Medical Colleges,
Suite 200, One Dupont Circle, NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20036.
PODIATRISTS
(D O T. 079.108)
Nature of the Work
Podiatrists diagnose and treat
foot diseases and deformities. They
perform surgery, fit corrective
devices, and prescribe drugs, physi
cal therapy, and proper shoes. To
help in diagnoses, they take X-rays
and perform or prescribe blood and
other pathological tests. Among the
conditions podiatrists treat are
corns, bunions, calluses, ingrown
toenails, skin and nail diseases,
deformed toes, and arch disabili
ties. They refer patients to medical
doctors whenever the feet show
symptoms of medical disorders af
fecting other parts of the body—
such as arthritis, diabetes, or heart
disease.
Some podiatrists specialize in
foot surgery, orthopedics (bone,
muscle, and joint disorders),
podopediatrics (children’s foot ail
ments), or podogeriatrics (foot
problems of the elderly). However,
most provide all types of foot care.
Places of Employment
About 7,500 persons practiced
podiatry in 1974, 6 percent of them
women. Most podiatrists practice in
large cities. Those who had full-
time salaried positions worked
mainly in hospitals, podiatric col
leges, or for other podiatrists. The
Veterans Administration and public
health
departments
employ
podiatrists on either a full- or parttime basis. Others serve as commis
sioned officers in the Armed
Forces.
sense, congeniality, and a sense of
responsibility are additional assets
in the profession.
Most newly licensed podiatrists
set up their own practices. Some
purchase established practices, or
obtain salaried positions to gain the
experience and money needed to
begin their own.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Employment Outlook
All States and the District of
Columbia require a license for the
practice of podiatry. To qualify for
a license, an applicant must gradu
ate from an accredited program in a
college of podiatric medicine and
pass a State board examination.
Three States—Michigan, New Jer
sey, and Rhode Island—also require
applicants to serve a 1-year intern
ship in a hospital or clinic after
graduation. Three-fourths of the
States grant licenses without further
examination to podiatrists licensed
by another State.
Applicants to the six colleges of
podiatric medicine must have
completed at least 2 years of col
lege including courses in English,
chemistry, biology or zoology,
physics, and mathematics. About
90 percent of all applicants have a
bachelor’s degree.
The first 2 years in podiatry
school include classroom instruc
tion and laboratory work in basic
sciences such as anatomy, bac
teriology, chemistry, pathology,
physiology, and pharmacology.
During the final 2 years, students
obtain clinical experience. The
degree of Doctor of Podiatric
Medicine (D.P.M.) is awarded
upon graduation. Additional educa
tion and experience are generally
necessary to practice in a specialty.
A limited number of Federal loans
are available for needy students to
pursue full-time study leading to a
degree in podiatry.
Young people planning a career
in podiatry should have scientific
aptitude and manual dexterity, and
like detailed work. A good business
Opportunities for graduates to
establish new practices, as well as to
enter salaried positions, should be
favorable through the 1970’s.
Through the mid-1980’s, employ
ment of podiatrists is expected to
grow about as fast as the average
for all occupations as a result of
greater demand for health services
by an expanding population, par
ticularly the growing number of
older people. This age group, the
one needing the most foot care, is
entitled to certain podiatrists’ ser
vices under Medicare. Further
more, the trend toward providing
preventive foot care for children is
increasing. More podiatrists also
will be needed to furnish services in
hospitals, extended care facilities,
and public health programs.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Experience and the income level
and location of the community
served have a great effect on
earnings of individual podiatrists.
Those in practice between 1 and 3
years earned an average net income
of about $20,000 in 1974, accord
ing to the limited available informa
tion. Net incomes of podiatrists
with from 3 to 6 years of practice
averaged about $35,000.
The workweek is generally 40
hours, and they may set their hours
to suit their practice.
Sources of Additional
Information
Information on license require
ments in a particular State is availa
ble from the State board of ex
aminers in the State capital.
Information on colleges of
podiatric
medicine,
entrance
requirements, curriculums, and
scholarships is available from:
American Association of Colleges of
Podiatric Medicine, 20 Chevy Chase
Circle, NW., Washington, D.C. 20015.
For additional information on
podiatry as a career, contact:
American Podiatry Association, 20 Chevy
Chase Circle, NW., Washington, DC.
20015.
VETERINARIANS
(D.O.T. 073.081 through .281)
Nature of the Work
Veterinarians (doctors of veteri
nary medicine) diagnose, treat, and
control diseases and injuries among
animals. Their work is important
for the Nation’s food production. It
is also important for public health,
because it helps to prevent the out
break and spread of animal dis
eases, many of which can be trans
mitted to human beings.
Veterinarians treat animals in
hospitals and clinics or on the farm
and ranch. They perform surgery
on sick and injured animals and
prescribe and administer drugs,
medicines, and vaccines.
About one-third of all veterinari
ans treat small animals or pets ex
clusively. About the same number
treat a mix of both large and small
animals. A large number specialize
in the health and breeding of cattle,
poultry, sheep, swine, or horses.
Many veterinarians inspect meat,
poultry, and other foods as part of
Federal and State public health pro
grams. Others teach in veterinary
colleges. Some do research related
to animal diseases, foods and drugs,
or work as part of a medical
research team to seek knowledge
about prevention and treatment of
human disease.
Places of Employment
There
were
about
29,000
veterinarians active in 1974—3 per
cent of them women. About 7 out
of 10 veterinarians were in private
practice. The Federal Government
employed about 2,500 veterinari
ans, chiefly in the U.S. Department
of Agriculture and the U.S. Public
Health Service. About 800 more
were commissioned officers in the
veterinary services of the Army and
Air Force. Other employers of
veterinarians are State and local
government agencies, international
health agencies, colleges of veteri
nary medicine, medical schools,
research and development labora
tories, large livestock farms, animal
food companies, and pharmaceuti
cal companies that manufacture
drugs for animals.
perience under the supervision of a
licensed veterinarian. Some States
issue licenses without further ex
amination to veterinarians already
licensed by another State.
For positions in research and
teaching, an additional master’s or
Ph. D. degree usually is required in
a field such as pathology, physiolo
gy, or bacteriology.
Minimum requirements for the
D.V.M. or V.M.D. degree are 2
years of preveterinary college work
that emphasize the physical and
biological sciences, followed by 4
years of study in a college of veteri
nary medicine. However, two
professional schools require 3 years
of preveterinary study. Most veteri
nary school
applicants have
completed 3 to 4 years of college
before entering the professional
program. Veterinary college train
ing includes considerable practical
experience in diagnosing and treat
ing animal diseases and performing
surgery, and laboratory work in
anatomy, biochemistry, and other
scientific and medical subjects.
There were 19 colleges of veteri
nary medicine in the United States
in 1974. When selecting students
for admission, these colleges con
Although
veterinarians
are
located in all parts of the country, sidered primarily the applicants’
scholastic records and the amount
the type of practice generally varies
and character of their preveterinary
according to geographic setting.
Veterinarians in rural areas chiefly training. Residents of the State in
treat farm animals; those in small which each college is located
towns usually engage in general usually are given preference by that
practice; those in cities and subur college since these schools are lar
ban areas often limit their practice gely State supported. In the South
and West, regional educational
to pets.
plans permit cooperating States
without veterinary schools to send
Training, Other Qualifications, students to designated regional
and Advancement
schools. In other areas, colleges
which accept a certain number of
Veterinarians must be licensed to
practice in all States and the Dis students from other States usually
trict of Columbia. To obtain a give priority to applicants from
license, applicants must have a nearby States that do not have
Doctor of Veterinary Medicine veterinary schools.
(D.V.M. or V.M.D.) degree and
Federal funds provide a limited
pass a State board examination. A number of loans for needy students
few States also require that appli pursuing full-time study leading to
cants have some practical ex a degree in veterinary medicine.
Most veterinarians begin as em
ployees or partners in established
practices. A few start their own
practices with a modest financial in
vestment in drugs, instruments, and
an automobile. With a more sub
stantial investment, one may open
an animal hospital or purchase an
established
practice.
Newly
qualified veterinarians may enter
the Army and Air Force as commis
sioned officers, or qualify for
Federal positions as meat and
poultry inspectors, disease-control
workers, epidemiologists, research
assistants, or commissioned officers
in the U.S. Public Health Service.
Employment Outlook
Employment opportunities for
veterinarians are expected to be
favorable through the mid-1980’s.
Veterinary employment is expected
to grow faster than the average for
all occupations through the mid1980’s, primarily because of growth
in the pet population, an increase in
the numbers of livestock and
poultry needed to feed an expand
ing population, and an increase in
veterinary research. Emphasis on
scientific methods of raising and
breeding livestock and poultry and
growth in public health and disease
control programs also will con
tribute to the demand for
veterinarians.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Newly graduated veterinarians
employed by the Federal Govern
ment started at $13,697 a year in
late 1974. Salaries of experienced
veterinarians employed by the De
partment of Agriculture ranged
between $17,500 and $35,000 a
year. The incomes of veterinarians
in private practice vary con
siderably, depending on such fac
tors as location, type of practice,
and years of experience, but usually
are higher than those of other
veterinarians, according to the
limited data available.
Veterinarians sometimes may be
exposed to danger of injury, dis
ease, and infection. Those in
private practice often have long and
irregular working hours. Veterinari
ans in rural areas may have to spend
much time traveling to and from
farms and may have to work out
doors in all kinds of weather.
Because they are self-employed,
veterinarians in private practice
usually can continue working well
beyond normal retirement age.
Sources of Additional
information
A pamphlet entitled Today's
Veterinarian presents additional in
formation on veterinary medicine
as a career, as well as a list of col
leges of veterinary medicine. A free
copy may be obtained by sub
mitting a request, together with a
self-addressed stamped business
size envelope, to:
American Veterinary Medical Association,
930 N. Meacham Rd., Schaumburg, III.
60172.
Information on opportunities for
veterinarians in the U.S. Depart
ment of Agriculture is available
from:
Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Depart
ment of Agriculture, Hyattsville, Md.
20782.
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service,
Personnel Division, 12th and Indepen
dence Ave. SW., Washington, DC.
20250.
Agricultural Marketing Service, Personnel
Division, 12th and Independence Ave.
SW., Washington, D C. 20250.
Students seeking loan or scholar
ship assistance should send inqui
ries to the schools in which they are
interested.
OTHER HEALTH
OCCUPATIONS
Many other highly skilled workers
provide important health services in
addition to medical practitioners. For
many of these occupations at least a
bachelor’s degree is required, and for
others college education is becoming
increasingly essential. Some provide
specialized types of health care, but
others perform a broad range of
services.
The following occupations are dis
cussed in this section: Dental hygien
ists, dietitians, health service admin
istrators, medical laboratory workers,
medical record administrators, occu
pational therapists, pharmacists,
physical therapists, registered nurses,
respiratory therapists, and speech pa
thologists and audiologists.
take medical and dental histories,
expose and develop dental X-ray
films, make model impressions for
study, and prepare other diagnostic
aids for use by the dentist. Pain con
trol and restorative procedures also
are handled often by dental hy
gienists.
Dental hygienists who work in
school systems examine children’s
teeth, assist dentists in determining
the dental treatment needed, and
report their findings to parents.
They also clean teeth and give in
struction on correct mouth care.
Some help to develop classroom or
assembly programs on oral health.
Dental hygienists employed by
health agencies work in dental
clinics. A few assist in research pro
jects. Those having advanced train
ing may teach in schools of dental
hygiene.
Places of Employment
DENTAL HYGIENISTS
(D.O.T. 078.368)
Nature of the Work
Dental hygienists are oral health
clinicians and educators who aid
the public in developing and main
taining good oral health. As mem
bers of the dental health team,
dental hygienists may perform
preventive and therapeutic services
under the supervision of the dentist.
Specific responsibilities of the hy
gienist vary, depending on the law
of the State where the hygienist is
employed, but may include: remov
ing deposits and stains from pa
tients’ teeth; providing instructions
for patient self-care, and dietetic
and nutritional counseling; and the
application of medicine for the
prevention of tooth decay. They
Nearly 23,000 persons, most of
them women, worked as dental hy
gienists in 1974. Many work part
time. Most work in private dental
offices. Public health agencies,
school systems, industrial plants,
clinics, hospitals, dental hygiene
schools, and the Federal Govern
ment are other sources of employ
ment for dental hygienists. Some
who are graduates of bachelor’s
degree programs are commissioned
officers in the Armed Forces.
Training and Other
Qualifications
Dental
hygienists must be
licensed. To get a license, a can
didate must be a graduate of an ac
credited dental hygiene school, ex
cept in Alabama, and pass both a
written and clinical examination. In
1974, candidates in 49 States and
the District of Columbia could
complete part of the State licensing
requirements by passing a written
examination given by the National
Board of Dental Examiners.
In order to practice in a different
State, a licensed dental hygienist
must pass the State’s examination.
However, at least 19 States grant
licenses, without further examina
tion, to dental hygienists already
licensed in certain other States.
In 1975, 163 schools of dental
hygiene in the United States were
accredited by the American Dental
Association. Most programs grant a
certificate or an associate degree;
others lead to a bachelor’s degree.
Some institutions offer both types
of programs. Twelve schools offer
master’s degree programs.
Completion of an associate
degree program is sufficient for
dental hygienists who want to prac
tice in a private dental office. In
order to do research, teach, and
work in public or school health pro
grams, a baccalaureate degree
usually is required.
The minimum requirement for
admission to a school of dental hy
giene is graduation from high
school. Several schools which offer
the bachelor’s degree admit stu
dents to the dental hygiene program
only after they have completed 2
years of college. Many schools also
require that applicants take an ap
titude test given by the American
Dental Hygienists Association.
The curriculum in a dental hy
giene program consists of courses in
the basic sciences, dental sciences,
and liberal arts. These schools offer
laboratory work, clinical ex
perience, and classroom instruction
in subjects such as anatomy,
chemistry, histology, periodontology, pharmacology, and nutrition.
People who want to become
dental hygienists should be those
who enjoy working with others. The
ability to put patients at ease in an
uncomfortable situation is helpful.
Personal neatness and cleanliness,
manual dexterity, and good health
also are important qualities. Among
the courses recommended for high
school students interested in
careers in this occupation are biolo
gy, health, chemistry, and speech.
Employment Outlook
Employment opportunities for
dental hygienists are expected to be
very good through the mid-1980’s.
Despite an anticipated rise in the
number of graduates from schools
of dental hygiene, the demand is ex
pected to be greater than the
number available for employment if
current trends in enrollments con
tinue. There also should be very
good opportunities for those desir
ing part-time employment, and for
those willing to work in rural areas.
Employment of dental hygienists
is expected to grow much faster
than the average for all occupa
tions, because of an expanding
population and the growing aware
ness of the importance of regular
dental care. Increased participation
in dental prepayment plans and
more group practice among dentists
will result in new jobs for dental hy
gienists. Dental care programs for
children also may lead to more em
ployment opportunities in this field.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Earnings of dental hygienists are
affected by the type of employer,
education and experience of the in
dividual hygienist, and the geo
graphic location. Dental hygienists
who work in private dental offices
usually are salaried employees,
although some are paid a commis
sion for work performed, or a com
bination of salary and commission.
Dental hygienists working full
time earned average salaries of
about $10,400 a year in 1974, ac
cording to the limited data availa
ble. This salary was slightly above
the average for all nonsupervisory
workers in private industry, except
farming. In late 1974, the Federal
Government paid dental hygienists
with no experience starting salaries
of $7,596 a year.
Dental hygienists employed full
time in private offices usually
worked between 35 and 40 hours a
Dental hygienists teach the techniques of mouth care.
week. They may work on Saturdays
or during evening hours. Some hy
gienists work for two dentists or
more.
Dental hygienists usually work in
clean, well-lighted offices. Impor
tant health protections for persons
in this occupation are regular medi
cal checkups and strict adherence
to established procedures for using
X-ray equipment and for disinfec
tion.
Dental hygienists who work for
school systems, health agencies,
and the Federal or State govern
ments have the same hours, vaca
tion, sick leave, retirement, and
health insurance benefits as other
workers in these organizations.
Sources of Additional
Information
For information about accredited
programs and the educational
requirements needed to enter this
occupation, contact:
Office of Education, American Dental Hy
gienists Association, 211 E. Chicago
Ave., Chicago, III. 60611.
Other material on opportunities
for dental hygienists is available
from:
Division of Dentistry, Public Health Service,
U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, 9000 Rockville Pike,
Bethesda, Md. 20014.
The State Board of Dental Ex
aminers in each State, or the Na
tional Board of Dental Examiners,
211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, 1 1
1.
60611, can supply information on
licensing requirements.
DIETITIANS
(D O T. 077.081 through .168)
Nature of the Work
Dietitians plan nutritious and ap
petizing meals to help people main
tain or recover good health. They
also supervise the food service work
ers who prepare and serve the
meals, manage purchases and keep
the accounts, and give advice on
good eating habits. Administrative
dietitians form the largest group in
this occupation; the others are clini
cal, teaching, and research dieti
tians. Nutritionists also are included
in this field.
Administrative dietitians apply
the principles of nutrition and
sound management to large-scale
meal planning and preparation,
such as that done in hospitals,
universities, schools, and other in
stitutions. They supervise the
planning, preparation, and service
of meals; select, train, and direct
food-service supervisors and work
ers; budget for and purchase food,
equipment, and supplies; enforce
sanitary and safety regulations; and
prepare records and reports. Dieti
tians who are directors of a dietetic
department also decide on depart
mental policy; coordinate dietetic
service with the activities of other
departments; and are responsible
for the development and manage
ment of the dietetic department
budget, which in large organiza
tions may amount to millions of dol
lars annually.
Clinical dietitians, sometimes
called therapeutic dietitians, plan
diets and supervise the service of
meals to meet the nutritional needs
of patients in hospitals, nursing
homes, or clinics. Among their du
ties, clinical dietitians confer with
doctors and other members of the
health care team about patients’
nutritional care, instruct patients
and their families on the require
ments and importance of their
diets, and suggest ways to help them
stay on these diets after leaving the
hospital or clinic. In a small institu
tion, one person may be both the
administrative and clinical dietitian.
Research dietitians conduct, eval
uate, and interpret research to im
prove the nutrition of both healthy
and sick people. This research may
be in nutrition science and educa
tion, food management, or food
service systems and equipment.
They conduct studies and make
surveys of food intake, food
acceptance, and food utilization.
Research projects may relate to
subjects such as nutritional needs
of the aging, persons with a chronic
disease, or space travelers. Re
search dietitians usually are em
ployed in medical centers or educa
tion facilities, but also may work
in community health programs.
(See statement on Food Scientists
elsewhere in this book.)
Dietetic educators teach nutrition
to dietetic, medical, dental, and
nursing students and to interns, re
sidents, and other members of the
health care team. This may be in
medical and educational institu
tions.
Nutritionists counsel people of all
ages, as individuals or in groups, on
sound nutrition practices to main
tain and improve health. This in
cludes special diets, meal planning
and preparation, and food budget
ing and purchasing. Nutritionists in
the public health field are responsi
ble for planning, developing, ad
ministering, and coordinating nutri
tion programs and services as part
of public health programs. Nutri
tionists work in such diverse areas
as food industries, educational and
health facilities, and agricultural
and welfare agencies, both public
and private.
An increasing number of dieti
tians work as consultants to
hospitals and to health-related
facilities. Others act as consultants
to commercial enterprises, includ
ing food processors and equipment
manufacturers.
Places of Employment
About 33,000 persons, most of
them women, worked as dietitians
in 1974. More than two-fifths work
in hospitals, nursing homes, and
clinics, including about 1,000 in the
Veterans Administration and the
U.S. Public Health Service. Col
leges, universities, and school
systems employ a large number of
dietitians as teachers or in food ser
vice systems. Most of the rest work
for health-related agencies, restau
rants or cafeterias, and large com
panies that provide food service for
their employees. Some dietitians
are commissioned officers in the
Armed Forces.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
A bachelor’s degree, preferably
with a major in foods and nutrition
or institution management, is the
basic educational requirement for
dietitians. This degree can be
earned in more than 250 colleges
and universities, usually in depart
ments of home economics. College
courses usually required are in food
and nutrition, institution manage
ment, chemistry, bacteriology,
physiology, and related courses
such
as
mathematics,
data
processing, psychology, sociology,
and economics.
For a dietitian to qualify for
professional recognition, the
American Dietetic Association
(ADA) recommends the completion
after graduation of an approved
dietetic internship or an approved
individual traineeship program.
The internship lasts 6 to 12 months
and the traineeship program 1 to 2
vears. Both programs combine clin-
dietetic services. Since this situa
tion is likely to persist, employment
opportunities also should continue
to be favorable for graduates of
these programs.
Employment of dietitians is ex
pected to grow faster than the
average for all occupations through
the mid-1980’s to meet the nutri
tion and food management needs of
hospitals and extended care facili
ties, industrial plants, and restau
rants. Dietitians also will be needed
to staff community health programs
and to conduct research in food and
nutrition. In addition to new dieti
tians needed because of occupa
tional growth, many others will be
required each year to replace those
who die, retire, or leave the profes
sion for other reasons.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
ical experience under a qualified
dietitian with some classroom work.
In 1974, 71 internship programs
were approved by the American
Dietetic Association. A growing
number of coordinated under
graduate programs, located in
schools of medicine and in allied
health and home economics de
partments of both colleges and uni
versities, enable students to com
plete both the requirements for a
bachelor’s degree and the clinical
experience requirement in 4 years.
Experienced dietitians may ad
vance to assistant or associate
director or director of a dietetic de
partment. Advancement to higher
level positions in teaching and
research usually requires graduate
education; public health nutri
tionists must earn a graduate degree
in this field. Graduate study in in
stitutional or business administra
tion is valuable to those interested
Starting salaries of hospital dieti
tians averaged $9,900 a year in
1974, according to a national sur
vey conducted by the University of
Texas
Medical
Branch.
Ex
perienced dietitians received an
in administrative dietetics.
nual salaries ranging from $12,100
Persons who plan to become
to $22,000, according to the Amer
dietitians should have organiza ican Dietetic Association. Colleges
tional and administrative ability, as and universities paid dietitians with
well as high scientific aptitude, and bachelor’s degrees median salaries
should be able to work well with a of $12,100 a year in 1974. Those
variety of people. Among the cour with bachelor’s degrees working in
ses recommended for high school commercial or industrial establish
students interested in careers as ments received median salaries of
dietitians are home economics, $12,500 a year; those in public and
business administration, biology, voluntary health agencies, $10,800.
health, mathematics, and chemis Self-employed dietitians with a
try.
bachelor’s degree earned median
salaries over $14,000 a year, in
1974.
Employment Outlook
The entrance salary in the
Employment opportunities for Federal Government for those
qualified dietitians on both a full completing an approved internship
time and part-time basis are ex was $10,520 in late
1974.
pected to be good through the mid- Beginning dietitians with a master’s
1980’s. In recent years, employers degree who had completed an in
increasingly have utilized dietetic ternship earned $12,841. In late
assistants trained in vocational and 1974, the Federal Government paid
technical schools and dietetic experienced dietitians average sala
technicians educated in junior col ries of $ 17,414 a year.
leges to help meet demands for
Most dietitians work 40 hours a
week; however, dietitians in work. They may do this personally,
hospitals may sometimes work on where the organization is small, or
weekends, and those in commercial through a staff of assistant adminis
food service have somewhat irregu trators in larger organizations. They
lar hours. Some hospitals provide make management decisions on
laundry service and meals in addi matters such as the need for addi
tion to salary. Dietitians usually tional personnel and equipment,
receive paid vacations, holidays, current and future space require
and health insurance and retire ments, and the budget.
ment benefits.
Some health services administra
tors, including those who manage
Sources of Additional
hospitals or nursing homes, oversee
Information
nursing and food services, and inservice
training
programs.
For information on approved
Although assistant administrators
dietetic
internship
programs,
scholarships, and employment op usually direct the daily operations
portunities, and a list of colleges of these departments, the chief ex
providing training for a professional ecutive remains informed through
formal and informal meetings with
career in dietetics, contact:
assistants, the medical staff, and
The American Dietetic Association, 430 others. In addition to these manage
North Michigan Ave., 10th floor,
ment activities, many health ad
Chicago, 1 1 6061 1.
1.
ministrators help to carry out fun
The U.S. Civil Service Commis
draising ,drives and promote the
sion, Washington, D.C. 20415, will
public’s participation in health pro
send information on the require
grams. This phase of the adminis
ments for dietetic interns and dieti
tians in Federal Government
hospitals and for public health
nutritionists in the Indian Health
Service of the Public Health Service
and in the District of Columbia
government.
HEALTH SERVICES
ADMINISTRATORS
(D O T. 169.168, 187.118, and
187.168)
Nature of the Work
Medical and health care is pro
vided by organizations that vary
from large teaching hospitals to
small walk-in clinics. Each of these
requires effective management to
function properly. Health adminis
trators, under the general supervi
sion of boards of directors or other
governing bodies, provide this
management.
Administrators coordinate the
various functions and activities that
combine to make an organization
trator’s job often includes speaking
before civic groups, arranging
publicity, and coordinating the ac
tivities of the organization with
those of government or community
agencies.
Places of Employment
About 150,000 persons worked
as health services administrators in
1974—nearly half of them were
women. Most administrators work
for health facilities, including
hospitals (which employed 4 out of
every 10 administrators), nursing
and personal care homes, and
health management firms that pro
vide administrative services to
health facilities at a specified con
tract price.
Some health administrators work
for government agencies, including
State and local health departments
and the U.S. Public Health Service.
In addition, the Federal Govern-
ment hires administrators in
Veterans
Administration
and
Armed Forces hospitals and clinics.
Others work for voluntary health
agencies that conduct research and
provide care and treatment for vic
tims of particular diseases or physi
cal impairments.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Educational requirements for
health services administrators vary
according to the position’s level of
responsibility and the size of the or
ganization. Generally, larger or
ganizations with more complicated
administrative structures require
higher credentials than smaller
ones.
Applicants with a master’s degree
in health or hospital administration
may be hired as associate or
assistant administrators in hospitals,
while those with master’s degrees in
public health often find work as
program analysts or program
representatives in public health de
partments. Very few master’s
degree recipients find entry posi
tions in nursing or personal care
homes, although many nursing
home administrators pursue gradu
ate education while employed.
Bachelor’s degree recipients
usually begin their careers as ad
ministrative assistants or depart
ment heads in hospitals, or as
assistant administrators in nursing
homes. Graduates of 2-year, as
sociate degree programs generally
are hired as unit directors or
assistant department heads in
hospitals, or as assistants to pro
gram representatives in public
health departments. Some associate
degree holders find assistant ad
ministrator jobs in small nursing
homes.
The Ph. D. degree usually is
required for positions in teaching or
research, and the doctorate is an
asset for those seeking administra
tive jobs in the larger, more presti
gious
health
organizations.
Although some public health de
partments still require chief ad
ministrators to be physicians, the
trend is away from this.
Administrators in Armed Forces
hospitals are career military person
nel.
In 1974, about 40 bachelor and
associate degree programs in health
services administration were of
fered—the majority were 4-year
curriculums. In addition, about 40
programs in hospital or health ser
vices administration led to the
master’s degree, and 17 schools of
public health offered programs
toward a master’s degree in public
health.
To enter graduate programs, ap
plicants must have a bachelor’s
degree, with courses in natural
sciences, psychology, sociology,
statistics,
accounting,
and
economics. The programs generally
last about 2 years and include some
supervised
administrative
ex
perience in hospitals, clinics, or
health agencies. Programs may in
clude courses such as hospital or
ganization and management, ac
counting and budget control, per
sonnel adminstration, public health
administration, and the economics
of health care.
In all 50 States and the District of
Columbia, the administrator of a
nursing or personal care home must
be licensed. Requirements are not
uniform, but they generally specify
a level of education, such as a
bachelor’s degree, plus some
amount of experience in the field.
Personal qualifications needed
for success as a health administra
tor include initiative and an interest
in helping the sick. Administrators
should be able to work with and
motivate people, and organize and
direct large-scale activities. They
also should enjoy public speaking.
Health administrators advance in
the profession by taking increas
ingly more responsible positions.
For example, some hospital ad
ministrators begin their careers in
small hospitals in positions with
broad responsibilities, such as
assistant administrator. They ad
vance by moving to jobs as as
sociate or chief administrator in
larger hospitals. More commonly,
they start in a large institution in a
position that is somewhat narrow in
scope; for example, as department
head in charge of purchasing. Re
gardless of the path of advancement
chosen, the ultimate occupational
goal in hospitals and nursing homes
is the job of chief executive or chief
administrative officer.
Employment Outlook
The number of graduate pro
grams in health administration has
increased rapidly in recent years
and administative specialists with
graduate degrees in other fields also
have entered the profession. Con
sequently, it may become increas
ingly difficult for those with less
than graduate education to enter
health administration in top
management positions. In addition,
some administrative jobs will con
tinue to be filled by physicians,
registered nurses, and members of
religious communities.
Employment of health services
administrators is expected to grow
much faster than the average for all
occupations to 1985 as the quality
and quantity of patient services
increase and hospital management
becomes more complex. The de
mand for administrators will be
stimulated by the formation of
more group medical practices and
health
maintenance
organiza
tions (facilities that offer sub
scribers a broad range of medical
services for a monthly fee paid in
advance). Administrators also will
be needed in nursing and convales
cent homes to handle the increas
ing amount of administrative work
expected as these facilities expand
in size.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Salaries of hospital administra
tors depend on factors such as the
level of job responsibility and the
size, type, and location of the
hospital, and the size of its adminis
trative staff and budget. The
average starting salary of adminis
trative assistants in hospitals was
about $10,500 in 1974, according
to the limited information available.
Chief administrators in hospitals
with 100 or fewer beds earned from
about $16,500 to $20,000 a year in
1974. Some, in larger hospitals,
earned over $40,000. Recent
recipients of master’s degrees in
health administration starting work
in Veterans Administration (VA)
hospitals earned $12,167 a year in
1974. The average salary paid ad
ministrators of Federal hospitals
was $23,000.
Commissioned officers in the
Armed Forces who work as hospital
administrators hold ranks ranging
from second lieutenant to colonel
or from ensign to captain. Com
manding officers of large Armed
Forces hospitals are physicians,
who may hold higher ranks.
Hospital administrators in the U.S.
Public Health Service are commis
sioned officers holding ranks rang
ing from lieutenant (junior grade)
to captain in the Navy.
Administrators of nursing and
personal care homes usually earn
lower salaries than those paid
hospital administrators in facilities
having similar numbers of beds.
Most administrators employed by
voluntary health agencies earned
between $15,000 and $30,000 a
year in 1974.
Health administrators often work
long hours. Because health facilities
such as nursing homes and hospitals
operate around the clock, adminis
trators in these institutions may be
called at all hours to settle emer
gency problems. Also, some travel
may be required to attend meetings
or, in the case of State public health
department and voluntary health
agency administrators, to inspect
facilities in the field.
Sources of Additional
information
Information about health ad
ministration and the academic pro
grams in this field offered by
universities, colleges, and commu
nity colleges is available from:
American College of Hospital Administra
tion, 840 North Lake Shore Drive,
Chicago, Illinois 60604.
Association of University Programs in
Health Administration, One Dupont
Circle, NW„ Washington, D C. 20036.
American Public Health Association, Divi
sion of Program Services, 1015 18th St.,
NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036.
National Health Council, Health Careers
Program, 1740 Broadway, New York,
N .Y .10019.
MEDICAL LABORATORY
WORKERS
(D O T. 078.128, .168, .281, and
.381)
Nature of the Work
Laboratory tests play an impor
tant part in the detection, diagnosis,
and treatment of many diseases.
Medical laboratory workers, often
called clinical laboratory workers,
include three levels: medical
technologists, technicians, and
assistants. They perform tests under
the direction of pathologists
(physicians who diagnose the
causes and nature of disease) and
other physicians, or scientists who
specialize in clinical chemistry,
microbiology, or the other biologi
cal sciences. Medical laboratory
workers analyze the blood, tissues,
and fluids in the human body by
using precision instruments such as
microscopes
and
automatic
analyzers.
Medical
technologists,
who
require 4 years of postsecondary
training,
perform
complicated
chemical, microscopic, and bac
teriological tests. These tests may
include chemical tests to deter
mine, for example, the blood
cholesterol level, or microscopic
examination of the blood to detect
the presence of diseases such as leu
kemia. Technologists microscopi
cally examine other body fluids;
make cultures of body fluid or tis
sue samples to determine the
presence of bacteria, parasites, or
other micro-organisms; and analyze
the samples for chemical content or
reaction. They also may type and
cross-match blood samples.
Technologists in small laborato
ries often perform many types of
tests. Those in large laboratories
usually specialize in areas such as
microbiology,
parasitology,
biochemistry, blood banking, he
matology (the study of blood cells),
and nuclear medical technology
(the use of radioactive isotopes to
help detect diseases).
Most medical technologists con
duct tests related to the examina
tion and treatment of patients and
may be called on to display inde
pendent judgment. Some do
research,
develop
laboratory
techniques, teach, or perform ad
ministrative duties.
Medical laboratory technicians,
who generally require 2 years of
postsecondary training, perform a
wide range of tests and laboratory
procedures that require a high level
of skill but not the technical
knowledge of the highly trained
technologists. Like technologists,
they may work in several areas or
specialize in one field.
Medical laboratory assistants,
who generally have a year or less of
formal training, assist medical
technologists and technicians in
routine tests and related work that
can be learned in a relatively short
time. In large laboratories, they
may concentrate in one area of
work. For example, they may
identify slides with abnormal blood
cells. In addition to performing rou
tine tests, assistants may store and
label plasma; clean and sterilize
laboratory equipment, glassware,
and instruments; prepare solutions
following standard laboratory for
mulas and procedures; keep
records of tests; and identify
specimens.
Places of Employment
About 175,000 people worked as
medical laboratory workers in
1974. About 80 percent of all medi
cal laboratory workers were
women; however, the number of
men in the field has been increasing
in recent years.
Most medical laboratory person
nel work in hospitals. Others work
in independent laboratories, physi
cians’ offices, clinics, public health
agencies, pharmaceutical firms, and
research institutions. These places
are concentrated in larger cities and
populous States.
In 1974, Veterans Administra
tion hospitals and laboratories em
ployed about
1,900
medical
technologists and about 1,900
medical laboratory technicians and
assistants. Others worked for the
Armed Forces and the U.S. Public
Health Service.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
The
minimum
educational
requirement for a beginning job as a
medical technologist usually is 4
years of college training including
completion of a specialized training
program in medical technology.
Undergraduate work includes
courses in chemistry, biological
science, and mathematics. These
studies give the technologist a
broad understanding of the scien
tific principles underlying laborato
ry work. Specialized training
usually requires 12 months of study
and includes extensive laboratory
work. In 1974, about 730 hospitals
and schools offered programs ap
proved by the American Medical
Association. These programs were
affiliated with colleges and universi
ties; a bachelor’s degree is usually
awarded upon completion. A few
schools require a bachelor’s degree
for entry into the program.
Many universities also offer ad
vanced
degrees
in
medical
technology and related subjects for
technologists who plan to specialize
in laboratory work or in teaching,
administration, or research.
Medical laboratory technicians
employed in 1974 got their training
in a variety of educational settings.
Many attended junior or 4-year col
leges and universities for 1 year or
more. Others were trained in the
Armed Forces. Some technicians
received training in private and
nonprofit vocational and technical
schools.
Most
medical
laboratory
assistants employed in 1974 were
trained on the job. In recent years,
however, an increasing number
have studied in 1-year training pro
grams conducted by hospitals, ju
nior colleges in cooperation with
hospitals, or vocational schools.
Hospitals offer the greatest number
OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK
of training programs. Applicants to
these programs should be high
school graduates with courses in
science and mathematics. The pro
grams include classroom instruc
tion and practical training in the
laboratory. They often begin with a
general orientation to the clinical
laboratory followed by courses in
bacteriology, serology, parasitolo
gy, hematology, clinical chemistry,
blood banking, and urinalysis.
Certification or registration is
considered important in this field
because it indicates that the persons
certified have met educational stan
dards recognized by the certifying
body. After the successful comple
tion of the appropriate examina
tions, medical technologists may be
certified as Medical Technologists,
MT (ASCP), by the Board of Regis
try of the American Society of
Clinical
Pathologists;
Medical
Technologists, MT, by the Amer
ican Medical Technologists; or Re
gistered Medical Technologists ,
RMT, by the International Society
of Clinical Laboratory Technology.
These organizations also certify
technician-level workers. Laborato
ry assistants are certified by the
American Society of Clinical
Pathologists.
Medical
technologists
and
technicians must be licensed in
Alabama, California, Florida, Geor
gia, Hawaii, Illinois, Nevada,
Pennsylvania, Tennessee, New
York City, and Puerto Rico.
Requirements for licensure include
a written examination in some
States.
Accuracy, dependability, and the
ability to work under pressure are
important personal characteristics
for a medical laboratory worker.
Manual dexterity and normal color
vision are highly desirable.
Persons interested in medical
laboratory careers should use con
siderable care in selecting a training
program. They should get informa
tion about the kinds of jobs ob
tained by graduates, educational
costs, the accreditation of the
school, the length of time the train
ing program has been in operation,
instructional facilities, and faculty
qualifications.
Technologists may advance to su
pervisory positions in certain areas
of laboratory work, or, after several
years’ experience, to chief medical
technologist in a large hospital.
Graduate education in one of the
biological sciences or chemistry
usually
speeds
advancement.
Technicians can
advance
to
technologists by getting additional
education and experience.
Employment Outlook
Employment of medical labora
tory workers is expected to expand
faster than the average for all occu
pations through the mid-1980’s, as
physicians make wider use of
laboratory tests in routine physical
checkups and in the diagnosis and
treatment of disease. Indirectly in
fluencing growth in the field are
population growth, greater health
consciousness, and expansion of
prepayment programs for medical
care that make it easier for people
to pay for services.
The use of automated laboratory
test equipment is expected to lead
to an increase in the number of
medical laboratory technicians and
assistants relative to technologists.
Through technological advances,
technicians and assistants can
operate equipment to perform tests
which previously required the skill
of a technologist.
Technologists will be needed to
fill supervisory positions in all
laboratories. Also, some will be
needed in laboratories where they
are required by State licensing
authorities or third party health in
surance regulations, and in labora
tories not using the new automated
equipment.
Despite an anticipated strong de
mand for medical laboratory wor
kers through the mid-1980’s, the
number seeking to enter the field is
expected to exceed the number of
openings from growth and replace
ment needs. Consequently, job
seekers in this field may face com
petition for positions of their cho
ice.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Salaries of medical laboratory
workers vary by employer and geo
graphic location. In general, medi
cal laboratory workers employed
on the west coast and in large cities
received the highest salaries.
Starting salaries for medical
technologists in hospitals and medi
cal centers averaged about $9,200
in 1974, according to a survey con
ducted by the University of Texas
Medical Branch. Beginning salaries
for laboratory assistants averaged
about $6,900. Technicians earn
salaries that range between those
paid technologists and assistants.
The Federal Government paid
newly graduated medical technolo
gists with bachelor’s degrees start
ing salaries of $8,500 a year in late
1974. Those having experience, su
perior academic achievement, or a
year of graduate study entered at
$10,520. The Federal Government
paid medical laboratory assistants
and technicians starting salaries
ranging from $5,294 to $8,500 a
year in late 1974, depending on the
amount and type of education and
experience. Medical technologists
in the
Federal
Government
averaged $13,300 a year and medi
cal technicians, $11,400 a year, in
late 1974.
Medical laboratory personnel
generally work a 40-hour week. In
hospitals, they can expect some
night and weekend duty. Hospitals
normally provide vacation and sick
leave benefits; some have retire
ment plans.
Laboratories generally are welllighted and clean. Although un
pleasant odors and specimens of
many kinds of diseased tissue often
are present, few hazards exist if
proper methods of sterilization and
handling of specimens, materials,
and equipment are used.
Sources of Additional
Information
Information about education and
training for medical technologists,
technicians,
and
laboratory
assistants meeting standards recog
nized by the American Medical As
sociation, the U.S. Office of Educa
tion, or both, as well as career infor
mation on these fields of work, is
available from:
American Society of Clinical Pathologists,
Board of Registry, 2100 W. Harrison
St., Chicago, 1 1 6061 2.
1.
American Society for Medical Technology,
5555 W. Loop South, Bellaire, Tex.
77401.
American Medical Technologists, 710 Hig
gins Rd., Park Ridge, 1 1 60068.
1.
Accrediting Bureau of Medical Laboratory
Schools, Oak Manor Office, 3038 W.
Lexington Ave., Elkhart, Indiana
46514.
For information about other
technician training programs, con
tact:
International Society for Clinical Laboratory
Technology, 805 Ambassador Building.
411 N. Seventh St., St. Louis, Mo.
63101.
Information about employment
opportunities in Veterans Adminis
tration hospitals is available from
the Office of Personnel (054E ),
Veterans Administration, Washing
ton, D C. 20420.
Information about clinical and
research employment opportunities
with the National Institutes of
Health is available from ihe Clinical
MEDICAL RECORD
ADMINISTRATORS
( D O T. 100.388)
Nature of the Work
All health care instituiions keep
records that contain medical infor
mation on each patient, including
case histories of illnesses or injuries,
reports on physical examinations,
X-rays and laboratory tests, doc
tors’ orders and notes, and nurses’
notes. These records are necessary
for correct and prompt diagnosis
and treatment of illnesses and inju
ries. They also are used for
research, insurance claims, legal ac
tions, evaluation of treatment and
medications prescribed, and in the
training of medical personnel.
Medical information in hospitals is
also used to evaluate patient care
provided in the hospital and as a
basis for health care planning for
the community.
Medical record administrators,
formerly known as medical record
librarians, direct the activities of
the medical record department and
develop systems for documenting,
storing, and retrieving medical in
formation. They supervise the
medical
record
staff
which
processes and analyzes records and
reports on patients’ illnesses and
treatment. They train members of
the medical record staff for special
ized jobs, compile medical statistics
required by State or National health
agencies, and assist the medical
staff in evaluations of patient care
or research studies. Medical record
administrators serving as depart
ment heads are a part of the
hospital management staff and par
ticipate fully in management activi
ties. As the administrators responsi
ble for the medical information
system, they may be required to tes
tify in court about records and
record procedures.
The size and type of institution
affect the duties and amount of
responsibility assigned to medical
record administrators. In large
hospitals, chief medical record ad
ministrators supervise other medi
cal record administrators, techni
cians, and clerks. Smaller hospitals
may employ only two or three per
sons in the medical record depart
ment and in nursing homes usually
one person keeps the medical
records. In these cases a consulting
medical
record
administrator record administrators as con
usually advises technical and cleri sultants. Although most medical
cal personnel performing medical record administrators are women,
record functions.
the number of men in the occupa
tion is growing.
Places of Employment
Most of the nearly 12,000 medi
cal record administrators employed
in 1974 worked in hospitals. The
remainder worked in clinics,
nursing homes, State and local
public health departments, and
medical research centers. Some
health insurance companies also
employ medical record administra
tors to help determine liability for
payment of their clients’ medical
fees. Some medical record adminis
trators work for firms that manufac
ture equipment for recording and
processing medical data and
develop and print health insurance
and medical forms. Many small
health care facilities hire medical
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Preparation for a career as a
medical record administrator is of
fered in specialized programs in
colleges and universities. Most pro
grams last 4 years and lead to a
bachelor’s degree in medical record
administration. However, concen
tration in medical record adminis
tration begins in the third or fourth
year of study, making transfer from
a junior college possible. One-year
certificate programs also are availa
ble for those who already have a
bachelor’s degree and required
courses in the liberal arts and
biological sciences. In 1974, there
were 40 programs in medical
record administration approved by
the Council on Medical Education
of the American Medical Associa
tion and the American Medical
Record Association (AMRA). High
school courses that are useful in
clude health, business administra
tion, mathematics, and biology.
Training for medical record ad
ministrators includes both class
room instruction and practical ex
perience. Anatomy, physiology,
fundamentals of medical science,
medical terminology, and medical
record science are among the
required scientific courses. In addi
tion, management courses such as
hospital organization and adminis
tration, health law, statistics, and
data processing are part of the cur
riculum. Experience in the medical
record departments of hospitals
provides students with a practical
background in applying stan
dardized medical record practices,
compiling
statistical
reports,
analyzing data, and organizing
medical record systems.
Graduates of approved schools in
medical record administration are
eligible for the national registration
examination given by AMRA.
Passing this examination gives
professional recognition as a Re
gistered Record Administrator
(RRA). There were about 5,000
employed RRA’s in 1974, accord
ing to AMRA.
Medical record administrators
must be accurate and interested in
detail. They also must be able to
communicate clearly in speech and
writing. Because medical records
are confidential, medical record ad
ministrators must be discreet in
processing and releasing informa
tion. Supervisors must be able to or
ganize
and
analyze
work
procedures and to work effectively
with other hospital personnel.
Medical record administrators
with some experience in smaller
health facilities may advance to
positions as department heads in
large hospitals or to higher level
positions in hospital administration.
Some coordinate the medical
record departments of several small
hospitals. Others move on to medi
cal record positions in health agen
cies. Many teach in the expanding
programs for medical record per
sonnel in 2- and 4-year colleges and
universities.
Employment Outlook
Employment opportunities for
graduates of approved medical
record administrator programs are
expected to be very good through
the mid-1980’s. Employment is ex
pected to grow faster than the
average for all occupations, with
the increasing use of hospitals and
other health facilities as more and
more people are covered by health
insurance. The detailed information
required by third-party payers such
as insurance companies and
Medicare also will cause some
growth in the occupation. More
consultants will be needed to stand
ardize health records in outpatient
clinics, community health centers,
nursing homes, and home care pro
grams. The importance of medical
records in research and the growing
use of computers to store and
retrieve medical information also
should increase the demand for
qualified medical record adminis
trators to develop new medical in
formation systems. Part-time em
ployment opportunities also should
be available in teaching, in
research, and in consulting work for
health care facilities.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
The salaries of medical record
administrators are influenced by
the location, size, and type of em
ploying institution, as well as by the
duties and responsibilities of the
position. The average starting sal
ary for medical record administra
tors in 1974 was $10,368 a year, ac
cording to a national survey con
ducted by the University of Texas
Medical Branch at Galveston. Top
salaries averaged $12,840 a year,
with some earning as much as
$18,792.
Newly graduated medical record
administrators employed by the
Federal Government generally
started at $8,500 a year in late
1974; those having bachelor’s
degrees and good academic records
were eligible to begin at $10,520.
Some experienced medical record
administrators employed by the
Federal Government earned as
much as $23,998 annually.
Medical record administrators
usually work a regular 36- to 40hour week and receive paid
holidays and vacations.
Sources of Additional
Information
Information about approved
schools and employment opportu
nities is available from:
The American Medical Record Association,
875 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 1850, John
Hancock Center, Chicago, 1 1 60611.
1.
OCCUPATIONAL
THERAPISTS
(D.O.T. 079.128)
Nature of the Work
Occupational therapists plan and
direct educational, vocational, and
recreational activities designed to
help mentally and physically disa
bled patients become self-suffi
cient. They evaluate the capacities
and skills of clients, set goals, and
plan a therapy program together
with the client and members of a
medical team which may include
physicians, physical therapists, vo
cational counselors, nurses, social
workers, and other specialists.
About 2 therapists out of 5 works
with emotionally handicapped pa
tients, and the rest work with physi
cally disabled persons. These
clients represent all age groups and
degrees of illness. Patients par
ticipate in occupational therapy to
determine the extent of abilities and
limitations; to regain physical, men
tal, or emotional stability; to relearn
daily routines such as eating,
dressing, writing, and using a
telephone; and eventually, to
prepare for employment.
Occupational therapists teach
manual and creative skills such as
weaving and leather working, and
business and industrial skills such as
typing and the use of power tools.
They also plan and direct activities,
especially for children. Therapists
may design and make special equip
ment or splints to help disabled pa
tients.
Besides working with patients,
occupational therapists supervise
student therapists, occupational
therapy assistants, volunteers, and
auxiliary nursing workers. The chief
occupational therapist in hospitals
may teach medical and nursing stu
dents the principles of occupational
therapy. Many therapists ad
minister occupational therapy pro
grams, coordinate patient activities,
or are consultants to local and State
health departments and mental
health agencies. Some teach in col
leges and universities.
Places of Employment
About 9,400 people, more than 9
out of 10 of them women, worked
as occupational therapists in 1974.
Almost half of all occupational
therapists work in hospitals. Reha
bilitation centers, nursing homes,
schools, outpatient clinics, commu
nity mental health centers, and
research centers employ most of
the others. Some work in special
sanitariums or camps for han
dicapped children, others in State
health departments. Still others
work in home-care programs for
patients unable to attend clinics or
workshops. Some are members of
the Armed Forces.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
A degree or certification in occu
pational therapy is required to enter
the profession. In 1974, 40 colleges
and universities offered programs in
occupational therapy which were
accredited by the American Medi
cal Association and the American
Occupational Therapy Association.
All of these schools offer bachelor’s
degree programs. Some schools
have 2-year programs and accept
students who have completed 2
years of college. Some also offer
shorter programs, leading to a cer
tificate or a master’s degree in oc
cupational therapy for students who
have a bachelor’s degree in another
field. A graduate degree often is
required for teaching, research, or
administrative work.
Course work in occupational
therapy programs includes physical,
biological, and behavioral sciences
and the application of occupational
therapy theory and skills. Students
also work in hospitals or health
agencies to gain clinical experience.
After students complete the 6- to 9month clinical practice period and
graduate from their programs, they
are eligible for the American Occu
pational Therapy Association ex
amination to become registered oc
cupational therapists (O.T.R.). Oc
cupational therapy assistants who
are certified by the association and
have 4 years of approved work ex
perience also are eligible to take the
examination to become registered
occupational therapists.
Personal qualifications needed in
this profession include a sym
pathetic but objective approach to
illness and disability. Occupational
therapists also need maturity, pa
tience, imagination, manual skills,
and the ability to teach. High school
students interested in careers as oc
cupational therapists are advised to
take courses in health, biology,
crafts, and the social sciences.
Newly graduated occupational
therapists generally begin as staff
therapists. After several years on
the job, they may qualify as senior
therapists or specialized practi
tioners. Some advance to superviso
ry or administrative jobs in occupa
tional therapy programs; others
teach or do research.
Employment Outlook
Employment opportunities for
occupational therapists are ex
pected to be favorable through the
mid-1980’s. The increasing number
of graduates is expected to be
roughly in balance with new
openings that are expected to result
from growth of the occupation and
replacement for those who will die,
retire, or leave the field for other
reasons.
Employment in this occupation is
expected to grow faster than the
average for all occupations due to
public interest in the rehabilitation
of disabled persons and the success
of established occupational therapy
programs. Many therapists will be
needed to staff hospital rehabilita
tion
departments,
community
health centers, extended care facili
ties, psychiatric centers, schools for
children with developmental and
learning disabilities, and communi
ty home health programs.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Beginning salaries for new gradu
ates of occupational therapy pro
grams averaged about $9,500 a
year in 1974, according to a na
tional survey conducted by the
University of Texas Medical
School. Experienced occupational
therapists earned an average salary
of about $12,500 a year; some
earned as much as $14,800, and
some administrators as high as
$25,000 to $30,000. In 1974, the
average salary of experienced occu
pational therapists was one and a
half times the average earnings for
all nonsupervisory workers in
private industry, except farming.
In late 1974, beginning therapists
employed by the Veterans Adminis
tration earned starting salaries of
$9,473 a year. Most experienced,
nonsupervisory
occupational
therapists earned about $12,850
annually.
Many part-time positions are
available
for
occupational
therapists.
Some
organizations
require evening work.
Sources of Additional
Information
For more information on occupa
tional therapy as a career, write to:
American Occupational Therapy Associa
tion, 6000 Executive Blvd., Rockville,
Md. 20852.
PHARMACISTS
(D.O.T. 074.181)
Nature of the Work
Pharmacists dispense drugs and
medicines prescribed by medical
practitioners and supply and advise
people on the use of many
medicines that can be obtained with
and without prescriptions. Phar
macists must understand the use,
composition, and effect of drugs
and be able to test them for purity
and strength. They also advise
physicians on the proper selection
and use of medicines. Compound
ing—the actual mixing of in
gredients to form powders, tablets,
capsules, ointments, and solu
tions—is now only a small part of
pharmacists’ practice, since most
medicines are produced by manu
facturers in the form used by the
patient.
Many pharmacists employed in
community pharmacies also have
other duties. Besides dispensing
medicines, some pharmacists buy
and sell nonpharmaceutical mer
chandise, hire and supervise per
sonnel, and oversee the general
operation of the pharmacy. Other
pharmacists, however, operate pre
scription pharmacies that dispense
only medicines, medical supplies,
and health accessories.
Pharmacists in hospitals and
clinics dispense prescriptions and
advise the medical staff on the
selection and effects of drugs; they
also make sterile solutions, buy
medical supplies, teach in schools
of nursing and allied health profes
sions, and perform administrative
duties. An increasing number of
hospital pharmacists work as con
sultants to the medical team in mat
ters related to daily patient care.
Some pharmacists, employed as
medical sales representatives by
drug
manufacturers
and
wholesalers, sell medicines to retail
pharmacies and to hospitals, and in
form health personnel about new
drugs. Others teach in pharmacy
colleges, supervise the manufacture
of pharmaceuticals, or develop new
medicines. Some pharmacists also
edit or write articles for phar
maceutical journals, or do adminis
trative work.
Places of Employment
About 117,000 persons worked
as licensed pharmacists in 1974;
more than 10 percent were women.
About 96,000 pharmacists worked
in community pharmacies. Of these
community pharmacists, more than
two-fifths owned their own pharma
cies; the others were salaried em
ployees. Most of the remaining
salaried pharmacists worked for
hospitals, pharmaceutical manufac
turers, and wholesalers. Some were
civilian employees of the Federal
Government, working chiefly in
hospitals and clinics of the Veterans
Administration and the U.S. Public
Health Service. Others served as
pharmacists in the Armed Forces,
taught in colleges of pharmacy, or
worked for State and local govern
ment agencies.
Most towns have at least one
pharmacy with one pharmacist or
more in attendance. Most phar
macists, however, practice in or
near cities, and in those States
which have the largest populations.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
A license to practice pharmacy is
required in all States and the Dis
trict of Columbia. To obtain a
license, one must be a graduate of
an accredited pharmacy college,
pass a State board examination
and—in nearly all States—have a
specified amount of practical ex
perience or internship under the su
pervision of a registered phar
macist. All States except California,
Florida, and Hawaii grant a license
without examination to qualified
pharmacists already licensed by
another State.
At least 5 years of study beyond
high school are required to gradu
ate from one of the 73 accredited
colleges of pharmacy and receive a
Bachelor of Science (B.S.) or a
Bachelor of Pharmacy (B. Pharm.)
degree. A few colleges that require
6 years award a Doctor of Pharma
cy (Pharm. D.) degree at the
completion of the program. A few
colleges admit students directly
from high school and offer all the
education necessary for graduation.
Most colleges provide 3 or 4 years
of professional instruction and
require all entrants to have
completed their prepharmacy edu
cation in an accredited junior col
lege, college, or university.
A
prepharmacy
curriculum
usually emphasizes mathematics
and basic sciences, such as chemis
try and biology, but also includes
courses in the humanities and social
sciences. Because entry require
ments vary among colleges of phar
macy, prepharmacy students should
inquire about and follow the cur
riculum required by colleges they
plan to attend.
The bachelor’s degree in pharma
cy is the minimum educational
qualification for most positions in
the profession. However, a master’s
or doctor’s degree in pharmacy or a
related field usually is required for
research work or college teaching.
Areas of special study include phar
maceutics, pharmaceutical chemis
try, pharmacology (study of the ef
fects of drugs on the body), phar
macognosy (study of the drugs
derived from plant or animal
sources), clinical pharmacy, and
pharmacy administration.
A limited number of Federal
loans are available for students
studying full-time toward a degree in
pharmacy. Several scholarships also
are awarded annually by drug man
ufacturers, chain drugstores, corpo
rations, State and national phar
macy associations, and the colleges
of pharmacy.
Since many pharmacists are selfemployed, prospective pharmacists
should have some business ability,
as well as an interest in medical
science and the ability to gain the
confidence of customers. Honesty,
integrity, and orderliness are impor
tant attributes for the profession. In
addition, accuracy is needed to
compound and dispense medicines
as well as keep records required by
law.
Pharmacists often begin as em
ployees in community pharmacies.
After they gain experience and ob
tain the necessary funds they may
become owners or part-owners of
pharmacies. A pharmacist who
gains experience in a chain drug
store may advance to a managerial
position, and later to a higher ex
ecutive position within the com
pany. Hospital pharmacists who
have the necessary training and ex
perience may advance to director
of pharmacy service or to other ad
ministrative positions.
Employment Outlook
The employment outlook for
pharmacists is expected to be very
good through the mid-1980’s.
Growth of the occupation is ex
pected to be about as fast as the
average for all occupations. Most
openings, however, will result from
the death and retirement of persons
already in the profession. Overall,
job openings are expected to ex
ceed the number of graduates of
pharmacy schools.
Employment in the occupation
will grow as new pharmacies are
established, particularly in re
sidential
areas
or
suburban
shopping centers. Many community
pharmacies, also, are expected to
hire
additional
pharmacists,
because of a trend towards shorter
working hours. Population growth,
the rising standard of medical care,
and the growth of Medicaid and
other insurance programs that pro
vide payment for prescription drugs
also will generate demand for phar
macists.
Employment
in
hospitals
probably will rise with the more ex
tensive use of pharmacists for
hospital and clinic work. Continued
expansion in the manufacture of
pharmaceutical products and in
research are expected to provide
more opportunities for pharmacists
in production, research, distribu
tion, and sales. Pharmacists with
advanced training will be needed
for college teaching and laboratory
research.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
General information on pharma
cy is available from:
Earnings of pharmacists em
ployed in chain drugstores averaged
about $17,000 in 1974, according
to a survey conducted by the Na
tional Association of Chain Drug
Stores. Pharmacists who are owners
or managers of pharmacies often
earn more. The minimum entrance
salary in the Federal Government
for new graduates was about
$ 12,800 a year, in late 1974. With a
master’s degree or 2 years of gradu
ate studies, the beginning salary was
about $15,500. The average salary
for all federally employed phar
macists was $18,061.
Annual starting salaries for
hospital pharmacists were about
$13,150 in 1974, according to a
survey conducted by the University
of Texas Medical School. Top sala
ries for experienced hospital phar
macists averaged $15,700, and
some were as high as $22,900.
Community pharmacists gener
ally work more than the standard
40-hour workweek. Pharmacies
often are open in the evenings and
on weekends, and all States require
a registered pharmacist to be in at
tendance during store hours. De
spite the general trend toward shor
ter hours, 44 hours is still the basic
workweek for many salaried phar
macists, and some work 50 hours or
more. Self-employed pharmacists
often work more hours than those in
salaried positions. Those who teach
or work for industry, government
agencies, or hospitals have shorter
workweeks.
American Pharmaceutical Association, 2215
Constitution Ave. NW„ Washington,
D .C .20037.
Sources of Additional
Information
A free packet giving information
on pharmacy as a career, preprofes
sional requirements, and student
financial aid is available from:
American Association of Colleges of Phar
macy, Office of Student Affairs, 4630
Montgomery Ave., Suite 201, Bethesda,
Md. 20014.
Information about chain drug
stores is available from:
National Association of Chain Drug Stores,
1911 Jefferson Highway, Arlington, Va.
22202.
For information about
pharmacies, contact:
retail
American Council on Pharmaceutical Edu
cation, 77 W. Washington St., Chicago,
1 1 60602.
1.
Information on requirements for
licensure in a particular State is
available from the Board of Phar
macy of that State or from:
National Association of Boards of Pharmacy,
77 W. Washington St., Chicago, 1 1
1.
60602.
Information on college entrance
requirements, curriculums, and
financial aid is available from the
dean of any college of pharmacy.
PHYSICAL THERAPISTS
( D.O.T. 079.378)
Nature of the Work
Physical therapists help persons
with muscle, nerve, joint, and bone
diseases or injuries to overcome
their disabilities. Their patients in
clude accident victims, crippled
children, and disabled older per
sons. Physical therapists perform
and interpret tests and measure
ments for muscle strength, motor
development, functional capacity,
and respiratory and circulatory effi
ciency to develop programs for
treatment. They evaluate the effec
tiveness of the treatment and
discuss the patients’ progress with
physicians, psychologists, occupa
tional therapists, and other spe
cialists. When advisable, physical
therapists revise the therapeutic
procedures and treatments. They
help disabled persons to accept
their physical handicaps and adjust
to them. They show members of the
patients’ families how to continue
treatments at home.
Therapeutic procedures include
exercises for increasing strength,
endurance, coordination, and range
of motion; stimuli to make motor
activity and learning easier; instruc
tion in carrying out everyday activi
ties and in the use of helping
devices; and the application of
massage, heat and cold, light,
water, or electricity to relieve pain
or improve the condition of
muscles.
Most physical therapists provide
direct care to patients as staff mem
bers, supervisors, or self-employed
practitioners. These therapists may
treat many categories of patients or
may specialize in pediatrics,
geriatrics, amputations, arthritis, or
paralysis. Others administer physi
cal therapy programs, teach, or are
consultants.
Places of Employment
About 20,000 persons—3 out of
4 of them women—worked as
licensed physical therapists in 1974.
About three-fourths of all physical
therapists work in hospitals or
nursing homes; others, in rehabilita
tion centers or schools for crippled
children. Some who work for public
health agencies treat chronically
sick patients in their own homes.
Still others work in physicians’ of
fices or clinics, teach in schools of
physical therapy, or work for
research organizations. A few serve
as consultants in government and
voluntary agencies or are members
of the Armed Forces.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
by the American Medical Associa
tion and the American Physical
Therapy Association.
Most of the approved schools of
physical therapy offer bachelor’s
degree programs. A number of
schools accept those who already
have a bachelor’s degree and give a
12- to 16-month course leading to a
certificate in physical therapy.
Some schools offer both a
bachelor’s degree and a certificate
program.
The physical therapy curriculum
includes science courses such as
anatomy, physiology, neuroanato
my, and neurophysiology; also
specialized
courses
such
as
biomechanics of motion, human
growth and development, and
manifestations of disease and trau
ma. Besides receiving classroom in
struction, students get supervised
practical experience administering
physical therapy to patients in a
hospital or treatment center.
Several universities offer the
master’s degree in physical therapy.
A graduate degree, combined with
clinical experience, increases the
opportunities for advancement,
especially to teaching, research,
and administrative positions.
Therapists must have patience,
tact, resourcefulness, and emo
tional stability in order to help pa
tients and their families understand
the treatments and adjust to their
handicaps. Physical therapists also
should have manual dexterity and
physical stamina. Many persons
who want to determine whether
they have the personal qualities
needed for this occupation volun
teer for summer or part-time work
in the physical therapy department
of a hospital or clinic. High school
courses that are useful include
health, biology, social science,
mathematics, and physical educa
tion.
All States and the District of
Columbia require a license to prac
tice physical therapy. Applicants
for a license must have a degree or
certificate from a school of physical
Employment Outlook
therapy and to qualify must pass a
State board examination. In 1974,
Employment opportunities for
there were 66 schools of physical physical therapists are expected to
therapy which had been approved be favorable through the mid-
1980’s. The rapidly growing num
ber of new graduates is expected
to be in rough balance with the
average number of openings that
will result each year from growth
in the occupation and from re
placement of those who will die
or retire. Employment opportuni
ties will be best in suburban and
rural areas.
Employment of physical thera
pists is expected to grow much
faster than the average for all occu
pations through the mid-1980’s
because of increased public recog
nition of the importance of reha
bilitation. As programs to aid crip
pled children and other rehabilita
tion activities expand, and as
growth takes place in nursing
homes and other facilities for the el
derly, many new positions for physi
cal therapists are likely to be
created. Many part-time positions
should continue to be available.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Starting salaries for new physical
therapy graduates averaged about
$9,600 a year in 1974, according to
a national survey conducted by the
University of Texas Medical School
at Galveston. Earnings of ex
perienced
physical
therapists
averaged $ 11,500; some earned as
much as $16,000.
Beginning therapists employed
by the Veterans Administration
(VA) earned starting salaries of
$9,473 a year in late 1974. Most ex
perienced nonsupervisory physical
therapists in the VA earned
$12,841 annually; those who were
supervisors, about $ 18,463.
Sources of Additional
Information
Additional information and loca
tions of institutions offering ap
proved programs in physical
therapy are available from:
American Physical Therapy Association,
1156 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C.
20036.
REGISTERED NURSES
(D.O.T. 075.1 18 through .378)
Nature of the Work
Nursing plays a major role in
health care. As important members
of the medical care team, registered
nurses perform a wide variety of
functions. They observe, evaluate,
and record symptoms, reactions,
and progress of patients; administer
medications; assist in the rehabilita
tion of patients; and help maintain a
physical and emotional environ
ment that promotes recovery.
Some registered nurses provide
hospital care. Others perform
research activities or instruct stu
dents. The setting usually deter
mines the scope of the nurse’s
responsibilities.
Hospital nurses constitute the lar
gest group of nurses. Most are staff
nurses who provide skilled bedside
nursing care and carry out the
and other community settings. They
instruct patients and families in
proper care and give periodic care
as prescribed by a physician. They
may also instruct groups of patients
in proper diet and arrange for im
munizations. These nurses work
with community leaders, teachers,
parents, and physicians in commu
nity health education. Some public
health nurses work in schools.
Nurse educators teach students
the principles and skills of nursing,
both in the classroom and in direct
patient care. They also conduct
continuing education courses for
registered nurses, practical nurses,
and nursing assistants.
Occupational health or industrial
nurses provide nursing care to em
ployees in industry and government
and, along with physicians promote
employee health. As prescribed by
a doctor, they treat minor injuries
and illnesses occurring at the place
of employment, provide for the
needed nursing care, arrange for
further medical care if necessary,
and offer health counseling. They
also may assist with health examina
tions and inoculations.
medical treatment plans prescribed
by physicians. They may also super
vise practical nurses, aides, and or
Places of Employment
derlies. Hospital nurses usually
work with groups of patients that
Nearly 860,000 persons—all but
require similar nursing care. For in
1 percent of them women—worked
stance, some nurses work with pa
as registered nurses in 1974. About
tients who have had surgery; others
one-third worked on a part-time
care for children, the elderly, or the
mentally ill. Some are administra basis.
About three-quarters of all re
tors of nursing services.
gistered nurses worked in hospitals,
Private duty nurses give in nursing homes, and related institu
dividual care to patients who need tions. About 50,000 were office
constant attention. The private duty nurses and about 40,000 were
nurse may sometimes care for
private duty nurses who cared for
several hospital patients who
patients in hospitals and private
require special care, but not full
homes. Public health nurses in
time attention.
government agencies, schools, visit
Office nurses assist physicians, ing nurse associations, and clinics
dental surgeons, and occasionally numbered about 55,000; nurse edu
dentists in private practice or cators in nursing schools accounted
clinics. Sometimes they perform for about 30,000; and occupational
routine laboratory and office work health nurses in industry, about
in addition to their nursing duties.
20,000. Most of the others were
Public health nurses care for pa staff members of professional nurse
tients in clinics, homes, schools, and other organizations, State
boards of nursing, or working for
Programs of nursing include
research organizations.
classroom instruction and super
vised nursing practice in hospitals
and health facilities. Students take
Training, Other Qualifications,
courses in anatomy, physiology,
and Advancement
microbiology, nutrition, psycholo
A license is required to practice gy, and nursing. They also get su
professional nursing in all States pervised clinical experience in the
and in the District of Columbia. To care of patients who have different
obtain a license, a nurse must be a types of health problems. Students
graduate of a school approved by in bachelor’s degree programs as
the State board of nursing and pass well as in some of the other pro
the State board examination. Nur grams are assigned to community
ses may be licensed in more than agencies to learn how to care for
one State, either by examination or patients in clinics and in the pa
endorsement of a license issued by tients’ homes. General education is
combined with nursing education in
another State.
Three types of educational pro baccalaureate and associate degree
grams—diploma,
baccalaureate, programs and in some diploma pro
and associate degree—offer the grams.
Qualified students who need
education required for basic
careers in registered nursing. All financial aid may be able to get a
sponsored
nursing
three programs prepare candidates federally
for licensure; however, the bac scholarship or a low-interest loan.
Young persons who want to pur
calaureate program is preferred for
those who aspire to administrative sue a nursing career should have a
or management positions, and those sincere desire to serve humanity
planning to work in research, con and be sympathetic to the needs of
sultation, teaching, or clinical spe others. Nurses must be able to fol
cialization, which require education low orders precisely and to use
at the master’s level. Graduation good judgment in emergencies;
from high school is required for ad they also should be able to accept
responsibility and direct or super
mission to all schools of nursing.
Diploma programs are conducted vise the activity of others. Good
by hospital and independent mental health is needed in order to
schools and usually require 3 years cope with human suffering and
of training. Bachelor’s degree pro frequent emergency situations.
grams usually require 4 years of Staff nurses need physical stamina
study in a college or university, because of the amount of time
although a few require 5 years. As spent walking and standing.
From staff positions in hospitals,
sociate degree programs in junior
and community colleges require ap experienced nurses may advance to
proximately 2 years of nursing edu head nurse, assistant director, and
cation. In addition, several pro director of nursing services. A
grams provide licensed practical master’s degree, however, often is
nurses with the training necessary required for supervisory and ad
to upgrade themselves to registered ministrative positions, as well as for
nurses while they continue to work positions in nursing education,
specialization,
and
part
time.
These
programs clinical
generally offer an associate of arts research. In public health agencies,
degree. In early 1974, about 1,430 advancement is usually difficult for
programs (associate, diploma, and nurses who do not have degrees in
baccalaureate) were offered in the public health nursing.
United States. In addition, there
A growing movement in nursing,
were 94 master’s and doctoral generally referred to as the “nurse
degree programs in nursing.
practitioner program” is opening
new career possibilities. Nurses
who wish to take the extra training
are preparing for highly indepen
dent roles in the clinical care and
teaching of patients. They are prac
ticing in primary roles which in
clude pediatrics, geriatrics, commu
nity health, mental health, and
medical-surgical nursing.
Employment Outlook
Employment opportunities for
registered nurses are expected to be
favorable through the mid-1980’s.
However,if trends in the number of
persons enrolling in schools of
nursing continue, some competition
for more desirable, higher paying
jobs may develop during the latter
part of this period. Opportunities
for full- or part-time work in
present shortage areas such as some
southern States and many inner-city
locations are expected to be very
favorable through 1985. For nurses
who have had graduate education,
the outlook is excellent for obtain
ing positions as administrators,
teachers, clinical specialists, and
public health nurses.
Growth in employment of re
gistered nurses is expected to be
much faster than the average for all
occupations because of extension
of prepayment programs for
hospitalization and medical care,
expansion of medical services as a
result of new medical techniques
and drugs, and increased interest in
preventive medicine and rehabilita
tion of the handicapped. In addition
to the need to fill new positions,
large numbers of nurses will be
required to replace those who leave
the field each year.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Registered nurses who worked in
hospitals in 1974 received average
starting salaries of $9,100 a year,
according to a national survey con
ducted by the University of Texas
Medical Branch. This was above
the average for nonsupervisory
workers in private industry, except
farming. Registered nurses in
nursing homes can expect to earn
slightly less than those in hospitals.
Salaries of industrial
nurses
averaged $192 a week in early
1974, according to a survey con
ducted by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics.
In early 1975, the Veterans Ad
ministration paid inexperienced
nurses who had a diploma or an as
sociate degree starting salaries of
$9,473 a year; those with baccalau
reate degrees, $11,070. Nurses em
ployed in all Federal Government
agencies earned an average of
$14,700 in 1974.
Most hospital and nursing home
nurses receive extra pay for work
on evening or night shifts. Nearly all
receive from 5 to 13 paid holidays a
year, at least 2 weeks of paid vaca
tion after 1 year of service, and also
some type of health and retirement
benefits.
Sources of Additional
Information
For information on approved
schools of nursing, nursing careers,
loans, scholarships, salaries, work
ing conditions, and employment op
portunities, contact:
ANA Committee on Nursing Careers, Amer
ican Nurses’ Association, 2420 Pershing
Rd., Kansas City, Mo. 64108.
Information about employment
opportunities in the Veterans Ad
ministration is available from:
Department of Medicine and Surgery,
Veterans Administration, Washington,
D C. 20420.
RESPIRATORY THERAPY
WORKERS
(D.O.T. 079.368)
Nature of the Work
Respiratory therapy workers,
sometimes
called
inhalation
therapy workers, treat patients with
cardiorespiratory problems. This
treatment may range from giving
temporary relief to patients with
chronic asthma or emphysema to
giving emergency care in cases of
heart failure, stroke, drowning, and
shock. Respiratory therapy workers
also are among the first medical
specialists called for emergency
treatment of acute respiratory con
ditions arising from head injury or
drug poisoning. Since a patient can
safely cease to breathe for only a
short span of time, the therapy
worker has a highly responsible
role. If breathing has stopped for
longer than 3 to 5 minutes, there is
little chance that the patient can
recover without brain damage, and
if oxygen is unavailable for more
than 9 minutes, death results.
Respiratory therapy workers fol
low doctors’ orders and use special
equipment such as respirators and
positive-pressure
breathing
machines to administer gas therapy,
aerosol therapy, and other treat
ments involving respiration. They
also show patients and their families
how to use the equipment at home.
Other duties include keeping
records of the cost of materials and
charges to patients, and maintain
ing and making minor repairs to
equipment.
There are three levels of workers
within the field of respiratory
therapy: therapists, technicians,
and assistants. Therapists and
technicians perform essentially the
same duties. However, the therapist
is expected to have a higher level of
expertise and may be expected to
assume some teaching and super
visory duties. Respiratory therapy
assistants have little contact with
patients and spend most of their
time taking care of the equipment.
Many are new to the job and are
training to advance to the techni
cian or therapist level.
for Respiratory Therapy (NBRT).
The registry examination consists of
two tests, a written and an oral. Ap
plicants must pass both to be
awarded the American Registered
Respiratory Therapist (ARRT) cre
Places of Employment
dential. In 1974, about 2,500
About 38,000 persons worked as therapists had been registered. A
respiratory therapists, technicians, registered respiratory therapist
or assistants in 1974—about one- often can advance faster and obtain
a more responsible position than
half were women.
Most work in hospitals, in one who is not registered. An in
respiratory therapy, anesthesiology, creasing number of employers
registration
as an
or pulmonary medicine depart recognize
ments. Others work for oxygen acknowledgment of a therapist’s
equipment rental companies, am professional competence.
Individuals who complete an
bulance services, nursing homes,
AMA-approved technician training
and universities.
program and have 1 year of ex
perience in respiratory therapy may
Training, Other Qualifications,
apply to the NBRT for examination
and Advancement
for the Certified Respiratory
Respiratory
apparatus
has Therapy Technician (CRTT) cre
become increasingly complex in dential. The CRTT examination is
recent years and, although a few
less comprehensive than the regis
respiratory therapy workers are
try examination and consists of a
trained on the job, formal training is
single written test. Approximately
now stressed as the requisite for
8,000 respiratory therapy techni
entry to the field.
cians had been certified in 1974.
In 1974, about 125 institutions
In contrast to therapists and
offered educational programs in
technicians, there are no general
respiratory therapy approved by the
requirements for the position of
Council on Medical Education of
respiratory therapy assistant. The
the American Medical Association.
only requirements are those set by
High school graduation is required
the head of the hospital department
for entry. Courses vary in length
that is hiring workers. For example,
between 18 months and 4 years and
some require a high school
diploma.
include both theory and clinical
Respiratory therapists can ad
work. A bachelor’s degree is
vance to positions as assistant chief,
awarded for completion of a 4-year
chief therapist, or, with graduate
program and lesser degrees are
education, instructor of respiratory
awarded for shorter courses. Areas
therapy at the college level.
of study include human anatomy
Respiratory therapy technicians
and physiology, chemistry, physics,
and assistants can advance to the
microbiology, and mathematics.
therapist level by taking the ap
Technical courses offered deal with
propriate training courses.
procedures, equipment, and clinical
tests.
People who want to enter the
respiratory therapy field should
Respiratory therapists who have
enjoy working with patients and
a certificate of graduation from an
should understand their physical
AMA-approved therapist training
program, 62 semester hours of col
and psychological needs. Respirato
lege credit, and 1 year of ex
ry therapy workers must be able to
perience following completion of
pay attention to detail, follow in
structions, and work as part of a
the program are eligible to apply for
registration by the National Board
team. Operating the complicated
respiratory therapy equipment also
requires mechanical ability and
manual dexterity. High school stu
dents interested in a career in this
field are encouraged to take cour
ses in health, biology, mathematics,
physics, and bookkeeping.
Employment Outlook
Employment opportunities for
respiratory therapy workers are ex
pected to be good through the mid1980’s. Those with advanced train
ing in respiratory therapy will be in
demand to fill teaching and super
visory positions.
The employment of respiratory
therapy workers is expected to
grow much faster than the average
for all occupations, owing to new
uses for respiratory therapy, in
creased acceptance of its use, and
the growth in health services in
general. Many specialists in respira
tory therapy will be hired to release
nurses and other personnel from
respiratory therapy work to return
to their primary duties. Many other
openings will arise from the need to
replace those who retire, die, or
leave the occupation for other
reasons.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
The starting salary of respiratory
therapists employed in hospitals
and medical centers averaged about
$8,064 a year in 1974, according to
a survey conducted by the Universi
ty of Texas Medical Branch. Top
salaries of experienced respiratory
therapists in hospitals ranged as
high as $13,980 a year. Salaries of
respiratory therapy technicians and
assistants are lower than those of
respiratory therapists.
The Federal Government paid
respiratory therapists starting sala
ries of $6,764 a year in late 1974 if
they had 1 year of post-secondary
training, and $7,596 for those with
2 years of training. Some therapists
employed by the Federal Govern-
ment in late 1974 earned as much
as $ 13,679 a year.
Respiratory therapy workers in
hospitals receive the same benefits
as other hospital personnel, includ
ing hospitalization, paid vacations,
and sick leave. Some institutions
provide tuition assistance or free
courses,
pension
programs,
uniforms, and parking.
Respiratory therapy workers
generally have a 40-hour week.
After-hours and weekend duty is
generally required since most
hospitals have 24-hour coverage
throughout the week. Adherence to
safety precautions and regular test
ing of equipment minimize the
potential hazard of fire to workers
and patients.
Sources of Additional
Information
Information concerning educa
tion programs is available from:
American Association for Respiratory
Therapy, 741 1 Hines Place, Dallas, Tex.
75235.
Information on the accrediting of
respiratory therapists and respirato
ry therapy technicians can be ob
tained from:
The
National Board for Respiratory
Therapy, Inc., 1900 West 47th St., Suite
124, Westwood, Kansas 66205.
On-the-job training information
can be obtained at local hospitals.
SPEECH PATHOLOGISTS
AND AUDIOLOGISTS
(D OT. 079.108)
Nature of the Work
About 1 out of 10 Americans is
unable to speak or hear clearly.
Children who have trouble speak
ing or hearing cannot participate
fully with other children in play or
in normal classroom activities.
Adults having speech or hearing im
pairments often have problems in
job adjustment. Speech pathologists
and audiologists provide direct ser
vices to these people by evaluating
their speech or hearing disorders
and then providing treatment.
The speech pathologist works
with children and adults who have
speech, language, and voice disor
ders resulting from causes such as
total or partial hearing loss, brain
injury, cleft palate, mental retarda
tion, emotional problems, or
foreign dialect. The audiologist
primarily assesses and treats hear
ing problems. Speech and hearing,
however, are so interrelated that to
be competent in one of these fields,
one must be familiar with both.
The duties of speech pathologists
and audiologists vary with educa
tion experience, and place of em
ployment. In clinics, either in
schools or other locations, they use
diagnostic procedures to identify
and evaluate speech and hearing
disorders. Then, in cooperation
with physicians,
psychologists,
physical therapists, and counselors,
they develop and implement an or
ganized program of therapy. Some
speech pathologists and audiolo
gists conduct research such as in
vestigating the causes of commu
nicative disorders and improving
methods for clinical services.
Others supervise clinical activities
or do other administrative work.
Speech pathologists and audiolo
gists in colleges and universities in
struct in the principles of communi
cation, communication disorders,
and clinical techniques; participate
in educational programs with physi
cians, nurses, and teachers; and
work in university clinics and
research centers. Most speech
pathologists and audiologists have
some administrative responsibili
ties. However, directors of speech
and hearing clinics, and coordina
tors of speech and hearing in
schools, health departments, or
government agencies, may be
totally involved in administration.
Places of Employment
Over
31,000
persons,
three-
fourths of them women, worked as
speech pathologists and audiolo
gists in 1974. Over one-half worked
in public schools. Colleges and
universities employed many in
classrooms, clinics, and research
centers. The rest worked in
hospitals, speech and hearing cen
ters, government agencies, indus
try, and private practice.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
An increasing number of States
require a master’s degree or its
equivalent for speech pathologists
and audiologists. In addition, many
Federal
programs,
such
as
Medicare and Medicaid, require
participating speech pathologists
and audiologists to have a master’s
degree. Some States require a
teaching certificate to work in the
public schools.
Undergraduate courses in speech
pathology and audiology include
anatomy,
biology,
physiology,
physics, linguistics, semantics, and
phonetics. Courses in speech and
hearing as well as in child psycholo
gy and psychology of the excep
tional child are also helpful. This
training is usually available at col
leges that offer a broad liberal arts
program.
In early 1975, about 225 colleges
and universities offered graduate
education in speech pathology and
audiology. Courses at the graduate
level include advanced anatomy
and physiology of the areas in
volved in hearing and speech,
acoustics,
and
psychological
aspects of communication. Training
also is given in the analysis of
speech production, language abili
ties, and auditory processes. Gradu
ate students gain a familiarity with
research methods used to study
speech and hearing.
Scholarships, fellowships, assistantships, and traineeships are
available in this field. Teaching and
training grants to colleges and
universities that have programs in
speech and hearing are given by the
U.S. Rehabilitation Services Administration, the Maternal and
Child Health Service, the U.S. Office of Education, and the National
Institutes of Health. In addition,
some Federal agencies distribute
money to colleges to aid graduate
students in speech and hearing programs. A large number of private
organizations and foundations also
provide financial assistance for education in this field.
Meeting the American Speech
and Hearing Association’s (ASHA)
requirements for a Certificate of
Clinical Competence usually is
necessary in order to advance
professionally and to earn a higher
salary. To earn the CCC, a person
must have a master’s degree or its
equivalent and complete a 1-year
internship approved by the Association. Passing a national written examination also is required.
Speech pathologists and audiolo-
gists should be able to approach
problems objectively and have a
concern for the needs of others.
They sould also have considerable
patience,
because
a client’s
progress often is slow. A person
who desires a career in speech
pathology and audiology should be
able to accept responsibility, work
independently, and direct others,
The ability to work with detail is important. Speech pathologists and
audiologists receive satisfaction
from seeing the results of their
work,
Employment Outlook
The employment of speech
pathologists and audiologists is expected to increase much faster than
the average for all other occupations through the mid-1980’s. However, temporary reductions in
government spending on speech
and hearing programs may decrease
the number of new positions availa
ble at any one time. Although some
jobs will be available for those hav
ing only a bachelor’s degree, the in
creasing emphasis placed on the
master’s degree by State govern
ments, school systems, and Federal
agencies will limit opportunities at
the bachelor’s degree level.
Although employment opportu
nities for those with a master’s
degree should generally be favora
ble, the large number of graduates
entering this field may cause some
competition. Many openings will
occur outside of the large
metropolitan areas and some gradu
ates will have to relocate in order to
Find employment. Competition for
teaching positions in colleges and
universities will be very strong
throughout the period.
Population growth, which will in
crease the number of persons hav
ing speech and hearing problems, is
one of the factors underlying the
expected expansion in employment
of speech pathologists and audiolo
gists through the mid-1980’s. In ad
dition, there is a trend toward earli
er recognition and treatment of
hearing and language problems in
children. Many school-age chil
dren, thought to have learning disa
bilities, actually have language or
hearing disorders which speech
pathologists and audiologists can
treat.
Other factors expected to in
crease demand for speech patholo
gists and audiologists are expansion
in expenditures
for
medical
research and the growing public in
terest in speech and hearing disor
ders. These are illustrated by State
and Federal laws, which provide for
the education of handicapped chil
dren, and expanded speech and
hearing services available under
Federal programs such as Medicare
and Medicaid.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Starting
salaries
for
speech
pathologists and audiologists with a
master’s degree averaged over
$10,200 a year in early 1975. Sala
ries for persons with considerable
experience (6-10 years) averaged
about $13,300. Those with a doc
toral degree earned average salaries
of between $17,000 and $25,000,
depending on the job setting and
geographic region. Salaries tend to
be higher in areas having large
urban populations. Many speech
pathologists and audiologists, par
ticularly those in colleges and
universities, supplement their in
comes acting as consultants, engag
ing in research projects, and writing
books and articles.
In early 1975, the annual starting
salary in the Federal Government
for speech pathologists and au
diologists with a master’s degree
was $12,841. Those having a doc
toral degree were eligible to start at
$15,481.
Many speech pathologists and
audiologists work over 40 hours a
week. Almost all receive fringe
benefits such as paid vacations, sick
leave, and retirement programs.
Sources of Additional
Information
State departments of education
can supply information on certifica
tion requirements for those who
wish to work in public schools.
A list of college and university
programs and a booklet on student
financial aid as well as general
career information are available
from:
American Speech and Hearing Association,
9030 Old Georgetown Rd., Washington,
D .C .20014.
SO C IA L SC IEN TISTS
Social scientists study all aspects
of human society—from the origins
of man to the latest election
returns. However, they generally
specialize in one major field of
human relationships. Anthropolo
gists study primitive tribes, recon
struct civilizations of the past, and
analyze the physical characteristics,
cultures and languages of all peo
ples, past and present. Economists
study the allocation of land, labor,
and capital. Geographers study the
distribution of people throughout
the world, types of land and water
masses, and natural resources.
Historians describe and interpret
the people and events of the past
and present. Political scientists
study the theories, objectives, and
organizations of all types of govern
ment. Psychologists study the
normal and abnormal behavior of
individuals and groups in order to
understand and explain their ac
tions. Sociologists analyze the be
havior and relationships of
groups—such as the family, the
community, and minorities—to the
individual or to society as a whole.
Besides these basic social science
occupations, a number of closely re
lated fields are covered in separate
statements elsewhere in this book.
(See statements on Statisticians, and
Social Workers.)
The basic social science occupa
tions provided employment for
about 135,000 persons in 1974;
over 10 percent of them were
women. Overlapping among the
basic social science fields and the
sometimes hazy distinction between
these and related fields such as
business administration, foreign
service work, and high school
teaching, make it difficult to deter
mine the exact size of each profes
sion. Economists, however, are the
largest social science group, and
anthropologists the smallest.
About one-half of all social
scientists work in colleges and
universities. A large number work
for the Federal Government and
private industry. The trend in some
industries is to hire increasing num
bers of social science majors as
trainees for administrative and ex
ecutive positions. Research coun
cils and other nonprofit organiza
tions provide an important source
of employment for economists,
political scientists, and sociologists.
Overall employment in the social
sciences is expected to grow faster
than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1980’s. Economics
is expected to be the fastest growing
social science field. Teaching in
colleges and universities will remain
the major area of employment. Em
ployment of social scientists in
government, private industry, and
nonprofit organizations is expected
to rise also. Despite this anticipated
growth, the number of persons
seeking to enter the social science
field is likely to exceed available job
openings. The following statements
present more detailed information
about the prospective outlook in
the individual occupations.
ANTHROPOLOGISTS
(D.O.T. 055.088 and 059.088)
Nature of the Work
Anthropologists study man—his
origins, physical characteristics,
and culture. These areas include a
study of the people’s traditions, be
liefs, customs, languages, material
possessions, social relationships,
and value systems. Although
anthropologists generally specialize
in one of these four areas—cultural
anthropology,
archeology,
lin
guistics, and physical anthropolo
gy—they are expected to have a
general knowledge of all of them.
Most anthropologists specialize
in cultural anthropology, some
times called ethnology. Ethnologists
may spend long periods living with
tribal groups or in other communi
ties to learn about their ways of life.
The ethnologist takes detailed and
comprehensive notes that describe
the social customs, beliefs, and
material possessions of the people.
They usually learn the native lan
guage in the process. They also
make comparative studies of the
cultures and societies of various
groups. In recent years, investiga
tions have included complex urban
societies.
Archeologists excavate places
where people of past civilizations
lived. They study the remains of
homes, tools, clothing, ornaments,
and other evidences of human life
and activity to reconstruct the in
habitants’ history and customs. For
example, in a desert in New Mex
ico, archeologists uncovered an an
cient kiva, an Indian religious
chamber. In a cave by the Dead
Sea, some have found pieces of an
cient scrolls 2,000 years old. In the
moors of England, other archeolo
gists have continued to study the
ancient
monument
called
Stonehenge, a mysterious circle of
huge stones. During the past few
years, student archeological teams
have
excavated
three
large
prehistoric communities along the
Illinois River.
Some anthropologists specialize
in linguistics, the scientific study of
the sounds and structures of lan
guages and of the historical rela
tionships among languages. They
study the relationship between the
language and the behavior of peo
ple and assist in reconstructing the
prehistory of mankind.
Physical anthropologists studying
human evolution compare the
physical characteristics of different
races or groups of people as in
fluenced by heredity and environ
ment. This work requires extensive
training in human anatomy and
biology. A knowledge of body
structure
enables
physical
anthropologists to work occa
sionally as consultants on projects
such as the design of cockpits for
airplanes and spaceships, and the
sizing of clothing. They are con
sulted on criminal cases and on pro
jects to improve the environment.
Increasingly, they are employed in
medical schools.
Closely related to the four basic
subfields is applied anthropology, an
emerging specialty which uses the
findings of other anthropologists in
a practical manner. Applied cul
tural anthropologists may, for ex
ample, provide technical guidelines
to ease the transition of nonindus
trial societies to a more complex
level of socioeconomic organiza
tion.
Applied linguistic anthropolo
gists may produce technical and
practical language information to
encourage the advance of literacy
in societies with unwritten lan
guages. Another related specialty
area is urban anthropology, which is
the study of urban life, urbaniza
tion, rural-urban migration, and the
influence of city life.
Most anthropologists teach in
colleges and universities. They
often combine teaching with
research. Some anthropologists
specialize in museum work, which
generally combines managerial and
administrative duties with fieldwork
and research on anthropological
collections. A few work as con
sultants or engage in nontechnical
writing.
Places of Employment
About 3,800 persons—about
one-fifth of them women—worked
as anthropologists in 1974. About
three-fourths of all anthropologists
work in colleges and universities.
Several hundred work in private in
dustry and nonprofit organizations.
The Federal Government employs a
small number, chiefly in museums,
national parks, in the Bureau of In
dian Affairs, and in technical aid
programs. State and local govern
ment
agencies
also
employ
anthropologists, usually for muse
um work or health research.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Students who want to become
anthropologists should obtain the
Ph. D. degree. College graduates
with bachelor’s degrees often get
temporary positions and assistantships in graduate departments
where they are working for ad
vanced degrees. A master’s degree,
plus field experience, is sufficient
for many beginning professional
positions, but promotion to top
positions generally is reserved for
individuals who have a Ph. D.
degree. Many colleges and universi
ties require a Ph. D. degree for per
manent teaching appointments.
Mathematics is helpful, since
statistical and computer methods
are becoming more widely used for
research in this field. Undergradu
ates may begin their field training in
archeology by arranging, through
their university departments, to ac
company expeditions as laborers or
to attend field schools established
for training. They may later become
supervisors in charge of the digging
or collection of material and finally
may direct a portion of the work of
the expedition. Ethnologists and
linguists usually do their fieldwork
independently. Most anthropolo
gists base their doctoral disserta
tions on data collected through
field research; they are, therefore,
experienced fieldworkers by the
time they earn the Ph. D. degree.
Nearly 300 colleges and universi
ties have bachelor’s degree pro
grams in anthropology; some 130
offer master’s degree programs and
about 80, doctoral programs. The
choice of a graduate school is very
important. Students interested in
museum work should select a
school which is associated with a
museum that has anthropological
collections. Similarly, those in
terested in archeology should
choose either a university that of
fers opportunities for summer ex
perience in archeological field
work, or attend an archeological
field school elsewhere during
summer vacations.
Anthropologists should have spe
cial interest in natural history and
social studies and enjoy reading,
research, and writing. Traveling to
remote areas and working under
difficulties are sometimes necessary
for success.
Anthropologists work with ideas
and have the opportunity for selfexpression. They should be able to
work independently and with detail.
Employment Outlook
The majority of new jobs are ex
pected to be in private industry and
in mental and public health and
urban planning. College and univer
sity teaching, which will remain the
largest area of employment for
anthropologists, is likely to have lit
tle growth.
The
number
of
qualified
anthropologists seeking to enter the
field will likely exceed available
positions. As a result, doctorate
holders may face keen competition
through the mid-1980’s, particu
larly for jobs in colleges and univer
sities.
Graduates
with
only
bachelor’s and master’s degrees are
expected to face very keen com
petition. Some teaching positions
may be available in junior colleges
or some high schools for those who
meet state certification require
ments. In addition, the government
and other organizations may hire
personnel with social science train
ing as a general background.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Starting salaries for anthropolo
gists with a Ph. D. degree were
generally about $13,000 a year in
1974. Experienced anthropologists
earned median salaries of $ 17,500 a
year, according to limited data
available. They may, however, earn
well over $20,000 a year. In
general, salaries of experienced
anthropologists are higher than the
average for all nonsupervisory wor
kers in private industry, except
farming.
In the Federal Government,
anthropologists having a bachelor’s
degree could begin as trainees at
$8,500 or $10,520 a year in 1974,
depending upon the applicant’s
academic record. Starting salaries
for those having a master’s degree
were $12,841 a year, and for those
having a Ph. D., $15,481.
Anthropologists in the Federal
Government
averaged
around
$25,400 in late 1974.
Many anthropologists in colleges
and universities supplement their
regular salaries with earnings from
other sources such as summer
teaching and research grants.
Anthropologists sometimes are
required to do fieldwork under ad
verse weather conditions. They also
must adapt themselves to cultural
environments which are materially
and socially different.
Sources of Additional
Information
For information about employ
ment opportunities and schools that
offer
graduate
training
in
anthropology, contact:
The American Anthropological Association,
1703 New Hampshire Ave. NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20009.
The Archeological Institute of America, 260
W. Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10013.
ECONOMISTS
(D.O.T. 050.088 and .118)
Nature of the Work
Economists are concerned with
how to utilize scarce resources such
as land, raw materials, and human
resources to provide goods and ser
vices for society. Economists
analyze the relationship between
the supply of goods and services on
the one hand, and demand for them
on the other, and how goods and
services are produced, distributed,
and consumed. Some economists
are concerned with specific fields
such as farm, wage, tax, and tariff
problems and policies. Others
develop theories to explain the
causes of employment and unem
ployment
or inflation.
Most
economists analyze and interpret a
wide variety of economic data in
the course of their work.
Economists who work in colleges
and universities teach the theories,
principles,
and
methods
of
economics and conduct or direct
research. They frequently write,
and act as consultants.
Economists in government col
lect and analyze data and prepare
studies used to assess economic
conditions and the need for changes
in government policy. Most govern
ment economists are in the fields of
agriculture,
business,
finance,
labor, or international trade and
development.
Economists who work for busi
ness firms provide management
with information to make decisions
on marketing and pricing of com
pany products; the effect of govern
ment policies on business or inter
national trade; or the advisability of
adding new lines of merchandise,
opening new branch operations, or
otherwise expanding the company’s
business.
Places of Employment
Economics is the largest social
science field. More than 71,000
persons, about 10 percent of them
women, worked as economists in
1974. Private industry and business
employ nearly three-fourths; col
leges and universities about onefifth. Others work for government
agencies—mainly Federal—or for
private research organizations.
Some are self-employed.
Economists work in all large ci
ties and university towns. The lar
gest number are in the New York
City and the Washington, D.C.
metropolitan areas. Some work
overseas, mainly for the U.S. De
partment of State including the
Agency for International Develop
ment.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Economists
must
have
a
thorough
understanding
of
economic theory and of mathemati
cal methods of economic analysis.
Since many beginning jobs for
economists in government and busi
ness involve the collection and
compilation of data, a thorough
knowledge of basic statistical
procedures is required. In addition
to courses in macroeconomics,
microeconomics,
econometrics,
and statistics, training in computer
science also is highly recom
mended.
Although a bachelor’s degree
with a major in economics is suffi
cient for many beginning research
jobs, graduate training often is
required for advancement to more
responsible positions. In 1974,
about one-half of those working as
economists held either a master’s or
a Ph. D. degree. Students interested
in graduate training in economics
should select schools that provide
good research facilities.
In the Federal Government, can
didates for entrance positions must
have a minimum of 21 semester
hours of economics and 3 hours of
statistics, accounting, or calculus.
A master’s degree generally is
required to get a job as a college in
structor in many junior colleges and
small 4-year schools. In many large
colleges and universities, comple
tion of all the requirements for a
Ph. D. degree, except the disserta
tion, is necessary for appointment
as a teaching assistant. In govern
ment
or
private
industry,
economists who have a master’s
degree usually can qualify for more
responsible research positions.
The Ph. D. degree is required for
a professorship in a highranking
college or university and is an asset
when competing for other responsi
ble positions in government, busi
ness, or private research organiza
tions.
About 750 colleges and universi
ties offer bachelor’s degree pro
grams in economics; 200, master’s;
and over 100, doctoral programs.
Persons who consider careers as
economists should be able to work
accurately and in detail since much
time is spent on research.
Frequently, the ability to work as
part of a team is required.
Economists must be objective in
their work and be able to express
themselves effectively orally and in
writing.
Employment Outlook
The number of persons who will
graduate with bachelor’s degrees in
economics through the mid-1980’s
is likely to exceed available posi
tions. Although many of these
degree holders may find employ
ment in government, industry, and
business as trainees or management
interns, competition may be keen.
Candidates who hold graduate
degrees also may face strong com
petition for positions in colleges
and universities, although they
should find good opportunities in
private industry and government.
Economists with training in com
puter applications should be in par
ticular demand as well as Ph. D.’s
working on tax, pollution, and
government policy problems of
business and industry.
Private industry and business will
continue to provide the largest
number of employment opportuni
ties for economists because of in
creased reliance on quantitative
methods of analyzing business
trends, forecasting sales, and
planning purchases and production
operations. The next largest area of
employment
opportunities
for
economists will be in colleges and
universities, although a projected
decrease in enrollments is likely to
affect growth in faculty size. Em
ployment of economists in State
and local government agencies is
expected to increase rapidly
because of the growing responsibili
ties of local governments in areas
such as housing, mass transporta
tion, and manpower development
and training. Employment of
economists in the Federal Govern
ment is expected to rise slowly—in
line with the rate of growth pro
jected for the Federal work force as
a whole.
Earnings
Starting salaries for economists
with a Ph. D. were about $13,000 a
year in 1974, according to limited
information. Salaries of economists
employed by colleges and universi
ties in 1974 averaged about
$22,000, and for those in business,
industry, and nonprofit organiza
tions, about $24,000. Economists
who have a Ph. D. are paid higher
salaries than those who have lesser
degrees and similar experience. A
substantial number of economists
supplement their basic salaries by
consulting, teaching, and other
research activities. In general, sala
ries of experienced economists are
much higher than the average for
all nonsupervisory workers in
private industry, except farming.
In the Federal Government, the
entrance salary for beginning
economists having a bachelor’s
degree was $8,500 a year in 1974;
however, those with superior
academic records could begin at
$10,520. Those having a master’s
degree could qualify for positions at
an annual salary of $12,841, while
those with a Ph. D. could begin at
$15,481. Economists in the Federal
Government
averaged
around
$24,700 in late 1974.
Sources of Additional
Information
Additional information on a
career as an economist is available
from:
American Economic Association, 1313 21st
Avenue South, Nashville, Tenn. 37212.
GEOGRAPHERS
(D.O.T. 017.281, 029.088, and
059.088)
Nature of the Work
Geographers study the spatial
characteristics of the earth—and all
that is found on it. Such studies help
to explain changing patterns of
human settlement—where people
live, why they are located there,
and how they earn a living.
Most geographers are college or
university teachers; some combine
teaching and research. Their
research includes the study and
analysis of the distribution of land
forms, climate, soils, vegetation,
mineral,
water,
and
human
resources. They also analyze the
distribution and structure of politi
cal organizations, transportation
systems, marketing systems, urban
systems, agriculture, and industry.
Many geographers spend con
siderable time in field study, and in
analyzing maps, aerial photographs,
and observational data collected.
Sometimes they use surveying and
meteorological instruments. Photo
graphs and other data from remote
sensors on satellites are used in
creasingly as are modern statistical phers study the physical, economic,
techniques. Other geographers con political, and cultural characteristics
of a particular region or area, which
struct maps, graphs, and diagrams.
Most geographers specialize in may range in size from a river basin
one branch or more of geography. or an island, to a State, a country, or
Economic geographers deal with the even a continent. Cartographers
geographic
distribution
of compile data and design and con
economic
activities—including struct maps.
Many geographers have job titles
manufacturing, mining, farming,
trade, and communications. Politi such as cartographer, map analyst,
cal geographers study the relation or regional planner, that describe
ship of geographic conditions to their specialization. Others have ti
political processes. Urban geog tles that relate to the subject matter
raphers study cities and their of their study such as photo-intel
problems and make decisions about ligence specialist or climatological
city development and community analyst. Still others have titles such
planning. (See statement on Urban as community or environmental
Planners elsewhere in this book.) planner, or market or business
Physical geographers study the phys analyst.
ical characteristics and processes af
Places of Employment
fecting the earth. They typically
specialize in a particular branch of
About 9,000 persons worked as
physical geography such as hydrology geographers in 1974; about 15 per
or geomorphology. Regional geogra cent were women.
Colleges and universities employ
more than two-thirds of all geog
raphers. The Federal Government
employs a large number, mostly in
the Washington, D.C. area. Among
Federal agencies, the Department
of Defense employs the largest
number in such agencies as the
Defense Mapping Agency, Naval
Intelligence, and the Defense Intel
ligence Agency. The Commerce
Department employs geographers
in such agencies as the Bureau of
the Census, Office of Regional
Commissions, National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration
and National Weather Service.
Geographers employed by the In
terior Department work in such
agencies as the Bureau of Indian
Affairs, Bureau of Outdoor Recrea
tion, and Bureau of Land Manage
ment and Geological Survey. Other
Government agencies that employ
geographers include the Central In
telligence Agency (CIA), Office of
Emergency Preparedness, National
Aeronautical and Space Adminis
tration (NASA), and the Library of
Congress.
State and local governments also
employ small numbers of geog
raphers, mostly on city and State
planning and development commis
sions.
A small but growing number of
geographers work in private indus
try. Most work in research divisions
of textbook and map publishers,
travel agencies, manufacturing
firms, or chain stores. Others work
for scientific foundations and
research institutes.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
The educational requirement for
beginning positions in geography is
usually a bachelor’s degree with a
major in the field. Bachelor’s
degree holders would find it helpful
to have training in a specialty such
as cartography or economic geog
raphy.
A master’s degree is usually
required for the position of college
instructor. In many colleges and
universities, however, a Ph. D.
degree is essential for high-level
teaching, research, and administra
tive positions.
About 400 colleges and universi
ties offered degree training in geog
raphy in 1974. Undergraduate
study provides a general introduc
tion to geographic knowledge and
research methods and often in
cludes some field studies. Typical
courses offered are physical and
cultural geography, weather and
climate,
economic
geography,
political geography, urban geog
raphy and quantitative methods in
geography. Courses in cartography
and in the interpretation of maps
and aerial and satellite photographs
also are offered.
In 1974, 115 institutions offered
master’s degree programs; 54 of
fered Ph. D. programs. Applicants
are required to have a bachelor’s
degree in any of the social or physi
cal sciences with some background
in geography. Requirements for ad
vanced degrees include field and
laboratory work as well as ad
vanced classroom studies in geog
raphy and thesis preparation. Many
graduate schools also require
course work in advanced mathe
matics and computer science
because of the increasing emphasis
on these areas in the field. A lan
guage is required for those students
who plan to enter the field of
foreign regional geography.
Persons who want to become
geographers should enjoy reading,
studying, and research because they
must keep abreast of developments
in the field. Geographers must work
with abstract ideas and theories as
well as do practical studies. They
also must be able to work indepen
dently and communicate their ideas
orally and in writing.
Employment Outlook
Employment of geographers is
expected to grow faster than the
average for all occupations through
the mid-1980’s. However, growth in
college and university teaching,
which will remain the largest area
of employment for geographers, is
likely to be slow. Many opportuni
ties are becoming available in the
field of environmental management
and planning. The Federal Govern
ment will need additional personnel
to work in programs such as re
gional development, environmental
quality, and intelligence. Employ
ment of geographers in State and
local g o v e r n m e n t is expected to ex
pand, particularly in areas such as
conservation, environmental quali
ty, highway planning, and city,
community, and regional planning
and development. Private industry
also is expected to employ increas
ing numbers of geographers for
market research and location analy
sis.
The employment outlook for
geographers with the Ph. D. is ex
pected to be favorable through the
mid-1980’s for positions in research
and teaching in colleges and univer
sities and for research jobs in indus
try and government. Those with the
master’s degree are likely to face
competition for choice academic
positions;
however,
expanding
geography programs in junior col
leges should provide some jobs.
Graduates who have only the
bachelor’s degree in geography may
find positions connected with mak
ing, interpreting, or analyzing maps;
or in research either working for
government or industry. Others
may obtain employment as research
or teaching assistants in educational
institutions while studying for ad
vanced degrees. Some bachelor’s
degree holders do teach at the high
school level, although in some
States, the master’s degree is
becoming essential for high school
teaching positions. Others earn
library science degrees and become
map librarians.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Salaries of geographers in col
leges and universities depend on
their teaching rank and experience.
Assistant professors entering the
field with a Ph. D. and no ex
perience
started at between
$11,000 and $12,000 in 1974, ac
cording to limited information.
Nearly three-fourths of all geog
raphers earned between $12,000
and $24,000 a year, according to a
recent survey conducted by the As
sociation of American Geog
raphers. About one-fourth earned
between $22,000 and $27,000, and
a few, more than $27,000. Geog
raphers in educational institutions
usually have an opportunity to earn
income from other sources, such as
consulting work, special research,
and publication of books and arti
cles.
Geographers in the Federal
Government with the bachelor’s
degree and no experience started at
$8,500 or $10,520 a year in 1974,
depending on their college records.
Those with a master’s degree
started at $ 12,841 a year, and those
with the Ph. D. at $15,481. Geog
raphers in the Federal Government
averaged around $22,200 in late
1974.
In general, salaries of ex
perienced geographers are higher
than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry,
except farming.
Historians in other types of employ
ment usually work in localities hav
ing museums or libraries with col
lections adequate for historical
research.
Sources of Additional
Information
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Additional information on a
career as a geographer is available
from:
Graduate education usually is
necessary for employment as a
historian. A master’s degree in his
tory is the minimum requirement
for the position of college instruc
tor. In many colleges and universi
ties, however, a Ph. D. degree is es
sential for high-level teaching,
research, and administrative posi
tions. Most historians in the Federal
Government and in nonprofit or
ganizations have Ph. D. degrees, or
their equivalent in training and ex
perience.
Although the combination of the
bachelor’s degree and a major in
history is sufficient training for
some beginning jobs in govern
ment— either Federal, State, or
local—people in such jobs may face
limited advancement opportunities.
A knowledge of archival work is
helpful, since beginning jobs are
likely to be concerned with collec
tion and preservation of historical
data. For some jobs in international
relations and journalism an un
dergraduate major in history is con
sidered helpful.
Training for historians is availa
ble in many colleges and universi
ties. Over 1,100 schools offer pro
grams for the bachelor’s degree;
about 380, the master’s; and about
130, doctorates.
History curriculums in the Na
tion’s colleges and universities are
varied; however, each basically pro
vides, in addition to history topics,
training in research methods, writ
ing, and speaking. These are the
basic skills essential for historians in
all positions. Quantitative methods
of analysis, including computer
techniques, are increasingly impor
tant for historians; many college
programs include them.
Association of American Geographers, 1710
16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009.
HISTORIANS
(D O T. 052.038 and .088)
Nature of the Work
History is the record of past
events, institutions, ideas, and peo
ple. Historians describe and analyze
the past through writing, teaching,
and research. They relate their
knowledge of the past to current
events in an effort to explain the
present.
Historians may specialize in the
history of a specific country or area,
or in a particular period of time—
ancient, medieval, or modern. They
also may specialize in the history of
a field, such as economics, culture,
military affairs, the labor move
ment, art, or architecture.
The number of specialties in his
tory is constantly growing. Newer
specialties are concerned with busi
ness archives, quantitative analysis,
and the relationship between
technological and other aspects of
historical development. In this
country, most historians specialize
in the social or political history of
either the United States or modern
Europe; however, a growing
number now specialize in African,
Latin American, Asian, or Near
Eastern history. Some historians
specialize in phases of a larger
historical field, such as the Amer
ican Civil War.
Most historians are college
teachers who, outside the class
room, lecture, write, and do
research. Some are specialists
called archivists, who are associated
with museums, special libraries, and
historical societies. A few serve as
consultants to editors, publishers,
and producers of materials for
radio, television, and motion pic
tures. Some historians are adminis
trators
in
government
or
researchers who prepare studies,
articles, and books on their
findings.
Places of Employment
About 26,000 people worked as
professional historians in 1974;
more than 13 percent were women.
Colleges and universities employ
about two-thirds of all historians.
Historians also work in archives,
libraries, museums, junior colleges,
secondary schools, research and
editing organizations, and Govern
ment. Historians employed in the
Federal Government work prin
cipally in the National Archives, or
in the Departments of Defense, In
terior, and State. A small but grow
ing number work for State and local
governments.
Since history is taught in all U.S.
institutions of higher education,
many historians are found in col
lege communities. Many historians
in the Federal Government are em
ployed in Washington, D. C.
Historians spend a great deal of
time studying, doing research, writ
ing papers and reports, and giving
lectures and presentations. In order
to do these things well, they must be
capable of communicating their
ideas effectively, orally and in writ
ing. The ability to work both inde
pendently and as part of a group is
essential.
Employment Outlook
having a doctorate averaged around
$13,000 a year in 1974, according
to limited information; master’s
degree holders had average starting
salaries of around $ 11,000 a year.
Salaries of historians in educa
tional institutions averaged over
$18,000 in 1974; in State and local
governments, over $14,000; in non
profit
organizations,
nearly
$18,000; and in private industry,
nearly $20,000 a year. The annual
median salary for historians was
around $15,500 in 1974. In general,
salaries of experienced historians
are higher than the average for all
nonsupervisory workers in private
industry, except farming.
In the Federal Government,
historians having a bachelor’s
degree could start at $8,500 or
$10,520 a year in 1974, depending
upon the applicant’s academic
record. Starting salaries for those
having a master’s degree were
$12,841 a year, and for those hav
ing a Ph. D., $15,481. Historians in
the Federal Government averaged
around $22,800 a year in late 1974.
Many historians, particularly
those in college teaching, supple
ment their income by summer
teaching or writing books or arti
cles. A few earn additional income
from lectures.
Employment of historians is ex
pected to grow about as fast as the
average for all occupations through
the mid-1980’s. Historians will be
needed to fill positions in colleges
and universities, junior colleges,
libraries, archives, museums, secon
dary schools, research and editorial
organizations, and government. De
mand also will be strong for people
with training in historical specialties
such as business history, as well as
those who use quantitative methods
in their research. In addition to jobs
created by growth of the field, an
even larger number of openings for
historians each year over the pro
jected period is expected to result
from the need to replace those who
retire, die, or leave the profession.
Although information is limited
on patterns of entry to the field, the
number of persons seeking to enter
the occupation will probably ex
Sources of Additional
ceed available positions. As a
Information
result, historians who have a Ph. D.
Additional information on em
are expected to face keen competi
tion for the more desirable posi ployment opportunities for histori
tions through the mid-i 980’s, espe ans is available from:
cially for jobs in the academic com American Historical Association, 400 A St.
SE., Washington, D.C. 20003.
munity. Historians having only the
master’s degree will encounter very
keen competition for jobs, but some
teaching positions may be available
POLITICAL SCIENTISTS
in junior colleges or some high
(D.O.T. 051.088)
schools for those who meet State
certification requirements. People
Nature of the Work
having only a bachelor’s degree in
history may find limited opportuni
Political scientists study the func
ties as professional historians.
tions and workings of governments.
Many of them specialize in a
Earnings
general area of political science in
Starting salaries for historians cluding political theory, U.S. politi
cal institutions and processes, com
parative political institutions and
processes, or international relations
and organizations. Some specialize
in a particular type of political in
stitution or in the politics of a
specific era.
Most political scientists teach in
colleges and universities where they
combine research, consultation, or
administrative duties with teaching.
Some are primarily researchers who
survey public opinion on political
questions for private research or
ganizations, or study proposed
legislation for Federal, State, and
municipal governments, legislative
reference bureaus or congressional
committees. Others analyze the
operations of government agencies,
specialize in foreign affairs, or do
research for either government or
nongovernment
organizations.
Some administer government pro
grams.
Places of Employment
About 11,500 persons worked as
political scientists in 1974; 10 per
cent were women. About four-fifths
work in colleges and universities.
Most of the remainder work in
government, research bureaus,
civic and taxpayers associations,
and large business firms.
Political scientists can be found
in nearly every college or university
town since courses in government
and political science are taught in
almost all institutions of higher edu
cation.
Some work overseas
primarily for agencies of the U.S.
Department of State, such as the
Foreign Service, and the U.S. Agen
cy for International Development.
They also work for the U.S. Infor
mation Agency.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Graduate training generally is
required for employment as a politi
cal scientist. Completion of the
requirements for the Ph. D. degree,
except the doctoral dissertation, is
political scientists should like to
work with details. They must be ob
jective and able to work independ
ently or as part of a team. Ability
to express themselves clearly, orally
and in writing, is important to
political scientists.
Employment Outlook
A political scientist explains the results of a public opinion survey.
the usual prerequisite for appoint
ment as a college instructor. A
Ph. D. degree is required for ad
vancement to the position of assist
ant professor. The Ph. D. also is
helpful for advancement in nonacademic areas.
College graduates having a
master’s degree can qualify for vari
ous administrative and research
positions in government and in non
profit research or civic organiza
tions. A master’s degree in interna
tional relations, foreign service, or
area study (for example, Soviet
Government) is helpful in obtaining
positions in Federal Government
agencies concerned with foreign af
fairs.
People with only a bachelor’s
degree in political science may
qualify as trainees in public rela
tions, research, budget analysis,
personnel, or investigation fields.
Many students with bachelor’s
degrees in political science go on to
study law or some specialized or re
lated branch of political science,
such as public administration and
international relations.
In 1974, about 760 colleges and
universities offered a bachelor’s
degree in political science, 270 had
master’s programs, and 113 had
doctoral programs. Many colleges
and universities offer field training
and internships to gain experience
in government work.
Undergraduate
programs
in
political science vary throughout
the Nation. A typical undergradu
ate curriculum in political science
includes introductory politics, State
and urban politics, comparative stu
dies, political theory, foreign pol
icy, and public administration. An
increasing number have courses in
quantitative and statistical methods
including the use of computers
because of increased research
emphasis in the field.
Persons planning careers as
The number of persons who will
graduate with advanced degrees in
political science is likely to exceed
available job openings. Those hav
ing a Ph. D. may face stiff competi
tion finding choice academic posi
tions. Master’s degree holders may
face very keen competition finding
positions as college and university
instructors, but those having spe
cialized training in areas such as
policy analysis or public administra
tion should have some opportuni
ties in Federal, State and local
government, research bureaus,
political organizations and welfare
agencies. New graduates having
only the bachelor’s degree are ex
pected to find very limited opportu
nities. However, for those planning
to continue their studies in law,
foreign affairs, journalism, and
other related fields, a political
science background is very helpful.
Some who meet State certification
requirements will be able to enter
high school teaching.
Employment
of
political
scientists is expected to increase
about as fast as the average for all
occupations through the mid1980's. The largest area of employ
ment will continue to be in college
and university teaching. In addition
to those required to staff new posi
tions, political scientists will be
needed to fill positions vacated due
to retirements, death or transfers.
Earnings
The median annual salaries of
political scientists employed in edu
cational institutions in 1973-74
were: $19,500 for full professors;
$15,000 for associate professors;
$12,500 for assistant professors;
and $10,500 for instructors. In
general, salaries of experienced
political scientists are higher than
the average for all nonsupervisory
workers in private industry, except
farming.
In the Federal Government, the
entrance salary for those having a
bachelor’s degree was $8,500 or
$10,520 a year in late 1974, de
pending upon the applicant’s
academic record. Starting salaries
for those having a master’s degree
were $12,841 a year, and for those
having a Ph. D., $15,481. Political
scientists in the Federal Govern
ment averaged around $26,200 in
late 1974.
Some political scientists, particu
larly those in college teaching, sup
plement their income by teaching
summer courses or consulting.
theories, or administer psychology
programs in hospitals, clinics, or
research
laboratories.
Many
psychologists combine several of
these activities.
Psychologists gather information
about the capacities, interests, and
behavior of people in various ways.
They interview individuals, develop
and administer tests and rating
scales, study personal histories, and
conduct controlled experiments.
Also, psychologists often design
and conduct surveys.
Areas
of specialization
in
psychology include experimental
psychology—in which behavior
processes are studied in the labora
tory; developmental psychology—
the study of the causes of
behavioral changes as people
progress through life; personality—
the study of the processes by which
a person becomes a unique in
dividual;
social psychology—in
which people’s interactions with
others and with the social environ
ment are examined; educational and
school psychology—which are con
cerned with the psychological fac
tors related to the process of educa
tion; comparative psychology—in
which the behavior of different
animals, including man, is com
pared; physiological psychology—
the study of the relationship of
behavior to the biological functions
of the body; and psychometrics—
the development and application of
procedures
for
measuring
psychological variables.
Psychologists often combine
several areas of psychology in their
specialty. Clinical psychologists are
Sources of Additional
information
Additional information on em
ployment opportunities in political
science and public administration is
available from:
American Political Science
1527 New Hampshire
Washington, D C. 20036.
Association,
Ave. NW„
PSYCHOLOGISTS
(D.O.T. 045.088 and .108)
Nature of the Work
Psychologists study the normal
and abnormal behavior of in
dividuals and groups in order to un
derstand and explain their actions.
In the course of their work, they
may be concerned with the
problems of emotional stress and
abnormal behavior, the causes of
low morale, or the effective per
formance of an astronaut. Some
teach in colleges and universities;
others provide counseling services,
plan and conduct training programs
for workers, conduct research, ad
vise on psychological methods and
A psychologist (right) observes an infant with its mother as part of a psychological
study.
the largest group of specialists.
They generally work in mental
hospitals or clinics, and are in
volved mainly with problems of
mentally or emotionally disturbed
people. Clinical psychologists may
also deal with the emotional impact
of injury or disease, helping the
client to readjust to life with altered
physical capabilities. They inter
view patients, give diagnostic tests,
provide individual, family, and
group psychotherapy, and design
and carry through behavior modifi
cation
programs.
Counseling
psychologists help people with im
portant problems of everyday liv
ing. In their work, they may use any
of a number of counseling
techniques. Other combined fields
are industrial and organizational
psychology where problems of
motivation and morale in work
situations are studied; engineering
psychology, the development and
improvement
of man-machine
systems; consumer psychology, the
study of the psychological factors
that determine an individual’s
behavior as a consumer of goods
and services; and environmental
psychology,
the
relationships
between individuals and their en
vironment.
Places of Employment
About 75,000 people, two-fifths
of them women, worked as
psychologists in 1974. More than
40 percent of the total work in col
leges and universities, either as
teachers, researchers, or coun
selors. The second largest group of
psychologists work for Federal,
State, and local government agen
cies. Federal agencies that employ
the most psychologists are the
Veterans Administration, the De
partment of Defense, and the
Public Health Service.
Many psychologists work in
public schools, clinics, hospitals,
medical schools, and for business or
industry. Some are in independent
practice, and others serve as com
missioned officers in the Armed
Forces and the Public Health
Service.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Generally, a master’s degree in
psychology is the minimum educa
tional requirement for professional
employment in the field. People
who have this degree can qualify for
positions where they administer and
interpret psychological tests, col
lect and analyze statistical data,
conduct research experiments, and
perform administrative duties. They
also may teach in colleges, counsel
students or handicapped persons,
or—if they have had previous
teaching
experience—work
as
school psychologists or counselors.
(See statements on School Coun
selors and Rehabilitation Coun
selors.)
A Ph. D. degree is needed for
many entrance positions and is
becoming increasingly important
for advancement. People who have
doctorates in psychology qualify for
the more responsible research,
clinical, and counseling positions,
as well as for the higher level posi
tions in colleges and universities
and in Federal and State programs.
At least 1 year of full-time gradu
ate study is needed to earn a
master’s degree in psychology. An
additional 3 to 5 years of graduate
work usually are required for a
Ph. D. In clinical or counseling
psychology, the requirements for
the Ph. D. degree generally include
an additional year of internship or
supervised experience.
Some universities require appli
cants for graduate work in
psychology to have had an un
dergraduate major in that field.
Others prefer broader educational
backgrounds that include not only
some basic psychology but also
courses in the biological, physical,
and social sciences, statistics, and
mathematics. Competition for ac
ceptance into graduate psychology
programs is expected to be strong.
Only the most highly qualified ap
plicants can expect to be admitted
to graduate study.
Many graduate students receive
financial help in the form of fellow
ships, scholarships, or part-time
employment from universities and
other sources. Several Federal
agencies provide funds to graduate
students, generally through the col
lege or university that provides the
training. The Veterans Administra
tion offers a number of predoctoral
traineeships which provide pay
ments to students while they gain
supervised experience in VA
hospitals and clinics. The National
Science Foundation, the U.S. Of
fice of Education, the Public Health
Service, the Rehabilitation Services
Administration, and the National
Institute of Mental Health also pro
vide fellowships, grants, and loans
for advanced training in psycholo
gy. However, the present trend at
the Federal level is toward provid
ing low-interest loans rather than
fellowships and grants.
The American Board of Profes
sional Psychology awards diplomas
in clinical, counseling, industrial,
and school psychology to those who
have
outstanding
educational
records and experience and who
pass the required examinations.
Psychologists who want to enter
independent practice must meet
certification or licensing require
ments in an increasing number of
States. In 1974, 47 States and the
District of Columbia had these
requirements.
People pursuing a career in
psychology must be emotionally
stable, mature, and able to deal ef
fectively with people. Sensitivity,
patience, and a genuine interest in
others are particularly important
for work in clinical and counseling
psychology. Research psychologists
should be able to do detailed and
independent work; verbal and writ
ing skills are necessary to commu
nicate research findings.
SOCIAL SCIENCE OCCUPATIONS
Employment Outlook
Employment opportunities for
psychologists are expected to be
generally favorable through the
mid-1980’s. Opportunities should
be very good for Ph. D.’s and for
some master’s degree holders, espe
cially those specializing in clinical
or counseling psychology. How
ever, as more and more people
become trained in psychology,
competition for jobs will grow. A
doctorate degree will become in
creasingly important for those wish
ing to enter the field.
Employment of clinical, counsel
ing, and social psychologists in
mental hospitals, correctional in
stitutions, mental hygiene clinics,
and community health centers is ex
pected to expand rapidly. Many
openings for psychologists also are
anticipated in the Federal Govern
ment, primarily in the Veterans Ad
ministration and the Department of
Defense.
Psychologists may find strong
competition for job openings in
large colleges and universities,
which are preferred locations for
many specialties in psychology.
However, those willing to work in
the relatively smaller and newer
publicly
supported
institutions
should have better employment
prospects. The growth in enroll
ment in 2-year colleges also will
create new teaching positions for
psychologists.
Several other factors should help
maintain a strong demand for
psychologists. Growing awareness
of the need for testing and counsel
ing children is expected to increase
the need for psychologists in
schools. Increased public concern
for the development of human
resources will further increase the
demand.
The
inclusion
of
psychological services in any na
tional health insurance legislation
also should improve employment
prospects. Other openings may
occur as psychologists move into
new fields of employment where
their services are beginning to be
recognized as useful. Government
agencies are also making increased
use of the services which psycholo
gists can provide. Also, many
vacancies will occur each year as a
result of retirements and deaths.
work with individual students or
groups. Clinical and counseling
psychologists often work in the
evenings since their patients some
times are unable to leave their jobs
or school during the day.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Sources of Additional
Information
In 1974, starting salaries for
psychologists holding a master’s
degree averaged about $ 11,000 a
year, according to the American
Psychological Association. Begin
ning salaries for those holding
a doctorate averaged $ 13,000.
Median salaries of psychologists
teaching in graduate departments
ranged from about $13,000 for
assistant professors to $21,600 for
full professors during the academic
year 1974-75 (9-10 months), ac
cording to a survey conducted by
the American Psychological As
sociation.
In the Federal Government,
psychologists having a Ph. D.
degree and 1 year of internship
started at $15,481 a year in late
1974. With 1 year of experience,
Ph. D.’s earned $ 18,463, and with 2
years, $21,816. The average salary
for Ph. D. psychologists in the
Veterans Administration was about
$24,700 a year. The median salary
for a Ph. D. psychologist working in
a clinic or hospital was about
$19,000. Ph. D. psychologists in
private practice generally have con
siderably higher earnings than those
in other settings. Median annual in
come for those psychologists
(working full time) is over $32,000.
In general, psychologists earn over
twice as much as the average nonsupervisory worker in private indus
try, except farming.
Working conditions for psycholo
gists who teach in colleges and
universities are the same as for
other faculty members. Most col
leges provide for sabbatical leaves
of absence, life and health in
surance, and retirement plans.
Working hours are generally flexi
ble, but often entail some evening
For general information on
career opportunities, certification
or licensure requirements, and edu
cational facilities and financial
assistance for graduate students in
psychology, contact:
American Psychological Association, 1200
17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.
Information on traineeships and
fellowships is available from col
leges and universities that have
graduate psychology departments.
SOCIOLOGISTS
(D.O.T. 054.088)
Nature of the Work
Sociologists study the groups that
man forms in his association with
others. These groups include fami
lies, tribes, communities, and
governments, along with a variety
of social, religious, political, busi
ness, and other organizations. They
study their behavior and interac
tion; trace their origin and growth;
and analyze the influence of group
activities on individual members.
Some sociologists concern them
selves primarily with the charac
teristics of social groups and institu
tions. Others are more interested in
the ways individuals are affected by
groups to which they belong.
Many sociologists specialize in
social
organization,
social
psychology, or rural sociology.
Others specialize in intergroup rela
tions, family problems, social ef
fects of urban living, population
studies, or analyses of public
opinion. Some conduct surveys or
concentrate on research methods.
sociologists may be found in nearly
all college communities. They are
most heavily concentrated, how
ever, in large colleges and universi
ties which offer graduate training in
sociology and opportunities for
research.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Sociologists frequently collaborate on research.
Growing numbers apply sociologi
cal knowledge and methods in
penology and correction, educa
tion, public relations in industry,
and regional and community
planning. A few specialize in medi
cal sociology—the study of social
factors that affect mental and
public health.
Most sociologists are college and
university teachers whose duties in
clude both teaching and research.
Sociological research involves the
collection of information, prepara
tion of case studies, testing, and the
conduct of statistical surveys and
laboratory experiments.
Sociologists
also
supervise
research projects or the operation
of social agencies such as family
and marriage clinics. Others, acting
as consultants, advise on diverse
problems such as the management
of hospitals for the mentally ill, the
rehabilitation of juvenile delin
quents, or the development of ef
fective advertising programs to
promote public interest in particu
lar products such as television sets
or cars.
Places of Employment
About 14,000 persons worked as
sociologists in 1974-one-fifth of
them women.
Colleges and universities employ
over four-fifths of all sociologists. A
number work for Federal, State,
local, or international government
agencies, in private industry, or in
welfare or other nonprofit organiza
tions, or else are self-employed.
Others work in positions that
require training in this field but are
not classified as professional
sociologists. These fields include
social, recreation, and public health
work.
Since sociology is taught in most
institutions of higher learning,
A master’s degree and a major in
sociology usually is the minimum
requirement for employment as a
sociologist. The Ph. D. degree is es
sential for attaining a professorship
in most colleges or universities. It
also is commonly required for
directors of jnajor research proj
ects,
important
administrative
positions, or consultants.
Sociologists
having
master’s
degrees, who are trained in
research and statistical and com
puter methods, can qualify for
many administrative and research
positions. Advancement to super
visory positions in both public and
private agencies is gained through
experience. Sociologists having a
master’s degree may qualify for
some college instructorships. Most
colleges, however, appoint as in
structors only people who have
training beyond the master’s level—
frequently the completion of all
requirements for the Ph. D. degree
except the doctoral dissertation.
Outstanding graduate students
often get teaching or research
assistantships which provide both
financial aid and valuable ex
perience.
Bachelor’s degree holders in
sociology may get jobs as inter
viewers or as research assistants.
Many work as caseworkers, coun
selors, recreation workers, or ad
ministrative assistants in public and
private welfare agencies. Sociology
majors who have sufficient training
in statistics may get positions as
beginning statisticians. Those who
meet State certification require
ments can teach at a high school.
About 900 colleges and universities
vanced statistics, and the use of
computers will have the widest
choice of jobs. Demand is expected
to be strong for research personnel
to work in the areas of rural soci
ology, community development,
population analysis, public opinion
research, medical sociology, and ju
venile delinquency and education.
Employment of sociologists is ex
pected to increase about as fast as
the average for all occupations
through the mid-1980’s. Some
openings will result from the grow
ing trend to include sociology
courses in the curriculums of other
professions, such as medicine, law,
and education. Demand in the non
teaching area will center around
public and private programs dealing
with the development of human
resources,
particularly
those
designed to cope with social and
welfare problems. In addition to
growth needs, several hundred
Employment Outlook
openings will occur each year to
The number of persons who will replace sociologists who die, retire,
graduate with advanced degrees in or leave the field for other reasons.
sociology is likely to exceed availa
ble job openings. Those having a
Earnings and Working
Ph. D. may face competition find
Conditions
ing choice academic positions.
Those having only a master’s
In 1974, sociologists working in
degree will probably continue to educational institutions on a calen
face considerable competition for dar year basis averaged about
academic positions, but some jobs $18,000. Those working in non
will be available in government and profit organizations and private in
private industry. Sociologists well dustry averaged around $17,500
trained in research methods, ad and $20,000 a year, respectively. In
offer bachelor degree programs in
sociology; more than 200 offer
master’s degrees, and about 110
have doctoral programs.
The choice of a graduate school
is important for people who want to
become sociologists. Students in
terested in research should select
schools that emphasize training in
research, statistical, and computer
methods. Opportunities to gain
practical experience in research
work also may be available. Profes
sors and heads of sociology depart
ments frequently aid in the place
ment of graduates.
Sociologists spend a great deal of
their time in study and research.
They must be able to communicate
effectively, both orally and in writ
ing. The ability to work as part of a
group as well as independently is
important.
general, salaries of experienced
sociologists are higher than the
average for all nonsupervisory
workers in private industry, ex
cept farming.
In the Federal Government, the
entrance salary for those having a
bachelor’s degree was $8,500 or
$10,520 a year in 1974, depending
upon the applicant’s academic
record. Starting salaries for those
having a master’s degree were
$12,841 a year, and for those hav
ing a Ph. D., $15,481. Sociologists
in
the
Federal
Government
averaged around $23,300 in late
1974.
In general, sociologists having the
Ph. D. degree earn substantially
higher salaries than those having
master’s degrees. Many sociolo
gists, particularly those employed
by colleges and universities for the
academic year (September to
June), are likely to supplement
their regular salaries with earnings
from other sources, such as summer
teaching and consulting work.
Sources of Additional
Information
Additional
information
sociologists is available from:
on
The American Sociological Association,
1722 N St., NW„ Washington, D.C.
20036.
SOCIAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS
SCHOOL COUNSELORS
(D OT. 045.108)
Workers in the social service oc
cupations help to improve the lives
of the population they serve by
providing a wide range of informa
tion and services. Depending on
their specific occupation, they may
advise consumers on how to get the
most for their money; help han
dicapped
people
to
achieve
satisfactory lifestyles; provide reli
gious services; counsel people hav
ing problems in their job, home,
school, or social relationships; or
treat people having emotional
problems.
Although social services are pro
vided in many different settings,
people in these occupations require
many of the same skills. In general,
a knowledge of the field is gained
through formal education, and the
ability to apply this knowledge is
improved and refined through work
experience.
A genuine concern for people
and a desire to help them to im
prove their lives are important for
anyone considering a career in the
social service field. Patience, tact,
sensitivity, and compassion are
necessary personal qualities.
in the uniqueness and worth of each
Nature of the Work
individual, in his right to make and
accept responsibility for his own
School counselors are concerned
decisions, and in his potential for about the educational, career, and
development.
social development of students.
This section covers four counsel They work with students, both in
ing specialties: school; rehabilita dividually and in groups, as well as
tion; employment; and college with teachers, other school person
career planning and placement.
nel, parents, and community agen
School counselors are the largest cies.
counseling group. Their main con
Counselors use the results of in
cern is the personal and social terest, achievement, and intel
development of students and help ligence tests as well as school and
ing them plan and achieve their other records to help students eval
educational and vocational goals.
uate themselves. Then, with each
Rehabilitation counselors work student and sometimes with the
with persons who are physically, parents, they help develop an edu
mentally, or socially handicapped.
cational plan that fits the student’s
Their counseling is generally job- abilities, interests, and career
oriented, but also involves personal aspirations.
problems.
School counselors often maintain
Employment
counselors
are a small library containing occupa
mainly concerned with career tional literature so that students
planning and adjustment of young,
may find descriptions of work that
old, disabled, and other persons.
they have heard about or in which
College career planning and place they have an interest. Information
ment counselors help college stu on training requirements, earnings,
dents examine their own interests,
and employment outlook often is
abilities, and goals; explore career
included with these job descrip
alternatives; and make and follow
tions. Computers that students can
through with a career choice.
use to look up this information
Persons who want to enter the
themselves are being tried in some
counseling field must be interested
instances.
in helping people and have an abili
Counselors sometimes arrange
ty to understand their behavior. A
trips to factories and business firms,
pleasant but strong personality that and show vocational films to pro
instills confidence in clients is vide a view of real work settings. To
COUNSELING
desirable. Counselors also must be bring the workplace into the school,
patient, sensitive to the needs of the counselor may conduct “career
OCCUPATIONS
others, and able to communicate day” programs.
orally as well as in writing.
School counselors must keep upMany psychologists, social work to-date on opportunities for educa
ers, and college student personnel
tional and vocational training
Counselors help people to un workers also do counseling. These beyond high school to counsel stu
derstand themselves and their op and other fields which entail some dents who want this information.
portunities so that they can make counseling such as teaching, health, They must keep informed about
and carry out decisions and plans law, religion, and personnel, are de training programs in 2-and 4-year
for a satisfying and productive life. scribed elsewhere in this book.)
colleges; in trade, technical, and
Whatever the area of counselingbusiness schools; apprenticeship
personal, educational, or voca
programs; and available federally
tional—counselors must combine
supported programs. Counselors
objectivity with genuine concern
also advise students about educa
for each client. They must believe
tional requirements for entry level
Places of Employment
About 44,000 people worked full
time as public school counselors
during 1974. Most counselors work
in large schools. An increasing
number of school districts, how
ever, provide guidance services to
their small schools by assigning
more than one school to a coun
selor.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
jobs, job changes caused by
technological advances, college en
trance requirements, and places of
employment.
Counselors in high schools often
help students find part-time jobs,
either to enable them to stay in
school or to help them prepare for
their vocation. They may help both
graduates and dropouts to find jobs
or may direct them to community
employment services. They also
may conduct surveys to learn more
about hiring experiences of recent
graduates and dropouts, local job
opportunities, or the effectiveness
of the educational and guidance
programs. Many help students in
dividually with personal and social
problems or lead group counseling
sessions and discussion groups on
topics related to student interests
and problems.
Elementary school counselors
help children to make the best use
Most States require school coun
selors to have counseling and
teaching certificates. However, a
growing number of States no longer
require teacher certification. (See
statements on Elementary and
Secondary School Teachers for cer
tificate requirements.) Depending
on the State, graduate work and
from 1 to 5 years of teaching ex
perience usually are required for a
counseling certificate. People who
plan to become counselors should
learn the requirements of the State
in which they plan to work since
requirements vary among States
and change rapidly.
College students interested in
of their abilities by identifying these becoming school counselors usually
and other basic aspects of the take the regular program of teacher
child’s makeup at an early age, and education, with additional courses
by
evaluating
any
learning in psychology and sociology. In
problems. Methods used in counsel States where teaching experience is
ing grade school children differ in not a requirement, it is possible to
many ways from those used with major in a liberal arts program. A
older students. Observations of few States substitute counseling in
classroom and play activity furnish ternship for teaching experience. In
clues about children in the lower some States teachers who have
grades. To better understand chil completed part of the courses
dren, elementary school counselors required for the master’s degree are
spend much time consulting with eligible for provisional certification
teachers and parents. They also and may work as counselors under
work closely with other staff mem supervision while they take addi
bers of the school, including tional courses.
psychologists and social workers.
Counselor education programs at
Some school counselors, particu the graduate level are available in
larly in secondary schools, teach more than 440 colleges and univer
classes in occupational information, sities, most frequently in the depart
social studies, or other subjects. ments of education or psychology.
They also may supervise school One to two years of graduate study
clubs or other extracurricular ac are necessary for a master’s degree.
tivities, often after regular school Most programs provide supervised
hours.
field experience.
Subject areas of required gradu
ate level courses usually include ap
praisal of the individual student, in
dividual counseling procedures,
group guidance, information serv
ice for career development, pro
fessional relations and ethics, and
statistics and research.
The ability to help others accept
responsibility for their own lives is
important for school counselors
because their work concerns the
development of young people. They
must be able to coordinate the ac
tivity of others and work as part of
the team which forms the educa
tional system.
School counselors may advance
by moving to a larger school;
becoming director or supervisor of
counseling or guidance; or, with
further graduate education, becom
ing a college counselor, educational
psychologist, or school psycholo
gist.
Employment Outlook
Employment of school coun
selors is likely to grow more slowly
than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1980’s as the
decline in school enrollments con
tinues during the remainder of this
decade. However, some positions
will continue to be available in ele
mentary schools. An expected up
swing in enrollments beginning in
the early 1980’s should stimulate
some expansion in employment,
and additional counselors will be
required each year to replace those
who leave the profession.
In 1974, the average ratio of
counselors to students as a whole
was still well below generally ac
cepted standards, despite Federal
aid to the States for support and ex
pansion of counseling programs.
Some school systems were forced to
eliminate some counselor positions
due to local financial problems.
Over the long run, demand for
school counselors will depend in
large part on the Federal Govern
ment’s Career Education Program.
This program is designed to inform
children about the world of work
EMPLOYMENT
early in their education, so that by
COUNSELORS
the time they leave the formal edu
(D O T. 045.108)
cational system they are prepared
for a suitable and available career.
Nature of the Work
The extent of future growth in
counselor employment will depend
Employment
counselors
largely on the amount of funds (sometimes called vocational coun
which the Federal Government pro selors) help jobseekers evaluate
vides to the States.
their abilities and interests so that
they can choose, prepare for, and
Earnings and Working
adjust to a satisfactory field of
Conditions
work. The extent of counseling
School counselors holding bach services given by employment
elor’s degrees earned average counselors varies, depending on the
annual salaries ranging from $9,000 job-seeker and the type of agency.
to $13,000 during 1974, according Job-seekers may include veterans,
to the limited data available. For youth with little or no work ex
those having master’s degrees, perience, the handicapped, older
average yearly salaries were from workers, and individuals displaced
$10,400 to $15,500. School coun by automation and industry shifts or
selors with doctorates had an unhappy with their present occupa
average maximum salary of almost tional fields. Sometimes jobseekers
$18,200 per year. School coun are skilled in specific occupations
selors generally earn more than and ready for immediate job place
teachers at the same school. (See ment, while those who have little
statements on Kindergarten and education and lack marketable
Elementary School Teachers and skills need intensive training to
prepare for jobs. In State employ
Secondary School Teachers.)
In most school systems, coun ment services, the counselor is also
selors receive regular salary incre concerned with helping those who
ments as they obtain additional are least employable, such as wel
education and experience. Some fare recipients, prison releasees,
counselors supplement their in and the educationally and culturally
come by part-time consulting or deprived.
Counselors interview jobseekers
other work with private or public
counseling centers, government to learn employment-related facts
about their interests, training, work
agencies, or private industry.
experience, work attitudes, physical
capacities, and personal traits. If
necessary, they may get additional
data by arranging for aptitude and
Sources of Additional
achievement tests and interest in
Information
ventories, so that more objective
State departments of education help may be given. They may get
can supply information on colleges additional
information
from
and universities that offer training sources such as former employers
in guidance and counseling as well and schools.
as on the State certification require
When
a
jobseeker’s
ments.
background—the person’s limita
Additional information on this tions and abilities—has been
field of work is available from:
thoroughly reviewed, the employ
ment counselor discusses occupa
American School Counselor Association,
1607 New Hampshire Ave. NW.,
tional requirements and job oppor
Washington, D.C. 20009.
tunities in different fields within the
potential of the jobseeker. Then,
the counselor and the client
graduate training programs or con
duct research.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
assistance is needed.
The expanding responsibility of
public employment service coun
selors for improving the employa
bility of disadvantaged persons has
increased their contacts with these
persons during training and on the
job. Also, it has led to group coun
seling and the stationing of coun
selors in neighborhood and commu
In many cases, employment nity centers.
counselors refer jobseekers to other
agencies for physical rehabilitation
Places of Employment
or psychological or other services
before or during counseling. Coun
In 1974, about 3,500 persons,
selors must be familiar with the half of th e m women, worked as em
available community services so ployment counselors in State em
that they can select those most like ployment service offices, located in
ly to benefit a particular jobseeker.
every large city and many smaller
Counselors may help jobseekers towns. In addition, about 3,500 em
by suggesting employment sources ployment counselors worked for
and appropriate ways of applying various private or community agen
for work. In many cases when cies, primarily in the larger cities.
further support and assistance are Some worked in institutions such as
needed, counselors may contact prisons,
training schools for
employers to develop jobs for coun delinquent youths, and mental
Also,
the
Federal
seled applicants, although job hospitals.
seekers usually are sent to place Government employed a limited
ment interviewers after counseling. number of employment counselors,
After job placement or entrance chiefly in the Veterans Administra
into training, counselors may follow tion and in the Bureau of Indian Af
up to determine if additional fairs. Some counselors teach in
develop a vocational plan. This plan
may specify a series of steps involv
ing remedial education, job train
ing, work experience, or other serv
ices needed to enhance the per
son’s employability. Often, in
developing this plan, the employ
ment counselor works with a team
of specialists.
The national qualification stand
ard for first level employment
counselors in State employment
service offices calls for 30 graduate
semester hours of counseling
courses beyond a bachelor’s degree.
However, 1 year of counseling-re
lated experience may be substituted
for 15 graduate semester hours.
All States require counselors in
their public employment offices to
meet State civil service or merit
system requirements that include
minimum educational and ex
perience standards.
Applicants
with
advanced
degrees and additional qualifying
experience may enter at higher
levels on the counselor career
ladder. Many States also make
provision for individuals with exten
sive experience in the employment
service, whether or not they have
college degrees, to enter the coun
selor career ladder and move up
ward by acquiring the prescribed
university coursework and qualify
ing experience for each level.
Although minimum entrance
requirements are not standardized
among private and community
agencies, most prefer, and some
require, a master’s degree in voca
tional counseling or in a related
field such as psychology, personnel
administration,
counseling,
guidance education, or public ad
ministration. Many private agencies
prefer to have at least one staff
member who has a doctorate in
counseling psychology or a related
field. For those lacking an ad
vanced degree, employers usually
emphasize experience in closely re
lated work such as rehabilitation
counseling, employment interview
ing, school or college counseling,
teaching, social work, or psycholo
gy-
In each State, the public employ
ment service offices provide some
in-service training programs for
their new counselors or trainees. In
addition, both their new and ex
perienced counselors are often
given part-time training at colleges
and universities during the regular
academic year or at institutes or
summer sessions. Private and com
munity agencies also often provide
in-service training opportunities.
College students who wish to
become employment counselors
should enroll in courses in
psychology and basic sociology. At
the graduate level, requirements for
this field usually include courses in
techniques
of
counseling,
psychological
principles
and
psychology of careers, assessment
and appraisal, cultures and environ
ment, and occupational informa
tion. Counselor education pro
grams at the graduate level are
available in about 370 colleges and
universities, mainly in departments
of education or psychology. To ob
tain a master’s degree, students
must complete 1 to 2 years of grad
uate study.
Young people aspiring to be em
ployment counselors should have a
strong interest in helping others
make vocational plans and carry
them out. They should be able to
work independently and to keep
detailed records.
Well-qualified counselors with
experience may advance to super
visory or administrative positions in
their own or other organizations.
Some may become directors of
agencies or of other counseling
services, or area supervisors of
guidance programs; some may
become consultants; and others
may become professors in the coun
seling field.
Employment Outlook
Employment counselors with
master’s degrees or experience in
related fields are expected to face
some competition in both public
and community employment agen
cies through the mid-1980’s. Some
growth in the number of employ
ment counselors is expected as their
role becomes more important in
programs dealing with the training
and retraining of unemployed work
ers, particularly those who are un
skilled or whose jobs have been dis
placed by technological or industri
al shifts. Expansion of these pro
grams and consequently the extent
of growth in employment of coun
selors will depend in large part on
the level of funding by the Federal
Government, as well as on the dis
tribution of revenue sharing money
allocated to these programs by the
individual States. Some openings
for employment counselors will
result from the need to replace
those who die, retire, or transfer to
other occupations.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Salaries of employment coun
selors in State employment services
vary considerably by State. In 1974,
minimum salaries ranged from
about $7,200 to $14,700 a year,
with an average of $9,100. Max
imum salaries ranged from $9,700
to $19,100, with an average of
$11,900. M o r e th a n t h r e e - q u a r t e r s
of the States listed maximum sala
ries of $11,900 or more. Trainees
for counseling positions in some
voluntary agencies in large cities
were being hired at about $8,500 a
year. Salaries of some employment
counselors in private and communi
ty agencies were as high as $20,000
although the average was about
$12,000 annually. In general, sala
ries of employment counselors are
about 1 1/2 times as high as average
earnings for all nonsupervisory
workers in private industry, except
farming.
Most counselors work about 40
hours a week and have various
benefits, including vacations, sick
leave, pension plans, and insurance
coverage. Counselors employed in
community agencies may work
overtime.
Sources of Additional
Information
For general information on em
ployment or vocational counseling,
contact:
National Employment Counselors Associa
tion, 1607 New Hampshire Ave. NW„
Washington, D.C. 20009.
National Vocational Guidance Association,
Inc., 1607 New Hampshire Ave. NW.,
Washington D.C. 20009.
U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Ad
ministration, USES, Division of Coun
seling and Testing, Washington, D.C.
20210 .
The administrative office for
each State’s employment security
agency, bureau, division, or com
mission can supply specific infor
mation about local job opportuni
ties, salaries, and entrance require
ments for positions in public em
ployment service offices.
REHABILITATION
COUNSELORS
(D.O.T. 045.108)
Nature of the Work
Rehabilitation counselors help
people with physical, mental, or so
cial disabilities to adjust their voca
tional plans and personal lives.
Counselors learn about clients’ in
terests, abilities, and limitations.
They then use this information,
along with available medical and
psychological data, to help disabled
persons evaluate themselves for the
purpose of pairing their physical
and mental capacity and interests
with suitable work.
Together, the counselor and
client develop a plan of rehabilita
tion, with the aid of other specialists
responsible for the medical care
and occupational training of the
handicapped person. As the plan is
put into effect, the counselor meets
regularly with the disabled person
to discuss his progress in the reha
bilitation program and help resolve
any problems that have been en
countered. When the client is ready
to begin work, the counselor helps
him find a suitable job, and usually
makes followup checks to insure
that the placement has been suc
cessful.
Rehabilitation counselors must
maintain close contact with the
families of their handicapped
clients, other professionals who
work with handicapped people,
agencies and civic groups, and
private employers who hire the dis
abled. Counselors in this field often
perform related activities, such as
informing employers of the abilities
of the handicapped and arranging
for publicizing the rehabilitation
program in the community.
An increasing number of coun
selors specialize in a particular area
of rehabilitation; some may work
almost exclusively with blind peo
ple, alcoholics or drug addicts, the
mentally ill, or retarded persons.
Others may work almost entirely
with persons living in poverty areas.
The amount of time spent in
counseling each client varies with
the severity of the disabled person’s
problems as well as with the size of
the counselor’s caseload. Some
rehabilitation
counselors
are
responsible for many persons in
various stages of rehabilitation; on
the other hand, less experienced
counselors or those working with
the severely disabled may work
with relatively few cases at a time.
Places of Employment
About 19,000 persons, one-third
of them women, worked as reha
bilitation counselors in 1974.
About 70 percent worked in State
and local rehabilitation agencies
financed
cooperatively
with
Federal and State funds. Some
rehabilitation counselors and coun
seling psychologists worked for the
Veterans Administration. Reha
bilitation
centers,
sheltered
workshops, hospitals, labor unions,
insurance companies,
special
schools, and other public and
Rehabilitation counselor assisting blind
person in use of cassette tape re
corder.
private agenices with rehabilitation
programs and job placement serv
ices for the disabled employ the
rest.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
A bachelor’s degree with courses
in counseling, psychology, and re
lated fields is the minimum educa
tional requirement for rehabilita
tion counselors. However, em
ployers are placing increasing
emphasis on the master’s degree in
vocational counseling or rehabilita
tion counseling, or in related sub
jects such as psychology, education,
and social work. Work experience
in fields such as vocational counsel
ing and placement, psychology,
education, and social work is an
asset for securing employment as a
rehabilitation
counselor.
Most
agencies have work-study programs
whereby employed counselors can
earn graduate degrees in the field.
Usually, 2 years of study are
required for the master’s degree in
the fields preferred for rehabilita
tion counseling. Included is a
semester of actual work experience
as a rehabilitation counselor under
the close supervision of an instruc
tor. Besides a basic foundation in
psychology, courses generally in
cluded in master’s degree programs
are
counseling
theory
and
techniques, occupational and edu
cational information, and commu
nity resources. Other requirements
may include courses in placement
and followup, tests and measure
ments, cultural and psychological
effects of disability, and medical
and legislative aspects of therapy
and rehabilitation. About 85
schools offered graduate training in
rehabilitation counseling in 1974.
To earn the doctorate in reha
bilitation counseling or in counsel
ing psychology may require a total
of 4 to 6 years of graduate study. In
tensive training in psychology and
other social sciences, as well as in
research methods, is required.
Many States require that reha
bilitation counselors be hired in ac
cordance with State civil service
and merit system rules. In most
cases, these regulations require ap
plicants to pass a competitive writ
ten test, sometimes supplemented
by an individual interview and
evaluation by a board of examiners.
Since rehabilitation counselors
deal with the welfare of individuals,
the ability to accept responsibility is
important. It also is essential that
they be able to work independently
and be able to motivate and guide
the activity of others.
Counselors who have limited ex
perience usually are assigned the
less difficult cases. As they gain ex
perience, their caseloads are in
creased and they are assigned
clients with more complex reha
bilitation problems. After obtaining
considerable experience and more
graduate education, rehabilitation
counselors may advance to super
visory positions or top administra
tive jobs.
Employment Outlook
Employment opportunities for
rehabilitation counselors are ex
pected to be favorable through the
mid-1980’s. Persons who have
graduate work in rehabilitation
counseling or in related fields are
expected to have the best employ
ment prospects.
Contributing to the long-run de
mand for rehabilitation counselors
will be population growth and the
extension of service to a greater
number of the severely disabled,
together with increased public
awareness that the vocational reha
bilitation approach helps the disa
bled to become self-supporting.
The extent of growth in employ
ment of counselors, however, will
depend largely on levels of govern
ment funding for vocational reha
bilitation. In addition to growth
needs, many counselors will be
required annually to replace those
who die, retire, or leave the field for
other reasons.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Salaries of beginning rehabilita
tion counselors in State agencies
averaged $9,300 a year in 1974. Ex
perienced
counselors
earned
average salaries of $12,200 a year;
the range was $9,800 to $16,400
among the States.
The Veterans Administration
paid counseling psychologists with
a 2-year master’s degree and 1 year
of subsequent experience—and
those with a Ph. D.—starting sala
ries of $15,481 in late 1974. Those
with a Ph. D. and a year of ex
perience, and those with a 2-year
master’s degree and much ex
perience, started at $18,463. Some
rehabilitation counselors with a
bachelor’s degree were hired at
starting salaries of $10,520 and
$12,841. In general, salaries of
rehabilitation counselors are above
the average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private indus
try, except farming.
Counselors may spend only part
of their time in their offices coun
seling and performing necessary
paperwork. The remainder of their
time is spent in the field, working
with prospective employers, train
possible career alternatives and to
choose an occupational area that is
best suited to their individual needs.
They advise students considering
dropping out of college of the op
portunities open to them. They also
help students to get part-time and
summer jobs.
Career planning and placement
counselors
arrange
for
job
recruiters to visit the campus to
discuss their firm’s personnel needs
and to interview applicants. They
Sources of Additional
provide employers with information
Information
about students and help in apprais
For information about rehabilita ing students’ qualifications. They
tion counseling as a career, contact: must keep abreast of information
American Psychological Association, Inc., concerning job market develop
1200 i 7th St. NW„ Washington, DC. ments in order to contact prospec
20036.
tive employers, help students
American Rehabilitation Counseling As prepare for promising fields, and
sociation, 1607 New Hampshire Ave. encourage the faculty and college
NW„ Washington, D C. 20009.
administration to provide pertinent
National Rehabilitation Counseling Associa courses. Most career counselors
tion, 1522 K St. NW„ Washington, D.C.
also assemble and maintain a libra
20005.
ry of career guidance information
and recruitment literature.
Placement counselors may spe
cialize in areas such as law, educa
tion, or part-time and summer
work. However, the extent of spe
COLLEGE CAREER
cialization usually depends upon
PLANNING AND
the size and type of college as well
as the size of the placement staff.
PLACEMENT
ing agencies, and the disabled per
son’s family. The ability to drive a
car often is necessary for fieldwork.
Rehabilitation
counselors
generally work a 40-hour week or
less, with some overtime work
required to attend community and
civic meetings in the evening. They
usually are covered by sick and an
nual leave benefits, and pension
and health plans.
COUNSELORS
(D.O.T. 166.268)
Nature of the Work
Choosing a career and deciding
whether or not to go to graduate
school are among the difficult deci
sions faced by many college stu
dents. Career planning and place
ment counselors are employed by
colleges to offer encouragement
and assistance in these decisions.
Career planning and placement
counselors, sometimes called col
lege placement officers, provide a
variety of services to college stu
dents and alumni. They assist stu
dents in making career selections
by encouraging them to examine
their interests, abilities, and goals,
and then helping them to explore
Places of Employment
Nearly all 4-year colleges and
universities and many of the in
creasing number of junior colleges
provide career planning and place
ment services to their students and
alumni. Large colleges may employ
several counselors working under a
director of career planning and
placement activities; in many in
stitutions, however, a combination
of placement functions is per
formed by one director aided by a
clerical staff. In some colleges,
especially the smaller ones, the
functions of career counselors may
be performed on a part-time basis
by members of the faculty or ad
ministrative
staff.
Universities
frequently have placement officers
for each major branch or campus.
About 4,100 persons, one-half of
them women, worked as career
planning and placement counselors
in colleges and universities in 1974.
Most were employed on a full-time
basis. An additional 1,200 worked
in junior colleges; about two-thirds
worked part time.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Although no specific educational
program exists to prepare persons
for career planning and placement
work,
a
bachelor’s
degree,
preferably in a behavioral science
such as psychology or sociology, is
customary for entry into the field,
and a master’s degree is increas
ingly being stressed.
In 1974, more than 100 colleges
and universities offered graduate
programs in college student person
nel work. Graduate courses that are
helpful for career planning and
placement
counseling
include
counseling theory and techniques,
vocational testing, theory of group
dynamics,
and
occupational
research and employment trends.
Some people enter the career
planning and placement field after
gaining a broad background of ex
perience in business, industry,
government, or educational or
ganizations. An internship in a
career planning and placement of
fice also is helpful.
College career planning and
placement counselors must have an
interest in people. They must be
able to communicate with and gain
the confidence of students, faculty,
and employers in order to develop
insight into the employment needs
of both employers and students.
People in this field should be ener
getic and able to work under pres
sure, since they must organize and
administer a wide variety of activi
ties.
Advancement
for
career
planning and placement profes
sionals usually is through promo
tion to an assistant or associate
position,
director
of
career
planning and placement, director of
student personnel services, or some
other higher level administrative
position. However, the extent of
such opportunity usually depends
upon the type of college or universi
ty and the size of the staff.
Employment Outlook
The overall employment outlook
for well-qualified college career
planning and placement counselors
is expected to be favorable through
the
mid-1980’s.
Employment
growth in the field is expected to be
about as fast as the average for all
occupations as college enrollments
continue to increase through the
early 1980’s. Demand will be
greatest for persons with special
ized training in career counseling in
junior and community colleges,
where, in many cases, there are no
career planning and placement pro
grams at present. Also contributing
to
Counselor discusses career alternatives with college student.
th e
dem and
w ill
be
e x p e cte d
continued expansion in services to
students from minority and low-in
come groups, who require special
counseling in choosing careers and
assistance in finding part-time jobs
to help pay for their education.
Growth is also expected in services
to the handicapped and to adults
participating in continuing educa
tion.
However, many institutions of
higher education faced financial
problems in 1974. If this situation
persists, colleges and universities
may be forced to limit expansion of
counseling and placement services,
resulting in competition for availa
ble positions during this period.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
The average salary of college
career planning and placement
directors was more than $17,000 a
year in 1974, according to limited
information. Average salaries for
directors in large public universities
were $19,300; in small private col
leges, about $10,700. Salaries for
college career planning and place
ment counselors ranged from
Sources of Additional
$7,000 to $ 15,000 a year.
Information
Career planning and placement
A list of schools that offer courses
counselors frequently work more
than a 40-hour week; irregular in career counseling and place
hours and overtime often are neces ment and a booklet on the college
sary, particularly during the student personnel professions, as
“recruiting season.” Most coun well as other information on career
selors are employed on a 12-month counseling and placement, are
basis. They are paid for holidays available from:
and vacations and usually receive
College Placement Council, Inc.,
the same benefits as other profes The Box 2263, Bethlehem, Pa. 18001. P.O.
sional personnel employed by col
leges and universities.
CLERGY
Deciding on a career in the clergy
involves considerations different
from those involved in other career
choices. When young persons
choose to enter the ministry,
priesthood, or rabbinate, they do so
primarily because they possess a
strong religious faith and a desire to
help others. Nevertheless, it is im
portant for young people to know
as much as possible about the
profession and how to prepare for
it, the kind of life it offers, and its
needs for personnel.
The number of clergy needed de
pends largely on the number of peo
ple who participate in organized
religious groups. This affects the
number
of
churches
and
synagogues established and pulpits
to be filled. In addition to the clergy
who serve congregations, many
others teach or act as administra
tors in seminaries and in other edu
cational institutions; still others
serve as chaplains in the Armed
Forces, industry, correctional in
stitutions, hospitals or on college
campuses; or render service as mis
sionaries or in social welfare agen
cies.
Persons considering a career in
the clergy should seek the counsel
of a religious leader of their faith to
aid in evaluating their qualifica
tions. The most important of these
are a deep religious belief and a
desire to serve the spiritual needs of
others. The priest, minister, or
rabbi also is expected to be a model
of moral and ethical conduct. A
person considering one of these
fields must realize that the civic, so
cial, and recreational activities of a
member of the clergy often are in
fluenced and restricted by the
customs and attitudes of the com
munity.
The clergy should be sensitive to
the needs of others and able to help
them deal with these needs. The job
demands an ability to speak and
write effectively, to organize, and to
supervise others. The person enter other groups within the congrega
ing this field also must enjoy study tion. Most services include Bible
ing because the ministry is an occu reading, hymn singing, prayers, and
pation which requires continuous a sermon. In some denominations,
learning. In addition, the ministry Bible reading by a member of the
demands considerable initiative and congregation
and
individual
self-discipline.
testimonials may constitute a large
More detailed information on the part of the service.
clergy in the three largest faiths in
Ministers serving small congrega
the
United States—Protestant, tions generally work on a personal
Roman Catholic, and Jewish—is basis with their parishioners. Those
given in the following statements, serving large congregations have
prepared in cooperation with greater administrative responsibili
leaders of these faiths. Information ties, and spend considerable time
on the clergy in other faiths may be working with committees, church
obtained directly from leaders of officers, and staff, besides perform
the respective groups.
ing their other duties. They may
have one or more associates or
assistants who share specific
aspects of the ministry, such as a
PROTESTANT MINISTERS minister of education who assists in
educational programs for different
( DOT . 120.108)
age groups, or a minister of music.
Nature of the Work
Places of Employment
Protestant ministers lead their
congregations in worship services
In
1974,
about
185,000
and administer the rites of baptism,
ministers—about 3 percent of them
confirmation, and Holy Commu
women—served
72
million
nion. They prepare and deliver ser
Protestants. Most ministers serve
mons and give religious instruction
individual congregations. In addi
to persons who are to become new
tion,
however,
thousands of
members of the church. They also
ministers were in closely related
perform marriages; conduct fu
fields such as chaplains in hospitals
nerals; counsel individuals who
and the Armed Forces. The greatest
seek guidance; visit the sick, aged,
number of clergy are affiliated with
and handicapped at home and in
the
five
largest
groups
of
the hospital; comfort the bereaved;
churches —Baptist, United Metho
and serve church members in other
ways. Many Protestant ministers dist, Lutheran, Presbyterian, and
write articles for publication, give Episcopal.
All cities and most towns in the
speeches, and engage in interfaith,
United States have at least one
community, civic, educational, and
Protestant church with a full-time
recreational activities sponsored by
minister. Although the majority of
or related to the interests of the
ministers are located in urban
church. Some ministers teach in
areas, many live in less densely
seminaries, colleges, and universi
populated areas where they may
ties.
serve two or more congregations.
The services that ministers con
duct differ among Protestant
Training and Other
denominations and also among con
Qualifications
gregations within a denomination.
In many denominations, ministers
Educational requirements for
follow a traditional order of wor entry into the Protestant ministry
ship; in others they adapt the serv vary greatly. Some denominations
ices to the needs of youth and have no formal educational require-
ments, and others ordain persons
having varying amounts and types
of training in Bible colleges, Bible
institutes, or liberal arts colleges. A
large number of denominations
require a 3-year course of profes
sional study in a theological school
or seminary following college
graduation. A degree of bachelor or
master of divinity is awarded upon
completion.
In 1974, there were 132 theologi
cal institutes accredited by the
American Association of Theologi
cal Schools. These admit only stu
dents who have received a
bachelor’s degree or its equivalent
from an accredited college.
Recommended
preseminary
courses include English, history,
philosophy, the natural sciences,
social sciences, the fine arts, music,
religion, and foreign languages.
However, students considering
theological study should contact, at
the earliest possible date, the school
or schools to which they intend to
apply, in order to learn what will
best prepare them for the program
they expect to enter.
The standard curriculum recom
mended for accredited theological
schools consists of four major types
of courses: biblical, historical,
theological, and practical. In recent
years, greater emphasis has been
placed on courses of a practical na
ture such as psychology, religious
education, and administration.
Many accredited schools require
that students gain experience in
church work under the supervision
of a faculty member or experienced
minister. Some institutions offer
master of theology and doctor of
theology degrees to students
completing 1 year or more of addi
tional study. Scholarships and loans
are available for students of
theological institutions.
In general, each large denomina
tion has its own school or schools of
theology that reflect its particular
doctrine, interests, and needs. How
ever, many of these schools are
open to students from other
denominations.
Several
inter
denominational schools associated
with universities give both un
dergraduate and graduate training
covering a wide range of theologi
cal points of view.
Persons who have denomina
tional qualifications for the ministry
usually are ordained following
graduation from a seminary. In
denominations that do not require
seminary training, clergy are or
dained a t v a r io u s a p p o in t e d tim e s .
Men and women entering the clergy
often begin their careers as pastors
of small congregations or as
assistant pastors in large churches.
Employment Outlook
The trend toward merger and
unity among denominations, com
bined with the closing of smaller
parishes and the downturn in finan
cial support, has reduced demand
for Protestant ministers in recent
years. As a result, new graduates of
theological schools will face in
creasing competition in finding
positions. The supply-demand situ
ation will vary among denomina
tions and the chance of obtaining
employment will depend, in part,
on the length of the candidate’s
formal preparation. Most of the
openings for clergy that are
expected through the mid-1980’s
will therefore result from the need
to replace those in existing posi
tions who retire, die, or leave the
ministry.
Although fewer opportunities
may arise for Protestant ministers
to serve individual congregations,
newly ordained ministers may find
work in youth, family relations, and
welfare organizations; religious
education; on the campus; and as
chaplains in the Armed Forces,
hospitals, universities, and cor
rectional institutions.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Salaries of Protestant clergy vary
substantially, depending on age, ex
perience, education, denomination,
size and wealth of congregation,
type of community, and geographic
location. According to a study by
the National Council of Churches
of Christ, median salaries for
Protestant ministers in 1973 were
about $ 10,500 plus $ 1,200 in fringe
benefits. However, on the average,
ministers had to pay over $1,100
out of their own monies for profes
sionally related expenses, particu
larly travel. Annual vacations
average 3 weeks and there is often
opportunity for time off.
Because of the wide range of
service that the minister provides,
he or she may work long or ir
regular hours, often involving
considerable travel.
Sources of Additional
Information
Persons who are interested in the
Protestant ministry should seek the
counsel of a minister or church
guidance worker. Additional infor
mation is available from many
denominational
offices.
Each
theological school can supply infor
mation on admission requirements.
RABBIS
( DO T . 120.108)
Nature of the Work
Rabbis are the spiritual leaders of
their congregations and teachers
and interpreters of Jewish law and
tradition. They conduct religious
services and deliver sermons at
services on the Sabbath and on
Jewish holidays. Rabbis custom
arily are available at all times to
counsel members of their congrega
tion, other followers ofJudaism,and
the community at large. Like other
clergy, rabbis conduct weddings
and funeral services, visit the sick,
help the poor, comfort the be
reaved, supervise religious educa
tion programs, engage in interfaith
activities, and involve themselves in
community affairs.
Rabbis serving large congrega
tions may spend considerable time
in administrative duties, working
with their staffs and committees.
Large congregations frequently
have an associate or assistant rabbi.
Many assistant rabbis serve as edu
cational directors.
Rabbis serve either Orthodox,
Conservative, or Reform congrega
tions. Regardless of their particular
point of view, all Jewish congrega
tions preserve the substance of
Jewish religious worship. The con
gregations differ in the extent to
which they follow the traditional
form of worship—for example, in
the wearing of head coverings, the
use of Hebrew as the language of
prayer, or the use of music or a
choir. The format of the worship
service and, therefore, the ritual
that the rabbis use may vary even
among congregations belonging to
the same branch of Judaism.
Rabbis also may write for reli
gious and lay publications, and
teach in theological seminaries, col
leges, and universities.
Places of Employment
About 4,000 rabbis served over 6
complete the requirements for the
bachelor’s degree while pursuing
the
rabbinic
course.
Some
Orthodox seminaries do not require
a college degree to qualify for or
dination, although students who
qualify usually have completed 4
years of college.
The Hebrew Union College—
Jewish Institute of Religion is the
official seminary that trains rabbis
for the Reform branch of Judaism.
It is the only branch that has ap
proved the training and ordination
of women as rabbis. The Jewish
Theological Seminary of America is
the official seminary that trains rab
bis for the Conservative branch of
Judaism. Both seminaries require
the completion of a 4-year college
course, as well as earlier prepara
tion in Jewish studies, for admission
to the rabbinic program leading to
Training and Other
Qualifications
ordination. Normally 5 years of
study are required to complete the
To become eligible for ordination rabbinic course at the Reform semi
as a rabbi, a student must complete nary, including 1 year of preparato
a prescribed course of study in a ry study in Jerusalem. Excep
seminary. Entrance requirements tionally well-prepared students can
and the curriculum depend upon shorten this 5-year period to a
the branch of Judaism with which minimum of 3 years. A student hav
the seminary is associated.
ing a strong background in Jewish
Nearly 30 seminaries train studies can complete the course at
Orthodox rabbis in programs of the Conservative seminary in 4
varying lengths. The required years; for other enrollees, the
course of study to prepare for or course may take as long as 6.
dination is usually 3 or 4 years.
In general, the curriculums of
However, students who are not col Jewish theological seminaries pro
lege graduates may spend a longer vide students with a comprehensive
period at these seminaries and knowledge of the Bible, Talmud,
Rabbinic literature, Jewish history,
theology, and courses in education,
pastoral psychology, and public
speaking. The Reform seminary
places less emphasis on the study of
Talmud and Rabbinic literature; it
offers, instead, a broad course of
study that includes subjects such as
human relations and community or
ganization.
Some seminaries grant advanced
academic degrees in fields such as
Biblical and Talmudic research. All
Jewish theological seminaries make
scholarships and loans available.
Newly ordained rabbis usually
million followers of the Jewish faith
in this country in 1974; approxi
mately 1,550 were Orthodox rab
bis, 1,350 were Conservative, and
1,100 Reform. Others work as
chaplains in the military services, in
hospitals and other institutions, or
in one of the many Jewish commu
nity service agencies. A growing
number are employed in colleges
and universities as teachers in
Jewish Studies programs.
Although rabbis serve Jewish
communities throughout the Na
tion, they are concentrated in those
States that have large Jewish popu
lations, particularly New York,
California, Pennsylvania, New Jer
sey, Illinois, Massachusetts, Florida,
Maryland, and the Washington,
D.C. metropolitan area.
and religious. Both types have the
same powers acquired through or
dination by a bishop. The dif
ferences lie in their way of life, the
type of work to which they are as
signed, and the church authority to
whom they are immediately sub
ject. Diocesan priests generally
Sources of Additional
work as individuals in parishes as
Informatipn
signed to them by the bishop of
Young people who are interested their diocese. Religious priests
in entering the rabbinate should generally work as part of a religious
Employment Outlook
seek the guidance of a rabbi. Infor order, such as the Jesuits,
The demand for Rabbis has mation on the work of a rabbi and Dominicans, or Franciscans. They
declined in recent years because occupations allied to it is also engage in specialized activities such
some established congregations available from many of the local as teaching or missionary work as
have closed and fewer new ones are Boards of Rabbis in large communi signed to them by superiors of their
being formed. As a result, many ties. Each Jewish theological semi order.
newly ordained Rabbis will take nary can supply information on its
Both religious and diocesan
positions in smaller Jewish commu admission requirements.
priests hold teaching and adminis
nities and as assistant Rabbis in
trative posts in Catholic seminaries,
larger Jewish congregations. Op
colleges and universities, and high
portunities still exist for Rabbis to
ROMAN CATHOLIC
schools. Priests attached to reli
teach in colleges and universities, to
gious orders staff a large proportion
PRIESTS
serve as chaplains in the Armed
of the institutions of higher educa
Forces, and to work in hospitals and
(D.O.T. 120.108)
tion and many high schools,
other institutions or in one of the
whereas diocesan priests are usually
many Jewish social service agen
Nature of the Work
concerned with the parochial
cies. Openings in established con
Roman Catholic priests attend to schools attached to parish churches
gregations will come largely from a
the spiritual, pastoral, moral, and and with diocesan high schools. The
need to replace those Rabbis who
educational needs of the members members of religious orders do
retire or die.
of their church. Their duties in most of the missionary work con
clude presiding at liturgical func ducted by the Catholic Church in
Earnings and Working
tions; offering religious enlighten this country and abroad.
Conditions
ment in the form of a sermon; hear
Places of Employment
In 1974, newly ordained Rabbis ing confessions; administering the
averaged about $17,000-$ 18,000 a Sacraments, (including the sacra
Approximately 57,000 priests
year in salary and other benefits, in ments of Marriage and Penance);
cluding housing, pension, etc. Most and conducting funeral services.
established Rabbis earned between They also comfort the sick, console
$20,000 and $35,000 a year, with relatives and friends of the dead,
some earning as much as $50,000- counsel those in need of guidance,
$60,000. Incomes vary depending and assist the poor.
on the size and financial status of
Priests spend long hours working
the congregation, as well as its for the church and the community.
denominational branch and geo Their day usually begins with morn
graphic location. Rabbis usually ing meditation and Mass, and may
earn additional income from gifts or end with the hearing of confessions
fees for officiating at ceremonies or an evening visit to a hospital or a
such as weddings.
home. Many priests direct and
Rabbis’ working hours are deter serve on church committees, work
mined by their role in the congrega in civic and charitable organiza
tion. Besides conducting regular tions, and assist in community
religious services, they may also projects.
spend considerable time in adminis
There are two main classifica
trative, educational, and communi tions of priests—diocesan (secular)
begin as leaders of small congrega
tions, assistants to experienced rab
bis, directors of Hillel Foundations
on college campuses, teachers in
seminaries and other educational
institutions, or chaplains in the
Armed Forces. As a rule, the pul
pits of large and well established
Jewish congregations are filled by
experienced rabbis.
ty service functions, as well as
presiding over various ceremonial
services. Rabbis must also be
available to serve the emergency
needs of their congregation mem
bers.
served nearly 49 million Catholics
in the United States in 1974. There
are priests in nearly every city and
town and in many rural communi
ties.
The
majority
are
in
metropolitan areas, where most
Catholics reside. Catholics are con
centrated in the Northeast and
Great Lakes regions, with smaller
concentrations in California, Texas,
and Louisiana. Large numbers of
priests are located in communities
near Catholic educational and
other institutions.
Training and Other
Qualifications
Preparation for the priesthood
generally requires 8 years of study
beyond high school. There are al
most 400 seminaries offering posthigh school education. Preparatory
study may begin in the first year of
high school, at the college level, or
in theological seminaries after col
lege graduation.
High school seminaries provide a
college preparatory program that
emphasizes
English
grammar,
speech, literature, and social stu
dies. Two years of Latin are
required and the study of modern
language is encouraged. The semi
nary college offers a liberal arts
program, stressing philosophy and
religion; the study of man through
the behavioral sciences and history;
and the natural sciences and mathe
matics. In many college seminaries,
a student may concentrate in any of
these fields.
The remaining 4 years of
preparation include sacred scrip
ture; apologetics (the branch of
theology concerning the defense
and proofs of Christianity); dog
matic, moral, and pastoral theolo
gy; homeletics (art of preaching);
church history; liturgy (Mass); and
canon law. Field work experience is
usually required in addition to
classroom study. Diocesan and reli
gious priests attend different major
seminaries, where slight variations
in the training reflect the dif
ferences in the type of work ex
pected of them as priests. Priests
are not permitted to marry.
Postgraduate work in theology is
offered at a number of American
Catholic universities or at eccle
siastical universities around the
world, mostly in Rome. Also, many
priests do graduate work at other
universities in fields unrelated to
theology. Priests are commanded
by the law of the Catholic Church
to continue their studies, at least in
formally, after ordination.
Young men are never denied
entry into seminaries because of
lack of funds. In seminaries for
secular priests, the church authori
ties may make arrangements for
student scholarships or loans.
Those in religious seminaries are
financed by contributions of
benefactors.
The first assignment of a newly
ordained secular priest is usually
that of assistant pastor or curate.
Newly ordained priests of religious
orders are assigned to the special
ized duties for which they are
trained. Many opportunities for
greater responsibility exist within
the church, depending on the
talents, interests, and experience of
the individual.
radio, newspaper, and television
work;
and
labor-management
mediation. They also have been
serving in foreign posts as missiona
ries, particularly in countries that
have a shortage of priests.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Diocesan priests usually receive a
stipend of between $2,000 and
$6,000 a year as well as main
tenance provisions (room and
board, housekeeping, etc.). Reli
gious priests are generally sup
ported by their religious order.
Priests who do special work re
lated to the church, such as
teaching, usually receive a partial
salary which is less than a lay per
son in the same position would
receive. The difference between the
usual salary for these jobs and the
salary that the priest receives is
called “contributed service.” In
some of these situations, housing
and related expenses may be pro
vided; in other cases, the priest
must make his own arrangements.
Some priests doing special work
may receive the same compensa
tion that a lay person would
receive. These may include priests
Employment Outlook
working as lawyers, counselors,
A growing number of priests will consultants, etc.
Due to the wide range of duties
be needed in the years ahead to
provide for the spiritual, educa which most clergy have, the priest
tional, and social needs of the in often must work long and irregular
creasing number of Catholics in the hours. His working conditions vary
Nation. The number of ordained widely with the type and area of as
priests has been insufficient to fill signment.
the needs of newly established
Sources of Additional
parishes and other Catholic institu
Information
tions, and to replace priests who
Young men interested in entering
retire or die. This situation is likely the priesthood should seek the
to persist. However, some of the du guidance and counsel of their
ties of priests are being assigned to parish priest. For information re
lay deacons. Although priests garding the different religious or
usually continue to work longer ders and the secular priesthood, as
than persons in other professions, well as a list of the seminaries which
the varied demands and long hours prepare students for the priesthood,
create a need for young priests to contact the diocesan Directors of
assist the older ones. Also, an in Vocations through the office of the
creasing number of priests have local pastor or bishop.
been acting in many diverse areas
of service—in social work; religious
OTHER SOCIAL
SERVICE
OCCUPATIONS
COOPERATIVE
EXTENSION SERVICE
WORKERS
(D.O.T. 096.128)
Nature of the Work
Extension service workers are en
gaged with the rural area popula
tion in educational work in fields
such
as
agriculture,
home
economics, youth activities, and
community resource development.
They are employed jointly by State
land-grant universities and the U.S.
Department of Agriculture. Exten
sion workers must be proficient in
both subject matter and teaching
methods.
Extension workers help rural
families analyze and solve their
farm and home problems and aid in
community improvement. Much of
this educational work is carried on
in groups, through meetings, tours,
demonstrations, and use of local
volunteer leaders. On problems that
cannot be solved satisfactorily by
such group methods, extension
workers give individual assistance.
In their work, they make much use
of mass communication media such
as newspapers, radio, and televi
sion.
County extension workers help
farmers produce higher quality
crops and livestock more effi
ciently. They also help them
develop new markets and plan
production to meet market de
mands, including those for product
quality and variety. They also help
community leaders to improve the
community, by planning and
providing for economic develop
ment,
recreation,
and
more
adequate public facilities such as
schools, water supply and sewer
systems, and libraries. They help and events to use this new
homemakers to provide more fami knowledge.
ly
enjoyment
from
existing
Cooperative Extension Services
resources, a higher level of nutri employ persons with a wide range
tion, and a more pleasant home en of skills and with specialized train
vironment. Some extension workers ing in all phases of crop and
help youths to become more useful livestock production, conservation,
citizens and to gain more personal environmental improvement, farm
satisfaction through programs in management and marketing, family
career selection, recreation, health, living, human development, nutri
and leadership. The essence of ex tion, home management, child
tension work is to help people help development, sociology, psycholo
themselves to achieve the goals gy, veterinary medicine, engineer
they think are important.
ing, textiles and clothing, resource
County extension workers are economics, and business and public
aided by State Extension Service administration.
The usual career ladder for ex
specialists. The job of these spe
cialists is to keep abreast of the tension workers is from assistant
latest research in their particular county agent to a more responsible
fields of interest, interpret this for job within that county, or in
use in extension work, and help another county in the State, to an
county extension workers develop assignment on the State Extension
educational programs, activities, Service staff.
Extension workers help farmers produce higher quality crops.
Places of Employment
Extension workers are located in
county offices, area offices serving
multicounty units, and State offices,
the last usually on the campus of
the land-grant college or university.
Agents are located in nearly
every county in the 50 States, in
Puerto Rico, and in the District of
Columbia. County staffs range in
size from one agent (serving a wide
variety of clientele interests) to a
dozen or more specialized agents in
counties with high population den
sity and great diversity of interests.
Staffs are located in counties rang
ing from the most rural to the most
urban.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Cooperative Extension Service
agents are required to be proficient
in disciplines related to the needs
and programs of the clientele with
whom they work. They must have a
bachelor’s degree in their subjectmatter field; some training in edu
cational techniques is desirable, as
well.
Often, they receive training in ex
tension techniques in a pre-induc
tion training program, and are up
graded through regular in-service
training programs in both educa
tional techniques and the subject
matter for which they are responsi
ble. In addition to subject-matter
proficiency, extension workers
must like to work with people and
to help them.
In most States, specialists and
agents assigned to multicounty and
State staff jobs are required to have
at least one advanced degree and in
many they must have a Ph. D.
Employment Outlook
Extension services employ more
than 15,600 professional people.
The demand for these workers is
expected to increase, especially in
depressed rural areas. As agricul
tural technology becomes more
complicated, and as farm people
become more aware of the need for
organized activity, more help will
be sought from trained Extension
Service personnel. The Extension
Service also will reach new seg
ments of the population as residents
recognize the value of its assistance,
particularly in helping the disad
vantaged.
Earnings
The salaries of extension workers
vary by locality, but, for the most
part, they are competitive with
similar jobs in industry and govern
ment.
Sources of Additional
Information
Additional information is availa
ble from County Extension offices,
the State Director of the Coopera
tive Extension Service located at
each land-grant university; or the
Extension Service, U.S. Depart
ment of Agriculture, Washington,
D.C. 20250.
HOME ECONOMISTS
(D.O.T. 096.128)
Nature of the Work
Home economists work to im
prove products, services, and prac
tices that affect the comfort and
well-being of the family. Some spe
cialize in specific areas, such as
consumer economics, housing,
home management, home furnish
ings and equipment, food and
nutrition, clothing and textiles,
and child development and family
relations. Others have a broad
knowledge of the whole profes
sional field.
Most home economists teach.
Those in high schools teach stu
dents about foods and nutrition;
clothing selection, construction and
care; child development; consumer
education; housing and home
furnishings; family relations; and
other subjects related to family liv
ing and homemaking. They also
perform the regular duties of other
high school teachers that are
described in the statement on
Secondary School Teachers else were
in this book.
Teachers in adult education pro
grams help men and women to in
crease their understanding of family
relations and to improve their
homemaking skills. They also con
duct training programs on second
ary, postsecondary, and adult levels
for jobs related to home economics.
Special emphasis is given to
teaching those who are disad
vantaged and handicapped. College
teachers may combine teaching and
research and often specialize in a
particular area of home economics.
Home economists employed by
private business firms and trade as
sociations promote the develop
ment, use, and care of specific
home products. They may do
research, test products, and prepare
advertisements and instructional
materials. They also may prepare
and present programs for radio and
television; serve as consultants; give
lectures and demonstrations before
the public; and conduct classes for
sales persons and appliance service
workers. Some home economists
study consumer needs and help
manufacturers translate these needs
into useful products.
Some home economists conduct
research for the Federal Govern
ment, State agricultural experiment
stations, colleges, universities, and
private organizations. The U.S. De
partment of Agriculture employs
the largest group of researchers to
do work such as study the buying
and spending habits of families in
all socioeconomic groups and
develop budget guides.
Home economists who work for
the Cooperative Extension Service
conduct adult education programs
for men and women and 4-H Club
and other youth programs for girls
and boys, in areas such as home
1974. This figure includes 33,000
dietitians and 5,800 Cooperative
Extension Service workers who are
discussed in separate statements
elsewhere in this book.
About 75,000 home economists
are teachers, about 50,000 in
secondary schools and 7,000 in col
leges and universities. More than
15,000 are adult education instruc
tors, some of whom teach part time
in secondary schools. Others teach
in community colleges, elementary
schools, kindergartens, nursery
schools, and recreation centers.
More than 5,000 home econo
mists work in private business firms
and associations. Several thousand
are in research and social welfare
programs. A few are self-employed
Although most home economists
are women, men are entering the
profession in increasing numbers.
Most men specialize in foods and
institutional management, although
Some home economists work with young children.
some are in the family relations and
child development field, applied
arts, consumer education, and
management, consumer education, pervise or train workers who pro other areas.
family relations, and nutrition. Ex vide temporary or part-time help to
tension Service home economists
households disrupted by illness.
Training, Other Qualifications,
also train and supervise volunteer
Home economists in health serv
and Advancement
leaders and paid aides who teach ices provide special help and
adults and youth. (See statement on guidance in home management,
About 360 colleges and universi
Cooperative Extension Service consumer education and family ties offer a bachelor’s degree in
Workers elsewhere in this book.)
economics as these relate to family home economics, which qualifies
Federal, State, and local govern health and well-being. Activities of graduates for most entry positions
ments and private agencies employ home economists working in health in the field. A master’s or doctor’s
home economists in social welfare programs include the following: degree is required for college
programs to advise and counsel
making home visits; conducting teaching, for certain research and
clients on the practical knowledge clinic demonstrations and classes in supervisory positions, for work as
and skills needed for effective
homemaking skills; counseling in an extension specialist, and for
everyday family living. They also the management of time and some jobs in nutrition.
may help handicapped home
Home economics majors study
resources,
including
financial
makers and their families ad
aspects; assisting mentally retarded sciences and liberal arts—particu
just to physical as well as social and parents in developing their poten larly social sciences—as well as spe
emotional limitations by changing
tial skills for child care and home cialized home economics courses.
the arrangements in the home; find management; working with agen They may concentrate in a particu
ing efficient ways to manage
cies and community resources: and lar area of home economics or in
household chores; aiding in the
supervising nutrition and home what is called general home
economics. Advanced courses in
design, selection, and arrangement
management aides.
chemistry and nutrition are impor
of equipment; and creating other
tant for work in foods and nutrition;
methods and devices to enable dis
Places of Employment
science and statistics for research
abled people to function at their
highest possible level. Other home
About 128,000 people worked in work; and journalism for advertis
economists in welfare agencies su home economics professions in ing, public relations work, and all
other work in the communications
field. To teach home economics in
high
school,
students
must
complete the courses required for a
teacher’s certificate.
Scholarships, fellowships, and
assistantships are available for un
dergraduate and graduate study.
Although colleges and universities
offer most of these financial grants,
government agencies, research
foundations, businesses, and the
American Home Economics As
sociation Foundation provide addi
tional funds.
Home economists must be able to
work with people of various in
comes and cultural backgrounds
and should have a capacity for
leadership. Poise and an interest in
people also are essential for those
who deal with the public. The abili
ty to write and speak well is impor
tant. Among the subjects recom
mended for high school students in
terested in careers in this field are
home economics, speech, English,
health, mathematics, chemistry,
and the social sciences.
Home economists frequently gain
experience as teachers and advance
to positions in business, extension
service work, and teacher educa
tion.
Employment Outlook
Home economists, especially
those wishing to teach in high
schools, will face keen competition
for jobs through the mid-1980’s.
Other areas of home economics
also will experience competitive job
market conditions as those unable
to find teaching jobs look for other
positions. However, for those
willing to continue their education
toward an advanced degree, em
ployment prospects in college and
university teaching are expected to
be good.
Although employment of home
economists is expected to grow
more slowly than the average for all
occupations,
many jobs will
become available each year to
replace those who die, retire, or
leave the field for other reasons.
Growth will result from increasing
awareness of the contributions that
can be made by professionally
trained home economists in quality
child care, nutrition, housing and
furnishings design, consumer edu
cation, and ecology. They also will
be needed to promote home
products, to act as consultants to
consumers, and to do research for
improvement of home products and
services. The Vocational Education
Amendments of 1968, which pro
vide funds for consumer and
homemaking education at the
secondary, postsecondary, and
adult levels, and focus on the needs
of low-income families, should
further stimulate the need for home
economists.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Home economics teachers in
public schools generally receive the
same salaries as other teachers. In
1974, the average starting salary of
public school teachers with a
bachelor’s degree was $7,700, ac
cording to a National Education
Association survey. Public school
teachers with a master’s degree
received average starting salaries of
$8,600.
Experienced
teachers
averaged $11,800. Median salaries
of women teaching in colleges and
universities in 1974 ranged from
$9,700 for instructors to $18,200
for professors.
The Federal Government paid
home economists with bachelor’s
degrees starting salaries of $8,500
and $10,500 in late 1974, depend
ing on their scholastic record.
Those with additional education
and experience generally earned
from $12,800 to $21,800 or more,
depending on the type of position
and level of responsibility. In late
1974, the Federal Government paid
experienced
home
economists
average salaries of $ 19,100 a year.
Cooperative Extension Service
workers on the county level
averaged $11,800 while those on
the State level averaged $16,400 in
1974. In general, home economists
earn about one and one-half times
as much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private in
dustry, except farming.
Home economists usually work a
40-hour week. Those in teaching
and extension service positions,
however, frequently work longer
hours because they are expected to
be available for evening lectures,
demonstrations, and other work.
Most home economists receive
fringe benefits, such as paid vaca
tion, sick leave, retirement pay, and
insurance benefits.
Sources of Additional
Information
A list qf schools granting degrees
in home economics and additional
information about home economics
careers, the types of home
economics majors offered in each
school granting degrees in home
economics, and graduate scholar
ships are available from:
American Home Economics Association,
2010
Massachusetts
Ave.
NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20036
RECREATION WORKERS
(D.O.T. 079.1-28, 159.228, 187.118,
195.168, 195.228)
Nature of the Work
Participation in organized recrea
tion activities has become an in
tegral part of the increasing leisure
time enjoyed by many Americans.
Recreation workers plan, organize,
and direct individual and group
recreation activities to help people
better enjoy their nonworking
hours.
Recreation workers organize and
lead social, cultural, and physical
education programs at community
centers, hospitals, workplaces,
camps, and playgrounds for people
of various ages and interests. They
also manage recreation facilities
and study the recreation needs of
groups and communities. There are
several basic types of recreation
workers: recreation directors, su
pervisors, leaders, and activity spe
cialists.
Recreation directors are responsi
ble for the management and ad
ministration of recreation pro
grams. They may evaluate the
recreation needs of the population
they serve, and plan activities ac
cording to these needs. They also
hire personnel and prepare an
operating budget. Particularly in
smaller recreation programs, the
director also may directly supervise
various activities.
Recreation supervisors may plan
recreation activities or assist the
director in doing this. They then im
plement these activities, oversee
their operation, and evaluate their
success. They supervise the recrea
tion leaders, activity specialists, and
maintenance workers, and instruct
them in many of the skills required
to efficiently run a recreation pro
gram.
Recreation leaders work directly
with the participants in recreation
programs and are responsible for
the program’s day-to-day opera
tion. They may give instruction in
crafts, games, sports, and other ac
tivities and keep reports and
records relating to these activities.
Recreation leaders who give in
struction in specialties such as art,
music, drama, swimming, or tennis
are called activity specialists. They
often conduct classes and coach
teams in the activity in which they
specialize. A camp counselor is
generally a recreation leader and
may also be an activity specialist.
Recreation leaders usually work
under the direction of a supervisor.
The services of recreation work
ers are used in many different
settings. Recreation personnel em
ployed by local government and
voluntary agencies provide leisure
time activities at neighborhood
playgrounds and indoor recreation
centers. They furnish instruction in
the arts, crafts, and in sports. They
may supervise recreational activi
ties at correctional institutions and
work closely with social workers to
organize programs for the young
and the aged. School recreation
staff organize the leisure-time ac
tivities of school-age children dur
ing schooldays, weekends, and va
cations.
Under the supervision of a camp
director, recreation leaders and ac
tivity specialists lead and instruct
campers in nature-oriented forms
of recreation such as swimming,
hiking, and horseback riding, as
well as arts, crafts, and other sports.
Some camps provide campers with
specialized instruction in a particu
lar area such as music, drama, gym
nastics, or tennis. In resident
camps, the staff also must insure
that the campers have adequate liv
ing conditions.
Recreation personnel in industry
and in the Armed Forces organize
and direct recreation rooms,
athletic programs such as bowling
and softball leagues, social func
tions, and other leisure activities for
company employees and service
men and women.
Therapeutic recreation is a spe
cialized field within the recreation
profession. It provides recreational
services to aid in recovery or adjust
ment to illness, disability, or a
specific social problem. Recreation
specialists may work with the physi
cally handicapped in a school or
rehabilitation center, with mentally
ill or retarded persons in a public or
private institution, or with juvenile
delinquents, older citizens, or disa
bled veterans. The jobs in this spe
cialty are largely comparable to
those for recreation workers in
other settings.
Places of Employment
More than 65,000 recreation
workers were employed year-round
in 1974; nearly one-half of them
were women. Government recrea
tion departments employed about
one-half, primarily in local recrea
tion departments. Many others
worked for schools, commercial
recreation
establishments
like
camps or resort hotels, and non
profit voluntary organizations such
as athletic or scouting organiza
tions, churches, and community or
ganizations.
Over two-fifths of all year-round
recreation workers are employed
part time. Many of these are stu
dents who work for local govern
ment recreation programs. An addi
tional 100,000 recreation workers
were employed for the summer
months only, during 1974. Seasonal
workers are mostly college students
and teachers who work primarily as
recreation leaders and camp coun
selors.
Recreation workers are em
ployed mostly in urban areas where
many people must use the same
playgrounds and recreation centers.
Camp recreation workers, however,
often work in rural, less populated
areas of the country. Camp recrea
tion workers are employed at re
sident, day, family, and travel
camps. Except for the directors of
very large camps and workers at the
few camps which remain open yearround, camp recreation workers
generally are employed for 2 or 3
months only during the summer.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Formal training in a college
recreation curriculum is becoming
increasingly important for those
seeking a career in recreation.
Recreation directors generally
should have a bachelor’s degree,
preferably in recreation, as well as
considerable experience. Advanced
courses leading to a master’s degree
often are desirable for persons in
terested in higher level administra
tive positions and are usually neces
sary for teaching at a college or
university. Those with a bachelor’s
degree usually begin as supervisors
or recreation leaders, and may ad
vance to a director position.
A high school education is
generally the minimum require
ment for recreation leaders. How
ever, an associate degree in recrea
tion or a related subject from a
community or junior college usually
is preferred for both year-round
and seasonal employment. In addi
tion, those with college training
generally start at a higher salary and
have better advancement opportu
nities. Activity specialists must have
specialized training in a particular
field, such as art, music, drama, or
athletics. In most cases, an as
sociate degree in recreation with a
concentration in one of these areas
or a bachelor’s degree in recreation
or one of the arts is necessary for
year-round employment. In general,
camps prefer those with some
college background to work as
counselors or activity specialists.
In March 1974, 200 community
colleges and 186 4-year colleges
and universities had recreation and
parks curriculums. In addition, 92
graduate programs were offered.
The typical program of recreation
study includes courses in communi
cations, natural sciences, the hu
manities, philosophy, sociology,
psychology, drama, and music.
Specific courses in recreation in
clude group leadership, program
planning and organization, health
and safety procedures, outdoor and
indoor sports, dance, arts and
crafts, and field work in which the
student obtains actual recreation
leadership experience. Students in
terested in industrial or other types
of commercial recreation may find
it desirable to take courses in busi
ness administration; those in
terested in therapeutic recreation
should take courses in psychology,
health education, and sociology.
Young people planning careers
as recreation workers must have the
ability to motivate people and be
sensitive to their needs. Good
health and physical stamina often
are required. Activity planning
frequently calls for creativity and
resourcefulness. Recreation work
ers should be able to accept re
sponsibility and exercise judgment
since they usually work alone. To
increase their leadership skills
and understanding of people, stu
dents should obtain related work
experience in high school and col
lege. They may do volunteer, parttime, or summer work in recreation
departments, camps, youth-serving
organizations, institutions, and
community centers.
After a few years experience,
recreation leaders or activity spe
cialists may become recreation su
pervisors. Although promotions to
administrative positions may be
easier for persons with graduate
training, advancement is usually
possible through a combination of
education and experience.
Employment Outlook
The employment of recreation
workers is expected to rise faster
than the average for all occupations
through the mid-1980’s as public
pressure for recreation areas results
in the creation of many new parks,
playgrounds, and national forests.
Increased attention to physical fit
ness by government, educators, and
others may produce a rise in public
and industrial recreation programs.
Longer life and earlier retirements
also will increase the demand for
recreation programs for retired per
sons. All of these factors will in
crease the need for recreation work
ers and stimulate growth in the oc
cupation.
The level of formal education
and amount of related work ex
perience will become increasingly
important as more recreation grad
uates compete for positions. Those
with a 2-year degree or less will
generally be limited in advance
ment opportunities. Those with a
bachelor’s degree should have a
favorable employment outlook,
with increasing competition during
economic slowdowns when recrea
tion employment in both the public
and private sectors may be adverse
ly affected. Opportunities for those
with a master’s or Ph. D. degree
should be good in teaching, super
visory, and administrative positions.
Job experience prior to gradua
tion will greatly help a graduate find
a position. Applicants with the most
related job experience will receive
the more responsible and higher
paying positions.
Many opportunities will be
available for part-time and summer
employment as recreation leaders
and assistants in local government
recreation programs. Many of the
summer jobs will be for counselors
and activity specialists in camps.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Starting salaries for recreation
leaders with a bachelor’s degree in
State and local governments
averaged about $8,000 in 1974, ac
cording to a survey by the Public
Personnel Association. There was a
wide salary range among em
ployers—in general, salaries were
highest in the west and lowest in the
south. Average earnings for recrea
tion workers are higher than those
for nonsupervisory workers in
private industry, except in farming.
According to the National Recrea
tion and Park Association, recrea
tion workers with a 2-year degree
usually started at about $6,500 in
1974; those with a bachelor’s
degree, about $8,000; with a
master’s degree, $9,-10,000; with a
Ph. D., $11-12,000. A person with
at least a bachelor’s degree and
considerable (5-6 years) ex
perience averaged about $ 1415,000. Recreation directors’ sala
ries ranged from $ 11,000 to more
than $20,000 depending on their
responsibilities.
Starting salaries for recreation
workers in the Federal Government
in late 1974 were $8,500 for appli
cants having a bachelor’s degree;
$10,500 with a bachelor’s degree
plus 1 year experience; $12,841
with a bachelor’s plus 2 years ex
perience or a master’s degree; and
$15,481 with a bachelor’s plus 3
years experience or a Ph. D.
The average week for recreation
personnel is 35-40 hours. Many
camp recreation workers live at the
camps where they work, and their
room and board is included in their
salaries. Most public and private
recreation agencies provide from 2
to 4 weeks vacation and other
fringe benefits such as sick leave
and hospital insurance.
A person entering the recreation
field should expect some night work
and irregular hours since they often
work while others are enjoying lei
sure time. Recreation workers often
spend much of their time outdoors
when the weather permits.
Sources of Additional
Information
Information about recreation as a
career, employment opportunities
in the field, and colleges and
universities offering recreation curriculums is available from:
National Industrial Recreation Association,
20 North Wacker Dr., Chicago, 1 1
1.
60606.
National Recreation and Parks Association,
1601 North Kent St., Arlington, Va.
22209.
For information on careers in
camping and job referrals, contact:
American Camping Association, Bradford
Woods, Martinsville, Ind. 46151.
SOCIAL WORKERS
(D.O.T. 195.108, .118, .168, and
.208, .228)
Nature of the Work
The ability of people to live effec
tively in society is often hampered
by problems that range from per
sonal ones to those arising from so
cial unrest within a group or com
munity. These problems, ag
gravated by the growing complexity
of society, have greatly increased
the need for social services. Social
workers assist individuals, families,
groups and communities in using
these services to solve their
problems.
The three basic approaches to so
cial work are casework, group
work, and community organization.
The approach chosen is usually
determined by the nature of the
problem and the time and resources
available for solving it. Social work
ers often combine these ap
proaches in dealing with a specific
problem.
In casework, social workers use
interviews to identify the problems
of individuals and families. They
then help people to understand and
solve their problems and to secure
needed services, education, or job
training. In group work, social
workers help people to understand
both themselves and others better,
to overcome racial and cultural
prejudices, and to work together
with others in achieving a common
goal. They plan and conduct group
activities for children, adolescents,
older persons and other adults in a
variety of settings such as settle
ment houses, hospitals, homes for
the aged, and correctional institu
tions. In community organization,
social workers coodinate the efforts
of groups, such as political, civic,
religious, business, and union or
ganizations, to combat social
problems through community pro
grams. For a neighborhood or
larger area, they may help plan and
develop health, housing, welfare,
and recreation services. They often
coordinate existing social services
and organize fund raising for com
munity social welfare activities.
The majority of social workers
provide social services directly to
individuals, families, or groups.
However, a substantial number are
executives, administrators, or su
pervisors. Others are college
teachers, research workers, con
sultants, or private practitioners.
Social workers can apply their
training and experience in a variety
of social service settings.
Social workers in family service
positions in State and local govern
ment offices and voluntary agencies
provide counseling and social serv
ices that strengthen personal rela
tionships and help clients to im
prove their social functioning. They
also advise their clients on the con
structive use of financial assistance
and other social services.
Social workers in child welfare
positions work to improve the
physical and emotional well-being
of deprived and troubled children
and youth. They may advise parents
on child care and child rearing,
counsel children and youth with so
cial adjustment difficulties, arrange
homemaker services during a
parent’s illness, institute legal ac
tion for the protection of neglected
or mistreated children, provide
services to unmarried parents, and
counsel couples who wish to adopt
children. After making appropriate
case evaluations and home studies,
they may place children in suitable
adoption or foster homes or in spe
cialized institutions.
School social workers aid chil
dren whose unsatisfactory school
progress is related to their social
problems. These workers consult
and work with parents, teachers,
counselors, and other school per
sonnel to identify and solve prob
lems that hinder satisfactory
adjustment.
Social workers in medical and
psychiatric
settings
such
as
hospitals, clinics, mental health
agencies, rehabilitation centers,
and public welfare agencies aid pa
tients and their families with social
problems accompanying illness,
recovery, and rehabilitation. As
members of medical teams,* they
help patients respond to treatment
and guide them in their readjust
ment to their homes, jobs, and com
munities. (The related occupation
of rehabilitation counselor is
discussed in a separate section.)
Probation and parole officers and
other social workers engaged in
correctional programs help offend
ers and persons on probation and
parole readjust to society. They
counsel on social problems encoun
tered in relation to their return to
family and community life. Proba
tion and parole officers also may
help secure necessary education,
training, employment, or communi
ty services.
In addition, the services of social
workers are being sought in many
fields where they have not been
used significantly in the past. These
include private practice (as coun
selors), industrial social work, drug
and alcohol abuse counseling, and
city and social policy planning.
Places of Employment
About 300,000 social workers
were employed in 1974; nearly twothirds of them were women. State,
county, and city government agen
cies employ about two-thirds of all
social workers; about 3,000 work
for the Federal Government. Most
of the remainder work for voluntary
or private agencies, schools,
hospitals, and other medical
establishments. Although employ
ment is concentrated in urban
areas, many work with rural fami
lies. A small number of social work
ers—employed by the Federal
Government and the United Na
tions or one of its affiliated agen
cies—serve in other parts of the
world as consultants, teachers, or
technicians and establish agencies,
schools, or assistance programs.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
In recent years, there has been a
growing
acceptance
of
the
bachelor’s degree in social work
(BSW), rather than the master’s
degree (MSW), as the minimum
education of the professional social
worker. The BSW programs
generally offer an introduction to
the social welfare system, the skills
and values of social work, and su
pervised field experience. Although
the BSW is preferred, many em
ployers will accept a bachelor’s
degree in another field as an ac
ceptable level of education.
For many positions, a master’s
degree in social work is preferred or
required. Two years of specialized
study and supervised field instruc
tion are generally required to earn
an MSW. Previous training in social
work is not required for entry into a
graduate program, but courses in
related fields such as psychology,
sociology, economics, political
science,
history,
and
social
anthropology, as well as social
work, are recommended. Some
graduate schools recently have
established 1-year MSW programs
for well-qualified BSW recipients.
In 1974, 86 colleges and universi
ties offered accredited graduate
programs in social work.
Scholarships and fellowships are
available for graduate education.
Some social welfare agencies, both
voluntary and public, offer plans
whereby workers are granted
‘educational leave4 to obtain gradu
ate education. The agency may pay
the expenses or a salary, or both.
A graduate degree and ex
perience are generally required for
supervisory, administrative, or
research work, the last also requir
ing training in social science
research methods. For teaching
positions, an MSW is required and a
doctorate usually is preferred. In
most State and many local govern
ment agencies, applicants for em
ployment must pass a written exam,
particularly at the bachelor’s level.
At the end of 1974, 14 States had
licensing or registration laws
providing for the use of professional
social work titles by those who
qualify. Usually work experience,
an examination, or both, are neces
sary for licensing or registration,
with periodic renewal required. The
National Association of Social
Workers allows the use of the title
ACSW (Academy of Certified So
cial Workers) for those members
having at least 2 years of post
master’s job experience who have
passed the ACSW examination.
Social workers should be emo
tionally mature, objective, and sen
sitive and should possess a basic
concern for people and their
problems. They must be able to
handle responsibility, work inde
pendently, and form and sustain
good working relationships with
clients and co-workers.
Students should obtain as much
related work experience as possible
during high school and college to
determine whether they have the
interest and capacity for profes
sional social work. They may do
volunteer, part-time, or summer
work in places such as camps, set
tlement houses, hospitals, commu
nity centers, or social welfare agen
cies. Some voluntary and public so
cial welfare agencies hire students
for jobs in which they assist social
workers.
Employment Outlook
Employment opportunities for
persons having bachelor’s degrees
in social welfare or related fields
should be favorable through the
remainder of the 1970’s and into
the 1980’s. The outlook for gradu
ates of master’s degree programs in
social work is expected to continue
to be good through the mid-1980’s.
However, if the number of students
graduating from social work pro
grams continue to increase at the
same rate as in the 1960’s and early
1970’s, competition for some posi
tions will become stronger. At both
the bachelor’s and master’s levels, it
is possible that in certain geo
graphic areas there will be greater
job competition.
Employment of social workers is
expected to increase faster than the
average for all occupations through
the mid-1980’s. Many new posi
tions will come from the expansion
of community mental health cen
ters, and growth of the newer social
work services such as drug and al
cohol abuse counseling and city and
policy planning. Also, as the occu
pational structure of the economy
continues to change, problems may
be created for unskilled and dis
placed workers. This, coupled with
the problems caused by social
change, is expected to maintain a
strong demand for persons in the
social service field.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Salaries for social workers at all
levels vary greatly by type of agency
(private or public, Federal, State,
or local) and geographic region.
Salaries are generally highest in
large cities and in States with siza
ble urban populations. In 1974, so
cial workers with a bachelor’s
degree usually started at about
$8,000-$8,500; with a master’s
degree, between $9,500 and
$11,000. Salaries for experienced
MSW social workers averaged
$12,000-15,000 a year. Private
practitioners and those in adminis
tration, teaching, and research
often earn considerably more.
In the Federal Government, so
cial workers with an MSW and no
experience usually started at about
$10,500 in late 1974. Graduates
with an MSW and no work ex
perience may start at $12,800 if
they are well qualified for the posi
tion; with an MSW and 1 year of ex
perience, usually at $12,800; with
an MSW and 2 years of experience,
at almost $15,500.
Men and women without gradu
ate training in social work are
generally limited in the advance
ment opportunities available to
them, since most supervisory and
administrative positions are staffed
by master’s degree recipients.
Most social workers have a 5day, 35-40-hour week. However,
many, particularly in private agen
cies, work part time. In some agen
cies, the nature of the duties
requires
some
evening
and
weekend work, for which com
pensatory time off is given. Most so
cial work agencies provide fringe
benefits such as paid vacation, sick
leave, and retirement plans.
Sources of Additional
Information
For information about career op
portunities in the various fields of
social work, contact:
National Association of Social Workers,
15th and H St. NW„ 600 Southern
Building, Washington, D.C. 20005.
Information on accredited gradu
ate and undergraduate college pro
grams in social work is available
from:
Council on Social Work Education, 345 East
46th St., New York, N.Y. 10017.
ART, DESIGN, AND
COMMUNICATIONS RELATED
OCCUPATIONS
PERFORMING
ARTISTS
The performing arts include
music, acting, singing, and the
dance. In these fields, the number
of talented persons seeking employ
ment generally greatly exceeds the
number of full-time positions
available. As a result, many per
formers supplement their incomes
by teaching, and others work much
of the time in different types of
occupations.
The difficulty of earning a living
as a performer is one fact young
persons should remember when
they consider such a career. They
should consider, therefore, the
possible advantages of making their
art a hobby rather than a profes
sion. Aspiring young artists usually
must spend many years in intensive
training and practice before they
are ready for public performances.
They not only need great natural
talent but also determination, a
willingness to work long and hard,
and an overwhelming interest in
their chosen field, and some luck.
The statements which follow this
introduction give detailed informa
tion on musicians, singers, actors,
and dancers.
ACTORS AND
ACTRESSES
(D.O.T. 150.028 and 150.048)
Nature of the Work
Making a character come to life
before an audience is a job that has
cues.
In addition to the actors and ac
tresses
with
speaking
parts,
“extras,” who have no lines to
deliver, are used in various ways in
almost all motion pictures and
many television shows and theatre
productions.
In
“spectacular”
productions, a large number of ex
tras take part in crowd scenes.
Some actors find alternative jobs
as coaches of drama or directors of
stage, television, radio, or motion
pictures productions. A few teach
in drama departments of colleges
and universities.
Places of Employment
great glamour and fascination. This
demanding work requires special
talent and involves many difficulties
and uncertanties.
Only a few actors and actresses
achieve recognition as stars on the
stage, in motion pictures, or on
television or radio. A somewhat
larger number are well-known, ex
perienced
performers,
who
frequently are cast in supporting
roles. However, most actors and ac
tresses struggle for a toehold in the
profession, and are glad to pick up
parts wherever they can.
New actors generally start in
“bit” parts where they speak only a
few lines. If successful, they may
progress to larger, supporting roles,
of which there are several in most
stage, television, and screen
productions. They also may serve as
understudies for the principals.
Actors who prepare for stage,
screen,
and
television
roles
rehearse many hours. They must
memorize their lines and know their
About 10,000 actors and ac
tresses work in stage plays, motion
pictures (including films made
especially for television), industrial
shows and commercials.
In the winter, most employment
opportunities on the stage are in
New York and other large cities.
About 400 actors and actresses
worked on Broadway in 1974. In the
summer, stock companies in subur
ban and resort areas provide em
ployment. In addition, many cities
now have—“little theatres,” reper
tory companies and dinner theatres,
which provide opportunities for
local talent as well as for profes
sional actors and actresses. Nor
mally plays are produced and casts
selected in New York City for
shows that go “on the road.”
Employment in motion pictures
and film television is essentially
centered in Hollywood and New
York City, although a few studios
are located in Miami and other
parts of the country. In addition,
many films are shot on location,
and employ local nonprofessionals
as “extras.” A number of Amer
ican-produced films are being shot
in foreign countries. In television,
most opportunities for actors are at
the headquarters of the major net
works—in New York, Los Angeles,
and, to a lesser extent, Chicago. A
few local television stations occa
sionally employ actors.
Training, and Other
Qualifications
Young persons who aspire to act
ing careers should take part in high
school and college plays, or work
with little theatres and other acting
groups for experience.
Formal training in acting which is
increasingly necessary, can be ob
tained at dramatic art schools,
located chiefly in New York, and in
more than 1,600 colleges and
universities throughout the country.
College drama curriculums usually
include courses in liberal arts,
speech,
pantomime,
directing,
playwriting, play production, and
history of the drama, as well as
practical courses in acting. From
these, the student develops an ap
preciation of the great plays and a
greater understanding of the roles
he may be called on to play. Gradu
ate degrees in fine arts or drama are
needed for college teaching posi
tions.
Acting demands patience and
total commitment, since aspiring
actors and actresses must wait for
parts or filming schedules, work
long hours, and often do much
traveling. Flawless performances
require long rehearsal schedules
and the tedious memorizing of
lines. The actor needs stamina to
withstand the heat of stage or studio
lights, or the adverse weather con
ditions which may exist “on loca
tion.” Above all, young persons
who plan to pursue an acting career
must have talent and the creative
ability to portray different charac
ters. They must have poise, stage
presence, and aggressiveness to
project themselves to the audience.
At the same time, the ability to fol
low directions is important.
In all media, the best way to start
is to use local opportunities and to
build on the basis of such ex
perience. Many actors successful in
local productions eventually try to
appear on the New York stage. In
experienced actors find it extremely
difficult to obtain employment in
New York or Hollywood particu
larly in the motion picture field
where employment often results
from previous experience on
Broadway.
To become a movie extra, one
must usually be listed by Central
Casting, a no-fee agency which
works with the Screen Extras Guild
and supplies all extras to the major
movie studios in Hollywood. Appli
cants are accepted only when the
number of persons of a particular
type on the list—for example,
athletic young men, old ladies, or
small children—is below the
foreseeable need. In recent years,
only a very small proportion of the
total number of applicants have
succeeded in being listed. Extras
have very little opportunity to ad
vance to speaking roles.
The length of an actor’s or ac
tresses’ working life depends largely
on skill and versatility. Great actors
and actresses can work almost in
definitely. On the other hand, em
ployment becomes increasingly
limited by middle age, especially for
those who become typed in roman
tic, youthful roles. Due to the fac
tors disccussed, persons who intend
to pursue an acting career may find
unstable employment conditions
and financial pressures.
Employment Outlook
Overcrowding has existed in the
acting field for many years and this
condition is expected to persist. In
the legitimate theater, motion pic
tures, radio, and television, job ap
plicants greatly exceed the jobs
available. Moreover, many actors
are employed in their profession for
only a part of the year.
Motion pictures and TV have
greatly reduced employment oppor
tunities for actors in the theater.
Although a motion picture produc
tion may use a very large number of
actors, during filming, films are
widely distributed and may be used
for years. Also, some Americanproduced films are shot in foreign
countries resulting in reduced em
ployment opportunites for Amer
ican actors and actresses. Televi
sion employs a large number of ac
tors on TV programs and commer
cials. However, employment on this
media has been reduced by the
FCC ruling that decreased major
TV network prime time pro
gramming. Local stations often sub
stitute with low cost game shows
that employ few actors or reruns.
Also, the trend toward 1 to 2-hour
programs, and more reruns shor
tens the period of employment and
reduces the number of persons
needed.
One possibility for future growth
in the legitimate theater lies in the
establishment of year-round profes
sional acting companies in cities.
The number of such acting groups
is growing. The recent growth of
summer and winter stock compa
nies, outdoor and regional theatre,
repertory companies, and dinner
theaters also has increased employ
ment opportunities. Dinner theatres
represent the fastest growing area
of employment in the country for
actors. Also, a possible growth in
“Off-Broadway” theatre could
result from the recent seating
capacity expansion. In addition,
some increases may be likely in the
employment of actors on television
in response to expansion of the
Public Broadcasting System, UHF
stations, and cable TV. The
development and wider use of video
cassettes also may result in some
employment opportunities. These
media will have a positive influence
on employment if original material
and programs result, not reruns or
old movies.
Though the field of acting as a
whole is expected to grow faster
than the average for all occupa
tions, through the mid-1980’s, the
number of persons who want to
enter the profession is expected to
be greater than employment oppor
tunities. Even highly talented young
people are likely to face stiff com
petition and economic difficulties.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Actors and actresses in the legiti
mate theater belong to the Actors’
Equity Association, in motion pic
tures, including television films, to
the Screen Actors Guild, Inc., or to
the Screen Extras Guild, Inc., in
television or radio, to the American
Federation of Television and Radio
Artists (AFTRA). These unions
and the show producers sign basic
collective bargaining agreements
which set minimum salaries, hours
of work, and other conditions of
employment. Each actor also signs
a separate contract which may pro
vide for higher salaries than those
specified in the basic agreement.
The minimum weekly salary for
actors in Broadway productions
was about $245 in 1974. Those in
small “off-Broadway” theaters
received a minimum of $137.50 to
$210 a week depending on the
theater’s gross receipts. For shows
on the road, the minimum rate was
about $347.50 a week. (All
minimum salaries are adjusted up
ward automatically, by union con
tract, commensurate with increases
in the cost of living as reflected in
the Bureau of Labor Statistics Con
su m er P ric e In d e x .)
well-known actors and actresses
have salary rates above the
minimums. Salaries of the few top
stars are many times the figures
cited.
Eight performances amount to a
week’s work on the legitimate
stage, and any additional per
formances are paid for as overtime.
After the show opens, the basic
workweek is 36 hours, including 12
hours for rehearsals. Before it
opens, however, the workweek
usually is longer to allow time for
rehearsals. Evening work is, of
course, a regular part of a stage
actor’s life. Rehearsals may be held
late at night and on weekends and
holidays. When plays are on the
road, weekend traveling often is
necessary.
Most actors are covered by a
pension fund and a growing number
have hospitalization insurance to
which employers contribute. All
Equity and AFTRA members have
paid vacations and sick leave. Most
stage actors get little if any unem
ployment compensation solely from
acting since they seldom have
enough employment in any State to
meet the eligibility requirements.
Consequently, when a show closes,
and while waiting for another role
they often have to take any casual
work obtainable.
In 1974, motion picture and
television actors and actresses
earned a minimum daily rate of
Sources of Additional
$172.50, or $604 for a 5-day week.
Information
For extras, the minimum rate was
$46 a day. Actors and actresses
Information on colleges and
who did not work on prime time universities and conservatories
network television received a which offer a major in drama is
minimum program fee of about available from:
$203.50 for a single half-hour pro American Educational Theater Association,
gram and 8 hours of rehearsal time.
1317 F St. NW„ Washington, D.C.
Because of the frequent periods of
20004.
unemployment, characteristic of
this profession, annual earnings
DANCERS
may be low for many lesser-known
performers. According to a recent (D.O.T. 151.028 and 151.048)
survey by the Screen Actors Guild,
Nature of the Work
three-quarters of their members
earned less than $3,500 a year; only
Dancing is an ancient and world
3 percent earned more than
$25,000 a year. In all fields, many wide art that has many different
forms. Professional dancers may
perform in classical ballet or
modern dance, in dance adapta
tions for musical shows, in folk
dances, and in other popular kinds
of dancing. In classical ballet,
movements are based on certain
conventional or styled “positions,”
and women dance “en point” (on
the tips of their toes). In modern
dance, movements are more varied
but are nonetheless carefully
planned and executed to follow a
pattern.
In dance productions, performers
most often work as a corps de ballet
(chorus). However, a group of
selected dancers may do special
numbers, and a very few top artists
do solo work.
Many dancers combine stage
work with full-time teaching. The
few dancers who become choreog
raphers create new ballet or dance
routines. Others are dance directors
who train dancers in new produc
tions.
(This section does not include in
structors of ballroom, American or
international folk dance and other
social dancing.)
Places of Employment
About 7,000 dancers worked on
the stage, screen, and television in
1974. Many more teach at schools
education.
About 200 colleges and universi
ties confer bachelor’s degrees on
students who have majored in
physical education and concen
trated on the dance; majored in a
dance; or majored in a dance pro
gram to prepare students as profes
sional dance artists. Some schools
also give graduate degrees.
A college education is an ad
vantage in obtaining employment as
a teacher of professional dancing or
choreography. However, ballet
dancers who postpone their first au
dition for openings in classical bal
Training and Other
let until graduation may compete at
Qualifications
a disadvantage with younger dan
Serious training for a career in cers.
dancing traditionally begins by age
Professional
schools
usually
12 or earlier. For example, persons require teachers to have experience
who wish to become ballet dancers as a performer; colleges and conser
should begin taking lessons at the vatories generally require graduate
age of 7 or 8. Two to 3 years of degrees, but experience as a per
prior preparation is needed before former often may be substituted.
the young girl should start dancing Maturity and a broad educational
“enpointe.” Ballet training requires background also are important.
from 10 to 12 lessons a week for 11
The dancer’s life is one of
or 12 months in the year and many rigorous
practice
and
selfadditional hours of practice. The discipline. Good health and physi
length of the training period de cal stamina are necessary, both to
pends on the student’s ability and keep in good condition and to fol
physical development, but most low the rugged travel schedule
dancers have their professional au often required.
dition by age 17 or 18. Early and in
Body height and build should not
tense training is also important for vary much from the average. Good
the modern dancer.
feet and normal arches also are
The selection of a professional required. Above all, one must have
dancing school is important for (1) a natural aptitude for dancing, and
setting the pace of training, since a creative ability to express oneself
too early and too severe exercise through dance.
can permanently damage the legs
Seldom does a dancer perform
and feet; and (2) for connections unaccompanied. Therefore, young
with producers may help the stu persons who consider dancing as a
dents obtain employment.
career should be able to function as
Because of the strenuous training part of a team. They also should be
a student’s general education may prepared to face the anxiety of un
not exceed the minimum. However, stable working conditions brought
a dancer should study music, litera on by show closings and audition
ture, and history along with the failures.
arts to help in the interpretation
Except for outstanding stars,
of dramatic episodes and music. women past 30 are rarely hired by
Also, more dancers are being ballet companies, and women past
trained in all forms of dance—bal 25 are rarely hired for Broadway
let, ethnic, modern, and tap—for shows unless they have had ex
work on the professional stage or perience in such productions. Men
of the dance and in other schools
and colleges and universities. A few
teachers, trained in dance therapy,
work in mental hospitals. About 85
percent of all dancers are women,
but in some types of dance, particu
larly ballet and modern, women
constitute only about one-half of
the performers.
Dance teachers are located
chiefly in large cities, but many
smaller cities and towns have
schools of the dance. New York
City is the hub for performing dan
cers.
in ballet and men and women in
modern dance can usually work
longer than other dancers. After the
employable age for performers has
passed, some dancers teach in col
leges or conservatories or establish
their own schools. The few who
become choreographers or dance
directors can continue to work as
long as persons in other occupa
tions.
Employment Outlook
The number seeking professional
careers in dance will continue to ex
ceed available positions, despite an
expected faster than the average
rate of growth in the employment of
dancers.
Most openings in this relatively
small occupation will result from
replacement needs, and competi
tion is expected to be keen. The
best employment opportunities will
be in teaching dance. Opportunities
in stage production will be limited.
The number of stage productions
is expected to decline due to in
creased competition from television
and motion pictures, however,
some jobs will be available in these
media. Financial difficulties of
domestic companies and competi
tion from foreign dancers will
reduce ballet employment. How
ever, some performing dancers will
find jobs in industrial exhibitions,
art shows and state fairs. Others will
work with new professional dance
companies formed from the in
creasing number of civic and com
munity dance groups.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Professional dancers who per
form are members of one of the
unions affiliated with the As
sociated Actors and Artists of
America (AFL-CIO). Dancers in
opera ballet, classical ballet, and
the modern dance belong to the
American Guild of Musical Artists,
Inc.; those on live or videotaped
television belong to the American
Federation of Television and Radio
Artists; those perform in films, TV,
and other forms of motion pictures
belong to the Screen Actors Guild
or the Screen Extras Guild; and
those in musical comedies join Ac
tors’ Equity Association. Other
dancers may be members of other
unions, depending upon the fields
in which they perform. The unions
and producers sign basic agree
ments specifying minimum salary
rates, hours of work, and other con
ditions
of employment.
The
separate contract signed by each
dancer with the producer of the
show may be more favorable than
the basic agreement regarding
salary, hours of work, and working
conditions.
In 1974, the minimum salary for
dancers in ballet and other stage
productions was about $240 a
week. The single performance rate
is about $75 for a solo dance and
about $40 per dancer for a group.
Dancers on tour received an al
lowance of $30 a day in 1974, to
defray the cost of room and board.
The employer pays the cost of
transportation. For a brief ap
pearance in a performance on
television or a few days’ work in a
movie, the minimum rate is higher,
relative to time worked. However,
this difference is offset by the brevi
ty of the engagement and the long
period likely waiting for the next
one. A few performers, of course,
have much higher salaries.
Some dancers qualified to teach
combine this work with engage
ments as performers. Many more
dancers supplement their incomes
by other types of work.
Salaries of ballet teachers vary
with the location and prestige of the
school. Dance teachers in college
and universities are paid on the
same basis as other faculty mem
bers. (See section on “College and
University Teachers.”)
The normal workweek is 30
hours (5 hours per day maximum)
spent in rehearsals and matinee and
evening performances. Extra com
pensation is paid for additional
hours worked. Most stage per
formances take place, of course, in
the evening, and rehearsals require
very long hours, often on weekends
and holidays. For shows on the
road, weekend travel often is
required.
Dancers are entitled to some paid
sick leave and various health and
welfare benefits provided by their
unions, to which the employers
contribute.
Classical musicians play in
symphonies, opera and theater
orchestras, and for other groups
that require orchestral accompani
ments. Most of these musicians play
strings, brass, or woodwinds instru
ments. Some form small groups—
usually a string quartet or a trio—to
give concerts of chamber music.
Many pianists accompany vocal or
instrumental soloists, choral groups
or provide background music in
restaurants or other places. Most
Sources Of Additional
organists play in churches; often
Information
they direct the choir.
Information on colleges and
A few exceptionally brilliant
universities and conservatories of musicians give their own concerts
music which give a major in the and appear as soloists with
dance or some courses in the dance, symphony orchestras. Both classi
as well as details on the types of cal and popular musicians make in
courses and other pertinent infor dividual and group recordings.
mation is available from the Na
A very high proportion of all
tional Dance Association, a division musicians teach instrumental and
of the American Alliance for vocal music in schools and colleges.
Health, Physical Education and Some direct vocal and instrumental
Recreation, 1201 16th St. NW., music, teach music appreciation,
Washington, D.C. 20036.
and give group instruction on an in
strument in elementary and secon
dary school. Many public school
teachers and performing musicians,
MUSICIANS
give private lessons in their own stu
dios or in pupil’s homes.
(D.O.T. 152.028 and 152.048)
A few musicians work in the field
of music therapy in hospitals, and in
Nature of the Work
music libraries.
Professional musicians—whether
they play in a symphony orchestra,
Places of Employment
dance band, rock group, or jazz
About 85,000 persons worked as
combo—generally have behind
performing musicians in 1974.
them many years of formal or infor
mal study and practice. As a rule, Many thousands more taught in ele
musicians specialize in either popu mentary and secondary schools and
lar or classical music; only a few in colleges and universities. Almost
every town and city has at least one
play both types professionally.
Musicians who specialize in private music teacher.
Most professional musicians who
popular music usually play the
trumpet, trombone, clarinet, sax perform work in cities where enter
ophone, organ, or one of the tainment and recording activities
“rhythm” instruments—the piano, are concentrated, such as New
string bass, drums, or guitar. Dance York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Nash
bands play in nightclubs, restau ville, Miami Beach, and New Orle
rants, and at special parties. The ans. Many perform with one of the
major
symphonies,
88
best known bands, jazz groups, rock 28
groups, and solo performers some metropolitan, or 1,100 community
times give concerts and perform on orchestras. Many communities
have orchestras and dance bands,
television.
but in the small towns such work is
usually part time.
In
addition,
thousands
of
qualified
instrumentalists have
other full-time jobs and only occa
sionally work as musicians in dance
bands, that are hired to play at
private parties or for special occa
sions. Classical musicians occa
sionally play in an orchestra,
become conductors or composers,
or do some part-time teaching.
Training and Other
Qualifications
Most people who become profes
sional musicians begin studying an
instrument at an early age. To
acquire great technical skill, a
thorough knowledge of music, and
the ability to interpret music, young
people need intensive training
through private study with an ac
complished musician, in a college
or university which has a strong
music program, or in a conservato
ry of music. For advanced study in
one of these institutions an audition
frequently is necessary. Many
teachers in these schools are ac
complished artists who will train
only promising young musicians.
More than 700 conservatories
and colleges and universities offer a
bachelor’s degree program in music
education to qualify graduates for
the State certificate for elementary
and secondary school teaching
positions. Over 400 conservatories
and collegiate music schools have
been accredited by the National As
sociation of Schools of Music to
award the degree of bachelor of
music to students who major in in
strumental or vocal music. These
programs provide training in musi
cal performance, history and
theory, and some liberal arts
courses. College teaching positions,
usually require advanced degrees
but exceptions may be made for
well-qualified artists.
Musicians who play jazz and
other popular music must have an
understanding of and feeling for
that style of music, but classical
training may expand their employ
ment opportunities. As a rule, they
take lessons with private teachers
when young, and seize every oppor
tunity to play in amateur or profes
sional performances. Some young
people form small dance bands or
rock groups. As they gain ex
perience and become known, they
may audition for other local bands,
and still later, for the better known
bands and orchestras.
Young persons who consider
careers in music should have musi
cal talent, creative ability, and poise
and stage presence to face large au
diences. Since quality of per
formance requires constant study
and practice, self-discipline is vital.
Moreover, musicians who do con
cert and nightclub engagements
must have physical stamina because
of constant travel and rugged time
schedules that often include long
night hours.
Employment Outlook
The music performance field is
expected to remain keenly competi
tive through the mid-1980’s. Op
portunities for concerts and recitals
are not numerous enough to pro
vide adequate employment for all
the pianists, violinists, and other in
strumentalists qualified as concert
artists. Competition usually is keen
for positions which offer stable em
ployment, such as jobs with major
orchestras and teaching positions.
Because of the ease with which a
musician can enter private music
teaching, the number of music
teachers has been more than suffi
cient and probably will continue to
be. Although many opprotunities
are expected for single and short
term emgagements, playing popular
music in night clubs, theaters, and
other places, the supply of qualified
musicians who seek such jobs is
likely to exceed demand. On the
other hand, first-class, experienced
accompanists
and
outstanding
players of stringed instruments are
likely to remain relatively scarce.
Employment of musicians who
perform is expected to grow about
as fast as the average for all occupa
tions through the mid-1980’s.
Although the number of civic
orchestras in smaller communities
has been growing steadily, many
provide only part-time employ
ment. The decline in opportunities
for musicians in theater, radio, and
motion pictures has more than off
set these openings. The increased
use of recorded music has lead to
the decline of opportunities in these
areas. Additional employment is ex
pected from the expanded use of
TV satellites, cable TV, and wider
use of video cassettes.
The employment outlook in
music education for people who are
qualified as teachers as well as
musicians is better than for those
qualified as performers only. How
ever, the supply of music teachers
in the
Nation’s schools
is
adequate—a situation which is like
ly to continue through the mid1980’s.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
The amount received for a per
formance by either classical or
popular musicians depends to a
large extent on their professional
reputation. Musicians in 1 of the 28
major symphony orchestras in the
United States in 1974 received
minimum salaries that ranged from
about $ 190 to $350 a week accord
ing to the American Symphony
Orchestras League, Inc. Eight
orchestras—New York, Boston,
Philadelphia, Cleveland, Cincin
nati, Houston, Chicago, and the Na
tional—have year-round seasons
(50 weeks or more) and minimum
salaries ranging from $10,000 to
$18,000. Other major symphony
orchestras have seasons ranging
from 34 to 52 weeks.
Musicians who played at dances,
club dates, water shows, ballets,
musical comedies, concerts, and in
dustrial shows earned a minimum of
$33 to $40 for 3 hours of work. The
minimum scale for recording is
$100 for a 15 minute tape (3 hours
actual taping time).
Full-time
church
musicians
earned from $7,500 to $16,000 a
year—according to hours worked a
week and level of training.
The salary schedule for all
teachers determines earnings of
music teachers in public schools.
(See section on Elementary and Sec
ondary School Teachers elsewhere in
this book.) Many teachers give pri
vate music lessons to supplement
their earnings. However, earnings are
uncertain and vary according to the
musician’s reputation, the number of
teachers and students in the locality,
and the economic status of the com
munity.
Musicians customarily work at
night and on weekends. They also
must spend considerable time in
practice and in rehearsal.
Many musicians, primarily those
employed by symphony orchestras,
work under master wage agree
ments, which guarantee a season’s
work up to 52 weeks. Musicians in
other areas, however, may face
relatively long periods of unem
ployment between jobs. Thus, their
earnings generally are lower than
those of many other occupations.
Moreover, they may not work
steadily for one employer. Con
sequently, some performers cannot
qualify for unemployment compen
sation, and few have either sick
leave or vacations with pay.
Most professional musicians be
long to the American Federation of
Musicians (AFL-CIO). Concert
soloists also belong to the American
Guild of Musical Artists, Inc. (AFLCIO).
Sources of Additional
Information
For information about wages,
hours of work, and working condi
tions for professional musicians,
contact:
American Federation of Musicians (AFLCIO), 641 Lexington Ave., New York,
N .Y .10022.
Information about the require
ments for certification of organists
and choir masters is available from:
American Guild of Organists, 630 Fifth Ave.,
New York, N.Y. 10020.
of music. A small number of singing
stars make recordings or go on con
cert tours in the United States and
abroad. Somewhat larger numbers
of singers obtain leading or support
ing roles in operas and popular
music shows, or secure engage
ments as concert sologists in ora
torios and other types of per
formances. Some singers also
become members of opera and
musical comedy choruses or other
professional choral groups. Popular
music singers perform in musical
shows of all kinds—in the movies,
on the stage, on radio and televi
sion, in concerts and in nightclubs
and other enterainment places. The
best known popular music singers
make and sell many recordings.
Since most singers of both classi
cal and popular music have only
part-time or irregular employment
they often have other jobs and sing
only in the evenings or on
weekends. Some give private voice
lessons. A number of singers teach
courses in general music and direct
elementary and secondary school
choruses. Others give voice training
or direct choral groups in churches,
in music conservatories or in col
leges and universities.
A list of accredited schools of
music is available from:
National Association of Schools of Music,
11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Reston, Va.
22090.
Further information about music
teaching in elementary and secon
dary schools is available from:
Music Educators National Conference, Suite
601, 8150 Leesburg Pike, Vienna, Va.
22180.
SINGERS
(D.O.T. 152.028 and .048)
Nature of the Work
Professional singing is an art that
usually requires not only a fine
voice but also a highly developed
technique and a broad knowledge
Places of Employment
About 36,000 persons worked as
professional singers in 1974. Op
portunities for signing engagements
are mainly in New York City, Los
Angeles, Las Vegas, San Francisco,
Dallas and Chicago—the Nation’s
chief entertainment centers. Nash
ville, Tennessee, a major center for
country and western music, is one
of the most important places for
employment of singers for “live”
performances and recordings. Sing
ers who teach music in elementary
and secondary schools, colleges,
universities, and conservation are
employed throughout the country.
Many work part-time, chiefly as
church singers and choir masters.
Training and Other
Qualifications
Young persons who want to sing
professionally should acquire a
broad background in music, includ
ing its theory and history. The abili
ty to dance may be helpful, since
singers are sometimes required to
dance. In addition, those interested
in a singing career should start
piano lessons at an early age to
become familiar with the musical
scale and music composition. As a
rule, voice training should not begin
until after the individual has ma
tured physically, although young
boys who sing in church choirs
receive some training before their
voices change. Moreover, because
voice training often continues for
years after the singer’s professional
career has started, a prospective
singer must have great determina
tion. An audition before a com
petent voice teacher to decide
whether professional training is
warranted is also important.
To prepare for careers as singers
of classical music young people can
enroll in a music conservatory, a
school or department of music con
nected with a college or university,
or take private voice lessons. These
schools provide voice training, and
training in understanding and in
terpreting music, including musicrelated training in foreign languages
and sometimes dramatic training.
After completing 4-years of study,
the graduate may receive either the
degree of bachelor of music,
bachelor of science or arts (in
music), or bachelor of fine arts.
Young singers who plan to teach
in public schools need at least a
bachelor’s degree with a major in
music education and must meet the
State certification requirements for
teachers. Over 700 colleges and
universities offer such training.
Most college teachers must have a
master’s degree or doctor’s degree,
but exceptions may be made for
well-qualified artists.
Although voice training is an
asset for singers of popular music,
many with untrained voices have
had successful careers. The typical
popular song does not demand that
the voice be developed to cover as
wide a range on the musical scale as
does classical music, and the lack of
voice projection may be overcome
by use of a microphone.
Young singers of popular songs
may become known by participat
ing in local amateur and paid
shows. These engagements may
lead to employment with local
dance bands or rock groups and
possibly later with better known
ones.
In addition to musical ability,
perseverance and an outstanding
personality, a singing career
requires an attractive appearance,
good contacts, and good luck. Sin
gers also must have physical
stamina to adapt to rigorous time
and travel schedules which often in
clude working night hours.
and other areas—but not enough to
provide steady employment for all
qualified singers. Singers who can
meet State certification require
ments may find positions as music
teacher.
Recorded music has replaced the
“live” singer on radio; television
performances by singers are
limited. However, the demand is
growing for singers who record
popular music to do radio and
television commercials. Additional
employment is expected from the
expanded use of TV satellites, cable
TV, and wider use of video cas
settes.
A singing career is sometimes
relatively short, since it depends on
a good voice and public acceptance
of the artists, both of which may be
affected by age. Due to these cir
cumstances and factors discussed
elsewhere in the text, singers may
be subject to unstable employment
conditions and the pressure of unre
liable financial circumstances.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Except for a few well-known con
cert soloists, opera stars, top
recording artists of popular music,
and some dance band singers. Most
professional singers experience dif
ficulty in obtaining regular employ
ment and have to supplement their
incomes.
Singers generally work at night
and on weekends. Work in the en
tertainment field is seasonal and
few performers have steady jobs.
Singers who appeared in theatri
Employment Outlook
cal and TV motion picture produc
The employment outlook for sin tions received a minimum of
gers is expected to remain keenly $187.50 a day or $604 a week in
competitive through the mid-1980’s 1974. Singers in opera choruses
despite an expected faster than the received $40 per performance. A
average rate of employment few opera soloists and popular sing
growth. Many short-term jobs are ers earned thousands of dollars a
expected in the opera and concert performance.
Professional singers usually be
stage, movies, theater, nightclubs,
radio and television, dance bands, long to a branch of the AFL-CIO
union, the Associated Actors and
Artists of America. Singers on the
concert stage or in opera belong to
the American Guild of Musical
Artists, Inc.; those who sing on
radio or live television or make
phonograph recordings are mem
bers of the American Federation of
Television and Radio Artists; sin
gers in the variety and nightclub
field belong to the American Guild
of Variety Artists; those who sing in
musical comedy and operettas be
long to the Actors’ Equity Associa
tion; and those who sing in the
movies belong to the Screen Actors
Guild, Inc.
Sources of Additional
Information
Information about accredited
schools and departments of music is
available from:
National Association of Schools of Music,
11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Reston, Va.
22090.
For information about music
teaching in elementary and secon
dary schools contact:
Music Educators National Conference, Suite
601, 8150 Leesburg Pike, Vienna, Va.
22180.
DESIGN
OCCUPATIONS
Good design can improve the ap
pearance and usefulness of the
products that we use and the places
where we live and work, as well as
increase sales by improving their
“eye appeal.” Making products or
places more appealing and func
tional and bringing them to the at
tention of the public is the job of
people in design occupations.
Many design careers require at
least a college education. For exam
ple, architects must have at least 5
years of college and professional edu
cation. Regardless of the amount of
formal training required, people in
design occupations should be creative
and be able to communicate ideas
through their designs and displays.
Job opportunities in design occu
pations are expected to increase
through the mid-1980’s, primarily
because a growing and more af
fluent population is becoming more
design conscious.
This chapter describes 5 design
occupations: architects, commercial
artists, industrial designers, interior
designers, and landscape architects.
(Other jobs that often require design
skills—for example, engineers—are
described elsewhere in this book.)
ARCHITECTS
(D O T. 001.081)
Nature of the Work
Attractive buildings improve the
physical environment of a commu
nity. But buildings also must be safe
and allow people both inside and
around them to properly perform
their duties. Architects design
buildings that successfully combine
these elements of attractiveness,
safety, and usefulness.
Most architects provide profes
sional services to clients planning a
building project. These services
begin in the early stages of the proj
ect's development and continue
until all work is completed.
The architect and client first
discuss the purposes, requirements,
and cost of a project, as well as any
preference on design that the client
may have. The architect then
prepares a rough drawing to show
the scale and structural relation
ships of the building.
After discussing preliminary
drawings with the client, the
architect develops a final design
showing the floor plans and the
structural details of the project. For
example, in designing a school, the
architect determines the width of
corridors and stairways so that stu
dents may move easily from one
class to another; the type and ar
rangement of storage space, and the
location and size of classrooms,
laboratories,
lunchroom
or
cafeteria, gymnasium, and adminis
trative offices.
Next the architect prepares
working drawings showing the
exact dimensions of every part of
the structure and the location of
plumbing, heating units, electrical
outlets, and air conditioning.
Architects also specify the proj
ect’s building materials, construc
tion equipment, and in, some cases,
interior furnishings. In all cases, the
architect must insure that the struc
tures’ design and specifications
conform to local and State building
codes, zoning laws, fire regulations,
and other ordinances.
After all drawings are completed,
the architect assists the client in
selecting a contractor and in
negotiating the contract. As con
struction proceeds, there are
periodic visits to the building site to
insure that the contractor is follow
ing the design and using the
specified materials. The job is not
completed until construction is
finished, all required tests are
made, and guarantees are received
from the contractor.
Architects design a wide variety
of structures such as houses,
churches,
hospitals,
office
buildings, and airports. They also
design multibuilding complexes for
urban renewal projects, college
campuses, industrial parks, and new
towns. Besides designing structures,
architects also may help in selecting
building sites, in preparing cost and
land use studies, and in long range
planning for site development.
When working on large projects
or for large architectural firms,
architects often specialize in one
phase of the work such as desig
ning, or administering construction
contracts. This often requires work
ing with engineers, urban planners,
landscape architects, and other
design personnel.
Places of Employment
About
40,000
registered
(licensed) architects were em
ployed in 1974. Many unlicensed
architectural school graduates also
work as architects.
About two-fifths of all architects
are self-employed, either practicing
individually or as partners. Most of
the others work in architectural
firms, for builders, for real estate
firms, or for other businesses that
have large construction programs.
Some work for government agen
cies, often in city and community
planning or urban redevelopment.
About 1,300 architects work for the
Federal Government, mainly for
the Departments of Defense, Hous
ing and Urban Development, and
the General Services Administra
tion.
Although found in many areas, a
large proportion of architects were
employed in seven cities: Boston,
Chicago, Los Angeles, New York,
Philadelphia, San Francisco, and
Washington.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
All States and the District of
Columbia require architects to be
licensed. To qualify for the 2-day
licensing exam, a person must have
solving technical problems, and be
artistically inclined. They also must
be prepared to work in the competi
tive environment of business where
leadership and ability to work with
others are important. Working for
architects or building contractors
during summer vacations is useful
for gaining practical knowledge.
New graduates usually begin as
junior drafters in architectural
firms, where they make drawings
and models of structures under the
direction of a registered architect.
After several years of experience,
they may advance to chief or senior
drafters responsible for all major
details of a set of working drawings
and for supervising other drafters.
Others may work as designers, con
struction contract administrators,
or specification
writers who
prepare directions explaining the
architect’s plan to the builder. Em
ployees who become associates in
their firms receive, in addition to a
salary, a share of the profits.
Usually, however, the architect’s
goal is to establish a private prac
tice.
Architects design floor plans for new building.
either a bachelor of architecture
degree followed by 3 years of ex
perience in an architect’s office or a
master of architecture degree fol
lowed by 2 years of experience. As
a substitute for formal training,
most States accept additional ex
perience (usually 12 years) and
successful
completion
of an
equivalency test for admission to
the licensing examination. Many
architectural school graduates work
in the field even though they are not
licensed. However, a registered
architect is required to take legal
responsibility for all work.
In 1974, the National Architec
tural Accrediting Board had ac
credited 76 of the 100 schools of
fering professional degrees in
architecture. Most of these schools
offer a 5-year curriculum leading to
a Bachelor of Architecture degree
or a 6-year curriculum leading to a
Master of Architecture degree. Stu
dents may also transfer to profes
sional degree programs after
completing a 2-year junior or com
munity college program in architec
ture. Many architectural schools
also offer graduate education for
those who already have their first
professional degree. Although such
training is not essential for practic
ing architects, it is often desirable
for those in research and teaching.
A typical college architectural pro
gram includes courses in architec
tural theory, design, graphics, en
gineering, and urban planning, as
well as courses in English, mathe
matics,
chemistry,
sociology,
economics, and a foreign language.
Persons planning careers in
architecture should be able to work
independently, have a capacity for
Employment Outlook
Job prospects for architects are
expected to be favorable through
the mid-1980’s. Employment of
architects is expected to rise at a
much faster rate than the average
for all workers during this period. In
recent years, the number of degrees
granted in architecture also has
been increasing rapidly. If this trend
continues, the number of people
seeking employment in the field
should be roughly in balance with
the number of openings from
growth, deaths, and retirements.
The outlook for these workers may
change, however, during shortrun
periods. Since the demand for
architects is highly dependent upon
the level of new construction, any
significant upsurge or downturn in
building could temporarily alter de
mand.
Most job openings are expected
to be in architectural firms but
some openings are also expected to
occur in colleges and universities,
construction firms and the Govern
ment as agencies become more in
volved in environmental design and
planning. (See statement on Urban
Planners elsewhere in this book.)
The major factor contributing to
the increase in employment of
architects is the expected rapid
growth of nonresidential construc
tion. In addition, the projected in
crease in enrollments in architec
tural programs should result in ad
ditional requirements for architects
to teach in colleges and universities.
Growing public concern about
the quality of the physical environ
ment is expected to increase the de
mand for urban redevelopment and
city and community environmental
planning projects. This should
create further opportunities for em
ployment.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
The average salary for architects
in 1973 was $23,000 according to
the limited information available.
Architects with well-established
private practices generally earn
much more than high-paid salaried
employees of architectural firms.
Although the range in their incomes
is very wide, some architects with
many years of experience and good
reputations earned well over
$35,000 a year. Architects starting
their own practices may go through
a period when their expenses are
greater than their incomes. Annual
incomes may fluctuate due to
changing business conditions.
Depending on their college
records,
architects
having a
bachelor’s degree and no ex
perience could start in the Federal
Government at either $163 or $202
a week in 1974. Architects who
have completed all requirements
for the master’s degree can start at
$247 and those with a Ph. D. at
$334 a week.
Most architects spend long hours
at the drawing board in well
equipped offices. An architect
sometimes has to work overtime to
meet a deadline. The routine often
is varied by interviewing clients or
contractors, and discussing the
designs, construction procedures,
or building materials of a project
with other architects or engineers.
Contract administrators frequently
work outdoors during inspections at
construction sites.
Sources of Additional
Information
General
information
about
careers in architecture including a
catalog of publications can be ob
tained from:
The American Institute of Architecture,
1735 New York Ave., Washington, D.C.
20036.
Information about schools of
architecture and a list of junior col
leges offering courses in architec
ture are available from:
The Association of Collegiate Schools of
Architecture, Inc., 1735 New York
Ave., Washington, D. C. 20036.
COMMERCIAL ARTISTS
(D.O.T. 141.031 and .081,
970.281 and .381, and 979.381)
Nature of the Work
and determines color and other ele
ments of design. Preparation of a
“rough visual” or sketch is the next
step. The layout artist may change
the visual after consulting with the
director and complete a more com
prehensive layout for the customer.
A variety of specialists work with
the layout artist to turn out the
finished product. These include
renderers, who use magic markers
to make rough drafts; letterers, who
execute appropriate lettering either
freehand or with mechanical aids;
illustrators, who sketch and draw in
more finished form; and pasteup
and mechanical workers, who cut
and paste basic parts of the adver
tisement or other artwork by using
a ruling pen and other drafting
tools. Some workers, called general
board workers, spend nearly all their
time at the drawing board perform
ing many of these specializations.
Apprentices help general board
workers or other specialists by
doing routine jobs such as separat
ing colors and cutting mats.
In a small office, the art director
may perform the layout and board
work with the aid of apprentices. In
a large office, the art director
develops concepts with the copy
writer; sets standards; deals with
clients; and purchases needed
photographs, illustrations, lettering,
and other artwork from freelancers.
Advertising artists create the
concept and artwork for a wide
variety of items. These include
direct mail advertising, catalogs,
counter displays, slides, and film
strips. They also design or lay out
the editorial pages and features and
produce or purchase the necessary
illustrations or artwork. Some com
mercial artists specialize in produc
ing fashion illustrations, greeting
cards, or book illustrations, or in
making technical drawings for in
dustry.
A team of commercial artists
with varying skills and specializa
tions often creates the artwork in
newspapers and magazines and on
billboards, brochures, catalogs, and
television commercials. This team
is supervised by an art director, who
develops the artistic aspects of an
advertising plan, and then turns it
over to a layout artist for further
refinement. The layout artist who
Places of Employment
constructs or arranges elements of
About 64,000 persons, one-third
the advertisement, also selects and
lays out illustrations and photo of them women, worked as com
graphs, plans use of typography, mercial artists in 1974. Although
some commercial artists can be
found in nearly every city, the
majority work in large cities, such
as New York, Los Angeles, Boston,
Washington, D.C., and Chicago,
where the largest users of commer
cial art are located.
Most commercial artists work as
staff artists for advertising depart
ments of large companies, printing
and publishing firms, textile compa
nies, photographic studios, televi
sion and motion picture studios, de
partment stores, and a variety of
other business organizations. Many
are self-employed or freelance
artists. Some salaried commercial
artists also do freelance work in
their spare time. About 2,400 com
mercial artists work for Federal
Government agencies, principally
in the Defense Department. A few
teach in art schools.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Artistic
ability,
judgment,
imagination and a capacity to
visualize ideas on paper are impor
tant qualifications for success in
commercial art. However, these
qualities must be developed by spe
cialized training in the techniques
of commercial and applied art.
Education in the fine arts—paint
ing, sculpture, or architecture—and
in academic studies generally pro
vides a good foundation for obtain
ing employment in commercial art,
and may be essential for promotion.
Special courses in visualization,
typography and production, and
TV commercial creation and
production also are desirable.
The most widely accepted train
ing for commercial art is the in
struction given in art schools or in
stitutes that specialize in commer
cial and applied art. To enter art
school, an applicant must usually
have a high school education. Some
schools admit only applicants who
submit acceptable work samples.
The course of study, which may in
clude some
academic
work,
generally takes 2 or 3 years, and a
certificate is awarded on gradua
tion. A growing number of art
schools, particularly those in or
connected with universities, require
4 years or more of study and confer
a bachelor’s degree—commonly
the bachelor of fine arts (B.F.A.).
About 300 colleges and universities
confer such degrees. In these
schools, commercial art instruction
is supplemented by liberal art
courses, such as English and his
tory. Limited training in commer
cial art also may be obtained through
public vocational high schools and
practical experience on the job.
However, supplemental training
usually is needed for advancement.
Beginners also should supplement
their formal education and training
by experience in doing posters,
layouts, illustrations and similar
projects for schools and other or
ganizations.
The first year in art school may
be devoted primarily to the study of
fundamentals—perspective, design,
color harmony, composition—and
to the use of pencil, crayon, pen
and ink, and other art media. Sub
sequent study, generally more spe
cialized, includes drawing from life,
advertising design, graphic design,
lettering, typography, illustrations,
and other courses in the student’s
particular field of interest.
The various specialties, however,
differ in some of the specific abili
ties required. For example, letterers
and retouchers must do precise and
detailed work that requires excel
lent coordination, whereas illustra
tors and designers need imagina
tion, a distinctive art style, and, in
most cases, the ability to draw well.
Some experience with photog
raphy, typography, and printing
production is useful in art direction
or design. Freelance commercial
artists must sell both ideas and
finished work to clients. A
knowledge of type specifications
and printing production methods is
very helpful. A business sense and
responsibility in meeting deadlines
are assets, also. Art directors need a
strong educational background in
art and business practices and the
liberal
arts.
Advertising
art
directors require a special kind of
creativity—the ability to conceive
ideas that will stimulate the sale of
the client’s products or services.
Beginning commercial artists
usually need some on-the-job train
ing to qualify for other than strictly
routine work. Advancement is
based largely on the individual’s
artistic talent, creative ability, and
education. After considerable ex
perience, many salaried commer
cial artists leave to do freelance
work. Most illustrators are free
lancers; many of them have an
agent.
Commercial artists usually as
semble their best artwork into a
“portfolio,” to display their work.
A good portfolio is essential in ob
taining initial employment and
freelance assignments as well as for
job changes.
qualified artists to do three-dimen
sional work with engineering con
cepts. (See statement on Industrial
Designers.) In addition, several
thousand jobs for commercial
artists are expected to open each
year throughout the period to
replace workers who will die, retire,
or leave the field for other reasons.
The demand for commercial
artists is expected to vary by spe
cialization or type. For example,
demand for freelance artists is ex
pected to increase; experienced
paste-up and mechanical artists are
always needed; jobs for designers,
art directors, and layout men will be
fewer, much sought after and open
only to experienced, high talented,
and creative artists.
Commercial art occupations are
particularly sensitive to changes in
business conditions. Therefore, job
seekers may find opportunities in
any one year more or less plentiful
in accordance to economic condi
tions.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
In 1974, beginning commercial
artists having no training beyond
vocational high school typically
earned from $85 to $90 a week;
Employment Outlook
graduates of 2-year professional
Talented and well-trained com schools, $90 to $100 a week; and
mercial artists may face competi graduates of 4-year post-high
tion for employment and advance school programs, $100 to $120 a
ment in most kinds of work through week, according to the limited data
the mid-1980’s. Those with only available. Talented artists who had
average ability and little specialized strong educational backgrounds
training probably will encounter and good portfolios, however,
keen competition for beginning started at higher salaries. After a
jobs and have limited opportunities few years of experience, qualified
artists may expect to earn $140 to
for advancement.
Employment
of commercial $ 160 a week or more. Art directors,
artists is expected to increase about designers, executives, well-known
as fast as the average for all occupa freelance illustrators, and others in
tions through the mid-1980’s. One top positions generally have much
anticipated area of growth is in higher earnings, from $300 to $500
visual advertising such as television a week or more.
Earnings of freelance artists vary
graphics, packaging displays, and
poster and window displays. The widely, since they are affected by
expanding field of industrial design factors such as skill level, variety,
also is expected to require more and popularity of work. Freelancers
receive from $25 for a single blackand-white fashion sketch to $2,000
for a color cover for a national
magazine. Freelance artists may be
paid by the hour or by the assign
ment. Commercial artists who
worked for the Federal Govern
ment in 1974 had an average an
nual salary of $13,196 or $256 a
week.
Salaried
commercial
artists
generally work 35 to 40 hours a
week, but sometimes they must
work additional hours and under a
considerable amount of pressure in
order to meet deadlines. Freelance
artists usually have irregular work
ing hours.
Sources of Additional
Information
Information on institutions offer
ing programs in commercial art is
available from:
National Art Education Association, Na
tional Education Association, 1916 As
sociation Dr., Reston, Va. 22091.
INDUSTRIAL DESIGNERS
(D.O.T. 142.081)
Nature of the Work
When people buy a product,
whether it’s a home appliance, a
new car, or a ball point pen, they
want it to be attractive as well as
useful. Industrial designers combine
artistic talent with knowledge of
marketing, materials, machines,
and methods of production to im
prove the appearance and func
tional design of products so that
they compete favorably with similar
goods on the market.
As the first step in their work, in
dustrial designers study the product
and competing products to deter
mine possible uses. Then they
sketch different designs and consult
with engineers, production super
visors, and sales and market
research personnel about the prac
ticability and sales appeal of each
idea.
After company officials select the
most suitable design, the industrial
designer or a professional modeler
make a model, often of clay so that
it can be easily changed. After any
necessary revisions, a final or work
ing model is made, usually of the
material to be used in the finished
product. The approved model is
then put into production.
Some industrial designers seek to
create favorable public images for
companies and for government
services such as transportation by
developing trademarks or symbols
that appear on the firm’s product,
advertising, brochures, and sta
tionery. Some design containers
and packages which both protect
and promote their contents. Others
prepare small display exhibits or the
entire layout for industrial fairs.
Some design the interior layout of
special
purpose
commercial
buildings such as restaurants and
supermarkets.
Industrial designers employed by
a manufacturing company usually
work only on the products made by
their employer. This may involve
filling day-to-day design needs of
the
company
or
long-range
planning of new products. Con
sultants for more than one industri
al firm may plan and design a great
variety of products.
ample, New York, Chicago, Los
Angeles, and San Francisco. Those
with industrial firms usually work in
or near the manufacturing plants of
their companies, which often are
located in small and medium size
cities.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Completing a course of study in
industrial design in an art school, in
the design or art department of a
university, or in a technical college
is the usual requirement for enter
ing this field of work. Persons
majoring in engineering, architec
ture, and fine arts may qualify as in
dustrial designers if they have ap
propriate experience and artistic
talent. Most large manufacturing
firms hire only industrial designers
who have a bachelor’s degree in the
field.
In 1974, 41 colleges and art
schools offered programs or courses
in industrial design. The Indus
trial Designers Society of America
recognizes 25 of these programs as
effective in preparing students for
employment as industrial designers.
Industrial
design
programs
usually take 4 years, although a few
colleges and universities require 5
years. These schools award a
bachelor’s degree in industrial
design or fine arts; some also award
a master’s degree. Admittance to
most of these schools requires a
high school diploma. In some cases,
students must present sketches and
other examples of their artistic
ability.
Industrial design programs differ
considerably among schools. Most
college and university programs
Places of Employment
About 10,000 persons—about 10
percent women—were employed as
industrial designers in 1974. Most
worked for large manufacturing
companies designing either con
sumer or industrial products or for
design consulting firms. Others did
freelance work, or were on the
staffs of architectural and interior
design firms.
Industrial design consultants
work mainly in large cities, for ex
Industrial designers confer on plans for new product design.
stress the engineering and technical
aspects of the field; art schools
generally
stress
a
strong
background in art. In most pro
grams, students spend much time in
the lab designing objects in three
dimensions. In studio courses, stu
dents make drawings and models
with clay, wood, plaster, and other
easily worked materials. In schools
that have the necessary machinery,
students make models of their
designs while learning to use metal
working and woodworking machin
ery. Students also take basic and
abstract art and sculpture courses.
Some schools require courses in
basic engineering and in composi
tion of materials. Courses in busi
ness administration and marketing
can be helpful in getting a job.
Industrial designers must have
creative talent, drawing skills, and
the ability to see familiar objects in
new ways. They must understand
and meet the needs and tastes of the
public, rather than design only to
suit their own artistic sensitivity.
Designers
should
not
be
discouraged when their ideas are
rejected—often designs must be
resubmitted many times before one
is accepted.
Since
industrial
designers must cooperate with en
gineers and other staff members,
the ability to work and commu
nicate with others is important.
Design consultants should also un
derstand business practices and
have sales ability.
consulting firms.
Employment Outlook
Employment in this relatively
small occupation is expected to
grow about as fast as the average
for all occupations. A growing
population and rising incomes will
create markets for newly designed
products, for improved designs of
existing products and packaging
and, in turn, for industrial designers
who create them. Some employ
ment opportunities also will arise
each year as designers die, retire or
leave the field.
Employment opportunities are
expected to be best for college
graduates with degrees in industrial
design. Opportunities will also arise
for engineering, and architectural
school graduates.
Demand for industrial designers
may fluctuate over short-run
periods. During times of economic
downturns when consumer and in
dustrial demand for new products is
dampened, requirements for these
workers may decline.
Frequent redesign of household
products, automobiles, and indus
trial equipment has always created
a need for designers. Although
recently the trend has been away
from annual style changes, further
emphasis on safer products should
increase demand for industrial
designers since a safer product is
usually a better designed product.
Small companies probably will
Applicants for jobs should assem make increasing use of services of
ble a “ portfolio” of drawings and fered by industrial design consult
sketches to demonstrate their ing firms to compete more effec
creativity and ability to commu tively with larger firms. However,
nicate ideas.
some of these services, such as
New graduates of industrial trademark and package design,
design programs frequently assist could be offered by advertising
experienced designers and do sim agencies.
ple assignments. As they gain ex
Earnings and Working
perience, they may become super
Conditions
visors with major responsibility for
Salaries for inexperienced indus
the design of a product or a group
of products. Those who have an trial designers with a bachelor’s
established reputation and the degree generally ranged from
necessary funds may start their own $9,000 to $12,000 a year in 1974,
according to limited data. After
several years experience, it is possi
ble to earn $14,000 to $18,000 a
year. Salaries of those with many
years of experience averaged more
than $20,000 a year, but varied ac
cording to individual talent and the
size and type of firm.
Though earnings of industrial
designers who own their consulting
firms fluctuate markedly, in recent
years most consultants earned
between $24,000 and $32,000;
heads of large well-known firms
earned considerably more.
Sources of Additional
Information
A brochure about careers and a
list of schools offering courses and
degrees in industrial design are
available for 50 cents from;
Industrial Designers Society of America,
1750 Old Meadow Rd., McLean, Va.
22101.
INTERIOR DESIGNERS
(D.O.T. 142.051)
Nature of the Work
The creative work of interior
designers, sometimes called interior
decorators, helps make our living,
working, and playing areas more at
tractive
and
useful.
Interior
designers plan and supervise the
design and arrangement of building
interiors and furnishings. They help
clients select and estimate the cost
of furniture, draperies, other
fabrics, floor coverings, and acces
sories. Interior designers may do
“boardwork,” particularly on large
assignments. Boardwork includes
work on floor plans and elevations
and preparing sketches or other
perspective drawings so clients can
visualize their plans. After the
client approves both the plans and
the cost, the designer may make ar
rangements
for
buying
the
furnishings; for supervising the
work of painters, floor finishers,
cabinetmakers, carpet layers, and
other craft workers; and for in
stalling
and
arranging
the
furnishings.
Many large department and fur
niture stores have separate design
departments
to
advise
their
customers on decorating and design
plans. The designer’s principal
function in these departments is to
help sell the store’s merchandise,
although materials from outside
sources may be used occasionally
when they are essential to the
customer’s plans. Department store
designers frequently advise the
store’s buyers and executives about
style and color trends in interior
furnishings.
Interior designers may work on
private homes or commercial
buildings. Those who specialize in
commercial structures often work
for clients on large design projects
such as the interiors of entire office
buildings, hospitals, and libraries.
Generally they plan the complete
layout of rooms without changes to
the structure of the building. Some
times they redesign or renovate the
interiors of old buildings. In these
cases, an architect must check the
plans to assure compliance with
Other interior designers work in
building requirements and to solve
structural problems. Some interior large department or furniture
designers also design the furniture stores, and a few have permanent
and accessories to be used in vari jobs with hotel and restaurant
ous structures, and then arrange for chains. Some work for architects,
their manufacture. A few have furniture suppliers, antique dealers,
unusual jobs such as designing in furniture and textile manufacturers,
teriors of ships and aircraft, while or other manufacturers in the in
others design stage sets used for terior furnishing field.
motion pictures or television.
Interior designers work for
magazines that feature articles on
Places of Employment
home furnishings. Some large in
About 34,000 persons—half of dustrial corporations employ interi
them men—worked as interior or designers on a permanent basis.
designers in 1974. Most workers in
this occupation are employed in Training, Other Qualifications,
large cities.
and Advancement
Some interior designers own their
own establishment, either alone or
Formal training in interior design
as members of a firm with other is becoming increasingly important
designers. Large design firms em for entrance into this field. Most de
ploy designers who work independ partment stores, well-established
ently or as assistants to more design firms, and other major em
senior designers.
ployers will accept only profes
sionally
trained
people
for
beginning jobs. The types of train
ing available include 3-year pro
grams in a professional school of in
terior design, 4-year college or
university programs which issue a
bachelor’s degree, or post-graduate
programs leading to a master’s
degree or the Ph. D. The basic
course of study usually includes the
principles of design, history of art,
freehand and mechanical drawing,
painting, study of the essentials of
architecture as they relate to interi
ors, design of furniture and exhibi
tions, and study of various materi
als, such as woods, plastics, metals,
and fabrics. A knowledge of
furnishings, art pieces, and antiques
is important. In addition, courses in
sales, business procedures, and
other business subjects are valua
ble.
Membership in the American
Society of Interior Design is a
recognized mark of achievement in
this profession. Membership usually
requires the completion of 3 or 4
years of post-high school education
in design, and several years of prac
tical experience in the field, includ
ing supervisory work.
Persons starting in interior design
usually serve a training period,
either with design firms, in depart
ment stores, or in furniture stores.
They may act as receptionists, as
shoppers with the task of matching
materials or finding accessories, or
as stockroom assistants, salesper
sons, assistant decorators, or junior
designers. In most instances, from 1
to 5 years of on-the-job training is
required before a trainee becomes
eligible
for
advancement
to
designer. Beginners who do not get
trainee jobs often work selling
fabric, lamps, or other interior
furnishings to gain experience in
dealing with customers and to
become familiar with the merchan
dise. This experience may help in
obtaining a job in design or may
lead to a career in merchandising.
After considerable experience,
designers may advance to design
department
head,
interior
furnishings coordinator, or to other
supervisory positions in department
stores or in large design firms. If
they have the necessary funds, they
may open their own businesses. Ex
ceptionally talented people can ad
vance rapidly.
Artistic talent—color sense, good
taste, imagination—good business
judgment, and ability to work with
detail and to deal with people are
important assets for success in this
field. An advantage to interior
design as a career is the satisfaction
of seeing the results of one’s work.
training, and business ability, and
many applicants vie for the better
jobs. Talented college graduates
who major in interior design and
graduates of professional schools of
interior design will find the best op
portunities for employment. Those
with less talent or without formal
training will find it increasingly dif
ficult to enter this field.
Employment of interior designers
is expected to increase about as fast
as the average for all occupations
through the mid-1980’s. Growth in
population, personal incomes, ex
penditures for home and office
furnishings, and the increasing use
of design services in both homes
and commercial establishments
should contribute to a greater de
mand for these workers. In addition
to new jobs, some openings will be
created by the need to replace
designers who die, retire, or leave
the field.
Department and furniture stores
are expected to employ an increas
ing number of designers as their
share in the growing volume of
design work for commercial
establishments and public buildings
increases. Interior design firms also
are expected to continue to expand.
Employment of interior de
signers, however, is sensitive to
changes in general economic condi
tions because people often forego
design services when the economy
slows down.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Beginners are usually paid a
straight salary plus a small commis
sion. Starting salaries can range
from $85 to $125 a week; firms in
large metropolitan areas usually
pay the higher salaries.
Some
experienced
interior
Employment Outlook
designers are paid straight salaries,
Persons seeking beginning jobs in some receive salaries plus commis
interior designing are expected to sions based on the value of their
face competition through the mid- sales, while others work entirely on
1980’s. Interior designing is a com commissions.
Incomes of experienced de
petitive field that requires talent,
signers vary greatly. Many per
sons earn from $6,000 to $12,000 a
year, while highly successful
designers earn around $25,000 an
nually. A small number of na
tionally recognized professionals
earn well over $50,000.
The earnings of self-employed
designers vary widely depending on
the volume of business, their
professional prestige, the economic
level of their clients, and their own
business competence.
Designers’ work hours are some
times long and irregular. Designers
usually adjust their work day to suit
the needs of their clients, meeting
with them during the evenings or on
weekends, when necessary.
Sources of Additional
Information
For information about careers in
interior design and a list of schools
offering programs in this field, con
tact:
American Society of Interior Design, 730
Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10019.
Foundation for Interior Design Education
Research, 1750 Old Meadow Rd.,
McLean, Va. 22101.
LANDSCAPE
ARCHITECTS
(D.O.T. 019.081)
Nature of the Work
Everyone enjoys attractively
designed private yards, public
parks, and commercial areas. Land
scape architects design these areas
to fit in with people’s needs and
aesthetic sense.
Landscape architects assist many
types of organizations in planning
and designing a project from a real
estate firm starting a new suburban
development to a city constructing
an airport or park. They may plan
and arrange trees, shrubbery, walk
ways, open spaces, and other fea
tures as well as supervise the neces
sary grading, construction, and
planting.
Landscape architects first con
sider the nature and purpose of the
project, the funds available, and the
proposed buildings in planning a
site. Next, they study the site itself,
mapping features such as the slope
of the land and the position of exist
ing buildings and trees. They also
observe the sunny parts of the site
at different times of the day, soil
texture, existing utilities, and many
other landscape features. Then,
after consulting with the project
architect or engineer they draw up
plans to develop the site. If the plan
is approved, landscape architects
prepare working drawings showing
all existing and proposed features
such as buildings, roads, walkways,
terraces, grading, and drainage
structures in planted areas. Land
scape architects outline in detail the
methods of constructing features
and draw up lists of building materi
als. They then may invite landscape
contractors to bid for the work.
Although landscape architects
help design and supervise a wide
variety of projects, some specialize
in certain types of projects such as
parks and playgrounds, hotels and
resorts, shopping centers, or public
housing. Still others specialize in
services such as regional planning
and resource management, feasi
bility and cost studies, or site con
struction.
Places of Employment
More than 12,000 persons
worked as landscape architects in
1974; less than 5 percent were
women. Most landscape architects
are self-employed or work for
architectural, landscape architec
tural, or engineering firms. Govern
ment agencies concerned with
forest management, water im
poundment, public housing, city
planning, urban renewal, highways,
parks, and recreation employed
about 40 percent of all landscape
architects. The Federal Govern
ment employed about 500 land
scape architects, mainly in the De
partments of Agriculture, Defense,
and Interior. Some landscape
architects were employed by land
scape contractors, and a few taught
in colleges and universities.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
A bachelor’s degree in landscape
architecture which takes 4 or 5
years is usually the minimum edu
cational requirement for entering
the profession. In 1974 the Amer
ican
Society
of
Landscape
Architects accredited 38 of the 66
colleges and universities offering
this training.
Entrance requirements for land
scape architecture programs vary
by college. Some colleges recom
mend completion of a high school
course in mechanical or geometri
cal drawing, and most schools ad
vise high school students to take
courses in art, botany, and more
mathematics than the minimum
required for college entrance.
College courses include technical
subjects such as surveying, land
scape construction, sketching, and
city planning. Other courses in
clude horticulture and botany as
well as English, science, and mathe
matics. Most college programs also
include field trips to view and study
examples of landscape architecture.
Twenty-eight States require a
license for independent practice of
landscape architecture. Admission
to the licensing examination usually
requires a degree from an ac
credited school of landscape
architecture plus 2 to 4 years of ex
perience. Lengthy apprenticeship
training (6-8 years) under an ex
perienced landscape architect may
sometimes be substituted for col
lege training.
Persons planning careers in land
scape architecture should be in
terested in art and nature. Self-em
ployed landscape architects also
must understand business practices.
Working for landscape architects or
landscape
contractors
during
summer vacations helps a person
understand the practical problems
of the profession, and may be help
ful in obtaining employment after
graduation.
New graduates usually begin as
junior drafters, tracing drawings
and doing other simple drafting
work. After gaining experience,
they help prepare specifications
and construction details and handle
other aspects of project design.
After 2 or 3 years they can usually
carry a design through all stages of
development. Highly qualified land
scape architects may become as
sociates in private firms; landscape
architects who progress this far,
however, often open their own of
fice.
Employment Outlook
Employment
of
landscape
architects is expected to grow at a
much faster rate than the average
for all occupations through the mid1980’s, resulting in hundreds of
new positions each year. Addi
tionally, new entrants will be
needed as replacements for land
scape architects who retire or die.
A major factor underlying the in
creased demand for landscape
architects is the growing interest in
city and regional environmental
planning. Metropolitan areas will
require landscape architects to
develop land for the efficient and
safe use of growing populations.
Legislation to promote environ
mental protection could spur de
mand for landscape architects to
participate in planning and design
ing a growing number of projects,
such as transportation systems, out
door recreation areas, and land
reclamation.
Anticipated new construction
may also increase demand for land
scape architects. However, during
slow periods the demand could be
limited.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Though earnings fluctuate widely
according to the educational
background, experience, and size of
the firm, landscape architects who
own their own practice often earn
more than salaried employees with
considerable experience.
The Federal Government, in late
1974, paid new graduates with a
bachelor’s degree annual salaries of
$8,500 or $10,520 depending on
their qualifications. Those with an
advanced degree had a starting sal
ary of $12,841 a year. Landscape
architects in the Federal Govern
ment averaged $21,000 a year.
Salaried employees both in
government and in landscape
architectural firms usually work
regular hours, although employees
in private firms may also work over
time during seasonal rush periods
or to meet a deadline. Self-em
ployed persons often work long
hours.
Sources of Additional
Information
Additional information including
a list of colleges and universities of
fering accredited courses of study
in landscape architecture is availa
ble from:
American Society of Landscape Architec
ture, Inc., 1750 Old Meadow Rd..
McLean, Va. 22101.
For information on a career as a
landscape architect in the Forest
Service, write to:
U S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Ser
vice, Washington, D C. 20250.
COMMUNICATIONSRELATED
OCCUPATIONS
Communication is important to
people, either individually as citizens,
workers, or employers, or collectively
in groups, organizations, or govern
ment. This section of the book de
scribes four occupations that
specialize in communications—
interpreters, technical writers, news
paper reporters, and radio and televi
sion announcers.
Interpreters and technical writers
work as intermediaries translating
messages for people to understand:
interpreters help people understand
languages foreign to them; technical
writers help people understand tech
nical information. Newspaper repor
ters and radio and television announ
cers inform people about current
events and happenings that might in
terest or affect them. Newspaper re
porters gather information on events
which they describe, analyze, and in
terpret in newspapers for rapid dis
semination to large numbers of
people. Radio and television announ
cers use electronic communications
equipment to tell people of products
and services they might obtain, cur
rent happenings, and other items of
interest.
INTERPRETERS
(D.O.T. 137.268)
Nature of the Work
Interpreters help people of dif
ferent nations and different cultures
overcome language barriers by
translating what has been said by
one person into a language that can
be understood by others.
There are two basic types of in
terpretation: simultaneous and con
secutive. In simultaneous in
terpretation, the interpreter trans
lates what is being said as the
speaker continues to talk. This
technique requires speed and fluen
cy, and it is made possible by the
use of electronic equipment. Con
ference interpreters often work in a
glass-enclosed booth from which
they can see the speaker. While
listening through earphones to what
is being said, they simultaneously
give the translation by speaking into
a microphone. People attending the
conference who do not understand
the language being spoken may
listen to an interpreter’s translation
by simply pushing a button or turn
ing a dial to get the translation in
the language they know. Simultane
ous interpretation is generally
preferred for conferences, and the
development of portable equipment
has extended its use to other largescale situations.
Consecutive interpretation also
nvolves oral translation. However,
he speaker and the interpreter take
urns speaking. A consecutive in
terpreter must have a good memory
and generally needs to take notes of
what is said to be certain to give a
complete translation. The chief
drawback of consecutive in
terpretation is that the process is
time consuming, because the
speaker must wait for the transla
tion before proceeding.
Since interpreters are needed
whenever people find language a
barrier, their work involves a
variety of topics and situations.
They may be used, for example, to
explain to a group of foreign visitors
various aspects of American life,
such as points of political or social
interest, or they may be required to
interpret highly technical speeches
and discussions for medical or
scientific gatherings. They may
work at the United Nations, or find
themselves in a courtroom or
escorting foreign leaders or busi
ness people visiting the United
States.
Places of Employment
An estimated
150 persons
worked full time as interpreters in
the United States in 1974. The larg
est single concentration of inter
preters was at the United Nations
in New York where over 60 people
held full-time posts. Various other
international organizations, located
primarily in Washington, D.C., also
employed regular staff interpreters.
Within the Federal Government,
the Departments of State and
Justice were the major employers
of full-time interpreters.
An
estimated
450
persons
worked as freelance interpreters.
Freelance interpreters may work
for various employers under short
term contracts. About four-fifths
were under contract on a tempo
rary basis to the Department of
State and the Agency for Inter
national Development to serve as
escort interpreters for foreign vis
itors to the United States. Some
of these interpreters worked a
great portion of the year; others
worked for only a few days. The
remainder of the freelance inter
preters constituted the freelance
conference field. These interpreters
provided for both the supplemen
tary needs of the international and
Federal agencies and for the pe-
riodic, short-term needs of various
international conferences that are
held in this country. Besides per
sons who work strictly as inter
preters, many others do some
interpretation work in the course
of their jobs.
About one-half of the Nation’s
conference interpreters are women;
most escort freelance workers,
however, are men.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
A complete command of two lan
guages or more is the usual require
ment for becoming an interpreter.
Interpreters must instantaneously
call to mind words or idioms cor
responding to the foreign ones. An
extensive working vocabulary and
ease in making the transition from
one language structure to another
are necessary.
Students who want to become in
terpreters should become fluent in
several languages. Interpreters who
work at the United Nations, for
example, must know at least three
of the five official U.N. languages:
English, French, Spanish, Russian,
and Chinese. Portuguese and, to
some extent, Japanese and German
are also valuable to interpreters in
the United States.
Two schools in the United States
offer special programs for in
terpreter training. Both require
foreign language proficiency upon
entry. The Georgetown University
School of Languages and Lin
guistics in Washington, D.C. has a
1- or 2-year course of study leading
to a Certificate of Proficiency. Ap
plicants to Georgetown University
must qualify on the basis of an oral
aptitude test and satisfactory per
formance in a basic first-year col
lege program. The Monterey In
stitute of Foreign Studies in Mon
terey, Calif., offers a 2-year pro
gram leading to a master’s degree in
Language and International Studies
and a certificate from the Depart
ment of Translation and Interpreta
tion. Applicants to the Monterey
Institute must have a bachelor’s
degree with a language major, or its
equivalent. Students also must pass
a qualifying examination for the In
terpreters Certificate Program.
Many individuals may qualify as
interpreters principally on the basis
of their foreign backgrounds for
positions in which extensive ex
perience and a broad education are
not as crucial as for other types of
interpretation. For example, con
secutive interpreters employed by
the Immigration and Naturalization
Service of the U.S. Department of
Justice serve primarily in interpret
ing legal proceedings, such as
hearings for aliens.
Employment Outlook
Interpreters may face competi
tion for the limited number of
openings. Little change is expected
in the number of full-time in
terpreters through the mid-1980’s.
Most opportunities,
therefore,
should result from the need to
replace workers who die, retire, or
leave their jobs for other reasons.
Experience has shown that any
slight or sporadic increase in the
demand for interpreters can be met
by the existing pool of freelance
workers. Only highly qualified ap
plicants will find favorable employ
ment opportunities.
Qualified interpreters also may
find work abroad. For example, the
Besides being proficient in lan demand for interpreters in Europe,
guages, interpreters are expected to where so many different languages
be generally well informed on a are spoken, is greater than in the
broad range of subjects, often in United States.
cluding technical subjects such as
People who have linguistic abili
medicine or scientific or industrial ties also may find some employ
technology. Work as a translator ment opportunities as translators.
may serve as a useful background in In fact, many interpreters find the
maintaining an up-to-date vocabu ability to do translation work, if not
lary in various specialized or techni requisite, an occupational asset.
cal areas. The experience of living Foreign language competence also
abroad also is very important for an is important for careers in the fields
interpreter.
of foreign service, international
Although there is no standard business, and language education.
requirement for entry into the
Earnings and Working
profession, a university education
Conditions
usually is considered essential.
Salaries of interpreters depend
People interested in becoming in upon the type of interpreting done
terpreters should be articulate as well as the ability and per
speakers and have good hearing. formance of the individual. The taxThe exacting nature of this profes free annual starting salary for con
sion requires quickness, alertness, ference interpreters at the United
and a constant attention to accura Nations was $10,000 in 1974. Out
cy. Working with all types of people standing U.N. interpreters could ex
requires good sense, tact, and the pect to earn more than $20,000.
emotional stamina to deal with the Beginning salaries for interpreters
tensions of the job. It is essential in various other international or
that interpreters maintain con ganizations were about $9,000 a
fidentiality in their work and that year, according to the limited infor
they give honest interpretations.
mation available. In addition, inter
Advancement in the interpreting national organizations often paid
field is generally based on satisfac supplementary living and family al
tory service. There is some ad lowances.
vancement from escort level in
Junior interpreters who worked
terpreting to conference level work. for the U.S. Department of State
received $12,841 a year in late
1974.
Starting salaries were
somewhat lower for Government
interpreters with limited education,
experience, or skills.
In the freelance field, interpreters
are paid on a daily basis. Con
ference interpreter salaries ranged
from about $110 to $135 a day in
late 1974, depending on ex
perience. The U.S. Department of
State paid a daily salary of $ 110.
Freelance escort interpreters
received salaries ranging from
about $36 to over $56 a day, based
on the individual’s skill and prior
performance. Interpreters on as
signment usually could expect to be
paid for a 7-day week. Interpreters
are paid transportation expenses by
the employing agency and also
receive an allowance to cover the
cost of accommodations, meals,
and other expenses incidental to
their assignments.
The conditions under which in
terpreters work vary widely. In
freelancing, there is little job securi
ty because of demand fluctuations,
and the duration of various
freelance assignments ranges from
a few days for a typical conference
to several weeks for some escort as
signments. Although the hours in
terpreters work are not necessarily
long, they are often irregular. In
some instances, especially for
escort freelance workers, a great
deal of travel to a wide variety of lo
cations is required.
Sources of Additional
Information
Information on the interpreting
profession is available from:
The American Association of Language Spe
cialists, 1000 Connecticut Ave. NW.,
Suite 9, Washington, D.C. 20036.
For information on entry require
ments and courses of study at the
two schools offering specialized
programs for interpreters, contact:
Division of Interpretation and Translation,
School of Languages and Linguistics,
Georgetown
D .C .20007.
University, Washington,
Department of Translation and Interpreta
tion, Monterey Institute of Foreign Stu
dies, P.O. Box 1978, Monterey, Calif.
93940.
Information about employment
opportunities is available from:
Language Services Division, U.S. Depart
ment of State, Washington, D.C. 20520.
Secretariat Recruitment Service, United Na
tions, New York, N.Y. 10017.
NEWSPAPER
REPORTERS
(D O T . 132.268)
Nature of the Work
Newspaper reporters gather in
formation on current events and
use it to write stories for publication
in daily or weekly newspapers. In
covering events, they may interview
people, review public records, at
tend news events, and do research.
As a rule, reporters take notes or
use electronic recording devices
while collecting facts, and write
their stories upon return to the of
fice. Sometimes, to meet deadlines,
they telephone their information or
stories to other staff members
known as “rewrite men,” who write
or transcribe the stories for them.
Large dailies frequently assign
some reporters to “beats,” such as
police stations or the courts, to
gather news originating in these
places. General assignment report
ers handle various types of local
news, such as a story about a lost
child or an obituary of a community
leader. Specialized reporters with a
background in a particular subject
interpret and analyze the news in
fields such as medicine, politics,
science, education, business, labor,'
and religion.
Reporters on small newspapers
may cover not only all aspects of
local news, but also may take
photographs, write headlines, lay
out pages, and write editorials. On
some small weeklies, they also may
solicit advertisements, sell subscrip
tions, and perform general office
work.
Places of Employment
About 40,000 persons, two-fifths
of them women, worked as
newspaper reporters in 1974. The
majority of reporters work for daily
newspapers; others work for weekly
papers and press services.
Reporters work in cities and
towns of all sizes. Of the 1,775 daily
and 7,650 weekly newspapers, the
great majority are in medium-sized
towns. However, most reporters
work in cities, since big city dailies
employ many reporters, whereas a
smalltown paper generally employs
only a few.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Most newspapers will consider
only applicants who have a college
education. Graduate work is in
creasingly important. Many editors
prefer graduates who have a degree
in journalism, which usually pro
vides a liberal arts education along
with professional journalism train
ing. Some editors consider a liberal
arts degree sufficient. Others prefer
applicants who have a liberal arts
bachelor’s degree and a master’s
degree in journalism. Although
talented writers having little or no
academic training beyond high
school sometimes become reporters
on city newspapers, most reporters
without college training begin on
rural, small-town, or suburban
papers. High school courses that
are useful include English, journal
ism, social science, and typing.
Bachelor’s degree programs in
journalism are available in more
than 200 colleges. About threefourths of the courses in a typical
undergraduate journalism curricu
lum are in liberal arts. Journalism
courses include reporting, copy
reading, editing, feature writing,
history of journalism, law, and the
dedicated to serving the public’s
need for accurate and impartial
news. Although reporters work as
part of a team, they have an oppor
tunity for self-expression. Impor
tant personal characteristics in
clude a “nose for news,” curiosity,
persistence, initiative, resourceful
ness, an accurate memory, and the
physical stamina necessary for an
active and often fast-paced life.
Some who compete for full-time
reporter jobs find it is helpful to
have
had experience
as a
newspaper “stringer”—a part-time
reporter who covers the news in a
particular area of the community
and is paid on the basis of the sto
ries printed. Experience on a high
school or college newspaper also is
helpful in getting a job.
Many beginners start on weekly
or on small daily newspapers where
they acquire a broad range of re
porting experience. Some college
graduates are hired by large city pa
pers as general assignment report
ers while a few others start as copy
editors. Beginning reporters usually
are assigned duties such as report
ing on civic and club meetings,
summarizing speeches, writing
obituaries, interviewing important
visitors to the community, and
covering police court proceedings.
As they gain experience, they may
report more important events,
cover an assigned “beat,” or spe
cialize in a particular field.
Newspaper reporters may ad
vance to reporting for larger papers
or press services. Some experienced
reporters become columnists, cor
respondents, editorial writers, edi
tors, or top executives; these posi
tions represent the top of the field
and competition for them is keen.
Other reporters transfer to related
fields such as public relations, writ
ing for magazines, or preparing
copy for radio and television news
programs.
to becoming technical writers or re
relation of the press to society.
More than 500 junior colleges porters in a specialized field such as
offer journalism programs. Twelve science, should concentrate on
to fifteen hours of credit earned is course work in their subject matter
transferable to most 4-year college areas. (See statement on Technical
programs in journalism. A few ju Writers.) Skill in typing is essential
nior colleges also offer programs because reporters type their own
especially designed to prepare the news stories. On small papers,
student directly for employment as knowledge of news photography
a general assignment reporter on a also is valuable.
The Newspaper Fund and in
weekly or small daily newspaper.
The Armed Forces also provide dividual newspapers offer summer
internships that provide college stu
some training in journalism.
A graduate degree in journalism dents with an opportunity to prac
was offered by more than 75 tice the rudiments of reporting or
schools in 1974. About one-fifth of editing. In addition, more than
those offer a doctoral degree in 2,500 journalism scholarships, fel
lowships, assistantships, and loans
mass communications.
Persons who wish to prepare for were awarded to college journalism
newspaper work through a liberal students by universities, new s
arts curriculum should take English papers, and professional organiza
courses that include writing, as well tions in 1974.
News reporting involves a great
as subjects such as sociology, politi
cal science, economics, history, deal of responsibility, since what a
Employment Outlook
psychology, and speech. Ability to reporter writes frequently in
Beginners with exceptional writ
read and speak a foreign language is fluences the opinion of the reading
Reporters should
be ing talent are expected to find
desirable. Those who look forward public.
favorable employment opportuni
ties through the mid-1980’s.
Others, however, will face strong
competition for jobs, especially on
large city dailies. Employment op
portunities for reporters able to
handle news about highly special
ized scientific or technical subjects
are expected to be favorable.
Weekly or daily newspapers
located in small towns and subur
ban areas are expected to continue
to offer the most opportunities for
beginners entering newspaper re
porting. Openings arise on these
papers as reporters gain experience
and move up to editing positions or
transfer to reporting jobs on larger
newspapers or to other types of
work. Beginning reporters able to
help with photography and other
specialized aspects of newspaper
work and who are acquainted with
the community are likely to be
given preference in employment on
small papers.
In addition to jobs in newspaper
reporting, recent college graduates
who have journalism training may
enter related fields such as advertis
ing, public relations, trade and
technical publishing, and radio and
television. Good job opportunities
also will be found in teaching jour
nalism for those who have profes
sional experience and at least a
master’s degree.
Although the broad field of mass
communication should continue to
expand due to rising levels of edu
cation; increasing expenditures for
newspaper, radio, and television ad
vertising; and a growing number of
trade and technical journals,
newspapers are not expected to
share equally in this growth. As a
result, employment of reporters
should increase more slowly than
the average for all occupations.
Most job openings will continue to
arise from the need to replace re
porters who are promoted to edi
torial or administrative positions,
transfer to other fields of work,
retire, or leave the profession for
other reasons.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Information on union wage rates
is available from:
Reporters working for daily
newspapers
having
contracts
negotiated by The Newspaper
Guild had average starting salaries
of $8,750 in late 1974. In general,
earnings of newspaper reporters in
1974 were above average earnings
received by nonsupervisory work
ers in private industry, except
farming.
Minimum salaries of reporters
having 4 or 5 years of experience
who worked for daily newspapers
with Guild contracts averaged
$14,265 in 1974. The minimums
ranged from $9,100, paid by the
smallest dailies, to more than
$22,000 paid by the largest. Many
reporters, however, were paid sala
ries higher than these minimums.
Reporters working for national wire
services received annual salaries of
at least $ 14,000.
Most
newspaper
reporters
generally work a 5-day, 35- or 40hour week. Reporters working for
morning papers usually start work
in the late afternoon and finish at
about midnight. Most reporters also
receive benefits such as paid vaca
tions, group insurance, and pension
plans.
The Newspaper Guild, Research and Infor
mation Department, 1125 15th St. NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20005.
Sources of Additional
Information
Information about opportunities
for reporters with daily newspapers
is available from:
American Newspaper Publishers Association
Foundation, P.O. Box 17407, Dulles In
ternational Airport, Washington, D.C.
20041.
For information on opportunities
in the newspaper field and starting
salaries of journalism graduates, as
well as a list of journalism scholar
ships, fellowships, assistantships,
and loans available at colleges and
universities, write to:
The Newspaper Fund, Inc., Box 300,
Princeton, N.J. 08540.
For general information about
careers in journalism contact:
American Council on Education for Journal
ism, School of Journalism, University of
Missouri, Columbia, Mo. 65201.
Association For Education in Journalism,
Murphy Hall, University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis, Minn. 55455.
The Society of Professional Journalists,
Sigma Delta Chi, 35 East Wacker Dr.,
Chicago, 1 1 60601.
1.
Information on the opportunities
for women in newspaper reporting
and other communications fields is
available from:
Women In Communications, Inc., 8305 A
Shoal Creek Blvd., Austin, Tex. 78758.
Names and locations of daily
newspapers and a list of schools and
departments of journalism are
published in the Editor and
Publisher International Year Book,
available in public libraries and in
most large newspaper offices.
RADIO AND TELEVISION
ANNOUNCERS
(D.O.T. 159.148)
Nature of the Work
Most radio announcers act as
disc jockeys, introducing recorded
music, presenting news and com
mercials, and commenting on other
matters of interest to the audience.
They may “ad-lib” much of the
commentary, working without a
detailed script. They also may
operate the control board, sell time
for commercials, and write com
mercial and news copy. In large sta
tions, however, other workers han
dle these jobs.
Announcers employed by televi
sion stations and large radio sta
tions usually specialize in particular
kinds of announcing such as sports,
news, or weather. They must be
thoroughly familiar with their areas
of specialization. If a written script
is needed for parts of the program,
the announcer may do the research
and writing. Announcers frequently
participate in community activities.
A sportscaster, for example, might
be the master of ceremonies at a
touchdown club banquet or greet
customers at the opening of a new
sporting goods store. Some an
nouncers become well-known and
highly paid personalities.
Places of Employment
About 19,000 staff announcers
were employed full time by com
mercial radio and television broad
casting stations in 1974. More than
80 percent of them worked in radio
broadcasting. The average com
mercial radio or television station
employed
three
announcers,
although larger stations sometimes
employed six or more. In addition
to
staff announcers,
several
thousand freelance announcers sell
their services for individual assign
ments to networks and stations, or
to advertising agencies and other
independent producers.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Announcers must have a pleasant
and well-controlled voice, a good
sense of timing, and excellent
pronunciation. Correct English
usage and a knowledge of dra
matics, sports, music, and current
events improve chances for success.
The most successful announcers
have a combination of personality
and a knack for dramatization that
makes them attractive to audiences.
High school courses in English,
public speaking, dramatics, foreign
languages, and electronics, plus
sports and music hobbies, are valu
able background for prospective
announcers. A college liberal arts
education provides an excellent
background for an announcer, and
many universities offer courses of
study in the broadcasting field. Stu
dents at these institutions also may
gain valuable experience by supple
menting their courses with parttime work at the campus radio sta
tion and summer work at local sta
tions, filling in for vacationing staff
members. A number of private vo
cational schools also offer training
in announcing. However, those
considering training at such a
school should contact the personnel
managers of stations and broadcast
ing trade organizations in their area
to determine the school’s per
formance in producing suitably
trained candidates.
Most announcers get their first
broadcasting jobs in small stations.
Because announcers in small radio
stations sometimes operate trans
mitters, prospective announcers
often
obtain
an
FCC
Radiotelephone Third Class Opera
tor License which enables them to
operate a radio transmitter and,
therefore, makes them much more
useful to these stations. (For infor
mation on how to obtain a license,
see the statement on broadcast
technicians elsewhere in this book.)
Announcers usually work in
several different stations in the
course of their careers. After
acquiring experience at a station in
a small community, an ambitious
and talented announcer may move
to a better paying job in a large city.
An announcer also may advance by
getting a regular program as a disc
jockey, sportscaster, or other spe
cialist. In the national networks,
competition for jobs is intense, and
announcers usually must be college
graduates and have several years of
successful announcing experience
before they are given an audition.
Employment Outlook
Successful announcers have a personality which makes them attractive to
audiences.
The employment of announcers
is expected to increase about as fast
as the average for all occupations
through the mid-1980’s as new
radio and television stations are
licensed.
Employment growth,
however, will be limited by the in
creased use of automatic pro
gramming. Most job openings in
this relatively small occupation will
result from the need to replace ex
perienced announcers who transfer
Sources of Additional
to other occupations, retire, or die.
Information
It will be easier to get an entry job
For general career information,
in radio than in television because
of the greater number of radio sta write to:
tions that hire beginners. These jobs National Association of Broadcasters, 1771
N St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036.
generally will be located in small
stations, and the pay will be rela Corporation for Public Broadcasting, 888
16th St. NW„ Washington, D C. 20006.
tively low. A few jobs also will
become available as more cable
television stations begin their own
programming. However, the great
TECHNICAL WRITERS
attraction of the broadcasting field
for young persons, and its relatively
( DOT. 139.288)
small size, will result in keen com
petition for entry jobs.
Nature of the Work
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Salaries of beginning announcers
in commercial television ranged
from about $160 to $200 a week in
1974, and those of experienced an
nouncers ranged from about $225
to $350, according to information
from union contracts. Many wellknown announcers earn much
more. As a rule, salaries increase
with the size of the community and
the station, and salaries in television
are higher than those in radio. An
nouncers employed by educational
broadcasting stations generally earn
less than those who work for com
mercial stations.
Most announcers in large stations
work a 40-hour week and receive
overtime pay for work beyond 40
hours. In small stations, many an
nouncers work 4 to 12 hours of
overtime each week. Working
hours consist of both time on the air
and time spent in preparing for
broadcasts.
Evening,
night,
weekend, and holiday duty occurs
frequently since many stations
broadcast 24 hours a day, 7 days a
week.
Working conditions are usually
pleasant because of the variety of
work and the many personal con
tacts that are part of the job. An
nouncers
also
receive
some
satisfaction from becoming well
known in the area their station
serves.
Technical writers organize, write,
and edit materials about science
and technology in order to establish
clearer communication between
those who develop information—
scientists, engineers, and design
technicians—and the users of their
information—operators, repairers,
scientists, engineers, executives, or
consumers. Their writing must al
ways be clear and easy to follow,
and when it is to be used by spe
cialists it often must include techni
cal detail and a highly specialized
vocabulary.
Technical
writers
usually arrange for the preparation
of tables, charts, illustrations, and
other artwork, and may work with
technical illustrators, drafters, or
photographers.
Before starting a writing assign
ment, technical writers usually
learn as much as they can about
their subject. This process involves
studying reports, reading technical
journals, and consulting with the
engineers, scientists, and other
technical personnel who have
worked on the project. Then they
prepare a rough draft that may be
revised several times before it is ac
cepted in final form.
The technical writer’s product
takes
many
forms—publicity
releases on a company’s scientific
or technical achievements, manu
facturers’ contract proposals to
government agencies, manuals that
explain how to operate, assemble,
disassemble, maintain, or overhaul
components of a missile system or a
home appliance, or articles for
scientific and engineering periodi
cals or popular magazines.
Places of Employment
An estimated 20,000 technical
writers and editors—about one-fifth
women—were employed in 1974.
Many technical writers are em
ployed in the electronic and
aerospace industries. Some work
for research and development firms
or for the Federal Government—
mainly in the Departments of
Defense and Agriculture, the Ener
gy Research and Development Ad
ministration, and the National
Aeronautics and Space Administra
tion. Others work in firms that spe
cialize in technical writing. A few
are in business for themselves as
freelance technical writers.
Technical writers are employed
all over the country but the largest
concentrations
are
in
the
Northeastern States, Texas, and
California.
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
Although there are no prescribed
requirements for entry into the
technical writing field, a combina
tion of technical experience and
writing ability will generally qualify
a person to work as a technical
writer.
While, a college background is
helpful and sometimes necessary,
most technical writers do not enter
the occupation as recent college
graduates. The majority, whatever
their level of educational attain
ment, work initially as technicians,
scientists, or engineers. In time,
usually as a part of their technical
assignment, they assume some writ
ing duties, and develop technical
communication skills. Eventually
they decide to work entirely in
technical writing.
Some employers, however, de
mand a 4-year college education.
Many prefer the applicant to have a
newspaper columns or articles for
popular magazines.
Employment Outlook
Technical writers discuss specifications of fighter plane component to be included
in technical manual.
degree in science or engineering,
with a strong background in Eng
lish, while others emphasize writing
ability.
In 1974, 12 colleges and universi
ties offered 4-year programs lead
ing to a bachelor’s degree in techni
cal writing, technical communica
tion, or technical journalism; three
schools offered graduate work and
degrees in the field. More than 400
4-year colleges offered at least one
course in technical writing as part
of the regular curriculum. Almost
all colleges, and some engineering
schools, offer English courses to
sharpen writing skills, and some
conduct summer workshops and
short-term seminars for technical
writers.
Besides having writing skills,
technical writers should be able to
think logically, understand scien
tific and technical concepts, and do
detailed and accurate work. They
should be able to work and talk
easily with others since they often
work as part of a team. At other
times, however, technical writers
must work alone with little or no su
pervision, so they must be able to
accept responsibility and exercise
initiative.
Beginners often
assist ex
perienced technical writers by
doing library research, and by
preparing drafts of reports. Ex
perienced writers in organizations
that have large technical writing
staffs may advance to technical edi
tor or other supervisory and ad
ministrative positions. After gaining
experience and contacts, a few go
into business for themselves. It also
is possible to advance by becoming
a specialist in a particular scientific
or technical subject. These writers
sometimes
prepare
syndicated
Employment of technical writers
is expected to increase about as fast
as the average for all occupations
through the mid-1980’s. In addition
to openings due to growth, opportu
nities will result from the need to
replace those who die, retire, or
transfer to other occupations. Em
ployment opportunities will be best
for experienced technical writers
and for beginners who have good
writing ability and the appropriate
technical education. Those with
only minimum qualifications, how
ever, may face stiff competition for
beginning jobs.
Requirements
for
technical
writers are expected to increase
because of the need to put the
growing amount of scientific and
technical information into language
that can be understood by
managers for decisionmaking and
by technicians for operating and
maintaining complex industrial
equipment. Since many products
will continue to be assembled from
components manufactured by dif
ferent companies, technical writers
also will be needed to describe, in
simple terms, how the components
fit together. Others will be needed
to improve and simplify operating
and maintenance instructions for
consumer products.
However, since many technical
writers work in defense- and spacerelated
activities,
including
research and development, future
job opportunities are related to
government expenditures in these
areas. Through the mid-1980’s, R &
D expenditures of Government and
industry are expected to increase,
although at a slower rate than dur
ing the 1960’s.
Technical writers, as discussed in
this statement, include only those
persons whose primary job is to
write about, interpret and edit
technical subject matter. Those
primarily employed as scientists,
engineers or other technical spe
cialists who may do a considerable
amount of writing are not covered
here. As technology becomes in
creasingly complex, more writing
assignments may require technical
and scientific knowledge equivalent
to that of an engineer or scientist.
Technical writers who have train
ing in journalism may find opportu
nities in other fields that employ
writers such as advertising, public
relations, trade publishing, and
television and radio broadcasting.
Earnings and Working
Conditions
Technical writers have high
earnings compared with average
earnings for nonsupervisory work
ers in private industry, except
farming. Salaries of technical
writers depend not only on ability,
education, and experience, but also
on the type, size, and location of
their employing firm.
Starting salaries in 1974 ranged
from about $7,000 a year for those
with minimal qualifications to over
$15,000 a year for those with
technical experience and college
education. Experienced technical
writers average around $17,500 a
year, while those in supervisory
positions earned $20,000 or more.
Earnings of freelance writers vary
greatly and depend on the writer’s
ability and reputation.
In the Federal Government in
late 1974, inexperienced technical
writers with a bachelor’s degree and
about five science courses could
start at either $8,500 or $10,520 a
year, depending on their college
grades. Those with 2 years of ex
perience could start at $12,841 and
with 3 years of experience,
$15,481.
Technical writers generally work
in clean well-lighted places, though
they may work under considerable
pressure, frequently working over
time when a publication deadline
has to be met.
Sources of Additional
information
For information about careers in
technical writing, contact:
Society for Technical Communication, Inc.,
Suite 421, 1010 Vermont Ave. NW.,
Washington D.C. 20005.
BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS
REGIONAL OFFICES
Region I
Region V
1603 JFK Federal Building
Government Center
Boston, Mass. 02203
Phone: (617) 223-6761
Region 1
1
Suite 3400
1515 Broadway
New York, N.Y. 10036
Phone: (212) 399-5405
Region III
Region V I
Second Floor
t
555 Griffin Square Building
Dallas, Tex. 75202
Phone: (214) 749-3516
Regions V II and V III*
3535 Market Street
P.O. Box 13309
Philadelphia, Pa. 19101
Phone: (215) 596-1154
911 Walnut Street
Kansas City. Mo. 64106
Phone: (816) 374-2481
Regions IX and X * *
Region IV
1371 Peachtree Street, NE.
Atlanta, Ga. 30309
Phone: (404) 526-5418
9th Floor
Federal Office Building
230 S. Dearborn Street
Chicago , III. 60604
Phone: (312) 353-1880
450 Golden Gate Avenue
Box 36017
San Francisco, Calif. 94102
Phone: (415) 556-4678
* Regions VII and VIII are serviced by Kansas City
** Regions IX and X are serviced by San Francisco
Rev, 8/76
@FedFRASER