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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin 1730 j j i ,i fd Occupational Outlook for College Graduates 1972-73 Edition Bulletin 1730 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR J. D. H o dg son , Secretary BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS Geoffrey H. Moore, Commissioner 1972 F o r sa le by th e S u p e rin te n d e n t o f D o cu m e n ts, U.S. G o v e rn m e n t P r in tin g Office W a sh in g to n , D.C. 20402 - P ric e $2.00 S to ck N u m b e r 2901-0942 Preface The growth of our N ation’s economy brings many changes in the employment outlook for college graduates. New occupations emerge and old ones change in nature and attrac tiveness. To keep abreast of these changes, counselors and college students need an authori tative source of occupational information. T h e O c c u p a tio n a l O u tlo o k fo r C o lle g e G ra d u a te s is one such source. T h e O c c u p a tio n a l O u tlo o k fo r C o lle g e G r a d u a te s is a guide to employment opportunities in a broad range of professional and related occupations for which a college education is required, is becoming increasingly necessary, or is the usual educational background for employment. The information is reprinted from the 1 9 7 2 -7 3 edition of the O c c u p a tio n a l O u tlo o k H a n d b o o k . In addition to information on outlook, each occupational statement presents information on the nature of the work, places of employment, education and train ing requirements, earnings, and working conditions. Also presented is a brief summary of the expected overall supply and demand situation for college graduates through the 1970’s. Letter from the College P lacem ent Council Accurate and detailed vocational guidance information is becoming increasingly im portant to college students planning their careers in a rapidly evolving occupational complex. However, until recently, no publication has offered complete and authoritative informa tion tailored to the needs of young people preparing for professional and related work. The O c c u p a tio n a l O u tlo o k fo r C o lle g e G r a d u a te s makes a notable contribution by supplying this information. Robert F. Herrick E x e c u tiv e D ir e c to r T h e C o lle g e P la c e m e n t C o u n c il, In c.. I ll Contents Page Page I. II. Tomorrow’s Jobs for College Graduates. Occupations .................................................... Business administration and related pro fessions ........................................................ Accountants .......................................... Advertising w o r k e r s ........................... Bank o ffic e r s.......................................... Hotel managers and assistants . . . . Industrial traffic m a n a g e r s............... Marketing research w o r k e r s............ Personnel w o r k e r s................................ Public relations w o r k e r s .................... Purchasing a g e n t s ................................ Clergymen ...................................................... Protestant ministers ........................... Rabbis ................................................... Roman Catholic p r ie sts...................... Conservation occupations ......................... F o r e s te r s ................................................. Range m a n a g e r s.................................. Counseling o ccu p a tio n s................................ Employment c o u n se lo r s.................... Rehabilitation c o u n s e lo r s................. School c o u n s e lo r s ................................ E n g in eerin g ...................................................... A e r o s p a c e .............................................. A gricu ltu ral............................................ Biomedical ............................................ Ceramic ................................................. Chemical .............................................. Civil . ...................................................... Electrical .............................................. Industrial .............................................. Mechanical ............................................ M etallurgical.......................................... Mining ................................................... Health service o ccu p a tio n s......................... Physicians ............................................ Osteopathic p h y sic ia n s...................... Dental hygienists ................................ Dentists ................................................. Registered n u r s e s ................................ Optometrists .......................................... Pharmacists ............................................ P o d ia tr ists.......................... Chiropractors ....................................... 1 9 83 Occupational th erap ists......................... Physical therapists ................................ 85 Speech pathologists and audiologists 86 Medical laboratory w o r k e r s ............ 89 Medical record lib ra ria n s.................... 92 Dietitians ................................................. 94 Hospital administrators ...................... 96 Sanitarians ............................................... 98 Veterinarians ......................................... 101 Insurance occu p a tio n s.................................. 104 Agents and brokers ............................. 108 Claim a d ju sters..................................... 110 Claim examiners ................................. 113 U nderw riters.......................................... 116 Mathematics and related f ie ld s ................... 119 M athem aticians...................................... 119 S ta tisticia n s.............................................. 122 Actuaries .............................................. 124 Natural s c ie n c e s .............................................. 127 Environmental sc ie n c e s ........................ 127 G e o lo g is ts ...................................... 127 Geophysicists ............................... 131 M eteorologists ........................... 134 Oceanographers ......................... 137 Life s c ie n c e s ........................................... 141 Life scientists ............................... 141 B io ch em ists.................................... 146 Physical s c ie n c e s .................................... 149 C h e m is ts ......................................... 149 Physicists ...................................... 153 A str o n o m e r s.................................. 155 Food scientists ............................. 158 Performing a r t s ................................................ 161 Actors and a c tr e sse s............................. 161 D a n c e r s ................................................... 164 Musicians and music teachers . . . . . 166 Singers and singing te a c h e r s............ 169 Other art-related o ccu p a tio n s..................... 172 Commercial artists ............................... 172 Industrial d esig n ers............................... 174 Interior designers and decorators . . 176 Social sciences ................................................ 179 Anthropologists .................................... 179 Economists .............................................. 181 Geographers ........................................... 183 Historians ................................................ 186 9 9 12 14 17 18 20 23 25 27 30 30 32 33 36 36 38 41 41 44 46 49 53 54 55 55 56 57 57 59 59 60 61 63 63 66 68 70 73 75 77 80 81 V C o n ten ts -C o n tin u ed Page Political scientists ................................ S o c io lo g is ts ............................................ T e a c h in g .......................................................... Kindergarten and elementary school te a c h e r s ................................ Secondary school te a c h e r s................. College and university teachers . . . . Technician occupations ............................. Engineering and science technicians D r a ftsm e n .............................................. Writing occupations ..................................... Newspaper reporters ........................ Technical writers ................................ Other professional and related occupations ............................................................. Airline dispatchers ............................. Architects .............................................. City m a n a g ers....................................... Career planning and placement c o u n se lo r s......................................... Cooperative extension service w o r k e r s.............................................. Page 187 189 191 191 194 196 200 200 206 209 209 211 215 215 216 219 III. 221 IV. 223 VI FBI special a g e n ts ................................ Flight engineers ............................. .. . Home e c o n o m ists................................ Landscape arch itects........................... Lawyers ................................................. L ib ra ria n s.............................................. Licensed merchant marine officers . Manufacturers’ salesmen ................. Systems analysts ................................ Pilots and c o p ilo t s ............................. Programers ............................................ Psychologists ....................................... Recreation workers ........................... Securities s a le s m e n ............................. Social w o rk ers....................................... Soil scien tists.......................................... Soil co n serv a tio n ists........................... Urban planners .................................. Occupational Outlook Service Publications and M a teria ls.................................. Sources of Additional Information or A s s is ta n c e ................................................... 224 226 227 230 232 235 239 243 246 247 251 253 256 258 261 264 265 266 269 271 I. TOMORROW’S J O B S FOR COLLEGE GRADUATES Choosing a career is one of the most important decisions a person makes in his lifetime. Planning a ca reer calls for an evaluation of one’s abilities and interests and for knowl edge of future employment oppor tunities. These employment oppor tunities will be shaped by varying trends in the many industries and occupations that make up the econ omy. General information on over all patterns of change can give placement officers, counselors, and students a background to under stand the outlook, the education and training requirements, and the na ture of particular occupations. N o one can accurately forecast the future. Nevertheless, with the wealth of information available, ex tensive econom ic and statistical analysis, and the best judgment of informed experts, the future world of work can be described in broad terms. The projections of demand for college educated manpower pre sented in this bulletin, as well as projections of requirements for all workers developed by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, reflect the Bureau’s basic model of the economy in 1980. Thus, they are influenced by the economic, political, and techno logical assumptions underlying the BLS model. Specifically, the projec tions assume: 1. High levels of employment and of utilization of available manpower in 1980; 2 . no major event will alter sub stantially the rate and nature of eco nomic growth; 3. economic and social patterns and relationships will continue to change at about the same rate as in the recent past; 4. scientific and technological ad vancement will continue at about the same rate as in recent years; and 5. the United States will no longer be fighting a war. Defense expenditures can be reduced from the peak levels of the Vietnam con flict, but a still guarded relationship between the major powers will per mit no major reduction in arma ments. ever, among industry divisions in both the goods- and service-produc ing sectors, the growth pattern will vary. (See chart 2 .) Slower than av erage growth in an industry, how ever, does not necessarily mean that opportunities for college graduates will not increase significantly. Those very factors which tend to restrict overall employment growth, for ex ample, laborsaving technological de velopments, may stimulate requirments for highly educated and trained manpower. Industry Profile In d u strie s . In 1970, 47.3 million workers were on the payrolls of service-producing in dustries— government; wholesale and retail trade; services such as ed ucation, health, and recreation; transportation, communication and other utilities; and finance, insur ance, and real estate. This was 13.5 million more than the number em ployed in 1960. The major factors underlying this rapid growth were ( 1 ) population growth; ( 2 ) increas ing urbanization; and ( 3 ) rising in comes and living standards and the accompanying demand for improved health, education, recreation, and security services. (See chart 3.) Of the 47.3 million workers in service-producing industries in 1970, 16 percent or 7.7 million were college graduates. (In this bul letin, “college graduate” refers to a person who has completed 4 or more years of college work, whether or not he or she holds a college degree.) The expected rapid growth in the service-producing industries, where employment is projected to increase by 26 percent, reaching S e rv ic e -P ro d u c in g To help understand the Nation’s industrial composition and how it affects employment, industries may be viewed as either goods-producing or service-producing. They may be grouped further into nine major di visions according to the goods or services produced. (See chart 1.) Most of the N ation’s workers are in service-producing industries, which include activities such as education, health care, trade, repair and main tenance, government, transporta tion, banking, and insurance. These industries employed 80 percent of all college graduates in the labor force in 1970. The production of goods— farming, building, extract ing minerals, and manufacturing— has required less than half of the country’s work force since the late 1940’s. Approximately 20 percent of the Nation’s college graduates were employed in these industries in 1970. In general, job growth through the 1970’s is expected to continue to be faster in the serviceproducing industries than in the goods-producing industries. How 1 2 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Chart 1 W h e r e p e o p le w o r k Employment, 1970 (m illions o f workers! 1 0 5 10 Manufacturing Nondurable I Trade Government State and Local Services Transportation and public utilities Finance, insurance, and real estate Agriculture Contract construction Mining Wage and salary workers, except agriculture, which includes self-employed and unpaid fam ily workers. Source: Bureau o f Labor Statistics. 59.5 million by 1980, should result in a rapid rise in demand for college educated workers in these indus tries. T ra d e , with the largest number of workers among the service- produc ing industries, has expanded rapidly since 1960. W holesale and retail outlets have multiplied in large and small cities to satisfy the needs of an increasingly urban society. In 1970, employment was 14.9 million, 31 percent above the 1960 level. A p proximately 910,000, or 6 percent of the workers in trade, were college graduates. Even though an increas ing volume of merchandise will be distributed due to rising population and consumer expenditures, the rate of increase in manpower needs will be slowed by laborsaving technology such as data processing equipment T h r o u g h th e 1 9 7 0 ’s, e m p lo y m e n t g r o w t h w ill v a r y w id e l y b y in d u s t r y Percent change, 1970-80 projected -1 0 -20 and automated warehouse equip ment, growth in the number of selfservice stores, and the increasing use of vending machines. G o v e r n m e n t employment, which has grown faster than any other in dustry division, increased by 50 per cent from 8.4 million in 1960 to 12.6 million in 1970. Growth has been mostly at the State and local levels which, combined, increased by almost two-thirds. Employment growth was greatest in agencies pro viding education, health, sanitation, welfare, and protective services. Federal Government employment increased 19 percent between 1960 and 1970. Government is a major area of employment for college educated workers. Alm ost 30 percent of Gov ernment employees, 3.7 million in 1970, were college graduates. Government will continue to be a major source of new jobs for college graduates and nongraduates alike through the 1970’s. By 1980, em ployment may be as much as 33 percent higher than in 1970. Most of the growth will be in State and local governments where require ments may rise to 13.8 million in 1980, 40 percent higher than the 9.9 million employed in 1970. Fed eral Government employment is ex pected to rise slowly to about 3 mil lion in 1980, 11 percent above the 1970 level of 2.7 million. S e rv ic e a n d m is c e lla n e o u s in d u s Contract construction Finance, insurance, and real estate Manufacturing Transportation and public utilities Mining Agriculture Source: Bureau o f Labor Statistics. trie s employment has increased rap idly in recent years due to growing demand for maintenance and repair, advertising, domestic, and health care services. From 1960 to 1970, total employment in this industry di vision rose by about two-fifths from about 8 million to 11.6 million. In 1970, approximately 2.2 million (1 9 percent) were college graduates. Service industries will be among 3 t o m o r r o w ’s j o b s f o r c o l l e g e g r a d u a t e s agencies, which, combined, account for nearly two-fifths of total employ ment in this industry division. Chart 3 In d u s tr ie s p r o v i d in g s e r v ic e s o f f e r m o r e j o b s th a n th o s e p r o v i d in g g o o d s In d u strie s . Em ployment in the goods-producing in dustries— manufacturing, agricul ture, construction, and mining, al most 26.9 million in 1970, has in creased slowly in recent years. Sig nificant gains in productivity result ing from automation and other tech nological developments, as well as the growing skills of the work force, have permitted large increases in output without corresponding in creases in employment. Almost 2 million workers in goods-producing industries were col lege graduates in 1970. Employ ment in these industries is expected to increase to 12 percent above the 1970 level by 1980. However, widely differing patterns of employ ment change have occurred and will continue to occur among the indus tries in this division. M a n u fa c tu rin g , the largest divi sion within the goods-producing sec tor, employed 19.4 million workers in 1970, an increase of 16 percent over 1960. New products for in dustrial and consumer markets and rapid growth of the defense and space-related industries spearheaded growth through the 1960’s. Approx imately 8 percent of the workers in manufacturing industries, or 1.6 million, were college graduates. Manufacturing employment is ex pected to increase by 13 percent through the 1970’s and reach 21.9 million in 1980. Durable-goods in dustries employment will increase at a slightly faster rate (1 6 percent) than nondurable-goods industries employment (9 percent). H ow ever, the rate of growth will vary among individual manufacturing in dustries. The machinery industry, for example, is expected to have the G o o d s -P r o d u c in g Workers (in millions)1 cn GOODS-PRODUCING . X * Manufacturing Contract construction Mining Agriculture __ 40 Service-producing industries . 30 i . — ------- SERVICE-PRODUCING Transportation and public utilities Trade 20 Finance, insurance, and real estate Services Government ^ Goods-producing industries 0 ... 1 1947 1 1 1 1 1 50 1 55 ^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 60 .. ..1 65 1 -1 1 1970 1 Wage and salary workers, except agriculture, which includes self-employed and unpaid family workers. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. the fastest growing industries through the 1970’s, creating many job openings for college graduates. Requirements in these industries are expected to increase by about twofifths between 1970 and 1980. M an power requirements in health serv ices are expected to grow rapidly due to population growth, increas ing coverage under prepayment pro grams for hospitalization and medi cal care, and expanding health care facilities. Business services, includ ing accounting, data processing, and maintenance, also are expected to grow very rapidly. T r a n s p o r ta tio n a n d p u b lic u tili tie s employment in 1970, at 4.5 million, was only slightly more than one-tenth higher than in 1960. D if ferent areas of the industry, how ever, have experienced different growth trends. For example, em ployment increased rapidly in the airlines industry, but declined in the railroad industry. In 1970, approximately 5 per cent, or 2 3 4 ,0 0 0 of these workers, were college graduates. Employment opportunities are expected to con tinue to increase slowly through the 1970’s, but employment trends will vary among individual industries. A rapid increase in employment in air transportation is expected and a continuing decline in railroad em ployment; little or no change is ex pected in water transportation and electric, gas, and sanitary services. Overall employment in these indus tries is expected to increase to more than 4.7 million in 1980, 5 percent above the 1970 level. F in a n ce , in su ra n c e, a n d rea l e s ta te , which has the smallest number of workers of the service-producing industries, grew 38 percent since 1960, from 2.7 million to 3.7 mil lion in 1970. Sixteen percent of the workers, or almost 600,000, were college graduates. Employment grew especially rapidly in banking, credit agencies, security and com modity brokers, and dealers’ ex changes. Employment in finance, insur ance, and real estate is projected to keep in step with total employment through the 1970’s, rising to 4.3 million by 1980, 16 percent above the 1970 level. The most rapid ad vances will be in banking and credit 4 largest need for additional workers as employment rises from nearly 2 million to more than 2.4 million. In dustries producing rubber and plastic products; furniture and fixtures; stone, clay, and glass products; and instruments will be among other rapidly growing manufacturing in dustries. In contrast, employment in some manufacturing industries may decline, for example, food, textile mill products, tobacco, and petro leum refining. A g r ic u ltu r e , which until the late 1800’s employed more than half of all workers, employed only 5 per cent of the workers, or 3.4 million, in 1970. Slightly more than 105,000, about 3 percent of the total, were college graduates. Em ployment in agriculture dropped by two-fifths from 1960. A n increase in the average size of farms, rapid mechanization, and improved ferti lizers, feeds, and pesticides have cre ated large increases in output at the same time that employment has fallen sharply. The outlook in 1980 is for a farm work force 13 percent smaller than in 1970. C o n tr a c t c o n s tr u c tio n employ ment, at more than 3.3 million in 1970, increased more than one-sixth from 1960. In 1970, approximately 4 percent of the workers in the con struction industry, or 125,000, were college graduates. Between 1970 and 1980, contract construction em ployment is expected to grow by al most two-fifths to 4.6 million. Fac tors that may spur an increase in construction activity include an ex panding econom y resulting in more plants and commercial establish ments such as office buildings, stores, and banks; an increase in the volume of construction maintenance and repair (currently about onethird of new construction activity); higher standards of living; increases OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK in population; and larger govern ment expenditures for urban renew al, school construction, and roads. M in in g employment, at about 6 2 0,000 in 1970, declined by nearly 13 percent from 1960, primarily be cause of laborsaving technological changes and a shift to sources of power other than coal. The mining industry, however, has the highest proportion of college educated workers among the goods-producing industries. In 1970, 12 percent of the employees, almost 75,000, were college graduates. Decreases in employment are likely to continue through the 1970’s in all areas of the mining industry except quarrying and other nonmetallic mining. Total employ ment in mining is expected to de cline to about 550,000 by 1980, 12 percent below the 1970 level. Occupational Profile As industrial operations have grown more complex and mecha nized, occupations have become more complex and specialized, with a shift toward white-collar jobs. In 1956, for the first time in the N a tion’s history, white-collar workers — professional, managerial, clerical, and sales— outnumbered blue-collar workers— craftsmen, operatives, and laborers. Through the 1970’s, there is likely to be a continuation of the rapid growth of white-collar occupa tions, slower than average growth of blue-collar occupations, a faster than average growth of service workers, and a further decline of farm workers. Total employment is expected to increase 21 percent be tween 1970 and 1980. Employment of white-collar workers is expected to increase by 27 percent, while blue-collar employment is expected to increase by only 12 percent. By 1980, white-collar workers will ac count for more than one-half of all employed workers, compared with 48 percent in 1970. The rapid growth expected for white-collar and service workers reflects continuing expansion of the service-producing industries which employ a relatively large proportion of these- workers. The growing demand for workers to perform research and development, to provide education and health services, and to process the increas ing amount of paperwork through out all types of enterprise also will be significant in the growth of whitecollar jobs. The slower than average growth of blue-collar and farm workers reflects the expanding use of laborsaving equipment in the N a tion’s industries and farms and the relatively slow growth of the goodsproducing industries that employ large proportions of blue-collar workers. Reflecting the mounting supply of college graduates and the shift to ward white-collar employment and the rapid growth in professional oc cupations, the proportion of college graduates in the labor force is in creasing. For example, in 1962, 11.5 percent of all workers were college graduates. By 1970, approximately 13 percent or 10 million of the 78.6 million workers in the labor force were college graduates. By 1980, 16.8 percent— over 15.9 million workers— are expected to be college graduates. Am ong reasons for the growth in the employment of college graduates are: (1 ) Employers are seeking people who have higher lev els of education because jobs are more complex and require greater skill; ( 2 ) employment in those oc cupations requiring the most educa tion, for example, professional occu pations, will show the fastest growth 5 t o m o r r o w ’s j o b s f o r c o l l e g e g r a d u a t e s through the 1970’s; and (3 ) through the 1970’s the number of young workers will increase and these workers will have more educa tion on the average than did new entrants to the labor force in pre vious years. The following sections describe the changes that are expected to occur among the broad occupational groups through the 1970’s. W h ite -c o lla r w o r k e r s — professional and technical, managers, clerical and sales workers— numbered about 38 million in 1970. Approximately 25 percent or 9.5 million were col lege graduates. (See chart 4 .) In 1980, 32 percent or 15.3 million of the projected 48.3 million whitecollar workers are expected to be college graduates. group from 1970 to 1980. Increased emphasis on socioeconom ic prog ress, urban renewal, transportation, harnessing the ocean, and on the en vironment will account for an ex pected 40 percent increase among professional, technical, and kindred workers. Among the fastest growing occupations in this group are dental hygienists, medical laboratory work ers, oceanographers, programers, systems analysts, and pilots. Alm ost 60 percent (6 .7 million) of all professional and technical workers were college graduates in 1970. If present trends continue, more than two-thirds, 10.5 million, of the projected 15.5 million work ers in the group will be college graduates in 1980. P ro fe ssio n a l a n d te c h n ic a l w o r k to rs totaled 8.3 million in 1970 and ers, the third largest occupational group in 1970, with more than 11.1 million workers, include such highly trained personnel as doctors, teach ers, engineers, dentists, accountants, and clergymen. Professional occupations will be the fastest growing occupational are expected to grow at a somewhat slower rate (15 percent) than the average for all groups. As in the past, the need for salaried managers is likely to continue to increase rap idly because of the increasing de pendence of business organizations and government agencies on man M a n a g e rs, officials, a n d p r o p r ie Chart 4 C o lle g e g r a d u a t e s a re p r im a r il y in w h it e -c o lla r o c c u p a t io n s O C C U P A TIO N A L GROUP Workers, 1970 (in millions) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 agement specialists. On the other hand, the number of self-employed managers is expected to continue to decline through the 1970’s as larger businesses continue to restrict growth of small owner-operated firms. Reflecting these trends, the pro portion of college graduates in man agement positions is expected to in crease from 20 percent in 1970 to over 30 percent by 1980. In abso lute terms, the employment of col lege graduates is expected to in crease from 1.7 million to about 2.9 million. C le ric a l w o r k e rs, numbering 13.7 million in 1970, include workers who operate computers and office machines, keep records, take dicta tion, and type. Many new clerical positions are expected to open up as industries employing large num bers of clerical workers continue to expand. The trend in retail stores toward transferring to clerical workers functions performed by sales persons also will tend to in crease the need for clerical workers. The demand will be particularly strong for those qualified to handle jobs created by the change of cler ical operations to electronic data processing operations. However, the use of electronic bookkeeping ma chines and other mechanical devices to do processing and repetitive work is expected to reduce the number of clerks in .such jobs as filing, making up payrolls, keeping track of inven tories, and billing customers. On the other hand requirements for bank tellers, electronic computer opera ting personnel, and receptionists will grow at rapid rates in the 1970’s. Employment of clerical workers as a group is expected to increase by more than one-fourth between 1970 and 1980. Approximately 5 percent or 650,000 clerical and related workers were college graduates in 6 1970. This proportion is expected to remain about the same through the 1970’s. S a le sw o rk e r s, 4.9 million in 1970, are found in retail stores, wholesale firms, insurance compa nies, real estate agencies, manufac turing firms, and firms offering goods door to door. Between 1970 and 1980, employment of sales workers is expected to increase by almost one-fourth to 6 million. Manufacturers’ salesmen are ex pected to be the fastest growing group of salesworkers. Increasing sales of many new products resulting from population growth, product development, and business expansion are among themajor reasons underlying the ex pected increase inemployment of salesworkers. The expected in creases in residential and commer cial construction and urban renew al may increase the need for real estate agents. Continued extension of such laws as workers compensa tion and automobile liability insur ance should boost the need for insur ance salesmen. The trend for stores to remain open longer hours should increase the need for retail salesmen. However, changes in distribution methods, such as self-service and automatic vending, are likely to re strict the growth of salesworkers in trade. In 1970, 5 7 0,000 persons, 12 percent of the total in sales occupa tions, were college graduates. By 1980, the proportion is projected to reach 17 percent and number ap proximately 1 million. The rising number of college graduates in sales positions reflects to some extent the trend for employers to hire persons with the highest educational qualifi cations. An increase in the propor tion of salesworkers who are college graduates, however, also reflects the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK changing nature of sales occupa tions. Increasingly, sales personnel are required to have technical knowledge of the product or service being sold, especially in manufac turing and computer fields. T h e b lu e -c o lla r o c c u p a tio n a l g ro u p s — craftsmen, operatives, and labor ers— employ small percentages of college and university graduates. Skill requirements in these occupa tions are more closely related to vocational or on-the-job training than to academic training, and these jobs are usually not primary em ployment goals of college graduates. In 1970, only about 1 percent of the 27.8 million blue-collar workers were college graduates. S e r v ic e w o r k e r s , including men and women who provide protective serv ices, assist professional nurses in hospitals, give haircuts and beauty treatments, serve food, and clean and care for homes, totaled 9.7 mil lion in 1970. Employment require ments for this diverse group will in crease about 35 percent between 1970 and 1980, the second fastest rate of increase after professional and technical workers. Some of the major factors expected to increase requirements for these workers are the rising demand for hospital and medical care; the greater need for protective services as urbanization continues and cities become more crowded; and the more frequent use of restaurants, beauty parlors, and other services as income levels rise and an increasing number of house wives take jobs outside the home. Employment of workers in health service occupations will show the most rapid growth of all service workers. In 1970, only about 1 percent of service workers, or 130,000, were college graduates, and about the same proportion is expected by 1980. However, the number of per sons with some college training may increase more rapidly through the 1970’s. Between 1959 and 1970, the proportion of service workers with 1 to 3 years of college jumped from 6 percent to over 10 percent. F a rm w o r k e r s , including farmers, farm managers, laborers, and fore men numbered about 3.1 million in 1970. Employment requirements for farm workers are expected to de cline to 2.6 million in 1980. This decrease is anticipated, in part, be cause of continued improvements in farm technology. For example, im proved fertilizers, seeds, and feed will permit a farmer to increase pro duction without increasing employ ment. A little over 1 percent of all farm workers were college graduates in 1970, and a slight increase to nearly 2 percent is anticipated by 1980 if past trends continue. Demand and Supply for College Graduates, 1 9 7 0 -8 0 Between 1970 and 1980, job openings for workers with college degrees will stem from two sources: Growth in demand, and replace ment of workers who die, retire, or leave the labor force for other rea sons. Growth will be the major fac tor influencing manpower needs for college graduates. In addition to growth in those occupations which traditionally have required a college degree for entry, manpower needs will be affected by the fact that a college degree is becoming more necessary in jobs once performed by workers with less education. Reflect ing these trends, the proportion of jobs requiring a college degree is ex pected to increase in all major occu pational groups employing relatively large numbers of college graduates 7 t o m o r r o w ’s j o b s f o r c o l l e g e g r a d u a t e s — professional and technical, mana gerial, and sales occupations. Over the 1 9 7 0 -8 0 period, these factors of growth, replacement, and rising entry requirements indicate a need for over 9.6 million college graduates. U.S. colleges and universities are expected to award a record number of degrees through the 1970’s, total ing 13.6 million. Of these, 9.8 mil lion will be bachelors’; 3.4 million masters’; and 4 7 5 ,0 0 0 doctorates. These college graduates represent the potential new entrants into the labor force; however, not all can be con sidered part of the effective new supply in the year they receive their degree. M ost master’s and doctor’s degree recipients, for example, are employed before receiving advanced degrees, and are- already counted in the existing supply of college edu cated workers. Other new degree re cipients, especially at the bachelor’s level, delay entry into the civilian labor force by continuing their edu cation, entering the Armed Forces, or becoming housewives. Based on past employment pat terns, about 9.2 million of the 13.6 million new degree recipients will enter the civilian labor force directly upon graduation between 1970 and 1980. Bachelor’s degree recipients will constitute 8.1 million; master’s degree recipients 1.1 million; and those with doctorates 22,000. Most persons who will receive degrees during this period and enter the Armed Forces will have returned to civilian life by 1980. Hence, the ef fect of the draft and the Vietnam War on the supply of college gradu ates is assumed to be limited. Besides new graduates, the supply with career planning than was nec essary in the 1960’s, when college graduates generally were in short supply. Prospective supply-demand imbalances are in the offing in sev eral occupations if college students continue to prepare for work ac cording to past patterns. Am ong in dividual fields, for example, a more than adequate supply of elementary and secondary school teachers is ex pected while the supply of physi cians is expected to be below re quirements. The remainder of this bulletin contains discussions of the outlook in a variety of fields generally re quiring college training for entry. Young persons should read the statements on occupations in which they have an interest, not only to learn about the nature of the work, earnings, and working conditions, of college educated workers will be augmented by persons who gradu ated before 1970 but were not in the labor force in 1970. These other entrants will include housewives ei ther entering the labor force for the first time (delayed entrants), or reentering the labor force when their household duties no longer re quire their fulltime attention. Immi grants are still another source of college educated workers. These sources are expected to provide many additional college educated workers over the 1 9 7 0 -8 0 period. Between 1970 and 1980, about 9.8 million college graduates are ex pected to enter the labor market. (See chart 5 .) In summary, a rough balance be tween supply and demand for col lege educated personnel is indicated over the 1970’s, with the edge per haps on the supply side. The impli cation is that college students in the 1970’s must be more concerned but also to learn about the prospects for employment in the field in the years ahead. F r o m 1 9 7 0 to 19 8 0 . m o r e th a n 9 m illio n d e g r e e r e c ip ie n t s w ill e n t e r th e l a b o r fo rc e (in millions) Degree level 6 1 Total first-time entrants also includes approximately 600,000 "other entrants", composed of delayed entrants, reentrants, and immigrants. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. 8 II. OCCUPATIONS B U S IN E S S A D M IN IS T R A T IO N AND RELATED P R O FE S S IO N S Many professional workers play a major role in administering busi nesses and a wide variety of other organizations, both private and gov ernmental. These workers generally need a college degree to qualify for jobs in their respective fields. Though their disciplines are ori ented toward business management, they perform functions which are highly specialized and varied. Whether their organizations are small or large, employing only a few people or many thousands, the deci sions they make and their effective ness in implementing these deci sions contribute greatly to the suc cess or failure of the enterprise. This chapter describes some pro fessional occupations that are of vital importance to the Nation’s businesses— accountants, advertis ing workers, marketing research workers, personnel workers, and public relations workers. Workers engaged primarily in managerial du ties are covered in the section on M a n a g e ria l O c c u p a tio n s found else where in the H a n d b o o k . tioners who work on a fee basis for businesses and individuals, or as a member or employee of account ancy firms. Management account ants, often referred to as industrial or private accountants, handle the financial records of the particular firm for which they work on a salary basis. Government accountants work on the financial records of government agencies and often audit the records of private business organizations and individuals whose dealings are subject to government regulations. Accountants in any field of em ployment may specialize in such areas as auditing, taxes, cost ac counting, budgeting and control, in formation processing, or systems and procedures. Approximately 100 specialties now exist in the account ing field. Public accountants are likely to specialize in auditing— that is, in reviewing financial records and reports and giving opinions as to their reliability. They also advise clients on tax matters and other fi nancial and accounting problems. Most management accountants are involved in some aspect of provid ing management with informa tion for decisionmaking. Sometimes they specialize in taxes, budgeting or internal auditing— that is, exam ining and appraising financial sys- A C C O U N T A N TS (D .O .T. 160.188) Nature of the Work Accountants compile and analyze business records and prepare finan cial reports, such as profit and loss statements, balance sheets, cost studies, and tax reports. The major fields are public, management, and government accounting. Public ac countants are independent practi 9 10 terns and management control pro cedures. Many accountants in the Federal Government are employed as Internal Revenue agents, investi gators, and bank examiners, as well as in regular accounting positions. closely related field is increasingly an asset; for better positions, it may be required. Candidates having a master’s degree in accounting, as well as college training in other business and liberal arts subjects, are preferred by many firms. Previous work experience also Places of Employment can be of great value in qualifying for employment. A number of col About 500,000 accountants were leges offer students an opportunity employed in 1970, of whom over to get such experience through in 100,000 were Certified Public A c ternship programs conducted in co countants (C P A ’s ) . Accounting is operation with public accounting or one of the largest fields of profes business firms. For beginning ac sional employment for men. About counting positions, the Federal 2 percent of the C PA ’s and less Government requires 4 years of col than 20 percent of all accountants lege training (including 24 semester are women. hours in accounting) or an equiva More than three-fifths of all ac lent combination of education and countants do management account experience. Most universities re ing work. A n additional one-fifth quire the master’s degree or the are engaged in public accounting as doctorate with the Certified Public proprietors, partners, or employees Accountancy Certificate for teach of independent accounting firms. ing positions. Over 10 percent work for Federal, All States require that anyone State and local government agen practicing in the State as a “certified cies. A small number teach in col public accountant” must hold a cer leges and universities. tificate issued by the State board of Accountants are employed wher accountancy. The CPA examina ever business, industrial, or govern tion, administered by the American mental organizations are located. Institute of Certified Public A c The majority, however, work in countants, is used by all states to es large metropolitan centers where tablish certification. In 1970, half the there is a particularly heavy concen States had laws that required CPA tration of public accounting firms candidates to be college graduates. and central offices of large business In recent years, nearly 9 out of 10 organizations. successful CPA candidates have been college graduates, and a ma jority of the remainder have had at Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement least 1 year of college training. Young people interested in an ac Training in accounting can be ob counting career should be aware tained in universities, 4-year col that recent reports by the American leges, junior colleges, accounting Institute of Certified Public A c and private business schools, and countants indicate that, in the near correspondence schools. Graduates future, some States may require of all these institutions are included in the ranks of successful account CPA candidates to have a graduate degree. Before the CPA certificate ants; however, a bachelor’s degree with a major in accounting or a is issued, at least 2 years of public OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK accounting experience is required by nearly all States. Considerably more than half the States restrict the title “public ac countant” to those who are licensed or registered. Requirements for li censing and registration vary con siderably from one State to another. Information on these requirements may be obtained directly from indi vidual State boards of accountancy, or from the National Society of Public Accountants. Inexperienced accountants usu ally begin with fairly routine work. Junior public accountants may be assigned to detailed work such as verifying cash balances or inspect ing vouchers. They may advance to semisenior positions in 1 or 2 years and to senior positions within an other 1 or 2 years. In the larger firms, those successful in dealing with top industry executives often become supervisors, managers, or partners, or transfer to executive positions in private accounting. Some become independent practi tioners. Beginners in management ac counting may start as ledger ac countants, junior internal auditors, or as trainees for technical account ing positions. They may rise to chief plant accountant, chief cost account ant, budget director, senior internal auditor, or manager of internal au diting, depending on their specialty. Some become controllers, treasur ers, financial vice-presidents, or cor poration presidents. In the Federal Government, beginners are hired as trainees and usually are promoted in a year or so. In the field of col lege and university teaching, those having minimum training and ex perience may receive the rank of in structor without tenure; advance ment and permanent faculty status are dependent upon further educa tion. 11 BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS Accountants who want to get to the top in their profession usually find it necessary to continue their study of accountancy and related problems— even though they al ready may have obtained college degrees or CPA certificates. Even experienced accountants may spend many hours in study and research in order to keep abreast of legal and business developments that affect their work. More and more account ants are studying computer opera tion, programing, mathematics, and quantitative methods in order to adapt accounting procedures to new methods of processing business data. Although advancement may be rapid for capable accountants, those having inadequate academic preparation are likely to be assigned to routine jobs and may find them selves handicapped in obtaining promotions. Employment Outlook Accounting employment is ex pected to expand very rapidly dur ing the 1970’s because of such fac tors as the greater use of accounting information in business manage ment; complex and changing tax systems; the growth in size and num ber of business corporations re quired to provide financial reports to stockholders; and the increasing use of accounting services by small business organizations. As a result, opportunities for accountants are expected to be excellent. Demand for college-trained accountants will be stronger than the demand for people without this academic back ground, because of the growing complexity of business accounting requirements. However, graduates of business and other schools which offer thorough training in account ing also should have good job pros pects. In addition, the trend toward specialization is creating excellent opportunities for persons trained in a specific phase of accounting. In addition to openings resulting from employment growth, several thou sand accountants will be needed an nually during this period to replace those who retire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. The computer is having a major effect on the accounting profes sion. Electronic data processing systems are replacing manual prep aration of accounting records and financial statements. As a result, the need for junior accountants at the lower level may be reduced or elim inated. On the other hand, comput ers can process vast quantities of routine data which will require the employment of additional account ants to analyze the data. Also, the computer is expected to cause rad ical changes in management infor mation systems and decisionmaking processes in large companies. Addi tional highly-trained accountants will be required to prepare, admin ister and analyze the information made available by these systems. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries of beginning ac countants in private industry were $8,500 a year in 1970, according to a Bureau of Labor Statistics (B L S) survey. Average earnings of experi enced accountants ranged between $10,500 and $15,500, depending on their level o f responsibility and the complexity of the accounting system. Chief accountants responsible for di recting the accounting program of a company or one of its establish ments earned between $14,000 and $23,000, depending upon the scope of their authority and size of profes sional staff. According to the same survey, beginning auditors averaged $9,000 a year, while experienced auditors’ earnings ranged between $11,500 and $14,000. Salaries are generally 10 percent higher for accountants holding a graduate degree or a CPA certifi cate. Earnings also are higher for those who are required to travel a great deal. In the Federal Civil Service the entrance salary for junior account ants and auditors was $8,510 in 1970. Some candidates having supe rior academic records could qualify for a starting salary of $9,178. Many experienced accountants in the Federal Government earned more than $15,000 a year. Those having administrative responsibil ities earned more. Public accountants are likely to work especially long hours under heavy pressure during the tax sea son. They do most of their work in their client’s offices, and sometimes do considerable traveling to serve distant clients. A few management and government accountants also do much traveling and work irregular hours, but the majority remain in one office and work between 35 and 40 hours a week, under the same general conditions as their fellow office workers. Sources of Additional Information Information about C PA ’s and the aptitude tests now given in many high schools, colleges, and public accounting firms may be obtained from: American Institute of Certified Pub lic Accountants, 666 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10019. Further information on special ized fields of accounting may be ob tained from: 12 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK National Association of Account ants, 505 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022. National Society of Public Account ants, 1717 Pennsylvania Avenue N W , Washington, D.C. 20006. Financial Executives Institute, 50 West 44th St., New York, N.Y. 10036. The Institute of Internal Auditors, Inc., 170 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10038. A D V E R T IS IN G W O R K ER S (D.O.T. 050.088, 132.088; 141.081 and .168; and 164.068 through .168) Nature of the Work Through advertisements, busi nessmen try to reach potential cus tomers and persuade them to buy their products or services. Advertis ing workers plan and prepare these advertisements and get them before the public. Advertising workers in clude executives responsible for planning and overall supervision, copywriters who write the text, art ists who prepare the illustrations, and layout specialists who put copy and illustrations into the most at tractive arrangement possible. They also include administrative and technical workers who are responsi ble for the satisfactory reproduction of the “ads,” and salesmen who sell advertising space in publications or time on radio and television pro grams. In a very small advertising organization, one person may han dle all these tasks. Large organiza tions employ specialists for re search, copywriting, and layout work. They sometimes have staff members who specialize in writing copy for particular kinds of prod ucts or for one type of advertising media. The following are the spe cialized occupations most com monly found in advertising work. A d v e r tis in g m a n a g e rs direct a company’s advertising program. They work mostly on policy ques tions— for example, the type of ad vertising, the size of the advertising budget, and the agency to be em ployed. They then work with the agency in planning and carrying through the program. They also may supervise the preparation of special sales brochures, display cards, and other promotional mate rials. The advertising manager of a newspaper, radio station, or other advertising medium is concerned chiefly with selling advertising time or space; his functions are similar to those of the sales manager in other businesses. A c c o u n t e x e c u tiv e s employed in advertising agencies handle rela tions between the agency and its clients. An account executive stud ies the client’s sales and advertising problems, develops a plan to meet the client’s needs, and seeks his ap proval of the proposed program. Account executives must be able to sell ideas and maintain good rela tions with clients. They must know how to write copy and use artwork, even though copywriters and artists usually carry out their ideas and suggestions. Some advertising agencies have account supervisors who oversee the work of the account executives. In others, account executives are re sponsible directly to agency heads. A d v e r tis in g c o p y w r ite r s create the headlines, slogans, and text that attract buyers. They collect infor mation about products and the peo ple who might use them. They use psychology and writing techniques to prepare copy especially suited for readers or listeners and for the type of advertising medium to be used. Copywriters may specialize in copy that appeals to certain groups— housewives, businessmen, scientists, engineers— or even in copy that deals with items such as packaged goods or industrial products. In ad vertising agencies, copywriters work closely with account executives, al though they may be under the su pervision of a copy chief. Advertisers and advertising agen cies employ m e d ia d ir e c to r s (or s p a c e b u y e r s and tim e b u y e r s ) to determine where and when advertis ing should be carried to reach the largest group of prospective buyers at the least cost. They must have a vast amount of information about the cost of advertising in all media and the relative size and character istics of the reading, viewing, or lis tening audience which can be reached in various parts of the country by specific publications, broadcasting stations, and other media. P r o d u c tio n m a n a g e rs and their assistants arrange to have the final copy and artwork converted into printed form. They deal with print ing, engraving, filming, recording, and other firms involved in the re production of advertisements. The production manager must have a thorough knowledge of various printing processes, typography, pho tography, paper, inks, and related technical materials and processes. R e se a r c h d ir e c to r s and their as sistants assemble and analyze infor mation needed for effective adver tising programs. They study the possible uses of the product, its ad vantages and disadvantages com pared with competing products, and the best ways of reaching potential purchasers. Such workers may make special surveys of the buying habits and motives of customers, or may try out sample advertisements 13 BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS to find the most convincing selling theme or most efficient media for carrying the advertising message. The research director is an impor tant executive in advertising organi zations. More information on this occupation is contained in the state ment on Marketing Research Workers. A r tis ts a n d la y o u t m e n work closely with advertising managers, copywriters, and other advertising personnel in planning and creating visual effects in advertisements. More information about this group appears in the separate statements on Commerical Artists and Photog raphers. Places of Employment In 1970, more than 140,000 men and women were employed in posi tions requiring considerable knowl edge of advertising. More than one-third of these workers are em ployed in advertising agencies, and more than half of the agency workers are employed in the New York City and Chicago metropoli tan areas. However, there are many independent agencies in other cities, and many leading agencies operate branch offices outside the major centers. Advertising workers not em ployed in advertising agencies work for manufacturing companies, stores, and other organizations hav ing products or services to sell; for advertising media, such as newspa pers and magazines; and for print ers, engravers, art studios, product and package designers, and others who provide services to advertisers and advertising agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers, in hiring adver tising trainees, prefer college gradu ates having liberal arts training or majors in advertising, marketing, journalism, or business administra tion. However, there is no typical educational background for success in advertising. Some successful ad vertising people have started in such varied occupations as engineer, teacher, chemist, artist, or salesman. Most advertising jobs require a flair for language, both spoken and written. Since every assignment re quires individual handling, a liking for problem-solving also is very important. Advertising personnel should have a great interest in peo ple and things to help them sell their ideas to their superiors, to ad vertisers, and to the public. They must be able to accept criticism and to gain important points with tact. Young people planning to enter advertising should get some experi ence in copywriting or related work with their school publications and, if possible, through summer jobs con nected with marketing research serv ices. Some large advertising organ izations recruit o u tsta n d in g c o lle g e graduates and train them through programs which cover all aspects of advertising work. Most beginners, however, have to locate their own jobs by applying directly to possible employers. Some start as assistants in research or production work or as space or time buyers. A few begin as junior copywriters. One of the best avenues of entrance to ad vertising work for women is through advertising departments in retail stores. Employees having initiative, drive, and talent may progress from beginning jobs to creative, research, or managerial work. Management 14 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK positions require experience in all phases of the advertising business. Copywriters and account execu tives can usually look forward to rapid advancement if they demon strate exceptional ability in dealing with clients, since the success of an advertising organization depends upon satisfied advertisers. Many of these workers prefer to remain in their own specialities and for them advancement is to more responsible work at increased pay. Some top flight copywriters and account exec utives establish their own agencies. Employment Outlook Employment of advertising workers is expected to increase slowly through the 1970’s. Oppor tunities should be favorable, how ever, for highly qualified applicants, especially in advertising agencies, as more and more advertisers turn their work over to agencies. H ow ever, many young people attracted to advertising will face stiff competi tion for entry jobs in this field through the 1970’s. M ost openings — several thousand each year— will result from the need to replace those who retire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. ing agencies vary by size of firm. The average salary paid by small agencies (those having annual bill ings between $250,000 and $1 million) was $11,000 a year in 1970. Advertising workers em ployed by large agencies (those having billings between $20 million and $40 m illion) averaged $26,000 a year. Salaries also vary by func tion. For example, account execu tives employed by small agencies averaged $13,000 a year, while media directors averaged less than $7,000 a year in agencies of the same size. Advertising workers frequently work under great pressure. Working hours are sometimes irregular be cause deadlines must be met and last minute changes are not uncom mon. Persons in creative jobs often work evenings and weekends to finish important assignments. A t the same time, advertising is a satisfying career for persons who enjoy variety, excitement, and a constant challenge to their creative ability, and who can meet the com petition. Advertising workers have the satisfaction of seeing their work in print and on television, or hear ing it over the radio, even though they remain unknown to the public at large. Earnings and Working Conditions Sources of Additional Information According to the limited informa tion available, starting salaries for beginning advertising workers ranged from $ 6,500 to $8,000 a year in 1970. The higher starting salaries were paid most frequently in very large firms that recruit out standing college graduates; the lower salaries were earned in stores and small advertising agencies. Salaries of experienced advertis ing workers employed by advertis American Advertising Federation, 1225 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. American Association of Advertis ing Agencies, 200 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. Association of Industrial Advertis ers, 41 East 42nd Street, New York, N.Y. 10017. A list of schools which provide training in advertising may be ob tained from: Advertising Education Publications, 34ZwT'ifty-Fifth Street, Lubbock, 'Pexhs 79413. B A N K O FFICERS (D.O.T. 186.118, .138, .168, and .288; 161.118; 189.118 and .168) Nature of the Work Practically every bank has a pres ident who directs operations; one or more vice presidents who either act as general managers or have charge of bank departments such as trust, or credit; and a comptroller or cash ier who (unlike cashiers in stores and other businesses) is an execu tive officer generally responsible for all bank property. Large banks also may have treasurers and other senior officers, as well as assistant officers, to supervise the various sections within different depart ments. Banking institutions em ployed almost 175,000 officers in 1970; women represented about one-tenth of the total. A bank officer makes decisions within a framework of policy set by the board of directors and existing laws and regulations. He must have a broad knowledge of business ac tivities, which he can relate to the operations of his particular depart ment. For example, each time a loan officer considers an applica tion, he analyzes the collateral and uses his broad knowledge of busi ness activities. He also evaluates carefully the credit analysis on the individual or business firm applying for a loan. Similarly, the trust officer must understand each account he administers. He must invest wisely to manage trust funds which were established for such purposes as supporting families, sending young BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS people to college, or paying pen sions to retired workers. Besides supervising financial services, bank officers advise individuals and businessmen and participate in many different kinds of community projects. Because of the variety of services offered by banks, a wide choice of officer careers is available for those who wish to specialize in different areas of banking. For example, the lo a n o fficer must be familiar with economics, production, distribution, merchandising, and commercial law. He also must have the ability to analyze financial statements and know the operations and customs of businesses to which the bank ex tends credit. Careers in lending in clude: installment loan officer, com mercial loan officer, credit depart ment loan officer, real estate mortgage loan officer, and agri cultural loan officer. In trust serv ices, the tru st officer manages assets belonging to individuals, families, corporations, and institutions. Trust management requires specialization in fields such as financial planning and investment. Specialized careers in trust management include estate administration, trust administration, and investment research. The o p e r a tio n s o ffic er plans, coordinates, and controls the work flow, updates systems, and strives for bank efficiency. He also trains and super vises a large number of people. Careers in the bank operations area include: Customer services, electronic data processing, and in ternal services. Other career specialties include c o r r e s p o n d e n t b a n k o fficer, who is responsible for relations with other banks; b ra n ch b a n k m a n a g e r, who is responsible for all functions of a branch office; and in te rn a tio n a l offi c e r, who is financial advisor to cus tomers in the United States and abroad. A working knowledge of a foreign language and knowledge of a foreign country’s geography, poli 15 tics, history, and economic growth can help those interested in interna tional banking. Other career fields for bank officers are auditing, eco nomics, personnel administration, public relations, and operations re search. Places of Employment In 1970, there were more than 35,000 commercial banks and branch banks and more than 1,400 mutual savings banks and branches. Bank employment is concentrated, to a considerable extent in a rela tively small number of very large banks and their branches. Thus, in 1969, the 500 largest commercial banks in the country, each having total deposits of $100 million or more, employed more than one-half of all commercial bank employees, whereas over 8,000 small commer cial banks (having total deposits of $10 million or less) employed only about 10 percent of all commercial bank workers. Bank employees work mainly in heavily populated areas. Approxi mately half of all bank employees are located in New York, Califor nia, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and Texas. New York City, the financial capital of the Nation, has far more bank employees than any other city. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Bank officer positions may be filled by management trainees or by promoting experienced clerical em ployees. Outstanding bank clerks may be selected for promotion even though their academic background is limited, but college graduation is OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 16 the usual requirement for manage ment trainees. A business adminis tration major in finance or a liberal arts curriculum including account ing, economics, commercial law, po litical science, and statistics serve as excellent preparation for officer trainee positions. Valuable experi ence may be gained through sum mer employment programs offered by some banks. M ost large city banks have wellorganized officer-training programs usually ranging from 6 months to 1 year. Trainees may start as credit or investment analysts or rotate among bank departments to get the “feel” of banking; bank officers then can better determine the position for which each employee is best suited. Banks too small for formal officertrainee programs provide other forms of training that enable train ees to understand bank operations. Advancement to officer positions may come slowly in small banks where the number of these positions is limited. In large banks having special training programs, promo tions may come more quickly. For a senior officer position, however, many years of experience are usu ally necessary before an employee can acquire the necessary knowl edge of the bank’s operations and customers and of the community. Although experience, ability, and leadership receive great emphasis when bank employees are consid ered for promotion to office posi tions, advancement also may be ac celerated by special study. Courses in every phase of banking are of fered by the American Institute of Banking, a long-established, indus try-sponsored school (See introduc tion to this chapter for more infor mation on the Institute’s program and other training programs spon sored jointly by universities and local bankers’ associations.) Employment Outlook Sources of Additional Information The number of bank officers is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s as banking activities ex pand. Increased use of electronic computers enables banks to analyze and plan banking operations more extensively and to provide new kinds of services. In addition, be cause bank officers are somewhat older, on the average, than most employee groups, a large number of additional officers will be needed each year to replace those who re Local banks and State bankers’ associations can furnish specific in formation about job opportunities in local banking institutions. General information about banking occupa tions, training opportunities, and the banking industry itself is available from: tire or leave their jobs for other rea sons. Several thousand workers will be needed annually because of em ployment growth and the need to replace bank officers who retire or die. Many other openings will arise as bank officers transfer to other types of employment. Although college graduates who meet the standards for executive trainees should find good opportuni ties for entry positions, many officer positions will be filled by promoting people already experienced in bank ing operations. Competition for these promotions, particularly in large banks, is likely to be keen. National Association of Bank Wom en, Inc., National Office, 111 E. Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60601. Earnings According to a private survey conducted in 1969, large banks, in surance companies, and other finan cial institutions paid salaries ranging from about $580 to $750 a month to new executive trainees who were college graduates. The salaries of senior bank officers may be several times as great as these starting salaries. For officers, as well as for other bank employees, salaries are likely to be lower in small towns than in big cities. American Bankers Association, Per sonnel Administration and Man agement Development Committee, 1120 Connecticut Avenue, NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. National Bankers Association, 4310 Georgia Ave., NW., Washington, D.C. 20011. Information on career opportuni ties in consumer finance can be ob tained from: The National Consumer Finance Association, 1000 16th St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Information about career oppor tunities as a bank examiner can be obtained from: Federal Deposit Insurance Corpora tion, Director of Personnel, 550 17th St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20429. BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS HO TEL M A N A G ER S A N D A S S IS T A N TS (D.O.T. 163.118 and 187.118 and .168) Nature of the Work Hotel and motel managers are re sponsible for operating their estab lishments profitably and, at the same time, providing maximum comfort for their guests. Of the more than 190,000 hotel and motel managers employed in 1970, about 90.000 were salaried and more than 100.000 were owner-managers. Managers direct and coordinate the activities of the front office, kitchen, dining rooms, and the various hotel departments, such as housekeeping, accounting, personnel, purchasing, publicity, and maintenance. They make decisions on room rates, es tablish credit policy, and have final responsibility for dealing with many other kinds of problems that arise in operating their hotels or motels. Like other managers of business en terprises, they also may spend con siderable time conferring with busi ness and social groups and partici pating in community affairs. In small hotels, the manager also may perform much of the front office clerical work. In the smallest hotels and in many motels, the own ers— sometimes a family team— do all the work necessary to operate the business. The general manager of a large hotel may have several assistants who manage one department or more and assume general adminis trative responsibility when the man ager is absent. Because preparing and serving food is important in the operation of most large hotels, a special manager usually is in charge of this department. Managers of large hotels usually employ a special Manager checks convention reservations. assistant, known as a sales manager, whose job is to promote maxi mum use of hotel facilities. The sales manager spends much time advertising the facilities his hotel can offer for meetings, banquets, and conventions. Since large hotel chains often centralize activities such as purchas ing supplies and equipment and planning employee training pro grams, managers in these hotels may have fewer duties than manag ers of independently owned hotels. Hotel chains may assign managers to help organize work in a newly ac quired hotel, or may transfer them to established hotels in different cit ies or in foreign countries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Since most hotels promote from within, individuals who have proven 17 their ability, usually in front office jobs, may be promoted to assistant manager positions and eventually to general manager. Although successful hotel experi ence is generally the first considera tion in selecting managers, em ployers increasingly emphasize a college education. Many believe the best educational preparation is pro vided by colleges offering a special ized 4-year curriculum in hotel and restaurant administration. Special ized courses in hotel work, available in a few junior colleges, and study courses given by the Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Association are also helpful. In colleges offering a specialized 4-year curriculum in hotel manage ment, the courses include hotel ad ministration, hotel accounting, eco nomics, food service management and catering, and hotel maintenance engineering. Students are encour aged to spend their summer vaca tions working in hotel or restaurant jobs. The experience gained in these jobs and the contacts with em ployers may enable young people to obtain better hotel positions after graduation. In addition, students are encouraged to study foreign lan guages and other subjects of cul tural value such as history, philoso phy, and literature. College graduates who have ma jored in hotel administration usually begin their hotel careers as front office clerks; after acquiring the necessary experience, they may ad vance to top managerial positions. An increasing number of employers require some experience in food op erations. Hotel chains may offer better opportunities for advance ment than independent hotels, since vacancies may arise in any hotel of the chain, as well as on the central management staff. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 18 Some large hotel organizations have established special programs for management trainees who are college graduates or for less highly trained personnel promoted from within. These programs consist mainly of on-the-job training assign ments in which the trainee is rotated among jobs in the various'hotel de partments. Some large hotels pro vide financial assistance to outstand ing employees for college study. Employment Outlook Well-qualified young people will find favorable opportunities through the 1970’s to obtain entry positions that offer the possibility of promo tion to managerial work. Young ap plicants who have college degrees in hotel administration will have an advantage in seeking entry positions and later advancement. Many open ings for management personnel also will result from the need to fill va cancies resulting from turnover. The number of hotel managers is expected to increase moderately during the 1970’s. New positions will arise as additional hotels are built, and as the number of motor hotels and luxury motels expands. See the introductory section of this chapter for information on Earnings and Working Conditions, Sources of Additional Information, and for additional information on Employment Outlook. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of hotel employees in managerial positions have an espe cially wide range, mainly because of great differences in duties and re sponsibilities. Hotel manager train ees who are graduates of specialized college programs start at yearly sal aries ranging from $8,000 to $12,000 and are usually given peri odic increases for the first year or two. Experienced managers may earn several times as much as be ginners; a few, in top jobs, earn $50,000 a year or more. In addition to salary, hotels customarily furnish managers and their families with lodging in the hotel, meals, parking facilities, laundry, and other serv ices. Managers who live in the hotel usually have regular work schedules, although managers may be called on at any time. Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in hotel work may be obtained from: American Hotel and Motel Associa tion, 888 7th Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10019. Additional information on hotel training opportunities and a direc tory of schools and colleges offering courses and scholarships in the hotel field may be obtained by writ ing to: Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 1522 K Street NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. IN D U S T R IA L TR A FFIC MANAGERS (D.O.T. 184.168) Nature of the Work Industrial traffic managers and their assistants arrange transporta tion of raw materials and finished products for industrial firms. After analyzing various transpor tation possibilities, industrial traffic managers choose the most efficient type of transportation— rail, air, road, water, pipeline, or some com bination— the route and the particu lar carrier. They must consider fac tors such as freight classifications, rates, routes, and regulations; com pany time schedules; size of ship ment; and loss and damage rates. This statement does not cover traffic managers employed by railroads, airlines, trucking firms, and other freight carriers who are chiefly con cerned with attracting business to their firms. Activities of industrial traffic managers range from routine check ing of freight bills to major planning and policymaking. For example, they decide whether the company should buy and operate its own fleet of trucks. They route and trace ship ments, arrange with carriers for transportation services, prepare bills of lading and other shipping docu ments, and handle claims for lost or damaged goods. Traffic managers maintain records of shipments, freight rates, commodity classifica tions, and applicable government regulations. Industrial traffic manag ers also must know about changing transportation concepts, such as pig gyback freight or containerization. Sometimes traffic managers are responsible for the packaging of shipments and for their companies’ 19 BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS warehouse facilities and transporta tion equipment. Since many aspects of transporta tion are subject to Federal, State, and local government regulations, traffic managers must know about these and any other legal matters that apply to their companies’ ship ping operations. High level traffic managers represent their companies before rate-making and regulatory bodies— such as the Interstate Commerce Commission, State Com missions, and local traffic bureaus. Places of Employment In 1970, most of the over 18,000 industrial traffic managers were em ployed by manufacturing firms; some worked for stores. A few were consultants in business for them selves or for firms that handle trans portation problems for clients. Most traffic managers are men. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although persons having only a high school education can qualify for a traffic manager position on the basis of experience in traffic depart ments, a college education is be coming increasingly important for a career in this field. For some kinds of work, college training may be re quired. For example, in order to argue cases before the U.S. Govern ment’s Interstate Commerce Com mission, a traffic manager must meet certain “qualification stand ards’’ which include at least 2 years of college. Some employers prefer graduates having a degree in traffic management, which is availa ble at more than 100 colleges, uni versities, and junior colleges. Others prefer liberal arts majors who have had courses in transportation, man agement, economics, statistics, mar keting, or commercial law. New traffic department em ployees often complete shipping forms and calculate freight charges in shipping rooms or general traffic offices. After gaining routine experi ence, they may perform more tech nical work, such as analyzing trans portation statistics. A competent worker may advance to a supervi sory position, such as supervisor of rates and routes. The most compe tent may be promoted to assistant general traffic manager and eventu ally to general traffic manager. Workers in traffic departments may advance by participating in company-sponsored training pro grams, taking courses in colleges and universities or schools specializ ing in traffic management, or at tending seminars sponsored by pri vate organizations. “Certified” membership in the American Soci ety of Traffic and Transportation, Inc. can be acquired by successfully completing the Society’s four exami nations and meeting certain educa tion and experience requirements. College credit may be substituted for three of the four examinations. Employment Outlook A moderate increase in employ ment in this occupation is expected through the 1970’s. Many new in dustrial traffic manager positions will be created as corporations reor ganize their shipping and receiving activities into separate traffic de partments to centrally control their transportation functions. 20 Other factors expected to con tribute to growth in this field are the increasing emphasis in many indus tries on efficient management of transportation activities, and the trend toward procuring raw mate rials and finished products from more distant places and distributing them to increasingly wider markets. As more companies realize that transportation costs can vary widely, they will become more con cerned with the economics of ship ping. Thus, a strong demand is ex pected for specialists who know how to classify products so as to ob tain the lowest possible freight rates, or choose the carriers that are best able to handle each shipment, and otherwise protect their compa nies from excessive shipping ex penses. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK whose costs were still higher, some traffic executives earned $40,000 or more a year. Traffic department employees usually work the standard work week of their companies— generally from 35 to 40 hours. Those in par ticularly responsible jobs may have to spend some time outside regular working hours preparing reports, at tending meetings, and traveling to hearings before State and Federal regulatory agencies. Sources of Additional Information For information on the require ments for certification write to: American Society of Traffic and Transportation, Inc., 22 West Madison St., Chicago, 111. 60602. Earnings and Working Conditions Young men having college de grees who started as business train ees in the traffic departments of large industrial firms often received annual salaries of more than $8,000 in 1970 according to the limited data available. Beginners having less schooling, however, usually re ceived lower salaries. Earnings of experienced traffic managers are related generally to their companies’ sales volume and transportation costs. The average (m edian) salary of traffic managers in companies with transportation costs totaling less than $1 million annually was about $15,000 in 1970 according to the limited infor mation available. In companies where transportation costs ranged between $4 million and $10 million, annual salaries ranged between $25,000 and $30,000. In firms M A R K E T IN G RESEARCH W O RKER S (D.O.T. 050.088) Nature of the Work Marketing research workers provide businessmen with much of the information they need to make decisions about marketing new and existing goods and services. In doing this, marketing research workers collect, analyze, and inter pret many different kinds of infor mation. They prepare reports and recommendations on such widely differing problems as forecasting sales; selecting a brand name, pack age, or design; choosing a new plant location; deciding whether to move goods by rail, truck, or other method; and determining the kinds of advertising likely to attract the most business. In investigating these and other matters, they con sider expected changes in subjects relevant to marketing policies such as population, income, and con sumer credit policies. Most marketing research starts with the collection of facts from published materials, the firm’s own records, and specialists on the sub ject under investigation. For exam ple, marketing research workers analyzing fluctuations in their com pany’s sales may begin by determin ing periodic changes in sales volume in several different cities. They may then compare these fluctuations with changes in population, income, the size of the company’s sales force, and the amounts the company has spent for advertising in each city, and thus discover the reasons for changes in the volume of sales. Other marketing research workers may study changes in the quantity of company goods on store shelves, or make door-to-door surveys to learn the n u m b er of c o m p a n y p rod ucts already used in households. Marketing research is often con cerned with the opinions and likes and dislikes of customers. For ex ample, to help management decide on the design and price of a new line of television sets, a survey of consumers may determine the price they would be willing to pay and their preferences as to color and size of the set. Such a survey is usually con ducted under the supervision of marketing research workers who specialize in research on consumer goods— that is, merchandise sold to the general public. In designing the survey, the marketing research worker may be assisted by a statisti- BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS 21 cian in selecting a group (or “sam ple” ) of people to be interviewed to make sure that their opinions repre sent those held by most potential customers. He may also consult a “motivational research” specialist who knows how to frame questions that will produce reliable informa tion on what motivates people to buy. Once the investigation is un derway, the marketing research worker may supervise the interview ers who call on consumers to obtain answers to the questions. He may also direct the work of the office employees who tabulate and ana lyze the information collected. His report summarizing the survey find ings also may include other infor mation that company officials need in making decisions about market ing of old or new product lines. Marketing research surveys con cerned with products used by busi ness and industrial firms may be conducted somewhat differently from consumer goods surveys. B e cause research on some industrial products requires interviewers with a technical knowledge of the prod uct involved, the marketing research worker (or several research workers if it is an extensive survey) often conducts the interviews. In his interviews, he not only seeks opin ions about the product— existing or newly developed— but also possible new ways of adapting it to industrial needs. He must, therefore, be a spe cialist both in marketing research and in the industrial uses of the product involved. Places of Employment More than 20,000 marketing re search workers were employed full time in 1970. This number included research assistants and others in junior positions, as well as research supervisors and directors. Most of these workers were men. In addi tion, a limited number of other pro fessionals (statisticians, economists, psychologists, and sociologists) and several thousand clerical workers (clerks who code and tabulate sur vey returns, typists, and others) were employed full time in this field. Thousands of additional workers, many of them women, were employed on a part time or temporary basis as survey inter viewers. Among the principal employers of marketing research workers are manufacturing companies and inde pendent advertising and marketing research organizations which do this kind of work for clients on a con tract basis. Marketing research workers are also employed by very large stores, radio and television firms, and newspapers; others work for university research centers, gov ernment agencies, and other organi zations which provide information for businessmen. Marketing re search organizations range in size from one-man enterprises to large firms having a hundred employees or more. The largest number of marketing research workers is in New York City, where many major advertising and independent marketing research organizations are located, and where many large manufacturers have their central offices. The sec ond largest concentration is in Chi cago. However, marketing research workers are employed in many other cities— wherever there are central offices of large manufactur ing and sales organizations. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 22 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree is the usual requirement to becom e a marketing research trainee. A master’s degree in business administration is becom ing increasingly desirable, especially for advancement to higher level po sitions. Many people qualify for marketing research jobs through previous experience in other re search or in work related to market ing. University teachers of market ing research or statistics sometimes are sought by employers to head new marketing research depart ments. College courses considered valu able as preparation for work in marketing research are marketing, statistics, English composition, speech, psychology, and economics. Candidates for some marketing re search positions need specialized training in engineering or other technical subjects, or substantial sales experience and a thorough knowledge of the company’s prod ucts. Knowledge of electronic dataprocessing procedures is becoming important because of the growing use of computers in sales forecast ing, distribution, cost analysis, and other aspects of marketing research. Graduate training may be necessary for some kinds of work— for exam ple, motivational research or sam pling and other statistical techniques connected with large-scale surveys. Trainees in marketing research usually start as research assistants or junior analysts. At first, they are likely to do considerable clerical work, such as copying data from published sources, editing and cod ing questionnaires, and tabulating survey returns. They also learn how to conduct interviews and how to write reports on survey findings. A s they gain experience, assist ants and junior analysts may ad vance to higher level positions with responsibility for specific marketing research projects, or to supervisory positions. An exceptionally able in dividual may eventually become marketing research director or vice president for marketing and sales. Marketing research workers must have exceptional ability to recognize and define problems, and imagina tion and ingenuity in applying mar keting research techniques to their solution. They should be able to adapt to change since they are con stantly faced with new and different problems. Above all, their work calls for the ability to analyze infor mation and to write reports which will convince management of the significance of the information. Employment Outlook College graduates trained in mar keting research and statistics are likely to find favorable job oppor tunities in this occupation through the 1970’s. The growing complexity of marketing research techniques will also expand opportunities for psychologists, economists, and other social scientists. Advanced degrees are becoming increasingly necessary for employment in marketing re search, and as a result, job oppor tunities for holders of Masters and Ph. D degrees will be excellent. The demand for marketing re search services is expected to in crease very rapidly through the 1970’s. It is expected that existing marketing research organizations will expand and that new marketing research departments and independ ent research firms will be set up. Business managers will find it creasingly important to obtain best information possible for praising marketing situations in the ap and planning marketing policies. Fur thermore, as marketing research techniques improve and more statis tical data accumulate, company officials are likely to turn more often to marketing research workers for information and advice. In addi tion to growth needs, many open ings will occur each year as persons retire, die, or leave the field for other reasons. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries for market re search trainees averaged about $8,500 a year in 1970, according to the limited data available. Persons having masters degrees in Business Administration and related fields usually started at about $12,000 a year. Those with a technical back ground received slightly higher salaries. Earnings were substantially higher for experienced marketing research workers who attained posi tions with considerable responsibil ity. In 1970, earnings of senior analysts were $15,000 a year. Mar keting research directors’ average sal aries were about $20,000 annually; and vice-presidents in charge of marketing received salaries between $25,000 and $30,000 a year. Marketing research workers usu ally work in modern, centrally lo cated offices. Some, especially those employed by independent research firms, do a considerable amount of traveling in connection with their work. Also, they may frequently work under pressure and for long hours to meet deadlines. 23 BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS Sources of Additional Information Information about specialized types of marketing research is con tained in a report entitled “Market ing Research Procedures, A Small Business Bibilography, Number 9 ” which may be obtained from: Small Business Administration, Washington, D.C. 20416. Additional information on mar keting research may be obtained from: American Marketing Association, 230 North Michigan Avenue, Chi cago, Illinois 60601. P E R SO N N EL W O R K ER S (D.O.T. 166.088 through .268) Nature of the Work Attracting and keeping the best employees available, and matching them to jobs they can do effectively are important for the successful op eration of business and government. Personnel workers are responsible for helping their employers attain these objectives. They develop re cruiting and hiring procedures and interview job applicants, selecting or recommending the ones they consider best qualified for the openings to be filled. In addition, personnel workers counsel em ployees, deal with disciplinary prob lems, classify jobs, plan wage and salary scales, develop safety pro grams, and conduct research in per sonnel methods. Other important aspects of their work involve em ployee-management relations, em ployee training, and the administra tion of employee benefit plans. Some personnel jobs require only limited contact with people; others involve frequent contact with em ployees, union representatives, job applicants, and other people in and outside the company. Business organizations with large personnel departments employ per sonnel workers at varying levels of responsibility. Usually the depart ment is headed by a director who formulates personnel policy, advises other company officials on person nel matters, and administers his de partment. Within the department, supervisors and various specialists — in wage administration, training, safety, job classification, and other aspects of the personnel program — may be responsible for the work of staff assistants and clerical em ployees. Small business organiza tions employ relatively few person nel workers. Sometimes one person may be responsible for all the per sonnel activities as well as other types of duties. Personnel workers in Federal, State, and local government agen cies do much the same kind of work as those employed in large busi ness firms. Government personnel workers, however, spend considera bly more time in activities related to classifying jobs, and in devising, ad ministering, and scoring the com petitive examinations given to job applicants. Places of Employment Personnel workers are employed in nearly all kinds of business enter prises and government agencies. The total number employed in 1970 was estimated to be about 160,000. Well over half of all personnel workers were employed by private firms. Large numbers also were em ployed by Federal, State, and local government agencies. A small group of personnel workers were in busi ness for themselves, often as man agement consultants or employee management relations experts. In addition, colleges and universities employed some professionally trained personnel workers as teach ers of courses in personnel adminis tration, industrial relations, and similar subjects. Interviewing job applicants is an im portant responsibility in personnel work. 24 Most personnel workers are em ployed in large cities and in the highly industrialized sections of the country. Alm ost three-fourths of all personnel workers are men. Many women, however, occupy personnel positions in organizations that em ploy large numbers of women workers— for example, in depart ment stores, telephone companies, insurance companies, banks, and government agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college education is becoming increasingly important for entrance into personnel work. Some em ployers hire new graduates for jun ior positions, and then provide training programs to acquaint them with their operations, policies, and problems. Other employers prefer to fill their personnel positions by trans ferring people who already have firsthand knowledge of operations. A large number of the people now in personnel work who are not col lege graduates entered the field in this way. Many employers in private indus try prefer college graduates who have majored in personnel adminis tration; others prefer graduates who have a general business administra tion background. Still other em ployers consider a liberal arts edu cation the most desirable prepara tion for personnel work. Young people interested in personnel work in government are advised to major in public administration, political science, or personnel administra tion; however, those having other college majors also are eligible for personnel positions in government. For some positions, more special ized training may be necessary. Jobs OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK involving testing or employee coun many opportunities through the 1970’s. Although employment pros seling often require a bachelor’s de pects will probably be best for col gree with a major in psychology and lege graduates who have specialized sometimes a graduate degree in this training in personnel administration, field. An engineering degree may be positions will be available also for desirable for work dealing with time studies or safety standards, and a people having degrees in other fields. Opportunities for young people to degree with a major in industrial re advance to personnel positions from lations may be helpful for work in production, clerical, or subprofes volving employee management rela sional jobs will be limited. tions. A background in accounting Employment in personnel work is may be useful for positions con expected to expand very rapidly as cerned with wages or pension and the Nation’s employment rises. other employee benefit plans. More personnel workers will be After the initial period of orienta needed to carry on recruiting, inter tion, through formal or on-the-job viewing, and related activities. Also, training programs, college graduates many employers are recognizing the may progress to classifying jobs, in 'importance of good employee rela terviewing applicants, or handling tions, and are depending more other personnel functions. After heavily on the services of trained they have gained experience, those personnel workers to achieve this. with exceptional ability may be Employment in some specialized promoted to executive positions, areas of personnel work will rise such as personnel director. Person faster than others. More people will nel workers sometimes advance by probably be engaged in psychologi transferring to other employers hav ing larger personnel programs or cal testing; the need for workers to handle work related problems will from a middle-rank position in a big organization to the top job in a probably continue to increase; and the growth of employee services, smaller one. safety programs, other benefit plans, Personal qualities regarded as and personnel research also is likely important for success in personnel to continue. work include the ability to speak and write effectively and a betterthan-average aptitude for working with people of all levels of intelli Earnings and Working Conditions gence and experience. In addition, A national survey indicated that the prospective personnel worker the average annual salary of train should be the kind of person who ees employed as job analysts in pri can see the em ployee’s point of vate industry was about $9,000 in view as well as the employer’s, and 1970; experienced job analysts av should be able to give advice in the eraged about $13,000; directors of best interests of both. A liking for personnel generally earned between detail, a high degree of persuasive $12,500 and $22,000; and some top ness, and a pleasing personality also personnel and industrial relations are important. executives in very large corpora tions earned considerably more. Employment Outlook In the Federal Government, in College graduates who enter per experienced graduates having bach sonnel work are expected to find elor’s degrees started at $6,548 a BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS year in 1970; those having excep tionally good academic records or master’s degrees began at $8,098; a P U B LIC R E LA TIO N S few master’s degree holders who W O RKER S ranked high in their respective (D.O.T. 165.068) classes received $9,881 a year. Fed eral Government personnel workers with higher levels of administrative responsibility and several years of experience in the field were paid Nature of the Work more than $16,500; some in charge All organizations want to present of personnel for major departments of the Federal Government earned a favorable image to the public. Public relations workers help an more than $22,500 a year. Employees in personnel offices employer build and maintain such a generally work 35 to 40 hours a public image. To accomplish this, week. During a period of intensive they must keep themselves informed recruitment or emergency, they may about the attitudes and opinions of work much longer. As a rule, per sonnel workers are paid for holidays and vacations, and share in the same retirement plans and other employee benefits available to all professional employees in the or ganizations where they work. customers, employees, and other groups. Public relations workers provide information about an employer’s business to newspapers and maga zines, radio and television, and other channels of communication. They plan the kind of publicity that will be most effective, contact the people who may be interested in using it, and prepare and assemble the necessary material. Many news paper items, magazine articles, and pamphlets giving various informa tion about a company start at public relations workers’ desks. These workers also arrange speaking en gagements for company officials and Sources of Additional Information General information on personnel work as a career may be obtained by writing to: American Society for Personnel Ad ministration, 19 Church St., Berea, Ohio 44017. Information about government careers in personnel work may be obtained from: Public Personnel Association, 1313 East 60th St., Chicago, 111. 60637. Public relations worker checks material for press release. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 26 write the speeches they deliver. They often serve as an employer’s representative during community projects and ocasionally may per form duties such as showing a film at a school assembly, staging a beauty contest, or planning a con vention. Public relations workers tailor their programs to an employer’s particular needs. In a business firm, public relations work usually con cerns an employer’s relationships with employees, stockholders, gov ernment agencies, and community groups. Public relations staffs in large firms sometimes number 200 or more. The director of public rela tions may share responsibility for developing overall plans and pol icies with a company vice president or another top executive having the authority to make final decisions. In addition to writers and research workers, public relations depart ments employ specialists who pre pare material for the different media or write reports sent to stockholders. Public relations workers who handle publicity for an individual, or direct public relations for a univer sity or small business, may perform all aspects of the work. They make contacts with outsiders, do the nec essary planning and research, and prepare material for publication. These workers may combine public relations duties with advertising or other managerial work; and they may be top-level officials or occupy less important positions. Places of Employment About 7 5,000 public relations workers were employed in 1970, according to the limited data availa ble. Over one-fourth were women. In recent years, an increasing num ber of women have entered public relations work. Most public relations workers are employed by manufacturing firms, stores, public utilities, trade and professional associations, and labor unions. Others are employed by consulting firms providing public relations services to clients for a fee. Employment in public relations work is concentrated in large cities where press services and other com munications facilities are readily available, and where large corpora tions and trade and professional as sociations have their headquarters. More than half of the public rela tions consulting firms in the United States are in New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Washington, D.C. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although college education gen erally is regarded as the best prepa ration for public relations work, em ployers differ in the specific type of college background they require of applicants. Some seek graduates who have majored in English, jour nalism, or public relations; others prefer candidates having a back ground in science or another field related to the firm’s business activi ties. College graduates who have sec retarial skills also are desired by some employers, especially in small firms, because they can combine secretarial duties with public rela tions work. After a few years’ expe rience, these workers may advance to a full-time public relations posi tion. In 1970, 20 colleges offered a bachelor’s degree in public rela tions, and 18 offered advanced de grees. In addition, about 300 col leges offered at least one course in public relations. College subjects recommended as preparation for a public relations career include journalism, econom ics and other social sciences, busi ness administration, psychology, public speaking, literature, and physical sciences. Extracurricular activities such as work on school publications or student government activities furnish valuable experi ence; part-time or summer employ ment in selling, public relations, or a related field such as broadcasting also are helpful. Among the personal qualifica tions usually considered important are creativity, initiative, drive, and the ability to express thoughts clearly and simply. Fresh ideas are so important to effective public rela tions that some experts spend all of their time developing ideas but take no active part in carrying out pro grams. In selecting new employees, many employers prefer people hav ing previous work experience, par ticularly in journalism or a related field. Some companies— particularly those with large public relations programs— have formal training programs for new employees. In other companies, new employees learn by working under the guid ance of experienced staff members. Beginners often maintain files of material about company activities, scan newspapers and magazines for appropriate articles to clip, and as semble information for speeches and pamphlets. After gaining expe rience, they may be given progres sively more difficult assignments, such as writing press releases, speeches, and articles for publica tion. Promotion to supervisory and managerial positions may come as the worker demonstrates ability to handle more difficult and creative 27 BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS assignments. The most skilled public relations work, which in volves developing overall plans and maintaining contacts, usually is per formed by the department director and his most experienced staff members. Some experienced public relations workers establish their own consulting firms. Employment Outlook Employment in this field is ex pected to expand rapidly through the 1970’s. In addition to the new jobs created as expanding organiza tions require more public relations specialists, openings will occur be cause of the need to replace workers who retire or leave the field for other reasons. The demand for public relations workers is expected to grow through the 1970’s, as population increases and the general level of business ac tivity rises. In recent years, the amount of funds spent on public re lations has increased, and many or ganizations have developed new public relations departments. This trend should continue in the years ahead. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries for public rela tions trainees ranged from $4,600 to $7,500 a year >n 1970, according to the limited data available. The highest starting salaries were paid by consulting firms in major cities to workers who were very well qualified from the standpoint of ed ucational background and previous work. Many public relations workers having a few years of ex perience earn between $9,000 and $13,000 a year. The salaries of experienced workers generally are highest in large organizations having extensive public relations programs. In 1970, directors of public relations em ployed by medium-size firms gener ally earned $14,000 to $18,000 an nually; those employed by large corporations had salaries in the $ 1 5,000 to $25,000 range, accord ing to the Public Relations Society of America. Some officials, such as vice presidents in charge of public relations, earned from $25,000 to $ 5 0 ,0 0 0 a year or more. Many consulting firms employ large staffs of experienced public relations spe cialists and often pay somewhat higher salaries than those paid by other business organizations. In so cial welfare agencies, nonprofit or ganizations and universities, salaries are somewhat lower. The workweek for public rela tions personnel usually is 35 to 40 hours. Irregular hours and overtime often may be necessary, however, to prepare or deliver speeches, attend meetings and community functions, and travel out of town. Occasion ally, the nature of their regular as signments or special events require public relations workers to be on call around the clock. Sources of Additional Information The Information Center, Public Re lations Society of America, Inc., 845 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022 . Service Department, Public Relations News, 127 East 80th Street, New York, N.Y. 10021. P U R C H A S IN G AG EN TS (D.O.T. 162.158) Nature of the Work Purchasing agents buy the mate rials, supplies, and equipment needed for their employer’s firms to function. Purchasing agents and their assistants have two main re sponsibilities: Obtaining goods and services at the lowest cost consistent with required quality and seeing that adequate supplies are kept on hand. What the agents buy depends on the kind of organization employ ing them. For manufacturing firms, this may be largely machinery, raw materials, and product components; for government agencies, it may be office supplies, office furniture, and business machines. A purchasing agent buys either when stocks on hand reach a prede termined re-order point or when he receives a requisition from a depart ment in the organization for items it needs. These requisitions list and describe needed items and include information such as required quan tities and delivery dates. Since the agent usually can purchase from many sources, his main job is to se lect the seller who offers the best value. To do this, the agent must consider many factors, such as the exact specifications for the required items, price, quality, quantity dis counts, transportation cost, and de livery time. To select among suppliers, the purchasing agent uses a variety of means. He obtains information by comparing listings in catalogs and trade journals and by telephoning various suppliers. He also meets with salesmen to examine sample goods, watch demonstrations of equipment, and discuss items to be OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 28 purchased. Sometimes, the agent also invites suppliers to bid on large orders, and then selects the lowest bidder who meets the requirements regarding the specifications estab lished for the goods and date of de livery. It is important for purchasing agents to develop good working re lations with their suppliers. These relations can result in savings on purchases, favorable terms of pay ment, and quick delivery on rush orders or material in short supply. They also work closely with person nel in various departments of their own company. For example, they frequently discuss product specifica tions with company engineers or shipment handling problems with employees in the shipping and re ceiving, storage, or traffic depart ments. Once an order has been placed with a supplier, the purchasing agent makes periodic checks to in sure that it will be delivered on time. This is important in prevent ing interruptions in the work flow due to lack of materials. After an order has been received and in spected, the purchasing agent au thorizes payment to the shipper. Because of its importance, pur chasing usually is designated as a separate responsibility. Although the head of the purchasing depart ment usually is called a purchasing agent, he may have the title of vice president-purchasing, procurement or purchasing officer, director or manager of purchasing, or buyer. ( “Buyers” in retail stores and oth ers who are engaged in buying mer chandise for resale in its original form are not included in this re port.) In a large firm, the head of the purchasing department directs the work of a staff including assist ant purchasing agents and clerical workers. Each purchasing assistant may be assigned to a broad area. One person may be responsible for buying raw materials; another, fac tory machinery; and another, office supplies. Others may specialize in buying certain items— for example, steel, lumber, cotton, or oil. Purchasing agent discusses specifications of items with salesman. Places of Employment In 1970, half of the estimated 167,000 purchasing agents in the United States worked in manufac turing industries. Large numbers also were employed in government agencies, wholesale and retail trade, and service institutions. Most purchasing agents work in firms that have fewer than 10 em ployees in the purchasing depart ment. Some large firms, however, may have a hundred specialized buyers or more. About 90 percent of all purchasing agents are men. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For beginning positions as pur chasing agents, many employers prefer to hire graduates of schools of business administration or engi neering who have had courses in ac counting, economics, and purchas ing. A few require graduate training in business administration. On the other hand, many firms prefer expe rience with the company and select purchasing workers from among their own personnel, whether or not they have a college education. For advancement to high-level positions, however, a college degree is becom ing increasingly important. Regardless of previous training, the beginner in the purchasing field must spend considerable time learn ing about his company’s operations and purchasing procedures. Some companies provide classroom in struction and on-the-job training. The beginner may be assigned to the storekeeper’s section to learn about operations such as keeping inventory records, filling out forms for the purchase of goods, or pro viding proper storage facilities. Fie then may work with an experienced BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND RELATED PROFESSIONS buyer to learn about types of goods purchased, prices, and sources of supply. Following the initial training period, the trainee may become a junior buyer of standard catalog items. As he gains experience and exercises good judgment in the various aspects of purchasing he may be promoted to assistant pur chasing agent and then to purchas ing agent. In large companies, pur chasing agents or heads of purchas ing departments may become vice presidents with overall responsibil ity for purchasing, warehousing, traffic, and related functions. The purchasing agent must be able to accept the responsibility of spending large amounts of company money. He must also be tactful in his many dealings with salesmen and have a good memory for speci fications. Employment Outlook Opportunities are expected to be good through the 1970’s for young people to enter and advance in pur chasing occupations. Demand is ex pected to be especially strong for graduates of schools of business ad ministration who have taken courses in purchasing. Demand is expected to be excellent also for graduates having backgrounds in engineering and science, for jobs in purchasing departments of firms that manufac ture complex machinery, chemicals, and other technical products. Lib eral arts college graduates should be able to obtain trainee positions in many types of firms. On the other hand, although outstanding persons who do not have a college education will continue to be promoted to pur chasing from clerical, sales, and other types of jobs, their opportuni ties for advancement to high-level purchasing jobs will be limited. Employment of purchasing agents and their assistants is ex pected to grow moderately through the 1970’s. Some major factors un derlying this expected growth are the continuing increase in the size of business and manufacturing firms, the development of new products and new sources of supply (includ ing foreign m arkets), and the everincreasing complexity and special ization of business functions. Com petition among manufacturers for new, improved, and less costly goods, raw materials, and services will further direct the attention of top management to the importance 29 of purchasing functions. In addition to job openings resulting from growth, many job opportunities are expected annually because of the need to replace personnel who re tire, transfer to other jobs, or leave the field for other reasons. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning annual salaries of col lege graduates hired as trainees in purchasing departments of large pri vate firms ranged from $6,300 to $7,500 in 1970, according to the limited data available. In the Fed eral Government, beginning pur chasing agents who had college de grees started at $6,548 or $8,093 in 1970, depending on the individual’s scholastic achievement and his per formance on the Federal Civil Serv ice entrance examination. In 1970, the annual earnings of experienced buyers in private firms averaged more than $9,000; more experienced buyers, some having supervisory duties, averaged nearly $14,000. Some top purchasing ex ecutives earned between $35,000 and $75,000 a year. CLERGYMEN The choice of the ministry, priesthood, or rabbinate as one’s lifework involves considerations that do not influence to the same degree the selection of a career in most other occupations. When young people decide to become clergymen, they do so primarily be cause of their religious faith and their desire to help others. N ev ertheless, it is important for them to know as much as possible about the profession and how to prepare for it, the kind of life it offers, and its needs for personnel. They also should understand that the civic, so cial, and recreational activities of clergymen often are influenced, and sometimes restricted, by the cus toms and attitudes of the commu nity. The number of clergymen needed is broadly related to the size and ge ographic distribution of the Nation’s population and participation in or ganized religious groups. These fac tors affect the number of churches and synagogues that are established and thus the number of pulpits to be filled. In addition to the clergy who serve congregations, many others teach in seminaries and other edu cational institutions, serve as chap lains in the Armed Forces, or work as missionaries. Young persons considering ca reers as clergymen should seek the counsel of a religious leader of their faith to aid in evaluating their quali fications. The most important req uisite, of course, is the desire to serve the spiritual needs of others. To deal effectively with all types of persons, clergymen need to be well-rounded and able to speak and write effectively. Emotional stability and sensitivity to the problems of others also are essential. Clergymen 30 are expected to have high moral and ethical standards. The size and financial status of the congregation to a large extent determines income. Usually pay is highest in large cities or prosperous suburban areas. Earnings usually rise with increased experience and responsibility. Most Protestant churches and a number of Jewish congregations provide housing. Roman Catholic priests ordinarily live in the parish rectory or their re ligious order provides housing. Many clergymen receive transporta tion allowances or other expenses. Gifts or fees for officiating at special ceremonies, such as weddings, may be an important source of additional income; however, clergymen fre quently donate such earnings to charity. Some churches establish a uniform fee for special services which goes directly into the church treasury. More detailed information on the clergy in the three largest faiths in the United States— Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Jewish— is given in the following statements that were prepared in cooperation with leaders of these faiths. Infor mation on the clergy in other faiths may be obtained directly from leaders of the respective groups. Numerous other church-related oc cupations— those of the missionary, teacher, director of youth organiza tions, director of religious educa tion, editor of religious publications, music director, church secretary, recreation leader, and many others — offer interesting and satisfying ca reers. In addition, opportunities to work in connection with religious activities are present in many other occupations. Clergymen or educa tional directors of local churches or synagogues can provide information on the church-related occupations and other areas offering opportuni ties for religious service. P R O TE S TA N T M IN IS T E R S (D.O.T. 120.108) Nature of the Work Protestant ministers lead their congregations in worship services and may administer the rites of bap tism, confirmation, and Holy Com munion. They prepare and deliver sermons and give religious instruc tion to persons who are to be re ceived into membership of the church. They also perform mar riages, conduct funerals, counsel in dividuals who seek guidance, visit the sick and shut-in, comfort the be reaved, and serve their church members in many other ways. Prot estant ministers also may write arti cles for publication, give speeches, and engage in interfaith, commu nity, civic, educational, and recrea tional activities sponsored by or re lated to the interests of the church. Some ministers teach in seminaries, colleges, and universities. The types of worship services that ministers conduct differ among Protestant denominations and also among congregations within a de nomination. In some denomina tions, ministers follow a traditional order of worship; in others they adapt the services to the needs of youth and other groups within the congregation. Most services include Bible reading, hymn singing, prayers, and a sermon. Bible read ing by a member of the congrega tion and individual testimonials may 31 CLERGYMEN constitute a large part of the service in some demoninations. Ministers serving small congrega tions generally work on a personal basis with their parishioners. Those serving large congregations usually have greater administrative respon sibilities and spend considerable time working with committees, church officers, and staff, besides performing their other duties. They may have one or more associates or assistants who share specific aspects of the ministry, such as a Minister of Education who assists in educa tional programs for different age groups. Places of Employment In 1970, about 295,000 ministers served over 71 million Protestants. In addition, thousands of ministers were in other occupations closely related to the parish ministry. The greatest number of clergymen are affiliated with the five largest groups of churches— Baptist, United Meth odist, Lutheran, Presbyterian, and Episcopal. Most ministers serve in dividual congregations; some are engaged in missionary activities in the United States and in foreign countries; others serve as chaplains in the Armed Forces, in hospitals, and in other institutions. Still others teach in educational institutions, en gage in other religious educational work, or are employed in social welfare and related agencies. Less than 5 percent of all ministers are women; however, about 80 denomi nations ordain women. In some de nominations, an increasing number of women who have not been or dained are serving as pastors’ assist ants. All cities and most towns have one Protestant church or more with a full-time minister. The majority of ministers are located in urban areas. Many others live in less densely pop ulated areas where each may serve two congregations or more. A larger proportion of Protestants than members of other faiths live in rural areas. Training and Other Qualifications The educational preparation re quired for entry into the Protestant ministry has a wider range than for mos* professions. Some religious groups have no formal educational requirements, and others ordain per sons having varying amounts and types of training in liberal arts col leges, Bible colleges, or Bible insti tutes. An increasingly large number of denominations, however, require a 3-year course of professional study in a theological school follow ing college graduation. After com pletion of such a course, the degree of bachelor or master of divinity is awarded. In 1970, 112 of the theological institutions in the Nation were accredited by the American Associa tion of Theological Schools. A c credited institutions admit only students who have received the bachelor’s degree or its equivalent from an approved college. In addi tion, certain character and personal ity qualifications must be met, and endorsement by the religious group to which the applicant belongs is re quired. The American Association of Theological Schools recommends that preseminary studies be con centrated in the liberal arts. A l though courses in English, philoso phy, and history are considered especially important, the pretheological student also should take courses in the natural and social sci ences, religion, and foreign lan guages. The standard curriculum recommended for accredited theo logical schools consists of four major fields: Biblical, historical, theological, and practical. There is a trend toward more courses in psy chology, pastoral counseling, sociol ogy, religious education, administra tion, and other studies of a practical nature. Many accredited schools re quire that students gain experience in church work under the supervi sion of a faculty member or experi enced minister. Some institutions offer the master of theology and the doctor of theology degrees to stu dents completing 1 year or more of additional study. Scholarships and loans are available for students of theological institutions. In general, each large denomina tion has its own school or schools of theology that reflect its particular interests and needs; however, many of these schools are open to stu dents from various denominations. Several interdenominational schools associated with universities give both undergraduate and graduate training covering a wide range of theological points of view. Candidates for the ministry should be religious and dedicated; they should love and have the abil ity to work with people, and have high moral and ethical standards. Good health is a valuable asset. Persons who have denomina tional qualifications for the ministry usually are ordained following grad uation from a seminary. In denomi nations that do not require seminary training, clergymen are ordained at appointed times. Clergymen often begin their careers as pastofs of small congregations or as assistant pastors in large churches. Protes tant clergymen in many of the larger denominations— especially those groups that have a well-defined church organization— often are re quested to serve in positions of OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 32 great administrative and denomina tional responsibility. RAB BIS (D.O.T. 120.108) Outlook Nature of the Work The shortage of Protestant minis ters has abated significantly in re cent years. The trend toward merger and unity among denomina tions, combined with the closing of smaller parishes, has reduced the demand for Protestant ministers who serve individual congregations. If this trend continues, new gradu ates of theological schools may face increasing competition in finding positions. The supply-demand situa tion will vary among denominations and depend, in part, on the length of formal preparation. Although fewer opportunities may arise for Protestant ministers to serve individual congregations, min isters may find work among youth, in family relations, welfare, reli gious education, on the campus, and as chaplains in the Armed Forces, hospitals, universities, and correc tional institutions. Most of the de mand during the 1970’s, however, will result from the need to replace those who retire, die, or leave the ministry. Sources of Additional Information Persons who are interested in the Protestant ministry should seek the counsel of a minister or church guidance worker. Additional infor mation on the ministry and other church-related occupations also are available from many denomina tional offices. Information on admis sion requirements may be obtained directly from each theological school. Rabbis are the spiritual leaders of their congregations and teachers and interpreters of Jewish law and tradition. They conduct daily serv ices, and deliver sermons at serv ices on the Sabbath and on Jewish holidays. Rabbis customarily are available at all times to counsel members of their congregations, other followers of Judaism, and the community at large. Many of the rabbis’ functions— preparing and delivering sermons, performing wedding ceremonies, visiting the sick, conducting funeral services, comforting the bereaved, helping the poor, counseling individuals, su pervising religious education pro grams, engaging in interfaith activi ties, and assuming community re sponsibilities— are similar to those performed by clergymen of other faiths. Rabbis serving large congrega tions may spend considerable time in administrative duties, working with their staffs and committees. Large congregations frequently have an associate or assistant rabbi in addi tion to the senior rabbi. Many of the assistant rabbis serve as Educational Directors. Rabbis serve congregations affili ated with 1 of the 3 wings of Juda ism— Orthodox, Conservative, or Reform. Regardless of their particu lar point of view, all Hebrew con gregations preserve the substance of Jewish religious worship. The con gregations differ in the extent to which they follow the traditional form of worship— for example, in the wearing of head coverings, the use of Hebrew as the language of prayer, or the use of music. The format of the worship service and, therefore, the ritual that the rabbis use may vary even among congrega tions belonging to the same wing of Judaism. Rabbis also may write for reli gious and lay publications, and teach in theological seminaries, col leges, and universities. Places of Employment About 6,500 rabbis served al most 6.0 million followers of the Jewish faith in this country in 1970. Most are Orthodox rabbis; the rest are about equally divided between the Conservative and Reform wings of Judaism. Most rabbis act as spir itual leaders of individual congrega tions; some serve as chaplains in the Armed Forces, in hospitals, and in other institutions. Others are admintrators or teachers in Jewish semi naries, communal schools, and other educational institutions or are employed in religious education work for organizations such as the Hillel Foundation. Still others are employed by Jewish social welfare agencies. Although rabbis serve Jewish communities throughout the Nation, they are concentrated in those States that have large Jewish popu lations, particularly New York, Cal ifornia, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Illinois, Massachusetts, Florida, Maryland, and the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area. Training and Other Qualifications To become eligible for ordination as a rabbi, a student must complete the prescribed course of study. Entrance requirements and the curriculum depend upon the branch of Judaism with which the seminary CLERGYMEN is associated. About 15 seminaries train Orthodox rabbis in programs of varying lengths. Two of the larger seminaries require the com pletion of a 4-year college course for ordination. However, students who are not college graduates may spend a longer period at these semi naries and complete the require ments for the bachelor’s degree while pursuing the rabbinic course. The other Orthodox seminaries do not require a college degree to qual ify for ordination, although students who qualify usually have completed 4 years of college. The Hebrew Union College— Jewish Institute of Religion is the official seminary that trains rabbis for the Reform branch of Judaism. The Jewish Theological Seminary of America is the official seminary that trains rabbis for the Conservative branch of Judaism. Both seminaries require the completion of a 4-year college course, as well as prior preparation in Jewish studies, for admission to the rabbinic program leading to ordination. Five years normally are required to complete the rabbinic course at the Reform seminary, including 1 year of pre paratory study in Jerusalem. Excep tionally well-prepared students can shorten this period to a minimum of 3 years. A student having a strong background in Jewish studies can complete the course at the Conser vative seminary in 4 years; for oth ers, the course may take as long as 6 years. In general, the curriculums of Jewish theological seminaries pro vide students with a comprehensive knowledge of the Bible, Talmud, Rabbinic literature, Jewish history, theology, and courses in education, pastoral psychology, and public speaking. The Reform seminary places less emphasis on the study of Talmud and Rabbinic literature and 33 offers a broad course of study that includes subjects such as human re lations and community organization. Some seminaries grant advanced academic degrees in fields such as Biblical and Talmudic research. All Jewish theological seminaries make scholarships and loans available to students. Newly ordained rabbis usually begin as leaders of small congrega tions, assistants to experienced rab bis, directors of Hillel Foundations, teachers in seminaries and other ed ucational institutions, or chaplains in the Armed Forces. As a rule, the pulpits of large and well-established Jewish congregations are filled by experienced rabbis. The choice of a career as a rabbi should be made on the basis of a fervent belief in the religious teach ings and practices of Judaism, and a desire to serve the religious needs of others. In addition to having high moral and ethical values, the prospective rabbi should have good judgment and be able to write and speak effectively. crease. Although an increase in the number of students graduating from the Jewish theological seminaries is anticipated, the number of new rab bis probably will not be adequate to fill new openings and to replace the rabbis who retire or die, or leave the rabbinate for other reasons. Im migration, once an important source of rabbis, is no longer significant. In fact, graduates of American semi naries now are in demand for Jew ish congregations in other countries. Sources of Additional Information Young people who are interested in entering the rabbinate should seek the guidance of a rabbi. Infor mation on the work of a rabbi and allied occupations also is available from many of the local Boards of Rabbis in large communities. Infor mation on admission requirements of Jewish theological seminaries may be obtained directly from each seminary. Outlook R O M A N C A TH O LIC PR IESTS In 1970, the number of rabbis in this country was inadequate to meet the expanding needs of Jewish con gregations and other organizations desiring their services. This situa tion is likely to persist through the 1970’s. Continued growth in Jewish religious affiliation and in the num ber of synagogues and temples, par ticularly in the suburbs of cities having large Jewish communities, together with increasing demands of large congregations for assistant rabbis, are expected to create many new openings. Demand for rabbis to work with social welfare and other organizations connected with the Jewish faith also is expected to in (D.O.T. 120.108) Nature of the Work Roman Catholic priests attend to the spiritual, moral, and educational needs of the members of their church. Their duties include offering the Sacrifice of the Mass; giving re ligious instructions in the form of a sermon; hearing confessions; ad ministering the Sacraments, includ ing the sacrament of marriage; visiting and comforting the sick; con ducting funeral services and consol ing relatives and friends; counseling 34 those in need of guidance; and as sisting the poor. Priests spend long hours per forming services for the church and the community. Their day usually begins with morning meditation and Mass and may end with the hearing of confessions or an evening visit to a hospital or a home. Many of them serve on church committees or in civic organizations and assist in community projects. Various soci eties that carry on charitable and social programs also depend upon priests for direction. Although all priests have the same powers acquired through ordi nation by a bishop, they are classi fied in two main categories— dioce san and religious— by reason of their way of life, the type of work to which they are assigned, and the church authority to whom they are immediately subject. Diocesan priests (sometimes called secular priests) generally work as individu als in the parishes to which they are assigned by the bishop of their dio cese. Religious priests generally work as members of a religious community in specialized activities, such as teaching or missionary work, assigned to them by the supe riors of the religious order to which they belong; for example, Jesuits, Dominicans or Franciscans. Both religious and diocesan priests hold teaching and adminis trative posts in Catholic seminaries, universities and colleges, and high schools. Priests attached to religious orders staff a large proportion of the institutions of higher education and many high schools, whereas, dioce san priests are concerned with the parochial schools attached to parish churches and with diocesan high schools. The members of religious orders do most of the missionary work conducted by the Catholic Church in this country and abroad. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Places of Employment About 60,000 priests served more than 48 million Catholics in the United States in 1970. There are priests in nearly every city and town and in many rural communi ties; however, the majority are in metropolitan areas, where most Catholics reside. Catholics are con centrated in the Northeast and the Great Lakes regions, with smaller concentrations in California, Texas, and Louisiana. A large number of priests are located in communities near Catholic educational and other institutions. Others travel constantly on missions to local parishes throughout the country. Some priests serve as chaplains with the Armed Forces or in hospitals or other institutions. Many are sta tioned throughout the world as mis sionaries. Training and Other Qualifications Preparation for the priesthood requires 8 years or more of study beyond high school. More than 450 seminaries offer such education. Study may begin in the first year of high school, at the college level, or in theological seminaries after col lege graduation. High school seminaries provide a college preparatory program that emphasizes English grammar, speech, literature, and social stud ies. Two years of Latin are required and the study of a modern language is encouraged. The seminary college offers a liberal arts program, stress ing philosophy and religion; the study of man through the behavioral sciences and history; and the natural sciences and mathematics. In many college seminaries, a student may concentrate in any of these fields. The remaining 4 years of prepa ration includes sacred scripture; apologetics (the branch of theology concerning the defense and proofs of Christianity); dogmatic, moral, and pastoral theology; homiletics; church history; liturgy (art of preaching); Mass; and canon law. Diocesan and religious priests at tend different major seminaries, where slight variations in the train ing reflect the differences in the type of work expected of them as priests. During the later years of his semi nary course, the candidate receives from his bishop a succession of or ders culminating in his ordination to the priesthood. Most postgraduate work in theol ogy is given either at Catholic Uni versity of America, Washington, D.C. or at the eccelestical universi ties in Rome. Many priests also do graduate work at other universities in fields unrelated to theology. Priests are commanded by the law of the Catholic Church to continue their studies, at least informally, after ordination. Young men are never denied entry into seminaries because of lack of funds. In seminaries for secular priests, the bishop may make arrangements for student loans. Those in religious seminaries often are financed by contributions of benefactors. Among the qualities considered most desirable in candidates for the Catholic priesthood are a love of and concern for people, a deep reli gious conviction, a desire to spread the Gospel of Christ, the capacity to speak and write effectively, and the ability to work with people. Priests are not permitted to marry. The first assignment of a newly ordained secular priest is usually that of assistant pastor or curate. Newly ordained priests of religious orders are assigned to the special ized duties for which they are trained. Many opportunities for CLERGYMEN 35 greater responsibility exist within the hierarchy of the church. D ioce san priests, for example, may rise to positions such as monsignor or bishop. Much of their time at this level is given to administrative du ties. In the religious orders which specialize in teaching, priests may become heads of departments or as sume other positions which include administrative duties. Outlook A growing number of priests will be needed in the years ahead to provide for the spiritual, educa tional, and social needs of the grow ing number of Catholics in the Nation. Although the number of seminarians has increased steadily in recent years, the number of ordained priests is insufficient to fill the needs of newly established parishes and expanding colleges and other Cath olic institutions, and to replace priests who retire or die. Although priests usually continue to work longer than persons in other profes sions, the varied demands and long hours create a need for young priests to assist the older ones. Also, an increasing number of priests have been serving in many diverse areas— in social work, religious radio, newspaper, and television work, labor-management mediation, and in foreign posts, particularly in countries that have a shortage of priests. Continued expansion of these activities, in addition to the expected further growth of the Catholic population, will require a steady increase in the number of priests through the 1970’s. Sources of Additional Information Young men interested in entering the priesthood should seek the guid ance and counsel of their parish priest. Additional information re garding different religious orders and the secular priesthood, as well as a list of the various seminaries which prepare students for the priesthood, may be obtained from Diocesan Directors of Vocations or from the diocesan chancery office. C O N S E R V A T IO N O C C U P A T IO N S Forests, rangelands, wildlife, and water are part of our country’s great natural resources. Conservationists protect, develop, and manage natu ral resources to assure that they are not needlessly exhausted, destroyed, or damaged, and that future needs for these resources will be met. A young person seeking a career in conservation must have special ized training. An appropriate bache lor’s degree generally is necessary for occupations such as forester and range manager. Short-term or onthe-job training generally is neces sary for a semiprofessional position such as forestry aid. In addition to technical knowl edge and skills, the conservationist must have a sincere interest in na ture and a desire to preserve it. He should be oriented toward public service because he is called upon to work increasingly with his commu nity. A conservationist must be ver satile to work at a remote camping area 1 week, speak before a com munity group the next, and fight a forest or brush fire the next. This chapter describes three conservation occupations— forester, forestry aid, and range manager. Soil conservationist, a related occu pation, is discussed elsewhere in the H andbook. FO RESTERS (D.O.T. 040.081) Nature of the Work Forests are one of America’s greatest natural resources. They cover about one-third of the land 36 area of the country. Foresters man age, develop, and protect these valuable lands and their resources— timber, water, wildlife, forage, and recreation areas. They estimate the amount and value of these re sources. They plan and supervise the harvesting and cutting of trees, pur chase and sale of trees and timber, the processing, utilization and mar keting of forest products, and refor estation, reseeding and replanting. Foresters also safeguard forests from fire, destructive animals and insects, and diseases. Other respon sibilities of foresters include wildlife protection and watershed manage ment, and the management of camps, parks, and grazing land. Foresters usually specialize in one area of work, such as timber and wildlife management, outdoor recreation, and forest economics. Some of these specializations are becoming recognized as distinct professions. Range managers, for example, are discussed in a separate statement in this chapter. Foresters also may engage in research activi ties, extension work (providing for estry information to farmers, log ging companies, and the public), forest marketing, and college and university teaching. Places of Employment An estimated 22,000 persons were employed as foresters in the United States in 1970. About onethird were employed in private in dustry, mainly by pulp and paper, 37 CONSERVATION OCCUPATIONS lumber, logging, and milling compa nies. More than one-fourth were employed by the Federal Govern ment, mainly in the Forest Service of the Department of Agriculture. Other Federal agencies employing significant numbers of foresters were the Departments of the Inte rior and Defense. Most of the re mainder were employed by State and local governments, colleges and universities, and consulting firms. Others were managers of their own lands or were in business for them selves as consultants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in forestry is the minimum educa tional requirement for young per sons seeking professional careers in forestry. A n advanced degree is generally required for teaching and research positions. Education in forestry leading to a bachelor’s or higher degree was of fered in 1970 by 52 colleges and universities of which 35 were ac credited by the Society of American Foresters. The curriculums in most of these schools include specialized forestry courses in ten areas: (1 ) Dendrology (the characteristics, distribution, and occurrence of trees in forests); (2 ) forest ecology (structure and operation of the for est com munity); (3 ) silviculture (methods of growing and improving forest crops); (4 ) forest protection (primarily against fire, insects, and disease); ( 5 ) forest economics (ec onomic and business principles and problems involved in the manage ment and utilization of forest re sources); (6 ) forest measurements (measuring and estimating present and potential resources); ( 7 ) forest policy (history and current status of Federal, State, and private policies relating to forests and other natural resources); ( 8 ) forest administra tion (principles of administration with special reference to problems faced by both public and private agencies); (9 ) forest resources management (study of the interrela tions among the various forest re sources and basic principles of for est land management); (1 0 ) forest resources use (principles underlying the uses of forest resources for human benefit). Some colleges re quire that students spend one sum mer in a field camp operated by the college. Students also are encour aged to work during summers in jobs that will give them firsthand experience in forest or conservation work. Forestry graduates often work under the supervision of experi enced foresters before advancing to responsible positions in manage ment of forest lands or research. Qualifications for success in for estry include an enthusiasm for out door work and the ability to meet and deal effectively with people. Many jobs also require physical stamina and a willingness to work in remote areas. Employment Outlook Requirements for foresters are expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. The number of new graduates, however, could more than meet anticipated demand if current trends continue. There fore, new forestry graduates may face some competition for jobs. Factors underlying the anticipated demand for foresters are the coun try’s growing population and rising living standards, which will tend to increase the demand for forest products and the use of forests for recreation. Employment also may be favorably influenced by the growing awareness of the need to conserve and replenish our forest resources, and to improve the qual ity of the environment. Private owners of timberland are expected to employ increasing num bers of foresters to realize the higher profitability of improved for estry and logging practices. The for est products industries also will re quire additional foresters to apply new techniques for utilizing the en tire forest crop, to develop methods of growing superior stands of trees over a shorter period of time, and to do research in genetics and fertiliza tion. In addition, competition from metal, plastics, and other materials is expected to stimulate further re search to develop new and im proved wood products. Employment opportunities for foresters in the Federal Government probably will not increase signifi cantly through the 1970’s because of the changing nature of the for ester’s duties. Specialized scientists — biologists, horticulturists, agrono mists, chemists, etc., increasingly will be hired for the more scientific work previously performed by for esters. Aids increasingly may perform many nonprofessional duties which could limit employment opportuni ties for foresters. Foresters, on the other hand, will be more concerned with the overall administration and coordination of the work of special ists and aids. State Government agencies should continue to offer employ ment opportunities. Forest fire con trol, insect and disease protection, technical assistance to owners of forest lands and other Federal-State cooperative programs usually are channeled through State forestry or ganizations. Growing demands for 38 recreation in forest lands may result in the expansion of State parks and other recreational areas. College teaching and research in areas such as forest genetics and forest disease are other avenues of favorable employment opportunities for foresters, but primarily for those having graduate degrees. In addition to new positions created by the rising demand for foresters, a few hundred openings will arise each year due to retire ments, deaths, and transfers out of the professions. Earnings and Working Conditions In the Federal Government in 1970, beginning foresters having a bachelor’s degree could start at ei ther $6,548 or $8,098 a year, de pending on their academic record. Those having 1 or 2 years of gradu ate work could begin at $8,098 or $9,881; those having the Ph. D. de gree, at $11,905 or $14,192. D is trict rangers employed by the Fed eral Government in 1970 generally earned between $9,881 and $14,19 2 a year. Foresters in top level positions earned considerably more. Beginning salaries of foresters employed by State governments vary widely; but, with a few excep tions, they tend to be lower than Federal salaries. Entrance salaries in private industry, according to limited data, are fairly comparable to Federal salary levels. The salaries of forestry teachers are generally the same as those paid other faculty members. (See state ment on College and University Teachers.) Foresters in educational institutions sometimes supplement their regular salaries with income from part-time consulting and lec OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK turing and the writing of books and articles. As part of his regular duties, the forester— particularly in beginning positions— spends considerable time outdoors under all kinds of weather conditions. Many foresters work extra hours on emergency duty, such as fire-fighting. Sources of Additional Information General information about the profession of forestry, lists of read ing material, as well as lists of schools offering training in forestry is available from: Society of American Foresters, 1010 16th St., N W , Washington, D.C. 20036 General information also is avail able from: American Forest Institute, 1835 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006 A booklet entitled “So You Want to be a Forester” may be obtained from: American Forestry Association, 919 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006 Information on forestry careers in the Forest Service is available from: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, D.C. 20250 States, including Alaska. They con tain many natural resources includ ing grass and shrub forage; habitats for livestock and wildlife; facilities for water recreation; and environ mental areas for scientific research. Range managers, also called ra n ge c o n s e r v a tio n is ts or ra n g e sc ie n tists, manage, develop, and protect these rangelands and their resources. They establish grazing plans that will yield a high production of live stock while preserving soil and vegtation for other land use require ments— wildlife grazing, recreation, growing timber, and watersheds. Range managers evaluate forage re sources; decide on the number and appropriate type of livestock to be grazed and the best season for graz ing; restore deteriorated rangelands through seeding or plant control; and determine other range conser vation and development needs. Range fire protection, pest control, and grazing trespass control also are important activities of this occupa tion. Because of the multiple use of rangelands, the manager’s work often extends into closely related fields such as wildlife and watershed management, land classification, forest management, and recreation. The range manager may also teach, write reports, conduct re search in range maintenance and improvement, and provide technical assistance to holders of privately owned grazing lands and to foreign countries. RANGE M AN AG ERS (D.O .T. 040.081) Places of Employment Nature of the Work Rangelands cover more than 1 billion acres in the United States, mostly in the Southern and Western In 1970, an estimated 3,600 pro fessional range managers were em ployed in the United States. The majority were employed by Federal, State, and local government agen CONSERVATION OCCUPATIONS cies. In the Federal Government, most worked in the Forest Service and the Soil Conservation Service of the Department of Agriculture and in the Bureau of Land Management of the Department of the Interior. Some range managers are em ployed by privately owned range livestock ranches and consulting firms. Some manage their own land. A few are self-employed ponsultants. Others are employed by manufactur ing, sales, and service enterprises, and by banks and real estate firms which need rangeland apprais als. Colleges and universities also employ range managers in teaching and research positions. 39 major in range management, and 12 schools offered the Ph. D. in range science or a related field with a range major. The essential courses for a degree in range management are botany, plant ecology, and plant physiology; zoology; animal husbandry; soils; chemistry; mathematics; and spe cialized courses in range manage ment. Desirable electives include economics, statistics, physics, geol ogy, and watershed, and wildlife management. Federal Government agencies— primarily the Forest Service, the Bureau of Land Management and the Soil Conservation Service— hire some college juniors and seniors for summer jobs in range management. This experience helps students qual ify for permanent positions as range managers when they complete col lege. Because most range managers must meet and deal with other peo ple, individually or in groups, they should be able to communicate their ideas effectively, both in writing and speaking. Many jobs require the stamina to perform vigorous physi cal activity and a willingness to work in arid and sparsely populated areas. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for range managers primarily will result from the need to replace experi enced range managers who die, re tire, or transfer to other occupa tions. Employment opportunities in the Federal Government probably Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The bachelor’s degree with a major in range management or range conservation is the usual re quirement for persons seeking em ployment as range managers in the Federal Government. A bachelor’s degree in a closely related field, such as agronomy or forestry, in cluding courses in range manage ment and range conservation, also is accepted. Graduate degrees are generally required for teaching and research. Training leading to a bachelor’s degree specifically in range manage ment or range science was offered in 1970 by 14 colleges and universi ties; 13 additional schools had pro grams in related fields such as for estry, botany, or agronomy, with an option or major in range manage ment. Fourteen schools offered master’s degrees in range manage ment or range science— five in agri culture, forestry, or botany with a Range manager checks enclosure used fo r grass growing experiment. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 40 will decrease because of the chang ing nature of the range manager’s duties; he will assume more admin istrative and managerial duties. The scientific and technical duties once performed by range managers in creasingly will be performed by nat ural scientists. The declining em ployment opportunities in the Fed eral Government will be offset somewhat by increasing employ ment opportunities in the private sector. Favorable job opportunities are anticipated in private industry, since range livestock producers and pri vate timber operators probably will hire increasing numbers of range managers. A few openings are ex pected in developing countries of the Middle East, Africa, and South America. Major factors underlying the in creasing demand for range manag ers are population growth, increas ing per capita consumption of ani mal products, and the growing use of rangelands for hunting and other recreation. Earnings and Working Conditions In the Federal Government, starting salaries for range managers having the bachelor’s degree were dependent upon the applicant’s col lege record and ranged from $6,548 to $8,098 in 1970. Beginning sala ries of those having 1 or 2 years of graduate work were $8,098 or $9,881; and for those having the Ph. D. $11,905 to $14,192. Starting salaries for range manag ers employed by State governments and private industry in 1970 were about the same as those paid by the Federal Government. In colleges and universities, starting salaries were generally the same as those paid other faculty members. (See statement on College and University Teachers.) Range managers in edu cational institutions sometimes aug ment their regular salaries with in come from part-time consulting and lecturing and from writing books and articles. Range managers may spend con siderable time away from home working outdoors in remote parts of the range. Sources of Additional Information For general information about a career as a range manager as well as a list of schools offering training in the field, write to: Society for Range Management, 2120 South Birch Street, Denver, Colo. 80222. Information about career oppor tunities in the Federal Government may be obtained from: Bureau of Land Management, Den ver Service Center, Federal Center Building 50, Denver, Colorado 80225. or Portland Service Center, 710 NE. Holladay Street, Portland, Oregon 97208. Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1621 North Kent Street, Arlington, Virginia 20415. Soil Conservation Service, U. S. De partment of Agriculture, Washing ton, D. C. 20250. C O U N S E LIN G O C C U P A TIO N S The primary objectives of profes sional counseling are to help per sons understand themselves and their opportunities better so that they can make and carry out deci sions and plans that hold potential for a satisfying and productive life. Whatever the area of counseling— personal, educational, or vocational — counselors need a concern for in dividuals combined with a capacity for objectivity; and a belief in the worthwhileness and uniqueness of each individual, in his right to make and accept responsibility for his own decisions, and in his potential for development. This chapter deals, in detail, with three generally recognized special ties in the field: School counseling, rehabilitation counseling, and em ployment counseling. S c h o o l C o u n s e lo rs are the largest counseling group. They are con cerned with the personal and social development of pupils and the plan ning and achievement of their edu cational and vocational goals. ality that instills confidence in their clients. Sensitivity to the needs of people, patience, and an ability to communicate orally as well as in writing are important, also. Some persons working in other professional occupations provide counseling services, as well. The oc cupation most closely related to counselor is counseling psycholo gist. Many social workers also pro vide counseling services. These two occupations, as well as others in which workers do some counseling but primarily work in teaching, health, law, religion, or other fields, are described elsewhere in the H andbook. For information on counseling services provided by col lege and university staff members and by personnel workers in gov ernment and industry, see the state ments on “College Placement Officers” and “Personnel Workers.” R e h a b ilita tio n C o u n s e lo rs work with persons who are physically, mentally, or socially handicapped. Their counseling is vocationally ori ented but involves personal counsel ing as well. EM PLOYM ENT CO UNSELO RS E m p lo y m e n t C o u n s e lo rs are con cerned primarily with career plan ning and job adjustment. They may work with the young, the old, the able-bodied, and the disabled. Young persons considering coun seling careers should have an inter est in helping people. The ability to understand the behavior of people is important to counselors who sometimes must do a great deal of research into the individual’s back ground. Counselors should have the type of pleasant and strong person Nature of the Work (D.O.T. 045.108) Employment counselors (som e times called vocational counselors) help individuals seeking aid to de velop a career goal that will fulfill their potential and bring personal satisfaction. They assist clients by planning with them how to prepare for and enter careers, and how to make progress in them. The extent of the counseling as sistance available differs among agencies rendering the service. Sometimes their clients are skilled in specific occupations, and ready for immediate job placement. Some times they need intensive training to prepare them for jobs. The coun selor may help them find appropri ate training. Counselors interview clients to obtain vocationally significant infor mation related to their personal traits, interests, training, work expe rience, and work attitudes. They may assist individuals in filling out questionnaires concerning their per sonal history and background. A d ditional data on a person’s general intelligence, aptitudes and abilities, physical capacities, knowledge, skills, interests, and values also are obtained from tests and personal in ventories which may be adminis tered or recorded by the counselor or a specialist in testing. Further in formation may be assembled by the counselor or the client from sources such as former employers, schools, and health or other agencies. Counselors assist clients in evalu ating and understanding their work potential, and provide them with in formation that they need in making plans appropriate to their talents and interests. Job requirements and employment opportunities or train ing programs are discussed. In some agencies, a vocational plan, or em ployability plan, is developed jointly by the counselor and his client and may specify a series of steps involv ing remedial education, vocational training, work experience, or other services needed to enhance his em ployability. Often in developing this plan, the employment counselor works with a team of specialists. In many cases, employment counselors refer clients to other agencies for physical rehabilitation or for psychological or other serv ices before, or concurrent with, counseling. Employment counselors must be familiar with the services available in the community. They 41 42 OCCUPATIOl OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK of employment counselors, chiefly in the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Veterans Administration. Some people trained in employment or vocational counseling are engaged in research or graduate teaching. About half of all employment coun selors are women. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement should be able to recognize what services might be beneficial to a particular client. Counselors may help clients by suggesting feasible employment sources and appropriate ways of applying for work. In instances where a client needs further support and assistance, counselors may con tact employers, although clients seeking employment usually are sent to placement interviewers after counseling. After job placement or entrance into training, counselors may follow up to determine if addi tional assistance is needed. The ex panding responsibility of public em ployment service counselors for im proving the employability of disad vantaged persons has increased their contacts with these persons during training and on the job. It also has led to group counseling and the stationing of counselors in neighborhood and community cen ters. Places of Employment In 1970, the largest number of employment counselors— about 6 ,0 0 0 — worked in State employment service offices, located in every large city and in many smaller towns. The next largest number— probably about 2,000— worked for various private or community agen cies, primarily in the larger cities. In addition, some worked in institu tions such as prisons, training schools for delinquent youths, and mental hospitals. The Federal Gov ernment employed a limited number The generally accepted minimum educational requirement for em ployment counselors in State em ployment service offices is a bache lor’s degree, preferably with a major in one of the social sciences, plus 15 semester hours in counsel ing and related courses. Most States have adopted a three-level coun selor classification system which in cludes a c o u n s e lo r tra in e e , requiring a bachelor’s degree with 15 hours of undergraduate or graduate work in counseling related courses; a c o u n se lo r, requiring a master’s degree or 30 graduate hours in counseling re lated courses; and a m a s te r c o u n se l o r, requiring a master’s degree and 3 years of experience, 1 of which should be in employment service counseling. Although minimum entrance re quirements are not standardized among private and community agencies, most of them prefer, and many require, a master’s degree in vocational counseling or in a related field such as psychology, personnel administration, education, or public administration. Many private agen cies prefer to have at least one staff member who has a doctorate in counseling psychology or a related field. For those lacking an advanced degree, employers usually empha size experience in closely related work such as rehabilitation counsel ing, employment interviewing, 43 COUNSELING OCCUPATIONS school or college counseling, or teaching. The public employment service offices in each State provide in-serv ice training programs for their new counselors or trainees. Their experi enced counselors frequently are given additional training at colleges and universities, often leading to a master’s degree in counseling and guidance. Private and community agencies also often provide in-serv ice training opportunities. The professional educational cur riculum for employment counselors generally includes, at the under graduate level, a basic foundation in psychology with some emphasis on sociology. At the graduate level, re quirements usually include courses in techniques of appraisal and counseling for vocational adjust ment, group methods, counseling followup techniques, psychological testing in vocational counseling, ed ucational psychology, psychology of occupations, industrial psychology, job analysis and theories of occupa tional choice, administration of guidance services, and some course work in research methods and sta tistics. Counselor education programs at the graduate level are available in about 370 colleges and universities, most frequently in the departments of education or psychology. To ob tain a master’s degree, students must complete 1 to 2 years of grad uate study. All States require coun selors in their public employment offices to meet State civil service or merit system requirements that in clude certain minimum educational and experience standards. They also require a written or oral examina tion, or both. Counselors who are well qualified may advance, after experience, to supervisory or administrative posi tions in their own or other organiza tions; some may become directors of agencies or of other counseling services, or area supervisors of guidance programs; some may be come consultants; and others, may become professors in the counseling field. Employment Outlook Employment counselors who have a master’s degree, and others with recognized related experience in the field, will have very good em ployment opportunities in both public and community agencies through the 1970’s. In addition, col lege graduates having a bachelor’s degree and 15 hours of undergradu ate or graduate work in counselingrelated courses will find many op portunities in State and local em ployment service offices as counselor trainees. Employment of counselors in State employment service offices is expected to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s. The role of em ployment counselors has become in creasingly important as new pro grams have been developed to deal with unemployment among the un skilled, minorities, and displaced persons in a complex urban labor market. Many of these programs, beginning with the Manpower De velopment and Training Act of 1962, deal with training and retrain ing of these workers for fuller utili zation of their potentials. The stim ulus for most of these programs was public awareness, concern, and rec ognition that additional services would have to be provided if indi viduals with limited skills were to find satisfactory employment. As a result, the emphasis of employment counseling in State employment service offices has shifted from help ing unemployed persons to seek and obtain employment to providing multifaceted assistance to help both unemployed and underemployed persons obtain suitable jobs. In addition to the counselors needed because of growth in the oc cupation, many will be needed each year through the 1970’s to replace workers who retire, die, or leave the profession for other reasons. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of employment counsel ors in State employment services vary considerably from State to State. In 1970, minimum annual salaries ranged from about $6,100 to $11,600, with a mean of $7,700. Maximum salaries ranged from $7,700 to nearly $14,000, with a mean of about $9,900. More than one-third of the States listed maxi mum salaries of $10,000 or over. Trainees for counseling positions in some voluntary agencies in large cit ies were being hired at about $6,500 a year; annual salaries re ported for experienced counselors ranged up to $15,000 or more in 1970. Most counselors work about 40 hours a week and have various ben efits, including vacations, sick leave, pension plans, and insurance cover age. Counselors employed in com munity agencies may work over time. Sources of Additional Information General information on employ ment or vocational counseling may be obtained from: National Employment Counselors Association, 1607 New Hampshire Ave., NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. National Vocational Guidance Asso ciation, Inc., 1607 New Hampshire 44 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Ave., NW., 20009. Washington, D.C. Specific information regarding local job opportunities, salaries, and entrance requirements for positions in public employment service offices may be obtained from the adminis trative office of the particular State employment security agency, bu reau, division, or commission, which operates the service in the State in which interested. Such offices are usually in the State capi tal. R E H A B IL IT A T IO N CO U N SELO R S (D.O.T. 045.108) Nature of the Work Rehabilitation counselors are concerned primarily with the voca tional and personal adjustment of persons handicapped in various ways, either physicially, mentally, or socially. First, the counselor in terviews the handicapped person to learn his abilities, interests, and lim itations. Then, using such informa tion along with other medical, psychological, and social data avail able, he helps the handicapped per son evaluate himself— his physical and mental capacity, interests, and talents— in terms of work suited to these needs and abilities. At this point, the counselor may work out a plan of rehabilitation with the handicapped person, along with other specialists responsible for the latter’s medical care and occu pational training and for other serv ices needed to carry out the pro gram. As this plan is put into effect, the counselor meets regularly with the disabled person to discuss the program, check on progress made, and help resolve problems. When the person is ready for employment, the counselor helps him find a suit able job, and often makes followup checks to be sure that the placement is satisfactory. An increasing number of counsel ors specialize in a particular area of rehabilitation; for example, some work almost exclusively with the blind, some with alcoholics, and others with the mentally ill or re tarded. Still others work with the disabled in poverty areas. The time spent in the direct counseling of each individual varies with the person and the nature of his disability, as well as with the counselor’s workload. Some rehabil itation counselors are responsible for many persons in various stages of rehabilitation; on the other hand, less experienced counselors, or spe cialized ones working with the se verely handicapped may handle relatively few cases at a time. In ad- 45 COUNSELING OCCUPATIONS dition to working with the handi capped person, the counselor also must maintain close contact with other professionals who work with handicapped persons, members of their families, other agencies and civic groups, and private employers who hire the handicapped. The counselor often is responsible for related activities, such as employer education and community publicity for the rehabilitation program. Places of Employment About 13,000 rehabilitation counselors were employed in 1970; more than 11,000 were full-time counselors. About three-fourths of all rehabilitation counselors were employed in State and local rehabil itation agencies financed coopera tively with Federal and State funds. The remainder were employed by hospitals, labor unions, insurance companies, special schools, rehabili tation centers, sheltered workshops, and other public and private agen cies that conducted rehabilitation programs and provided job place ment services for the disabled. In addition, about 400 counseling psy chologists in the Veterans Adminis tration provided rehabilitation counseling. An estimated 30 percent of all rehabilitation counselors are women. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The basic educational require ment for entry into this occupation is a bachelor’s degree with course credits in counseling, psychology, and related fields. However, em ployers are placing increasing em phasis on the master’s degree in vo cational or rehabilitation counseling or in a related discipline such as psychology, education, or social work. Work experience in related fields, such as vocational counseling and placement, social work, psy chology, education, and other types of counseling, is given considerable weight by some employers, espe cially when considering applicants who have only the bachelor’s de gree. Some agencies assist em ployees having bachelor’s degrees to attain graduate degrees through work-study programs. Usually, 2 years are required to qualify for the master's degree in the fields of study preferred for re habilitation counseling. The curricu lum for the master’s degree may in clude a basic foundation in psychol ogy and specified courses in other fields. The latter may include coun seling theories and techniques, oc cupational and educational informa tion, community resources, place ment and follow-up, tests and measurements, the cultural and psy chological effects of disability, and the medical and legislative aspects of therapy and rehabilitation. To earn the doctorate in rehabili tation counseling or in counseling psychology may require a total of 4 to 6 years of graduate study. Inten sive training in psychology, other social sciences, as well as research methods, is required. In 1970, 70 colleges and univer sities offered financial assistance to a limited number of full-time gradu ate students specializing in rehabili tation counseling through training grants provided by the Rehabilita tion Services Administration of the U.S. Department of Health, Educa tion, and Welfare. To qualify for work with a num ber of the State Rehabilitation Agencies applicants must comply with State civil service and merit system rules. In most cases, these regulations require applicants to pass a written competitive examina tion, sometimes supplemented by an individual interview and evaluation by a board of examiners. A few States require counselors to be resi dents of the State in which they work. Counselors having limited experi ence usually are assigned the least difficult cases. As they gain experi ence, cases representing more diffi cult rehabilitation problems are as signed to them. After obtaining con siderable experience, rehabilitation counselors may be advanced to su pervisory positions or to top admin istrative jobs. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for re habilitation counselors are expected to be very good through the 1970’s. In addition to openings expected to be created by the very rapid growth of the profession, several hundred counselors will be needed annually to replace those who die, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. Persons who have graduate work in rehabilitation counseling or in re lated fields have the best employ ment prospects. The number of counselors cur rently being trained is below the number of new entrants that are ex pected to be needed during the early 1970’s. During this period, therefore, opportunities in rehabili tation counseling will be favorable for persons with experience in re lated fields such as psychology, so cial work, and education. Among the factors contributing substantially to long-run demand for the services of rehabilitation coun selors will be population growth, with related increases in numbers to be served, along with extension of 46 vocational rehabilitation to greater nurnbers of the severely disabled. An additional stimulus should be the increasing support for the serv ice in general including a growing recognition that the vocational reha bilitation approach helps the disad vantaged achieve self-support. Earnings and Working Conditions According to the U.S. Depart ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, the median salaries of re habilitation counselors employed in State agencies generally ranged from $7,800 to $ 1 0,000 a year in 1970. Counselors working with the disabled in the Veterans Adminis tration were hired in 1970 at $13,493 or $14,665, depending upon education and experience. A small number of counselor trainees were hired at annual salaries of $9,881. For positions in V A hospi tals requiring the doctorate, salaries ranged generally from $13,493 to $16,790, depending on the appli cant’s experience and other qualifi cations. The average salary for doc torate degree holders was $18,900. Counselors may spend only part of their time counseling in their offices, and the remainder in the field, working with prospective em ployers, training agencies, and the disabled person’s family. The ability to drive a car is often necessary for field work. Rehabilitation counselors gener ally work a 40-hour week or less, with little overtime work required; however, they often must attend community and civic meetings in the evenings. They usually are cov ered by sick and annual leave bene fits, and pension and health plans. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Sources of Additional Information Additional information on reha bilitation counseling as a career may be obtained from: American Psychological Association, Inc., 1200 17th St. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036. American Rehabilitation Counseling Association, 1607 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. National Rehabilitation Counseling Association, 1522 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. A list of colleges and universities that have received grants to provide rehabilitation traineeships on a graduate level is available from: U.S. Department of Health, Educa tion, and Welfare, Rehabilitation Services Administration, Washingtion, D.C. 20201. SCHO O L CO UNSELO RS (D.O.T. 045.108) School counselors are concerned with the educational, vocational, and social development of students. In carrying out their responsibilities, counselors work with students, both individually and in groups, as well as with teachers, other school per sonnel, parents, and community agencies. In the process of helping students find their interests and abilities to use in their educational and voca tional planning, counselors in sec ondary schools obtain information from a variety of sources. These in clude talking with students, refer ring to their school and other rec ords, and using tests to help assess a student’s chances of success in given studies or occupations. The coun selor then helps the student analyze and interpret the results, and devel ops with him— and sometimes with his parents, as well— a course of study and an educational plan fitting his abilities, interests, and voca tional opportunities. To acquaint a student with the nature of the work in which he has shown an interest, the counselor may provide descriptions of work, training requirements, earnings, and outlook. He may maintain files or li braries of occupational literature for both students and their parents to use. To provide a view of real work settings, he may arrange trips to factories and business firms, and show vocational films. To bring the work-place into the school, the counselor may conduct “career day” programs. He also counsels the student about opportunities for educational and vocational training beyond high school, including those in 2- and 4year colleges; in trade, technical and business schools; in apprenticeship programs, and in programs under the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962. Counselors in secondary schools may also help students find parttime work while in school, either to enable them to stay in school or to help them prepare for their voca tion. Counselors may also assist stu dents, on leaving school, in locating full-time employment themselves or in using community employment services. Some counselors also take part in studies to follow up on re cent graduates and dropouts, to sur vey local job opportunities, or to determine the effectiveness of the educational and guidance programs. Many secondary school counsel ors, in addition, help students indi vidually with personal and social problems common to adolescence. Counselors also lead discussion 47 COUNSELING OCCUPATIONS small schools by assigning more than one school to a counselor. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement groups on topics related to student interests and problems. Elementary school counselors help children to make the best use of their abilities by identifying these and other basic aspects of their makeup, at an early age, and by evaluating any learning problems. Methods used in counseling grade school children necessarily differ in many ways from those used with older students. Observations of classroom and play activity furnish clues about children in the lower grades. To better understand the children, elementary school counsel ors spend much of their time con sulting with teachers and parents. They also work closely with other staff members of the school, includ ing psychologists and social workers. Some school counselors, particu larly in secondary schools, may teach classes in occupational infor mation, social studies, or other sub jects in addition to counseling. They also may supervise school clubs or other extracurricular activities, often after regular school hours. Places of Employment An estimated 54,000 school counselors were employed full-time during the 1970-71 school year. More than four-fifths worked in public secondary schools. About 10 percent were employed in public el ementary schools where counseling services are being steadily ex panded. The others were employed in junior colleges, technical insti tutes, and private elementary and secondary schools. The majority of counselors work in large schools. An increasing num ber of school districts, however, are providing guidance services to their Most States require counselors to have both a counseling and a teach ing certificate. (See statement on Elementary and Secondary School Teachers for teaching certificate re quirements.) A counseling certifi cate requires graduate level work and usually from 1 to 5 years of teaching experience. A person plan ning to counsel should learn the specific requirements of the State in which he plans to work, since such requirements vary considerably among the States and also are changing rapidly. Undergraduate college students interested in becoming school coun selors usually enroll in the regular program of teacher education, pre ferably taking additional courses in psychology and sociology. In States where teaching experience is not a requirement it is possible to major in a liberal arts program. After graduating from college, they may gain the experience required, teach ing or other, before or during grad uate study. A few States substitute counseling internship for teaching experience. In some States, teachers who have completed part of the courses required for the master’s degree are eligible for provisional certification and may work as coun selors under supervision while tak ing additional courses. The subject areas of the required graduate-level courses usually in clude appraisal of the individual student, counseling procedures for group guidance, use of information services for vocational development, development and management of overall program, professional rela 48 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK tions and ethics, and statistics and research. Supervised field experi ence or internship is provided in an increasing number of programs. Counselor education programs at the graduate level are available in more than 370 colleges and univer sities, most frequently in the depart ments of education or psychology. To obtain a master’s degree, a stu dent must complete 1 to 2 years of graduate study. School counselors may advance to counselor supervi sors or directors of pupil personnel services or to other administrative positions within the school system. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for well-trained school counselors are expected to be good through the 1970’s. Job openings for counselors are expected to increase rapidly due to continued strengthening of coun seling services in elementary and secondary schools. The average ratio of counselors to students as a whole is still well below generally accepted standards, despite the fi nancial aid which the Federal Gov ernment has provided to States for school counseling programs under the National Defense Education Act of 1958, as amended, and other leg islation. In addition to the number of counselors needed to take care of the anticipated expansion of the oc cupation, many counselors also will be required, each year, to replace those leaving the profession. Am ong the factors affecting the employment growth of school coun selors is the increasing recognition of counseling as an essential educa tional service for all pupils— the av erage, the gifted, the slow, the dis advantaged, and the handicapped. Moreover, Federal legislation such as the Elementary and Secondary Education A ct amendments of 1966, the National Defense Educa tion amendments of 1966, and the Vocational Education amendments of 1968 has extended support of school counseling services to ele mentary schools, vocational and technical schools, and junior col leges. Also contributing to the increased demand for counseling services is the growing public awareness of the value of guidance services in help ing students with personal and social problems. This in turn, may help reduce the number of school dropouts. Students will also be seek ing advice from school counselors about educational requirements for concerns such as entrance-level jobs, job changes caused by auto mation and other technological ad vances, college entrance require ments, and places of employment. Earnings and Working Conditions According to the National Educa tion Association, the average annual salaries during the 1 9 6 9 -7 0 school year for school counselors having the bachelor’s degree ranged from $7,3 0 0 to $10,300, and for those having the master’s, from $8,300 to $12,400. School counselors having the doctorate earned as much as $18,700. Many school counselors had annual earnings higher than those of classroom teachers with comparable educational preparation and experience. (See statements on Kindergarten and Elementary School Teachers and Secondary School Teachers.) In most school systems, counsel ors receive regular salary incre ments as their counseling experi ence increases, and as they obtain additional education. Some counsel ors supplement their income by part-time consulting or other work with private or public counseling centers, government agencies, or private industry. Sources of Additional Information Information on colleges and uni versities offering training in guid ance and counseling, as well as on the certification requirements of each State, may be obtained from the State department of education at the State capital. Additional information on this field of work may be obtained from : American School Counselor Associ ation, 1607 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. E N G IN E E R S Engineers contribute in countless ways to the welfare, technological progress, and defense of the Nation. They develop complex electric power, water supply, and waste dis posal systems to meet the problems of urban living. They design in dustrial machinery and equipment needed to manufacture goods on a mass production basis, and heating, air conditioning, and ventilation equipment for the comfort of man. A lso, they develop scientific equip ment to help probe the mysteries of outer space and the depths of the ocean, and design and supervise the construction of highways and rapid transit systems for safe and more convenient transportation. In addi tion, they design and develop con sumer products such as automo biles and refrigerators. They also provide the raw materials that make all this possible. This chapter contains an over-all discussion of engineering, followed by separate statements on several branches of the field— aerospace, agricultural, biomedical, ceramic, chemical, civil, electrical, industrial, mechanical, metallurgical, and min ing engineering. Although most en gineers specialize in these or other specific branches of the profession, a considerable body of basic knowl edge and methodology is common to most areas of engineering. Also, unified curriculums in engineering (without specialty designation) and in engineering science are increasing in popularity. Therefore, young people considering engineering as a career should become familiar with the general nature of engineering as well as with its various branches. Nature of the Work Engineers develop methods for converting the raw materials and sources of power found in nature into useful products at a reasonable cost in terms of time and money. They use basic scientific principles to solve the problems involved in designing goods and services and developing methods for their pro duction. The emphasis on the appli cation of scientific principles, rather than on their discovery, is the main factor that distinguishes the work of the engineer from that of the scien tist. For example, a physicist may discover that the properties of a gas change when it is converted into a liquid at extremely low tempera tures, but the engineer develops uses for the liquid, or economical methods for its production. In designing or developing a new product, engineers must consider many factors. For example, in de signing a space capsule, they must calculate how much heat, radiation, air pressure, and other forces the capsule must withstand during its flight to insure the safety of the oc cupants and prevent the malfunc tioning of its instrumentation. E x periments must be conducted which relate these factors to various con struction materials, as well as to the many possible capsule sizes, shapes, and weights. Equally important are the human needs and limitations of the people who must operate the equipment. In addition, the engineer must take into account the relative cost of the required materials and the cost and time of the fabrication process. Similar factors must be considered by engineers who design and develop a wide variety of prod ucts ranging from transistor radios and washing machines to electronic computers and industrial machin ery. Besides design and development, engineers engage in many other ac tivities. Many work in inspection, quality control, and other activities related to production in manufac turing industries, mines, and agri culture. Others are administrators and managers whose knowledge of engineering is important. A large number plan and supervise the con struction of buildings and highways. Many are employed in sales posi tions, where they must discuss the technical aspects of a product or as sist in planning its installation or use. (See statement on Manufac turers’ Salesmen.) Some conduct research aimed at supplying the basic technological data needed for the design and production of new or improved products. Some engineers having considerable experience work as consultants. A relatively small group, especially at the Ph. D. level, teach in the engineering schools of colleges and universities. Most engineers specialize in one of the many branches of the profes sion. More than 25 engineering spe cialties are recognized by the pro fession or in engineering school cur riculums. Besides these major branches— 11 of which are dis cussed separately in this chapter— there are many subdivisions of the branches. Structural, hydraulic, and highway engineering, for example, are subdivisions of civil engineering. Engineers may also become special ists in the engineering problems of one industry, or in a particular field of technology such as propulsion or guidance systems. Nevertheless, the basic knowledge required for all areas of engineering often makes it possible for engineers to shift from one field of specialization to an other, particularly for those begin ning their careers. Engineers within each of the 49 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK of Defense. Significant numbers of engineers also were in the Depart ments of the Interior, Agriculture, and Transportation, and the N a tional Aeronautics and Space A d ministration. Most engineers in State and local government agencies were employed by highway and public works departments. Educational institutions em ployed over 40,000 engineers in 1970, in research and teaching. A small number were employed by nonprofit research organizations. Engineers are employed in every State, in small cities as well as large, and in some rural areas. However, about two-thirds of all engineers in private industry are employed in 10 States, and of these almost one-third are in California, N ew York, and Pennsylvania. The profession also offers opportunities for employment overseas. Some branches of engi neering are concentrated in particu lar industries, as indicated in the statements presented later in this chapter. branches may apply their special ized knowledge to many fields. For example, electrical engineers may work in medicine, missile guidance, or electric power distribution. Be cause engineering problems are usu ally complex, the work in some applied fields cuts across the tradi tional branches. Using a team ap proach to solve problems, engineers in one field often work closely with specialists in other scientific and en gineering occupations. Places of Employment Engineering is the second largest professional occupation, exceeded in size only by teaching; for men it is the largest profession. Nearly 1.1 million engineers were employed in the United States in 1970. Manufacturing industries em ployed approximately 600,000 or more than half of all engineers in 1970— mostly in electrical equip ment, aircraft and parts, machinery, chemicals, ordnance, instruments, primary metals, fabricated metal products, and motor vehicles indus tries. Over 300,000 engineers were employed in non-manufacturing in dustries in 1970, primarily in the construction, public utilities, engi neering and architectural services, and business and management consulting services industries. Federal, State, and local govern ments employed more than 150,000 engineers in 1970. Over half of these were employed by the Federal Gov ernment, chiefly by the Department Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in engineer ing is the generally accepted educa tional requirement for entrance into engineering positions. Well-qualified graduates having training in physics, one of the other natural sciences, or in mathematics may qualify for some beginning positions in engi neering. Some persons without a de gree are able to become engineers after long experience in a related occupation— such as draftsmen or engineering technicians— and some college level training. Advanced training is emphasized for an increasing number of jobs. Graduate degrees are desirable for beginning teaching and research po 51 ENGINEERS sitions, and advancement. Further more, some specialities, such as nu clear engineering, are available only at the graduate level. About 270 colleges, universities, and engineering schools offer a bachelor’s degree in engineering. These educational institutions offer nearly 1,000 curricula choices. A l though the larger branches of engi neering are offered in most schools, some specialties are taught in rela tively few institutions. A student who desires to specialize should in vestigate various curriculums before selecting his college. For undergrad uate admission, engineering schools usually require high school courses in mathematics and the physical sci ences. The quality of the applicant’s high school work is emphasized. In the typical 4-year curriculum, the first 2 years are spent mainly on basic science— mathematics, phys ics, and chemistry— and the human ities, social sciences, and English. The last 2 years are devoted chiefly to engineering with emphasis on a specialty. Some programs offer gen eral training; the student chooses a specialty in graduate school or ac quires one on the job. Some engineering curriculums re quire more than 4 years to com plete. However, the number of insti tutions having 5-year programs leading to the bachelor’s degree is decreasing. In addition, several en gineering schools now have formal arrangements with liberal arts col leges whereby a student spends 3 years in liberal arts and 2 years in engineering and receives a bache lor’s degree from each. This pro gram offers the student diversifica tion in his studies. Some institutions have 5- or 6year cooperative plans under which a student alternates school and em ployment. Most of these plans coor dinate classroom study and practical experience. In addition to gaining experience, the student may finance part of his education. Engineering graduates usually begin work as trainees or as assist ants to experienced engineers. Many large companies have special programs to acquaint new engineers with special industrial practices and to determine the specialty for which they are best suited. As they gain experience, engineers may advance to positions of greater responsibil ity. Those with proven ability often become administrators. Increasingly large numbers are promoted to top executive posts. Many engineers ob tain graduate degrees in business administration to improve their ad vancement opportunities. All 50 States and the District of Columbia have laws providing for the licensing of those engineers whose work may affect life, health, or property; or who offer their serv ices to the public. In 1970, about 325,000 engineers were registered under these laws in the United States. Generally, registration re quirements include graduation from an accredited engineering curricu lum, plus at least 4 years of experi ence and the passing of a State ex amination. Examining boards may accept a longer period of experience as a substitute for a college degree. Prospective engineers should be able to work as part of a team, be innovative, have initiative, an ana lytical mind, a capacity for detail, and the ability to make decisions. In addition, engineers should be able to communicate their ideas to spe cialists in areas such as marketing, and production planning. The abil ity to cut across various disciplines and systematically evaluate and solve problems also is important. Because of rapidly changing tech nologies, an engineer must be will ing to continue his throughout his career. education Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for engineers are expected to be favor able through the 1970’s. Engineer ing has been one of the fastest growing professions in recent years and requirements for engineers are expected to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s, but at a slower annual rate of growth than during the 1960’s. Engineers who are not well grounded in fundamentals and whose specialization is very narrow could be affected adversely by shifts in defense activities and rapidly changing technology. Demand prob ably will be strong for new gradu ates who have acquired recently developed techniques, including computer applications, and for engi neers who can apply engineering principles to medical, biological, and other sciences. New graduates hav ing advanced degrees should have favorable opportunities in research and teaching. Among factors underlying the an ticipated increase in demand for en gineers is population growth, and the resulting expansion of industry to meet the demand for more goods and services. The need for engi neers also will rise as a result of the increasingly larger amount of engi neering time required to develop complex industrial products and processes and industrial automation. Increasing public emphasis on solv ing domestic problems such as envi ronmental pollution and urban re development also should increase requirements for engineers. Some of the past increases in en gineering employment resulted from increases in Federal research and development (R&D) expenditures 52 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK for space and defense related pro grams. During the 1 9 7 0 -8 0 decade R&D expenditures of Government and industry are expected to in crease, although at a slower rate than during the 1960’s. The antici pated slowdown in Federal R&D spending basically reflects antici pated reductions in the relative im portance of the space and defense components of R&D expenditures. These trends were evidenced in the late 1960’s and in 1970. engineers can look forward to fa vorable employment opportunities. In addition to engineers for new positions, thousands will have to be trained to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. The preceding discussion an alyzes the outlook for engineering as a whole. Various branches are discussed in statements later in this chapter. Defense expenditures are an im portant determinant of the demand for engineers because about 25 per cent of all engineers in 1970 worked in defense related activities. The outlook for engineers presented is based on the assumption that de fense activity as measured by ex penditures will be somewhat higher than the level before the Vietnam buildup, approximating the level of the early 1960’s. If defense activity should differ substantially from that level, the demand for engineers will be affected accordingly. Earnings and Working Conditions In addition to the level of defense expenditures, general business con ditions, shifting National priorities, and nondefense related Federal pro grams and policies also influence the demand for engineers. Thus, the de mand for engineers fluctuates peri odically. The shortrun demand can either exceed or fall short of the number of engineers seeking profes sional employment. Over the longer run, however, indications are that N ew engineering graduates hav ing the bachelor’s degree and no ex perience earned an average of $ 1 0,400 a year in private industry in 1 9 6 9 -7 0 according to the Col lege Placement Council. Master’s de gree graduates having no experience averaged almost $12,000 a year; Ph. D. graduates averaged about $16,000. The accompanying tabulation shows varying starting salaries for bachelor degree graduates in 1 9 6 9 70: In the Federal Government in 1970 engineers having the bache lor’s degree and no experience could start at $8,510 or $10,528 a year, depending on their college records. Beginning engineers having the bachelor’s degree and 1 or 2 years of graduate work could start at $10,528 or $11,855. Those hav ing the Ph. D. degree could begin at $13,493 or $14,665. In colleges and universities, me Starting salaries fo r engineers by branch, 1 9 6 9 -7 0 L o w er Branch A verage d e c i le 1 Aeronautical engineering............................$10,200 Chemical engineering................................. 10,800 Civil engineering ...................................... 10,000 Electrical engineering .............................. 10,400 Industrial engineering................................ 10,200 Mechanical engineering............................ 10,400 Metallurgical engineering.......................... 10,500 190 percent earned more than the amount shown. a 10 percent earned more than the amount shown. $10,000 10,500 9,400 10,000 9,700 10,100 9,900 U pper decile * $11,200 11,700 11,000 11,300 11,100 11,400 11,300 dian salaries of engineers with the master’s degree started at about $10,000 a year; and with the Ph. D. degree, $12,300 for a 9 -1 0 month academic year. (A lso see statement on College and University Teach ers.) Most engineers can expect an in crease in earnings as they gain ex perience. For example, in 1970 according to an Engineering Man power Commission Survey, the av erage (m edian) salary of engineers having 21 to 23 years of experience was $18,350, 78 percent higher than beginning engineers. Only 10 per cent of those having 21 to 23 years of experience earned less than $13,700 a year, and 10 percent earned $ 2 5 ,6 0 0 or more. Some in top-level executive positions had much higher earnings. Although engineers generally work under quiet conditions found in modern offices and research labo ratories, they may be involved in more active work— at a missile site preceding the launching of a space vehicle, in a mine, at a construction site, or at some other outdoor loca tion. Sources of Additional Information General information on engineer ing careers— including student se lection and guidance, professional training and ethics, and salaries and other economic aspects of engineer ing— may be obtained from : Engineers’ Council for Professional Development, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Engineering Manpower Commission, Engineers Joint Council, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. National Society of Professional Engineers, 2029 K St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Information on engineering 53 ENGINEERS schools and curriculums and on training and other qualifications needed for entrance into the profes sion also may be obtained from the Engineers Council for Professional Development. Information on regis tration of engineers may be ob tained from the National Society of Professional Engineers. In addition to the organizations listed above, other engineering soci eties represent the individual branches of the engineering profes sion; some are listed with the branches presented later in this chapter. Each can provide informa tion about careers in the particular branch of engineering. Many other engineering organizations are listed in the following publications availa ble in most libraries or from the publisher. Engineering Societies Directory, pub lished by Engineers Joint Council, 345 East 47th Street, New York, N.Y. 10017. Scientific and Technical Societies of the United States and Canada, published by the National Acad emy of Sciences, National Re search Council. Some engineers are members of labor unions. Information on engi neering unions may be obtained from: The American Federation of Tech nical Engineers (AFL-CIO), 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. AEROSPACE E N G IN E ER S (D.O.T. 002.081) Nature of the Work Aerospace engineers play a vital role in America’s space activities. Engineers in this branch of the pro fession work on all types of aircraft and spacecraft including missiles, rockets, and conventional propel ler-driven and jet-powered planes. They are concerned with all phases of the development of aerospace products from the initial planning and design to the final assembly, and testing. Aerospace engineers usually spe cialize in a particular area of work, such as structural design, naviga tional guidance and control, instru mentation and communication, sim ulation, propulsion, materials, test ing, or production methods. They also may specialize in a particular type of aerospace product such as passenger planes, jet-powered mili tary aircraft, rockets, launch vehi cles, satellites, manned space cap sules, or landing modules. Engineers working in the aircraft field are usually called aeronautical engineers. Those in the field of mis siles, rockets, and spacecraft often are referred to as astronautical engi neers. However, engineers with de grees in aeronautics and astronau tics are usually called aerospace en gineers. Places of Employment More than 60,000 aerospace en gineers were employed in early 1970, mainly in the aircraft and parts industry. Some worked for Federal Government agencies, pri marily the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the 54 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Department of Defense. Small num bers worked for commercial air lines, consulting firms, and colleges and universities. Employment Outlook Continuing developments in su personic, subsonic, and vertical lift aircraft, and advancement in space and missile activities, such as the expansion of the Safeguard anti-bal listic-missile system (A B M ) and space exploration followed by flights to the planets, should result in a moderate increase in requirements for aerospace engineers. A lso, some aerospace firms may become active in other areas such as high speed ground transportation. Additional job opportunities also will arise from the need to replace engineers who transfer to other fields of work, re tire, or die. However, engineers who are not well grounded in engineer ing fundamentals, and those whose specialization is very narrow, could be affected adversely by skill obso lescence caused by shifts in defense activities and by rapidly changing technology. Employment requirements for aerospace engineers are particularly sensitive to changes in the level and mix of defense expenditures. B e cause of this, employment oppor tunities fluctuate periodically, and in the short run demand can fall short of the number of aerospace engi neers seeking employment. Over the longer run, however, employ ment opportunities for aerospace engineers are expected to be favor able. The outlook for aerospace engi neers presented here is based on the assumption that defense activity as measured by expenditures will be reduced from the peak levels of the Vietnam conflict, although higher than the level just before the Viet nam conflict. If defense activity should differ substantially from that level, the demand for aerospace en gineers would be affected accord ingly. ( See introductory section of this chapter for discussion on train ing requirements and earnings. See also chapter on Occupations in Air craft, Missile, and Spacecraft Manu facturing.) Sources of Additional Information American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 1290 Ave nue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10019. A G R IC U L TU R A L EN G IN E E R S (D .O .T. 013.081) Nature of the Work Agricultural engineers use basic engineering principles and concepts to develop machinery, equipment and methods to improve the ef ficiency and economy of the pro duction, processing, and distribution of food and other agricultural prod ucts. They are concerned primarily with the design of farm machinery, equipment, and structures; the utili zation of electrical energy on farms and in food and feed processing plants; the conservation and man agement of soil and water re sources; and the design and opera tion of processing equipment to prepare agricultural products for market. They usually specialize in a particular area of work, such as re search and development, design, testing and application, production, sales, or management. Places of Employment Most of the estimated 13,000 ag ricultural engineers in 1970 were employed in private industry, espe cially by manufacturers of farm equipment and household equip ment; electrical service companies; and distributors of farm equipment and supplies. Some worked for en gineering consultants who supply technical or management services to farmers and farm related industries; others were independent consult ants. The Federal Government em ploys about 600 agricultural engi neers— chiefly in the Soil Conserva tion Service and Agricultural R e search Service of the Department of Agriculture. Some are employed by colleges and universities and a few are employed by State and local governments. Employment Outlook Employment of agricultural engi neers is expected to grow rapidly through the 1970’s. Among the fac tors which will contribute to a greater demand for these engineers are the growing mechanization of farm operations, increasing empha sis on conservation of resources, and expanding population— with a corresponding demand for food and fibre— and the broadening use of agricultural products and wastes as industrial raw materials. Additional engineers will be needed to work on problems concerning the enormous energy and power requirements of farms. (See introductory section of this chapter for discussion on train ing requirements and earnings. See also chapter on Occupations in A g riculture.) 55 ENGINEERS Sources of Additional Information American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 2950 Niles Rd., St. Joseph, Mich. 49085. B IO M E D IC A L EN G IN E ER S leges and universities. Some were employed by the Federal Govern ment, primarily in the National Aeronautics and Space Administra tion. Some work in State institutions and a growing number are em ployed in private industry to de velop new apparatus, processes, and techniques, or in sales related posi tions. (D.O.T. 019.481) Employment Outlook Nature of the Work Biomedical engineers use engi neering principles to solve medical and health related problems. Most biomedical engineers do research, working with life scientists, chem ists, and the medical profession to study the engineering aspects of the biological systems of man and animals. Some design and develop medical instruments and devices that now include artificial hearts and kidneys to assist medical per sonnel in observing, mitigating, or alleviating physical ailments or de formities. Biomedical engineers have developed lasers for surgery and cardiac pacemakers for regulat ing the heartbeat. Other biomedical engineers adapt the computer to medical science, for example, com puters to monitor patients and process electrocardiograph data. Biomedical engineers also design and construct systems which mecha nize and automate laboratory and clinical procedures. A few biomedi cal engineers sell medical instru ments and equipment to doctors, re search centers, and hospitals. Employment opportunities for biomedical engineers are expected to be very favorable through the 1970’s. Although biomedical engi neering currently is a small field and has few openings compared with the larger branches of engineering, the number of graduates also is small. Thus, opportunities should be very favorable for both new graduates and qualified scientists and engi neers. M.S. and Ph. D. graduates will be in strong demand to teach and fill positions resulting from increased expenditures for research in areas such as prosthetics and cybernetics. Research could create new positions in instrumentation and systems for the delivery of health services. (See introductory sections of this chapter for a discussion on training require ments and earnings.) Sources of Additional Information Alliance for Engineering in Medicine and Biology, 3900 Wisconsin Ave. NW., Suite No. 300, Washington, D.C. 20016. Biomedical Engineering .Society, P.O. Box 1600, Evanston, Illinois 60204. Places of Employment In 1970 most of the estimated 3,000 biomedical engineers were teaching and doing research in col Foundation for Medical Technology, Mt. Sinai Medical Center, 100 St., 5th, Ave., New York, N.Y. 10029. C E R A M IC E N G IN E ER S (D.O.T. 006.081) Nature of the Work Ceramic engineers are concerned with one of the world’s oldest and yet newest technologies. They de velop methods for processing clay, silicates, and other nonmetallic min erals into a wide variety of ceramic products, ranging from glassware, cement, and bricks, to coatings and refractories for missile nose cones. They may also design and supervise the construction of the plant and equipment used to manufacture these products. Many ceramic engi neers are engaged in research and development. Some are employed in administration, production and sales; others work as consultants or teach in colleges and universities. Ceramic engineers usually spe cialize in one or more products— for example, products of refracto ries (fire- and heat-resistant mate rials, such as firebrick); whitewares (such as porcelain and china dinnerware or high voltage electrical insulators); structural materials (such as brick, tile, and terra cotta); electronic ceramics (such as ferrites for memory systems and mi crowave devices); protective and refractory coatings for metals; glass; abrasives; and fuel elements for atomic energy. Places of Employment Most of the estimated 10,000 ce ramic engineers in 1970 were em ployed in manufacturing industries — primarily in the stone, clay, and glass industries. Others worked in the iron and steel, electrical equip ment, aerospace, and chemical in 56 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK dustries which produce or use ce ramic products. Some were em ployed by educational institutions, independent research organizations, and the Federal Government. Employment Outlook The outlook is for rapid growth in the employment of ceramic engi neers through the 1970’s. Although ceramic engineering is a small field and has few openings in a year com pared with large branches of engi neering, the number of graduates also is small. Thus, opportunities for new graduates should be excel lent. The growth of programs related to nuclear energy, electronics, and space exploration will provide many of the opportunities for ceramic en gineers. Ceramic materials which are corrosion-resistant, and capable of withstanding radiation and ex tremely high temperatures are be coming increasingly important in the development of nuclear reactors and space vehicles. Increasing use of the more traditional ceramic products, such as whitewares and abrasives, for consumer and in dustrial use also will require addi tional ceramic engineers to improve and adapt these products to new re quirements. The growing use of structural clay and tile products in construction will add to employ ment opportunities. Furthermore, the development of new glasses of unusual properties and the expand ing use of conventional glasses in the construction and container field probably will create additional openings for ceramic engineers. (See introductory section of this chapter for discussion on training requirements and earnings.) Sources of Additional Information American Ceramic Society, 4055 North High St., Columbus, Ohio 43214. C H E M IC A L E N G IN E ER S (D.O.T. 008.081) Nature of the Work Chemical engineers design plants and equipment to manufacture chemicals and chemical products. They also determine the most efficient manufacturing process, which requires a knowledge of chemistry, physics, and mechanical and electrical engineering. They often design and operate pilot plants to test their work. This branch of engineering is so diversified and complex that chemi cal engineers frequently specialize in a particular operation such as ox idation or polymerization. Others specialize in the manufacture of a specific product, such as plastics or rubber. Chemical engineers may en gage in research and development, production, plant operation, design, sales, management, or teaching. Places of Employment Approximately four-fifths of the estimated 50,000 chemical engi neers in the United States in 1970 were employed in manufacturing in dustries— primarily in the chemicals industry. Some were employed by government agencies and by col leges and universities. A small number worked for independent re search institutes or engineering con sulting firms, or as independent con sulting engineers. Employment Outlook C hem ical engineer checks w a te r q uality. The outlook is for moderate growth of employment in chemical engineering through the 1970’s. The major factors underlying this ex pected growth are expansion of in dustry— the chemicals industry in particular— and continued high lev els of expenditures for research and development, in which a large por tion of chemical engineers are em ployed. The growing complexity of chemical processes and the automa tion of these processes, will require additional chemical engineers for work related to designing, building, and maintaining the necessary plants and equipment. Chemical en gineers also will be needed in many relatively new areas of work, such as environmental control and the design and development of nuclear 57 ENGINEERS reactors, and in research to develop new and better solid and liquid fuels for missiles and rockets. Further more, new chemicals used in the manufacture of consumer goods, such as plastics and manmade fibers, probably will create addi tional openings. (See introductory section of this chapter for discussion on training requirements and earn ings. See also the statement on Chemists and chapter on Occupa tions in the Industrial Chemical Industry.) Sources of Additional Information Places of Employment Approximately 185,000 civil en gineers were employed ip the United States in 1970. The majority were employed by Federal, State, and local government agencies and the construction industry. Large numbers were employed by consult ing engineering and architectural firms, or worked as independent consulting engineers. Some were employed by public utilities, rail roads, and educational institutions. Others worked in the iron and steel industries and other major manufac turing industries. American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. C IV IL EN G IN E ER S (D.O.T. 005.081) Nature of the Work Civil engineers design and super vise the construction of roads, har bors, airfields, tunnels, bridges, water supply and sewage systems, and buildings. Major specialties within civil engineering are struc tural, hydraulic, sanitary, transpor tation (including highways and rail w ays), and soil mechanics. Many civil engineers are in su pervisory or administrative positions ranging from site supervisor of a construction project or city engineer to top-level executive. Some are en gaged in design, planning, research, inspection, or maintenance activi ties. Others teach in colleges and universities or work as consultants. countries. Furthermore, civil engi neers in some positions often are re quired to move from place to place to work on different projects. Employment Outlook The outlook in civil engineering — one of the largest and oldest branches of the profession— is for continued growth through the 1970’s. The expanding employment op portunities for civil engineers will result from the growing needs for housing, industrial buildings, and highway transportation systems created by an increasing population and expanding economy. Work re lated to the problems of urban envi ronment, such as water and sewage systems, air and water pollution, and giant urban redevelopment projects, may also require additional civil engineers. Large numbers of civil engineers will also be needed each year to re place those who retire or die. (See introductory section of this chapter for discussion on training require ments and earnings.) Sources of Additional Information American Society of Civil Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Civil engineers work in all parts of the country, in every State and city— usually in or near the major industrial and commercial centers. However, since these engineers are frequently called upon to work at construction sites, they are some times stationed in remote areas of the United States or in foreign ELECTRICAL E N G IN E ER S (D.O.T. 003.081, .151, and .187) Nature of the Work Electrical engineers design, de velop, and supervise the manufac ture of electrical and electronic 58 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK equipment— including electric mo tors and generators; communica tions equipment; electronic appa ratus such as television, radar, computers, and missile guidance systems; and electrical applicances of all kinds. They also design and participate in the operation of facil ities for generating and distributing electric power. Electrical engineers usually spe cialize in a major area of work such as electronics, electrical equipment manufacturing, communications, or power. Many specialize in subdivi sions of these broad areas; for ex ample, electronics engineers may specialize in computers or in missile guidance and tracking systems. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for electrical engineers are expected to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s. An increased demand for electrical equipment to automati cally control production processes, using such items as computers and sensing devices, is expected to be among the major factors contribut ing to this growth. The anticipated growing demand for electrical and electronic consumer goods also is expected to create many job open ings for electrical engineers. The outlook for electrical engi neers presented here is based on the assumption that defense activity (as measured by expenditures) will be reduced from the peak levels of the Vietnam conflict, although higher than the level just before the Viet nam conflict. If defense activity A large number of electrical engi neers are engaged in research, de velopment, and design activities. Another large group is employed in administrative and management po sitions. Others are employed in var ious manufacturing operations or in technical sales or teaching positions. Places of Employment Electrical engineering is the larg est branch of the profession. It is es timated that more than 235,000 electrical engineers were employed in the United States in 1970 chiefly by manufacturers of electrical and electronic equipment, aircraft and parts, business machines, and pro fessional and scientific equipment. Many were employed by telephone and telegraph and electric light and power companies. Sizable numbers were employed by government agencies and by colleges and uni versities. Others worked for con struction firms, for engineering con sultants, or as independent consult ing engineers. In d u s tria l e n g in e e r w orks w ith m a c h in e tool o p e ra to r to s et up produ ction. 59 ENGINEERS should differ substantially from that level, the demand for electrical en gineers would be affected accord ingly. In addition to those needed to fill new positions, many electrical engi neers will be needed to replace per sonnel who retire or die. (See intro ductory section of this chapter for discussions of training requirements and earnings. See also chapter on Occupations in Electronics Manu facturing. ) to control the quality of products; and may design and improve sys tems for the physical distribution of goods and services. Other activities of industrial engineers include plant location surveys, where considera tion is given to sources of raw mate rials, availability of a work force, financing, and taxes; and the devel opment of wage and salary adminis tration and job evaluation pro grams. expected to stimulate the demand for persons in this branch of engi neering. Besides those needed to fill new positions, additional numbers of in dustrial engineers will be required each year to replace those who re tire or die. (See introductory sec tion of this chapter for discussion on training requirements and earn ings.) Sources of Additional Information Places of Employment Sources of Additional Information Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. IN D U S T R IA L EN G IN E ER S (D.O.T. 012.081, .168 and .188) Nature of the Work Industrial engineers determine the most effective methods of using the basic factors of production— manpower, machines, and mate rials. They are concerned with peo ple and “things,” in contrast to engineers in other specialties who generally are concerned more with developmental work in subject fields, such as power, and me chanics. They may design systems for data processing and apply operations re search techniques to complex or ganizational, production, and re lated problems. Industrial engineers also develop management control systems to aid in financial planning and cost analysis; design production planning and control systems to in sure coordination of activities and More than two-thirds of the esti mated 125,000 industrial engineers employed in early 1970 were in manufacturing industries. They were more widely distributed among manufacturing industries than were those in other branches of engineering. Some worked for in surance companies, construction and mining firms, and public utili ties. Others were employed by retail organizations and other large busi ness enterprises to improve operat ing efficiency. Still others worked for government agencies and educa tional institutions. A few were inde pendent consulting engineers. Employment Outlook The outlook is for very rapid growth of employment in this branch of the profession through the 1970’s. The increasing complex ity of industrial operations and the expansion of automated processes, coupled with the growth of the N a tion’s industries, are among the major factors expected to increase the demand for industrial engineers. Growing recognition of the impor tance of scientific management and safety engineering in reducing costs and increasing productivity also is American Institute of Industrial Engineers, Inc., 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. M E C H A N IC A L E N G IN E E R S (D.O.T. 007.081, .151, .168, .181, and .187; 011.081; and 019.187) Nature of the Work Mechanical engineers are con cerned with the production, trans mission, and use of power. They de sign and develop machines which produce power, such as internal combustion engines, steam and gas turbines, jet and rocket engines, and nuclear reactors. They also design and develop a great variety of machines which use power— refrig eration and air conditioning equip ment, elevators, machine tools, printing presses, steel rolling mills, and many others. Many specialized areas of work have developed within mechanical engineering, and because they are employed in nearly all industries, their specific work varies with the industry and the function per formed. Among these specialties are those concerned with motor vehi- 60 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK ery and processes will be among the major factors contributing to greater employment. Continued growth of expenditures for research and de velopment also will be a factor in the growth of this branch of the profession. Moreover, newer areas of work, such as atomic energy, aerospace development, and envi ronmental control, will probably provide additional openings for large numbers of mechanical engi neers. Besides those needed to fill new positions, large numbers of mechan ical engineers will be required each year to replace those who retire or die. (See introductory section of this chapter for discussion on train ing requirements and earnings.) Sources of Additional Information M ech an ical e n g in e e r e xam in es m odel o f ball bearing. cles, marine equipment, railroad equipment, rocket engines, steampower, heating, ventilating and air conditioning, hydraulics or fluid me chanics, instrumentation, ordnance, and machines for specialized indus tries, such as petroleum, rubber and plastics, and construction. Large numbers of mechanical en gineers are engaged in research, de velopment, and design. Many also are employed in administrative and management activities. Others work in maintenance, sales, and activities related to production and opera tions in manufacturing industries. Some teach in colleges and universi ties or work as consultants. Places of Employment About 220,0 0 0 mechanical engi neers were employed in the United States in 1970. Nearly all manufac turing and nonmanufacturing indus tries employed some members of the profession. However, nearly three-fourths of all mechanical engi neers were employed in manufac turing industries— mainly in the pri mary and fabricated metals, ma chinery, transportation equipment, and electrical equipment industries. Others were employed in govern ment agencies, educational institu tions, and consulting engineering firms. Some worked as independent consulting engineers. Employment Outlook The outlook in mechanical engi neering— the second largest branch of the profession— is for rapid growth through the 1970’s. The ex pected expansion of industry with the consequent demand for in dustrial machinery and machine tools, and the increasing technologi cal complexity of industrial machin The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. M E TA LLU R G IC A L E N G IN E ER S (D.O.T. 011.081) Nature of the Work Metallurgical engineers develop methods of processing and convert ing metals into useful products. These engineers usually work in 1 of 2 main branches of metallurgy — extractive or physical. Extractive metallurgy involves the extraction of metals from ores and their refin ing to obtain pure metal. Physical metallurgy deals with the properties of metals and their alloys, and with methods of converting refined met als into useful final products. Scien- 61 ENGINEERS neers will be needed to find ways of processing low-grade ores now re garded as unprofitable to mine. (See introductory section of this chapter for discussions on training requirements and earnings. A lso see chapter on Occupations in the Iron and Steel Industry.) cialize in the extraction of specific metal ores or coal and other nonmetallic minerals. Engineers who spe cialize in the extraction of petro leum and natural gas are usually considered members of a separate branch of the engineering profession — Petroleum Engineering. Sources of Additional Information tists working in this field are known as metallurgists, but the distinction between scientists and engineers in this field is small. Persons working in the field of metallurgy are some times referred to as either materials scientists or materials engineers. Places of Employment The Metallurgical Society of the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engi neers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Most of the estimated 5,000 min ing engineers were employed in the mining industry in 1970. Some worked in colleges and universities or government agencies, or as inde pendent consultants. Others worked for firms producing equipment for the mining industry. Mining engineers are usually em ployed at the location of mineral deposits, often near small communi ties. However, those engaged in re search, teaching, management, con sulting, or sales are often located in large metropolitan areas. In addition to mining engineers, many other engineers in different branches also are employed in the mining industry. Places of Employment The metalworking industries— primarily the iron and steel and nonferrous metals industries— em ployed over one-half of the esti mated 5,000 to 10,000 metallurgi cal engineers in 1970. Many metal lurgical engineers worked in the machinery, electrical equipment, and aircraft and parts industries. Others were employed in the mining industry, government agencies, con sulting firms, independent research organizations, and educational insti tutions. American Society of Metals, Metals Park, Ohio 44073. M IN IN G EN G IN E E R S (D.O.T. 010.081 and .187) Employment Outlook Nature of the Work Employment in this small branch of the profession is expected to grow rapidly through the 1970’s. Increasing numbers of metallurgical engineers will be needed by the metalworking industries to work on problems involving the development of new metals and alloys as well as the adaption of current ones to new needs. For example, the develop ment of such products as supersonic jet aircraft, missiles, satellites, and spacecraft has brought about a need for lightweight metals capable of withstanding both extremely high and extremely low temperatures. Metallurgical engineers also will be needed to solve metallurgical prob lems connected with the efficient use of nuclear energy. Furthermore, as the supply of highgrade ores di minishes, more metallurgical engi Mining engineers find and extract minerals from the earth and prepare minerals for use by manufacturing industries. They design the layouts of mines, supervise the construction of mine shafts and tunnels in under ground operations, and devise methods of transporting extracted minerals to processing plants. Min ing engineers are responsible for the efficient operation of mines and mine safety, including ventilation, water supply, power, communica tions, and maintenance of equip ment. Some mining engineers work with geologists and metallurgical engineers to locate and appraise new ore deposits. Others develop new mining equipment and devise improved methods to process ex tracted minerals. Mining engineers frequently spe Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for mining engineers are expected to be favorable through the 1970’s. The number of new graduates in mining engineering entering the industry is expected to be fewer than the num ber needed to provide for the antici pated growth in requirements and to replace those who retire, transfer to other fields of work, or die. Exploration for minerals is in creasing, both in the United States and in other parts of the world. Eas ily mined deposits are being de pleted, creating a growing need for engineers to mine newly discovered 62 mineral deposits and to devise more efficient methods for mining lowgrade ores. Additional employment opportunities for mining engineers will arise as new alloys and new uses for metals increase the demand for less widely used ores. Recovery of metals from the sea and the de OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK velopment of recently discovered oil shale deposits could present major challenges to the mining engineer. (See introductory section to chapter for discussion on training require ments and earnings. See also chap ter on M ining.) Sources of Additional Information The Society of Mining Engineers of the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engi neers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. HEALTH S E R VIC E O C C U P A TIO N S more heavily populated and pros perous sections of the Nation. Many women are employed in the health field. Nursing, the largest of the major health service occupa tions, is second only to teaching as a field of professional employment for women. Other health service occu pations in which women predomi nate are practical nurse, radiologic technologist, medical technologist, dietitian, physical therapist, occupa tional therapist, speech pathologist and audiologist, dental hygienist, dental assistant, and medical record librarian. On the other hand, most dentists, optometrists, physicians, veterinarians, pharmacists, hospital administrators, and sanitarians are men. Nurses, physicians, pharmacists, The educational and other re and dentists constituted the largest quirements for work in the health professional health occupations in 1970, and ranged from 103,000 field are as diverse as the health occupations themselves. For exam dentists to 700,000 registered nurses. Other professional health ple, professional health workers— occupations are dietitian, veteri physicians, dentists, pharmacists, and others— must complete a num narian, optometrist, chiropractor, ber of years of preprofessional and osteopathic physician, and hospital administrator. Other health service professional college education and workers include technicians of vari pass a State licensing examination. ous types, such as medical technolo On the other hand, some health gist, medical X-ray technician, den service occupations can be entered tal hygienist, and dental laboratory with little specialized training. A continued rapid expansion of technician. Large numbers— 1.2 million— worked as practical nurses employment in the health field is and auxiliary nursing workers, in expected through the 1970’s, al cluding orderlies, nursing aids, hos though the rates of growth will dif pital attendants, and psychiatric as fer considerably among individual health occupations. The factors that sistants. are expected to contribute to an in Workers in the health field are crease in the demand for health employed in hospitals, clinics, labo care are the following: The coun ratories, pharmacies, nursing try’s expanding population; rising homes, industrial plants, public standards of living; increasing health agencies, mental health cen health consciousness; growth of ters, private offices, and patients’ coverage under prepayment pro homes. Those employed in health grams for hospitalization and medi occupations work mainly in the cal care, including Medicare; rapid Almost everyone knows som e thing about the professional services provided by doctors, dentists, and pharmacists. Many also have some firsthand knowledge of the duties performed by nurses, attendants, and other workers who take care of patients in hospitals. Less well known, but also of great importance to the public health, is the work of large numbers of workers employed behind the scenes in other health service occupations, such as labora tory or X-ray technician. A lto gether, more than 3.5 million peo ple were employed in health related occupations in 1970. Employment in this field has increased rapidly in recent years. expansion of expenditures for medi cal research; and increasing expend itures by Federal, State, and local governments for health care and services. In addition, many new workers will be needed each year to replace those who retire, die, or— particularly for women—-leave the field for other reasons. Thus, many opportunities will be available for employment in the health services. P H Y S IC IA N S (D.O.T. 070.101 and .108) N ature of the W ork Physicians diagnose diseases and treat people who are in poor health. In addition, they are concerned with preventive medicine and with the rehabilitation of people who are in jured or ill. Physicians generally examine and treat patients in their own offices and in hospitals, but they also visit patients at home when necessary. Some physicians combine the prac tice of medicine with research or teaching in medical schools. Others hold full-time research or teaching positions or perform administrative work in hospitals, professional asso ciations, and other organizations. A few are primarily engaged in writing and editing medical books and mag azines. In 1970, one-fifth of the physi cians providing patient care were general practitioners; the others specialized in 1 of the 33 fields recognized by the medical profes sion. In recent years, the trend has been toward specialization. Among the largest specialties are internal medicine, general surgery, obstetrics and gynecology, psychiatry, pedia trics, radiology, anesthesiology, oph63 64 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK thalmology, pathology, and ortho pedic surgery. than specialists, who tend to be con centrated in large cities. Places of Em ploym ent T raining and O ther Q ualifications More than 305,000 physicians— of whom 7 percent were women— were professionally active in the United States in 1970. About 90 percent were primarily engaged in providing patient care services. More than 190,000, or 7 out of 10 of these, were in office based prac tice; nearly 8 3 ,000 were interns, residents, or full-time staff in hospi tals. Nearly 3 2,000 physicians were working primarily in activities other than providing patient care services such as medical teaching, administration, and research. A license to practice medicine is required in all States and the Dis trict of Columbia. To qualify for a license, a candidate must graduate from an approved medical school, pass a licensing examination, and — in 33 States and the District of Columbia— serve a 1-year hospital internship. As of 1970, 16 States permitted a candidate to take the medical licensing examination upon graduation from medical school. Eleven States and the District of Columbia require candidates to pass a special examination in the basic sciences to become eligible for the medical licensing examination. Licensing examinations are given by State boards. The National Board of Medical Examiners also gives an examination which is ac cepted by 47 States and the District of Columbia as a substitute for State examinations. Although physicians licensed in one State usually can ob In 1970, about 40 percent of all nonfederal physicians were in New York, California, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Ohio. In general, the Northeastern States have the highest ratio of physicians to population and the Southern States, the lowest. Gen eral practitioners are much more widely distributed geographically tain a license to practice in another without further examination, some States limit this reciprocity. In 1970, there were 92 approved schools in the United States in which students could begin the study of medicine. Eighty-six awarded the degree of Doctor of Medicine (M .D .) to those complet ing the 4-year course; 6 offered 2year programs in the basic medical sciences to students who could then transfer to regular medical schools for the last 2 years of study. Eight additional new schools were enroll ing medical students, but had not yet graduated a class. Because the number of people applying to medi cal schools exceeds the beginning enrollment capacity, preference is given to the most highly qualified applicants. Most medical schools require ap plicants to have completed at least 3 years of college education for admis sion to their regular programs, and some require 4 years. A few medi cal schools allow selected students having exceptional qualifications to begin their professional study after completing 2 years of college. The great majority of students entering medical schools have a bachelor’s degree. Premedical study must include undergraduate courses in English, physics, biology, and inorganic and organic chemistry in an accredited college. Students should acquire a broad general education by taking courses in the humanities, mathe matics, and the social sciences. Other factors considered by medical schools in selecting students include the individual’s college record; and his scores on the Medical College Admission Test, which is taken by almost all applicants. Consideration also is given to the applicant’s char acter, personality, and leadership qualities, as shown by personal in 65 HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS terviews, letters of recommendation, and extracurricular activities in col lege. In addition, many State-sup ported medical schools give prefer ence to residents of their particular States and, sometimes, those of nearby States. The first 2 years of medical school training generally are spent primarily in laboratories and class rooms, learning basic medical sci ences, such as anatomy, biochemis try, physiology, pharmacology, mi crobiology, and pathology. During the last 2 years, students spend most of their time in hospitals and clinics under the supervision of ex perienced physicians. They learn to take case histories, perform exami nations, and recognize diseases. New physicians increasingly are acquiring training beyond the 1year hospital internship. Those who plan to be general practitioners often spend an additional year or two as interns or residents in a hos pital. To become certified special ists, physicians must pass specialty board examinations. To qualify for these examinations, they must spend from 2 to 4 years— depend ing on the specialty— in advanced hospital training as residents, fol lowed by 2 years or more of prac tice in the specialty. Some doctors interested in teaching and research take graduate work leading to the master’s or Ph. D. degree in a field such as biochemistry or microbiol ogy. Many graduates of foreign med ical schools serve as hospital interns and residents in this country. In 1970, this group numbered about 16,000 including citizens of foreign countries as well as U.S. citizens. To be appointed to approved intern ships or residencies in U.S. hospitals, however, these graduates (citizens of foreign countries as well as U.S. citizens) must pass the American Medical Qualification Examination given by the Educational Council for Foreign Medical Graduates. Medical training is very costly because of the long time required to earn the medical degree. However, the Health Professions Educational Assistance Act of 1963, as amended, provides Federal funds for loans and scholarships of up to $2,500 a year to help needy stu dents pursue full-time study leading to the degree of Doctor of Medi cine. Persons considering entering the medical profession must have a strong desire to serve the sick and injured. They must be willing to study a great deal to keep up with the latest advances in medical sci ence. Besides being one of the most exacting sciences, medicine demands that practitioners strictly adhere to high moral standards subscribed to by the profession, law, and tradi tion. Sincerity and a pleasant per sonality are assets which help physicians gain the confidence of patients. In addition, prospective physicians should be emotionally stable and able to make decisions in emergencies. The majority of newly qualified physicians open their own offices. Those who have completed their in ternships and enter active military duty initially serve as captains in the Army or Air Force or as lieutenants in the Navy. Graduates of accred ited medical schools are eligible for commissions as senior assistant sur geons (equivalent to lieutenants in the N avy) in the U.S. Public Health Service, as well as for Federal Civil Service professional medical posi tions. Em ploym ent Outlook Excellent opportunities are antic ipated for physicians through the 1970’s. Because the number of new physicians being trained is restricted by the present limited capacity of medical schools, the employment of physicians is expected to grow only moderately, despite a steady in crease in the demand for their serv ices. However, some expansion in medical school facilities is expected because of recent Federal legisla tion which provides Federal funds to assist in the construction of new training facilities for physicians. Nonetheless, any increase in the sup ply of physicians resulting from the implementation of this legislation may not be significant until the late 1970’s. Increased demand for physicians’ services will result from factors such as the anticipated population growth, including rising numbers of older persons— the group requiring exten sive physicians’ services; the in creasing health consciousness of the public; and the trend toward higher standards of medical care. The demand for physicians also will increase because of the extension of prepayment programs for hospital ization and medical care, including Medicare and Medicaid; continued Federal Government provision of medical care for members of the Armed Forces, their families, and veterans; and the continuing growth in the fields of public health, reha bilitation, industrial medicine, and mental health. In addition, more physicians will be needed for medi cal research and to teach in medical schools. In addition to those needed to fill new openings, many newly trained doctors will be required to replace those who retire or die. To some extent, the rise in the demand for physicians’ services will be offset by developments that are enabling physicians to care for more patients. For example, increasing 66 numbers of medical technicians are assisting physicians; new drugs and new medical techniques are short ening illnesses; and growing num bers of physicians are able to use their time more effectively by en gaging in group practice. In addi tion, fewer house calls are being made by physicians because of the growing tendency to treat patients in hospitals and physicians’ offices. However, these developments are not expected to offset the overall need for more physicians. Earnings and W orking Conditions New graduates serving as interns in 1970 had an average annual sal ary of $7,045 in hospitals affiliated with medical schools and $7,435 in other hospitals. Residents during 1970 earned average annual salaries of $8,250 in hospitals affiliated with medical schools and $8,750 in nonaffiliated hospitals, according to the American Medical Association. Many hospitals also provided full or partial room, board, and other maintenance allowances to their in terns and residents. Graduates employed by the Fed eral Government in 1970 could ex pect to receive an annual starting salary of about $15,2 0 0 if they had completed their internship, and about $1 7,800 if they had com pleted 1 year of residency or dem onstrated superior achievement dur ing their internship. Newly qualified physicians who establish their own practice must make a sizable financial investment to equip a modern office. It is esti mated that during the first year or two of independent practice, physi cians probably earn little more than the minimum needed to pay the ex penses for maintaining their offices. As a rule, however, their earnings OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK rise rapidly as their practice devel ops. The net income of physicians providing patient care services was generally between $34,000 and $39,000 in 1970, according to the limited information available. Earn ings of physicians depend on factors such as the region of the country in which they practice; the patients’ income level; and the physician’s skill, personality, and professional reputation, as well as his length of experience. Self-employed physi cians usually earn more than those in salaried positions, and specialists usually earn considerably more than general practitioners. Many physi cians have long working days and irregular hours. Most specialists work fewer hours each week than general practitioners. As doctors grow older, they may not accept new patients and tend to work fewer hours. However, many continue in practice well beyond 70 years of age. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Persons wishing to practice in a given State should find out about the requirements for licensure di rectly from the board of medical ex aminers of that State. Lists of ap proved medical schools, as well as general information on premedical education and medicine as a career, may be obtained from: Council on Medical Education, American Medical Association, 535 North Dearborn St., Chicago, 111. 60610. Association of American Medical Colleges, One Dupont Circle NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. O S TE O P A TH IC P H Y S IC IA N S (D.O.T. 071.108) N ature of the W ork Osteopathic physicians diagnose, prescribe remedies, and treat dis eases of the human body. They pay particular attention to impairments in the musculoskeletal system. They emphasize manual manipulative therapy, but in most States, they also use surgery, drugs, and all other accepted methods of medical care. Most osteopathic physicians are “family doctors” who engage in general practice. These physicians usually see patients in their offices, make house calls, and treat patients in osteopathic and some city and county hospitals. A few doctors of osteopathy are engaged primarily in research, teaching, or writing and editing scientific books and journals. In recent years, there has been an increase in specialization. The spe cialties include: Internal medicine, neurology and psychiatry, ophthal mology and otorhinolaryngology, pediatrics, anesthesiology, physical medicine and rehabilitation, derma tology, obstetrics and gynecology, pathology, proctology, radiology, and surgery. Places of Em ploym ent About 13,500 osteopathic physi cians were practicing in the United States in 1970; approximately 7 percent were women. Nearly all of them were in private practice. Less than 5 percent had full-time salaried positions, mainly in osteopathic hos pitals and colleges. A few were em ployed by private industry or gov ernment agencies. Osteopathic physicians are lo 67 HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS cated chiefly in those States which have osteopathic hospital facilities. In 1970, about half of all osteo pathic physicians were in Michigan, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Missouri, and Texas. Twenty-three States and the District of Columbia each had fewer than 50 osteopathic physicians. More than half of all general practi tioners are located in towns and cit ies having less than 50,000 people; specialists, however, practice mainly in large cities. T raining and O ther Q ualifications A license to practice as an osteo pathic physician is required in all States. In 1970, licensed osteopathic physicians were qualified to engage in all types of medical and surgical practice in 48 States and the District of Columbia. The remaining States limit in varying degrees the use of drugs or the type of surgery that can be performed by osteopathic physi cians. To obtain a license, a candidate must be a graduate of an approved school of osteopathy and pass a State board examination. In 21 States and the District of Columbia, the candidate must pass an exami nation in the basic sciences before he is eligible to take the profes sional examination; 29 States and the District of Columbia also re quire a period of internship in an approved hospital after graduation from an osteopathic school. All States except Alaska, California, Florida, and Mississippi grant licen ses without further examination to properly qualified osteopathic phy sicians already licensed by another State. Although 3 years of preosteopathic college work is the minimum requirement for entry to schools of osteopathy, 4 years is preferred. Os teopathic colleges require successful completion of 4 years of profes sional study for the degree of D oc tor of Osteopathy (D .O .) Preosteopathic education must include courses in chemistry, physics, biol ogy, and English. During the first 2 years of professional training, em phasis is placed on basic sciences such as anatomy, physiology, pa thology and on the principles of os teopathy; the last 2 years are de voted largely to work with patients in hospitals and clinics. After graduation, almost all doc tors of osteopathy serve a 12-month internship at 1 of the 80 osteopathic hospitals which the American Os teopathic Association has approved for intern training. Those who wish to become specialists must have 3 to 5 years of additional training, fol lowed by 2 years of supervised practice in the specialty. The osteopathic physician’s train ing is very costly because of the length of time it takes to earn the degree of Doctor of Osteopathy. However, the Health Professions Educational Assistance Act of 1963, as amended, provides Federal funds for loans and scholarships of up to $2,500 a year to help needy students pursue full-time study lead ing to the degree. Every year, more young people apply for admission to the 7 ap proved schools of osteopathy than can be accepted. In selecting stu dents, these colleges consider grades received in preprofessional educa tion, scores on medical aptitude tests, and the amount of preosteopathic college work completed. In 1970, over 90 percent of the stu dents entering osteopathic colleges had bachelor’s degrees. The appli cant’s desire to serve as an osteo pathic physician rather than as a doctor trained in other fields of medicine is a very important qualifi cation. The colleges also give con siderable weight to a favorable rec ommendation by an osteopathic physician familiar with the appli cant’s background. Newly qualified doctors of oste opathy usually establish their own practice. A few work as assistants to experienced physicians or become associated with osteopathic hospi tals. In view of the variation in State laws regulating the practice of oste opathy, persons wishing to become osteopathic physicians should study carefully the professional and legal requirements of the State in which they plan to practice. The availabil ity of osteopathic hospitals and clin ical facilities also should be consid ered when choosing a location. Persons desiring to become os teopathic physicians must have a strong desire to practice osteopathic principles of healing. They should have a keen sense of touch, emo tional stability, self-confidence, and perseverance. A pleasant personal ity, friendliness, patience, and the ability to deal with people are im portant. Em ploym ent Outlook Opportunities for osteopathic physicians are expected to be excel lent through the 1970’s. Greatest demand for their services probably will continue to be in States where osteopathy is a widely accepted method of treatment, such as Penn sylvania and a number of Midwest ern States. Generally, prospects for beginning a successful practice are likely to be best in rural areas, small towns, and city suburbs, where the young doctor of osteopathy may en counter less competition and there fore establish his professional repu tation more easily than in the cen ters of large cities. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 68 The demand for the services of osteopathic physicians is expected to grow through the 1970’s because of factors such as the anticipated population growth, the extension of prepayment programs for hospital ization and medical care including Medicare and Medicaid, and the trend toward higher standards of health care. Furthermore, there is a likelihood of greater public accept ance of osteopathy, liberalization of certain State restrictions on the use of drugs and surgery by osteopathic physicians, and the establishment of additional osteopathic hospitals. Despite the expected growth in demand, the employment of osteo pathic physicians is expected to in crease only moderately because the number of new osteopathic physi cians being trained is restricted by the limited capacity of osteopathic colleges. Approximately half of all graduates expected each year through the 1970’s probably will be needed to replace osteopathic physi cians who retire, die, or leave the profession for other reasons; hence the number of new graduates will be barely sufficient to maintain the present ratio of osteopathic physi cians to population. Although some expansion in osteopathic college facilities is anticipated because of recent Federal legislation, which provides Federal funds to assist in the construction of new teaching facilities for osteopathic physicians, no significant increase in graduates is expected through the 1970’s. Earnings and W orking Conditions In osteopathy, as in many of the other health professions, incomes usually rise markedly after the first few years of practice. Earnings of individual practitioners are deter mined mainly by such factors as ability, experience, the income level of the community served, and geo graphic location. The average in come above business expenses of general practitioners, in 1970, ranged from $25,000 to $30,000, according to the limited data availa ble. Specialists usually had higher incomes than general practitioners. Many osteopathic physicians work more than 50 or 60 hours a week. Those in general practice work longer and more irregular hours than specialists. Sources of Additional Inform ation Persons wishing to practice in a given State should find out about the requirements for licensure di rectly from the board of examiners of that State. A list of State boards, as well as general information on osteopathy as a career, may be ob tained from: American Osteopathic Association, 212 East Ohio St., Chicago, 111. 60611. the dentist. They take and develop dental X-ray films, sterilize instru ments, and maintain patient rec ords. They also may mix filling compounds and act as chairside as sistants to dentists. Hygienists teach people the techniques of mouth care and proper diet. Dental hygienists working in school systems promote dental health by examining children’s teeth, assisting dentists in determin ing the dental treatment needed, and reporting their findings to par ents. They also perform oral pro phylaxes and give instruction on correct care and brushing of teeth. Some help to develop classroom projects or assembly programs on oral health. Dental hygienists em ployed by health agencies work on dental health projects or perform clinical duties. A few assist in re search projects. Those having ad vanced training may teach in schools of dental hygiene. Places of Em ploym ent D E N TA L H Y G IE N IS T S (D .O .T. 078.368) N a tu re of the W ork Dental hygienists work under the supervision of a dentist. They re m ove deposits and stains from the teeth and apply prescribed medica ments to teeth for the control of dental decay. While performing this work (oral prophylaxis), dental hy gienists take and record medical and dental histories, prepare diag nostic tests for interpretation by the dentist, and chart conditions of decay and disease for diagnosis by Approximately 16,000 dental hy gienists were employed in 1970; most of them were women. Many work part time. Most were em ployed in private dental offices. Others worked for public health agencies, school systems, industrial plants, clinics, hospitals, and dental hygiene schools. Some worked as ci vilian employees of the Armed Forces. Train in g and O ther Q ualifications Dental hygienists must pass an examination to be licensed by the State in which they wish to practice. HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS In all States except Alabama, eligi bility for a license is limited to grad uates of accredited dental hygiene schools. In 1970, candidates in 48 States and the District of Columbia could complete part of the State li censing requirements by passing a written examination given by the National Board of Dental Examin ers. Upon being licensed, a hygien ist becomes a Registered Dental Hygienist (R .D .H .). In order to practice in a different State, a li censed dental hygienist must pass that State’s examination. In 1970, more than 100 schools of dental hygiene in the United States were accredited or provision ally accredited by the Council on Dental Education of the American Dental Association. Most of these schools provide a 2-year certificate or associate degree program. Some have 4-year programs leading to the bachelor’s degree in dental hygiene and others offer both programs. Programs leading to a master’s de gree are offered in five schools. For dental hygienists interested in practicing in a private dental office, completion of the 2-year program generally is sufficient. In order to work in research, teaching, and in public or school health programs, the completion of a 4-year program usually is required. The minimum requirement for admission to a school of dental hy giene is graduation from high school. Several schools which offer the bachelor’s degree admit students to the dental hygiene program only after they have completed 2 years of college. Many schools also re quire that applicants take aptitude tests conducted by the American Dental Hygienists’ Association. The curriculum at a school of dental hygiene consists of courses in the basic sciences, dental sciences, and liberal arts. These schools offer 69 laboratory work, clinical experi ence, and classroom instruction in subjects such as anatomy, chemis try, histology, pathology, pharma cology, and nutrition. Young persons planning careers as dental hygienists should enjoy working with people. The ability to put patients at ease in an uncom fortable situation is helpful. Other important qualities include personal neatness and cleanliness, manual dexterity, and good health. Em ploym ent Outlook Employment opportunities for dental hygienists are expected to be very good through the 1970’s. D e spite an anticipated rise in the num ber of graduates from schools of dental hygiene, the demand is ex pected to be greater than the num ber available for employment. The demand for hygienists is ex pected to increase as a result of the expanding population and the grow ing awareness of the importance of regular dental care. Increased par ticipation in dental prepayment plans and more group practice among dentists will result in new jobs for dental hygienists. Increas ing interest in dental care programs for children also may lead to more employment opportunities in this field. In addition, a great number of job openings will be created by young women leaving their jobs for marriage and family responsibilities. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 70 Mature women who wish to re turn to the field, and those who de sire part-time positions, can expect to find very good opportunities for employment. Earnings and W orking Conditions Earnings of dental hygienists are affected by the type of employer, education and experience of the in dividual hygienist, and the area where the job is located. Dental hy gienists working in private dental offices usually are salaried em ployees, although some are paid a commission for work performed or a combination of salary and com mission. Those employed in re search, administrative, supervisory, or teaching positions generally earn higher salaries. Salaries of dental hygienists who were graduates of 2-year training programs averaged about $6,000 to $7,000 a year in 1970; graduates of 4-year baccalaureate programs av eraged $7,000 to $8,000. The an nual beginning salary for a dental hygienist employed by the Federal Government was either $5,853 or $6,548 in late 1970, depending on education and experience. Dental hygienists employed full time in private offices usually work between 35 and 40 hours a week. They may work on Saturdays or during evening hours. Some hygien ists work for two or more dentists. Although most dental hygienists are employed in clean, well-lighted offices, their work may force them to stand for long periods of time. Important health protections for persons in this occupation are regu lar medical checkups and strict ad herence to established procedures for using X-ray equipment and for disinfection. A paid vacation of 2 or 3 weeks is common among hygienists who work full time in dental offices. Dental hygienists employed by school systems, health agencies, and the Federal or State governments have the same hours, vacation, sick leave, retirement, and health insur ance benefits as other workers in these organizations. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information about approved schools and the educational require ments needed to enter this occupa tion may be obtained from : Division of Educational Services, American Dental Hygienists Asso ciation, 211 East Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Other material on opportunities for dental hygienists is available from: Division of Dental Health, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Wel fare, Washington, D.C. 20201. Information concerning licensing requirements can be obtained from the State Board of Dental Examin ers in each State, or from National Board of Dental Examiners, 211 East Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. D E N TIS T S (D.O.T. 072.108) Dentists examine teeth and other tissues of the mouth to diagnose dis eases or abnormalities. They take X-rays where necessary, fill cavities in the teeth, straighten teeth, and treat gum diseases. Dentists extract teeth and substitute artificial den tures especially designed for the in dividual patient. They also perform corrective surgery of the gums and supporting bones. In addition, they may clean teeth. Dentists spend most of their time with patients, but may devote some time to laboratory work such as making dentures and inlays. Many dentists, however— particularly in large cities— send most of their lab oratory work to commercial firms. Some dentists also employ dental hygienists to clean patients’ teeth and for other duties. (See statement on Dental Hygienists.) They also may employ other assistants who perform office work and assist in “chairside” duties. Most dentists are general practi tioners who provide many types of dental care; approximately 9 per cent are specialists. Nearly half of these specialists are orthodontists, who straighten teeth. The next larger number, oral surgeons, oper ate in the mouth and jaws. The re mainder specialize in pedodontics (dentistry for children); periodontology (treating the tissues that sup port the teeth); prosthodontics (making artificial teeth or den tures); endodontics (root canal therapy); public health dentistry; and oral pathology (diseases of the m outh). About 3 percent of all dentists are employed primarily in work that does not involve “chairside” prac tice, such as teaching, research, and administration. Many dentists in private practice, however, do this work on a part-time basis. Places of Em ploym ent Approximately 103,000 dentists were at work in the United States in HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 1970. About 9 of every 10 were in private practice. Of the remainder, about 6,500 served as commis sioned officers in the Armed Forces; about 1,300 had other types of Fed eral Government positions— chiefly in the hospitals and clinics of the Veterans Administration and the Public Health Service; and some 3,500 held full-time positions in schools, hospitals, or State and local health agencies. Women dentists represented only about 1 to 2 per cent of the profession. Dentists tend to be concentrated 71 in large cities and in populous States. In early 1970, about a third of all dentists were located in New York, California, Pennsylvania, and Illinois. Training, O ther Q ualifications, and Advancem ent A license to practice dentistry is required in all States and the Dis trict of Columbia. To qualify for a license, a candidate must be a grad uate of an approved dental school and pass a State board examination. In 1970, 48 States and the District of Columbia recognized the exami nation given by the National Board of Dental Examiners as a substitute for the written part of the State board examinations. One State, Delaware, also requires new gradu ates to serve 1 year of hospital in ternship. Most State licenses permit dentists to engage in both general and specialized practice. In 13 States, however, a dentist cannot be licensed as a “specialist” unless he has 2 or 3 years of graduate educa tion, and several years of special ized experience, and passes a spe cial State examination. Few States permit dentists licensed in other States to practice in their jurisdic tions without further examination. Ordinarily, the minimum educa tion requirements for graduation from an approved dental school is 2 years of predental college work fol lowed by 4 years of professional dental school training; 23 of the 53 dental schools in operation in the United States in 1970 required 3 years of predental study. Predental education must include courses in sciences and the humanities. In dental college, the first 2 years are usually devoted to classroom in struction and laboratory work in basic sciences such as anatomy, mi crobiology, and physiology. The last 2 years are spent chiefly in the school’s dental clinic, treating pa tients. The degree of Doctor of Dental Surgery (D .D .S .) is awarded by most dental colleges. A n equiva lent degree, Doctor of Dental Medi cine (D .M .D .) is conferred by 13 schools. Competition is keen for admit tance to dental schools. In selecting students, schools give considerable weight to college grades and amount of college education; more than half OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 72 the students enrolling in dental schools have bachelor’s degrees. In addition, all dental schools partici pate in a nationwide admission test ing program, and scores earned on these tests are considered along with information gathered about the applicant through recommendations and interviews. Many State-sup ported dental schools also give pref erence to residents of their particu lar States. Dentists interested in fesearch, in teaching, or in becoming specialists must complete advanced dental pro grams operated by dental schools, hospitals, and other institutions of higher education. These programs last 2 to 4 years. tists entering the Armed Forces are commissioned as captains in the Army and Air Force and as lieuten ants in the Navy. Graduates of rec ognized dental schools are eligible for Federal Civil Service positions and for commissions (equivalent to lieutenants in the N avy) in the U.S. Public Health Service. Em ploym ent Outlook Opportunities for dentists are ex pected to be very good through the 1970’s. The demand for dental serv ices is expected to increase along with an expanding population; in creased awareness that regular den Dental education is very costly tal care helps prevent and control because of the length of time re dental diseases; and the develop quired to earn the dental degree. ment of prepayment arrangements However, the Health Professions which make it easier for people of Educational Assistance A ct of moderate means to obtain dental 1963, as amended, provides Federal service. An increasing number of funds for loans and scholarships of needy persons are expected to re up to $2,500 a year to help needy ceive dental care services under students pursue full-time study lead Medicaid programs in various ing to the degree. States. Expanded dental research The profession of dentistry re activities will require more trained quires both manual skills and a high personnel; dental public health pro level of intelligence. Dentists should grams will need qualified adminis have good visual memory, excellent trators; and dental colleges will judgment of space and shape, deli need additional faculty members. cacy of touch, and a high degree of Many dentists will continue to serve manual dexterity, as well as scien in the Armed Forces. tific ability. The ability to instill Improved dental hygiene and confidence, self-discipline, and a fluoridation of community water good business sense are helpful in supplies may prevent some tooth achieving success in private prac and gum disorders, but such meas tice. ures— by preserving teeth that The majority of newly qualified might otherwise be extracted— may dentists open their own offices or tend to increase rather than decrease purchase established practices. the demand for dental care. Other Some start in practice with estab new techniques, equipment, and lished dentists, to gain experience drugs, as well as the more extensive and to save the money required to use of dental hygienists, assistants, equip an office; others may enter and laboratory technicians may residency or internship training pro permit individual dentists to care for grams in approved hospitals. Den more patients. However, these de velopments are not expected to offset the need for more dentists. Newly trained dentists will be needed not only to fill new open ings, but also to replace dentists who retire or die. Despite the favorable outlook for dentists, the number of men and women who will be able to enter this field will be restricted by the present limited capacity of dental schools. However, opportunities to obtain dental training are expected to increase because of recent Fed eral legislation which provides Fed eral funds to assist in the construc tion of additional training facilities for dentists. Earnings and W orking Conditions During the first year or two of practice, dentists often earn little more than the minimum needed to cover expenses, but their earnings usually rise rapidly as their practice develops. Specialists generally earn considerably more than general practitioners. The average income of dentists in 1970 was about $29,000 a year, according to limited information available. In the Fed eral Government, new graduates of dental schools could expect to re ceive starting yearly salaries, de pending on college records and other qualifications, ranging from $11,905 to $14,192. Location is one of the major fac tors affecting the income of dentists who open their own offices. For ex ample, in high-income urban areas dental services are in great demand; however, a practice can be devel oped most quickly in small towns where new dentists easily become known and where there may be less competition with established practi tioners. Although the income from HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS practice in small towns may rise rapidly at first, over the long run the level of earnings, like the cost of living, may be lower than that in larger communities. Most dental offices are open 5 days a week and some dentists have evening hours. Dentists usually work between 40 and 45 hours a week, although many spend more than 50 hours a week in the office. Dentists often work fewer hours as they grow older, and a considerable number continue in part-time prac tice well beyond the usual retire ment age. Sources of Additional Information People wishing to practice in a given State should get the require ments for licensure from the board of dental examiners of that State. Lists of State boards and of accred ited dental schools, as well as in formation on dentistry as a career, may be obtained from: American Dental Association, Coun cil on Dental Education, 211 East Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. American Association of Dental Schools, 211 East Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. 73 REG ISTER ED NU R SES (D.O.T. 075.118 through .378) Nature of the Work Nursing care plays a major role in the treatment of persons who are ill. Registered nurses, in carrying out the medical treatment plan pre scribed by physicians, administer medications and treatments; ob serve, evaluate, and record symp toms, reactions, and progess of pa tients; assist in the education and rehabilitation of patients; help maintain a physical and emotional environment that promotes patient recovery; instruct auxiliary person nel or students; and perform other duties involving care of the sick and injured, prevention of illness, and promotion of good health. Nurses may also engage in research activi ties or serve on the staffs of nursing and community organizations. H o s p ita l n u rse s are the largest group of registered nurses. Most are staff nurses, who perform skilled bedside nursing such as caring for a patient after an operation and giving medications. They also supervise auxiliary nursing workers. Hospital nurses usually work in a specialty area such as operating or recovery room. Others work with children, the elderly, or the mentally ill. Still others are engaged primarily in ad ministration. P r iv a te d u ty n u rse s give individ ual care to patients needing constant attention. The private duty nurse may sometimes care for several hos pital patients who require special care but not full-time attention. O ffice n u rse s assist physicians, dental surgeons, and occasionally dentists in private practice or clin ics. Sometimes, they perform rou tine laboratory and office work. 74 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK P u b lic h e a lth n u rses care for pa tients in clinics or visit them in their homes. Their duties include in structing patients and families, and giving periodic care as prescribed by a physician. They instruct groups of patients in proper diet and ar range for immunizations. These nurses work with community leaders, teachers, parents, and phy sicians in community health educa tion. Some public health nurses work in schools. N u rs e e d u c a to r s teach students the principles and skills of nursing, both in the classroom and in direct patient care. They also may conduct refresher and in-service courses for registered nurses. O c c u p a tio n a l h ea lth o r in d u stria l n u rses provide nursing care to em ployees in industry and government, and along with physicians promote employee health. As prescribed by a doctor, they treat minor injuries and illnesses occurring at the place of employment, provide for the needed nursing care, arrange for further medical care if necessary, and offer health counseling. They also may assist with health examina tions and inoculations. (Licensed practical nurses who also perform nursing service are dis cussed elsewhere in the H a n d b o o k .) Places of Employment An estimated 700,0 0 0 registered nurses were employed in the United States in 1970. More than twothirds worked in hospitals, nursing homes, and related institutions. A p proximately 6 0,000 were private duty nurses who cared for patients in hospitals and private homes, and about 50,000 were office nurses. Public health nurses in government agencies, schools, visiting nurse as sociations, and clinics numbered more than 50,000; nurse educators in nursing schools accounted for about 31,000; and occupational health nurses in industry, approxi mately 20,000. Most of the others were staff members of professional nurse and other organizations, State boards of nursing, or were em ployed by research organizations. More than one-fourth of all nurses employed in 1970 worked on a part-time basis. About 1 percent of all employed registered nurses are men. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license is required to practice professional nursing in all States and in the District of Columbia. To obtain a license, a nurse must have graduated from a school approved by a State board of nursing and pass a State board examination. Nurses may be licensed in more than one State, either by examination or en dorsement of a license issued by an other State. Graduation from high school is required for admission to all schools of nursing. Three types of educa tional programs— diploma, bacca laureate, and associate degree— of fer the basic education required for careers in registered nursing. D i ploma programs are conducted by hospital and independent schools and usually require 3 years of train ing; bachelor’s degree programs usually require 4 years of study in a college or university, although a few require 5 years; associate degree programs in junior and community colleges require approximately 2 years of nursing education. In early 1970, more than 1,300 programs of these three types were offered in the United States. In addition, about 70 colleges and universities offered master’s and doctoral degree pro grams in nursing. Programs of nursing include classroom instruction and super vised nursing practice. Students take courses in anatomy, physiology, mi crobiology, nutrition, psychology, and basic nursing care. Under close supervision, in hospitals and health facilities, they receive clinical expe rience in caring for patients who have different types of health prob lems. Students in colleges offering bachelor’s degree programs and in some of the other schools are as signed to public health agencies to learn how to care for patients in clinics and in the patients’ homes. General education is combined with nursing education in baccalaureate and associate degree programs and in some diploma programs. Qualified students in need of fi nancial aid may obtain a nursing scholarship or a low-interest loan under Title II of the Health Man power A ct of 1968. Up to 50 per cent of the amount of the loan may be cancelled at the rate of 10 per cent for each year of full-time em ployment as a professional nurse in nurse training or service in any public or nonprofit institution or agency. Up to 100 percent of the loan plus interest may be cancelled at the rate of 15 percent a year for each complete year of service as a full-time professional nurse in a public or nonprofit hospital located in an area which has a substantial shortage of nurses at such hospitals. The Nurse Training Act also pro vides traineeship funds to cover tu ition, fees, and a stipend and allow ances for nurses seeking advanced training for positions as administra tors, supervisors, nursing specialists, and nurse educators. Young people planning nursing careers should have a desire to HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 75 serve humanity and be sympathetic to the needs of people. Nurses must follow doctor’s orders precisely and exhibit good judgment in emergen cies. Good mental health is helpful in coping with human suffering and frequent emergency situations. Physical stamina may be required for staff nurses in institutions be cause of the amount of time spent walking and standing. medicine and rehabilitation of the handicapped. In addition to filling new positions, large numbers will be needed to replace those who leave the field each year because of mar riage and family responsibilities. Nurses wishing to return to work will find very good employment op portunities, either full or part time. Information on approved schools of nursing, nursing careers, loans, scholarships, salaries, working con ditions, and employment opportuni ties may be obtained from: From staff positions in hospitals, experienced nurses may advance to head nurse, supervisor, assistant director, and director of nursing services. A master’s degree, how ever, often is required for supervi sory and administrative positions, as well as for positions in nursing edu cation, clinical specialization, and research. In public health agencies, advancement is usually limited for nurses without degrees in public health nursing. Earnings and Working Conditions Information about employment opportunities in the Veterans A d ministration is available from: Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for registered nurses are expected to be very good through the 1970’s. For nurses who have had graduate edu cation, the outlook is excellent for obtaining positions as administra tors, teachers, clinical specialists, public health nurses, and for work in research. The principal factors underlying the anticipated rise in the demand for nurses include a rising popula tion; improved economic status of the population; extension of prepay ment programs for hospitalization and medical care, including Medi care and Medicaid; expansion of medical services as a result of new medical techniques and drugs; and increased interest in preventive Annual starting salaries of regis tered nurses employed by hospitals in 1970 averaged about $7,400, ac cording to a national survey con ducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Registered nurses employed in nursing homes can ex pect to earn slightly less than those in hospitals. Salaries of industrial nurses averaged $147 a week in early 1970, according to a survey conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (B L S ). Fees for private duty nurses gen erally were between $26 and $44 for a basic 8-hour day in early 1970, according to the American Nurses’ Association (A N A ). In 1970, the Veterans Adminis tration offered inexperienced nurses having a diploma or an associate degree an annual salary of $7,294; baccalaureate graduates were of fered $8,519. Graduates of asso ciate degree programs having 1 year of experience or those having a bac calaureate degree or diploma en tered at $6,548 in other Federal Government agencies. M ost hospital nurses receive extra pay for work on evening or night shifts. Nearly all receive at least 2 weeks of paid vacation after 1 year of service. Most hospital nurses receive from 5 to 13 paid holidays a year and also some type of health and retirement benefits. Sources of Additional Information ANA-NLN Committee on Nursing Careers, American Nurses’ Asso ciation, 10 Columbus Circle, New York, N.Y. 10019. Department of Medicine and Sur gery, Veterans Administration, Washington, D.C. 20420. O P T O M E T R IS T S (D.O.T. 079.108) Nature of the Work Optometrists help patients im prove and protect their vision. They make tests to determine vision problems and the presence of eye diseases and other abnormal condi tions. When necessary, they pre scribe vision aids including regular and contact lenses; telescopic and microscopic lenses or other high magnification aids; corrective eye exercises; and other optical treat ment that does not require drugs or surgery. Most optometrists supply the eyeglasses prescribed; they sometimes also do minor repair work such as straightening eyeglass frames. Some optometrists special ize in treating the vision problems of different categories of patients such as children, older patients, and partially sighted persons; other op- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 76 tometric specialists are concerned with the effect of industrial and en vironmental factors on the visual ef ficiency of workers. A few optome trists are engaged in teaching, re search, or a combination of both. Several hundred optometrists served in the Armed Forces. The remainder were salaried employees who taught in colleges of optometry or worked for established practi tioners, health clinics, hospitals, op tical instrument manufacturers, and government agencies. About 4 out of 10 optometrists are located in five States— Califor nia, New York, Illinois, Pennsyl vania, and Ohio. Many small towns and rural areas, especially in the South, have no optometrists. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Optometrists should not be con fused with either ophthalmologists, sometimes referred to as oculists, or with dispensing opticians. Ophthal mologists are physicians who spe cialize in eye diseases and injuries, perform eye surgery, and prescribe drugs or other treatment, as well as lenses. Dispensing opticians fit and adjust eyeglasses according to pre scriptions written by ophthalmolo gists or optometrists; they do not examine eyes or prescribe treat ment. (See statement on Dispensing Opticians.) Places of Employment Approximately 18,000 optome trists were in practice in 1970; about 2 percent were women. More than four-fifths of the optometrists were self-employed; of these, most were in solo practice and the others were in partnerships or in group practices. A license is required to practice optometry in each State and in the District of Columbia. Reciprocity agreements among some States al low an optometrist licensed in one State to practice in another. Applicants for licenses must be graduates of an accredited school of optometry and pass the State Board examination of the State in which they will practice. In some cases, applicants are permitted to substi tute the National Board of Optome try examination for the written State examination. In 1970, there were 11 schools of optometry in the United States. Applicants having the necessary qualifications have an excellent chance for admission to these schools. To pursue full-time study leading to a degree in optometry, needy students may obtain loans and scholarships up to $2,500 a year from Federal funds provided by the Health Professions Educa tional Assistance Act of 1963, as amended. A t least 6 years of college are needed to become an optometrist — 2 years of preoptometry educa tion in an approved college, fol lowed by 4 years of training in an optometry school. In addition to the degree, Delaware and Rhode Island require a 6-month internship to qualify for a license, and Missis sippi, 1 year of experience. Preoptometry courses include mathematics, physics, biology, and chemistry, as well as English and other liberal arts courses. Students in schools of optometry have class room and laboratory work and ob tain professional experience in the out-patient clinics operated by the schools. All schools of optometry award the degree of Doctor of Op tometry (O .D .). Optometrists who wish to specialize often take gradu ate training. A master’s or Ph. D. degree in physiological optics or in a related field is usually required for teaching and research work. Since most optometrists are selfemployed, business ability, self-dis cipline, and the ability to deal with patients tactfully are necessary for success in this field. Manual dexter ity and a mechanical aptitude also are important to the optometrist since he must work with precision equipment and occasionally make repairs. Many beginning optometrists ei ther set up a new practice or pur chase an established one. Some, on the other hand, take salaried posi tions to obtain experience and the necessary funds to enter their own practice. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for new optometry graduates are ex pected to be favorable through the 1970’s. Some expansion in the seat ing capacity of optometry schools is anticipated as a result of Federal as sistance. As a result, by the middle 1970’s the number of new graduates HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS may approximate the annual num ber needed for growth of the occu pation as well as for replacement of those who retire, die, or stop prac ticing for other reasons. Among the factors underlying the expected increase in demand for eye care services are, on the one hand, growing numbers of persons in groups most likely to need glasses — older people and white-collar workers— and, on the other, in creased recognition of the impor tance of good vision for efficiency at work and in school. Although ex panded demand will be met in part by ophthalmologists, optometrists will continue to supply a substantial proportion of all eye care services. Optometrists usually locate in heavily populated business areas. However, opportunities to establish a new practice generally will be best in small towns and in residential areas of cities, where the new op tometrist can become known easily. Many communities, especially in the South, that now have no optometric services available also will offer op portunities for new graduates. A good office location is of major im portance for a successful practice. The optometrist should consider the number of optometrists and oph thalmologists in the vicinity in rela tion to the size, occupations, age, and income level of the population in the area. Earnings and Working Conditions New optometry graduates who begin as solo practitioners generally have a low income during the first few years. They usually earn less than new optometrists who take sal aried positions. After a few years of experience, the situation is usually reversed, since the income of inde pendent practitioners generally ex 77 ceeds the earnings of salaried op tometrists. In 1970, starting salaries of new optometry graduates ranged from about $10,000 to $12,000 a year, according to the limited information available. The average net income of experienced optometrists was about $25,000. Incomes varied greatly, depending on location, spe cialization, and other factors. Most optometrists work 40 hours a week. They may occasionally work a few hours on Saturday. Since the work is not strenuous, op tometrists can often continue to practice after the normal retirement age. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on op tometry as a career is available from: American Optometric Association, 7000 Chippewa St., St. Louis, Mo. 63119. Information on required preop tometry courses may be obtained by writing to the optometry school in which the prospective student wishes to enroll. The Board of Op tometry in the capital of the State in which the student plans to practice will provide a list of optometry schools approved by that State, as well as licensing requirements. P H A R M A C IS TS (D.O.T. 074.181) Nature of the Work Pharmacists dispense drugs and medicines prescribed by medical practitioners, and supply and ad vise people on the use of many medicines that can be obtained with out prescriptions. Pharmacists must understand the use, composition, and effect of drugs and be able to test them for purity and strength. Compounding— the actual mixing of ingredients to form powders, tablets, capsules, ointments, and solutions— is only a small part of pharmacists’ work, since many drugs now are produced by manu facturers in the form used by the patient. Many pharmacists in drugstores or community pharmacies also have other duties. Besides dispensing drugs, these pharmacists buy and sell nonpharmaceutical merchan dise, hire and supervise store per sonnel, and oversee the general op eration of the store. Some pharma cists, however, operate prescription pharmacies that dispense only drugs, medical supplies, and health accessories. Pharmacists in hospitals dispense prescriptions and advise the medical staff on the selection and effects of drugs; they also make sterile solutions, buy medical sup plies, teach in schools of nursing, and perform administrative duties. An increasing number of hospital pharmacists work in patient care areas as active members of the medical team. Some pharmacists, employed as medical sales repre sentatives or “detail men” by drug manufacturers and wholesalers, sell medicines to retail pharmacies and to hospitals, and inform practicing 78 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Pharm acist mixes oin tm ent. pharmacists, doctors, dentists, and nurses about new drugs. Others teach in pharmacy colleges, do re search, supervise the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, develop new drugs, edit or write articles for pharmaceutical journals, or do ad ministrative work. Places of Employment Of the nearly 129,000 licensed pharmacists working in 1970, about 107,000 were in retail pharmacies. Of these retail pharmacists, almost half had their own pharmacies or owned them in partnership; the oth ers were salaried employees. Most of the remaining salaried pharma cists were employed by hospitals, pharmaceutical manufacturers, and wholesalers. Some were civilian em ployees of the Federal Government, working chiefly in hospitals and clinics of the Veterans Administra tion and the U.S. Public Health Service. Others served as pharma cists in the Armed Forces, taught in colleges of pharmacy, or worked for State and local government agen cies. Nearly every town has at least one drugstore with one or more pharmacists in attendance. Most pharmacists, however, practice in or near cities, and in those States which have the greatest populations. Women, who represent nearly 9 percent of all pharmacists, are em ployed in all branches of the profes sion. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license to practice pharmacy is required in all States and the D is trict of Columbia. To obtain a li cense, one must be a graduate of an accredited pharmacy college, pass a State Board examination and, in al most all States, also have a State prescribed amount of practical ex perience or internship under the su pervision of a licensed pharmacist. A ll States except California, Flor ida, and Hawaii grant a license without examination to qualified pharmacists already licensed by an other State. In 1970, there were 74 accred ited colleges of pharmacy in the United States. Some of these were not filled to capacity and qualified applicants usually could expect to be accepted. Needy students may obtain loans or scholarships up to $2,500 a year to pursue full-time study leading to a degree in phar macy from Federal funds provided by the Health Professions Educa tional Assistance Act of 1963, as amended. Several scholarships are awarded annually by drug manufac turers, chain drug stores, corpora tions, and State and National phar macy associations. To graduate from a college of pharmacy and receive a Bachelor of Science (B .S .) or a Bachelor of Pharmacy (B. Pharm.) degree, one must have at least 5 years of study beyond high school. A few colleges that require 6 years award a Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm. D .) degree at the completion of the program. A few colleges admit students directly from high school and offer all the education necessary for graduation. Most colleges provide 3 or 4 years of professional instruction and re quire all entrants to have completed their prepharmacy education in an accredited junior college, college, or university. A prepharmacy curricu lum usually emphasizes mathemat ics and basic sciences, such as HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS chemistry and biology, but also in cludes courses in the humanities and social sciences. Because entry requirements vary among colleges of pharmacy, prepharmacy students should ascertain and follow the cur riculum required by colleges they plan to attend. The bachelor’s degree in phar macy is the minimum educational qualification for most positions in the profession. However, the mas ter’s or doctor’s degree in pharmacy or a related field— such as pharma ceutical chemistry, pharmacology (study of the effects of drugs on the b od y), pharmacognosy (study of the drugs derived from plant or ani mal sources), or pharmacy adminis tration— usually is required for re search work or college teaching. Graduate study also is desirable for pharmacists planning to work in hospitals. Those interested in be coming hospital pharmacists can sometimes secure 1- or 2-year in ternships which combine graduate or advanced professional study and practical experience in a hospital pharmacy. Since many pharmacists are selfemployed, prospective pharmacists should have business ability as well as the ability to instill confidence in customers. Honesty, integrity, or derliness, and manual dexterity are important attributes for the profes sion. In addition, accuracy is needed to compound and dispense medicines, as well as keep records required by law. Pharmacists often begin as em ployees in community pharmacies. After obtaining some experience and the necessary funds, they may become owners or part owners of pharmacies. A pharmacist who gains experience in a chain drug store may advance to managerial positions and, later, to a higher 79 executive position within the com pany. Hospital pharmacists having the necessary training and experi ence may advance to chief phar macist or to other administrative positions. Employment Outlook Most new pharmacy graduates will find employment readily availa ble through the 1970’s. Most new openings will arise each year as pharmacists retire, die, or transfer out of the profession. These open ings, together with the anticipated gradual increase in new positions for pharmacists, are expected to provide enough employment oppor tunities to absorb each year’s gradu ates. Some employment growth for pharmacists will result from the es tablishment of new pharmacies, par ticularly in residential areas or suburban shopping centers; the country’s expanding population; the rising standard of medical care; and the growth of Medicaid and other insurance programs that provide for payment of prescription drugs. Many community pharmacies may hire additional pharmacists because of a trend towards shorter working hours. Employment in hospitals probably will rise with the construc tion of additional facilities and the more extensive use of pharmacists for hospital work. Continued expan sion in the manufacture of pharma ceutical products and in research are expected to provide more op portunities for pharmacists in pro duction, research, distribution, and sales. Pharmacists with advanced training will be needed for college teaching and laboratory research. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning pharmacists generally received salaries ranging from $10,000 to $14,000 a year in 1970, according to limited information available. The entrance salary in the Federal Civil Service in 1970 for new graduates was $9,881 or $ 11,905 depending on college rec ords and other qualifications. Experienced pharmacists practic ing in community pharmacies in 1970 generally were paid annual salaries of between $12,000 and $17,000, according to limited data available. Owners and managers earn more. Community pharmacists gener ally work more than the standard 40-hour workweek. Drugstores often are open in the evenings and on weekends, and all States require a registered pharmacist to be in at tendance during store hours. D e spite the general trend toward shorter hours, 44 hours is still the basic workweek for many salaried pharmacists, and some work 50 hours or more a week. Self-em ployed pharmacists often work more hours than those in salaried positions. Those who teach or work for industry, government agencies, or hospitals have shorter work weeks. Salaried pharmacists usually receive paid vacations, health insur ance, and other fringe benefits. Sources of Additional Information General information on phar macy as a career can be obtained from: American Pharmaceutical Associa tion, 2215 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20037. American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy, 8121 Georgia Ave., Silver Spring, Md. 20910. 80 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Information about student finan cial aid and chain drug stores may be obtained from: National Association of Chain Drug Stores, 1911 Jefferson Highway, Arlington, Va. 22202. Information about retail phar macies may be obtained from : National Association of Retail Drug gists, 529 14th St., NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20004. A list of accredited colleges may be obtained from: American Council on Pharmaceuti cal Education, 77 West Washing ton St., Chicago, 111. 60602. Current requirements for licen sure in a particular State may be obtained from the Board of Phar macy of that State or from: National Association of Boards of Pharmacy, 77 West Washington St., Chicago, 111. 60602. Information on college entrance requirements, curriculums, and fi nancial aid is available from the dean of any college of pharmacy. P O D IA TR IS TS (D.O.T. 079.108) Nature of the Work Podiatrists (sometimes called diagnose and treat diseases and deformities of the feet. They perform foot surgery, pre scribe and use drugs and physical therapy, prescribe proper shoes, and fit corrective devices. To help in diagnoses, they take X-rays and perform or prescribe blood and other pathological tests. Among the conditions podiatrists treat are corns, bunions, calluses, ingrown c h ir o p o d is ts ) toenails, skin and nail diseases, de formed toes, and arch disabilities. They refer patients to medical doc tors whenever they observe symp toms in the feet that may be evi dence of medical disorders— such as arthritis, diabetes, or heart or kidney disease. A s a rule, podiatrists provide complete foot care. Some, however, specialize in foot surgery, orthope dics (bone, muscle, and joint disor ders), podopediatrics (children’s foot ailm ents), or podogeriatrics (foot problems of the elderly). Places of Employment Approximately 7,000 podiatrists were actively engaged in the profes sion in 1970; about 5 percent were women. Nearly all podiatrists were self-employed. The few who had full-time salaried positions worked mainly in hospitals, podiatric col leges, or for other podiatrists. Small numbers were employed by the Veterans Administration or were commissioned officers in the Armed Forces. Podiatrists practice mainly in large cities. In early 1970, nearly half were located in four of the most heavily populated States— New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and California. In many small towns and rural areas, especially in the South and the Northwest, there were no podiatrists. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Co lumbia require a license for the practice of podiatry. To qualify for a license, an applicant must be a graduate of an accredited 4-year program in a college of podiatric medicine and must pass a State board examination. In addition, three States— Michigan, N ew Jer sey, and Rhode Island— require ap plicants to serve a 1-year internship in a hospital or clinic after gradua tion from a college of podiatric medicine. Three-fourths of the States grant licenses without further examination to podiatrists already licensed by another State. The five colleges of podiatric medicine in the United States admit only students who have already completed at least 2 years of col lege. This education must include courses in English, chemistry, biol ogy or zoology, physics, and mathe matics. The first 2 years of podiatry edu cation are chiefly in classroom in struction and laboratory work in basic sciences such as anatomy, bacteriology, chemistry, pathology, physiology, and pharmacology. Dur ing the final 2 years, students con centrate on obtaining clinical expe rience. The degree of Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (D .P .M .) is awarded upon graduation. Addi tional education and experience are HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS generally necessary in order to qual ify for work in a specialized area of podiatry. Needy students may ob tain loans and scholarships up to $2,500 a year to pursue full-time study leading to a degree in podia try from Federal funds provided by the Health Professions Educational Assistance Act of 1963, as amended. Am ong the personal qualifica tions considered desirable for a ca reer in this profession are scientific aptitude, manual dexterity, and a good business sense. The ability to get along well with people also is important. M ost newly licensed podiatrists set up their own practices. Some purchase established practices. Oth ers begin by obtaining salaried posi tions to gain experience and to save the money needed to establish their own practices. Employment Outlook The employment outlook for po diatrists is expected to be good through the 1970’s. Opportunities for new graduates to establish their own practices, as well as to enter salaried positions, should continue to be favorable. The demand for podiatrists’ serv ices is expected to grow with the demand for other health services. A n important factor underlying this anticipated growth is an expanding population with a greater number of older people. This age group, the one needing most foot care, is enti tled to certain podiatrists’ services under Medicare. Furthermore, the trend toward providing preventive foot care for children is increasing. In addition, more podiatrists will be needed to furnish services in hospi tals, extended care facilities, and public health programs. 81 Earnings and Working Conditions C H IR O P R A C TO R S In podiatry, as in many of the other professions, incomes usually rise markedly after the first years of practice. Earnings of individual po diatrists are determined mainly by such factors as ability, experience, the income level of the community served, and location. Starting sala ries of new podiatrists ranged from $ 1 0,000 to $12,000 in 1970, ac cording to limited information avail able. The average net income of ex perienced podiatrists was about $21,500. Income was generally higher in large cities. Podiatrists usually work 40 hours a week. They may set their hours to suit their practice. (D.O.T. 079.108) Sources of Additional Information Applicants for licenses to practice podiatry in a particular State may obtain information on the require ments for licensure from the State board of examiners in the State cap ital. A list of colleges of podiatric medicine, entrance requirements, curriculums, and scholarships are available from: American Association of Colleges of Podiatric Medicine, 20 Chevy Chase Circle NW., Washington, D.C. 20015. Additional information on podia try as a career may be obtained from: American Podiatry Association, 20 Chevy Chase Circle NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20015. Nature of the Work Chiropractic is a system of treat ment based on the principle that a person’s health is determined largely by his nervous system, and that interference with this system impairs his normal functions and lowers his resistance to disease. Chiropractors treat their patients primarily by manual manipulation of parts of the body, especially the spinal column. Because of the emphasis of the importance of the spine and its posi tion, most chiropractors use X-rays extensively to aid in locating the source of patients’ difficulties. Many also use such supplementary meas ures as water, light, and heat ther apy, and prescribe diet, exercise, and rest. Some State laws restrict the type of supplementary treatment permitted in chiropractic. Chiro practic as a system for healing does not include the use of drugs or sur gery. Places of Employment About 16,000 chiropractors were employed in the United States in 1970; about 9 percent were women. Most chiropractors were engaged in independent private practice. Some were salaried assistants of estab lished practitioners or worked for chiropractic clinics and industrial firms. Others taught or conducted research at chiropractic colleges. More than two-fifths of all chiro practors were located in California, New York, Texas, Missouri, and Pennsylvania. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Some of the 11 chiropractic col leges in the United States in 1970 emphasized courses in manipulation and spinal adjustments. Others of fered a broader curriculum, includ ing such subjects as physiotherapy and nutrition. In most chiropractic colleges, the first 2 years of the 4year curriculum are devoted chiefly to classroom and laboratory work in subjects such as anatomy, physiol ogy, and biochemistry. The last 2 years are spent in obtaining practi cal experience in the colleges’ clin ics. The degree of Doctor of Chiropractic (D .C .) is awarded to students completing 4 years of chiropractic training. Chiropractic requires considera ble hand dexterity but not unusual strength or endurance. Among per sonal qualities considered desirable in dealing effectively with patients are sympathy and understanding. Most newly licensed chiroprac tors either set up a new practice or purchase an established one. Some start as salaried chiropractors to ac quire experience and funds needed to establish their own practice. A moderate financial investment is usually necessary to open and equip an office. C h iro p ra c to r tre a ts p a tie n t’s spine. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most States and the District of Columbia regulate the practice of chiropractic and grant licenses to chiropractors who meet certain edu cational requirements and pass a State board examination. The type of practice permitted and the educa tional requirements for licensure vary considerably from one State to another. In 1970, the States of Lou isiana and Mississippi did not regu late the practice of chiropractic or issue licenses. M ost States require successful completion of a 4-year chiropractic course following high school grad uation. About three-quarters of the States also require 1 or 2 years of preparatory college work before chiropractic training. Nearly twofifths of the States also require that chiropractors pass a basic science examination. Chiropractors licensed in one State may obtain a license in another State by reciprocity. Employment Outlook The employment outlook for chi ropractors is expected to be favor able through the 1970’s, though only a slight increase in demand for chiropractic services is expected. However, the anticipated small number of new graduates of chiro practic colleges probably will be in sufficient to fill openings created by growth, as well as to replace chiro practors who retire, die, or stop practicing for other reasons. In view of the trend in many States toward raising educational requirements for 83 HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS chiropractic practice, opportunities may be best for those having the most thorough training. Opportunities for new graduates to begin their own practice are likely to be best in those parts of the country where chiropractic is most fully accepted as a method of health care. Opportunities also should be good for those who wish to enter salaried positions in chiro practic clinics, chiropractic colleges, and other organizations employing chiropractors. The expected slight growth in de mand for chiropractors’ services will be related to an expanding popula tion and its increasing demand for health care of various types, includ ing chiropractic treatment. Women are expected to have good opportunities in chiropractic, since some women and children prefer to be treated by women chi ropractors. Earnings and Working Conditions In chiropractic, as in other types of independent practice, earnings are relatively low in the beginning but rise after the first few years. In comes of chiropractors vary widely. Experienced chiropractors generally had average yearly incomes ranging from $14,000 to $28,000 in 1970, according to the limited data availa ble. Sources of Additional Information Information on State licensing re quirements may be obtained from the State Board of licensing in the capital of the State in which the in dividual plans to practice. General information on chiro practic as a career may be obtained from: American Chiropractic Association, American Building, 2200 Grand Ave., Des Moines, Iowa 50312. International Chiropractors Asso ciation, 741 Brady St., Daven port, Iowa 52805. skills such as typing and using power tools. In programs for chil dren, they initiate and direct activi ties appropriate to the child’s matu ration level. Therapists may design and make special equipment or splints to aid disabled patients. OCCUPATIONAL THERAPISTS (D.O.T. 079.128) Nature of the Work Occupational therapists plan and direct educational, vocational and recreational activities designed to help mentally and physically disa bled patients become self-sufficient. They work as members of a medical team which, in addition to physi cians may include physical thera pists, vocational counselors, nurses, social workers, and other specialists. About one-third of the total num ber of occupational therapists work with emotionally handicapped pa tients, and the rest with persons having physical disabilities. These patients represent all age groups and varying degrees of illness. The treatment or training goals for patients referred for occupa tional therapy may include regain ing physical, mental or emotional stability; developing maximum selfsufficiency in the routine of daily living (such as eating, dressing, writing, and using a telephone); and, in the latter stage of treatment, performing jobs in a practical work situation for eventual return to em ployment. As part of the treatment program for adults, occupational therapists teach manual and creative skills, such as weaving and leatherwork ing, and business and industrial In addition to patient care, occu pational therapists supervise student therapists, occupational therapy as sistants, volunteers, and auxiliary nursing workers. The chief occupa tional therapist in a hospital may teach medical and nursing students the principles of occupational ther apy. Many therapists are adminis trators and direct occupational ther apy programs, coordinate patient activities, or act as consultants to local and State health departments and mental health authorities. Some teach in colleges and universities. Places of Employment About 7,500 occupational thera pists were employed in 1970; more than 9 out of 10 were women. More than three-fourths of all occupa tional therapists work in hospitals. 84 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Most of the remainder are employed in rehabilitation centers, custodial care and nursing homes, schools, outpatient clinics, community mental health centers, and research centers. Some work in special workshops, sanitariums, camps for handicapped children and in State health depart ments. Others are employed in home-care programs for patients unable to attend clinics or work shops. Still others are members of the Armed Forces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum requirement for entry into the profession is a degree or certificate in occupational ther apy. In 1970, 36 colleges and uni versities in the United States offered programs in occupational therapy which were accredited by the Amer ican Medical Association and the American Occupational Therapy Association. A ll of these schools offer a bachelor’s degree program for high school graduates or transfer students who have completed 2 years of college. Some of the schools also offer shorter programs leading to a certificate in occupa tional therapy for students having a bachelor’s degree in another field. The academic work in a 4-year program emphasizes the physical, biological, and behavioral sciences and the application of occupational therapy skills. In addition to the ac ademic work, the training includes 6 to 9 months of supervised clinical experience in hospitals or health agencies. Some programs give part of the clinical experience during the summer or during part of the senior year. The Armed Forces offer pro grams whereby graduates of ap proved schools of occupational ther apy, who meet the requirements to become commissioned officers, may receive the clinical part of their training while in the service. Upon graduation and the comple tion of the clinical practice period, therapists are eligible to take the ex amination given by the American Occupational Therapy Association. Those who pass this examination may use the initials O.T.R. (O ccu pational Therapist Registered). Eight universities offer a program for occupational therapists leading to a master’s degree in occupational therapy. The master’s degree also is offered at six universities as the first professional degree for persons holding a baccalaureate degree in related fields. A graduate degree often is required for teaching, re search, or administrative work. Newly graduated occupational therapists generally begin as staff therapists. After several years on the job, they may qualify as senior therapists. Experienced therapists may become directors of occupa tional therapy programs in large hospitals or clinics, or may become teachers. Some high-level positions, such as program coordinators and consultants, also are available in large institutions and agencies. Personal qualifications needed in this profession include emotional stability and a sympathetic but ob jective approach to illness and disa bility. An ability to teach, ingenuity, and imagination also are needed. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for occupational therapists are expected to be excellent through the 1970’s. Despite anticipated increases in the number of graduates of occupa tional therapy programs, the de mand for therapists is expected to exceed the supply as public interest in the rehabilitation of disabled per sons and the success of established occupational therapy programs in creases. Many occupational thera pists will be needed to staff the growing number of community health centers and extended care fa cilities. There will continue to be numerous opportunities to children, and aged persons, as work with psy chiatric patients, well as with per sons suffering from cerebral palsy, tuberculosis, and heart disease. In addition to openings that will result from growth, many openings will arise because of the need to replace the high proportion of young women who leave the field for mar riage and family responsibilities. Opportunities for experienced women who wish to return to work part time after rearing their children should be excellent. Earnings and Working Conditions Annual salaries of staff and senior occupational therapists ranged from $8,000 to $10,000 in 1970, accord ing to the American Occupational Therapy Association. Directors of services, coordinators, consultants, and others in top administrative po sitions generally earned annual sala ries of $13,000 to $18,000 in 1970. In the Federal Government, the beginning annual salary for inexpe rienced occupational therapists was $7,294 in 1970. More than one-fifth of all occupational therapists in the Federal Government earned $10,500 or more a year. Most occupational therapists work an 8-hour day, 40-hour week, including some evening work re quired in a few organizations. Vaca tion leave usually ranges from 2 to 4 weeks a year, and many positions offer health and retirement benefits. HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 85 Sources of Additional Information American Occupational Therapy As sociation, 251 Park Avenue South, New York, N.Y. 10010. PHYSICAL THERAPISTS (D.O.T. 079.378) Nature of the Work Physical therapists help persons with muscle, nerve, joint, and bone diseases or injuries to overcome their disabilities. They use exer cises, mechanical apparatus, mas sage and applications of heat or cold, light, water, or electricity to treat patients. Most of their patients are accident victims, crippled chil dren, and disabled older persons. To develop programs for treat ment, physical therapists perform muscle, nerve, and other func tional tests. They also keep records of their patients’ progress during treatments and attend conferences with physicians and other medical personnel to discuss this progress. In many instances, they help dis abled persons to accept and adjust to their physical handicaps. They also show members of the patients’ families how to continue treatments at home. Physical therapists are members of a health care team that is di rected by a physician and may in clude a nurse, clinical social worker, occupational therapist, psychologist, vocational counselor, and other spe cialists. Although qualified physical therapists may treat many types of patients, some specialize in caring for children, or for patients having amputations, arthritis, or paralysis. They also may instruct physical therapy students, as well as students of related professions health workers. and other serve as consultants in government and voluntary agencies. In addition, a few hundred are members of the Armed Forces. Places of Employment Approximately 15,000 licensed physical therapists were employed in 1970. About two-thirds of all therapists were women. About three-fourths of all physi cal therapists work in general hospi tals; in hospitals that specialize in the care of pediatric, orthopedic, psychiatric, or chronically ill pa tients; and in nursing homes. Most of the remainder are em ployed by rehabilitation or treat ment centers, schools or societies for crippled children, and public health agencies. Most of these or ganizations provide treatment for patients having chronic diseases, and some have home visiting pro grams. Some therapists work in physi cians’ offices or clinics, teach in schools of physical therapy, or work for research organizations. Others Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license is required to practice physical therapy in 49 States and the District of Columbia. To obtain a license, an applicant must have a degree or certificate from a school of physical therapy and pass a State board examination. In Texas and Missouri, employers require a degree or certificate from an approved school of physical therapy. In 1970, 52 schools of physical therapy (in cluding the Army Medical Service School) were approved by the American Medical Association and the American Physical Therapy A s sociation. Most of the schools are part of large universities; a few are operated by hospitals, which usually have university affiliations. Most of the approved schools of OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 86 physical therapy offer bachelor’s de gree programs. Some schools pro vide 1- to 2-year programs for stu dents who have completed some college courses. Other schools ac cept those who already have a bach elor’s degree and give a 12- to 16month course leading to a certificate in physical therapy. Many schools offer both degree and certificate programs. Among the courses included in a physical therapy program are anat omy. physiology, pathology, clinical medicine, psychology, electrother apy, hydrotherapy, massage thera peutic exercise, and administration. In addition to classroom instruction, students are assigned to a hospital or treatment center for supervised clinical experience in the care of pa tients. Several universities offer the mas ter’s degree in physical therapy. A graduate degree, combined with clinical experience, increases the opportunities for advancement to positions of responsibility in teach ing, research, and administration, as well as in the treatment area of physical therapy. Because an important function of a therapist’s job is to help patients and their families understand the treatments and adjust to their hand icaps, therapists must have patience, tact, resourcefulness, and emotional stability. In addition, physical thera pists should have manual dexterity and physical stamina. For those who wish to determine whether they have the personal qualities needed for this occupation, summer or part-time work as a volunteer in the physical therapy department of a hospital or clinic may prove helpful. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for physical therapists are expected to be excellent through the 1970's. The demand for physical thera pists is expected to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s as the result of increased public recogni tion of the importance of rehabilita tion. Many new positions for physi cal therapists are expected to be created as programs to aid crippled children and rehabilitation activities are expanded to serve the increasing number of disabled people who re quire physical therapy. Rapid growth in the number of nursing homes also should result in the need for many more physical therapists to work as staff members. In addi tion, many openings will continue to arise each year to replace the large number of women who leave the profession for marriage and family responsibilities. Part-time positions will continue to be available in many communi ties. These positions are particularly attractive to married women who wish to combine work and family responsibilities. Increased demands for physical therapy services also will result in greater opportunities for physical therapy assistants who generally obtain their training in junior col leges or on the job in hospitals and other institutions. Earnings and Working Conditions New physical therapy graduates received starting salaries ranging between $8,000 and $10,000 in 1970, according to the American Physical Therapy Association. A n nual salaries of experienced thera pists generally ranged from $14,000 to $20,000. Physical therapists in consultative, educational, or admin istrative positions earned salaries of $15,000 to $25,000. In 1970, beginning therapists em ployed by the Federal Government received annual starting salaries of $7,294; those having high academic standing, however, were offered $8,098. About one-fifth of all physi cal therapists employed by the Fed eral Government were earning sala ries of $11,905 or more a year. Most physical therapists work 40 hours a week. Almost all receive 2 weeks of vacation or more, and the majority receive sick leave and other fringe benefits. Sources of Additional Information American Physical Therapy Associa tion, 1156 15th St., NW., Wash ington, D.C. SPEECH PATHOLOGISTS AND AUDIOLOGISTS (D.O.T. 079.108) Nature of the Work The inability to speak or hear clearly is a severe hardship to per sons of all ages. Children who have difficulty speaking or hearing usu ally are unable to play freely with others or to participate fully in nor mal classroom activities. Adults suf fering from speech or hearing im pairments often face problems of job adjustment. Speech pathologists and audiologists help persons hav ing such disorders by identifying and evaluating their problems and by providing treatment. In addition, they may conduct research in the speech and hearing field. Some are engaged in training programs in speech pathology and audiology at colleges and universities. HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 87 Speech pathologists are con cerned primarily with speech and language disorders and audiologists with hearing problems. Speech and hearing, however, are so interre lated that to be competent in either of these occupations, one must have a familiarity with both. The speech pathologist works with children and adults who have speech, language and voice problems resulting from brain injury, cleft-palate, mental re tardation, emotional problems, for eign dialect, or other causes. The audiologist also works with children and adults, but concerns himself primarily with the assessment and treatment of hearing problems such as those caused by certain otological or neurological disturbances. The duties performed by speech pathologists and audiologists vary with their education, experience, and employment setting. In a clini cal capacity, they identify and eval uate speech and hearing disorders using various diagnostic procedures. This is followed by an organized program of therapy, with the coop eration of other specialists, such as physicians, psychologists, social workers, physical therapists, coun selors, and teachers. Some perform research work, which may consist of investigating communicative disor ders and their causes and improving methods for clinical services. Others may supervise clinical activities or perform other administrative work. Speech pathologists and audiolo gists working in colleges or uni versities provide instruction in the principles and bases of communica tion, communication disorders, and clinical techniques. Many also par ticipate in educational programs for physicians, nurses, teachers, and other professional personnel. In ad dition, they may work in university clinics and conduct research, usu ally at university centers. Places of Employment Approximately 22,000 persons were employed as speech patholo gists and audiologists in 1970. Women represented about threefourths of total employment. The majority of speech pathologists and audiologists work in public school systems. Colleges and universities employ the next largest number of these specialists in classrooms, clin ics, and research centers. The re mainder are distributed among hos pitals, rehabilitation and community speech and hearing centers, State and Federal Government agencies, industry, and private practice. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although only a few States pres ently have such a requirement, a master’s degree in speech pathology or audiology or its equivalent is being stressed increasingly as the minimum educational standard for employment in public school sys tems. In addition, many Federal programs, such as Medicare and Medicaid, require that speech and hearing services be given by, or under the supervision of a speech pathologist or audiologist holding a master’s degree. Undergraduate training in speech pathology and audiology should in clude course work in anatomy, biol ogy, physiology, physics, and in other related areas such as linguis tics, semantics, and phonetics. Some specialized course work in speech and hearing, as well as in child psy chology and psychology of the ex ceptional child, also is helpful. This training is usually available at col leges and universities offering a broad liberal arts program. Graduate education in speech pa thology and audiology was offered at 203 colleges and universities in 1970. Professional preparation at 88 the graduate level involves exten sive training in the fundamental areas of speech and hearing, includ ing anatomy and physiology, acous tics, and psychological aspects of communication; the nature of speech and hearing disorders; and the assessment, evaluation, and analysis of speech production, lan guage abilities, and auditory proc esses; as well as familiarity with various research methods used in studying speech and hearing. Per sons who wish to work in public schools should complete not only the education and other require ments necessary for a teacher’s cer tificate in the State in which they wish to work, but also may have to fulfill special requirements, pre scribed by some States, for people who are going to work with handi capped children. Many scholarships, fellowships, assistantships, and traineeships are available in colleges and universi ties; however, most of these are at the graduate level. The U.S. Reha bilitation Services Administration, the Maternal and Child Health Service, the U.S. Office of Educa tion, and the National Institutes of Health allocate funds for teaching and training grants to colleges and universities offering graduate study in speech and hearing. The Veter ans Administration and the Reha bilitation Services Administration provide stipends for predoctoral training. Speech pathologists and audiolo gists should have an interest and lik ing for people, and the ability to ap proach problems with objectivity. To work effectively with persons having speech and hearing disor ders, one must be sensitive, patient, and have emotional stability. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for speech pathologists and audiologists who have completed graduate study are expected to be good through the 1970’s. Although some positions will be available for individuals hav ing only the bachelor’s degree, the increasing emphasis being placed on the master’s degree by Federal agen cies and State governments will limit opportunities at the bachelor’s level. Many speech pathologists and audiologists will be needed annually through the 1970’s to staff new and expanding programs in schools, clinics, colleges and universities, and hospitals. In addition, many will be needed to replace those who die, retire, or leave the profession for other reasons. Several factors are expected to increase demand for the services of speech pathologists and audiologists during the 1970’s: Population growth, which will result in an in crease in the absolute number of persons having speech and hearing problems; a lengthening life span, which will increase the number of persons having speech and hearing problems that are common to later life; a rapid expansion in expendi tures for medical research; the growing public interest and aware ness of the serious problems con nected with speech and hearing dis orders, as illustrated by the Elemen tary and Secondary Education Act, as amended, which provides for the education of handicapped children; and expanded Federal programs such as Medicare and Medicaid. Earnings and Working Conditions Median salaries of speech pathol ogists and audiologists employed in colleges and universities ranged from $9,200 to $17,200 for a 9- to 10-month contract period in 1970, according to the American Speech and Hearing Association. Median salaries may be as much as $4,700 higher for an 11- to 12-month con tract. Many experienced speech pathologists and audiologists in edu cational institutions supplement their regular salaries by incomes from consulting, special research projects, and writing books and arti cles. The average annual salary for speech pathologists and audiologists in elementary and secondary schools in 1970 was about $10,700 according to an American Speech and Hearing Association survey of members employed in these schools. In 1970 the annual starting salary in the Federal Government for speech pathologists and audiologists who had completed all requirements for the master’s degree was $9,881. Those having doctoral degrees were eligible to start at $13,493. Most speech pathologists and au diologists work 40 hours a week; however, personnel engaged in re search may work longer hours. A l most all employment situations provide fringe benefits such as paid vacations, sick leave, and retirement programs. Sources of Additional Information Information on certification re quirements for persons wishing to work in public schools can be ob tained from the State Department of education at the State capital. A listing of college and university programs and a booklet on student financial aid as well as general ca reer information can be obtained from: HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS American Speech and Hearing Asso ciation, 9030 Old Georgetown Rd., Washington, D.C. 20014. MEDICAL LABORATORY WORKERS (D.O.T. 078.128; .168; .281; and .381) Nature of the Work Laboratory tests play an impor tant part in the detection, diagnosis, and treatment of cancer, tubercu losis, diabetes, meningitis, and other diseases. Medical laboratory workers, often called clinical labo ratory workers include three levels: medical technologists, technicians, and assistants. They perform tests under the direction of pathologists (physicians who specialize in diag nosing the causes and nature of dis ease), other physicians or scientists specializing in clinical chemistry, microbiology, or the other biologi cal sciences. Medical laboratory workers use precision instruments, such as microscopes and automatic analyzers, to analyze the blood, tis sues, and fluids in the human body. Results of such tests help physicians treat patients. M e d ic a l te c h n o lo g ists, who re quire 4 years of post-secondary training, perform the more compli cated chemical, microscopic, and bacteriological tests. These tests may include chemical tests to de termine blood cholesterol level, or microscopic examination of the blood to detect the possibility of leukemia. Other body fluids may be examined microscopically; cultured to determine the presence of bac teria, parasites, or other micro organisms; and analyzed for 89 chemical content or reaction. Tech nologists also may type and cross match blood samples. Technologists in small laboratories often perform many types of tests. Those in large laboratories usually specialize in several kinds of related tests in areas such as microbiology, parasitology, biochemistry, blood banking, hema tology (the study of blood cells), histology (tissue preparation), cy tology (analysis of body cells), and nuclear medical technology (the use of radioactive isotopes to help detect diseases). Most medical technologists con duct tests related to the examination and treatment of patients. However, some do research on new drugs or on the improvement of laboratory techniques. Others teach or perform administrative duties. M e d ic a l la b o r a to r y a ssista n ts, who generally do not have college training, assist the medical technol ogist in routine tests and related work that can be learned in a rela tively short time. Medical laboratory assistants in large laboratories may concentrate in one of several areas. Laboratory assistants working in bacteriology, serology, and parasitology prepare and stain slides for study, apply sen sitivity disc to culture plates and re cord results; and prepare specimens for microscopic studies. Those in hematology collect and perform blood counts and tests to determine bleeding time, coagulation time, sedimentation rate, and prothrombin time. In clinical chemistry, assist ants help analyze samples of body fluids to diagnose and treat diseases. Assistants in the blood bank carry out slide and test tube procedures to identify blood groups and keep blood-bank records. They assist in laboratory techniques such as cen trifuging urine samples and prepar ing the samples for microscopic study. In basal metabolism and electro cardiography work, they prepare patients for tests as well as operate and maintain testing equipment. In small laboratories, medical labora tory assistants generally work in many areas. In addition to performing routine tests, assistants may store and label plasma; clean and sterilize labora tory equipment, glassware, and in struments; prepare solutions follow ing standard laboratory formulas and procedures; keep records of tests; and identify specimens. M e d ic a l la b o r a to r y te c h n ic ia n s generally have a higher level of skill than assistants, but not the technical knowledge of highly-trained tech nologists. Like technologists and as sistants, they may work in several areas or specialize in one field. Places of Employment An estimated 110,000 medical laboratory workers were employed in 1970— two-fifths were medical technologists. Approximately 80 to 90 percent of all medical laboratory workers were women. However, the number of men in the field has been increasing in recent years. About four-fifths of all medi cal laboratory workers are em ployed in hospitals. Other places of employment include independent laboratories, physicians’ offices, clinics, public health agencies, phar maceutical firms, and research insti tutions. In 1970, about 1,200 medical technologists and about 1,500 medi cal laboratory technicians and as sistants worked in the hospitals and laboratories of the Veterans Admin- 90 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Medical technologist operates automatic blood cell counting machine. istration. Others were employed by the Armed Forces and the U.S Public Health Service. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The usual minimum educational requirement for beginning medical technologists is 4 years of college including completion of a special ized training program in medical technology approved by the Am eri can Medical Association. Undergraduate work must in clude courses in chemistry, biologi cal science, and mathematics. Such studies give the technologist a broad understanding of the scientific prin ciples underlying laboratory work. The specialized training usually re quires 12 months of study and in cludes extensive laboratory work. In 1970, such training was given in about 800 hospitals and schools, most of which were affiliated with colleges and universities. A bache lor’s degree is often awarded upon completion of the college affiliated program. A few schools require a bachelor’s degree for entry into the program. Many universities also offer ad vanced degrees in medical technol ogy and related subjects for technol ogists who plan to specialize in the laboratory or in teaching, admin istration, or research. Medical laboratory technicians employed in 1970 had obtained their training in a variety of educa tional settings. Many had received one or more years of post-secondary education in junior or 4-year col leges and universities. Some techni cians have attended private schools, which offer 12- to 18-month pro grams to high school graduates. Some technicians have gained expe rience in the Armed Forces. The Navy, for example, conducts a 14month program to train clinical lab oratory and blood bank technicians and the Army has a 50 week “sen ior medical laboratory specialist” program. A few technicians re ceived training in nonprofit voca tional and technical schools. Most medical laboratory assist ants employed in 1970 received their training on the job. In recent years, however, an increasing num ber have received their training in academic programs conducted by hospitals or vocational schools and junior colleges in cooperation with hospitals. In the future, academic training probably will be required by most employers. Hospitals offer the greatest number of training pro grams, some of which were estab lished under the Manpower Devel opment and Training Act and the Vocational Education Act. For entry into these programs, gradua tion from high school with courses in science and mathematics is re quired generally. The programs last a year and include classroom in struction and practical training in the laboratory. These programs often begin with a general orienta tion to the clinical laboratory and are followed by courses in bacteriol ogy, serology, parasitology, hema tology, clinical chemistry, blood banking, and urinalysis. Certification examinations, ad ministered by the Board of Medical Technologists of the American Soci ety of Clinical Pathologists (A S C P ), are available to graduates of A M A approved schools. Such registration is important because it indicates that a graduate has main tained educational standards recog nized by the medical profession. ASCP-registered medical laboratory HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 91 Employment Outlook Medical technician uses automated chemistry machine. personnel are preferred by most employers. In California, Florida, Hawaii, Tennessee, New York City, and Puerto Rico, medical technologists and technicians also must be li censed. Technologists may be promoted to supervisory positions in certain areas of laboratory work or, after several years’ experience, to chief medical technologist in a large hos pital. Graduate education in one of the biological sciences or chemistry usually speeds advancement in all areas. Technicians and assistants may have difficulty advancing to medical technologists unless they continue their education and obtain a bachelor’s degree in biology or chemistry, or a degree or certificate in medical technology. Personal characteristics impor tant for medical laboratory work in clude accuracy, dependability, and the ability to work under pressure. Manual dexterity and the ability to discriminate colors accurately are highly desirable. Young people interested in a medical laboratory career should se lect a training program with consid erable care. Information should be obtained about the kinds of jobs ob tained by graduates, educational costs, the length of time the training program has been in operation, in structional facilities, and faculty qualifications. Employment opportunities for medical laboratory workers are ex pected to be excellent through the 1970’s. New graduates having a bachelor’s degree in medical tech nology will be sought for entry tech nologist positions in hospitals. A particularly strong demand is antici pated for technologists having grad uate training in biochemistry, mi crobiology, immunology, and virol ogy. Employment opportunities for medical laboratory technicians and assistants also are expected to be very favorable. Employment opportunities for medical laboratory personnel are expected to expand as physicians in creasingly depend upon laboratory tests in routine physical checkups as well as in the diagnosis and treat ment of disease. Also, the con struction of additional hospital and medical facilities will increase the demand for these workers. Other factors affecting growth in this field include the country’s expanding population; rising standards of liv ing; increasing health consciousness; expanding medical services resulting from new medical techniques and drugs; expanding medical research activities; and extension of prepay ment programs for medical care, in cluding Medicare. Advances in technology in gen eral are expected to stimulate the demand for workers in this occupa tion. Many new technological devel opments permit greater numbers and more varieties of tests to be performed. Newly developed auto mated equipment is not expected to limit the growth of medical technol ogists. However, the development of new automated equipment that reduces the need for personnel to do simple repetitive tasks may tend OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 92 to partially offset the growth in de mand for the services of medical laboratory assistants. In addition to medical laboratory workers who will be needed to fill openings resulting from the rapid growth of this field, large numbers also will be needed as replacements because many workers are young women who may leave their jobs for marriage and family responsibilities. Opportunities for part-time employ ment will continue to be available. Opportunities also should be good for qualified older workers and handicapped persons. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of medical laboratory workers vary by employer and geo graphic location of employment. In general, medical laboratory workers employed on the West Coast and in large cities received the highest sal aries. The average starting salary for medical technologists was about $7,500 in 1970, according to lim ited data available. Beginning sala ries for medical laboratory assist ants generally ranged from $150 to $250 a month less than those paid medical technologists. Technicians received salaries ranging between those paid technologists and assist ants. Newly graduated medical tech nologists at the baccalaureate level employed by the Federal Govern m en t' in 1970 received $6,548. Those having experience, superior academic achievement, or a year of graduate study entered at $8,098. Depending on the amount and type of education and experience, medi cal laboratory assistants and techni cians in the Federal Government earned starting salaries ranging from $4,621 to $5,853 a year in 1970. Medical laboratory personnel generally work a 40-hour week. In hospitals, they can expect some night or weekend duty. Hospitals generally provide vacation and sick leave benefits; some have retirement plans. Laboratories are in general well lighted and clean. Although un pleasant odors and specimens of many kinds of diseased tissue often are present, few hazards exist if proper methods of sterilization and handling of specimens, materials, and equipment are used. Sources of Additional Information Information about education and training for medical technologists, technicians, and laboratory assist ants meeting standards recognized by the medical profession and the U.S. Office of Education as well as career information on these fields of work may be obtained from: Registry of Medical Technologists of the American Society of Clini cal Pathologists, 710 S. Wolcott Ave., Chicago, 111. 60612. American Society of Medical Tech nologists, Suite 1600, Hermann Professional Bldg., Houston, Tex. 77025. MEDICAL RECORD LIBRARIANS (D.O.T. 100.388) Nature of the Work Medical records contain medical and surgical information on each patient, including case histories of illnesses or injuries, physical exami nation findings, reports on X-rays and laboratory tests, physicians’ or ders and notes, and nurses’ notes. These records are necessary for cor rect and prompt diagnosis and treat ment. In addition, they are used for research, insurance claims, legal ac tions, evaluation of treatment and medications prescribed, and for in struction in the training of medical, nursing, and related personnel. Medical information found in hospi tal records also is used to plan com munity health centers and programs and in hospital and health care ad ministration. Medical record librarians plan, prepare, maintain, and analyze rec ords and reports on patients’ illness and treatments. They assist medical Information about technician training programs offered in private schools may be obtained from: American Medical Technologists, 710 Higgins Road, Park Ridge, 111. 60068. International Society of Clinical Laboratory Technologists, 805 Ambassador Building, 411 North Seventh St., St. Louis, Mo. 63101. Information about employment opportunities in government clinical and research hospitals may be ob tained from the Department of Medicine and Surgery, Veterans Administration, Washington, D.C. 20421, and the Clinical Center, N a tional Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md., 20014. Medical record librarian operates mechanized locator file. HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS staff members in research projects; develop auxiliary records (such as indexes of physicians, diseases treated, and operations performed); compile statistics; make summaries or “abstracts” of medical records; develop systems for documenting, storing and retrieving medical infor mation; direct the activities of the medical record department; and train auxiliary personnel. They usu ally represent their department at hospital staff meetings and may be called to testify in court. The size and type of institution employing medical record librarians will affect the duties and amount of responsibility assigned to these workers. In large hospitals, chief medical record librarians supervise other medical record librarians, medical record technicians, and clerical workers. In small hospitals, they may be the only employee in the medical record department and may perform clerical as well as pro fessional duties. Medical record librarians should not be confused with the medical li brarians who work chiefly with books, periodicals, and other publi cations. (See statement on Librari ans.) Places of Employment About 13,000 medical record li brarians were employed in 1970. Of these, about 4,200 were Registered Record Librarians, according to the American Medical Record Associa tion. In addition, about 41,000 other medical record personnel were working in this field. Most medical record librarians were employed in hospitals. The remainder worked in clinics, medical research centers, nursing homes or other extended care facilities, the medical depart ments of insurance companies and 93 industrial firms, and in local and State health departments. Although most medical record librarians are women, the number of men in the occupation is growing. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In 1970, 28 schools approved by the American Medical Association offered training in medical record li brary science or medical record ad ministration. These schools are lo cated in colleges and universities and in hospitals. Most approved medical record li brarian educational programs last 4 years and lead to a bachelor’s degree in medical record adminis tration. The concentration in medi cal record administration begins in the third or fourth year of study. One year certificate programs also are available for those who already have a baccalaureate degree and specified courses in the liberal arts and biological sciences. The specialized curriculum in cludes both theoretical instruction and practical experience. The re quired courses include anatomy, physiology, fundamentals of medical science, medical terminology, medi cal record science, ethics, manage ment, hospital organization and ad ministration, health law, statistics, and data processing. Practical expe rience involves hospital admitting and discharging procedures; stand ard indexing and coding practices; compilation of statistical reports; analysis of medical data from clini cal records; and experience with medical record systems for the Xray, pathology, outpatients, and other hospital departments. Graduates of approved schools in medical record science are eligible for the national registration exami nation, given by the American Med ical Record Association. Upon pass ing this examination, they receive professional recognition as Regis tered Record Librarians. Medical record librarians must be accurate and interested in detail. They also must be able to commu nicate clearly in speech and writing. Because medical records are confi dential, they must be discreet in processing and releasing informa tion. Administrators and supervisors must be able to organize and ana lyze work procedures and to work effectively with other hospital per sonnel. Medical record librarians fre quently are supervisors or ad ministrators. They may be assistant directors, directors of a single de partment, or coordinator of medical record departments of several hospi tals. Others may become faculty members of colleges and universi ties. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for graduates of approved medical rec ord librarian programs are ex pected to be excellent through the 1970’s. In addition to the positions created by growth, many openings will occur as young women leave the field for marriage and family re sponsibilities. High school graduates will have many opportunities to be come medical record technicians to assist librarians. The increasing number of hospi tals and the volume and complexity of hospital records will contribute to a growing demand for medical rec ord librarians. The importance of medical rec ords will continue to grow rapidly, due to the increased demand for clinical data for research and the 94 use of new drugs. Special interest in the care of the aged has necessitated recording data on conditions of per sons in nursing homes and home care programs. More consultants also will be needed to standardize records in these and other areas where medical record librarians are not available. The increasing use of computers to store and retrieve medical information should increase the demand for medical record li brarians. Earnings and Working Conditions The salaries of medical record li brarians are influenced by the loca tion, size, and type of employing in stitution, as well as by the duties and responsibility of the position. The average salary for chief medical record librarians (registered) in 1970 was $9,000 a year, according to the American Medical Record Association. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK D IE T IT IA N S (D.O.T. 077.081 through .168) Nature of the Work Dietitians plan nutritious and ap petizing meals to help people main tain or recover good health. Their work includes planning general and modified menus that meet nutri tional requirements for health or for medical treatment, supervising the personnel who prepare and serve the meals, managing purchases and accounts, and providing guidance on good eating habits. Administra tive dietitians form the largest group in this occupation; the others are therapeutic dietitians, teachers, or research workers. Administrative dietitians apply the principles of nutrition and sound management to large-scale meal planning and preparation, such as that done in hospitals, universities, schools, and other institutions. They supervise the preparation of meals; select, train, and direct food-service supervisors and workers; arrange for the buying of food, equipment, and supplies; enforce sanitary and safety regulations; and prepare rec ords and reports. Dietitians who are directors of a dietary department also formulate departmental policy; coordinate dietary service with the activities of other departments; and are responsible for the development and management of the dietary de partment budget, which in large or ganizations may amount to millions of dollars annually. Newly graduated medical record librarians employed by the Federal Government generally started at $6,548 a year in 1970; those hav ing bachelor’s degrees and high aca demic records were eligible to begin at $8,098. Medical record librarians usually work a regular 40-hour week and receive paid holidays and vacations. Sources of Additional Information Information about approved schools and employment opportuni ties may be obtained from : The American Medical Record As sociation, 875 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 1850, Chicago, 111. 60611. Dietitians discuss patient’s menu. HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Therapeutic dietitians plan and supervise the service of meals to meet the nutritional needs of pa tients. They discuss food likes and dislikes with patients and note their intake of food. Other duties of ther apeutic dietitians include calculating modified diets, conferring with doc tors regarding patients’ diets, in structing patients and their families on the requirements and importance of their diets, and suggesting ways to help them stay on these diets after leaving the hospital. In a small institution, one person may serve as both the administrative and thera peutic dietitian. Some dietitians, particularly those in hospitals affiliated with medical centers, teach dietetic, medical, dental, and nursing students such subjects as dietetics, foods and nutrition, and diet therapy. A few dietitians act as consultants to com mercial enterprises, including food processors, equipment manufac turers, and utility companies. Other members of the profession, called public health nutritionists, conduct studies or surveys of food and nutrition. They also take part in research projects, such as those concerned with the nutritional needs of the aging, persons having chronic diseases, or space travelers. Places of Employment About 30,000 dietitians were em ployed in 1970— less than 10 per cent were men. More than two-fifths of all dietitians worked in hospitals and related institutions, including nearly 1,000 who were employed by the Veterans Administration and the U.S. Public Health Service. A sizable number were employed by colleges, universities, and school systems as teachers or as dietitians in food-service programs. Most of 95 the remainder worked for public health agencies, restaurants, or caf eterias, and large companies that operated food-service programs for their employees. Some dietitians were commissioned officers in the Armed Forces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum educational re quirement for dietitians is a bache lor’s degree with a major in foods and nutrition or institution manage ment. This degree can be obtained in about 400 colleges and universi ties. Undergraduate work should in clude courses in foods and nutrition, institution management, chemistry, bacteriology, and physiology, and such related courses as mathemat ics, psychology, sociology, and eco nomics. To qualify for professional recog nition, The American Dietetic As sociation recommends the comple tion after graduation of internship programs or 2 years of pre-planned experience. The programs and ex perience must be approved by the Association. Many employers prefer to hire dietitians who have com pleted an internship. An important phase of the intern’s education is clinical experience; the remainder of the internship is devoted to class room study of menu planning, budgeting, management, other ad vanced subjects, and to special proj ects. In 1970, 80 internship pro grams were approved by The American Dietetic Association. Stu dents in a few schools can complete a coordinated education program, also approved by the Association, which qualifies them to practice im mediately after graduation, without further internship. Experienced dietitians may ad vance to assistant director or direc tor of a dietary department in a large hospital or other institution. Graduate education is usually re quired for advancement to higher level positions in teaching and re search. Those interested in becom ing public health nutritionists must usually earn a graduate degree in this field. Graduate study in institu tional or business administration is valuable to those interested in ad ministrative dietetics. Young persons planning to be come dietitians should have supervi sory ability to manage programs and be able to work well with oth ers. They also should be neat and in good health. Employment Outlook Opportunities for qualified dieti tians on both a full- and part-time basis are expected to be very good through the 1970’s. The major factors expected to contribute to increasing opportuni ties for dietitians include the expan sion of hospital and nursing home facilities, more widespread use of hospitals and medical services by an increasing population, and the growth of community health pro grams. An increasing number of dietitians also will be needed to di rect food services for schools, in dustrial plants, and commercial eat ing places, and to engage in food and nutrition research programs. In addition, since many women select this field because of their interest in food and homemaking and then leave the profession for marriage 96 and family responsibilities, replace ment needs probably will continue to be high. The number of men employed as dietitians has been growing slowly but steadily. Men are likely to find increasing employment opportuni ties, especially as administrative dietitians in college and university food services, hospitals, and com mercial eating places. In an effort to provide the die tetic services demanded, employers increasingly are hiring workers to assist dietitians. Opportunities will be favorable in these positions for college graduates who have majored in fields such as chemistry or the life sciences. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, hospitals offered new graduates of approved internship programs annual salaries ranging from $8,9 0 0 to $9,750, according to The American Dietetic Associa tion. New graduates without intern ship generally received lower start ing salaries. Experienced dietitians in hospitals were paid between $10,200 and $17,000 a year. Begin ning staff dietitians employed by college and school food services re ceived annual salaries ranging from $8,900 to $14,000; experienced dietitians received $ 1 1,200 to $16,300. The entrance salary in the Fed eral Government in 1970 for those who had completed internship was $8,098 a year. Beginning dietitians who had a master’s degree could start at $9,881 a year. M ost experi enced dietitians employed by the Federal Government earned be tween $11,000 and $16,000 a year; a few earned over $16,000. D ieti tians employed by State and local governments in 1970 received year ly salaries ranging from about OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK $9,200 to $11,800, according to a survey made by the U.S. Depart ment of Health, Education, and Welfare. Most dietitians are employed on a weekly work schedule of 40 hours; however, dietitians in hospi tals may sometimes work on week ends, and those in commercial food service have somewhat irregular hours. Some hospitals provide laun dry service and meals in addition to salary. Paid vacations, holidays, and health and retirement benefits are usually received. Sources of Additional Information Information on approved dietetic internship programs, scholarships, and employment opportunities, and a list of colleges providing training for a professional career in dietetics, may be obtained from: The American Dietetic Association, 620 North Michigan Ave., Chi cago, 111. 60611. The U.S. Civil Service Commis sion, Washington, D.C. 20415, has information on the requirements for dietetic interns and dietitians in Federal Government hospitals. Administrators direct and coordi nate the many varied activities of the hospital. They work closely with the medical and nursing staffs and make available to them needed aux iliary personnel and equipment. They are responsible for hiring and training workers; preparing and ad ministering the budget; establishing accounting procedures; planning current and future space needs; in suring the proper maintenance of buildings and equipment; purchas ing supplies and equipment; and providing for laundry, mail, tele phone, information, and other serv ices for the patients and staff. In small hospitals, typically lo cated in rural or suburban areas, the administrator generally assumes all management functions. In large hospitals, he is assisted by special ists trained either in hospital admin istration or in specialized mana gerial skills. Under the direction of the gov erning board, administrators may carry out large projects to expand or develop the hospital’s services. They may, for example, organize fund-raising campaigns or plan new medical care, research, or educa tional programs. Administrators H O SPITA L A D M IN IS T R A T O R S (D.O.T. 187.118) meet regularly with their staff to discuss progress, make plans and solve problems concerning the functioning of the hospital. Working with the medical Nature of the Work Hospital administrators hold the highest executive positions in hospi tals; they manage all administrative activities. They usually receive gen eral guidance from a hospital gov erning board with which they work closely in developing plans and pol icies. staff and department heads, they may develop and maintain teaching programs for nurses, interns, and other hospital staff members. A d ministrators also may address com munity gatherings, organize com munity health campaigns, and par ticipate in planning health care programs. community HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 97 Hospital adm inistrator confers with member of staff. Places of Employment About 17,000 hospital adminis trators were employed in hospitals and related institutions in 1970. About two-thirds worked in non profit or private hospitals and insti tutions, and the remainder generally worked in Federal, State, and local government hospitals. Of those em ployed by the Federal Government, most were in Veterans Administra tion, Armed Forces, and Public Flealth Service hospitals. About 15 percent of all administrators and their assistants were women; many were members of religious orders. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational requirements for hos pital administrators vary. Most employers prefer applicants with at least a master’s degree in hospital administration from an accredited graduate program. Others prefer formal training in social or behav ioral sciences, industrial engineer ing, or business administration, along with extensive experience in the health field. A few require their administrators to be physicians or registered professional nurses. Spe cialized hospitals (such as mental or orthopedic hospitals) may prefer physicians whose medical specialty is the same as that of the hospital. Hospitals run by religious groups may seek administrators of the same faith. In 1970, 29 colleges and univer sities in the United States offered master’s degree programs in hospi tal administration. To enter these programs, applicants must have a bachelor’s degree, including courses in natural sciences, psychology, so ciology, statistics, accounting, and economics. The programs vary in time allocated to academic study and to administrative residency in hospitals or health agencies but they generally last 2 years. The mini mum amount of required academic study is about a year; residency re quirements range up to a year. The curriculum may include courses such as hospital organiza tion and management, accounting and budget control, personnel ad ministration, public health adminis tration, and the economics of health care. The residency involves an ori entation to all hospital activities under the supervision of the admin istrator or his assistant. A Ph. D. in hospital administration, offered in several universities, is especially helpful for those interested in teach ing and research. The American College of H ospi tal Administrators provides financial loans and scholarships to a limited number of students for graduate work in hospital administration. Some Federal Government awards for graduate training in hospital ad ministration also are available. New graduates with a master’s degree in hospital administration usually enter the field as assistant administrators or department heads and occasionally as administrators in small hospitals. Some persons without a master’s degree in hospi tal administration enter the field by working in one of the specialized administrative areas such as person nel, records, budget and finance, or data processing. With this experi ence and some graduate work, they may be promoted to department head, to assistant administrator, and eventually to administrator. The po sition of hospital administrator, especially in a large hospital, repre sents a career goal, and these posi OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 98 and location of the hospital, and size of its administrative staff and budget. Starting salaries for new hospital administration graduates in private hospitals generally ranged from $10,000 to $13,000 a year in 1970. Salaries of experienced ad ministrators generally ranged from $14,000 to $30,000, according to limited data available. New gradu ates employed in Veterans Adminis tration (V A ) hospitals started at $9,881 a year in 1970. Salaries of Employment Outlook experienced V A hospital adminis Employment opportunities for trators, many of them physicians, new graduates having the master’s ranged from $26,547 to $33,627 a degree in hospital administration year. Commissioned officers in the are expected to be very good through the 1970’s. Applicants with Armed Forces working as hospital out graduate education will find it administrators hold ranks ranging increasingly difficult to enter this from second lieutenant to colonel or field. Some positions as administra from ensign to captain. Command tor are likely to continue to be filled ing officers of large Armed Forces by physicians, nurses, or persons hospitals are physicians who may experienced in a specialized admin hold higher ranks. Hospital admin istrators in the U.S. Public Health istrative area. The number of positions in hos Service are commissioned officers, pital administration is expected to holding ranks ranging from lieuten grow rapidly through the 1970’s. As ant (junior grade) to captain in the health facilities are expanded to Navy. Hospital administrators often provide additional health services to work long hours. Since hospitals op an increasing population, more po sitions are likely to be created for erate on a round-the-clock basis, hospital administrators, and for ad the administrator may be called ministrative assistants, in charge of upon to settle emergency problems specific functions or departments. at any time of the day or night. He Graduates of programs of hospital also may be called on to attend administration also will find increas meetings held at various locations ing employment opportunities in re outside the hospital. Fringe benefits lated facilities such as nursing usually include paid vacations and homes and other long-term care in holidays, sick leave, and pension stitutions, rehabilitation facilities, and insurance coverage. public health centers, health care planning agencies, and hospitaliza tion and health insurance programs. Sources of Additional Information tions generally are filled by promo tion from within. Personal qualifications needed for success as a hospital administra tor include initiative, vitality, and interest in helping the sick. Skills in working with people, organizing and directing large-scale activities, and public speaking are important as sets. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of hospital administrators depend on factors such as size, type, Additional information about hospital administration and a list of colleges and universities offering this training may be obtained from: American College of Hospital Ad ministrators, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111. 60611. Association of University Programs in Hospital Administration, 1 Dupont Circle, NW,, Washing ton, D.C. 20036. Information on Federal Govern ment awards for graduate training in hospital administration may be obtained from: Bureau of Health Professions Edu cation and Manpower Training, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014. S A N IT A R IA N S (D.O.T. 079.118) Nature of the Work Sanitarians are specialists in envi ronmental health. To assure the cleanliness and safety of the food people eat, the liquids they drink, and the air they breathe, sanitarians perform a broad range of duties. They inspect food manufacturing and processing plants, dairies, water supplies, hotels and restaurants, nursing homes, hospitals and schools, waste disposal plants, swimming pools and other recrea tion facilities, housing, and other places for health hazards. They seek compliance with local regulations and with State and Federal laws re lating to public health. They also plan and conduct sanitation pro grams, administer environmental health programs, and promote the enactment of health regulations and laws. Sanitarians entering the profes sion usually begin in public health or agriculture departments, or pri- 99 HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS vate industry. They inspect facilities and may collect samples of food, air, and water to test for safety. When necessary, they recommend corrective action according to health laws and regulations. As they pro gress to more responsible investiga tional work, they frequently are required to give advice on more complex individual and industrial sanitation problems. Sanitarians having supervisory duties analyze reports of inspections and investigations made by other environmental health specialists, and advise on difficult or unusual sanitation problems. They also may conduct investigations and give evidence in court cases involving public health regulations. In addi tion, they promote health laws and engage in health education activi ties, sometimes teaching classes in hygiene and speaking before student assemblies, civic groups, and other organizations. Those in top manage ment positions are involved with the planning and administration of envi ronmental health programs and their coordination with programs of other agencies. Other duties may in clude advising government officials on environmental health matters and drafting health laws and regula tions. Public health sanitarians work closely with other health specialists in the community (such as the health officer, sanitary engineer, and public health nurse) to investigate and prevent outbreaks of disease, plan for civil defense and emer gency disaster aid, make public health surveys, and conduct health education programs. In large local and State health or agriculture departments, and in the Federal Government, sanitarians may specialize in a particular area of work, such as milk and other dairy products, food sanitation, ref use and other waste control, air pollution, occupational health, housing, institutional sanitation, and insect and rodent control. In rural areas and small cities, they may be responsible for a wide range of en vironmental health activities. The professional sanitarian may be assisted by a sanitarian techni cian during investigations to deter mine compliance or lack of compli ance with health regulations and laws. The technician takes samples for testing and often performs the required tests. Increasing numbers of sanitari ans are being employed outside gov ernment agencies. Many work in in dustry to prevent or minimize con tamination hazards and see that clean, healthful, and safe working conditions exist. For example, in a food processing plant, the sanitarian is concerned with the proper dis posal of refuse; the cleaning of plant equipment; the control of micro-or ganisms; and the proper mainte nance of buildings, equipment, and employee facilities. Where Employed An estimated 12,000 of the ap proximately 15,000 professional sanitarians employed in 1970 worked for Federal, State, and local governments. Most of the remainder worked for manufacturers and pro cessors of food products. A small number were teachers in colleges and universities. A few were consul tants. Others worked for trade asso ciations, in hospitals, or for other organizations. Probably less than 1 percent of all sanitarians are women. Sanitarians are employed by public health departments in every State, and by private industry in most States. About half of them work in 10 States: California, Flor ida, Illinois, Indiana, New York, 100 Ohio, Pennsylvania, Texas, Vir ginia, and Wisconsin. In addition to professional sani tarians, about 5,000 sanitarian tech nicians and aides were employed in 1970. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in environ mental health is the preferred prep aration for a beginning job as a pro fessional sanitarian, although a bachelor’s degree in a basic science generally is acceptable. High level positions usually require a graduate degree in some aspect of public health. In some cases, sanitarian technicians having 2 years of college and work experience can advance to professional sanitarian positions. However, as hiring standards are raised, it will become harder for persons without a degree to enter the profession. A typical curriculum leading to a bachelor of science degree in envi ronmental health includes back ground courses in the humanities, social sciences, mathematics, chem istry, physics and biology. Core courses include microbiology (envi ronm ental), biostatistics, epide miology, community health educa tion, public health organization and administration, environmental health, and field work. Thirty-six colleges and universi ties offered undergraduate programs in environmental health in 1970; graduate training in environmental health was available in about 100 universities. Some stipends are available under Federal programs for graduate study in this field. Beginning sanitarians usually start at the trainee level, where they remain up to a year, working under the supervision of experienced san itarians. They receive on-the-job OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK training in environmental health practice and learn to evaluate con ditions and recommend corrective action. After a few years of experi ence, they may be promoted to minor supervisory positions with more responsibilities. Increased re sponsibilities usually come with ad ditional experience; sometimes spe cialization begins at this level, espe cially in large local health offices. Further advancement is possible to top supervisory and administrative positions. To keep abreast of new develop ments and to supplement their aca demic training, many sanitarians take specialized short-term training courses in subjects such as occupa tional health, water supply and pol lution control, air pollution, radio logical health, milk and food protec tion, metropolitan planning, and hospital sanitation. In 1970, 35 States had laws providing for registration of sani tarians; in some States, registration is required to practice. Although re quirements for registration vary considerably among the States, the minimum educational requirement usually is a bachelor’s degree, with emphasis on the biological, physical, and sanitary sciences. Am ong the personal qualities useful to sanitarians is the ability to communicate effectively, since it is necessary to write detailed reports and to deal with persons tactfully concerning the correction of unsani tary conditions. A mechanical apti tude also is helpful, since sanitarians may operate various testing devices. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for sanitarians are expected to be very favorable through the 1970’s. Young people without a college de gree in one of the physical or bio logical sciences or in sanitary sci ence will face increasing difficulty in obtaining professional positions in this field. Employment of sanitarians is ex pected to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s, as State and local health agencies expand their activities in the field of environmen tal health. Radiological health, oc cupational health, food protection, solid waste management, and water and air pollution are expected to re quire the services of more trained personnel as health dangers grow under the stimulus of an expanding, highly technological society. Air pollution is one example of an existing environmental hazard that has attracted widespread public concern. The discomfort and danger of air pollution and the possible re lationship between it and respira tory ailments have attracted atten tion to the problem. Government on all levels has responded by enacting extensive legislation in environmen tal quality control. Legislation which regulates the quantity of sul fates or other chemical compounds that can be emitted into the air will increase the demand for profes sional sanitarians. The expanding population is an other factor intensifying the demand for more trained sanitarians. The migration of people from rural to urban areas, along with the growth of industries, will place a greater strain on the food-service, housing, and water-disposal facilities of urban communities. Some increase in de mand for sanitarians is expected in private industry, primarily in the food industry. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning sanitarians having a college degree usually earned from HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS $7,000 to $7,500 in 1970, accord ing to the National Environmental Health Association. Salaries of ex perienced professional sanitarians generally ranged from $10,000 to $14,000 a year; environmental health directors often earned from $14,000 to $30,000. Sanitary aides and technicians without a college degree generally earned from $5,000 to $8,000 in 1970. Professional sanitarians em ployed in the Federal Government began at $6,548 or $8,092 in 1970, depending on their academic rec ords. Experienced sanitarians in the Federal service generally earned from $9,881 to $14,192. Sanitarians spend considerable time away from their desks. Some come in contact with unpleasant physical surroundings, such as sew age disposal facilities and slum housing. Transportation or gasoline allowances frequently are given, and some health departments provide an automobile. Sources of Additional Information Information about careers as san itarians is available from the follow ing associations: American Public Health Associa tion, 1790 Broadway, New York, New York 10019. International Association of Milk, Food and Environmental Sani tarians, Blue Ridge Road, P.O. Box 437, Shelbyville, Indiana 46176. National Environmental Health As sociation, 1600 Pennsylvania Street, Denver, Colorado 80203. Information on stipends for grad uate study is available from: Division of Allied Health Man power, Bureau of Health Profes sions Education and Manpower Training, National Institutes of Health, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Maryland 20014. 101 V E T E R IN A R IA N S (D.O.T. 073.081 through .281) Nature of the Work Veterinarians (doctors of veternary medicine) diagnose, treat, and control numerous diseases and inju ries among animals. Their work is important for the Nation’s food production and for public health. Veterinarians perform surgery on sick and injured animals, and pre scribe and administer drugs, medi cines, serums, and vaccines. Their work is vital to public health because it helps to prevent the outbreak and spread of diseases among animals. Many of these dis eases can be transmitted to human beings. Veterinarians treat animals in veterinary hospitals and clinics, or on the farm and ranch. In addition, veterinarians give advice on the care and breeding of animals. The majority of veterinarians are general practitioners. Of those who are specialists, the greatest number treat small animals or pets. Some specialize in the health care of cattle, poultry, sheep, swine, or horses. Many veterinarians inspect meat, poultry, and other foods as a part of Federal and State public health programs. Still others serve on faculties of veterinary colleges. Some do research related to animal diseases, foods, and drugs, or may act as part of a medical research team, to seek knowledge about prevention and treatment of human disease. Places of Employment About 25,000 veterinarians were working in 1970; only 2 percent were women. Almost two-thirds of all veterinarians were in private 102 practice. The Federal Government employed about 2,400 veterinarians, chiefly in the U.S. Department of Agriculture; some worked for the U.S. Public Health Service. About 1 ,0 0 0 more were commissioned of ficers in the Veterinary Corps of the Army and the Air Force. In addi tion, many worked for State and local government agencies and a few worked for international health agencies. Some were employed by colleges of veterinary medicine, ag ricultural colleges, medical schools, research and development labora tories, large livestock farms, animal food companies, and pharmaceuti cal companies manufacturing drugs for animals. About two-fifths of all veterinari ans in the United States were in seven States— California, New York, Texas, Illinois, Iowa, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. Veterinarians in rural areas chiefly treat farm ani mals; those in small towns usually engage in general practice; those in cities and suburban areas frequently limit their practice to pets. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license is required to practice veterinary medicine in all States and the District of Columbia. To obtain a license, an applicant must have the degree of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D .V .M . or V .M .D .) awarded upon graduation from a veterinary school approved by the American Veterinary Medical A sso ciation. H e also must pass a State Board examination, and, in a few States, have some practical experi ence under the supervision of a li censed veterinarian. A limited num ber of States issue licenses without further examination to veterinarians already licensed by another State. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK For positions in research or teaching, an additional master’s or Ph. D. degree is usually required in a field such as pathology, physiol ogy, or bacteriology. Minimum requirements for the D .V .M . or V.M .D . degree are 2 years of preveterinary college work followed by 4 years of study in a college of veterinary medicine. However, most candidates complete 3 or 4 years of a preveterinary cur riculum (emphasizing the physical and biological sciences). Veterinary college training includes consider able practical experience diagnosing and treating animal diseases and performing surgery and laboratory work in anatomy, biochemistry, and other scientific and medical sub jects. There were 18 colleges of veteri nary medicine in the United States in 1970. Some of the qualifications considered by these colleges in se lecting students were scholastic rec ord, amount and character of pre veterinary training, health, and an understanding and affection for ani mals. Since veterinary colleges are largely State supported, residents of the State in which the college is lo cated usually are given preference. In the South and West, regional ed ucational plans permit cooperating States without veterinary schools to send a few students to designated regional schools. In other areas, col leges which accept a certain number of students from other States usu ally give priority to applicants from nearby States without veterinary schools. The number of women stu dents in veterinary colleges is rela tively small; about 9 percent of the students in 1970 were women. Needy students may obtain loans and scholarships of up to $2,500 a year to pursue full-time study lead ing to the degree of Doctor of V et erinary Medicine under provisions of the Veterinary M edical Educa tion A ct of 1966 and the Health Manpower Act of 1968. The U.S. Department of Agriculture offers students who have completed their junior year in schools of veterinary medicine opportunities to serve as trainees during the summer months. Some veterinarians begin as as sistants to, or partners of, estab lished practitioners. Many start their own practice with a modest fi nancial investment in drugs, instru ments, and an automobile. A more substantial financial investment is required to open an animal hospital or purchase an established practice. Newly qualified veterinarians may enter the Army and Air force as commissioned officers, or qualify for Federal positions as meat and poul try inspectors, disease-control work ers, epidemiologists, or research assistants. Veterinarians should have physi cal strength and courage to handle animals who may become aggres sive because of pain or injury. They should be able to work indepen dently and keep abreast of the ad vances in the profession. Employment Outlook Veterinarians are expected to have good employment opportuni ties through the 1970’s. Although an increase in the demand for their services is anticipated, the number of veterinarians will be restricted by the limited capacity of schools. However, some expansion in veteri nary school facilities is expected because of passage of the Veteri nary Medical Education Act of 1966 which provides for funds to assist in the construction of new educational facilities for veterinary colleges. Nevertheless, most vet erinarians who receive degrees will HEALTH SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 103 b e n eed ed to rep lace th o se w h o re tim e fo r g o v er n m e n t a g en cies. A s to and from farm s and m a y h a v e to tire or die. A s a result, the d em an d they gain ex p e r ie n c e , their in co m es w ork for veterin arian s w ill p rob ab ly e x c e ed the su pp ly during the 1 9 7 0 's. u su ally in crea se su b stan tially. w eath er. V eterin a ria n s ca n co n tin u e w o rk in g w ell b ey o n d n orm al retire A m o n g the factors u n d erlyin g in crea sin g n eed for veterin ary serv ices w ith o u t ex p e r ie n c e earn ed $ 1 0 ,5 3 9 are the fo llo w in g : A n in crea se in n um ber o f liv esto ck an d p o u ltry to T h o se w h o h ad d em o n stra ted su p e rior ab ility in their stu d ies started fee d an veterin arian s in the F ed er a l G o v e rn m e n t in 1 9 7 0 . a at $ 1 1 ,9 0 5 . S u m m er train ees in the from a trend tow ard subu rb an liv c e iv e d $ 1 5 5 each w ee k th ey w ork ed in all k in d s of m en t age b e c a u se o f m a n y o p p o r tu n ities fo r p art-tim e w ork. U .S . D ep a rtm en t o f A g ricu ltu re re p et p o p u la tio n ; grad u ated resu ltin g g ro w in g ex p a n d in g N e w ly o u td o o rs p o p u la tio n ing; and an in crease in veterin ary (re p r ese n tin g research . m eth o d s E m p h a sis of raising a rate o f $ 8 ,0 9 8 a on scien tific y e a r ) in 1 9 7 0 . E x p er ie n c ed v ete ri and b reed in g narian s w o rk in g fo r the F ed er a l liv e sto ck and p oultry, and grow th in G o v e rn m e n t d o m estic p u b lic tw e en $ 1 3 ,5 0 0 and $ 2 6 ,7 0 0 a year. h ealth and d isea se-co n tr o l p rogram s T h e in co m e o f veterin arian s in p ri a lso w ill p rob ab ly add to the o p p o r vate p ractice u su a lly is h igher than tu n ities for veterin arian s. that o f oth er v eterin arian s, a cc o rd and in tern atio n a l gen era lly earned b e in g to the lim ited data availab le. V eterin a ria n s so m etim es m a y be Earnings and Working Conditions e x p o se d to d an ger o f p h y sica l in jury, d isea se, and in fectio n . T h o se V eterin arian s b eg in n in g their ow n p ractice g en erally can co v e r their in p rivate p ra ctice are lik ely to h a v e lo n g and irregular w o rk in g h ours. e x p en se s the first year and often add V eterin a ria n s to their earnings by w o rk in g part h a v e to sp en d m u ch tim e travelin g in rural areas m ay Sources of Additional Information A d d itio n a l in fo r m a tio n on v eteri nary m ed icin e as a career, as w ell as a list o f sc h o o ls p ro v id in g training, m ay be o b ta in ed from : American Veterinary Medical Asso ciation, 600 South Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60605. In fo rm a tio n on o p p o r tu n itie s for veterin arian s in the U .S . D e p a r t m en t o f from : A gricu ltu re is a v a ila b le Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Hyattsville, Md. 20782. Consumer and Marketing Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 536 South Clark St., Chicago, 1 1 1 60605. INSURANCE OCCUPATIONS Insurance is a multibillion dollar business which offers many employ ment opportunities for young peo ple recently graduated from high school or college and for experi enced workers. There are about 1,800 life insur ance companies and more than 3,000 property and liability (som e times called property and casualty) insurance companies. They conduct their business in main offices, com monly called “hom e” offices, and in thousands of local sales offices in cities and towns throughout the country. Local offices may be branches operated by an insurance company or they may be operated by independent agents and brokers. Nature of the Business Insurance policies are classified into three broad categories: life, health, and property and liability in surance. Some companies sell all lines of insurance; others specialize in one type or more. An increasing number of life insurance companies also sell equities, such as mutual fund shares and variable annuities (contracts yielding periodic pay ments that fluctuate with the value of securities or other variable fac tors). Life insurance companies sell policies which provide not only basic life insurance protection, but also several other kinds of protec tion. Under some policies, for ex ample, policyholders receive an in come when they reach retirement age or if they becom e disabled and stop working; other life insurance policies may help to pay the costs of educating children when they reach college age, or may give extra finan 104 cial protection when the children are young. Life insurance is used in creasingly to protect business inter ests and to guarantee employee ben efits. Property and liability insurance provides financial protection against loss or damage to policyholders’ property and protects the policy holder when he is responsible for injuries to others or damage to other people’s property. This insur ance includes protection against hazards such as fire, theft, and windstorm, as well as workmen’s compensation and other liability in surance. Both life and property and liability companies may sell acci dent and health insurance, which assists policyholders in paying medi cal expenses, and may furnish other benefits for an injury or illness. An increasing number of insur ance policies are written to cover groups— from a few individuals to many thousands. Group policies usually are issued to employers for the benefit of their employees. They most often provide retirement in come and life or health insurance, although some furnish automobile or homeowners coverage. In 1968, group life insurance protected about 43 million workers; the number of policies in force was double the number 10 years earlier. Insurance Workers The insurance business provided jobs for about 1.4 million people in 1970. The great majority were cler ical and sales workers. (See chart below.) Alm ost half of all insurance com pany employees are in clerical and related jobs— a much larger propor tion than in most other industries. These workers keep records of pre mium payments, services, and bene fits rendered to policyholders. The majority are secretaries, stenogra phers, and typists; operators of bookkeeping and other kinds of office machines; or general office clerks. They do much the same kind of work in insurance companies as in other types of business enter prises. Other clerical workers occupy Among the approximately 1.4 million^workers employed in the insurance business almost one-half are in clerical occupations Percent ■^ESTIMATED. 1970 SOURCE: BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 105 INSURANCE OCCUPATIONS positions of responsibility which re quire extensive knowledge of one phase of insurance or more. This group includes cla im a d ju ste rs (D .O .T . 2 4 1 .1 6 8 ) and cla im e x a m in e rs (D .O .T . 2 4 9 .2 6 8 ) who decide whether claims are covered by the policy, see that payment is received on each claim, and when necessary, investigate the circumstances which initiated the claim. (See the state ments on Claim Adjusters and Claim Examiners later in this chap ter.) Salesmen are a key group of workers in insurance companies. About one-third of all insurance workers are sales persons— chiefly agents, brokers, and others who sell policies directly to individuals and. business firms. Agents and brokers usually are responsible for finding their own customers or “prospects,” and for seeing that each policy they sell provides the special kind of pro tection required by the policy holder. (A statement on Insurance Agents and Brokers is included in the chapter on Sales Occupations.) About 1 out of 8 insurance workers is in a managerial position. Managers in charge of local offices, through which most insurance pol icies are sold, often spend part of their time in sales work. Others, who work in home offices, are com pany officials or administrators in charge of actuarial calculations, pol icy issuance, accounting, invest ments, loans, and additional office w ork . The la rg e-sca le in v estm en t activities of many insurance compa nies make financial administration a particularly important area of em ployment. Professionals, employed mainly at home offices, represent about 1 out of 25 insurance workers. These specialists, working closely with the managerial personnel in insurance companies, study insurance risks and coverage problems, analyze in vestment possibilities, prepare finan cial reports, and do other profes sional work. Included among them is the a c tu a ry (D .O .T . 0 2 0 .1 8 8 ), whose job is unique to the insurance field. Actuaries make statistical studies relating to various kinds of risks and, on the basis of these stud ies, determine how large the pre mium rate on each type of policy should be. (See statement on Actu aries.) Another specialist is the u n d e r w r ite r (D .O .T . 1 6 9 .1 8 8 ), who reviews insurance applications to evaluate the degree of risk involved. Underwriters decide whether to ac cept or reject an application for in surance; they also determine which premium rate should apply for each policy issued. (A statement on un derwriters is included in this chap ter.) The work of most other profes sional employees in insurance com panies is fundamentally the same as in other industries. Accountants, for example, analyze insurance com pany records and financial problems relating to premiums, investments, payments to policyholders, and other aspects of the business. Engi neers work on problems connected with policies covering industrial work accidents, damage to in dustrial plants and machinery, and other technical matters. Lawyers in terpret the regulations which apply to insurance company operations, handle the settlement of some kinds of insurance claims, and do other legal work. Investment analysts evaluate real estate mortgages and new issues of bonds and other se curities, analyze current investments held by their companies, and make recommendations on when to hold, buy, or sell. As more electronic computers are installed to handle office records, an increasing number of data processing specialists, in cluding programers and systems an alysts, are being employed. Many companies also employ editorial, public relations, sales promotion, and advertising specialists. About 1 out of 50 workers in the insurance business performs mainte- 106 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK nance or custodial work similar to that required by other large busi ness organizations. Additional information about many of these professional, clerical, and maintenance occupations is contained elsewhere in this H a n d book. Places of Employment Large numbers of insurance workers are employed in California, Connecticut, Illinois, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, and Texas, where the home offices of some of the largest insurance companies are located. Many insurance workers also are employed in agencies, bro kerage firms, and other sales offices in cities and towns throughout the country. Alm ost all sales personnel work out of local offices, whereas the majority of professional and clerical workers are employed in company home offices. More than half of all insurance workers are employed by life insur ance companies and agencies; in cluded in this group are some large companies with thousands of em ployees. Companies which deal mainly in property and liability in surance, although more numerous than the life insurance companies, generally have fewer employees. Many local agencies and sales offices are also small, regardless of the type of insurance they handle. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Insurance offers job opportunities for people having very different ed ucational backgrounds and talents. Some positions require much mana gerial and administrative experience and ability; others require college training in mathematics, accounting, and engineering; but still others in volve only routine duties which can be learned on the job. Graduation from high school or business school is regarded as ade quate preparation for most begin ning clerical positions. Courses in typing, business arithmetic, and the operation of office machines may be valuable. These special skills often are required for jobs in insurance company offices, and this kind of training provides a background of information which helps employees advance to more responsible posi tions. Engineering, accounting, and other professional positions in in surance companies usually require the same kinds of college training as they do in other business firms. Col lege-trained people also are pre ferred for managerial positions, many of which are filled by promo tion from within. In professional and managerial work requiring con tact with the public, as well as in sales work and claim adjusting, the employee should have a pleasant disposition and an outgoing person ality. Since insurance companies often encourage participation in community organizations, he should enjoy working with others in a so cial situation. An employee whose work requires frequent contact with policyholders should inspire confi dence in his ability to protect the customer’s interests. Insurance companies and associa tions of companies and agents offer several kinds of training programs to help employees prepare for bet ter jobs. The Insurance Institute of America, for example, has home study courses for property and lia bility insurance adjusters, claim ex aminers, underwriters, loss preven tion specialists, managerial person nel, and salesmen. The Institute awards certificates to those who pass their examinations. The Amer ican College of Life Underwriters, the National Association of Life Underwriters, and the Life Under writer Training Council offer life in surance courses that stress the serv ices agents may provide to policy holders. Other courses, especially designed to help clerical employees gain a better understanding of life insurance and life insurance com pany operations, relate to the or ganization and operation of both home and field offices. They are given under the auspices of the Life Office Management Association which also provides programs for the development of supervisory and managerial personnel. Employment Outlook Employment in the insurance in dustry is expected to rise moder ately through the 1970’s. New jobs to be filled, plus openings that occur as employees retire or stop working for other reasons, are expected to total many thousands each year. Turnover is particularly high in this industry because of the many young women in clerical jobs who work only for a few years and then leave to care for their families. Still other openings will occur as insurance workers leave their jobs for employ ment in other industries. The expected increase in employ ment will result mainly from a rapidly increasing volume of insur ance business. A growing popula tion will purchase more life insur ance, as well as more insurance which provides retirement income and funds for their children’s educa tion. Others who do not presently have insurance may become policy holders; for example, advances in medical science are making life in 107 INSURANCE OCCUPATIONS surance available to persons who were formerly rejected as poor in surance risks. The need for prop erty and liability insurance also will increase as a rising standard of liv ing enables more individuals and families to own one automobile or more, buy homes, and make other major purchases which are usually insured. In the business world more insurance of this kind also will be required as new plants are built, new equipment is installed, and more goods are shipped throughout the country and the world. Further more, as the coverage of State workmen’s compensation laws is broadened, more employers may need workmen’s compensation in surance. Insurance employment probably will rise at a somewhat slower rate than the volume of business handled by insurance companies. A s addi tional types of coverage become available through group contracts and more multiple-line policies are issued (those which cover a variety of insurance risks formerly covered in separate policies), the workload of sales personnel in local offices will be reduced. As more companies install electronic computers and other equipment to process som e‘df the routine paperwork now done by clerks, changes in insurance com pany employment will occur. The total number of insurance company clerical jobs probably will continue to rise, especially those jobs that re quire special training, but the pro portion of routine jobs is likely to decline. Insurance workers have better prospects of regular employment than workers in many other indus tries. Most businessmen regard property and liability insurance as a necessity, both during economic re cession and in boom periods, and private individuals also attempt to retain as much basic financial pro tection as possible, even when their incomes decline. E&rnings and Working Conditions A 1 9 6 8 -6 9 survey of nonsupervisory employees in insurance compa nies, banks, and related businesses showed a wide range of salaries among the individuals in the compa nies surveyed. Some clerical workers in beginning, routine jobs earned less than $70.00 a week; some experienced employees in more responsible positions earned up to twice that amount. Employees in beginning jobs as junior file clerks averaged $71.50 a week and office girls, $73.00. Switchboard op erators averaged between $87.50 and $99.00, depending upon skill and experience. General stenogra phers averaged $88.00 a week and senior stenographers averaged $100.50. Typists, one of the largest groups covered in the survey, aver aged $79.00 for beginning jobs and $90.50 for experienced workers. The average for accounting clerks ranged from $84.50 to $123.50, de pending on experience and skill. To some extent, these differences in salary levels may be due to dif ferences in the specific job duties of the employees involved, and in the firms for which they worked. Salary levels in different parts of the coun try also vary; earnings are generally lowest in southern cities and highest in northeastern and western metro politan areas. (See chapter on Cler ical and Related Occupations for additional information about the earnings of workers in other office occupations found in insurance com panies.) Starting salaries for professional workers are generally comparable with those for similar positions in other industries and businesses. A c cording to limited information avail able from a private survey of life in surance companies, 1970 college graduates were paid starting salaries ranging between $7,475 and $8,590 a year. Specialists having several years’ experience in insurance may receive annual salaries of $10,000 to $15,000; many earn $25,000 a year or more. Unlike salaried pro fessional workers, agents and bro kers earn commissions on the pol icies they sell. (See the statement on Insurance Agents and Brokers.) Based on limited data, annual salaries for supervisors in life in surance companies ranged from $8,900 to $18,870, depending upon the type of company operation. Salaries for supervisors in property and liability companies ranged from $9,200 to $19,050 a year. Except for agents and brokers, who must sometimes extend their working hours to meet with prospective clients, insurance com pany employees usually work be tween 35 and 40 hours a week. The number of paid holidays is some what greater than in many other in dustries. Two-week paid vacations generally are granted employees after 1 year of service; in most com panies, vacations are extended to 3 weeks after 10 years and, in some, to 4 weeks after 20 years. Practi cally all insurance company workers share in group plans providing life and health insurance, as well as re tirement pensions. Sources of Additional Information General information on employ ment opportunities in the insurance business may be obtained from the personnel departments of major in surance companies or from insur ance agencies in local communities. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 108 Other information on careers in the insurance field is available from: Institute of Life Insurance, 277 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, N.Y. 10038. National Association of Insurance Agents, 96 Fulton St., New York, N.Y. 10038. American Mutual Insurance Alli ance, 20 North Wacker Dr., Chi cago, 111. 60606. For additional information on the salaries of clerical workers in finance industries, including insur ance, see: Area Wage Surveys, Metropolitan Areas, United States and Regional Summaries, 1968-69 (BLS Bulle tin 1625-91, 1970). Superintend ent of Documents, U.S. Govern ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. IN S U R A N C E A G EN TS A N D BRO KERS (D.O.T. 250.258) Nature of the Work Insurance agents and brokers sell policies which protect individuals and businesses against future losses and financial pressures. They also provide their customers with many services related to the insurance they sell. They may, for example, assist in planning the financial pro tection which best meets the special needs of a customer’s family; advise about the types of insurance best suited for the protection of an auto mobile, home, business establish ment, or other property; or help a policyholder in obtaining settlement of an insurance claim. Three basic types of insurance are available— life, property and li ability, and health. Agents and bro kers usually sell one or more of these types of insurance. Some agents also sell equity products, such as mutual fund shares. Life in surance policies pay survivors in the event of the policyholder’s death; they also may provide annuities, funds for the education of children when they reach college age, and other benefits which the policy holder has arranged in anticipation of a future need for these funds. Property and liability insurance pol icies protect policyholders from fi nancial losses which they might oth erwise incur because of automobile accidents, fire and theft, or other hazards. Health insurance policies offer protection against the costs of hospital and medical care or loss of income due to an illness or injury. An insurance agent may be either an insurance company employee or an independent businessman who is under contract to act as the author ized representative of one insur ance company or more. A broker occupies a somewhat different posi tion; he is not under contract to any particular company but places the policies he sells with whatever insur ance company he feels best meets his clients’ needs. In other respects, agents and brokers do much the same kind of work. Agents and brokers spend most of their time discussing insurance policies with prospective customers. Some time must be spent in office work— planning insurance programs that are tailored to prospects’ needs, preparing reports, maintaining rec ords, and drawing up lists of prospective customers. Salesmen who specialize in group policies may help to incorporate an insur ance program into a company’s bookkeeping system. (See chapter on Insurance Occu pations for additional information about life and property and liability insurance com panies.) Places of Employment Of the 350,000 agents and bro kers who sold insurance in 1970, about half specialized in life insur ance; the remainder, in property and liability insurance. Both groups also sold health insurance. Nine out of ten agents and brokers were men. Many additional agents— both men and women— sold insurance on a part-time basis. Insurance agents and brokers are employed in all parts of the country, but the greatest number work in large cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although employers seldom spec ify age limits or formal educational requirements, practically all agents hired in recent years have been at least 21 years of age, and more than half of them have had some college training. Many were college gradu ates. College training, although not essential, may be an aid to the agent in grasping insurance fundamentals and in establishing good personal relationships with prospective clients. Courses in accounting, eco nomics, finance, and business law, as well as courses in insurance sub jects, are considered helpful. A lib eral arts curriculum is equally desir able in preparing the prospective agent. Because an agent’s or broker’s success depends on his sales ability, he must have the initiative to locate new prospects. He also must know insurance fundamentals and be able 109 INSURANCE OCCUPATIONS to explain policy terms clearly. En thusiasm, self-confidence, and a cheerful personality are valuable. All insurance agents and most brokers must obtain licenses in the States where they plan to sell insur ance. In most States, licenses are is sued only to applicants who pass written examinations covering in surance fundamentals and the State insurance laws. Before new agents sell they usu ally receive training at insurance company home offices or at the agencies and brokerage firms where they will be working. Some insur ance companies sponsor classes in sales problems and insurance princi ples. This instruction may be given over a period of several weeks or a few months. In other cases, training takes the form of working on the job under the supervision of experi enced sales personnel. Agents and brokers have oppor tunities to broaden their knowledge of the insurance business by enroll ing in intermediate and advanced courses available at many colleges and universities and by attending in stitutes, conferences, and seminars sponsored by insurance organiza tions. The Life Underwriter Train ing Council (L U T C ) offers courses in life and health insurance for ex perienced life agents. A diploma in life insurance marketing is awarded to graduates who successfully com plete the Council’s 2-year life pro gram. As an agent or broker ac quires experience and broadens his knowledge of the life insurance business, he can qualify for the des ignation Chartered Life Underwri ter (C L U ) by passing a series of examinations given by the Ameri can Society of Chartered Life U n derwriters. In much the same way, a property and liability agent, by passing an examination given by the American Institute for Property and Liability Underwriters, Inc., will qualify for the Chartered Property Casualty Underwriter (C PC U ) des ignation. The CLU and CPCU des ignations are recognized marks of achievement in their respective fields. Insurance agents who demon strate sales ability and leadership may be promoted to sales manager positions in district offices or to managerial positions in home offices. A few may advance to top positions as agency superintendents or company vice-presidents or pres idents. Many agents who have built up a good clientele prefer to remain in sales work. Some, particularly in the property and liability field, eventually establish their own inde pendent agencies or brokerage firms. Employment Outlook Several thousand openings for in surance agents and brokers are ex pected to arise each year through the 1970’s. Some will be new jobs created as employment expands; others will become available as agents and brokers retire or stop working for other reasons. Because the rate of turnover is high among beginners in this occupation, many workers also will be needed to re place insurance agents who enter other types of employment. During the 1970’s, the number of insurance agents and brokers is ex pected to grow moderately. As pop ulation and incomes rise and life ex pectancy increases, more families will depend on life insurance and on policies that provide protection in the form of retirement income, medical care, and funds for a col lege education. Expansion in in dustrial plant and equipment and growth in the number of major con sumer purchases, such as homes or OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 110 automobiles, will contribute to in creased sales of property and liabil ity insurance. Despite the expected increase in the number of policies issued, however, insurance selling will remain keenly competitive as more insurance is sold to groups or by mail and as electronic data proc essing relieves agents of clerical tasks. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginners in this occupation often are guaranteed moderate sala ries or advances on commissions while they are learning the business and building up a clientele. There after, most agents are paid on a commission basis. The size of the commission varies, depending on the type and amount of insurance sold, and on whether the transaction involves a new policy or the renewal of a policy already in force. After a few years, an agent’s commissions on new policies sold and on re newals may range from $8,000 to $20,000 annually. A number of es tablished and highly successful agents and brokers earn $30,000 a year or more. Agents and brokers generally pay their own automobile and traveling expenses. In addition, those who own and operate independent busi nesses must pay office rent, clerical salaries, and other operating ex penses out of their earnings. Although insurance agents usu ally are free to arrange their own hours of work, they often schedule appointments during evenings and weekends for the convenience of clients. Some agents spend more than the customary 40 hours a week on the job. Sources of Additional Information General occupational information about insurance agents and brokers may be obtained from the home office of many life insurance and property and liability insurance companies. Information on State li censing requirements may be ob tained from the department of in surance at any State capital. Information about a career as a life insurance agent also may be ob tained from: Institute of Life Insurance, 277 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. Life Insurance Agency Management Association, 170 Sigourney St., Hartford, Conn. 06105. The National Association of Life Underwriters, 1922 F St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Information about sales training in life and health insurance is avail able from: The Life Underwriter Training Council, 1922 F St., NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20006. Information about property and liability agents and brokers can be obtained from: Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, N.Y. 10038. National Association of Insurance Agents, Inc., 96 Fulton St., New York, N.Y. 10038. C LA IM A D JU STE R S (D .O .T. 241.168, 191.268) Nature of the Work Claim adjusters investigate, nego tiate, and settle claims regarding a policy made by those who have suf fered a loss. Most adjusters work for companies that sell property and liability insurance, although some are assigned claims arising under accident or health insurance pol icies. (See the statement on Claim Examiners for a discussion of claim settlement in life insurance.) Upon receipt of an insurance claim, the adjuster must determine if the loss is in fact covered by the policy; if so, it is his job to decide the amount of the loss. The adjuster investigates all circumstances relat ing to the claim, using a variety of sources such as records, reports, physical data, and witnesses. From an analysis of the facts he draws a conclusion about the extent, if any, of the insurance company’s obliga tion. Sometimes his investigative work may be aimed at determining the extent of a third party’s liability. In the event that a third party bears some responsibility in a loss, the ad juster’s company may collect a por tion of the payment made to the policyholder from this third party or his insurance company. When the adjuster determines that his company is liable, his job is to negotiate with the claimant and settle the case. A claims man must avoid making settlements unduly large in relation to the real value of a loss; at the same time, he must see that valid claims are paid promptly. Some adjusters have the authority to issue a draft on company funds. Others submit a report of their find ings to the insurance company which then pays the claim. INSURANCE OCCUPATIONS Some adjusters work with all lines of insurance. Others specialize in handling claims such as those arising from damage to property by fire; ocean marine Josses; automo bile damage; workmen’s compensa tion losses; or bodily injury. There are two major areas of specialization in claim adjusting: Property claims that result from loss or damage; and claims resulting from bodily injury. Bodily injury negotiations involve specialized knowledge of law and medicine. A claims man frequently advances to this type of adjusting after several years’ work in another adjusting line or as an all-lines adjuster. M ost of an adjuster’s job is car ried on outside his office. He may have to work at a construction site where an accident has occurred, or at the location of a fire or burglary. While the adjuster may spend the greater portion of a working day driving from place to place investi 111 gating claims, this travel usually is within a single city or regional area. A n adjuster is responsible for plan ning his own schedule of activities necessary to the proper disposal of a claim. He also must keep a careful record of his expenses so that his employer can reimburse him. Adjusters increasingly use porta ble tape recorders in their work. These have the advantage of short ening the amount of time an adjust er must spend in personally inter viewing a witness or claimant. Places of Employment An estimated 114,000 claim ad justers were employed in 1970; most were men. Adjusters are em ployed by adjustment bureaus (or ganizations formed by several insur ance companies to settle claim s), by insurance companies, and by inde pendent adjusting firms. Some are self-employed. “Staff” adjusters are on the payrolls of insurance compa nies; independent adjusters may be hired by independent adjusting firms or may contract their services privately for a fee. A small number of public adjust ers represent the insured rather than the insurance company. These adjusters usually are retained by banks, financial organizations, and other business firms to handle fire and allied losses to property. They negotiate claims against insurance companies and deal with the adjust ers for such companies. The beginning adjuster can look forward to working in almost any area of the United States, since claims must be settled locally in all parts of the country. Occasionally, the adjuster may be required to travel to the scene of a disaster, such as a hurricane or a riot, to work with local adjusting personnel. Some cases result in travel outside the United States. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Adjuster discusses loss with claimant. A variety of educational back grounds are adaptable to success in claim adjusting. Although the trend is toward the employment of college graduates and some companies re quire a degree, men without college training are accepted by many firms. Specialized job experience might qualify an individual for employ ment as an adjuster. For example, a person experienced in automobile repair work may qualify as an auto adjuster. It is likely, however, that an adjuster who lacks college train ing will be slower in advancing to senior or supervisory positions. 112 N o specific field of college study is recommended; many successful adjusters have general liberal arts backgrounds. An adjuster whose background is in business subjects or accounting might choose to spe cialize in loss from business inter ruption or damage to stocks of mer chandise. A man with college train ing in engineering or law will find his education helpful in adjusting casualty claims. Legal training is de sirable, although few employers de mand that beginning adjusters have a law degree. Although insurance company ad justers frequently are exempt from State licensing provisions, nearly three-fourths of the States and Puerto Rico require adjusters to be licensed or to pay occupational fees. State licensing regulations vary widely. However, applicants usually must comply with one or more of the following requirements: Pass a written examination covering the fundamentals of adjusting; furnish character affidavits; be 20 or 21 years of age and fulfill certain State residency qualifications; offer proof that they have completed an ap proved course in insurance or loss adjusting; and file a surety bond. Many insurance companies and adjustment firms offer programs for beginning adjusters that combine on-the-job training with home study courses. The Insurance Institute of America also offers an educational program for adjusters leading to the Institute’s Diploma in Insurance Loss and Claim Adjusting. This six-semester study program is open to all adjusters, and the Institute’s diploma is awarded upon success ful completion of six national exam inations. Adjusters can prepare to take these examinations by inde pendent home study, through com pany or public classes, or. by formal OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK college courses in insurance. A pro fessional Certificate in Insurance Adjusting also is available from the College of Insurance in New York City. Regardless of place of employ ment, most adjusters begin their training with an orientation course in general insurance principles. A beginning adjuster is assigned to work on small claims under supervi sion of an experienced adjuster. This training may be given at one of the metropolitan training centers maintained by some large insurance companies or by assignment to a field office. As the trainee adjuster learns more about claim investiga tion and settlement, both through home study and supervised experi ence, he gradually assumes respon sibility over claims that are more difficult to settle or higher in loss value. Because an adjuster’s work brings him into contact with claim ants, witnesses, and policyholders, he must be skillful in adapting to a variety of persons and situations. He should enjoy working with peo ple from different backgrounds and be able to gain their respect and co operation. When an adjuster’s eval uation of a claim differs from that of the person who has suffered the loss, he must exercise considerable tact and diplomacy in explaining the reasons for his conclusions. A n ad juster should be able to converse easily with the persons from whom he seeks information in settling a claim; he must “speak the lan guage” of the police detective, the auto damage appraiser, and the medical specialist, to name a few. Habits of keen observation and careful attention to details are valu able to an adjuster in his work, which demands that he gather all facts pertinent to a claim and weigh them together in making a decision. Promotions to senior or chief ad juster depend upon an individual’s demonstrated performance in han dling his claim assignments, the evaluations of his supervisors, and his progress in any of the study courses available through his com pany, insurance associations or local educational institutions. The adjust er who demonstrates administrative skills may be promoted to supervi sory responsibilities in the claims department of a field office. With continued evidence of his ability to organize work flow and make deci sions, he may advance to a mana gerial position in a branch office or in the home office organization. An adjuster who boasts a background in law might be promoted to trial attorney or legal manager in his firm’s home office. Employment Outlook Employment of claim adjusters is expected to increase at a rapid rate through the 1970’s. In addition to openings as a result of growth in the occupation, many jobs will become available each year from the need to replace experienced claim adjusters who die, retire, or transfer to other fields. The expected rapid growth in employment opportunities for ad justers reflects anticipated expan sion in total volume of insurance sales and resulting claims, especially by property and liability insurance companies which employ most ad justers. Various factors expected to contribute to an expanded volume of insurance sales include continued population growth, rising personal incomes, and changing patterns of consumer demand for goods and services. A rapid rate of new family formation should result in increased purchases of consumer durables, INSURANCE OCCUPATIONS such as household furnishings and appliances, that require insurance protection. Automobile insurance, accounting for nearly half the total volume of property and liability sales in recent years, should grow rapidly as more families purchase second and third vehicles. In addi tion, greater population density will increase the risk of accidents, fires, and thefts, with the effect of stimu lating demand for these types of in surance coverage. Since much of an adjuster’s time is spent in personal contact with claimants and others who must be interviewed regarding a loss, the greater volume of claims should re sult in a substantial increase in em ployment requirements for claim adjusters. Because the nature of an adjuster’s work usually demands on-the-scene investigation of facts and events, it is unlikely that con solidation of field operations will significantly reduce the number of claim adjusters assigned locally. Earnings and Working Conditions According to an American Insur ance Association/A m erican M u tual Insurance Alliance survey of companies selling property and lia bility insurance, the average annual salary of an all-lines adjuster was $9,100 in 1970; salaries generally ranged from $7,300 to $11,800 a year. Adjusters who specialized in ocean marine and cargo claims aver aged $10,200 a year, and their sala ries ranged from $8,300 to $12,600 annually. Adjusters having supervisory re sponsibilities earned average annual salaries of $11,400; their earnings ranged from $9,200 to $14,600. Some supervisory adjusters earned as much as $18,000 annually. Most public adjusters are paid a percent 113 age of the amount of the loss adjust ment— generally 10 percent. An ad juster also may be furnished a com pany car or reimbursed for use of his own vehicle during business hours. Claim adjusting is not a desk job. It requires that a person be physi cally fit since a substantial portion of his day may be spent in driving from one place to another, walking about out of doors, and climbing stairs. An adjuster may be required to work evenings or weekends in order to interview witnesses and claimants when they are available. Since most companies provide both immediate and 24-hour claim serv ice to their policyholders, some ad justers always must be on call. A complicated claim can result in an adjuster’s working long and unusual hours. Claim adjusting is a demanding job and at the same time a challeng ing one that requires imagination and the ability to weigh a group of facts to reach a conclusion. N o claim is precisely like any other, so an adjuster’s work offers the stimu lus of continual variety as well as the satisfaction of helping someone who has suffered a loss. Sources of Additional Information Information about licensing re quirements for claim adjusters may be obtained from the department of insurance in each State. General in formation about a career as a claim adjuster is available from the home office of many property and liability insurance companies. Information regarding claim adjusters also may be obtained from: Insurance Information Institute, 110 William Street, New York, N.Y. 10038 Information about a career as a public insurance adjuster is availa ble from: National Association of Public In surance Adjusters, 1613 Munsey Building, Baltimore, Md. 21202 CLAIM EXAMINERS (D.O.T. 168.288 and 249.268) Nature of the Work Although policyholders expect their insurance claims to be honored promptly, a number of important questions must be answered first. A claim examiner, who also may be known as a claim representative or claim reviewer, investigates details of an insurance loss to provide these answers. His investigation may in clude reviewing claim applications to check completeness and accu racy; interviewing policyholders or medical specialists; consulting pol icy files to verify information on a claim; and calculating benefit pay ments. The claim examiner’s duties vary, depending on the type of insurance sold by his employer. When this is life, accident, and disability insur ance, claim examiners usually are assigned to particular types of claims, such as group or health and disability. These examiners investi gate and approve payment on all claims up to a certain dollar amount. Claims beyond this amount are referred to a senior examiner who has a higher approval limit. In property and liability insur ance companies most of the investi gating is done by c la im a d ju ste rs. (See the statement on Claim Adjust 114 ers for a discussion of claim settle and prepares claim reports. As a re ment in property and liability insur sult, a portion of his time may be ance.) In these companies the claim spent in the preparation and sub examiner usually is a home office mission of data to his company’s employee who reviews insurance data processing section. claims to determine whether adjust To correct errors or omissions on ers are following proper procedures a claim form or to verify question in claim handling. Some property able facts, a claim examiner may and liability (firms employ claim need to correspond with investigat workers to handle small claims, ing companies, field managers, such as those arising over minor agents, and policyholders. Occa property damage to an automobile. sionally, he travels to a field loca These workers are called “inside tion where he obtains this informa adjusters” or “desk adjusters.” tion by personal interview. The ex In both life insurance and prop erty and liability insurance compa aminer who has advanced to this nies, some claim examiners process level of responsibility may be asked only unusual or questionable claims, also to serve on committees, con referred from field or regional duct surveys of claim practices offices to the home office. These ex within his company, and help to de aminers may be responsible also for vise more efficient systems for proc reviewing routine claims settled by essing claims. He may have contact the regional office staffs. This re with State insurance departments view involves determining validity and other companies regarding of the claim and correctness of the claim policies and practices in his decision already made by the firm. A t this level, the claim exam branch office that handled it. The iner’s job demands some knowledge examiner makes this determination of Federal and State insurance laws by comparing data on the processed and regulations, and he also may claim application, death certificate, appear in court to furnish testimony or physician’s statement with the on contested claims. policy file. Regardless of the type of insur ance sold, all claim examiners must develop a thorough knowledge of Places of Employment their company’s settlement proce dures and basic policy provisions. A n estimated 29,000 claim ex They can refer to company claim aminers were employed in the in manuals describing this information surance industry in 1970; about half in detail, but efficient handling of were women. Claim examiners are several claims a day demands that employed by all types of insurance an examiner be familiar enough companies, life as well as property with the manuals to make constant and liability. referral unnecessary. A claim exam Claim examiners work in insur iner must be well acquainted also ance company home offices, in re with company records and forms gional offices, and in field offices. since he frequently works with data The latter frequently are located in furnished by other company divi small towns and cities where the sions. Besides verifying a claim and companies sell and service their in approving its payment, a claim ex surance products. Large regional aminer also maintains claim records offices and home offices are orga OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK nized along similar lines; they have separate departments for underwrit ing, claims, and other major func tions. Although jobs as claim exam iners are available in most areas of the United States, higher level jobs generally are found in regional or home offices. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although many employers prefer to hire college graduates for claim examiner positions, applicants hav ing good high school records are ac cepted by many firms if they have additional experience in clerical work or some college training. However, the type of work per formed in entry level positions dif fers. The employee who has a high school education begins in a clerical job, perhaps as a claim processor in a group life or health department. College graduates, or those having 2 years or more of college training, may begin work as junior claim ex aminers. Although courses in insur ance, economics, or other business subjects are helpful, a major in al most any college field is adequate preparation. College-trained em ployees can anticipate promotion to senior claim representative or claim examiner positions after a year or more; high school graduates usually need several years’ experience be fore advancing to one of these posi tions. Advancement to most super visory claim examiner jobs demands a college education. Although expe rience can sometimes be substituted for a part of the work leading to a college degree, the employee who lacks formal college training gener ally advances at a slower rate. The beginning claim examiner is given on-the-job training under the direction of an experienced claim INSURANCE OCCUPATIONS manager. If the trainee is a college graduate, his on-the-job training may be combined with courses in insurance fundamentals or person nel management designed to pre pare him for supervisory claim work. Many property and liability insurance companies follow a promotion-from-within policy in select ing claim examiners from the ranks of former claim adjusters. The latter have received much of their training for examiner positions through onthe-job experience in adjusting claims. The Life Office Management A s sociation (L O M A ) cooperates with the International Claim Association in offering a Claims Education Pro gram for life and health insurance claim examiners. The program is part of the LOM A Institute Insur ance Education Program leading to the professional designation of FLM I (Fellow, Life Management Institute) upon successful comple tion of eight written examinations. Most insurance companies encour age study by making educational materials available to employees en rolled in the LOM A Institute Pro gram. Many firms offer classroom instruction in preparation for the annual examinations. Certain aptitudes and skills are helpful to the examiner. Since he must communicate, by letter and telephone, with his company’s sales force, field managers, and policy holders, a claim examiner should be able to express himself clearly. Be cause he has written and spoken communication with persons of dif ferent educational backgrounds, he must be flexible in adapting his manner of writing or speaking to the circumstances. In addition, since he has frequent contact with the company’s medical and legal de partments, he needs a knowledge of medical and legal terms and prac 115 tices. Because the claim examiner may need to check premium pay ments, policy values, and other nu merical items in processing a claim, some skill in performing mathemati cal calculations is an asset. This is not a good job choice for a person who overlooks details or one who has a poor memory for facts. Advancement may come by dif ferent routes. The individual who shows unusual competence in claim work sometimes can advance within the claim department— either to the position of claim approver or to an other supervisory claim job. A claim supervisor may have as many as 50 to 60 employees under his di rection, and devotes much of his time to administrative duties and to final approval of unusual claims. Though supervisory claim positions are available in field as well as re gional and home offices, many ex aminers find promotion to a super visory job requires transfer either to a larger branch office or to the com pany home office. A claim examiner with a college education should find opportunity for advancement. It may exist either within the claim department or in a related area of company operations, such as under writing, data processing, or adminis tration. Employment Outlook Employment requirements for examiners are not expected to in crease over the 1 9 7 0 -8 0 period. Although rapid population growth, new family formations, and rising personal income should stimulate growth in insurance sales, the in creased volume of claims is not likely to involve comparable in creases in examiner manpower. Electronic data processing methods and equipment will enable propor tionately fewer claim examiners to process an increased volume of claims, especially those of a routine nature and many that arise under group life and health insurance cov erage. Besides, as smaller banch office operations continue to be con solidated, economies of scale will enable insurance companies to proc ess a rapidly expanding volume of claims with a relatively stable work force. Although openings resulting from employment growth are expected to be limited, some positions will be come available each year of the next decade as claim examiners die, retire, or transfer to other fields. These will be found in metropolitan centers where insurance employ ment is concentrated. Competition for the relatively few supervisory claim openings is expected to be keen. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings vary by type of com pany and location. According to limited information available, an nual salaries for claim examiners employed by life insurance compa nies ranged between $7,700 and $13,050 in 1970. Salaries in the Western United States and in smaller companies were among the lowest. Most claim examiners hired as trainees by life companies earned $6,400 a year or more; claim super visors for these companies had min imum annual salaries of about $10,300. Some supervisors earned $16,000 a year or more. An American Insurance Associa tio n / American Mutual Insurance Alliance survey of property and liability companies provided earn ings data for their claim examiners. In 1970, property and liability claim 116 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK examiners had average annual earn ings of $7,700, and many earned more than $9,800 a year. Claim supervisors employed by these com panies had annual earnings which ranged from $9,200 to $14,600. Claim examiners usually perform their duties in the pleasant work surroundings of large, well-venti lated office buildings. M ost claim examiners work 35 to 40 hours a week, although an examiner may work longer hours at times of peak claim load or when quarterly and annual statements are being pre pared. (See the statement on In surance Occupations for additional information on working conditions and employee benefits.) Sources of Additional Information General information about a ca reer as a claim examiner is available from the home office of many life insurance and property and liability insurance companies and also from: Institute of Life Insurance, 277 Park Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10017 Insurance Information Institute, 110 William Street, New York, N.Y. 10038 UNDERWRITERS (D.O.T. 169.188) Nature of the Work Insurance companies assume mil lions of dollars in risks each year, by transferring chance of loss from their policyholders to themselves. The policyholder pays for this serv ice through regular premiums. An underwriter’s primary function is to select the risks his company will in sure. (The term underwriter some times is used in referring to an in surance salesman; see the statement on Agents and Brokers elsewhere in the H a n d b o o k for a discussion of that occupation.) An underwriter decides the ac ceptability of various types of risks by analyzing information contained in insurance applications, reports of safety engineers, and actuarial stud ies (reports describing the probabil ity of insured lo ss). In making a de cision, the underwriter also checks his company’s established practice. When working in an area not cov ered by rule or precedent, however, he must exercise considerable per sonal judgment. If an underwriter is too conservative in appraising risks, his company may lose business to a competitor. On the other hand, if his underwriting actions are too lib eral, his firm may have to pay too many claims in the future. When deciding that a policy is an acceptable risk, an underwriter may outline the terms of the contract, in cluding the amount of premium. Certain underwriters may perform other duties as well. In a small com pany, for example, they may have duties such as policy issuance or sales management. Underwriters frequently correspond with policy holders, agents, and management personnel about policy cancellation or requests for information. In addi tion, they sometimes accompany salesmen on appointments with prospective customers. Another of the underwriter’s tasks is to judge the need for issuing a policy at a higher than standard premium because extra risk is in volved. In general, the premium rate is figured for an average risk. On a life insurance policy, for ex ample, the rate is based on persons Underwriter discusses information on a customer’s insurance application. in good health who work in occupa tions where there are no substantial hazards. A policy can be issued to those whose health is below normal or whose occupation involves some risk if the underwriter charges a higher premium as compensation. As underwriters gain experience, they are given more difficult cases to evaluate and policies bearing larger face value. In addition, they assume the difficult task of review ing applications to renew policies on which losses already have occurred. More experienced underwriters also help conduct formal or informal training sessions for junior under writers and may supervise clerical staff members who deal with sales men and policyholders. Most underwriters specialize in one of the three major categories of insurance: life, property and liabil ity, or health. In turn, life under writers may specialize in one varia tion or more of life insurance, such as group or individual life policies. These underwriters must thoroughly evaluate medical statistical studies and the applicants’ credit reports in reaching their decisions. INSURANCE OCCUPATIONS The property and liability under writer’s specialty is differentiated by “line” of risk insured, such as fire, automobile, marine, and workmen’s compensation. Fire underwriting demands extensive contact with rat ing bureaus (organizations sup ported by insurance companies to develop premium rates). An auto mobile underwriter, on the other hand, devotes a significant share of his time to analyzing past experi ence as revealed by company statis tics. Some underwriters handle “multi-peril” business insurance ex clusively. These specialists, who are called commercial account under writers, must evaluate a firm’s entire operation in appraising the degree of risk involved in approving an insurance application. A group insurance policy insures all persons in a specified group through a single contract. One duty of the group underwriter is to ana lyze the overall composition of the group insured to be certain that total risk involved is not excessive. Some group underwriters perform other functions similar to those of an insurance salesman (such as meeting with union or employer representatives to discuss the types of policies available to their group). Places of Employment An estimated 55,000 underwrit ers were employed in the insurance industry in 1970. About threefourths were property and liability underwriters, who worked in field or home offices of insurance compa nies. In contrast to the property and li ability part of the business, most life insurance underwriting is performed by home office employees. Some life insurance underwriters work in large regional offices organized along much the same lines as the 117 company home office, that have separate departments for group, in dividual life, and health insurance. Most underwriters are men. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement College graduates are sought in creasingly for entry-level positions in underwriting. Employers usually look for candidates who have de grees in liberal arts or business ad ministration, although a major in al most any college field provides a good general background. Although high school graduates are not barred, their opportunities for ad vancement are limited. They gener ally begin in clerical positions, per haps as underwriting clerks. High school graduates who perform sat isfactorily in such jobs, and demon strate an aptitude for underwriting tasks, then may be trained on the job as underwriters. The entry-level job for a college graduate is generally that of under writing trainee or junior underwrit er. A beginning underwriter usually goes through a training period when he participates in a program of study at the office, and carries out assignments under the direction of an experienced risk appraiser. Dur ing this training period, the beginner may learn from claim files the fac tors associated with certain types of losses and from renewal underwrit ing decisions the experience df the risks his company has insured in the past. Many underwriters supplement their on-the-job training by home study courses and instruction at home office schools or at local col leges and universities. Although most companies do not require it, this supplemental training helps in gaining advancement. Underwriters have a choice of several inde pendent study programs available through insurance associations such as the American Institute for Prop erty and Liability Underwriters; the American College for Life Under writers; the Home Office Life Un derwriters Association and the Institute of Home Office Underwrit ers; and the Life Office Manage ment Association. Many firms pay tuition and the cost of books for those employees who satisfactorily complete courses in underwriting. Some companies also offer salary increases as an incentive. Underwriting can be a satisfying career for a young man or woman who is patient with details and who enjoys relating and evaluating facts. The young person who dislikes being tied to a desk and prefers working with people rather than evaluating facts should consider other career fields. In addition to powers of analysis and good judg ment, an underwriter must be imag inative and aggressive, especially when need arises to obtain addi tional information from outside sources. As an underwriter’s skills de velop, he may be promoted to sen ior underwriter or supervisory un derwriter approving policies with substantial face values and perform ing certain training and administra tive functions. An underwriter who demonstrates competence and who completes available study courses may advance further to a position as chief underwriter or underwriting manager of a department. An un derwriting manager may move on to a senior managerial appointment after several years. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for underwriters are expected to grow 118 moderately during the 1970’s. Many will arise in metropolitan cen ters where insurance workers now are concentrated; others will result from a demand for underwriters to work in field offices, especially in property and liability insurance. In addition to positions created by em ployment growth, many job open ings will result from the need to re place workers who die, retire, or transfer to other fields. Several factors point to an ex panding market for insurance sales through the 1970’s and a resulting need for underwriters. Continued population growth and higher per sonal incomes should stimulate pur chases of life insurance. Property and liability insurance sales should expand with increased purchases of automobiles and other consumer durables. Both spending for new home construction and the Ameri can public’s growing security con sciousness should contribute to de mand for more extensive insurance protection. Heightened competition among insurance companies and changes in regulations affecting in vestment profits also are expected to increase the industry’s need for competent men and women to work in underwriting. Although mechanized handling of routine policy applications may re duce employment opportunities for underwriting clerks, the effect on total employment of underwriters should be negligible. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of life insurance under writers ranged from $7,360 to $12,500 a year in 1970, according to a Life Office Management A sso ciation survey of 79 U.S. compa nies. Earnings differed substantially by area; employees in the South and West averaged lower salaries than those in the Eastern and Central States. Experienced life insurance underwriters employed by compa nies located in metropolitan New York earned annual salaries be tween $10,600 and $15,620; super visors of underwriting in life compa nies earned $11,620 to $21,140 a year. For all levels of life insurance underwriter, salaries were highest in large companies. An American Insurance A sso ciation/A m erican Mutual Insurance Alliance survey of companies en gaged in selling property and liability insurance revealed that underwriters’ annual earnings ranged from $8,560 to $ 1 0,300 in 1970. Earnings varied by line of underwriting specialty; ocean marine underwriters earned the highest annual salaries. Under writing supervisors in property and liability insurance companies aver aged $11,730 annually; some earned nearly $15,000 a year. Most underwriters have desk jobs that require no unusual physical ac tivity. Underwriting is performed in pleasant, quiet surroundings; in gen eral, insurance company offices are spacious and air conditioned during the summer months. Some under writers may work irregular hours when traveling to advise field per sonnel or attending underwriting seminars, or at times of peak load in policy applications. The average work week for an underwriter is 35 to 40 hours, and most insurance companies have liberal paid vaca tion policies and offer other em ployee benefits. Since relatively few underwriting decisions are reviewed at a higher level, the underwriter holds a job of considerable respon sibility. Sources of Additional Information General information about a ca reer as an insurance underwriter is available from the home office of many life insurance and property and liability insurance companies. Information about career opportu nities as an underwriter also may be obtained from: Institute of Life Insurance, 277 Park Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10017 Insurance Information Institute, 110 William Street, New York, N.Y. 10038 American Mutual Insurance Alli ance, 20 North Wacker Drive, Chicago, 111. 60606 M A T H E M A T IC S AND RELATED FIELDS Mathematics is both a profession and a tool essential for many kinds of work. As a tool, mathematics, in the form of mathematical language and methods, has been fundamental to understanding and expressing ideas in science, engineering, and human affairs. The application of mathematical methods in these fields has increased greatly because of the widespread use of electronic computers in the natural sciences, medicine, engineering, and manage ment and administration. As a re sult, employment opportunities for persons trained in mathematics ex panded rapidly through the 1960’s. A young person considering a ca reer in mathematics should be able to concentrate for long periods of time. H e should enjoy working in dependently with ideas and solving problems, and must be able to pre sent his findings in finished reports. This chapter includes descrip tions of the occupation of mathe matician and the two closely related occupations of statistician and actu ary. Entrance into any of these fields requires college training in mathematics. For many types of work, graduate education is neces sary. In addition to professions cov ered in this chapter, many other workers such as natural scientists and those in data processing, dis cussed elsewhere in the Handbook, use mathematics extensively. Secondary school teachers of mathematics are not covered in this chapter but are included in the statement on Secondary School Teachers. MATHEMATICIANS (D.O .T. 020.088) Nature of the Work Mathematics, one of the oldest and most basic sciences, is also one of the most dynamic and rapidly growing professions. Mathemati cians today are engaged in a wide variety of activities, ranging from the creation of new theories to the translation of scientific and mana gerial problems into mathematical terms. Mathematical work may be di vided into two broad classes: pure or theoretical mathematics; and ap plied mathematics, which includes mathematical computation. Theo retical mathematicians develop principles and discover relationships among mathematical forms. They seek to increase basic knowledge without necessarily considering its use. Yet, this pure and abstract knowledge has been instrumental in many scientific and engineering achievements. For example, a seem ingly impractical non-Euclidean ge ometry invented by Bernhard Riemann in 1854 became an integral part of the theory of relativity de veloped by Albert Einstein more than a half-century later. Mathematicians in applied work develop theories, techniques, and approaches to solve problems in the physical, life, and social sciences. They analyze a problem and de scribe the existing relationships in mathematical terms. Their work ranges from the analysis of vibra tions and stability of rockets in outer space to studies of the effects of new drugs on disease. Some mathematicians or mathe matical statisticians— as they are often called, use mathematical the ory to design and improve statistical methods for obtaining and interpret ing numerical information. They de velop statistical tools in areas such as probability, experimental design, and regression analysis. They fre quently work with statisticians when planning and designing experimen tal surveys. Mathematicians analyze problem. 119 120 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK In applied mathematics, mathe matical knowledge and modern computing equipment are used to obtain numerical answers for spe cific problems. Some work in this area requires a very high level of mathematical knowledge, skill, and ingenuity. However, much of the work may not require the advanced training and inventiveness of the mathematician. (See statements on Programers and Systems Analysts.) Applied and pure mathematics are not always sharply separated in practice; many important develop ments in theoretical mathematics have arisen directly from practical problems. For example, in recent years, John V on Neumann devel oped the theory of games of strategy to improve the methods of analyzing conflicts between competing inter ests, such as those occurring in war and economics. Approximately one-fourth of all mathematicians work in research and development. Nearly one-third are primarily college teachers, many of whom do research part-time. A little less than one-third are in man agement and administration— about one-half of whom manage and ad minister research and development programs. Most of the remainder are concerned chiefly with opera tions research or production and inspection (quality control) of man ufactured products. Places of Employment A n estimated 75,000 mathemati cians (including more than 5000 engaged in actuarial work) were employed in the United States in 1970; about 10 percent were women. More than one-half of all mathematicians worked in private industry, primarily in independent research and development firms, and in the ordnance, aircraft, ma chinery, and electrical equipment industries. Other mathematicians were employed as consultants. Colleges and universities em ployed more than one-third of all mathematicians, some of whom have few or no teaching duties. Oth ers were employed by the Federal Government, mostly by the Depart ment of Defense. A few worked for nonprofit organizations and State and local governments. Mathematicians were employed in all States. However, they were concentrated in States having large industrial areas and sizable college and university enrollments. Nearly half of the total were in seven States — California, New York, Massachu setts, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Mary land, and New Jersey. One-fifth reside in three metropolitan areas— New York, N .Y.; Washington, D.C.; and Los Angeles-Long Beach, Calif. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum educational require ment for most beginning positions in mathematics is the bachelor’s degree with a major in mathematics, or with a major in an applied field — such as physics or engineering— and a minor in mathematics. For many entrance positions, particu larly in research or teaching, gradu ate training in mathematics is required. Graduate study is also valuable for advancement to more responsible positions in all types of work. The bachelor’s degree in mathe matics is offered by over 1,200 col leges and universities throughout the country. The undergraduate mathematics curriculum typically includes courses in analytical geom etry, calculus, differential equations, probability and statistics, mathemat ical analysis, and modern algebra. Advanced mathematics degrees are conferred by more than 300 col leges and universities. In graduate school, the student builds upon the basic knowledge acquired in the un dergraduate curriculum. He usually concentrates on a specific field of mathematics, such as algebra, math ematical analysis, statistics, applied mathematics, or topology, by con ducting intensive research and tak ing advanced courses in that field. The bachelor’s degree is ade quate preparation for many posi tions in private industry and the Federal Government, particularly those connected with computer work. Some new graduates having the bachelor’s degree assist senior mathematicians by performing com putations and solving less advanced mathematical problems in applied research. Others work as graduate teaching or research assistants in colleges and universities while working toward an advanced de gree. Advanced degrees are required for an ever-increasing number of jobs in industry and Government— in research and in many areas of applied mathematics. The Ph. D. degree is necessary for full faculty status at most colleges and universi ties, as well as for advanced re search positions. For work in applied mathematics, training in the field to which the mathematics will be applied is very important. Fields in which applied mathematics is used extensively in clude physics, engineering, and op erations research; other fields in clude business and industrial man agement, economics, statistics, chemistry, the life sciences, and the behavioral sciences. Training in nu merical analysis and programing is 121 MATHEMATICS AND RELATED FIELDS especially desirable for mathemati cians working with computers. Employment Outlook In addition to opportunities re sulting from the very rapid growth expected in this field, several thou sand mathematicians will be needed each year to replace those who transfer to other fields of work, re tire, or die. As in the 1960’s, there will be strong demand for mathematicians holding the Ph. D. degree for teach ing and research positions in col leges and universities. N ot only is the number of students majoring in mathematics expected to increase sharply, but the number of students majoring in other fields and taking mathematics courses will rise also. Thus, colleges and universities will continue to provide most of the em ployment opportunities for theoreti cal mathematicians. Mathematicians also will be re quired in substantial numbers to solve an increasingly wide variety of complex research and development problems in engineering, natural and social sciences, military sci ences, operations research, and business management. This work requires a high degree of mathemat ical competence and a broad knowl edge of one of these fields of appli cation. Expenditures to support these research and development ac tivities have increased steadily through the 1960’s and are ex pected to continue to rise, although more slowly than in the past. Between 1970 and 1980, the number of new graduates having degrees in mathematics is expected to at least double. Thus, the number of persons seeking professional mathematics employment is ex pected to rise sharply, and competi tion for entry positions may inten sify. Graduates who have advanced degrees should find favorable em ployment opportunities. Those who have only the bachelor’s degree, however, probably will face keen competition for entry positions. The education and training nec essary for a degree in mathematics is also an excellent foundation for a number of other occupations, par ticularly in fields that rely heavily on the application of mathematical theories and methods. Thus, in creasing numbers of mathematics graduates are likely to be hired for jobs in high school teaching, statis tics, actuarial work, computer pro graming, systems analysis, econom ics, engineering, physics, geophys ics, and life sciences. Employment opportunities in these related fields probably will be best for those stu dents who combine their mathemat ics major with a minor in one of these disciplines. for the master’s degree could start at $9,718 or $11,526; those having the Ph. D. degree could begin at ei ther $13,096 or $14,192 a year. According to the American Mathematical Society, college and university teachers in 1970 were paid median salaries which ranged from $8,700 (instructors) to $18,000 (professors) for 9 months of teaching. Some were paid over $30,000 annually. Mathematicians in educational institutions often sup plement their regular salaries with income from summer teaching, spe cial research projects, consulting, and writing. The average (m edian) annual salary for mathematicians in the National Science Foundation’s N a tional Register of Scientific and Technical Personnel was $14,300 in 1970. Only 10 percent earned less than $9,000 a year, and about 10 percent earned $25 ,0 0 0 or more a year. Earnings and Working Conditions Sources of Additional Information Annual starting salaries in private industry for mathematicians and mathematical statisticians having the bachelor’s degree were between $9,300 and $9,600 in 1970, accord ing to limited available information. New graduates having the master’s degree received starting salaries which ranged between $2,200 and $2,600 a year higher. Yearly sal aries for new graduates having the Ph. D. degree, most of whom had some experience, averaged over $16,000 in 1970. Depending on their college rec ords, mathematicians having bache lor’s degrees and no experience could start in the Federal Govern ment in 1970 at either $7,856 or $9,718. Beginning mathematicians who had completed all requirements General information on the field of mathematics— including career opportunities, professional training, colleges and universities having de gree-credit programs, and earnings — may be obtained from P r o fe s sio n a l T ra in in g in M a th e m a tic s , 250, available from: American Mathematical Society, P.O. Box 6248, Providence, R.I. 02904. P ro fe ssio n a l O p p o r tu n itie s in M a th e m a tic s, 3 5 0 , and G u id e B o o k to D e p a r tm e n ts in th e M a th e m a tic a l S c ie n c e s, 750, both available from: Mathematical Association of Amer ica, 1225 Connecticut Ave. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036. Specific information on careers in applied mathematics and electronic 122 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK computer work may be obtained from: Association for Computing Ma chinery, 1133 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10036. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 33 South 17th St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19103. Information on careers in mathe matical statistics may be obtained from: Institute of Mathematical Statistics, Department of Statistics, Cali fornia State College at Hayward, Hayward, Calif. 94542. Federal Government career in formation may be obtained from any regional office of the U.S. Civil Service Commission or from: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Washing ton, D.C., 1900 E St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20415. Other sources of information on related occupations, such as Statisti cians, Actuaries, Programers, and Systems Analysts may be found elsewhere in the H a n d b o o k . STATISTICIANS (D.O.T. 020.188) Nature of the Work More than ever before, the char acteristics of the world and its in habitants are being described in nu merical terms. Statisticians collect, develop, analyze, and interpret these data based on their knowledge of statistics and of a particular field, such as economics, demography, behavioral science, education, life science, physical science, or engi neering. They may forecast popula tion growth or economic conditions, predict and evaluate the results of new programs, develop quality con trol tests for manufactured prod ucts, or help decision-makers select from alternative choices. Their studies provide government and business officials with the statistical information needed to make deci sions and establish policy. Statisti cians sometimes work closely with mathematicians and mathematical statisticians. (See statement on Mathematicians elsewhere in this chapter.) Many statisticians plan surveys, design experiments, or analyze data. Those who plan surveys select the data sources, determine the type and size of the sample groups, and develop the survey questionnaire or reporting form. They prepare the instructions for those who will col lect or report the information and for the workers who will code and tabulate the returns. Statisticians who design experiments prepare mathematical models that will test a particular theory. Those in analyti cal work interpret collected data and summarize their findings in ta bles, charts, and written reports. Another large group of statisticians chiefly administer statistical pro grams. A few combine research with teaching. The remainder are involved in other activities such as quality control, operations research, production and sales forecasting, and market research. Because statistics has such a wide use, it is sometimes difficult to dis tinguish statisticians from those sub ject-matter specialists making a lim ited use of statistics. For example, a statistician working with data on eco nomic conditions may have the title of economist. 123 MATHEMATICS AND RELATED FIELDS Places of Employment Approximately 2 4,000 statisti cians were employed in 1970; more than one-third were women. Statis ticians are employed in nearly all industries; about two-thirds of all statisticians were employed by pri vate industry. Federal, State, and local Govern ment agencies employed more than one-fourth of all statisticians. The Departments of Commerce; Agri culture; Defense; and Health, Edu cation, and Welfare employed most of those in the Federal Government. Others were employed by colleges and universities, nonprofit organiza tions, and research institutes. Although statisticians were em ployed in all States and areas, about one-third of them worked in three metropolitan areas— New York, N .Y .; Washington, D.C.; and Los A ngeles-L ong Beach, Calif. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in statistics or mathematics is the minimum educational requirement for many beginning positions in sta tistics. For other beginning positions in statistics, however, a bachelor’s degree with a major in economics or some other subject-matter field and a minor in statistics is preferable. A graduate degree in mathematics or statistics is essential for faculty posi tions at most colleges and universi ties, as well as being an asset for ad vancement to top administrative and consulting positions. Advancement in analytical and survey work usu ally requires graduate training in the subject-matter field as well as in sta tistics. Fewer than 100 colleges and uni versities offer training leading to a bachelor’s degree with a major in statistics. Most schools, however, offer either a degree in mathemat ics or a sufficient number of courses in statistics to qualify gradu ates for beginning positions. Courses essential for statisticians in clude college algebra, plane trigo nometry, analytical geometry, dif ferential and integral calculus, lin ear algebra, and at least one course in statistical methods. Other impor tant courses cover sampling correla tion and regression analysis, experi mental design, probability theory, and computer uses and techniques. For many quality control positions, training in engineering and in the application of statistical methods to manufacturing processes is desir able. For many market research, business analysis, and forecasting positions, courses in economics, business administration, or a related field are helpful. Graduate degrees in statistics were conferred by about 60 colleges and universities in 1970, and many other schools offered one or two graduate level statistical courses. Entrance into a graduate program in statistics usually requires a bach elor’s degree with a good back ground in mathematics. The student should attend a school where he can do research in his subject-matter field, as well as take advanced courses in statistics. Beginning statisticians who have only the bachelor’s degree often spend much of their time perform ing routine statistical work. Through experience, they usually advance to positions of greater tech nical and supervisory responsibility. Those who have exceptional ability and interest may be promoted to top management positions. Am ong the personal qualifica tions needed by statisticians are an interest and facility in mathematics, and the ability to translate problems into statistical terms. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for well qualified statisticians are ex pected to be favorable through the 1970’s. In addition to new positions resulting from the rapid growth ex pected in the profession, hundreds of statisticians will be needed an nually to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Statisticians will be required in increasing numbers by private in dustry in quality control work in manufacturing. Those having a knowledge of engineering and phys ical sciences will be needed to work with scientists and engineers in re search and development. Business firms are expected to rely more heavily on statisticians to forecast sales, analyze business conditions, modernize accounting procedures, and solve other management prob lems. Government agencies will need statisticians for on-going and new programs in fields such as social se curity, health, education, and eco nomics. Others will be required to teach the anticipated growing num bers of college and professional school students, especially as the more widespread application of sta tistical methods makes such courses increasingly important to non-math ematics majors. Along with the expected growth in demand for statisticians, a steady increase in the number of statistics graduates is expected. However, in recent years, the number of these graduates was barely enough to re place those statisticians who retired or died. Thus, employment oppor tunities for new college graduates 124 who have degrees in statistics are expected to be very good through the 1970’s. Earnings and W orking Conditions Starting salaries for new college graduates employed as statisticians in private industry generally aver aged between $ 7 ,0 0 0 and $ 8 ,500 a year in 1970, according to the lim ited information available. Salaries for beginning statisticians having the master’s degree averaged about $1,500 a year more than for those having only the bachelor’s degree. In the Federal Government serv ice in 1970, statisticians who had the bachelor’s degree and no experi ence could start at either $6,548 or $8,098 a year, depending on their scholastic records. Beginning statis ticians who had completed all re quirements for the master’s degree could start at $8,098 or $9,881. Those having the Ph. D. degree could begin at $11,905 or $14,192. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK American Statistical Association, 810 18th St., NW„ Washing ton, D.C. 20006. A C T U A R IE S (D.O.T. 020.188) Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 33 South 17th St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19103. Information on Federal Govern ment careers may be obtained from: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Washing ton, D.C., 1900 E St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20414. A list of reading materials on ca reer opportunities in the data proc essing field may be obtained from: Association for Computing Ma chinery, 1133 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10036. Nature of the Work Actuaries are responsible for de signing insurance and pension plans and for maintaining these programs on a sound financial basis. They are concerned with rates of mortality (death), morbidity (sickness), in jury, disability, unemployment, re tirement, and property loss from ac cident, theft, fire, and other poten tial hazards. Actuaries use statistical data and other pertinent informa tion to construct tables on the prob ability of insured loss. They develop and analyze estimates of the insur er’s future earnings and investment income, expenses, and policyholder Statisticians employed by colleges and universities generally earn somewhat less than those employed by private industry and the Federal Government. Some indication of the salary levels of statisticians em ployed as teachers may be obtained from the earnings data for college and university teachers as a group. (See statement on College and University Teachers.) In addition to their regular salaries, statisticians in educational institutions sometimes earn extra income from outside re search projects, consulting, and writing. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportunities in statistics may be obtained from: Actuary works with tables showing sickness and death rates. 125 MATHEMATICS AND RELATED FIELDS claims. Taking all these factors into consideration, actuaries determine the premium rates and policy con tract provisions for each type of in surance offered. Most actuaries spe cialize in either life and health in surance or property and liability (casualty) insurance. To perform their duties effec tively, actuaries must keep abreast of general economic and social trends and legislative, health, and other developments that may affect insurance practices. Because of their broad knowledge of insurance, actuaries frequently work on prob lems arising in investment, under writing, group insurance, and pen sion sales and service departments. Actuaries in executive positions may help determine general com pany policy. In that role, they ex plain complex technical matters to a variety of laymen, such as other company executives and govern ment officials. They also testify be fore public agencies on proposed legislation affecting the insurance business or justify intended changes in premium rates or contract provi sions. Actuaries employed by the Fed eral Government usually deal with a particular insurance or pension pro gram, such as social security (oldage, survivors, disability, and health insurance) or life insurance for vet erans and members of the Armed Forces. Actuaries in State govern ment positions supervise and regu late insurance companies, the oper ation of State retirement or pension systems, and problems connected with unemployment insurance or workmen’s compensation. Consult ing actuaries set up pensions and welfare plans and make periodic evaluations of these plans for pri vate companies, unions, and gov ernment agencies. Places of Employment Approximately 5,200 persons were engaged in actuarial work in the United States in 1970. Over 1,700 had full professional status. Less than 3 percent of all actuaries were women. About one-half of all actuaries were employed in the three States that are the major centers of the insurance industry— N ew York, Connecticut, and Illinois. Private insurance companies em ployed about four-fifths of all actu aries. Most worked for life insur ance companies; the remainder worked for property and liability (casualty) companies. The size of an insurance company’s actuarial staff depends primarily upon the volume of its insurance work. Large companies may employ as many as 50 to 100 actuaries. Small compa nies may have only a few actuaries on their staffs or rely instead on rat ing bureaus or consulting firms. Consulting firms and rating bureaus (associations that supply actuarial data to member companies) em ployed most of the remainder. Sev eral hundred actuaries worked for private organizations administering independent pension and welfare plans or for Federal or State G ov ernment agencies. A few taught in colleges and universities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a thor ough foundation in calculus, proba bility, and statistics is required for entry into actuarial work. The new graduate having a major in fields such as mathematics, statistics, eco nomics, or business administration can usually qualify for beginning ac tuarial positions. The prospective actuary should take courses in alge bra, analytical geometry, differential and integral calculus, mathematical statistics, and probability. Other de sirable courses include insurance law, economics, investments, ac counting, and other aspects of busi ness administration. English and other courses which help develop communication skills also are rec ommended. Although only 17 col leges and universities offer training specifically designed for actuarial careers, several hundred institutions offer some of the necessary courses. It usually takes from 5 to 10 years after entering a beginning ac tuarial position to complete the en tire series of examinations required for full professional status. These examinations cover general mathe matics, specialized actuarial mathe matics, and all phases of the insur ance business. Those considering an actuarial career should take the be ginning examinations covering gen eral mathematics while still in col lege. Success in passing these first examinations helps the beginner to evaluate his potential as an actuary. Those who pass these examinations usually have better opportunities for employment and a higher starting salary. The advanced examinations, usually taken by those in junior ac tuarial positions, require extensive home study and experience in insur ance work. The 10 actuarial examinations for the life insurance and pension field are given by the Society of A c tuaries, and the nine for property and liability (casualty) insurance by the Casualty Actuarial Society. Since the first two parts of the ex amination series of either Society are the same, the student may defer the selection of his insurance spe cialty until he becomes familiar with the field, “Associate” membership is awarded after completion of five examinations in either specialty; the 126 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK designation of “Fellow” is conferred after the successful completion of the entire series of examinations. Employers frequently prefer ap plicants who have passed one or more actuarial examinations, or who have gained actuarial experi ence in special summer training programs for college students of fered by some insurance companies. A beginning actuary usually rotates among different jobs to learn vari ous actuarial operations and to be come familiar with different phases of insurance work. At first, his work may be rather routine, such as pre paring calculations or tabulations for actuarial tables or reports. As he gains experience, he may supervise actuarial clerks and prepare corre spondence and reports. Advancement to more responsi ble work as assistant, associate, and chief actuary depends largely upon the individual’s on-the-job perform ance and the number of actuarial examinations he has successfully completed. Many actuaries, because of their broad knowledge of insur ance and related fields, qualify for administrative positions in other company activities, particularly in underwriting, accounting, or dataprocessing departments. A signifi cant number of actuaries advance to top executive positions. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for actuaries are expected to be excel lent through the 1970’s. New gradu ates who have the necessary mathe matical education and have passed some actuarial examinations will be in particular demand as trainees. Actuarial employment is ex pected to grow rapidly primarily be cause of the rising numbers of in surance policies of all kinds which result, in part, from the existence of an affluent and more insurance-con scious population and business com munity. Actuaries will be needed to solve the growing number of prob lems arising from continuously changing and increasingly complex insurance and pension coverage. The expanding number of group health and life insurance plans and pension and other benefit plans will require actuarial services. Addi tional actuaries will be needed by government regulatory agencies. Demand will continue to be strong for actuaries capable of working with electronic computers. Some ac tuaries also will be needed each year to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other occupa tions. Earnings and Working Conditions Depending on the individual’s college records and experience, a new college graduate entering actu arial work as a trainee in an insur ance company was paid from $8,000 to $9,500 in 1970. Most in surance companies paid $200 to $600 a year more if the trainee had completed his first actuarial exami nation and another $600 to $1,100 when he completed the second ex amination. Depending on their college rec ords, new graduates with the bache lor’s degree entering actuarial work started at either $8,074 or $9,718 a year in the Federal Government in 1970. Those with the master’s de gree started at $11,526. Beginning actuaries can look for ward to a marked increase in earn ings as they gain professional expe rience and successfully complete either Society’s series of examina tions. In insurance companies, merit pay increases are given to those who pass one or a group of the ex aminations. Fellows of either the So ciety of Actuaries or the Casualty Actuarial Society earn over $18,000 a year and many actuaries earn more than $25,000 a year. Those in executive positions in large compa nies earn over $35,000. Sources of Additional Information Information on professional op portunities and qualifications may be obtained from: Casualty Actuarial Society, 200 East 42d St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Society of Actuaries, 208 South LaSalle St., Chicago, 111. 60604. NATURAL SCIENCE O C C U P A T IO N S The natural sciences are con cerned with the physical world and the living things in it. These sci ences may be divided into three broad groups— physical, life, and environmental sciences— all of which are discussed in this chapter. Mathematics, often considered part of the natural sciences, is discussed in a separate chapter elsewhere in the H a n d b o o k . The physical sciences are the largest field of employment among the natural sciences; about 250,000 physical scientists were employed in 1970. Chemistry is the largest of the physical science specialties; more than 135,000 chemists were em ployed in 1970. Smaller num bers were employed as physicists (5 0 ,0 0 0 ) and as astronomers (1 ,4 0 0 ). There were more than 2 0 ,0 0 0 other physical scientists; more than half were metallurgists. An estimated 180,000 life scien tists specialized in 1 of 3 broad fields— agriculture, biology, or med icine. The largest number, more than 70,000, worked in biological sciences. Nearly 50,000 were em ployed as agricultural scientists, and over 60,000 worked on problems related to medical science. The environmental sciences are relatively small fields of scientific employment. In 1970, the number of environmental scientists totaled about 42,000. Of these, the largest group were geologists (2 3 ,0 0 0 ). Smaller numbers were employed as geophysicists (8 ,2 0 0 ), oceanogra phers (6 ,2 0 0 ), and meteorologists (4 ,6 0 0 ). A bachelor’s degree is the usual minimum educational requirement for work in the natural sciences. Graduate training is needed for many positions, especially in teach ing and research, and is helpful for advancement in all types of work. In many fields, advanced degrees are needed for most positions. Employment in the natural sci ences has grown rapidly in recent years and the outlook is for contin ued growth through the 1970’s. Much of the past employment growth resulted from increases in Federal research and development (R& D) expenditures for space, health, and defense related pro grams. During the 1 9 7 0 -8 0 decade R&D expenditures are expected to increase, although at a slower rate than during the 1960’s. The antici pated slowdown in Federal R&D spending basically reflects antici- pated reductions in the relative im portance of the space and defense components of research expendi tures. These trends were evidenced in the late 1960’s and in 1970. Other factors contributing to the ex pected employment growth in the natural sciences are the expansion of industry; the increasing complex ity of industrial products and proc esses; and increased science enroll ments expected in college and uni versities, requiring more teachers. The following chapter presents descriptions of some of the major occupations within the natural sci ences. In addition to these occupa tions, workers in many other fields may require a strong background in the natural sciences. Included are engineering, mathematics, and health service occupations, which are described elsewhere in the H andbook. Environmental Scientists The environmental sciences are concerned with the history, compo sition, and characteristics of the earth’s land, water, interior, atmos phere, and its environment in space. A large group of the scien tists in this field— mainly geologists — explore for new sources of min eral fuels and ores. Some scientists perform basic research to increase scientific knowledge. Others work mainly in applied research; they use knowledge gained from basic re search to solve practical problems. Meteorologists, for example, apply scientific knowledge of the atmos phere to forecast weather condi tions for specific localities and times. Some of these environmental scientists teach in colleges and uni versities. Others may administer sci entific programs and operations. Environmental scientists also have an important role in solving the problems of a polluted environment. Many environmental scientists specialize in one particular branch of their broad occupational field. This chapter discusses the spe cialties and the employment outlook for four environmental science oc cupations— geologists, geophysicists, meteorologists, and oceanographers. GEOLO GISTS (D.O.T. 024.081) Nature of the Work Geologists study the structure, composition, and history of the earth’s crust. Many geologists spend a large amount of their time in field 127 128 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK work. They examine rocks, miner als, and fossils to determine the dis tribution and relationship both at and beneath the earth’s surface. They also gauge the thickness, di rection, and slope of rock layers under the earth’s surface through rock cores and cuttings by drilling deep into the earth. Geologists also search for natural resources such as coal and water. Exploration usually requires special skills in rock and mineral identification, surveying, map making, data gathering, and technical note taking. Geologists also spend considerable time in lab oratories where they examine items or specimens obtained from field work under controlled temperature and pressure conditions. Research includes analysis of physical and chemical properties of minerals, ex periments with the flow of water and oil through rocks of various kinds, and study of fossil remains of animal and vegetable life. G eolo gists use a variety of complex in struments such as the X-ray dif fractometer, which determines the structure of minerals, and the petro graphic microscope, which permits close study of rock formations and modifications by earth processes. Common tools used by many field geologists include plane tables, lev els, transits, well logs, gravity me Geologist makes photo micrographs of rock. ters, seismographs, magnetometers, aneroid barometers, hammers, cam eras, and pocket lenses. Some geologists administer re search and exploration programs. Others teach and work on research projects in colleges and universities. Geologists usually specialize in one or a combination of three general areas— earth materials, earth proc esses, and earth history. Geologists concerned with earth materials search for and develop mineral and fuel resources (oil, water, coal, and gas) and examine and classify rocks and fossils accord ing to their chemical and physical properties. They also try to deter mine the origin, distribution, and migration of certain materials in or on the earth’s crust. E c o n o m ic g e o l o g is ts find and sometimes supervise the development of mineral and solid fuel resources. P e tro le u m g e o lo g is ts specialize in the discovery and recovery of liquid fuels— oil and natural gas. Some petroleum geologists spend much time near drilling sites, while others interpret regional geologic data to provide a broad framework of petroleum-re lated geologic knowledge. E n g in e e r in g g e o lo g is ts apply geological knowledge to engineering problems in the construction of roads, air fields, tunnels, dams, and other large structures. They determine, for example, whether underground rock layers will bear the weight of vari ous structures and buildings, and advise industrial and residential planners. P e tr o lo g is ts classify and determine the origin of rock masses. M in e r a lo g ists examine, analyze, and classify minerals and precious stones according to composition and structure. G e o c h e m is ts study the chemical composition and changes in minerals and rocks to understand better the distribution and migration of elements in the earth’s crust. NATURAL SCIENCE OCCUPATIONS specialize in the sources, movement, quality reserves, and availability of subsur face water for human consumption and for industry and agriculture. Geologists investigating earth processes determine the nature and origin of landforms and their con stituents such as rock masses and sedimentary deposits. They also are concerned with eruptive forces such as volcanoes, and the effects of at mospheric conditions producing erosion or glaciation. V o lc a n o lo g ists study active and inactive volcanoes, lava flows, and other eruptive activ ity. They also try to determine the composition of the earth and the elements composing its core. S e d im e n to lo g is ts investigate sedimentary rocks to determine their characteris tics and formation processes such as erosion, and deposition. G e o m o r p h o lo g is ts study landforms on the earth’s surface and its change, in cluding erosion and glaciation, which cause or change them. Geologists specializing in earth history try to understand and ex plain the earth’s development by determining the age, position, and nature of its fossils. P a le o n to lo g is ts trace the evolution and develop ment of past life by studying fossil ized remains of plants and animals in geologic formations. G e o c h r o n o lo g ists determine the ages of rocks, ore deposits, or various landforms by radioactive decay of one element or more. S tra tig r a p h e rs study the distribution and relative arrange ment of sedimentary rock layers by analyzing their fossil and mineral content. Increasing numbers of geologists specialize in new fields that require a detailed knowledge of both geol ogy and one or more other sciences. Among these specialists are A s tr o g e o lo g is ts who are concerned with the geology of extra-terrestrial bod G r o u n d -w a te r g e o lo g is ts 129 ies. They and apply geology in the M oon work with lunar maps, knowledge of the earth’s studies of conditions on and the planets. C o m p u te r g e o lo g is ts use computers and statistical analysis to solve geologic problems. G e o lo g ic a l o c e a n o g r a p h e r s study the sedimentary and other rocks on the ocean floor and continental shelf. (See statements on Oceanographers and M ining.) Places of Employment Approximately 23,000 geologists were employed in the United States in 1970, almost 4 percent were women. Nearly three-fifths of all geologists worked for private indus try, mostly for petroleum and natu ral gas producers. A number of the employees of American petroleum companies worked in foreign coun tries. Geologists also are employed by mining and quarrying companies. Some geologists specialized in prob lems related to the construction of dams, bridges, buildings, and high ways. Still other geologists worked as independent consultants offering specialized services to industry and government. The Federal Government em ployed more than 1,700 geologists, two-thirds of whom worked for the Department of the Interior in the U.S. Geological Survey, the Bureau of Mines, and the Bureau of R ec lamation. State agencies also em ployed geologists, some of whom worked on surveys conducted in cooperation with the U.S. Geologi cal Survey. Although a few posi tions were in foreign countries, most Federal jobs were in the United States. Colleges and universities em ployed more than 6,000 geologists. A few others worked for nonprofit research institutions and museums. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Young people seeking profes sional careers in geology should plan to earn an advanced degree. The master’s degree is required for beginning research and teaching and for most positions in exploration. Advancement in college teaching as well as in high-level research and administrative posts usually requires the Ph. D. degree. The bachelor’s degree is considered adequate train ing for only a few entry jobs, pri marily in exploration work. More than 330 colleges and uni versities offer the bachelor’s degree in geology. In the typical under graduate curriculum, students de vote about one-fourth of their time to geology courses, including histor ical geology, structural geology, mineralogy, petrology, and inverte brate paleontology. About another third of the work is in mathematics, the related natural sciences— such as physics and chemistry— and in engineering; the remainder is in general academic subjects. Statistics and computer usage also are recom mended. More than 160 universities award advanced degrees in geology. Grad uate students take advanced courses in geology and specialize in one branch of the science. Geologists usually begin their ca reers on field projects, which in cludes field mapping, or some type of field exploration. Some begin in laboratories as research assistants. After suitable experience, they can be promoted to project leaders, pro gram managers, or other positions in management or research. The student planning a career in exploration geology should like out door activities and have the physical stamina for geological field work. An increasing amount of the work, 130 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK formerly done in the field, is now accomplished by photogeology, a technique involving the use of color film, infrared and radar imagery to map general geologic features. In addition, a growing number of spe cialities are laboratory-oriented. For the most part, geologists work as a team. A curious and ana lytical mind is necessary in working with complex geological problems. Geologists should be able to adapt to changes brought about by travel to distant points. The ability to ex press oneself orally and in writing also is important. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for geologists having advanced degrees are expected to be - favorable through the 1970’s. However, those having a bachelor’s degree probably will face keen competition for entry positions, and may have to enter semiprofessional positions, such as technician or surveyor. Demand for geologists is ex pected to grow moderately in Fed eral agencies, particularly the U.S. Geological Survey. College and uni versity employment probably will rise slightly, mainly for those having Ph. D. degrees capable of perform ing high-level research. Good opportunities exist for those with training in geology out side the field. For instance, geolo gists may take training to qualify as science teachers in secondary schools. These positions probably will increase very rapidly in the next decade. Replacement of geologists who are promoted to managerial posi tions, or who transfer to other fields, die, or retire, however, are expected to be the chief source of openings. A s world population expands and nations become more industrialized, demand for petroleum and minerals will rise, and increasing numbers of geologists will be required to locate these resources. Geologists also will be needed to devise techniques for exploring deeper within the earth’s crust and to work with engineers to develop more efficient methods of recovering natural resources. In creased construction activity de mands sand, gravel, and other mate rials, as well as good building sites. Geologists also will be needed to help find and maintain adequate water supplies, and to develop waste disposal methods which do not contaminate water. Increased emphasis on the environment by urban societies also should affect re quirements for geologists. For ex ample, pollution control, land use and reclamation, and highways and other large construction programs all require the assistance of geolo gists. Space activities will require geol ogists to analyze data from the M oon and planets. They also will play an important role in setting up computer systems to store and re trieve geologic data. The nature of domestic petro leum exploration may alter the need for geologists from year to year, and short-run demand can either exceed or fall short of the number availa ble. However, indications are that employment prospects in petroleum and mineral extraction will be less favorable in the future than they have been in the past. Earnings and Working Conditions The average (m edian) annual starting salary for new geology graduates who have a bachelor’s de gree was $8,650 in private industry in 1970 according to the American Geological Institute’s annual survey. N ew graduates who have a master’s degree averaged $10,500 a year to start. Starting salaries for those who have doctor’s degrees averaged $12,000 a year. Depending on their college rec ords, new graduates who have a bachelor’s degree could begin at ei ther $8,510 or $9,448 a year in 1970 in the Federal Government. Those who have a master’s degree could start at $9,448 or $10,539 and those who have the Ph. D. de gree, at $11,905 or $14,192. According to the National Sci ence Foundation’s National Regis ter of Scientific and Technical Per sonnel, the average (m edian) an nual salary of earth scientists in 1970 was $14,900. Only 10 percent of the earth scientists earned less than $10,000 and about 10 percent earned more than $23,100. Teachers often supplement their regular salaries with income from research, consulting, or writing. Extra allowances generally are paid geologists for work outside the United States. The work of geologists is often active and sometimes strenuous. When their work is outdoors, geolo gists may be exposed to all kinds of weather. Many geologists travel a great deal and may do field work away from home for long periods. Their hours of work often are un certain because their field activities are affected by weather and travel. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportunities, training, and earnings for geologists may be obtained from: American Geological Institute, 2201 M St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20037. 131 NATURAL SCIENCE OCCUPATIONS Information on Federal Govern ment careers may be obtained from: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Washing ton, D.C., 1900 E St. NW„ Wash ington, D.C. 20415. G E O P H Y S IC IS TS (D.O.T. 024.081) Nature of the Work Geophysics is an overall term covering a number of sciences con cerned with the composition and physical aspects of the earth— its size and shape; interior; surface; atmosphere; the land and bodies of water on its surface and under ground; and the environment of the earth in space. Geophysicists study the earth’s physical characteristics, such as its electric, magnetic, and gravitational fields; the earth’s inte rior heat flow, vibrations, and solar radiation. To conduct their investi gations, geophysicists apply the principles and techniques of physics, geology, meteorology, oceanogra phy, geodesy, mathematics, chemis try, and engineering. They use many instruments, including highly com plex precision ones such as the seismograph, which measures and records the transmission time and magnitude of earthquake waves or vibrations through the earth; the magnetometer which measures var iations in the earth’s magnetic field; and the gravimeter which measures minute variations in gravitational attraction. Many tests are conducted in outer space by satellites or inter planetary space probes. In geophys ical exploration, increasing use is made of electronic computers to col lect and process pertinent data. Geophysicist uses seismograph to study earth vibrations. Geophysicists usually specialize in one of three general phases of the science— solid earth, fluid earth, and upper atmosphere. Geophysicists engaged in work related to the solid earth are con cerned with the location of oil and mineral deposits, accurate mapping of the earth’s surface, and the be havior of the earth’s crust and its properties under the great pressures from its interior. E x p lo r a tio n g e o p h y s ic is ts search for oil and mineral deposits, using the knowledge of earthquake vibra tions, the magnetic field, gravita tional attraction, and other basic geophysical techniques. Others con duct research, usually to develop new or improved techniques and in struments for prospecting. S e is m o lo g is ts study the structure of the earth’s interior and the vibra tions of the earth caused by earth quakes and manmade explosions. They may explore for oil and min erals, provide information for use in designing bridges, dams, and build ings in earthquake regions, or study the problems involved in detecting underground nuclear explosions. Seismologists also play an important role in interpreting data received from the seismograph set up on the moon during the Apollo 12 mission. G e o d e s is ts study the size, shape, and gravitational field of the earth. Their principal task is the accurate mapping of the earth’s surface. With the aid of orbiting satellites, geodes ists study the earth’s surface by de termining the positions, elevations, and distances between points on or near it, measure the intensity and direction of gravitational attraction, and determine the distribution of mass within the earth. As man pen etrates deeper into space, this task will be extended to other celestial bodies. 132 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK H y d r o lo g is ts are concerned pri marily with the fluid earth phase. They study the surface and under ground waters in the land areas of the earth, with regard to their oc currence, circulation, distribution, and physical properties. Hydrolo gists measure rivers and streams, study rainfall, and investigate gla ciers, snow, and permafrost. In practical application, some hydrolo gists are concerned with water sup plies, irrigation, flood control, and soil erosion. (Oceanographers, sometimes classified as geophysical scientists, are described elsewhere in this chapter.) Geophysicists involved in the up per-atmosphere phase investigate the forms and properties of the earth’s magnetic and electric fields, and its upper and outer atmosphere. In doing so, some compare and con trast the composition and atmos phere of the Moon, the Sun, and the planets to that of the com posi tion and atmosphere of the earth. G e o m a g n e tic ia n s a n d A e r o n o m is ts are concerned with the earth’s mag netic field— its variations, courses, and forms in space— and with many aspects of space science. P a le o m a g n etic ia n s learn about past magnetic fields from rocks or lava flows that captured the earth’s magnetism when they solidified. T e c to n o p h y s ic ists study the structure of moun tains and ocean basins, the prop erties of materials forming the earth’s crust, and the physical forces that formed the mountains and the ocean basins. P la n e to lo g ists study the composition and atmos phere of the M oon, planets, and other massive bodies in the solar system. They depend on the findings of deep space probes manned by as tronauts or equipped with geophysi cal instruments. Geophysicists studying solar-planetary relation ships are concerned not only with the Sun’s warming rays and visible light but also with its radio, in frared, ultraviolet, X-ray, and ener getic particle radiations. These phenomena are investigated by means of radio beams from the earth’s surface, and by instruments on satellites and deep space probes. Meteorologists, sometimes classified as geophysical scientists, are dis cussed separately in this chapter, as is the closely related occupation of geologists. (See also the statement on “Mining” .) Places of Employment More than 8,000 geophysicists were employed in the United States in 1970. Private industry employed the majority, chiefly in the petro leum and natural gas industry. Other geophysicists were employed by mining companies, exploration and consulting firms, and research institutions. A few were in business for themselves as consultants and provided services on a fee or con tract basis to companies and indi viduals engaged in prospecting or other activities using geophysical techniques. Geophysicists in private industry were employed mainly in the south western and western sections of the United States, including the Gulf Coast, where most of the country’s large oil and natural gas fields and mineral deposits are located. Some geophysicists employed by Ameri can firms are assigned to work in foreign countries for varying periods of time. In 1970, Federal Government agencies employed nearly 1,900 geophysicists, geodesists, and hy drologists, mainly in the U.S. G eo logical Survey; the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (N O A A ); the Army Map Service; and the Naval Oceanographic Office. Colleges and universities, State governments, and nonprofit research institutions employed small numbers of geophysicists. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in geophysics or in one of the geo physical specialties qualifies young persons for many beginning jobs in exploration geophysics. A bache lor’s degree in a related science or in engineering also is adequate preparation for many beginning jobs, especially in geophysical ex ploration. However, this study should include courses in geophys ics, physics, geology, mathematics, chemistry, and engineering. Some background in electronic data proc essing is useful. For geophysical specialties other than exploration, and for the more responsible positions in exploration work, graduate education in geo physics or in a related physical sci ence usually is required. A doctor’s degree with a major in geophysics, or in a related science with ad vanced courses in geophysics, gen erally is required for teaching careers. The Ph. D. is required frequently for positions involving fundamental research and for ad vancement in most types of geo physical work. The bachelor’s degree in geo physics is awarded by more than 55 colleges and universities. These un dergraduate programs provide train ing, chiefly in exploration geophys ics. Other curriculums that offer the required training for beginning jobs as geophysicists include geophysical technology, geophysical engineer ing, engineering geology, petroleum geology, and geodesy. 133 NATURAL SCIENCE OCCUPATIONS The master’s degree and Ph. D. in geophysics are granted by about 70 universities. For admission to a graduate program, a bachelor’s de gree and a good background in geology, mathematics, physics, or engineering, or a combination of these subjects are the usual require ment. In general, the graduate stu dent should attend a school in which he can take advanced courses and carry out research projects in the aspect of geophysical science in which he has a special interest. Beginning geophysicists having only the bachelor’s degree are usu ally given on-the-job training in the application of geophysical principles to their employers’ projects. If a new employee has not taken the courses in geophysics needed for his job, he is taught geophysical meth ods and techniques on the job. Federal Government agencies also have training programs in which a few geophysicists are sent each year to universities for gradu ate training. Some Federal Govern ment agencies provide a few sum mer jobs for promising undergradu ates and make permanent positions available to them after graduation. Generally, young geophysicists begin their careers in the field, en gaged in either field mapping or ex ploratory activities. Others may as sist senior geophysicists in a re search laboratory. Advancement may be to project leader, program manager, or another management or top research position. The prospective geophysicist should be energetic and in excellent health, since geophysicists often have to work outdoors under som e what rugged conditions. A willing ness to travel is also important, since a geophysicist may be re quired to move from place to place in the course of his employment. Young students planning careers as geophysicists should be adaptable to these changes. Geophysicists generally work as part of a team. A curious and ana lytical mind is necessary in working with complex geophysical problems. The ability to express oneself both orally and in writing also is impor tant. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for new graduates having degrees in geophysics are expected to be good through the 1970’s. Opportunities will be best for those having the master’s or doctor’s degree. There also should be favorable opportuni ties in geophysical work for wellqualified people having degrees in other sciences if they have had some formal training in geophysics. Very rapid growth is expected in this profession through the 1970’s. Federal Government agencies will need specialists for new or ex panded geophysical programs. The petroleum and mining industries will need geophysicists for explora tion activities, which are expected to expand in the 1970’s. Several hundred new geophysicists also will be needed each year to replace those who leave the profession, re tire, or die. Although the number of job openings for geophysicists is not ex pected to be large in any 1 year, the number of new graduates having degrees in the science also is ex pected to be small. As in past years, the number of geophysics graduates who are seeking work as geophysi cists probably will be insufficient to meet employers’ needs, and welltrained persons having degrees in related sciences and in engineering probably will continue to be hired for geophysical positions. Over the long run, further growth in the profession is expected. As in creasing population leads to more demand for petroleum and mineral products, both the mining industry and the petroleum industry indicate plans to increase their employment of geophysicists. They will be needed to operate highly sophisti cated electronic equipment to find the more concealed fuel and min eral deposits, in the face of antici pated slow-downs in conventional exploration activities. In addition, persons with ad vanced training in hydrology, seis mology, geodesy, and other geo physical specialties will be needed for increasingly important basic re search as well as for development of new techniques and instruments. In the Federal Government, more geo physicists will be needed to study problems of the Nation’s water sup ply and mineral resources and to work on both flood control, and airpollution control and abatement measures. They may be needed also to do research into radioactivity and cosmic and solar radiation as well as to help with exploration of the outer atmosphere and space, through the use of vehicles such as sounding rockets and artificial satellites. G eo physicists also will be needed to es tablish workable systems for infor mation storage and retrieval for geophysical libraries. Earnings and Working Conditions In private industry in 1970 new graduates having bachelor’s degrees typically received average starting salaries of $8,650 a year, according to the American Geological Insti tute’s annual salary survey. New graduates having master’s degrees averaged $10,500 a year to start. Beginning salaries for those who 134 have doctor’s degrees averaged $12,000 a year. In private industry, geophysical scientists working out side the United States usually re ceived bonuses and allowances. In the Federal Government in late 1970, graduates having bache lor’s degrees and no experience could enter m ost types of geophysi cal work at either $8,292 or $10,258 a year, depending upon their college records. Those who had completed all requirements for the master’s degree could start at $10,258 or $11,526; those having the Ph. D. could start at $13,096 or $14,192. In the Federal Govern ment as in industry, geophysicists stationed outside the United States are paid an additional amount. According to the National Sci ence Foundation’s National Regis ter of Scientific and Technical Per sonnel, the average (m edian) an nual salary of earth scientists in 1970 was $14,900. Only 10 percent of the earth scientists earned less than $10 ,0 0 0 and about 10 percent earned more than $23,100. In educational institutions, start ing salaries are generally lower than in private industry or in the Federal Government. University teachers, however, may supplement their in come by consulting, writing, or re search activities. The work of geophysicists is often active and sometimes strenu ous. Exploration geophysicists are subject to reassignment in various locations as exploration activities shift. Their working hours may be irregular and frequently are deter mined by the requirements of field activities. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportunities, training, and earnings OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK for geophysicists may be obtained from: American Geophysical Union, 2100 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20037. Society of Exploration Geophys icists, P. O. Box 3098, Tulsa, Okla. 74101. Information on Federal Govern ment careers may be obtained from: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Washing ton, D.C., 1900 E St. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20415. METEOROLOGISTS (D.O.T. 025.088) Nature of the Work M eteorology is the study of at mospheric phenomena— not only of the earth, but of all celestial bodies. Meteorologists attempt to describe and understand the atmosphere’s constituents, motions, processes, and influences. Their knowledge helps solve many practical problems in agriculture, transportation, com munications, health, defense, and business. Meteorologists usually specialize in one branch of the science. Weather forecasters, known profes sionally as s y n o p tic m e te o r o lo g is ts , are the largest group of specialists. They interpret current weather in formation (such as air pressure, temperature, humidity, wind veloc ity) reported by observers in many parts of the world and by radio sondes and weather satellites. They use their interpretations to make short- and long-range forecasts for specific regions. Some forecasters still prepare and analyze weather maps, but most interpret data di rectly from computers. C lim a to lo g ists analyze past records on wind, rainfall, sunshine, temperature, and other weather data for a specific area to determine the general pat tern of weather which makes up the area’s climate. P a le o c lim a to lo g is ts study historical climate conditions. Such studies are useful in planning heating and cooling systems, design ing structures, and aiding in effec tive land utilization. D y n a m ic m e te o r o lo g is ts investigate the physical laws governing atmospheric mo tions. These motions range from the great global atmospheric circula tions around the earth and other planets, to restless eddies (contrary movements of air). P h y sic a l m e te o r o lo g is ts study the physical nature of the atmosphere, including its chemical composition and electrical, acoustical, and optical properties. They study also the effect of the at mosphere on transmission of light, sound, and radio waves, as well as factors affecting formation of clouds, precipitation, and other weather phenomena. M e te o r o lo g i c a l in stru m e n ta tio n s p e c ia lis ts de velop the devices that measure, re cord, and evaluate data on atmos pheric processes. For example, some of these instruments are used to measure size and number of drop lets in a cloud, structure of winds, and pressure, humidity, and temper ature miles above the earth. Specialists in applied meteorol ogy, sometimes called in d u stria l m e te o ro lo g ists, study the relationship between weather and specific human activities, biological proc esses, and agricultural and in dustrial operations. For example, they make weather forecasts for in dividual companies, attempt to in duce rain or snow in a given area, and work on problems such as NATURAL SCIENCE OCCUPATIONS 135 electronic computers to tabulate and file large amounts of data. A number of meteorologists teach or do research— frequently combining the two activities— in universities or colleges. In colleges without separate departments of meteorology, they may teach geog raphy, mathematics, physics, chem istry, or geology, as well as meteor ology. Places of Employment Nearly 4,400 civilian meteorolo gists were employed in the United States in 1970; approximately 2 per cent were women. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis tration (N O A A ), which includes the National Weather Service, em ployed by far the largest number of civilian meteorologists— nearly 2,000— at 300 stations in all parts of the United States, the polar re gions, Puerto Rico, Wake Island, and other Pacific area sites. A few worked for other Federal Govern ment agencies. The Armed Forces employed more than 300 civilian professional meteorologists. Meteorologist compares predicted circulation patterns with those of previous years. smoke control and air pollution abatement. Alm ost one-third of all civilian meteorologists are engaged in re search and development. They are concerned, for example, with devis ing mathematical models of atmos pheric motion as an aid to changing weather conditions, or in carrying out experiments designed to modify the formation of rain. Approxi mately one-third are engaged pri marily in weather forecasting, and about one-fourth manage or admin ister forecasting and research pro grams. In both weather forecasting and research, meteorologists use More than 800 meteorologists worked for private industry. Com mercial airlines employed several hundred to forecast weather along flight routes and to brief pilots on atmospheric conditions. Others worked for private weather consult ing firms, which provided special weather information for a fee, for companies that designed and manu factured meteorological instru ments, and for large firms in aero space, insurance, utilities, and other industries. Colleges and universities em ployed more than 1,000 meteorolo gists in research and teaching. Sev eral hundred others worked for 136 State and local governments and for nonprofit organizations. In addition to these civilian me teorologists, more than 2,400 officers and 1,500 enlisted members of the Armed Forces were engaged in forecasting and other meteorolog ical work in 1970. Although meteorologists are em ployed in all States, nearly two-fifths were located in just two States— California and Maryland. More than one-tenth of all meteorologists were employed in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in meteorology is the usual mini mum educational requirement for beginning meteorologists in weather forecasting. However, a bachelor’s degree in a related science or in en gineering is acceptable for many po sitions, provided the applicant has credit for courses in meteorology. For example, the Federal Govern ment’s minimum requirement for beginning positions is a bachelor’s degree, at least 20 semester hours of study in meteorology (6 hours each in synoptic meteorology and dy namic m eteorology) and additional training in physics and mathematics, including calculus. For research and teaching and for many top-level positions in other meteorological activities, an ad vanced degree is essential, prefera bly in meteorology. However, per sons having graduate degrees in other sciences also may qualify if they have taken advanced meteorol ogy, physics, mathematics, and chemistry. About 55 colleges and universi ties in 1970 offered degree-credit programs in meteorology or special OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK ized meteorological disciplines; 32 of these schools granted advanced degrees in the atmospheric sciences. Many other institutions offered courses in meteorology. M eteorology training is given or supported by the Armed Forces. In 1970, more than 500 commissioned officers received university training in meteorology at either the under graduate or graduate level. In addi tion, over 200 enlisted personnel were being sponsored in college and university programs leading to an undergraduate degree and commis sion. Ex-servicemen who have ex perience as meteorologists fre quently are qualified for civilian me teorologist positions, not only with the Armed Forces, but with other employers as well. The N O A A has an in-service training program under which some of its meteorologists are attending college for advanced or specialized training. Some college students pre paring for careers in meteorology may obtain summer jobs with this agency. Promotions for regular full-time employees are made ac cording to U.S Civil Service Com mission regulations. (See chapter on Occupations in Government.) Meteorologists in the Federal Government generally begin their careers in 2-year training positions at weather stations. Duties include making weather observations, brief ing pilots, and disseminating weather forecasts. Advancement is to assistant forecaster, and fore caster. Airline meteorologists have somewhat limited opportunities for advancement. However, after con siderable work experience, they may advance to flight dispatcher or to various supervisory or adminis trative positions. A few well-trained meteorologists having a background in science, engineering, and busi ness administration may establish their own weather consulting serv ices. Employment Outlook The employment outlook for ci vilian meteorologists is expected to be favorable through the 1970’s. In addition to job opportunities result ing from the rapid growth expected in this profession, several hundred new meteorologists will be needed each year to replace those who transfer to other fields, retire, or die. Meteorologists having advanced degrees will be in demand to con duct research, teach in colleges and universities, and engage in manage ment and consulting work. The ad vent of weather satellites, manned spacecraft, world-circling weather balloons, new international cooper ative programs, and the use of elec tronic computers to make weather forecasts have expanded greatly the boundaries of meteorology. These advances have opened new fields of activity in the study of weather on a global scale. Meteorologists will be in demand to develop and improve instruments used to collect and process weather data. Employment opportunities for meteorologists with commercial air lines, weather consulting services, and other private companies also are expected to increase, as the value of weather information to all segments of our economy receives further recognition. This recognition also may create opportunities in re search positions with private re search organizations and colleges and universities. The number of teaching positions for meteorolo gists also should rise, primarily be cause of anticipated increases in 137 NATURAL SCIENCE OCCUPATIONS total college enrollments and in me teorology programs. In addition, there will be a con tinuing demand for meteorologists to work in existing programs, such as weather measurements and fore casts, storm and flood forecasts, and research on the problems of severe storms, turbulence, and air pollu tion. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970 meteorologists with the bachelor’s degree and no experience could start in Federal Government service at $8,292 or $10,258 a year, depending on their college records. Meteorologists who had completed all requirements for the master’s de gree could start at $10,258 or $11,526; those having the Ph. D. degree could begin at $13,096 or $14,192. Workers stationed outside the United States were paid an ad ditional amount. Employee benefits for Federal Government meteorolo gists were the same as for other civil service workers. (See chapter on Occupations in Government.) Airline meteorologists received a starting salary ranging from $9,700 to $12,300 a year in 1970 accord ing to the Air Transport Associa tion. Meteorologists generally re ceive the same benefits as other air line employees. (See chapter on Occupations in Civil Aviation.) According to the National Sci ence Foundation’s National Regis ter of Scientific and Technical Per sonnel, the average (m edian) an nual salary of meteorologists in 1970 was $15,200. Only 10 percent of the meteorologists earned less than $10,0 0 0 and about 10 percent earned more than $22,300. Jobs in weather stations, which are operated on a 24-hour, 7-day week basis, often involve nightwork and rotating shifts. Most stations are at airports or at places in or near cities; some are in isolated and re mote areas. Meteorologists gener ally work alone in smaller weather stations, and as part of a team in larger ones. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportunities, educational facilities, and professional development in meteorology may be obtained from: American Meteorological Society, 45 Beacon St., Boston, Mass. 02108. American Geophysical Union, 2100 Pennsylvania Ave., NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20037. Information on employment op portunities with the NO A A N a tional Weather Service and on its student-assistance program may be obtained from: Personnel Division AD42, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad ministration, 6010 Executive Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20852. Information on the Air Force meteorological training programs may be obtained from the nearest U SA F recruiting office or from: Commander, USAF Recruiting Serv ice, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45899. OCEANOGRAPHERS (D.O.T. 024.081 and 041.081) Nature of the Work The ocean, which covers more than two-thirds of the earth’s sur face, provides man with valuable foods, fossil fuels, and minerals. It also influences the weather, serves as a “highway” for transportation, and offers many varieties of recrea tion. Oceanographers study the ocean— its characteristics, m ove ments, physical properties, and plant and animal life. The results of their studies not only extend basic scientific knowledge but also con tribute to development of practical methods for forecasting weather, fisheries development, mining ocean resources, and National defense. Some oceanographers perform tests, make observations, and con duct surveys and experiments from ships or stationary platforms in the sea. They may collect and study data on the ocean’s tides, currents, waves, mountain ranges and valleys. They also may study its tempera ture, density, and acoustical prop erties; its sediments; its sub-bottom; its shape; its interaction with the at mosphere; and marine plants and animals. Other oceanographers perform equally important functions in labo ratories on land. For instance, in some research laboratories, fish are measured and photographed, and their stomach contents analyzed; ex otic sea specimens dissected, cata logued, and bottled; and plankton (floating microscopic plants and an imals) identified, separated, and sometimes counted. At other labo ratories, data collected from meas uring and detecting devices are plotted on maps or fed to electronic computers to test theories such as sea-floor spreading and continental drift. To present the results of their studies, oceanographers prepare charts, tabulations, reports, and manuals, and write papers for scien tific journals. In developing and carrying out tests and observational programs, oceanographers use the principles 138 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK and techniques of the natural sci ences, mathematics, and engineer ing. Current exploration techniques involve the use of instrumented probes from surface ships and lowflying aircraft. Oceanographers use instruments such as current meters that reveal the circulation of very deep water; echo sounders; the magnetometer and gravimeter that measure the earth’s magnetic and gravity fields; heat probes that de termine the flow of heat from the earth’s interior; and sediment corers to extract samples from the ocean’s floor. They also employ instruments to test temperature and chemical composition of the water. Specially developed cameras equipped with strong lights are used to photograph marine organisms and the ocean floor. Sounding devices are vital to the oceanographer for communicat ing with teammates above the water, and for measuring, mapping, and locating ocean materials. Future oceanographers may rely Oceanographer lowers current meter to study circulation of deep waters. on instrumented buoys to record data at all depths, satellites to ob serve the ocean’s surface, and deep research vessels (D R V ’s ) — small, versatile submersibles to provide “aquanauts” with a closer view of the underwater world. Most oceanographers are special ists in one of the branches of the profession. B io lo g ic a l o c e a n o g r a p h e rs (marine biologists) study the ocean’s plant and animal life and the environmental conditions affect ing them. For instance, they investi gate marine animals that generate light and electricity (photolumi nescence), study the effects of ocean organisms on manmade mate rials, search for ways to extract drugs from seaweeds or sponges, and determine the effects of ra dioactivity and pollution on the growth of fish. P h y s ic a l o c e a n o g r a p h e r s (physicists and geophysicists) study the physical properties of the ocean, such as its density, tempera ture, and ability to transmit light and sound; the movements of the sea; and the relationship between the sea and the atmosphere which may lead to control over the weather. G e o lo g ic a l o c e a n o g r a p h e rs (marine geologists) study the topo graphic features, rocks, and sedi ments of the ocean floor. They also help determine the location and availability of deposits of mineral, oil, and gas on the ocean floor. C h e m ic a l o c e a n o g r a p h e rs investi gate the chemical composition of ocean water and sediments, as well as chemical reactions that occur in the sea. For example, they are con cerned with processes such as desal ination (removing salt from sea w ater). M a rin e m e te o r o lo g is ts study the interaction of the atmos phere and the ocean, and the proc esses by which weather over the ocean is generated. O c e a n o g ra p h ic en g in e e rs and e le c tr o n ic s p e c ia lists 139 NATURAL SCIENCE OCCUPATIONS design and build the systems, de vices, and instruments used in oceanographic research and opera tions. Other tasks include laying ca bles, supervising underwater con struction, and locating sunken ships and recovering their cargos. About 3 out of 4 oceanographers are engaged primarily in performing or administering research and de velopment activities. A number teach in colleges and universities; a few are engaged in technical writing or consulting and in the administra tion of activities other than re search. Places of Employment A n estimated 5,400 oceanogra phers and closely related technical personnel were employed in the United States in 1970. About fourfifths were employed by the Federal Government and colleges and uni versities. Those Federal agencies employing substantial numbers of oceanographers were the Naval Oceanographic Office, and the N a tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (N O A A ), a newly created agency combining several Federal oceanographic-related of fices such as the Bureau of Com mercial Fisheries, and the Environ mental Science Services Administra tion. A number of oceanographers work in private industry for firms that design and develop instruments and vehicles for oceanographic re search. A few work for fishery labo ratories of State and local govern ments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum educational re quirement for beginning professional positions in oceanography is the bachelor’s degree with a major in oceanography, biology, a geo-science, one of the other basic sciences, mathematics, or engineering. To qualify for professional positions in research and teaching as well as for advancement to high-level positions in most types of work, graduate training in oceanography or one of the basic sciences usually is re quired. Undergraduate training in ocean ography, marine science, ocean en gineering, or fisheries was offered by only about 24 colleges and uni versities in 1970. Only nine institu tions offered the bachelor’s degree with a major in oceanography. However, since oceanography is an interdisciplinary field, training in the related basic sciences, when coupled with a strong interest in oceanogra phy, is adequate preparation for most beginning positions or for entry into graduate school. Important undergraduate courses for the prospective oceanographer are in the fields of mathematics, physics, chemistry, geophysics, geology, meteorology, and biology. In general, the student should spe cialize in the particular science field which is closest to his area of inter est in oceanography. For example, students interested in chemical oceanography should obtain a de gree in chemistry. In 1970 about 22 colleges and universities offered advanced de grees in oceanography, and about 2 1 other institutions offered ad vanced courses in fisheries, marine science, or oceanographic engineer ing. The academic work of the grad uate student in oceanography con sists primarily of extensive training in a basic science combined with further training in oceanography. The graduate student usually works part of the time aboard ship, doing oceanographic research for his dis sertation and acquiring familiarity with the sea and techniques used to obtain oceanographic information. A variety of summer courses is of fered also by universities at the var ious marine stations along our coasts. These are intended for both undergraduate and graduate stu dents and are recommended partic ularly for students from inland uni versities. The beginning oceanographer with the bachelor’s degree usually starts as a research or laboratory as sistant, or in routine data collection, analysis, or computation. Most new oceanographers receive on-the-job training related to the specific work at hand. The nature and extent of the training vary with the back ground and needs of the individual. Thus, the new graduate who has a degree in a basic science rather than in oceanography usually can be pro vided enough understanding of oceanographic principles to enable him to perform adequately in this field. Beginning oceanographers having advanced degrees usually can qual ify for research and teaching posi tions. Experienced oceanographers may be selected for administrative positions in which they may super vise a research laboratory or direct specific survey or research projects. Most oceanographers work part of the time aboard oceanographic ships at sea. These voyages may last from a few days to several months. A few oceanographers work nearly all of the time aboard ship. On the other hand, some oceanographers never go to sea; they analyze data collected by other scientists or pur sue mathematical or theoretical studies ashore. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 140 Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for those having advanced degrees in oceanography— especially the Ph. D. degree— are expected to be fa vorable through the 1970’s. Welltrained persons with bachelor’s de grees in oceanography and related sciences will find opportunities mainly as research assistants in rou tine analytical positions. The outlook is for very rapid growth in this profession through the 1970’s. Growing recognition of the importance of the oceans to the Nation’s welfare and security has heightened interest in oceanography and has opened new fields for spe cialists. In the years ahead, improv ing the Nation’s defenses against submarines and surface vessels will require oceanographic research into underwater sound, surface and sub surface currents, and configuration of the ocean’s floor. Oceanogra phers will be needed too for weather and iceberg forecasting and to study air-sea interaction in longrange forecasts. They will be needed to develop new technologies for discovering and mining the fuel and mineral resources of the ocean’s floor, and to protect waters from damage by pollution and land from damage by waves and tides. Other oceanographers may improve meth ods of taking foods and pharmaceu ticals from the oceans, manage fish eries, and develop economical means of harnessing the ocean for energy and of providing fresh water from the sea. The demand for oceanographers qualified to teach in colleges and universities also is expected to ex pand. A s interest in oceanography grows and more courses in oceanog raphy are offered, more teachers in the science will be needed. Replacement of oceanographers who transfer to other fields, retire, or die also will provide some oppor tunities. Since oceanography is a relatively small profession, job openings will not be numerous in any 1 year. On the other hand, the number of new graduates having advanced de grees in this science is small and is expected to remain so. As a result, these new oceanography graduates should continue to have favorable employment opportunities. Earnings and Working Conditions In the Federal Government serv ice in 1970, oceanographers hav ing the bachelor’s degree and no ex perience could begin at $8,292 or $10,258 a year, depending on their college records. Beginning oceanog raphers who had completed all re quirements for the master’s degree could start at $10,258 or $11,526; those having the Ph. D. degree could begin at $13,096 or $14,192. Scientists in geological and biologi cal specialties had somewhat lower starting salaries. In private industry in 1970, new graduates having bachelor’s degrees received median starting salaries of $ 8 ,650 a year, according to a salary survey conducted by the American Geological Institute. New graduates having master’s degrees averaged $10,500 a year, and those holding doctor’s degrees averaged $12,000 a year to start in 1970. According to the National Science Founda tion’s National Register of Scientific and Technical Personnel, the aver age (m edian) annual salary of earth scientists in 1970 was $14,900. Only 10 percent of the earth scien tists earned less than $10,000 and about 10 percent earned more than $23,100. Beginning oceanographers in ed ucational institutions receive the same salary as other beginning fac ulty members. (See statement on “College and University Teach ers.” ) In addition to their regular salaries, many experienced ocean ographers in educational institutions earn extra income from consulting, lecturing, and writing activities. Oceanographers engaged in re search requiring sea voyages are frequently away from home for weeks or months at a time, some times living and working in cramped quarters. Young persons who like the sea, however, may find these voyages very satisfying. Sources of Additional Information General information about oceanography— including career opportunities, professional training, colleges and universities having applicable degree-credit programs, earnings, and the economic signifi cance of oceanographic activities— may be obtained from: International Oceanographic Foun dation, 1 Rickenbacker Causeway, Virginia Key, Miami, Fla. 33149. National Oceanography Association, 1900 L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Room 218, Bldg. 5, 6010 Executive Blvd., Rock ville, Maryland 20852. Federal Government career in formation may be obtained from any regional office of the U.S. Civil Service Commission or from: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Washing ton, D.C., 1900 E St. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20415. The bulletin U n iv e r sity C u rric u la in th e M a rin e S c ie n c e s a n d R e la te d F ie ld s may be obtained from: Marine Sciences Affairs Staff, Bldg. NATURAL SCIENCE OCCUPATIONS 159E, Rm. 476, Washington Navy Yard, Washington, D.C. 20390. The booklet, O c e a n o g ra p h y In S o u rc e s ’7 0 , lists the names and addresses of industrial organizations involved in oceanog raphy and publishers of oceano graphic educational materials, jour nals, and periodicals. Copies may be purchased from: fo r m a tio n Printing and Publishing Office, Na tional Academy of Sciences, 2101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20418. 141 fa irs— S e le c tin g P r io r ity P ro g ra m s ( A p r il 1 9 7 0 ) , contains information on the national oceanography pro gram. Copies may be obtained from: Superintendent of Documents, Gov ernment Printing Office, Washing ton, D.C. 20402. Some information on oceano graphic specialties may be obtained from professional societies listed elsewhere in the H a n d b o o k . (See statements on Geologists, Geophysi cists, Life Scientists, Meteorologists, and Chemists.) The bulletin, M a rin e S c ie n c e A f - Ufe Science Occupations Life scientists study all living or ganisms and the processes that de termine the nature of life. They are concerned with men and microbes, plants and animals, and health and disease, as well as how these organ isms relate to their environment. Some scientists in these fields perform research to expand our un derstandings of living things. Oth ers, who teach, pass this knowledge on to students. Many scientists pur sue both activities. Still others apply scientific concepts and principles to the solution of practical problems, such as the development of new drugs or varieties of plants, and seek solutions to problems of pollu tion. This chapter discusses life scien tists as a group since they receive comparable basic training and have similar employment and earning prospects. Brief descriptions are provided about the nature of the work of a number of life scientists — including botanists, zoologists, mi crobiologists, biophysicists, ecolo gists, pathologists, and pharmacolo gists. This chapter also contains a separate statement on biochemists. More detailed statements for other professional workers in the life sci ences— soil scientists, soil conserva tionists, foresters, and range manag ers— are discussed elsewhere in the H andbook. LIFE SCIENTISTS (D.O.T. 040.081, 041.081, 070.081, and 077.128) Nature of the Work Life scientists study living organ isms, their structure, evolutionary development, behavior, and life processes. They emphasize the rela tionship between animals, plants, and micro-organisms and their envi ronments. The number and variety of plants and animals are so vast and the life processes so varied and complex that life scientists must specialize in one of three broad areas— agriculture, biology, medi cine. Two-fifths of all life scientists are engaged in research and develop ment. Many conduct basic research, which is aimed at adding to our knowledge of living organisms with only secondary regard to its applica tion. Nevertheless, the development of insecticides, disease-resistant crops, and antibiotics have resulted from this type of research. Research in the life sciences may take many forms. A botanist explor ing the volcanic Alaskan valleys to see what plants live in this strange environment and a zoologist search ing the jungles of the Amazon val ley for previously unknown kinds of animals are both doing research; likewise, an entomologist in a labo ratory tests various chemical insecti cides for effectiveness and possible hazards to human and animal life. Life scientists must be familiar with fundamental research tech niques and the use of light and elec tron microscopes and other complex laboratory equipment. Advanced techniques and principles from chemistry and physics are applied widely. Knowledge of mathematical and statistical procedures, as well as of the operation of electronic com puters, often is needed in experi ments. Teaching in a college or univer sity is the major function of nearly one-fourth of all life scientists. Many teachers combine independ ent research with their regular teaching duties, and in some large educational institutions, use the major portion of their time on re search. More than one-fourth of all life scientists are engaged in manage ment and administrative work, pri marily the planning, supervision, and administration of programs of re-* search or testing of foods, drugs, and other products. Others provide liaison between the Federal Gov- 142 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Life scientist induces sea urchin to shed eggs for experiment. em inent and the agricultural experi ment stations at State universities, assisting in the planning, develop ment, and evaluation of research programs at these stations. The remaining life scientists are engaged in a variety of other types of work, such as consulting, writing, testing, and inspection. A few are employed in technical sales or field service work for industrial firms; such work may include, for exam ple, teaching company salesmen and prospective purchasers the value and proper use of new chemicals. Some are engaged in research in natural history museums, zoos, and botanical gardens. Life scientists may be classified into three broad groups character ized by the general type of organism with which they work: Botanists, who study plants; zoologists, who are concerned with animals; and mi crobiologists, who work with micro organisms. B o ta n is ts study all aspects of plant life. Plant taxonomists identify and classify plants. Plant ecologists study the interrelationships between environmental elements and plant life and distribution. Other botanists include plant morphologists, con cerned with the structure of plants and plant cells; plant physiologists, interested in the life processes of plants; and plant pathologists, en gaged in determining the cause and control of plant diseases. Z o o lo g is ts study animal life— its origin, classification, behavior, life processes, diseases, and parasites — and the ways in which animals in fluence and are influenced by their environment. Some zoologists con duct experimental studies with live animals, and in some cases, study them in their natural environment. Others work mainly in laboratories dissecting animals and examining them under the microscope. Zoolo gists who specialize in the study of certain classes of animals may use titles that indicate the kind of ani mal studied, such as ornithologists (birds), herpetologists (reptiles and amphibians), ichthyologists (fishes), and mammalogists (m am m als). M ic r o b io lo g is ts investigate the growth, structure, and general char acteristics of bacteria, viruses, molds, and other organisms of mi croscopic or submicroscopic size. Although the terms bacteriology and microbiology are sometimes used interchangeably, microbiology, the broader term, is preferable when referring to the study of all microscopic organisms. M icrobiolo gists isolate and make cultures of these organisms in order to examine them with a variety of highly spe cialized equipment. Some micro biologists pursue medical prob lems, such as the relationship be tween bacteria and infectious dis ease, or the effect of antibiotics on bacteria. Others specialize in soil bacteriology (the study of soil mi croorganisms and their relation to soil fertility), virology (the study of viruses), immunology (the study of the mechanisms that fight infec tion), or serology (the study of ani mal and plant fluids, including blood serum s). Life scientists also may be classi fied according to the type of ap proach used— some of which are wholly within 1 of the 3 major 143 NATURAL SCIENCE OCCUPATIONS groupings, and others which may be found in all 3 groups. Some life sci entists are classified according to the specific type of organism stud ied. Some life scientists whose work cuts across more than one of these major groupings, as often in the case of college and university teach ers, simply may call themselves bi ologists. A description of the work of some life scientists follows. A g r o n o m is ts are concerned with improving crops and the soil. Those working with the soil analyze it, map the soils of an area, or develop and apply new methods for increas ing acreage yields. They also study ways to conserve water and to de crease erosion. Agronomists in volved in crop science develop new methods of growing crops for im proved quality, higher yield, and more efficient production. They seek new, hardier varieties of crops and better methods of controlling disease, pests, and weeds. A n a to m is ts study the form and structure of organisms. Those who specialize in the structure of cells are known as cytologists, whereas those who specialize in the structure of tissues and organs are known as histologists. Anatomists may exam ine structures visible to the naked eye or of microscopic size, or those of submicroscopic size, visible only through the use of the electron mi croscope. Many anatomists special ize in human anatomy. B io c h e m ists, who are trained in both chemistry and biology, study the chemical processes of living things. A more detailed description of their work is contained in a sepa rate statement elsewhere in this chapter. B io lo g ic a l o c e a n o g r a p h e rs, or marine biologists, study the plant and animal life in the oceans and the environmental conditions affect ing them. (See separate statement on Oceanographers elsewhere in the H a n d b o o k .) B io p h y s ic is ts who are trained in both physics and biology, investi gate the physical principles of living cells and organisms, and their re sponses to physical forces, such as heat, light, radiation, sound, and electricity. They may use the elec tron microscope to make tissues vis ible down to the smallest units and they may use nuclear reactors to study the effect of radiation on cells and tissues. E c o lo g is ts study the mutual rela tionship among organisms and be tween them and their environment. They are interested in the effects of environmental influences such as rainfall, temperature, and altitude on these organisms. For instance, ecologists extract samples of phyto plankton, microscopic plants which produce most of the world’s atmos pheric oxygen, from bodies of water to determine the effects of pollution on their growth, or measure the ra dioactive content of fish by tracing tagged elements as they pass through their systems. E m b r y o lo g is ts study the develop ment of an organism from fertiliza tion of the egg through the hatching process or gestation period. They investigate the physiological, bio chemical, and genetic mechanisms that control and direct the processes of development, how and why this control is accomplished, and the causes of abnormalities in develop ment. E n to m o lo g is ts are concerned with insects and their relation to plant and animal life. They identify and classify the enormous number of different kinds of insects. Some en tomologists seek to control harmful insects through the use of chemi cals, predatory birds, or other meth ods. Others develop ways to encour age the growth and spread of bene ficial insects, such as honeybees. G e n e tic is ts explore the origin, transmission, and development of hereditary characteristics. Geneti cists engaged primarily in improving plant and animal breeds of eco nomic importance— such as cereal and tobacco crops or dairy cattle and poultry— may be classified as plant or animal breeders, agrono mists, or animal science specialists. Theoretical geneticists search for the mechanisms that determine in herited traits in plants, animals, or humans. H o rtic u ltu rists work with orchard and garden plants, such as fruits, nuts, vegetables, flowers and orna mental plants, and other nursery stocks. They develop new or im proved plant varieties and better methods of growing, harvesting, storing, and transporting horticul tural crops. Horticulturists usually specialize in either a specific plant or a particular technical problem, such as plant breeding. H u sb a n d r y s p e c ia lis ts (anim al) conduct research on the breeding, feeding, management, and diseases of domestic farm animals to im prove the health and yield of these animals. N u tr itio n is ts examime the proc esses through which food is utilized, the kinds and quantities of food ele ments— such as minerals, fats, sug ars, vitamins, and proteins— that are essential to build and repair body tissues and maintain health, and how these food elements are transformed into body substances and energy. Nutritionists also ana lyze food to determine its composi tion in terms of essential ingredients or nutrients. P a th o lo g is ts study the nature, cause, and development of disease, degeneration, and abnormal func tioning in humans, in animals or in 144 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK plants. Many specialize in the study of the effects of diseases, parasites, and insect pests on cells, tissues, and organs. Others investigate genetic variations and other abnormal ef fects caused by drugs. The term “pathologist” is normally reserved for specialists in human pathology (medical pathology). Specialists in animal pathology are usually veteri narians. (See statement on Veteri narians.) Those who study plant diseases may be called plant pathol ogists or phytopathologists; their work is discussed under the section on botanists. P h a r m a c o lo g ists conduct tests with animals such as rats, guinea pigs, and monkeys to determine the effects of drugs, gases, poisons, dusts, and other substances on the functioning of tissues and organs, and relate their findings with medi cal data. They may develop new or improved chemical compounds for use in drugs and medicines. P h y s io lo g is ts study the structure and functions of cells, tissues, and Life scientist observes plasma through filte r glass. organs and the effects of environ mental factors on life processes. They may specialize in cellular ac tivities or in one of the organ sys tems, such as the digestive, nervous, circulatory, or reproductive systems. The knowledge gained in such re search often provides the basis for the work of many other specialists, such as biochemists, pathologists, pharmacologists, or nutritionists. Places of Employment An estimated 180,000 persons were employed in the life sciences in 1970. About 10 percent were women. Of this total, nearly 48,000 worked in agricultural science, more than 71,000 worked in biological science, and about 61,000 worked on problems related to medical sci ence. Nearly three-fifths of the total were employed by colleges and uni versities in teaching and research positions. Medical schools and their associated hospitals employed par ticularly large numbers of life scien tists in the medical field. State agri cultural colleges and agricultural experiment stations operated by universities in cooperation with Federal and State Governments employed sizable numbers of agrono mists, horticulturists, animal hus bandry specialists, entomologists, and other agriculture-related spe cialists. The Federal Government in 1970 employed more than 25,000 life sci entists, two-thirds of whom were employed in the Department of A g riculture. The Department of the Interior employed nearly all the fish and wildlife biologists in the Federal Government. Other large numbers of life scientists were employed by the Department of the Army and the National Institutes of Health. NATURAL SCIENCE OCCUPATIONS State and local governments, com bined, employed about 2 1,000 biol ogists— mostly fish and wildlife specialists, microbiologists, and entomologists— for work in conser vation, detection and control of dis eases, and plant breeding. Approximately 26,000 life scien tists worked for private industry in 1970. Am ong the major industrial employers were manufacturers of pharmaceuticals, industrial chemi cals, and food products. A few were self-employed. More than 5,000 life scientists worked for privately financed research organizations and other nonprofit foundations. Although life scientists were em ployed in all States, nearly one-third were located in five States— Califor nia, New York, Pennsylvania, Illi nois, and Maryland. More than one-tenth of all life scientists were located in only two metropolitan areas— Washington, D.C., and New York, N .Y . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Young people seeking profes sional careers in the life sciences should plan to obtain an advanced degree— preferably a Ph. D .— in their field of interest. The bachelor’s degree with a major in one of the life sciences may be adequate prep aration for some beginning jobs, but promotional opportunities for those without graduate training are gener ally limited to intermediate level po sitions. The Ph. D. degree generally is required for higher level college teaching positions and for independ ent research. It is also necessary for many positions involving the ad ministration of research programs. N ew graduates having a master’s degree may qualify for most entry 145 positions in applied research and for some types of positions in college teaching. Those having a bachelor’s degree may qualify for positions involving testing, production and operation work, technical sales and service, and duties connected with the en forcement of government regula tions. They also may obtain posi tions as advanced technicians, par ticularly in the medical area. Some graduates having a bachelor’s de gree may take courses in education and choose a career as a high school teacher of biology rather than one as a life scientist. (See statement on Secondary School Teachers.) Training leading to a bachelor’s degree with a major in one of the life science specialties is offered by nearly all colleges and universities. Courses differ greatly from one col lege to another, and it is important that a student determine which col lege program best fits his interests and needs. In general, liberal arts colleges and universities emphasize training in the biological sciences and medical research. State univer sities and land-grant colleges offer special advantages to those inter ested in agricultural sciences be cause their agricultural experiment stations provide many opportunities for practical training and research work. Prospective life scientists should obtain the broadest undergraduate training possible in all branches of biology and in related sciences, par ticularly biochemistry, organic and inorganic chemistry, physics, and mathematics. Courses in statistics, calculus, biometrics and computer programming analysis are becoming increasingly essential. Training and practice in laboratory techniques, in the use of laboratory equipment, and in fieldwork are also important. Advanced degrees in the life sci ences also are conferred by a large number of colleges and universities. Requirements for advanced degrees usually include fieldwork and labo ratory research, as well as class room studies and preparation of a thesis. Young people planning careers as life scientists should be able to work independently, or as part of a team. The ability to express oneself both orally and in writing also is impor tant. Physical stamina and an in quiring mind are necessary for those interested in research in remote places. Employment Outlook Employment in the life sciences is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s. In addition to those needed to fill openings result ing from growth, thousands of life scientists will be needed to replace those who transfer to other fields of work, die, or retire. However, along with the growing number of job openings, the number of life sci ence graduates also is projected to increase rapidly. As a result, keen competition is expected for the more desirable positions. Those holding advanced degrees, espe cially the Ph. D., should experience less competion than bachelor’s de gree recipients for jobs. Opportuni ties for those holding only under graduate degrees will probably be limited to research assistant or tech nician positions. One of the major factors which will tend to increase the employ ment of life scientists is the antici pated continued growth in research and development, particularly in medical research programs spon sored by the Federal Government and voluntary health agencies. For example, the Federal Government 146 is expected to allocate additional millions of dollars for cancer re search during the next few years. Other areas of concentrated medical study include heart disease and birth defects. Research in such rela tively new areas as space biology, radiation biology, environmental health, biological oceanography, and genetic regulation also will probably increase. Industry also is expected to in crease its spending for research and development in the biological sci ences. Furthermore, the stringent health standards of the Federal reg ulatory agencies are likely to result in a heightened demand for addi tional life scientists in industry to perform research and testing before new drugs, chemicals, and process ing methods are made available to the public. Another factor which should in crease employment of life scientists is the substantially larger college and university enrollments expected during the 1970’s. Although the re sulting rise in demand for teachers will be to a large extent for Ph. D .’s, there may be some openings for qualified people holding master’s degrees, especially in community colleges. Earnings and Working Conditions In the Federal Government in 1970, life scientists having a bachelor’s degree could begin at $6,548 or $8,098 a year, depending on their college records. Beginning life scientists having the master’s degree could start at $8,098 or $9,881, depending upon their aca demic records. Those having the Ph. D. degree could begin at $11,905 or $14,192. Life scientists in colleges and uni versities earned median salaries be OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK tween $15,800 and $16,500 a year in 1970, according to the limited information available. (For further information, see statement on Col lege and University Teachers.) Life scientists in educational institutions sometimes supplement their regular salaries with income from writing, consulting, and special research projects. According to the National Sci ence Foundation’s Register of Sci entific and Technical Personnel, ag ricultural scientists earned about $ 1 2,800 a year in 1970; about 10 percent received less than $8,800 a year, while 10 percent earned at least $19,500. The average (m e dian) annual salary for biological scientists was $15,000 in 1970, ac cording to the Register; only 10 percent earned less than $8,700 a year, and about 10 percent earned $26,1 0 0 or more. In general, life scientists in private industry tend to have higher salaries than those in either colleges and universities or Government employment. Sources of Additional Information General information on careers in the life sciences may be obtained from: American Institute of Biological Sci ences, 3900 Wisconsin Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20016. American Society of Horticultural Science, 615 Elm Street, St. Joseph, Michigan 49085. American Physiological Society, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Maryland 20014. Ecological Society of America, Con necticut College, New London, Connecticut 06320. Specific information on Federal Government careers may be ob tained from: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Washing ton, D.C., 1900 E St. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20415. B IO C H E M IS T S (D.O.T. 041.081) Nature of the Work The biochemist has an important role in modern science’s search for the basis of life and the factors that sustain it. His professional interests range from what determines hered ity to how living things react to space travel. Biochemists study the chemical composition of living organisms. They identify and analyze the chemical processes related to bio logical functions, such as muscular contraction, reproduction, and me tabolism. Biochemists investigate the' effects on organisms of such chemical substances as foods, hor mones, and drugs. They study the chemical changes in living tissue caused by genetic and environmen tal factors. Biochemists study a wide variety of substances, ranging from very small molecules to giant macro molecules. They analyze chemical compounds such as minerals and sugars. Biochemists deal with prob lems in genetics, enzymology, hor mone action, bioenergetics, and the phenomena of biochemical control. Foremost among the areas of ap plication of biochemistry are medi cine, biomedicine, nutrition, and ag riculture. In the medical field, biochemists may investigate the causes and cures of disease or de velop diagnostic procedures. In the biomedical area, they contribute to our understanding of genetics, he- NATURAL SCIENCE OCCUPATIONS 147 devise new instruments and analyti cal techniques as needed. They usu ally report the results of their re search in scientific journals and sometimes lecture before scientific groups. More than 3 out of 4 bio chemists are engaged in re search. The vast majority pursue basic research. A small group work ing in applied research use the dis coveries of basic research to solve practical problems or develop useful products. For example, through basic research, biochemists discover how a living organism forms a hor mone. This knowledge is put to use by synthesizing the hormone in the laboratory and then producing it on a mass scale to enrich hormonedeficient organisms. The distinction between basic and applied research, however, is often one of degree; biochemists may engage in both types of work. Some biochemists combine re search with teaching in colleges and universities. Small proportions are engaged in production and testing activities or private consulting. Places of Employment Biologist isolates granules from heart tissue. redity, brain function, and physio logical adaptation. In the nutritional field, they may identify the nutrients necessary to maintain good health and the effects of specific defi ciencies on various kinds of per formance, including the ability to learn. In agriculture, biochemists in vestigate soils, fertilizers, and plants, and undertake studies to dis cover more efficient methods of crop cultivation, storage, and utili zation, and the design and use of pest-control agents. Biochemists apply the principles and procedures of chemical and physical analysis to their research problems. Routine laboratory tasks include weighing, filtering, distilling, drying, and culturing substances or materials. Some experiments re quire more sophisticated tasks such as designing and constructing chem ical apparatus or performing tests using radioactive tracers. Biochem ists use a variety of instruments including electron microscopes and radioactive isotope counters, and Approximately 11,000 biochem ists were employed in the United States in 1970. The number of women in biochemistry is not known. However, almost one-third of all advanced degrees in biochem istry in recent years have been awarded to women. More than half of all biochemists were employed by colleges and universities in 1970. Many of these scientists were teach ing and performing research in uni versity-operated laboratories and hospitals. Another 700 biochemists worked for nonprofit organizations, such as research institutes and foun dations. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 148 Biochemist constructs molecular model. Private industry employed more than one-fifth of all biochemists. The largest group of these worked in the chemical industry, primarily for manufacturers of drugs, insecti cides, and cosmetics. Several thousand biochemists worked for Federal, State, and local government agencies. Most of these scientists were employed by Federal agencies concerned with health or agriculture. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum educational re quirement for beginning positions in biochemistry is the bachelor’s de gree with a major in biochemistry or chemistry, or with a major in biol ogy and a minor in chemistry. For most entrance positions in research and teaching, graduate training in biochemistry is required. Graduate work also is needed for advance ment to most high-level positions in all types of work. Approximately 40 schools award the bachelor’s degree in biochemis try. However, nearly all colleges and universities offer a major in bi ology or chemistry. The prospective biochemist should take undergradu ate courses in chemistry, biology, biochemistry, mathematics, and physics. More than 100 colleges and uni versities offer graduate degrees in biochemistry. For entrance into a graduate program, schools usually require the student to have a bache lor’s degree in biochemistry, biol ogy, or chemistry. However, stu dents who have the bachelor’s de gree in another basic science but who have had several undergradu ate courses in chemistry usually are admitted. In graduate school, the student builds upon the basic knowledge obtained in the undergraduate cur riculum. He takes advanced courses and conducts research in many areas of biochemistry. For the doc toral degree, he usually specializes in a particular field of biochemistry by doing intensive research and writing a thesis. Some graduate schools have a reputation for training students in a particular field of biochemistry. For example, a university affiliated with a medical school or hospital often has the facilities and equipment available to study the biochemistry of disease. Therefore, a student who desires to specialize should investi gate the specialties of the various schools and make his selection care fully. New graduates having the bache lor’s degree usually begin work as research assistants. These positions involve testing and analysis. In the drug industry, for example, research assistants analyze the ingredients of a product to verify and maintain its purity or quality. Some graduate students become research or teach ing assistants in colleges and univer sities. Beginning biochemists having ad vanced degrees usually qualify for research or teaching positions. NATURAL SCIENCE OCCUPATIONS Some experienced biochemists who have Ph. D. degrees advance to high-level administrative positions and supervise research programs. Other highly qualified biochemists, who prefer to devote their time to research, often become leaders in a particular field of biochemistry. Young people planning careers as biochemists should be able to work independently or as part of a team. Preciseness, keen powers of obser vation, and mechanical aptitude also are important. Prospective biochem ists should have analytical and cu rious minds while possessing the pa tience and perseverance needed to complete hundreds of experiments to solve one problem. Employment Outlook The employment outlook is likely to be good for biochemists through the 1970’s. In addition to new op portunities resulting from the very rapid growth expected in this field, several hundred will be needed each year to replace workers who trans fer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Although biochemistry is a rela tively small profession and job openings will not be numerous in any one year, the number of gradu ates who have degrees in this sci ence also is fairly small and is ex pected to remain so. Thus, the em ployment outlook should continue to be favorable for biochemistry graduates. The greatest demand will be for the biochemist who has the Ph. D. degree, to conduct independent re search or to teach. The major factor underlying the anticipated growth is the continued increase in expenditures for re search and development in life sci ences. 149 The greatest growth in employ ment of biochemists is expected in expanding areas of medical re search. For instance, the Federal Government is expected to allocate millions of dollars for cancer re search during the next few years. Other areas of concentrated medical study include heart disease, muscu lar dystrophy, and mental illness. Also, an increasing number of biochemists will be needed to work in clinical laboratories associated with hospitals. Additional biochem ists will be needed to implement the more stringent drug standards that have been established by Con gress and the Federal regulatory agencies. Biochemistry also is be coming important in other fields, such as environmental studies. Growing college enrollments, especially of students majoring in chemistry and the life sciences, will strengthen the demand for biochem ists qualified to teach in colleges and universities. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries paid to biochem ists employed by colleges and uni versities are comparable to those for other professional faculty members. Biochemists in educational institu tions often supplement their income by engaging in outside research or consulting work. In 1970, the average (m edian) earnings for all biochemists who had a bachelor’s degree was $10,800; for those having a mas ter’s degree, $12,500; and for those having a Ph. D., $15,800. Sources of Additional Information General information on careers in biochemistry may be obtained from: American Society of Biological Chemists, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md. 20014. Physical Scientists The physical sciences deal with the basic laws of the physical world. Many physical scientists conduct basic research designed to increase man’s knowledge of the properties of matter and energy. Others con duct applied research and use the knowledge gained from basic re search to develop new products and processes. For example, chemists in applied research use their knowl edge of the interactions of various chemicals to develop new fuels for rockets and missiles. Physical scien tists also teach in colleges and uni versities and supervise research and development programs. This chapter describes three major physical science occupations — chemist, physicist, and astrono mer— and food scientists, who apply scientific principles to the processing of food. Engineers, life scientists, and earth scientists also require a background in the physi cal sciences; these occupations are described in separate chapters else where in the H a n d b o o k . C H E M IS T S (D.O.T. 022.081, .168, .181, and .281) Nature of the Work The clothes we wear, the food we eat, the houses in which we live— in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 150 fact, most of the things which help to make our lives more comfortable, healthy, and productive— have re sulted, in part, from the chemist’s continuing search for new knowl edge. Although the day-to-day ac tivities of chemists generally receive little notice, some of their discov eries have led to the creation of whole new industries, such as the plastics, frozen foods, and manmade fibers industries. Chemists investigate the prop erties and composition of matter, and the laws that govern the combi nation of elements in a seemingly endless variety of forms. They search for new knowledge about substances and try to utilize this knowledge for practical use. In con ducting studies, they apply scientific principles and techniques and use a variety of specialized instruments to measure, identify, and evaluate changes in matter. Chemists main tain accurate records of their work and prepare clear and concise re ports showing results of tests or ex periments. They often present their findings in scientific publications or in lectures before scientific groups. The activities of chemists are var ied. Some chemists develop new substances such as rocket fuels, sol ids for transistors, or vaccines. Other chemists, by observing how light is absorbed by a substance or how X-rays or beams of electrons are affected when passed through it, determine the chemical composition of a substance and the atomic make up of its molecules. Other chemists are interested in bulk properties rather than individual molecules of matter; they examine the behavior of solids, liquids, and reactions on surfaces. Another group of chemists study the rate at which matter un dergoes changes in composition, ranging from the combustion in a jet engine to the growth of a living or ganism. A sizable number of chem ists make qualitative and quantita tive measurements of the properties of matter and develop analytical in struments and techniques. Biochem ists challenge the problems related to the chemistry of life processes. (See separate statement on Biochem ists elsewhere in the H a n d b o o k .) gents, insecticides, and manmade fibers. Many other chemists work on basic research to extend scien tific knowledge rather than to solve immediate practical problems. R e sults of basic research frequently apply immediately to practical problems. For example, basic re search on polymerization— how and Nearly two-fifths of all chemists are engaged in research and devel opment. Many research chemists work on applied research projects to create new products or improve or find new uses for existing ones. Chemists in applied research have helped to develop a vast range of new products including antibiotics, plastics, synthetic rubbers, deter why small molecules unite to form giant molecules— resulted in the de velopment of synthetic rubber, nylon, and plastics. More than one-fourth of all chem ists are employed in management and administration— especially re search and development activities. Approximately one-tenth of all 151 NATURAL SCIENCE OCCUPATIONS chemists devote most of their time to teaching, often combining it with re search. Analysis and testing is an other major activity of chemists be cause various kinds of tests must be made at practically every stage in the manufacture of a product, from initial development to final produc tion. Nearly one-fifth of all chemists are engaged in production and inspection activities which may in sure, for instance, the quality of final products or the improvement of products and processes. Others work as marketing experts or sales representatives of chemical compa nies and other manufacturers in po sitions where the employee must be familiar with the technical aspects of products. Some chemists work as private consultants to private indus try firms and government agencies. ployed more than 25,000 chemists. A smaller number worked for non profit research organizations. A number of chemists were employed by Federal Government agencies, chiefly the U.S Departments of D e fense; Health, Education, and Wel fare; Agriculture; and Interior. Small numbers worked for State and local governments, primarily in agencies concerned with health or agriculture. Chemists were employed in all States, in small as well as large cit ies. However, they were usually concentrated in large industrial areas. Nearly one-fifth of all chem ists were located in four metropol itan areas— New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Newark. About half of the total worked in six States — N ew York, New Jersey, Califor nia, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Illi nois. Places of Employment Chemistry is by far the largest field of employment in the physical sciences. Nearly 137,000 chemists were employed in the United States in 1970; about seven percent were women. Approximately three-fourths of all chemists were employed by pri vate industry in 1970. The chemi cals manufacturing industry em ployed almost half of these chem ists. Relatively large numbers of other chemists were found in the in dustries manufacturing food, scien tific instruments, petroleum, rubber, paper, textiles and apparel, electri cal equipment, and primary metals products. Independent laboratories and research institutes providing consulting services and distributors of chemical, pharmaceutical, food, and petroleum products also em ployed significant numbers of chem ists. Colleges and universities em Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in chemistry is usually the minimum educational requirement for starting a career as a chemist. Graduate training is essential for many posi tions, particularly in research and college teaching, and is helpful for advancement in all types of work. Training leading to the bachelor’s degree in chemistry is offered by about 1,000 colleges and universi ties throughout the country. In addi tion to the required chemistry courses in analytical, inorganic, or ganic, and physical chemistry, the undergraduate chemistry major also takes courses in mathematics (espe cially analytical geometry and cal culus) and physics. Advanced degrees in chemistry are awarded by 300 colleges and universities, many of which offer fi nancial assistance to students inter ested in graduate study. In graduate school, the student usually special izes by taking several courses in a particular field of chemistry. R e quirements for the master’s or doc tor’s degree vary by institution, but usually include a thesis based on in dependent research. N ew graduates having the bache lor’s degree usually qualify for be ginning positions in analysis and testing, quality control, technical service and sales, or assist senior chemists in research and develop ment work. Most chemists having only the bachelor’s degree start their careers in industry or govern ment. In industry, employers often have special training programs for new chemistry graduates. These programs supplement college train ing with specific industry techniques and help determine the type of work for which the new employee is best suited. Some chemists who have the bachelor’s degree teach or do research in colleges and universi ties while working toward advanced degrees. They also may qualify as secondary school teachers. Chemists having the master’s de gree often qualify for applied re search positions in government or private industry. They also may qualify for some teaching positions in colleges and universities and in 2 -year colleges. The Ph. D. degree generally is required for basic research, for higher level faculty positions in a college or university, or for ad vancement to top-level positions in administration and in other activi ties. Students planning careers as chemists should enjoy studying science and mathematics, and work ing with their hands to build scientific apparatus and perform experiments. Perseverance and the ability to con 152 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK centrate on detail and work inde pendently are essential to the prospective chemist. Other desira ble assets include an inquisitive mind, good memory, and imagina tion. The ability to write is impor tant in preparing reports on experi ments. Chemists also should have good eye-hand coordination and eyesight. Employment Outlook The employment outlook for chemists is expected to be favorable through the 1970’s. In addition to new opportunities resulting from the rapid growth expected in the profes sion, thousands of new chemists will be needed each year to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Chemists will continue to be needed to perform research and de velopment work. Through the 1970’s, research and development (R&D) expenditures of Govern ment and industry are expected to increase, although at a slower rate than during the 1960’s. The antici pated slowdown in Federal R&D spending basically reflects antici pated reductions in the relative im portance of the space and defense components of R&D expenditures. These trends were evidenced in the late 1960’s and in 1970. R&D expenditures not only create jobs for chemists in research and development, but also produce new products that result in new positions for chemists in other types of work. Another factor increasing the op portunities for chemists is the grow ing demand for industrial products. These include plastics, manmade fibers, drugs, fertilizers, and high energy and nuclear fuels for missiles and space ships. Chemists also will be required to teach at colleges and universities through the 1970’s to accommodate larger enrollments expected at these institutions. The greatest demand in colleges and universities will be for those who have Ph. D. degrees, but many openings, especially in 2-year colleges, also should arise for chem ists who have master’s degrees. (See statement on College and Uni versity Teachers.) New graduates also will find openings in high school teaching, provided they have completed the professional education courses and other requirements for a State teaching certificate. However, they usually are regarded as teachers rather than as chemists. (See state ment on Secondary School Teach ers.) Earnings and Working Conditions Inexperienced chemistry gradu ates having a bachelor’s degree had an average (m edian) starting salary of about $9,400 a year in private in dustry in 1970, according to a sur vey conducted by the American Chemical Society. Inexperienced graduates having the master’s de gree averaged about $11,000 a year and those having the Ph. D. degree, about $15,000. In academic institutions, the av erage (m edian) annual starting sal ary for the few entrants having the bachelor’s degree and no experience was about $6,600, according to the American Chemical Society. The average salary for inexperienced graduates having the master’s de gree was about $8,000, and for those having the Ph. D degree, $11,200. Many experienced chem ists in educational institutions sup plement their regular salaries with income from consulting, lecturing, and writing. Depending on the indi vidual’s college records, the annual starting salary in the Federal Gov ernment in 1970 for an inexperi enced chemist having the bachelor’s degree was either $8,292 or $10,258. Beginning chemists who have 1 year of graduate study could start at $10,258 and those who have 2 years of graduate study at $11,526. Chemists having the Ph. D. degree could start at $13,096 or $14,192. The average (m edian) annual sal ary for all chemists was $15,300 in 1970, according to the National Sci ence Foundation’s National Regis ter of Scientific and Technical Per sonnel. Only 10 percent of all chem ists earned less than $9,600 a year, and about 10 percent earned $24,000 or more. Chemists spend most of their time working in modern, wellequipped, well-lighted laboratories, offices, or classrooms. Chemists work with chemicals that can be dangerous if handled carelessly. However, when safety regulations are followed, health hazards are negligible. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportunities and earnings for chem ists may be obtained from: American Chemical Society, 1155 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Manufacturing Chemists’ Associa tion, Inc., 1825 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. Specific information on Federal Government careers may be ob tained from: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Washing ton, D.C., 1900 E St. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20415. For additional sources of infor- 153 NATURAL SCIENCE OCCUPATIONS mation, see statements on Biochem ists, Chemical Engineers, and In dustrial Chemical Industry. Infor mation on chemical technicians may be found in the statement on Tech nician Occupations. PHYSICISTS (D.O.T. 023.081 and .088) Nature of the Work The flight of astronauts through space, the probing of the oceans’ depths, or even the safety of the family car depend on research by physicists. By determining basic laws governing phenomena such as gravity, electromagnetism, heat flow, and radioactivity, potential difficulties can be anticipated and overcome. Physicists observe and analyze various forms of energy, the struc ture of matter, and the relationship between matter and energy. From their research, physicists develop theories and discover fundamental laws that describe the behavior of the forces at work within the uni verse. Their studies have continued to broaden man’s understanding of the physical world and have enabled him to make increasing use of natu ral resources. Physicists have con tributed to scientific progress in re cent years in areas such as nuclear energy, electronics, communica tions, and aerospace. Physicist examines hydrogen detection material. Nearly three-fifths of all physi cists are engaged in research and development. Some conduct basic research to increase scientific knowledge with only secondary re gard to its practical applications. Some of these, called theoretical physicists, attempt to describe in mathematical terms interactions be tween matter and energy. Others, called experimental physicists, make careful systematic observations and perform experiments to identify and quantify these interactions. For ex ample, they try to identify and meas ure the lifetime of tiny particles of matter which may exist within the nucleus of the atom. Experimental physicists use apparatus such as particle accelerators, X-ray spec trometers, microwave devices, las ers, and phase and electron micro scopes. They may design new kinds of instruments. The difference be tween theoretical and experimental physicists is often merely one of emphasis. Some members of the profession are skilled in both types of work. A large number of physicists who are engineering-oriented engage in applied research and development. They use the knowledge gained from basic research to solve practi cal problems or to develop new or improved products. For example, the work of physicists specializing in solid-state physics led to the devel opment of transistors and microcir cuits, which have replaced vacuum tubes in many types of electronic equipment ranging from hearing aids to guidance systems for mis siles. About one-fifth of all physicists teach in colleges and universities. Approximately another fifth are en gaged in management and adminis tration, especially research and de velopment programs. A small num ber work in activities related to the 154 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK production of industrial products such as inspection and quality con trol. Some physicists do consulting work. Most physicists specialize in one or more branches of the science— mechanics, thermal phenomena, high energy physics, optics, acous tics, electromagnetism, electronics, atomic and molecular physics, nu clear physics, physics of fluids, solid-state physics, or classical theo retical physics. They may concen trate in a subdivision of one of these branches. For example, within solid-state physics they may special ize in ceramics, crystallography, or semiconductors, among others. In addition, emerging knowledge con tinually opens new areas of re search. For example, the develop ment of lasers and masefs has led to new experimentation in optics and other fields. However, since all physics specialties rest on the same fundamental principles, the physi cist’s work often overlaps a number of specialties. Physicists often apply the the ories and methodology of their sci ence to problems originating in other sciences, including astronomy, biology, chemistry, and geology. Growing numbers of scientists spe cialize in fields that combine physics and a related science. Thus, a num ber of specialties have developed on the borderline between physics and other fields— astrophysics, biophys ics, chemical physics, and geophys ics. (Information on these occupa tions is continued elsewhere in the H a n d b o o k .) Furthermore, the prac tical applications of physicists’ work have increasingly merged with engi neering. Places of Employment Approximately 4 8 ,0 0 0 physicists were employed in the United States in 1970; nearly 4 percent were women. Private industry employed more than 18,000; two-fifths of whom worked in the electrical equipment, ordnance, and chemicals industries. Commercial laboratories and independent research institutes employed more than one-fourth of the physicists in private industry. In 1970, colleges and universities employed almost 22,000 research or teaching physicists, many of whom combined both activities. Federal government agencies em ployed approximately 6,600 physi cists in 1970, more than threefourths of whom worked for the D e partment of Defense. The National Bureau of Standards and the N a tional Aeronautics and Space A d ministration also employed signifi cant numbers of physicists. N on profit organizations employed more than 1,500 physicists. Physicists were employed in all States. However, their employment was greatest in those areas having industrial concentrations and large colleges and universities. Nearly one-fourth of all physicists were employed in four metropolitan areas— Washington, D.C., Boston, New York, and Los Angeles-Long Beach. More than one-third of the total were employed in three States — California, New York, and M as sachusetts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in physics is generally the minimum entrance requirement for young people seeking careers as physicists. Graduate training is required for many entry positions and is helpful for advancement in all areas of work. A doctor’s degree usually is re quired for full faculty status at col leges and universities. Also, the doctorate generally is needed for employment in positions involving responsibility for research and de velopment with any type of em ployer. Physicists having master’s de grees qualify for many research jobs in private industry, educational in stitutions, and government. Some also instruct in colleges and univer sities. Usually, graduate students working toward a doctor’s degree are assigned to teach elementary college courses, conduct laboratory sessions, or assist senior faculty members on research projects. Physicists having bachelor’s de grees qualify for a variety of jobs in applied research and development work in private industry or the Fed eral government. Some become re search assistants in colleges and universities while working toward advanced degrees. Many persons having a bachelor’s degree in the sciences do not work as physicists but enter nontechnical work, other sciences, or engineering. Over 800 colleges and universi ties offer training leading to the bachelor’s degree in physics. In ad dition, many engineering schools of fered a physics major as part of the general curriculum. The undergrad uate program in physics provides a broad background in the science, which serves as a base for later spe cialization either in graduate school or on the job. A few of the physics courses typically offered in an un dergraduate program are mechan ics, electricity and magnetism, op tics, thermodynamics, and atomic and molecular physics. In addition, courses in chemistry and mathemat ics are required. Approximately 250 colleges and universities offer advanced degrees NATURAL SCIENCE OCCUPATIONS in physics. In graduate school, the student, with faculty guidance, usu ally works in a specific field. The graduate student, especially the can didate for the Ph. D. degree, spends a large portion of his time in re search. Students planning a career in physics should have an inquisitive mind, good memory, and imagina tion. Perseverance and the ability to concentrate on detail also are im portant. The occupation requires constant study and the ability to work independently. Prospective physicists should also possess good eye-hand coordination and eyesight. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for physicists are expected to be favora ble through the 1970’s. In addition to opportunities resulting from the rapid growth expected in this field, other physicists will be needed each year to replace those who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Graduate training is increasingly the hallmark of full professional sta tus in physics. As in recent years, a demand is expected for physicists who have advanced degrees to teach in colleges and universities. Am ong the factors contributing to the de mand for physics teachers are the rapid increase in graduate enroll ments and the growing need for physics training in other science and engineering programs. Physicists also will be required in substantial numbers to do complex research and development work re lated to physics, engineering, or other natural sciences. Through the 1970’s, research and development (R&D) expenditures of Govern ment and industry are expected to increase, although at a slower rate 155 than during the 1960’s. The antici pated slowdown in Federal R&D spending basically reflects antici pated reductions in the relative im portance of the space and defense components of R&D expenditures. These trends were evidenced in the late 1960’s and in 1970. N ew graduates also will find op portunities in other occupations that utilize their training. For example, they may become high school teach ers, provided they complete the re quired professional educational courses and obtain a State teaching certificate. However, they are usu ally regarded as teachers rather than as physicists. (See statement on Secondary School Teachers else where in the H a n d b o o k .) Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries for physicists having bachelor’s degrees were usu ally about $9,900 a year in private industry in 1970, according to the limited information available. Phys icists having master’s degrees re ceived starting salaries about $1,900 higher than those having bachelor’s degrees. Depending on specialty and experience, graduates having Ph. D. degrees generally re ceived entrance salaries of around $15,000 annually, although some were paid considerably less. Depending on their college rec ords, physicists having bachelor de grees and no experience could start work in the Federal Government in 1970 at either $8,292 or $10,258. Beginning physicists who had com pleted all the requirements for the master’s degree could start at $10,258 or $11,526. Physicists having the Ph. D degree could begin at $13,096 or $14,192. Starting salaries for physicists having the Ph. D. degree on college and university faculties averaged $1,000 per month in 1970. (For further information, see statement on College and University Teach ers.) Many faculty physicists sup plement their regular incomes and satisfy their professional interests through consulting work and special research projects. The average (m edian) annual sal ary for physicists was $15,900 in 1970, according to the National Sci ence Foundation’s Register of Sci entific and Technical Personnel. Only 10 percent earned less than $10,000 a year, and about 10 per cent earned $25,000 or more. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportunities in physics may be ob tained from: American Institute of Physics, 335 East 45th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Information on Federal Govern ment careers may be obtained from: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Washing ton, D.C., 1900 E St. NW , Wash ington, D.C. 20415. ASTRONOMERS (D.O.T. 021.088) Nature of the Work Astronomy often is considered the most theoretical of all sciences, although it has many practical ap plications. Astronomers study the structure, extent, and evolution of the universe. They collect and ana 156 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK lyze data on the sun, moons, plan ets, and stars, and attempt to de termine the sizes, shapes, surface temperatures, chemical composi tion, and motions of these bodies and make studies of the gases and dust between them. They compute the positions of the planets; calcu late the orbits of comets, asteroids, and artificial satellites; make statisti cal studies of stars and galaxies and study the origin and nature of cosmic radiation. Astronomers also study the size and shape of the earth and the properties of its upper at mosphere. Astronomical observa tions are valuable to navigation and the accurate measurement of time. In making detailed observations of the heavens, astronomers use complex photographic techniques, light-measuring instruments, and other optical devices. Astronomers actually spend a limited amount of time at the telescope, the major in strument used for observation. D e vices for making specialized obser vations are usually attached to the Astronomer uses telescope to determine position of stars. telescope. Other methods of obser vation include the use of rock ets, balloons, and satellites carrying various measuring devices. In proc essing and analyzing the vast amounts of data derived from their observations, astronomers often use electronic computers and spectro photometers. Astronomers usually specialize in one of the many branches of the sci ence. In a str o p h y sic s , they apply physical laws to stellar atmospheres and interiors. Some astronomers work in the field of dynamical as tronomy, one of the oldest fields of astronomy that has recently ac quired new importance. This branch deals, in part, with the motions of objects in the solar system, and hence has a particular application in the calculation of the orbits of spacecraft and artificial earth satel lites and the paths of ballistic mis siles. R a d io a s tr o n o m y is a tech nique used to study the source and nature of celestial radio waves by means of radio telescopes. Among the many other specialties are a s tr o m e tr y (measurement of angular positions and movements of celestial bodies); photoelectric and photo graphic p h o to m e tr y (measurement of the intensity of light); s p e c tr o s c o p y o f a s tr o n o m ic a l so u r c e s (wave length analyses of radiation from celestial bodies); and s ta tis tic a l a s tr o n o m y (statistical study of large numbers of celestial objects, such as stars, to determine their average properties). More than two-thirds of all as tronomers are engaged in research activities. Nearly a fifth are em ployed in colleges and universities, primarily as teachers. In some schools not having separate depart ments of astronomy or having only small enrollments in the subject, as tronomers may teach courses in mathematics or physics as well as astronomy. Other members of the profession are engaged in a variety of activities, including administra tion of research programs, develop ment and design of astronomical in struments, and consultation in areas to which astronomy is applied. Places of Employment Astronomy is one of the smallest of the physical sciences; in 1970, the total number of astronomers in the United States was estimated to be about 1,300. Nearly threefourths of all astronomers were em ployed by colleges and universities. Many of these worked in univer sity-operated observatories, where they usually devoted most of their time to research. Other astronomers worked for observatories financed by nonprofit organizations. The Federal Government em ployed more than 100 astronomers in 1970. Most of these were em ployed by the Department of D e fense, mainly by the U.S. Naval Ob servatory and the U.S. Naval R e search Laboratory. A couple hundred astronomers were em ployed in private industry, many by firms in the aerospace field. A few astronomers worked for museums and planetariums. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Young people seeking profes sional careers in astronomy should obtain an advanced degree— prefer ably the Ph. D. The doctorate usu ally is required for high-level posi tions in teaching and research and is important for other types of work in this field. Although the bachelor’s degree is adequate preparation for some entry jobs, astronomers with out graduate work usually find that NATURAL SCIENCE OCCUPATIONS opportunities for promotion are lim ited. Undergraduate curriculums lead ing to the bachelor’s degree in as tronomy are offered by only about 40 colleges and universities. The undergraduate work of the prospec tive astronomer is weighted heavily with courses in physics and mathe matics. Courses in chemistry, statis tics, and electronics also are useful. A few of the courses often taken by astronomy undergraduates are me chanics, electricity and magnetism, introductory courses in astronomy and astrophysics, and astronomical techniques and instruments. The prospective astronomer is not necessarily handicapped if the college he has selected for his un dergraduate study does not offer a major in astronomy. Well-qualified students having a bachelor’s degree in physics or mathematics with a physics minor usually are able to enter and pursue graduate programs in astronomy without difficulty. Programs leading to the doctor ate in astronomy are available at about 30 institutions located in vari ous sections of the country. The graduate student takes advanced courses primarily in astronomy, physics, and mathematics. A few graduate schools offer celestial me chanics, galactic structure, radio as tronomy, stellar atmospheres and interiors, theoretical astrophysics, and binary and variable stars. Some schools require that graduate stu dents spend several months in resi dence at an observatory. In most in stitutions, the program of work leading to the doctorate is flexible and allows the student to take the courses which will be of most value in his particular area of interest. New graduates having a bache lor’s or master’s degree in astron omy usually begin as assistants in observatories, planetariums, large 157 departments of astronomy in col leges and universities, Government agencies, or industry. Some persons having only the bachelor’s degree work as research assistants while studying toward advanced degrees; others, particularly those in Govern ment employment, receive on-thejob training in the application of astronomical principles. New gradu ates having the doctorate can usually qualify for college teaching positions and for research positions in educational institutions, Govern ment, and industry. Young persons planning a career in astronomy should have inquisi tive minds, imagination, and they should like working with ideas. Per severance, the ability to concentrate on detail and to work independently also are important. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for as tronomers having the Ph. D. degree are expected to be favorable through the 1970’s. Well-qualified persons with only bachelor’s or master’s degrees in astronomy will have favorable employment pros pects, primarily as research and technical assistants. As in the past, however, the higher level profes sional positions in astronomy will be filled mainly by persons having the doctorate. The outlook is for a rapid growth of this small profession through the 1970’s. However, because astron omy is a small profession, the num ber of job openings in any 1 year will not be large. On the other hand, because relatively few college stu dents are expected to receive ad vanced degrees in astronomy each year, those who do should have good employment opportunities. Among the factors underlying the expected increase in demand for as tronomers is the progress of the space age— the age of rockets, mis siles, manmade earth satellites, and space exploration. Astronomers will be needed to analyze the data col lected by rockets and spacecraft. They also will be needed to plan and give direction to the astronomi cal observations that can only be carried out by means of equipment placed in space vehicles. Increased research activities in astronomy by educational institu tions, Government, and industry are expected to add to the demand for astronomers. In recent years, the growth of Federal Governmentsponsored research, in the form of grants to educational institutions and observatories (for astronomical research and for new buildings, ob servatories, and equipm ent), has opened many new positions for as tronomers. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, beginning astronomers having the Ph. D. were eligible to enter Federal Government service at a salary of $13,096 or $14,192 a year, depending on their college record. Astronomers having the bachelor’s degree could start at $8,292 or $10,258 a year; those hav ing a bachelor’s degree and some graduate study could begin at $10,258 or $11,526. According to the National Sci ence Foundation’s National Regis ter of Scientific and Technical Personnel, the average (m edian) an nual salary of all astronomers hav ing the Ph. D. degree was $ 15,100 in 1970. Those with master’s degrees averaged $13,100 and bachelor’s degree holders also averaged $13,100 in 1970. Some astronomers make visual OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 158 photographic or photoelectric ob servations at night. Others make ob servations only 4 or 5 nights each month, or even only a few nights a year, and study and analyze photo graphic plates, photoelectric trac ings, and other material during usual daytime working hours. Ob servational work at a telescope in volves exposure to the outside air through the open dome of the ob servatory, sometimes on cold winter nights. In general, however, the physical requirements of astronomi cal work can be met by a reasona bly healthy person. occupations are employed in food processing, this statement is con cerned with only the food scientist or f o o d te c h n o lo g ist. Food scientists investigate the fundamental chemical, physical, and biological nature of food and apply this knowledge to processing, pre serving, and storing an adequate, nu tritious, and wholesome food sup ply. About two-fifths of all scientists in food processing are employed in basic or applied research, and de velopment. Others work in a quality assurance laboratory, or in the production or processing area of a food plant. Some teach or do basic research in colleges and universities. Food scientists in basic research study the structure and composition of foods and their changes in proc essing or storage. For example, they may be interested in develop ing new sources of proteins, study ing the effects of food processing on microorganisms, or searching for factors that affect the flavor, tex ture, or appearance of foods. In applied research and develop ment, food scientists create new Sources of Additional Information General information on careers in astronomy may be obtained from: American Astronomical Society, 211 FitzRandolph Rd., Princeton, N.J. 08540. Specific information on Federal Government career opportunities may be obtained from: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Washing ton, D.C., 1900 E St. NW„ Wash ington, D.C. 20415. FOOD SCIENTISTS (D.O.T. 022.081, 040.081, 041.081) Nature of the Work Someone has estimated that the average family of four consumes over 5,000 pounds of food a year. In the past, most food processing was done at home but today, almost all food is processed by industry. Although people in many different Food scientist adds flavor to enhance product. NATURAL SCIENCE OCCUPATIONS foods and develop processes for new products. They also improve existing foods by making them more nutritious and enhancing their flavor, color, or texture. They may formulate an idea for a new product or modify an existing item. The idea is submitted to management and, if accepted, a new research project is begun. The scientist must ensure that each new product will retain its characteristics and nutritive value during storage. He also may con duct chemical and microbiological tests to see that products meet both industry and government standards. Other food scientists test additives for purity, investigate changes that take place during processing or stor age, or develop mass-feeding meth ods for food service institutions. Food scientists also maintain rec ords of their work and prepare re ports showing results of tests or ex periments. Food scientists in quality control laboratories check raw ingredients to note freshness, maturity, or suita bility for processing. For example, the product may be tested for ten derness by using machines that gauge the amount of force necessary to shear or puncture the item. Peri odically, they inspect processing line operations and perform chemi cal and bacteriological tests during and after processing to insure con formity with established industry and government standards. These tests vary according to the product and processing method. Canned goods, for example, may be tested for sugar, starch, protein, fat, and mineral content. In a frozen food plant, the scientist must determine that various enzymes are inactive after the product has been proc essed so that the food does not lose its flavor during storage. Other sci entists are concerned with packag 159 ing materials that maintain shelf life and product stability. Whether in research or quality control, food scientists must be fa miliar with fundamental research techniques and standard testing equipment, such as vacuum gauges and reflectance meters. Food scientists in quality control laboratories often supervise techni cians who assist in product testing. (See statements on Food Processing Technicians.) Food scientists engaged in pro duction and processing schedule processing operations, prepare pro duction specifications, maintain proper temperature and humidity in storage areas, and supervise sanita tion, including the efficient and eco nomical disposal of wastes. Food scientists are responsible for ways to increase processing efficiency. For example, they may advise manage ment on the purchase of equipment and recommend new sources of materials. Places of Employment Approximately 7,300 food sci entists were employed in the food processing industry in 1970. Less than 10 percent were women. Food scientists are employed in all sectors of the food industry and in every State, particularly California, Illi nois, New York, Pennsylvania, Texas, Ohio, N ew Jersey, Wisconsin, Michigan, and Iowa. Some food scientists are em ployed in research by Federal Gov ernment agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration, and the Departments of Agriculture and Defense. A few are employed by private consulting firms and interna tional organizations. Some teach or do research in colleges and universi ties. (See statement on College and University Teachers.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in food science or one of the physi cal or life sciences such as chemistry and biology is the usual minimum educational requirement for a be ginning food scientist. Graduate training is essential for many posi tions, particularly research and col lege teaching, and for many man agement level jobs in industry. Nearly 40 colleges and universi ties throughout the U.S. offer train ing leading to the bachelor’s degree in food science. Undergraduate courses generally include food chemistry, analysis, microbiology, engineering, and processing. Under graduate courses include other physical sciences such as physics and mathematics, the social sciences and humanities, and business ad ministration. Advanced degrees are offered by most of those colleges and universi ties that provide undergraduate food science programs. In graduate school, students usually specialize in a particular area of food science. Requirements for the master’s or doctor’s degree vary by institution, but usually include laboratory work and a thesis. A food scientist with a bachelor’s degree might start work in produc tion as a quality assurance chemist or an assistant production manager. After obtaining sufficient experi ence, the food scientist in produc tion could advance to more re sponsible management positions. The scientist also might begin as a junior food chemist in the applied research and development labora tory of a food company and be 160 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK promoted to section head or other research management positions. Graduates who have a master’s degree might begin as senior food chemists in research and develop ment. Graduates who have the Ph. D. probably would begin their ca reers doing basic research. Young persons planning careers as food scientists should like techni cal work and have analytical minds oriented toward detail. Flexibility and innovativeness are important in meeting food needs for an expand ing population. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for graduates of food science programs at all degree levels are expected to be favorable through the 1970’s. In addition to the scientists needed to fill new positions, several hundred will be needed -each year to replace those who retire or die. Am ong the factors underlying the anticipated increase in requirements for food scientists is an expanding population that is demanding a greater variety of quality convenience foods. Food-service institutions that supply outlets, such as airlines and restau rants, also require many types of convenience foods. An increasing number of scientists also will be re quired in research and product de velopment. Expenditures for re search and development in the food industry have shown moderate in creases in recent years and probably will continue to rise. Research could produce new foods from modifica tions of wheat, corn, rice, and soy beans. For example, some of the “meat” in the future will be manu factured to resemble beef, pork, and chicken. Additional food scientists will be needed in production and quality control because of the com plexity of products and processes and the application of higher proc essing standards. Earnings and Working Conditions Inexperienced food science grad uates (and graduates of other scien tific disciplines) with a bachelor’s degree had starting salaries of about $760 per month in 1970, based on limited data. Inexperienced gradu ates having the master’s degree av eraged about $940 per month, and those having the Ph. D. degree, about $1,200 per month. The average (m edian) salary for all food scientists was $16,000 in 1970, according to the National Science Foundation’s National Reg ister of Scientific and Technical Personnel. Most food scientists work in modern, well-lighted and ventilated laboratories. However, food scien tists may face a slight hazard from slippery floors in pilot or processing plants. Sources of Additional Information Information on a variety of ca reers in food science, and a list of schools offering programs in food science may be obtained from : The Institute of Food Technologists, Suite 2120, 221 North LaSalle Street, Chicago, Illinois 60601. PERFO RM ING A R T IS T S AND O THER ART RELATED O C C U PA TIO N S The performing arts include music, acting, singing, and the dance. In these fields, the number of talented persons seeking employ ment generally greatly exceeds the number of full-time positions availa ble. As a result, many performers supplement their incomes by teach ing, and others work much of the time in different types of occupa tions. The difficulty of earning a living as a performer is one of the facts young persons should bear in mind in considering an artistic career. They should consider, therefore, the possible advantages of making their art a hobby rather than a profes sion. Aspiring young artists usually must spend many years in intensive training and practice before they are ready for public performances. They need not only great natural talent but also determination, a will ingness to work long and hard, and an overwhelming interest in their chosen field. The statements which follow this introduction give detailed informa tion on musicians, singers, actors, and dancers. stage, television, and screen produc tions. Actors who have minor parts in stage productions also may serve as understudies for the principals. If a leading player misses a perform ance, the understudy has a chance to demonstrate his acting ability. Only a few of the approximately 15,000 actors and actresses in the United States in 1970 have achieved recognition as stars— on the stage, in motion pictures, or on television or radio. A somewhat larger number are well-known, ex perienced performers, who fre quently are cast in supporting roles. However, most of these workers are struggling for a toehold in the pro fession, and are glad to pick up parts wherever they can. Actors who prepare for roles ei ther on the stage, in television, or in the movies spend many hours in re hearsal. They must memorize their lines and know their cues. Radio ac tors typically read their parts. They have to be especially skilled in ex pressing character and emotion through the voice, since this is their sole means of creating an imperson ation for their audience. New actors generally start in “bit” parts, where they speak only a few lines. If successful, they may progress to larger, supporting roles, of which there are several in most In addition to the actors with speaking parts, “extras,” who have no lines to deliver, are used in al most every motion picture and many television shows and theatre ACTORS AND ACTRESSES (D.O.T. 150.028 and 150.048) Nature of the Work Making a character come to life before an audience is a job that has great glamour and fascination. It is also hard and demanding work that requires special talent and involves many difficulties and uncertainties. 161 162 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK productions. In spectacular produc tions, a large number of extras take part in crowd scenes. Some actors find alternative jobs as dramatic coaches or become directors of stage, television, radio, or motion picture productions. A few teach in schools of acting or in the drama departments o f colleges and universities. Places of Employment Stage plays, motion pictures (in cluding films made especially for television), and commercials are the largest fields of employment for actors, although some are employed by “live” television and radio. In the winter, most employment opportunities on the stage are in New York and other large cities. In the summer months, stock compa nies in suburban and resort areas throughout the Nation provide many opportunities for employ ment. In addition many cities now have “little theaters,” repertory companies and dinner theaters, which provide opportunities for local talent as well as for profes sional actors and actresses from New York and other centers. Plays that go “on the road,” moving from city to city, are normally produced in New York City with casts se lected there. Although employment opportuni ties in motion pictures and film tele vision are centered in Hollywood, a few studios are in New York City; Miami, Fla.; and other parts of the country. In addition, many films are shot on location, providing employ ment for nonprofessionals who live in the area as “extras.” A n increas ing number of American-produced films are being shot in foreign coun tries. In live television and radio, most opportunities for actors are at the headquarters of the major net works— in New York, Los Angeles, and, to a lesser extent, Chicago. A few local television and radio sta tions occasionally employ actors. Training and Other Qualifications Young people aspiring to acting careers should get as much acting experience as possible by taking part in high school and college plays, or working with little theaters and other acting groups in their home towns. Formal training in acting is in creasingly necessary. Such training can be obtained at special schools of the dramatic arts, located chiefly in N ew York, and in over 500 colleges and universities throughout the country. College drama curriculums usually include courses in liberal arts, speech, pantomime, play pro duction, and the history of the drama, as well as practical courses in acting. From these, the student develops an appreciation of the great plays and a greater understanding of the roles he may be called on to play. Graduate degrees in the fine arts or in drama are necessary for college teaching positions. Acting demands patience and total commitment since aspiring ac tors and actresses must wait for parts or filming schedules, must work long hours, and often must do much traveling. Flawless perform ances require long rehearsal sched ules and the tedious memorizing of lines. The actor needs stamina to withstand the heat of stage or studio lights, or the adverse weather condi tions which may exist “on location.” Above all, young persons planning a career in acting must have talent and the creative ability to portray different characters. They must have poise, stage presence, and ag gressiveness to project themselves to the audience. At the same time, the ability to follow directions is im portant. In all media, the best way to start is to use local opportunities and to build on the basis of such experi ence. Many actors who are success ful in local dramatic productions eventually try to appear on the New York stage. Inexperienced actors usually find it extremely difficult to obtain employment in New York or Hollywood. The motion picture field is especially difficult to enter, and employment often results from previous experience on Broadway. To become a movie extra, one must usually be listed by Central Casting, a no-fee agency which works with the Screen Extras Guild and supplies all extras to the major movie studios in Hollywood. Appli cants are accepted only when the number of people of a particular type on the list— for example, ath letic young men, old ladies, or small children— is below the foreseeable need. In recent years, only a very small proportion of the total num ber of applicants has succeeded in being listed. Extras have very little, if any, opportunity to advance to speaking roles in the movies. The length of an actor’s working life depends largely on his skill and versatility. Great actors and ac tresses can work almost indefinitely. On the other hand, employment op portunities become increasingly lim ited by middle age, especially for those who become typed in roman tic, youthful roles. Employment Outlook Overcrowding has acting field for many expected to persist. mate theater and also existed in the years and it is In the legiti in motion pic- PERFORMING ARTISTS tures, radio, and television, numbers of job applicants greatly exceed the jobs available. Moreover, many ac tors are employed in their profes sion for only a small part of the year. The development of motion pic tures, radio, and TV has greatly re duced employment opportunities for actors in the theater. Although a motion picture production may use a very large number of actors, they are employed only during filming and the films are widely distributed and may be used for years. Also, the increasing number of Ameri can-produced films being shot in foreign countries will reduce em ployment opportunities for Ameri can actors. Radio uses few actors. The number of filmed TV dramas and commercials using actors is in creasing, but not enough to offset the decline in other media. More over, television stations often broadcast “taped” dramas rather than live productions, and, like mo tion picture films, these tapes may be widely distributed and used many times. One possibility for future growth in the legitimate theater lies in the establishment of year-round profes sional acting companies in more cit ies. The number of communities with such acting groups is growing. The recent growth of summer stock companies, repertory companies, and dinner theaters also has in creased employment. Further in creases also are likely in the em ployment of actors on television due partly to the expanding Public Broadcasting System and U H F sta tions. In addition, increased em ployment opportunities are ex pected as a result of the expanded use of cable TV (pay T V ). Also, the development and wider use in the future of video cassettes will re 163 sult in more employment opportuni ties. In the acting field as a whole, however, employment opportunities are expected to change little through the 1970’s. The number of new entrants to the profession is ex pected to outnumber employment opportunities. Even highly talented young people are likely to face stiff competition and economic diffi culties in the profession. Earnings and Working Conditions Actors and actresses employed in the legitimate theater belong to the Actors’ Equity Association. If em ployed in motion pictures, including television films, they belong to the Screen Actors Guild, Inc., or to the Screen Extras Guild, Inc. If em ployed in television or radio, they belong to the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists. These unions and the show produc ers sign basic collective bargaining agreements which set minimum sal aries, hours of work, and other con ditions of employment. In addition, each actor enters into a separate contract which may provide for higher salaries than those specified in the basic agreement. The minimum weekly salary for actors in Broadway productions was about $165 in 1970. Those appear ing in small “off-Broadway” the aters received a minimum of $75 a week. For shows on the road, the minimum rate was about $220 a week. Earnings for rehearsal time were about $165 a week in Broad way shows and much lower in small “off-Broadway” theaters. (A ll mini mum salaries are automatically, by union contract, adjusted upward commensurate with increases in the cost of living as reflected in the Bu reau of Labor Statistics Consumer Price Index.) Motion picture actors and ac tresses had a minimum daily rate of $120 in 1970. For extras, the mini mum rate was about $33 a day. A c tors on network television received a minimum program fee of about $ 180 for a single half-hour program and 10 hours of rehearsal time; ac tors on radio received about $50 for a half-hour performance, including one rehearsal hour. To encourage more stable employment on radio and TV, minimum guarantees for those actors with contracts for a se ries of programs are sometimes dis counted below the single program guaranteed fee. Because of the fre quent periods of unemployment characteristic of this profession, an nual earnings may be low for many of the lesser known performers. In all fields, many well-known actors and actresses have salary rates above the minimums. Salaries of the few top stars are many times the fig ures cited. Eight performances amount to a week’s work on the legitimate stage, and any additional perform ances are paid for as overtime. The basic workweek after the opening of a show is 36 hours, including 12 hours for rehearsals. Before the opening, however, the workweek usually is longer to allow enough time for rehearsals. Evening work is, of course, a regular part of a stage actor’s life. Rehearsals may be held late at night and on weekends and holidays. When plays are on the road, traveling over the weekend often is necessary. Most actors are covered by a pension fund and a growing number have hospitalization insurance to which their employers contribute. All equity members have paid vaca tions and sick leave. Most stage ac tors get little if any unemployment 164 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK compensation solely from acting, since they seldom have enough em ployment in any State to meet the eligibility requirements. Conse quently, when a show closes, they often have to take any casual work obtainable while waiting for another role. D AN CERS (D.O.T. 151.028 and 151.048) Nature of the Work Dancing is an ancient and world wide art, having many different forms. Professional dancers may perform in classical ballet or mod ern dance, in dance adaptations for musical shows, in folk dances, or in tap and other popular kinds of dancing. In the classical ballet, movements are based on certain conventional or styled “positions,” and women dance “en pointe” (on the tips of their to es). In the mod em dance, movements are much more varied but are nonetheless carefully planned and executed to follow a pattern. In dance productions, the per formers most often work together as a chorus. However, a group of se lected dancers may do special num bers, and a very few top artists do solo work. M any dancers combine teaching with their stage work or teach full time in schools of the dance or in colleges and universities. The few dancers who becom e choreogra phers create new ballets or dance routines. Others are dance directors who train dancers in new produc tions. (This statement does not include instructors of ballroom and other social dancing.) Places of Employment In 1970, there were approxi mately 2 3 ,000 dancers and dancing teachers in the United States. More than half of this number were teach ers employed at schools of the dance and in other schools and col leges. Most of the other dancers were performers on the stage, screen, and television. A few teach ers trained in dance therapy were employed by hospitals to work in the treatment of mental disorders. About 90 percent of all dancers are women, but in some types of dance, particularly ballet and modern, women constitute about one-half of the performers. Dancing teachers are located 165 PERFORMING ARTISTS chiefly in large cities, but many smaller cities and towns have schools of the dance. New York City is the hub for the majority of performing dancers; others are situ ated in most large cities. Training and Other Qualifications Serious training for a dancing ca reer traditionally begins by age 12 or earlier. For example, girls wish ing to become ballet dancers should begin taking lessons at the age of 7 or 8. From 2 to 3 years of prior preparation is needed before the young girl should start dancing “en pointe.” Professional training in ballet typically takes from 10 to 12 lessons a week for 11 or 12 months in the year and many additional hours of practice. The length of the training period depends on the stu dent’s ability and physical develop ment, but most dancers have their professional audition by age 17 or 18. The selection of a professional dancing school is important for two reasons. First, the school must use expert judgment in setting the pace of training, since too early and too severe exercise can permanently damage the legs and feet. Second, the school’s connections with producers may help the students in obtaining employment. Because of the strenuous training program in the professional schools, the general education received by students in these schools may not exceed the legal minimum. How ever, a dancer’s education should include subjects such as music, liter ature, and history to aid him in his interpretation of dramatic episodes and music. About 2 0 0 colleges and universi ties confer bachelor’s degrees on students who have either majored in physical education and concen trated on the dance, majored in a dance program designed to prepare students to teach dance, or majored in a dance program designed to pre pare students as professional dance artists. Some of these schools also give graduate degrees. A college education is an advan tage in obtaining employment as a teacher of- professional dancing or choreography. However, dancers who postpone their first audition for openings in classical ballet until graduation may compete at a disad vantage with younger dancers. A teaching position in profes sional schools usually requires expe rience as a performer; in colleges and conservatories graduate degrees are generally required, but experi ence as a performer often may be substituted. Maturity and a broad educational background are also im portant for teaching positions. The dancer’s life is one of rigor ous practice, perfecting of the art, and self-discipline. Good health and physical stamina are necessary, both to keep in good condition and to follow the rugged travel schedule imposed on many dancers. Height and body build should not vary much from the average. Good feet and normal arches are also re quired. Above all, one must have a natural aptitude for dancing, a cre ative ability to express oneself through dance. Seldom does a dancer perform unaccompanied. Therefore, young persons considering a dancing ca reer should be able to function as part of a team. They also should be prepared to face the anxiety of un stable working conditions brought on by show closings, audition fail ures, and the like. For women dancers, employment in ballet companies is very difficult to obtain after the age of 30, except for outstanding stars. Women past 25 are rarely hired for Broadway shows unless they have already had experience in such productions. Men who are ballet dancers, and men and women who perform in modern dance productions, can usu ally continue somewhat longer. After the employable age as per formers has passed, some dancers teach in colleges or conservatories, or establish their own schools. The few who become choreographers or dance directors can continue work ing as long as persons would in most other occupations. Employment Outlook Opportunities in this field will be limited both by the small number of full-time jobs available and the rela tively large supply of applicants seeking full-time work. The supply of trained dancers has exceeded the demand for many years. The irregu lar employment that has persisted for many years is expected to con tinue despite a few recent unionmanagement contracts aimed at guaranteeing some dancers full or near-full employment each year. Among the factors affecting demand are the decline in the total number of stage productions because of competition from motion pictures and television. Few stage shows run more than 26 weeks and many “fold” after the first week. On the other hand, the number of shows being produced is increasing, and there is a growing trend toward using professional dancers at in dustrial exhibitions, such as auto shows. Also, some new professional dance companies are being devel oped around the country, and tele vision will offer some additional em ployment opportunities. Civic and community dance groups are in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 166 creasing in number, and opportuni ties for dancers will expand as these develop into professional groups. Nevertheless, employment oppor tunities for dance performers will remain limited, and most of the openings for dancers in the years ahead will stem from the need to re place those who leave the field. The employment outlook for dancers who have the personal and educational qualifications for teach ing will be much better than for those trained only as performers. The growing interest in the dance as one of the fine arts is contributing to the demand for teachers of dancing. The increase in college enrollments will be another factor which will tend to enlarge teaching opportuni ties. (See statement on “College and University Teachers.” ) Men dancers face less competi tion for employment than do women dancers, since fewer men than women seek dancing as a ca reer. Earnings and Working Conditions Dancers who perform profession ally are members of one of the un ions affiliated with the Associated Actors and Artists of America (A F L -C IO ). Dancers who perform in opera ballets, classical ballet, and the m odem dance belong to the American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc.; those who perform on televi sion belong to the American Feder ation of Television and Radio Art ists; and those who appear in musi cal comedies join Actors’ Equity Association. Dancers may also be members of other unions, depend ing upon the field in which they per form. (See statement on Singers and Singing Teachers.) Minimum salary rates, hours of work, and other con ditions of employment are specified in basic agreements signed by the unions and the producers. The sep arate contract signed by each danc er with the producer of the show may be more favorable than the basic agreement regarding salary, hours of work, and working condi tions. The minimum salary for dancers in ballet and other stage productions was about $155 a week in 1970. The minimum rate for rehearsal time was about $135 a week. Danc ers performing on tour receive a small allowance to defray the cost of room and board. The rate of per diem in 1970 was $11. The em ployer pays the cost of transporta tion. If a dancer signs a contract for a brief appearance in a perform ance on television or a few days’ work in a movie, the minimum rate is higher, relative to time worked. However, this difference is offset by the brevity of the engagement and the long period likely to be spent waiting for the next one. A few per formers, of course, have much higher salaries. Some dancers qualified to teach in schools of the ballet are able to combine this work with engage ments as performers. A much greater number of dancers have to supplement their incomes by other types of work. Salaries of teachers in the techni cal schools of the ballet vary with the location and prestige of the school. Dancers employed as teach ers in colleges and universities are paid on the same basis as other fac ulty members. (See statement on “College and University Teach ers.” ) The normal workweek is 30 hours spent in rehearsals and mati nee and evening performances. Extra compensation is paid for hours worked outside the normal workweek. Most stage perform ances take place, of course, in the evening, and rehearsals may require very long hours, often on weekends and holidays. When shows are on the road, traveling over the week end is often required. Dancers are entitled to some paid sick leave and various health and welfare benefits provided by their unions, to which the employers con tribute. Sources of Additional Information Information on colleges and uni versities and conservatories of music which give a major in the dance or some courses in the dance, and details on the types of courses and other pertinent information may be obtained from the Dance Directory, compiled by the Ameri can Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, a divi sion of the National Educational Association, 1201 16th St. NW ., Washington, D.C. 20036. Information on wages and work ing conditions may be obtained from: American Guild of Musical Artists, 1841 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10023. M U S IC IA N S A N D M U S IC TE A C H ER S (D.O.T. 152.028 and 152.048; 090.168; 091.168; and 092.228) Nature of the Work Professional musicians— whether they play in a symphony orchestra, dance band, rock group, or “jazz com bo”— generally have behind them many years of study and in- 167 PERFORMING ARTISTS tensive practice. A s a rule, musi cians specialize in either popular or classicial music; only a few play both types professionally. Musicians who specialize in pop ular music usually play the trum pet, trombone, clarinet, saxophone, organ, or one of the “rhythm” in struments— the piano, string bass, drums, or guitar. Dance bands play in nightclubs, restaurants, and at special parties. The best known bands, jazz groups, rock groups, and solo performers sometimes give concerts and perform on television. Musicians specializing in classical music play in opera and theater or chestras, symphony orchestras, and for other kinds of performances re quiring orchestral accompaniments. The instruments played by most of these musicians are the strings, brass, and wood winds. Some form small groups— usually a string quar tet or a trio— to give concerts of chamber music. Many pianists accompany vocal or instrumental soloists or choral groups or provide background music in restaurants or other places. Most organists play in churches, often directing the choir. A few ex ceptionally brilliant musicians be come well-known concert artists. They give their own concerts and appear as soloists with symphony orchestras. Both classical and popu lar musicians often make record ings, either individually or as mem bers of a group. A very high proportion of all mu sicians teach in the Nation’s schools and colleges. These teachers may be members of the faculty of music schools or conservatories or of col leges which offer instruction in in strumental and vocal music. Some are music teachers in elementary or secondary schools where they direct vocal and instrumental music pro grams, teach general classroom music appreciation, and give group instruction on an instrument. Pri vate lessons are given by many teachers employed by school sys tems, and by performing musicians, either in their own studios or in pupils’ homes. A few musicians work in the field of music therapy in hospitals, and in music libraries. Places of Employment About 210,000 musicians and music teachers were employed in 1970. Most professional musicians who perform work in cities, where the Nation’s entertainment and re cording activities are concentrated such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Nashville, Miami Beach, and New Orleans. Music teachers in elementary and secondary schools, as well as in colleges and universi ties, are employed all over the country. Moreover, almost every town and city has at least one pri vate music teacher. Dance bands and civic orchestras also are located in many communities, although in the smaller towns, their members 168 usually are part-time musicians with other regular jobs. In addition to the people primar ily employed as musicians or music teachers, thousands of qualified in strumentalists have other full-time jobs and only occasionally work as musicians. Most of these part-time musicians belong to dance bands, which are hired to play at private parties or for special occasions. Others, with a background in classi cal music, play occasionally in an orchestra, become conductors or composers, or do some part-time teaching. Training and Other Qualifications Most people who become profes sional musicians begin studying an instrument at an early age. To achieve a career as a performer or as a music teacher, young people need intensive training— either through private study with an ac complished musician, in a college or university which has a strong music program, or in a conservatory of music. They need to acquire not only great technical skill but also a thorough knowledge of music, and they must learn how to interpret music. Before a young person can qualify for advanced study in a music conservatory or in a college or university school of music, an au dition frequently is necessary. Many teachers in these schools are accom plished artists who will train only promising young musicians. Over 550 conservatories of music and college and university schools of music offer 4-year programs leading to a bachelor’s degree in music education. Students who complete these programs can qual ify for the State certificate required for elementary and secondary school positions. Conservatories and OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK collegiate music schools also fre quently award the degree of bache lor of music to students who major in instrumental or vocal music. The 4-year program leading to either of these degrees provides not only training as a performer but also a broad background in musical his tory and theory, together with some liberal arts courses. Advanced de grees usually are required for col lege teaching positions, but excep tions may be made for especially well-qualified artists. Musicians who play jazz and other popular music must have an understanding of and feeling for that style of music, but skill and training in classical styles may ex pand their employment opportuni ties. As a rule, they take lessons with private teachers when young, and seize every opportunity to play in amateur or professional perform ances. Some groups of young people form their own small dance bands or rock groups. As they gain experi ence and become known, the play ers may have opportunities to audi tion for other local bands, and, still later, for the better known bands and orchestras. Young persons considering ca reers in music should have both mu sical talent and creative ability. They should also have poise and stage presence for facing large au diences. Since quality of performance requires constant study and prac tice, self-discipline is vital. More over, musicians must have the stamina for considerable travel in meeting concert and nightclub en gagements, as well as rugged time schedules, often including long night hours. Employment Outlook A s a field of employment, music performance has been overcrowded for many years, and it is expected to remain so through the 1970’s. Op portunities for concerts and recitals are not numerous enough to provide adequate employment for all the pi anists, violinists, and other instru mentalists qualified as concert art ists. Competition is usually keen for positions which afford some stability of employment— for example, jobs with major orchestras and teaching positions in conservatories and col leges and universities. Because of the ease with which a musician can enter private music teaching, the number of music teachers has been more than sufficient to give instruc tion to all the young people seeking lessons, and will probably continue to be. Although many opportunities can be expected for single and short-term engagements, playing popular music in night clubs, the aters, and other places, the supply of qualified musicians seeking such jobs is likely to remain greater than the demand. On the other hand, first-class, experienced accompa nists and well-trained, outstanding players of stringed instruments are likely to remain relatively scarce; and public school systems will prob ably continue to need more fully qualified music teachers and super visors. Employment opportunities for performers are expected to increase slightly over the long run. Although the number of civic orchestras in smaller communities has been grow ing steadily, many of these orches tras provide only part-time employ ment for musicians who work chiefly as teachers or in other occu pations. Moreover, the openings created by the establishment of these orchestras have been more than offset by the decline in oppor tunities in the theater, radio, motion pictures, and other places; this has 169 PERFORMING ARTISTS resulted, in part, from the greatly increased use of recorded music. Some additional employment op portunities are expected to result from the expanded use of cable TV (pay T V ). Also, the devel opment and wider use, in the future, of video cassettes will result in some employment opportunities. The employment outlook in music education for people who are qualified as teachers as well as mu sicians is better than for those quali fied as performers only. The num ber of schools with music programs is growing and interest in music as an avocation also is rising. Thus, over the long run, an increase can be expected in the employment of elementary and secondary school music teachers and also in the teaching staffs of college and uni versity music schools and conserva tories of music. Earnings and Working Conditions The amount received for a per formance by either classical or pop ular musicians depends to a large extent on their professional repu tations. Musicians who were mem bers of 1 of the 28 major symphony orchestras in the United States had minimum salaries ranging from about $5,100 to $16,500 a year in 1970 according to the American Symphony Orchestras League, Inc. Six orchestras— New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Cincinnati, and Chicago— have year-round sea sons and minimum salaries ranging from $10,900 to $16,500. The re maining 22 orchestras have seasons ranging from 32 to 49 weeks. In strumentalists who were members of small ensembles reportedly re ceived as much as $200 a concert. Those who played in dance bands were paid from $60 to $300 a week in 1970, according to the limited in formation available. The salaries of public school music teachers are determined by the salary schedule adopted for all teachers. (See statements on Ele mentary and Secondary School Teachers.) However, they fre quently supplement their earnings by giving private music lessons and taking church positions. Earnings from private lessons are uncertain and vary according to the musician’s reputation, the number of teachers in the locality, the number of stu dents desiring lessons, and the eco nomic status of the community. Musicians who are performers customarily work at night and on weekends. They must also spend considerable time in regular daily practice and in rehearsal of new scores. Many musicians, primarily those employed by symphony orchestras, work under master wage agree ments, which guarantee them a sea son’s work lasting up to 52 weeks. Musicians in other areas, however, may face relatively long periods of unemployment between jobs and, thus, the overall level of their earn ings generally is lower than that of many other occupations. Moreover, they do not usually work steadily for one employer. Consequently, some performers cannot qualify for unemployment compensation, and few have either sick leave or vaca tions with pay. Most musicians who play profes sionally belong to the American Fed eration of Musicians (A F L -C IO ). Concert soloists also belong to the American Guild of Musicial Artists, Inc. (A F L -C IO ). Sources of Additional Information Information about wages, hours of work, and working conditions for professional musicians is available from: American Federation of Musicians (AFL-CIO), 641 Lexington Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022. Information about the require ments for certification of organists and choir masters may be secured from: American Guild of Organists, 630 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10020. A list of accredited schools of music is available from: National Association of Schools of Music, One Dupont Circle, NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Further information about music teaching in elementary and second ary schools is available from : Music Educators National Confer ence, The National Education As sociation, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. S IN G ER S A N D S IN G IN G TE A C H ER S (D.O.T. 152.048 and .028; 090.168; 091.168; and 092.228) Nature of the Work Professional singing is an art that usually requires not only a fine voice but also a highly developed technique and a broad knowledge of music. A small number of singing stars make recordings or go on concert tours in the United States and abroad. Somewhat larger num bers of singers obtain leading or supporting roles in operas and pop ular music shows, or secure en gagements as solists in oratorios and other types of performances. Most 170 professional singers of classical music are soloists in churches or syn agogues. Some singers also become members of opera and musical com edy choruses or other professional choral groups. Popular music sing ers perform in musical shows of all kinds— in the movies, on the stage, on radio and television, and in nightclubs and other entertainment places. The best known popular music singers make and sell many recordings. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK where they are qualified to teach general music courses and lead cho ruses. Others give voice training or direct choral groups in churches, in music conservatories, or in colleges and universities with schools or de partments of music. Places of Employment In 1970, about 75,000 people were employed as professional sing ers or singing teachers. Opportuni ties for singing engagements are mainly in New York City, Los A n geles, and Chicago— the Nation’s chief entertainment centers. Nash ville, Tenn., a major center for country and western music, is one of the most important places for employment of singers for both “live” performances and recordings. Persons trained as singers who teach music in elementary and sec ondary schools, colleges, universi ties, and conservatories of music are employed throughout the country. Many singers are employed part time, chiefly as church singers and choir masters. Training and Other Qualifications Since most singers of both classi cal and popular music have only part time or irregular employment as singers, they often have full-time jobs of other types and sing only in the evenings or on weekends. Some give private voice lessons. A num ber of singers are employed in ele mentary and secondary schools, Young persons who want to per form professionally as singers should acquire a broad background in music, including its theory and history. The ability to dance may be helpful, since singers are sometimes required to dance. In addition, those interested in a singing career should start piano lessons at an early age. As a rule, voice training should not begin until after the indi vidual has matured physically, al though young boys who sing in church choirs receive some training before their voices change. More over, because of the work and ex pense involved in voice training— which often continues for years after the singer’s professional career has started— it is important that a prospective singer have great deter mination. It is also important to au dition before a competent voice teacher to decide whether profes sional training is warranted. Young people can prepare for ca reers as singers of classical music by enrolling in a music conservatory, or a school or department of music connected with a college or univer sity, or by taking private voice les sons. These schools provide not only voice training, but other train ing necessary for understanding and interpreting music, including mu sic-related training in foreign lan guages and sometimes dramatic training. After completing a 4-year course of study, a graduate may be awarded either the degree of bache lor of music, bachelor of science or arts (in m usic), or bachelor of fine arts. Young singers who plan to teach music in public elementary or sec ondary schools need at least a bach elor’s degree with a major in music education and must meet the State certification requirements for teach ers. Such training is available in over 550 colleges and universities throughout the country. College teachers usually are required to have a master’s degree and some times a doctor’s degree, but excep tions may be made for especially well-qualified artists. Although voice training is an asset for singers of popular music, many with untrained voices have had successful careers. The typical popular song does not demand that the voice be developed to cover as wide a range on the musical scale as does classical music, and the lack of voice projection may be overcome by using a microphone. 171 PERFORMING ARTISTS Young singers of popular songs may become known by participating in amateur and paid performances in their communities. These engage ments may lead to employment with local dance bands and possibly later with better known ones. In addition to musical ability, perseverance, an outstanding per sonality, an attractive appearance, and good contacts, good luck often is required to achieve a singing ca reer. Singers also may be required to have stamina for traveling to con cert and night club engagements. They must be able to adapt to rigor ous time schedules, often working night hours. Employment Outlook The employment situation for singers will probably remain highly competitive through the 1970’s. Competition among popular singers will continue to be especially keen. A great number of short-term jobs are expected in the entertainment field— the opera and concert stage, movies, theater, nightclubs, radio and television, dance bands, and other places— but not enough to provide steady employment for all qualified singers. Little growth in overall employ ment opportunities for singers is likely over the long run. The use of recorded music has practically re placed the “live” singer on radio; also, the number of television per formances given by singers is lim ited, although it may increase in fu ture years. However, there is a growing demand for singers to record popular music and commer cials for both radio and television advertising. Some additional em ployment opportunities are ex pected from the expanded use of cable TV (pay T V ). Also, the development and wider use in the future of video cassettes will result in more employment opportunities. The outlook for singers who can meet State certification require ments for positions as music teach ers, or who can qualify for college teaching, will be considerably better than for performers. The demand for music teachers in the Nation’s elementary and secondary schools is expected to grow, and some in creased employment of music teach ers can be expected in colleges and universities. In addition, music teachers will be needed to replace those who will transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. A singing career is sometimes rel atively short, since it depends on a good voice and public acceptance of the artist, both of which may be af fected by age. Due to these circum stances, singers may be subject to unstable employment conditions and the pressure of unreliable finan cial circumstances. Singers generally work at night and on weekends. School teachers have regular working hours; private voice teachers often give lessons after school or business hours or on weekends. Work in the entertain ment field is seasonal and few per formers have steady jobs. Singers who perform profession ally usually belong to one branch or another of the AFL-CIO union, the Associated Actors and Actresses of America. Singers who perform on the concert stage or in opera belong to the American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc.; those who sing on radio or television or who make phono graph recordings are members of the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists; singers in the variety and night club field belong to the American Guild of Variety Artists; those who sing in musical comedy and operettas belong to the Actors’ Equity Association; and those who sing in the movies belong to the Screen Actors Guild, Inc. Earnings and Working Conditions Sources of Additional Information Except for a few well-known con cert soloists, opera stars, top re cording artists of popular music, and some singers regularly em ployed by dance bands and the m o tion picture industry, most profes sional singers experience difficulty in obtaining regular employment and have to supplement their sing ing incomes by doing other types of work. The salaries of public school music teachers are determined by the salary schedule adopted for all teachers in their school system. The fees that private music teachers charge depend on the teacher’s rep utation, the economic status of the families in the community, and other factors. Information about accredited schools and departments of music may be obtained from: National Association of Schools of Music, One Dupont Circle, NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Further information about music teaching in elementary and second ary schools is available from : Music Educators National Confer ence, The National Education As sociation, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Information concerning salary and working conditions in opera and concert fields is available from: American Guild of Musical Artists, 1841 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10023. C O M M E R C IA L A R T IS T S (D.O.T. 141.031 and .081, 970.281 and .381, and 979.381) Nature of the Work A team of commerical artists often creates the artwork in news papers and magazines and on bill boards, brochures, catalogs, and television commericals. The art director supervises this team of art ists having varying skills and special izations. H e may develop the art as pects of an advertising plan which he turns over to a layout man for further refinement. The la y o u t a rtist constructs or arranges elements of the advertisement, selects and lays out illustrations, photographs, and typography, and determines color and other elements of design. He then prepares a “rough visual” or sketch. After consulting with the director, he may change the visual and complete a more comprehen sive layout for the customer. Working with the layout man in turning out the finished product are a variety of specialists, including T en derers, who make rough magic marker drawings; le tte re rs , who ex ecute appropriate lettering either freehand or with mechanical aids; illu stra to rs, who sketch and draw in more finished form; and p a s te -u p and m e c h a n ic a l m e n , who cut and paste basic parts of the advertise ment or other artwork by using a ruling pen and other drafting tools. Some workers, called g e n e ra l b o a r d m e n , spend nearly all their time at the drawing board perform ing many of these specializations. Often supporting the general boardmen or other specialists are appren tices, who primarily do routine jobs such as separating colors and cut ting mats. In a small office, the art director may perform the layout and boardwork with the aid of apprentices. In a large bffice, the art director devel ops concepts with the copywriter; sets standards; deals with clients; and purchases needed photographs, illustrations, lettering, and other art work from freelancers or art services. Advertising artists create the con cept and artwork for a wide variety of promotional items or “collateral material” including direct mail ad vertising, catalogs, and counter dis plays to supplement newspaper and magazine ads or television commer cials. They also prepare slides, film strips, and other visual aids. Commercial artists also create the formats of magazines and other publications, by designing or laying out the editorial pages and features and producing or purchasing the necessary illustrations or artwork. Some commercial artists specialize in fashion illustrations, greeting cards, book illustrations, or in tech nical drawings for industry. Places of Employment (H i, 172 An estimated 60,000 commercial artists were employed in 1970; about two-fifths were women. Most commercial artists were employed in big cities, such as New York and Chicago, where the largest users of commercial art are to be found. Some, however, are employed in nearly every city. Most commercial artists are paid a regular salary as staff artists by advertising agencies, commercial art studios, advertising departments of large companies, printing and pub lishing firms, textile companies, television and motion picture stu dios, department stores, and a vari ety of other business organizations. Many work as freelance artists, sell ing their artwork to any customer — chiefly to the same types of or ganizations that employ salaried art- PERFORMING ARTISTS ists. Some salaried commercial art ists also do freelance work in their spare time. A number of commer cial artists work for Federal G ov ernment agencies, principally in the Defense Department. A few teach in art schools. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Artistic ability and good taste are the most important qualifications for success in commercial art, but it is essential that these qualities be developed by specialized training in the techniques of commercial and applied art. In addition, education in the fine arts— painting, sculpture, or architecture— and in academic studies provides a good foundation for obtaining employment in com mercial art and may be essential for promotion. The most widely accepted train ing for commercial art is the in struction given in art schools or in stitutes that specialize in commer cial and applied art. To enter art school, a high school education usu ally is required. Some schools admit only applicants who submit accepta ble work samples. The course of study, which may include some aca demic work, generally takes 2 or 3 years, and a certificate is awarded on graduation. A growing number of art schools, particularly those in or connected with universities, re quire 4 years or more of study and confer a bachelor’s degree— com monly the bachelor of fine arts (B .F .A .). In these schools, com mercial art instruction is supple mented by liberal arts courses, such as English and history. Limited training in commercial art also may be obtained through public voca tional high schools, private homestudy schools, and practical experi 173 ence on the job, but supplemental training usually is needed for ad vancement. The first year in art school may be devoted primarily to the study of fundamentals— perspective, design, color harmony, composition— and to the use of pencil, crayon, pen and ink, and other art media. Sub sequent study, generally more spe cialized, includes drawing from life, advertising design, graphic design, lettering, typography, illustrations, and other courses in the student’s particular field of interest. Artistic judgment, imagination, and ability to visualize ideas on paper are basic requirements for a successful career in commercial art. The various specialties, however, differ in some of the specific abili ties required. For example, letterers and retouchers must do precise and detailed work requiring excellent coordination, whereas illustrators and designers need imagination, a distinctive art style, and, in most cases, the ability to draw well. Some experience with photography, ty pography, and printing production is useful in art direction or design. Freelance commercial artists must sell both ideas and finished work to clients. A knowledge of type specifi cations and printing production is very helpful. Also, a business sense and responsibility in meeting dead lines are assets. Art directors need a strong educational background in art and business practices and the liberal arts. Advertising art directors require a special kind of creativity — the ability to conceive ideas that will stimulate the sale of the clients’ products or services. Beginning commercial artists usu ally need some on-the-job training to qualify for other than strictly rou tine work. Advancement is based largely on the individual’s artistic talent, creative ability, and educa tion. After considerable experience, may commercial artists leave sala ried employment for freelance work. Most illustrators are freelanc ers; many of them have an agent. Commercial artists usually as semble their best artwork into a “portfolio,” to display their work. A good portfolio is essential in obtain ing initial employment and free lance assignments as well as in changing jobs. Employment Outlook Employment and advancement opportunities for talented and welltrained commercial artists in most kinds of work are expected to be fa vorable through the 1970’s. Young people having only average ability and little specialized training, how ever, probably will encounter com petition for beginning jobs and will have limited opportunity for ad vancement. Employment of commercial art ists through the 1970’s is expected to increase slowly primarily as a re sult of the upward trend in business expenditures for visual advertising. This demand includes television graphics, packing design, poster and window displays, and greeting cards. In addition, the expanding field of industrial design is expected to require more qualified artists to do three-dimensional work with en gineering concepts. (See statement on Industrial Designers.) In addition to openings that result from growth, some employment opportunities will arise each year from the need to re place commercial artists who retire or leave the field for other reasons. The demand for commercial art ists will continue to vary with the specialization: For example, de mand for pasteup and mechanical artists is expected to increase 174 slightly. Jobs for designers, art directors, and layout men are fewer, much sought after, and open only to experienced, highly talented, and creative artists. Fewer staff positions are expected as a result of increased use of highly skilled freelance artists for specialized jobs. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, beginning commercial artists having no training beyond vocational high school typically earned from $70 to $75 a week; graduates of 2-year professional schools generally received from $80 to $85 a week; and graduates of 4year post-high school programs typ ically received $85 to $100 a week, according to the limited data availa ble. Talented artists having strong educational backgrounds and a good portfolio, however, sometimes started at higher salaries. After a few years of experience, qualified artists may expect to earn $125 to $175 a week or more. Art directors, designers, executives, well-known freelance illustrators, and others in top positions generally have much higher earnings, from $15,0 0 0 to $20,000 a year or more. Earnings of freelance artists have an especially wide range, since they are affected by factors such as skill level, variety, and popularity of work, which ultimately effects the amount and price of artwork sold. In 1970, a freelancer received from $25 for a single black and white fashion sketch to $750 for a figure in full color with a background; from $1 ,000 to $ 2,000 for a color cover for a national magazine; or from $75 to $300 for a book jacket or record album. Freelance artists may be paid by the hour or by the assignment. Experienced pasteup OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK and mechanical artists may earn at least $4 to $8 an hour. Salaried commercial artists gen erally work 35 to 40 hours a week, but sometimes they must work addi tional hours and under a considera ble amount of pressure in order to meet deadlines. Freelance artists usually have irregular working hours. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on em ployment opportunities in commer cial art may be obtained from : National Art Education Association, National Education Association, 1201 16th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. product may be used. Then, he sketches a variety of possible de signs, which are examined by vari ous departments. For example, the designer consults his company’s en gineers, production supervisors, and sales and market research staffs for their opinions on the practicability of producing a newly designed product, or changing the design of an old product, as well as the sales potential of the proposed designs. After the most suitable design is se lected by company officials, a model may be made by the designer. The first model of a new design is often made of clay so that it can be al tered easily to reflect modifications. The final or working model is usu ally made of the material to be used in the finished product. If the model is approved in this form, it is put into production. INDUSTRIAL DESIGNERS (D.O.T. 142.081) Nature of the Work Industrial designers combine technical knowledge of materials, machines, and methods of produc tion with artistic talent to improve the appearance and functional de sign of machine-made products. Since the consuming public has wide choice of styles in products such as radios, television sets, automobiles, refrigerators, and furniture, a pri mary objective of the industrial de signer is to design his own em ployer’s product to compete favora bly with similar goods on the market. As a first step, the industrial de signer does historical research on the product or related products. He studies competition in the market and the different ways in which the Industrial designers also may do related types of work. For example, they may design containers and packages, prepare small exhibits for display purposes, or design the en tire layout for industrial fairs. Some also design the interior layout of 175 PERFORMING ARTISTS special purpose commercial build ings, such as gasoline stations and supermarkets. Industrial designers employed by a manufacturing company usually find their work limited to the one or few products made by their em ployer; many senior designers, how ever, are now given a free hand to engage in long-range planning for new or diversified products. Design ers who work as consultants to more than one industrial firm, either as freelance designers or as mem bers of consulting firms, may plan and design a great variety of prod ucts. Places of Employment Most of the estimated 10,000 in dustrial designers in 1970 were em ployed by large manufacturing com panies and by design consulting firms. Of the remainder, the greatest number did freelance work or com bined salaried employment with it. Some also worked for architects, and a few were on the staffs of firms of interior designers. Industrial designers employed by consulting firms are located mainly in large cities. For example, the New York and Chicago areas have the largest number of design con sulting organizations. Those em ployed by industrial firms are found in small and middle size cities as well, since most work in the decen tralized manufacturing plants of their companies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The completion of a course of study in industrial design— in an art school, an art department of a uni versity, or a technical college— is the usual requirement for entering this field of work. People from other areas, however, notably engi neering and architecture, may qual ify as industrial designers if they have appropriate experience and ar tistic talent. Formal education in industrial design at the college or university level usually takes 4 years to com plete, and a few schools require 5 years of study. These schools award the bachelor’s degree in industrial design or fine arts; about half of these schools also award the mas ter’s degree for advanced study in the field. A few schools, usually pri vate art schools or those associated with large art museums, offer a 3year course of study in industrial design which leads to a diploma. In the past few years, however, most art and museum schools have moved toward accreditation or affiliation with a university, usually offering a 4-year program and a bachelor’s degree. Entrance to the course of study in industrial design is limited, with rare exceptions, to qualified high school graduates; in addition, some schools may require students to pre sent sketches and other examples of their artistic ability. Some schools also require students to complete their freshman or sophomore years before they select an industrial de sign major. Industrial design curriculums dif fer considerably among schools. Some schools stress the engineering and technical aspects of the field, and others give students a strong cultural background in art. N ev ertheless, most industrial design curriculums include at least one course in two-dimensional design (color theory, spatial organization, etc.) and one in general three-di mensional design (abstract sculpture and art structures), including a sub stantial amount of studio practice in the actual design of three-dimen sional products. In the studio course, students learn to make working drawings and models with clay, wood, plaster, and other easily worked materials. In schools that have the necessary machinery, stu dents gain experience in making models of their designs while learn ing to use metalworking and wood working machinery. Some schools require the completion of courses in basic engineering and in the compo sition of materials. All schools which offer 4- or 5-year courses leading to a bachelor’s degree also in clude academic subjects, such as English, history, psychology, eco nomics, and science in their curricu lums. Creative ability, skill in drawing, and the ability to anticipate con sumer needs are the most important personal qualifications needed by young people aspiring to work in this field. A mechanical interest also is desirable for some types of work. Applicants for jobs will find it help ful to have previously assembled a “portfolio” which demonstrates their skill in designing and their cre ative talent. Since industrial design ers are required frequently to work cooperatively with engineers and other staff members, the ability to work and communicate well with others is important. Those who plan to practice industrial designing on a consulting basis should have a knowledge of business practices and possess sales ability. New graduates of industrial de sign courses frequently start as as sistants to experienced designers. They are usually given relatively simple assignments which do not in volve making structural changes in the product. As they gain experi ence, designers may be assigned to supervisory positions with major re 176 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK sponsibility for the design of a prod uct or a group of products. Those who have an established reputation in the field, as well as the necessary funds, may start their own consult ing firms. Employment Outlook Employment in this relatively small occupation is expected to ex pand moderately through the 1970’s. Employers will be actively seeking applicants having a college degree and outstanding talent. Some employment opportunities also will arise each year from the need to re place designers who retire or leave the field for other reasons. A number of factors will affect employment of industrial designers. Rapid obsolescence of household and commercial equipment and the rising population will increase the demand for newly designed prod ucts. As in the past, manufacturers will strive to hold or increase their share of these markets through the creation of new products, improve ments in the design of existing ones, and change in package designs and other modernizations in the appear ance and use of their products. Small companies probably will make increasing use of services of fered by industrial design consulting firms to compete more effectively with larger firms. All these factors, in addition to rising per capita in come, will contribute to the long term growth in the employment of industrial designers. However, as in the past, new entrants trained spe cifically in industrial designing are likely to encounter keen competi tion for beginning jobs from persons with engineering, architectural, and related educational backgrounds who have artistic and creative tal ent. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries for inexperi enced industrial designers employed by manufacturing firms ranged from $125 to $150 a week in 1970, ac cording to the limited information available. Beginning salaries for those employed by consulting firms were usually lower. Salaries of ex perienced industrial designers vary greatly, depending on such factors as individual ability, and size and type of firm in which employed. Those having several years of ex perience earned salaries ranging from $8,000 to $14,000 annually. Some large manufacturing firms paid $25,000 or more to experienced and talented designers. Earnings of industrial designers who own their consulting firms, alone or as members of a partner ship, vary widely, and may fluctuate markedly from year to year. In re cent years, earnings of most con sultants were between $12,000 and $ 2 5 ,0 0 0 and heads of large wellknown firms earned considerably more. Sources of Additional Information General information about reers in industrial design and a of schools offering courses and grees in industrial design may obtained from: ca list de be Industrial Designers Society of America, 60 West 55th St., New York, N.Y. 10019. INTERIOR DESIGNERS AND DECORATORS (D.O.T. 142.051) Nature of the Work The creative work of interior de signers and decorators enhances the attractiveness of our homes and other buildings. Designers and dec orators plan the functional arrange ment of interior space and coordi nate the selection (including colors) of furniture, draperies and other fabrics, floor coverings, and interior accessories. They may work on the interiors of residential or commer cial structures, as well as on ships and aircraft. Some design stage sets used for motion pictures and televi sion. Interior designers are more in volved than decorators in space planning and other interior design; they often work for clients on large design projects such as the interiors of entire office buildings, hospitals, and libraries. Generally, their plans include the complete layout of the rooms within the space allowed by the exterior walls and other frame work. Sometimes they redesign the interiors of old structures. When their plans have been completed, the architect checks them against his blueprints to assure compliance with building requirements and to solve structural problems. Some in terior designers also design the fur niture and accessories to be used in interiors and then arrange for their manufacture. Many professionals in this field have their own establishments, ei ther alone or as a member of a firm with other designers and decorators; they may sell some or all of the merchandise with which they work. Some work independently or as as sistants; others have large staffs, 177 PERFORMING ARTISTS sometimes including salespeople. Many of the larger department and furniture stores have separate departments of interior decorating or interior design, or both, to advise customers on decorating and design plans. The main function of these departments is to help sell the store’s own merchandise, although materials from outside sources may be used when they are essential to the plans developed for the custom er. Department store decorators and designers frequently advise the stores’ buyers and executives about style and color trends in interior furnishings. Interior designer helps client select fabric. Interior designers and decorators usually work directly with clients to determine preferences and needs in furnishings. They may do “boardwork,” particularly on large assign ments, which includes work on floor plans and elevations and the crea tion of sketches, or other perspec tive drawings in such media as watercolor, pastels, or tempera, so clients can visualize their plans. They also provide cost estimates. After the client approves both the plans and the cost estimates, ar rangements are made for the pur chase of the furnishings; for the su pervision of the work of painters, floor finishers, cabinetmakers, carpetlayers, and other craftsmen; and for the installation and arrangement of furnishings. Places of Employment More than 15,000 people were engaged full time in interior design and decoration in 1970. About half were women. Men, however, pre dominate in the interior design field. Many in design and decorating work on a part-time basis. Most workers in this field are lo cated in large cities. In recent years, large department and furniture stores have become increasingly im portant sources of employment for professional interior designers and decorators. Some designers and dec orators have permanent jobs with hotel and restaurant chains. Others are employed by designers of space like architects or suppliers of furni ture and materials for use in the space, like antique dealers, office furniture stores, furniture and tex tile manufacturers, or other manu facturers in the interior furnishings field. They may also work for peri odicals that feature articles on homefurnishings. Some large in dustrial corporations employ inte rior designers on a permanent basis. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal training in interior design and decoration is becoming increas ingly important for entrance into this field of work, although many present members of the profession achieved success without this train ing. Most department stores, wellestablished design and decorating firms, and other major employers will accept only professionally trained people for beginning jobs. Usually, the minimum educational requirement is completion of either a 2- or 3-year course at a recog nized art school or institute special izing in interior decorating and de sign, or a 4-year college course leading to a bachelor’s degree with a major in interior design and deco ration. The course of study in inte rior design and decoration usually includes the principles of design, history of art, freehand and me chanical drawing, painting, the study of the essentials of architec ture as they relate to interiors, de sign of furniture and exhibitions, and study of various materials, such as woods, metals, plastics, and fab rics. A knowledge of furnishings, art pieces, and antiques is important. In addition, courses in salesmanship, business procedures and other busi ness subjects are of great value. Membership in either the Ameri can Institute of Interior Designers (A ID ) or the National Society of Interior Designers (N S ID ), both professional societies, is a recog nized mark of achievement in this profession. Membership usually re quires the completion of 3 or 4 years of post-high school education, the major emphasis having been on training in design, and several years of practical experience in the field, including responsibility for supervi sion of all aspects of decorating contracts. New graduates having training in interior design and decorating usu ally serve a training period, either with decorating firms, in department stores, or in the firm of an estab lished designer. They may act as re 178 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK ceptionists, as shoppers with the task of matching materials or find ing accessories, or as stockroom assistants, assistant decorators, or junior designers. In most instances, from 1 to 3 years of on-the-job training is required before a trainee is considered eligible for advance ment to the job of decorator. Begin ners who do not obtain trainee jobs often work as salespeople for fabric, lamp, or other interior furnishings concerns to gain experience in deal ing with customers and to become familiar with the merchandise. This experience often makes it easier to obtain trainee jobs with a decorat ing firm or department store; it also may lead to a career in merchandis ing. After considerable experience, decorators and designers with abil ity may advance to decorating or design department head, interior furnishings coordinator, or to other supervisory positions in department stores or in large decorating or de sign firms; if they have the neces sary funds, they may open their own establishments. Talented people usually advance rapidly. Artistic talent, imagination, good business judgment, and the ability to deal with people are important assets for success in this field. decorators is anticipated through the 1970’s. Population growth, larger expenditures for home and office furnishings, the increasing availability of well-designed furnish ings at moderate prices, a growing recognition among middle-income families of the value of decorators’ services, and increasing use of de sign services for commercial estab lishments should contribute to a greater demand for these workers. In addition to newly created jobs, some openings will arise each year from the need to replace designers and decorators who die, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. Department and furniture stores are expected to employ an increas ing number of trained decorators and designers. These stores also are expected to share in the growing volume of design and decorating work for commercial establishments and public buildings, formerly han dled almost entirely by independent decorators. This development will result in increased opportunities in salaried employment. Interior de sign firms also are expected to con tinue to expand. However, employ ment of interior decorators and de signers is sensitive to changes in general economic conditions be cause people often defer this kind of expenditure when the economy slows down. Employment Outlook Talented art school or college graduates who major in interior de sign will find good opportunities for employment through the 1970’s. Applicants who can design and plan the functional arrangement of inte rior space will be in strong demand. Young people without formal train ing will find it increasingly difficult to enter the field. A slow but steady increase in em ployment of interior designers and are paid straight salaries; some re ceive salaries plus commissions which usually range from 5 to 10 percent of the value of their sales; others receive commissions only, which may be as much as one-third of the value of their sales. Many interior decorators having only average skill in this field earn only moderate incomes— from $5,000 to $7,500 a year, even after many years of experience. Talented decorators who are well known in their localities may earn up to $15,000 or more. Designers and decorators whose abilities are na tionally recognized may earn well beyond $25,000 yearly. Self-employed decorators have an especially wide range of earnings; their profits are related to factors such as the volume of business, their prestige as decorators, eco nomic level of their clients, their own business competence, and the percentage of wholesale prices they receive from the sale of furnish ings. Hours of work for decorators are sometimes long and irregular. They usually adjust their workday to suit the needs of their clients, meeting with them during the evenings or on weekends, when necessary. Design ers’ schedules follow a more regular workday pattern. Sources of Additional Information Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning salaries ranged gener ally from $75 to $90 a week in 1970 for art school or college grad uates having formal training in inte rior design and decoration; some graduates of 3- or 4-year design schools received salaries of $100 or more a week, according to limited data available. Some designers and decorators Information about employment and scholarship opportunities may be obtained from: National Society of Interior De signers, Inc., 315 East 62nd Street, New York, N.Y. 10021. SO CIAL S C IE N C E S ANTHROPOLOGISTS (D.O.T. 055.088) The social sciences are concerned with all aspects of human society from the origins of man to the latest election returns. Social scientists, however, generally specialize in one major field of human relationships. Anthropologists study primitive tribes, reconstruct civilizations of the past, and analyze the cultures and languages of all peoples, past and present. Economists study the allocation of land, labor, and capi tal. Geographers study the distribu tion throughout the world of people, types of land and water masses, and natural resources. Historians de scribe and interpret the people and events of the past and present. Po litical scientists study the theories, objectives, and organizations of all types of government. Sociologists analyze the behavior and relation ships of groups— such as the family, the community, and minorities— to the individual or to society as a whole. Besides these basic social sci ences, a number of closely related fields are covered in separate state ments elsewhere in this H a n d b o o k . (See statements on Statisticians, Psychologists, and Social W orkers.) About 80,000 persons were em ployed professionally in the basic social sciences in 1970; about 1 out of 10 was a woman. Overlapping among the basic social science fields and the sometimes hazy distinction between these and related fields such as business administration, for eign service work, and high school teaching, make it difficult to deter mine the exact size of each profes sion. Economists, however, are the largest social science group, and an thropologists the smallest. Most social scientists are em ployed by colleges and universities. A large number are employed by the Federal Government and private industry. The trend in some indus tries is to hire increasing numbers of social science majors as trainees for administrative and executive posi tions. Research councils and other nonprofit organizations provide an important source of employment for economists, political scientists, and sociologists. Employment in the social sci ences has been increasing and is ex pected to grow very rapidly through the 1970’s, mainly because of the anticipated rise in college teaching positions. The reasons for this ex pected increase are discussed in the statement on College and University Teachers. A rise in employment in government also is expected. Em ployment in government agencies often is greatly affected by changes in public policy. For example, more social scientists will be needed to handle research and administrative functions resulting from programs established by Congress to relieve unemployment and eliminate pov erty. Rising employment of social scientists in private industry and nonprofit organizations also is ex pected. In addition, several thou sand social scientists will be needed each year to replace those who leave the field because of retire ment, death, or other reasons. Social scientists having doctor’s degrees will find favorable employ ment opportunities through the 1970’s in both teaching and non teaching positions. For those having less training, the outlook is different for the various fields and is dis cussed in the statements that follow. Nature of the Work Anthropologists study man, his origins, physical characteristics, cul ture, traditions, beliefs, customs, languages, material possessions, and his structured social relationships and value systems. Although an thropologists may specialize in any one of these areas, they are ex pected to have a general knowledge in all of them. Most anthropologists specialize in cultural anthropology sometimes called ethnology. E th n o lo g is ts may spend long periods living with tribal groups or in other communities, to learn about their ways of life. The ethnologist takes detailed and com prehensive notes describing the so cial customs, beliefs, and material possessions of the people. He usu ally learns their language in the proc ess. He may make comparative studies of the cultures and societies of various groups. In recent years, his investigations have included com plex urban societies. A r c h e o lo g is ts excavate the places where people lived in the past to re construct their history and customs by studying the remains of homes, tools, clothing, ornaments, and other evidences of human life and activity. For example, archeologists are digging in the Pacific Coast area between northern Mexico and Ec uador to find evidences of trade and migration in the pre-Christian Era. Some archeologists are excavating ancient Mayan cities in M exico and restoring temples. Others are work ing in the Missouri River valley to salvage remnants of Indian villages and sites of early military forts and trading posts. Some anthropologists specialize in lin g u istic s, the scientific study of 179 180 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Most anthropologists teach in colleges and universities and often combine research with their teach ing. Some anthropologists specialize in museum work, which generally combines management and adminis trative duties with fieldwork and re search on anthropological collec tions. A few are engaged primarily in consulting, nontechnical writing, or other activities. Places of Employment Anthropologist examines item obtained on field trip. the sounds and structures of lan guages and of the historical rela tionships among languages. They study the relationship between the language and the behavior of peo ple, and their work assists in recon structing the prehistory of mankind. P h y s ic a l a n th r o p o lo g is ts apply in tensive training in human anatomy and biology to the study of human evolution, and to the scientific meas urement of the physical differences among the races and groups of man kind as influenced by heredity and environment. Because of their knowledge of body structure, physi cal anthropologists occasionally are employed as consultants on projects such as the design of driver seats, space suits, cockpits for airplanes and spaceships, and the sizing of clothing. They may consult on proj ects to improve environmental con ditions and on criminal cases. They are increasingly employed in medi cal schools. About 3,100 people were em ployed as anthropologists in 1970. About a fifth of them were women. Most anthropologists were em ployed in colleges and universities. Several hundred worked in private industry and nonprofit organiza tions. The Federal Government em ployed a small number, chiefly in museums, national parks, in the Bu reau of Indian Affairs, and in tech nical aid programs. State and local government agencies also employed some anthropologists, usually for museum work or health research. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Young people who are interested in careers in anthropology should obtain Ph. D. degrees. College grad uates with bachelor’s degrees often obtain temporary positions and assistantships in the graduate depart ments where they are working for advanced degrees. A master’s de gree, plus field experience, is suffi cient for many beginning profession al positions, but promotion to top positions is generally reserved for in dividuals holding the Ph. D. degree. In many colleges and most univer sities, only anthropologists holding the Ph. D. degree can obtain perma nent teaching appointments. Some training in both physical and cultural anthropology is neces sary for all anthropologists. Mathe matics is helpful since statistical methods and computers are becom ing more widely used for research in this field. Undergraduate students may begin their field training in ar cheology by arranging, through their university department, to ac company expeditions as laborers or to attend field schools established for training. They may advance to supervisor in charge of the digging or collection of material and finally may direct a portion of the work of the expedition. Ethnologists and lin guists usually do their fieldwork alone, without direct supervision. Most anthropologists base their doc toral dissertations on data collected through field research; they are, therefore, experienced fieldworkers by the time they obtain the Ph. D. degree. In 1970, departments of anthro pology in the U.S. numbered over 200. Most universities having grad uate programs also offer undergrad uate training in anthropology. The choice of a graduate school is very important. Students interested in museum work should select a school that can provide experience in an associated museum having anthro pological collections. Similarly, those interested in archeology should choose a university that of fers opportunities for summer expe rience in archeological fieldwork or should plan to attend an archeologi cal field school elsewhere during their summer vacations. Young people planning careers in anthropology should have an above average interest in natural history or social studies and enjoy reading, re search, and writing. A desire to travel and the ability to cope with SOCIAL SCIENTISTS the disadvantages of remote work areas are sometimes necessary for success. Employment Outlook The number of anthropologists is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s. The largest increase in employment will be in the college teaching field. Some additional posi tions will be found in museums, ar cheological research programs, mental and public health programs, and in community survey work. Op portunities in other fields are likely to be limited largely to the replace ment of personnel who retire, die or leave their positions for other rea sons. Anthropologists holding the doc torate are expected to have good employment opportunities through the 1970’s. Graduates with only the master’s degree are likely to face persistent competition for profes sional positions in anthropology and may enter related fields of work. A few who meet certification requirements may secure high school teaching positions. Others may find jobs in public administra tion and in nonprofit organizations and civic groups, which prefer per sonnel with social science training as a general background. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, starling salaries for an thropologists having a Ph. D. gener ally ranged between $ 8,000 and $10,000 a year. Experienced an thropologists may earn twice that amount. Anthropologists employed by educational institutions received a median salary of $ 1 5,500 for the calendar year or $ 1 4,000 for the ac ademic year, according to the N a 181 tional Science Foundation’s N a tional Register of Scientific and Technical Personnel. In the Federal Government, the starting salary was $9,881 for an thropologists having an M .A. and $11,905 for those having a Ph. D. Experienced anthropologists earned from $14,000 to more than $20,000 a year. Many anthropologists employed in colleges and universities supple ment their regular salaries with earnings from other sources such as summer teaching and research grants. Anthropologists doing archeologi cal fieldwork sometimes are required to work in adverse weather condi tions and perform manual labor. They also must adapt themselves to cultural environments which are materially and socially different. Sources of Additional Information Additional information concern ing employment opportunities and schools offering graduate training in anthropology may be obtained from: The American Anthropological As sociation, 1703 New Hampshire Avenue, NW„ Washington, D.C. 20009. Specific inquiries about anthro pology as a career may be ad dressed to: Smithsonian Institution, ton, D.C. 20560. Washing ECONOMISTS (D.O.T. 050.088) Nature of the Work Economists study the problems that arise in the utilization of lim ited resources of land, raw mate rials, and manpower to provide goods and services. In this connec tion, they may analyze the relation between the supply of and demand for goods and services, and the ways in which goods are produced, distributed, and consumed. Some economists are concerned with practical problems such as the con trol of inflation, the prevention of depression, and the development of farm, wage, tax, and tariff policies. Others develop theories to explain the causes of employment and un employment or the ways in which international trade influences world economic conditions. Still others collect and interpret data on a wide variety of economic problems. Economists employed in colleges and universities teach the principles and methods of economics and con duct or direct research. They fre quently engage in writing and con sulting and formulate many of the new ideas that directly or indirectly influence government and industry planning. Economists in government plan and carry out studies for use in as sessing economic conditions and the need for changes in government policy. Their work may include the collection of basic data, analysis, and the preparation of reports. Most government economists are in the fields of agriculture, business, finance, labor, or international trade and development. Economists employed by business firms provide management with in- 182 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK formation for decision making on matters such as markets for and prices of company products, the ef fect of government policies on busi ness or international trade, the ad visability of adding new lines of merchandise, opening new branch operations, or otherwise expanding the company’s business. cities and in university towns. The largest numbers are in the New York and Washington, D.C. metro politan areas. Some are employed overseas, mainly by the U.S. D e partment of State and the Agency for International Development. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Places of Employment Econom ics is the largest of the basic social science fields. About 3 3,000 economists were employed in 1970. Industry and business em ployed more than one-half; colleges and universities, more than onefourth; and government agencies— chiefly Federal— roughly one-sixth. A few were self-employed, or worked for private research organi zations. Economists are found in all large Economists must have a thorough grounding in economic theory and methods of economic analysis. An increasing number of universities also emphasize the value of mathe matical methods of economic analy sis. Since many beginning jobs for economists in government and busi ness involve the collection and com pilation of data, a thorough knowl edge of basic statistical procedures usually is required. A bachelor’s degree with a major in economics is sufficient for many beginning research jobs in govern ment and private industry, although persons employed in such entry jobs are not always regarded as profes sional economists. In the Federal Government, candidates for en trance positions must have a mini mum of 21 semester hours of eco nomics and 3 hours of statistics, ac counting, or calculus. Graduate training is very impor tant for young people planning to become economists. Students inter ested in research should select schools that emphasize training in research methods and statistics and provide good research facilities. Those who wish to work in agricul tural economics will find good op portunities to gain experience in part-time research work at State universities having agricultural ex periment stations. The master’s degree generally is required for appointment as a col lege instructor, although in large schools graduate assistantships sometimes are awarded to superior students working toward their mas ter’s degree. In many large colleges and universities, completion of all the requirements for the Ph. D. de gree, except the dissertation, is nec essary for appointment as instruc tor. In government or private indus try, economists holding the master’s degree usually can qualify for more responsible research positions than are open to those having only the bachelor’s degree. The Ph. D. degree is required for a professorship in a high-ranking college or university and is an asset in competing for other responsible positions in government, business, or private research organizations. Persons considering a career as an economist should be accurate, like details, and prepared to spend much time doing research. Fre- SOCIAL SCIENTISTS quently, the ability to work as part of a team is required. Economists must be objective in their work and have oral and writing skills. Employment Outlook Employment of economists is ex pected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s. Colleges and universities will need hundreds of new instruc tors annually to handle an antici pated rapid increase in enrollments and to replace economists who re tire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Employment of economists by industry is expected to increase rapidly as businessmen become more accustomed to rely on scien tific methods of analyzing business trends, forecasting sales, and plan ning purchasing and production op erations. Employment of economists at the Federal, State, and local levels also will increase rapidly to meet the need for more extensive data collection and analysis, and to pro vide the staff for programs aimed at reducing unemployment and pov erty. Economists having the doctorate are expected to have very good op portunities for employment. Em ployment opportunities for econo mists having a master’s degree will be favorable, especially for those with good training in statistics and mathematics. Young people having bachelors’ degrees in economics may find employment in govern ment and as management trainees in industry and business. 183 mists employed by colleges and universities in 1970 was $18,000. The median salary for those in busi ness, industry, and nonprofit or ganizations was $20,000. Econo mists having Ph. D .’s were paid high er salaries than those who have lesser degrees and similar experience. A substantial number of economists supplement their basic salaries by consulting, teaching, and other ac tivities. In the Federal Government, the entrance salary in 1970 for begin ning economists having a bachelor’s degree was $6,548; however, those with superior academic records could begin at $8,098. Those hav ing 2 full years of graduate training or experience could qualify for posi tions at an annual salary of $9,881. M ost experienced economists in the Federal Government earned from $ 1 4 ,0 0 0 to $23,000 a year; some having greater administrative re sponsibilities earned considerably more. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a ca reer as an economist is available from: American Economic Association, 1313 21st Avenue South, Nashville, Tenn. 37212. Additional information on em ployment opportunities in econom ics and related fields is given in the following publications: T h e F oreig n Service in the S ev en ties, U.S. Department of State, Pub lication 8535, Washington, 20520. Free. The Earnings According to the National Sci ence Foundation’s National Regis ter of Scientific and Technical Per sonnel, the median salary of econo International ( E c o n o m ist ), D.C. D e v e lo p er Professional Talent Search, Office of Personnel and Manpower, Agency for Interna tional Development, Washington, D.C. 20523. Free. GEOGRAPHERS (D.O.T. 029.088 and 059.088) Nature of the Work Geographers study the spatial characteristics of the earth’s terrain, minerals, soils, water, vegetation, and climate. They relate these char acteristics to changing patterns of human settlement— where people live, why they are located there, and how they earn a living. The majority of geographers are engaged in college and university teaching; some may combine teach ing and research. This research may include the study and analysis of the distribution of land forms, climate, soils, vegetation, and mineral and water resources, sometimes utilizing surveying and meteorological instru ments. They also analyze the distri bution and structure of political or ganizations, transportation systems, marketing systems, and urban sys tems. Many geographers spend con siderable time in field study, and in analyzing maps, aerial photographs, and observational data collected in the field. Photographs and other data from remote sensors on satel lites are used increasingly. Other ge ographers construct maps, graphs, and diagrams. Most geographers specialize in one main branch or more of geog raphy. Those working in e c o n o m ic g e o g r a p h y deal with the geographic distribution of economic activities — including manufacturing, mining, farming, trade, and communica tions. P o litic a l g e o g r a p h y is the study of the way political processes affect geographic boundaries on subna tional, national, and international scales, and the relationship of geographic conditions to political processes. U rb a n g e o g r a p h y , a 184 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK phers. Am ong the major agencies employing these workers are the United States Army Topographic Command and other defense re lated agencies; the Department of the Interior; and the Department of Commerce. State and local govern ments also employ a small number of geographers, mostly on city and State planning and development commissions. M ost of the relatively small but growing number of geographers em ployed by private industry work for marketing research organizations, map companies, textbook publish ers, travel agencies, manufacturing firms, or chain stores. A few geogra phers work for scientific foundafirms, or chain stores. A few geogrations and research institutes. A small number are employed as map librarians. growing field for geographers, is concerned with the study of cities and community planning. (See statement on Urban Planners.) Spe cialists in p h y s ic a l g e o g r a p h y study the earth’s physical characteristics and those of the m oon as well. R e g io n a l g e o g r a p h y pertains to all the physical, economic, political, and cultural characteristics of a particu lar region or area, which may range in size from a river basin or an is land, to a State, a country, or even a continent. Geographers in the field of c a r to g r a p h y design and construct maps, as well as compile data for them. Many geographers have job titles which describe their specialization, such as cartographer, map cataloger, or regional analyst, rather than the title geographer. Others have ti tles relating to the subject matter of their study such as photo-intelli gence specialist or climatological an alyst. Still others have titles such as community planner, market or busi ness analyst, or intelligence special ist. M ost of those who teach in col leges and universities are called geographers. Places of Employment An estimated 7,100 geographers were employed in the United States in 1970; about 15 percent were women. More than two-thirds of all geog raphers are employed by colleges and universities. Those teaching in institutions which do not have sepa rate departments of geography usu ally are associated with departments of geology, economics, or other physical or social sciences. The Federal Government em ploys a large number of geogra- Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum educational re quirement for beginning positions in geography usually is a bachelor’s degree with a major in the field. For most positions in research and teaching, and for advancement in many other types of work, graduate training is required. Training leading to the bachelor’s degree in geography was offered by 400 colleges and universities in 1970. Undergraduate study usually provides a general introduction to geographic knowledge and research methods and often includes some field studies. Typical courses offered are physical and cultural geography, weather and climate, economic ge ography, political geography, urban geography, location analysis, quan titative methods, and regional courses, such as the geography of North America, Western Europe, 185 SOCIAL SCIENTISTS the U.S.S.R., and Asia. Courses in cartography and in the interpreta tion of maps and aerial photographs are offered also. In 1970, 165 institutions offered training leading to the master’s de gree, and 55 offered the Ph. D. For admittance to a graduate program in geography, a bachelor’s degree with a major in geography is the usual requirement. However, most universities admit students with bachelor’s degrees in any of the so cial or physical sciences, some if they have background in geography. Requirements for advanced degrees include field and laboratory work, as well as classroom studies and thesis preparation. New graduates having only the bachelor’s degree in geography usu ally find positions connected with making, interpreting, or analyzing maps; or in research, either working for the government or industry. Others enter beginning positions in the planning field. Some obtain em ployment as research or teaching assistants in educational institutions while studying for advanced de grees. Some earn library science de grees and become map librarians. New graduates having the master’s degree can qualify for some teach ing and research positions in col leges and for many research posi tions in government and industry. The Ph. D. degree usually is re quired for high-level posts in college teaching and research and may be necessary for advancement to toplevel positions in other activities. Young persons considering a ca reer as a geographer should be pre pared for a life of reading, studying, and research. New research meth ods used by the geographer require some mathematical abilities and knowledge of computer capabilities. As with all the sciences, geogra phers must be willing to work with ideas and theories and should be originative. They must be able to ex press themselves clearly.The ability to work independently is important. Employment Outlook The employment outlook for ge ographers is expected to be favor able through the 1970’s. The de mand will be especially strong for geographers having the Ph. D. to fill research and teaching positions in colleges and universities and re search jobs in industry and govern ment. Those having the master’s de gree are likely to find some compe tition. Geographers with advanced training in fields such as economics or business administration also will be in strong demand. Colleges and universities are ex pected to offer the greatest number of employment opportunities as col lege enrollments increase very rapidly through the 1970’s. Rising interest in foreign countries and growing awareness of the value of geography training in several other fields of work, such as the foreign service, should also result in in creased enrollments in geography and in a need for additional teach ers at the college level. A growing demand for geography teachers in secondary schools also is antici pated. Employment of geographers in government is also likely to in crease. The Federal Government may need additional personnel in positions related to regional devel opment; urban planning; resource management; planning, construc tion, and interpretation of maps; and in intelligence work. State and local government employment of geographers also will expand, par ticularly in areas such as conserva tion, highway planning, and city, community, and regional planning and development. The number of geographers em ployed in private industry also is expected to rise. Market research and location analysis should continue to grow rapidly. Opportunities also should increase in private area plan ning and development work. Earnings and Working Conditions In the Federal Government in 1970, geographers having the bache lor’s degree and no experience started at $6,548 or $8,098 a year, depending on their college record. Geographers having 1 or 2 years of graduate teaching could start at $8,098 or $9,881; and those having the Ph. D. degree, at $11,905. In colleges and universities, sala ries of geographers depend on their teaching rank. Assistant professors entering the field with a Ph. D. re ceived at least $11,500 in 1970. Ex perienced professors frequently earned $20,000. (For further infor mation, see statement on College and University Teachers.) Geogra phers in educational institutions usually have an opportunity to earn income from other sources, such as consulting work, special research projects, and publication of books and articles. Working conditions of most geog raphers are similar to those of other teachers and office workers. G eo graphic research frequently requires extensive travel in foreign countries, as well as in the United States. Sources of Additional Information Association of American Geogra phers, 1710 16th St. N W , Wash ington, D.C. 20009. 186 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HISTORIANS (D.O.T. 052.088) Nature of the Work History is the record of the past — past events, institutions, ideas, people. Historians use these records to describe and analyze this past— through writing and teaching, for in stance. They also may relate this knowledge of the past to current events, in an effort to explain the present. Historians may specialize in the history either of a specific country or area, or in a particular period of time— ancient, medieval, or mod em . They may specialize also in the history of a field, such as econom ics, culture, military affairs, the labor movement, art, or architec ture. The number of specialties in history is constantly growing. Newer fields include the history of business and of the relationship between technological and other aspects of historical development. In this country, most historians still spe cialize in the political history of ei ther the United States or m odem Europe; however, a growing num ber are now specializing in African, Latin American, Asian, or Near Eastern history. Some historians also specialize in phases of a larger historical field, such as Civil War history or Ancient Greek civiliza tion. M ost historians are employed as college teachers who may also write, lecture, or take part in re Economic historian uses trend data in analysis. search. Some, called a rc h iv ists, work with documentary materials of historical value, and specialize in identifying and preserving them and making them available. Other his torians specialize in writing or edit ing historical materials, preparing ex hibits, or speaking for museums, special libraries, and historical soci eties. A few serve as consultants to editors, publishers, and producers of materials for radio, television, and motion pictures. Historians are employed by governments mainly in connection with research projects, as researchers or administrators; they also may prepare studies, arti cles, and books on research find ings. Places of Employment About 15,500 persons were em ployed as historians in 1970. A p proximately 85 percent of all his torians were employed in colleges and universities. About 4 percent were employed in Federal Govern ment agencies, principally the N a tional Archives and the Depart ments of Defense, Interior, and State. Small but growing numbers were employed by other govern ment organizations (State, local, and international), by nonprofit foundations, research councils, spe cial libraries, State historical soci eties, museums, and large corpora tions. Since history is taught in all U.S. institutions of higher education, his torians are found in all college com munities. Many of the historians in the Federal Government are em ployed in Washington, D.C. Histori ans in other types of employment usually work in localities which have museums or libraries with col lections adequate for historical re search. 187 SOCIAL SCIENTISTS Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Graduate education usually is necessary for employment as an his torian. A master’s degree in history is the minimum requirement for the position of college instructor. In many colleges and universities, however, a Ph.D. degree is essential for high-level teaching, research, and administrative positions. Most historians in the Federal Govern ment and in nonprofit organizations have Ph.D. degrees, or their equiva lent in training and experience. Although for some beginning jobs in government— either Federal, State, or local— a bachelor’s degree with a major in history is sufficient training; persons in such jobs may not be regarded as professional his torians. A knowledge of archival work is helpful, since these begin ning jobs are likely to be concerned with collection and preservation of historical data. For jobs in interna tional relations and journalism, an undergraduate major in history is considered helpful. Employment Outlook Employment in this relatively small occupation is expected to in crease rapidly through the 1970’s. A t the college level, hundreds of new history teachers probably will be needed annually, because of ex panding enrollments, as well as to replace those faculty members who retire, die, or leave for other types of work. In archival work, the num ber of positions for historians also is expected to rise, although more slowly. With the doctorate, historians are expected to have relatively favor able employment opportunities through the 1970’s, although they may face increasing competition for jobs in college teaching. Historians having only the master’s degree probably will encounter considera ble competition. Others will find it difficult to obtain professional posi tions as historians. On the other hand, history majors who meet State school certification require ments may find openings in high school teaching. Some history ma jors also qualify as administrative and management trainees in govern ment agencies, foundations, civic organizations, and private industry. Earnings The average (m edian) salary of historians employed by colleges and universities was $12,200 in 1970 according to the limited data avail able. In the Federal Government, the starting salary for persons having a bachelor’s degree was $6,548 in 1970. Those having a superior aca demic record or a year of graduate training were eligible for positions at an annual salary of $8,098. The median annual salary for historians employed by the Federal Govern ment in 1970 was about $14,000. Some historians, particularly those in college teaching, supple ment their income by summer teaching or writing books or arti cles. A few earn additional income from lectures. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on em ployment opportunities for histori ans may be obtained from: American Historical Association, 400 A St. SE., Washington, D.C. 20003. POLITICAL SCIENTISTS (D.O.T. 051.088) Nature of the Work Political science is the study of government— what it is, what it does, and how and why. Political scientists are interested in govern ment at every level— local, county, State, regional, national, and inter national. Many of them specialize in one general area of political science, such as political theory, U.S. politi cal institutions and processes, com parative political institutions and processes, or international relations and organizations. Some specialize in a particular type of political insti tution or in the politics of a specific era. Political scientists are employed most frequently as college and uni versity teachers. They may combine research, consultation, or adminis trative duties with teaching. Some teach at universities in other coun tries, where they prepare students for careers in public administration and assist in the development of training programs for government personnel. Many political scientists are engaged mainly in research. They may survey public opinion on political questions for private re search organizations. They may study proposed legislation for State or municipal legislative reference bureaus or for congressional com mittees. Other political scientists may analyze the operations of gov ernment agencies or specialize in foreign affairs research, either for government or nongovernment or ganizations. Others engage in ad ministrative or managerial duties. Some work as legislative aids to congressmen and as staff members of congressional committees. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 188 Places of Employment About 11,000 political scientists were employed in 1970, largely in colleges and universities or in gov ernment agencies. M ost of the re mainder worked in research bu reaus, civic and taxpayers’ associa tions, and large business firms. Political scientists are employed in nearly every college in the United States, since courses in political sci ence or government are taught widely. M ost other political scien tists are located in Washington, D .C., in other large cities, or in State capitals. Some, however, are employed in overseas jobs, mainly by the U.S. Department of State, particularly for positions with the Foreign Service, the U.S. Agency for International Development, and the U.S. Information Agency. Training and Other Qualifications Graduate training generally is re quired for employment as a political scientist. College graduates having a master’s degree can qualify for vari ous administrative and research po sitions in government and in non profit research or civic organiza tions. Nearly 100 colleges and universities offer graduate degrees in political science; over 50, in public administration. Many provide field training and offer internships for ex perience in government work. Many universities award graduate degrees in international relations, foreign service, and area studies, as well as political science in general. A mas ter’s degree in any of these fields is very helpful in obtaining a position in a Federal Government agency concerned with foreign affairs. Completion of all requirements for the Ph. D. degree, except the doctoral dissertation, is the usual prerequisite for appointment as a college instructor. The Ph. D. de gree itself usually is required for ad vancement to the position of profes sor. Some young persons having only a bachelor’s degree in political sci ence may qualify as trainees in public relations or research work, or in jobs such as budget analyst, per sonnel assistant, or investigators in government or industry. Many stu dents having the bachelor’s degree in political science go on to study law; others obtain graduate training in public administration, interna tional relations, or some other spe cialized branch of political science. Young persons planning careers as political scientists should be pre pared for a life of reading, study, and research. An increasing reliance upon mathematical and statistical methods in some specialties within the field make some knowledge of these disciplines useful. As with all social sciences, political scientists must be willing to work with ideas and theories, and able to originate and to express themselves clearly in writing and speaking. The ability to work independently also is impor tant. Employment Outlook Employment of political scientists is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s. The greatest in crease in employment will take place in colleges and universities. In government agencies also, the num ber of political scientists in adminis trative jobs will probably rise be cause of a growing recognition of the value of specialized training in developing and planning new pro grams and analyzing policy alterna tives. Government agencies con cerned with foreign affairs will con tinue to employ many political scientists. In private industry, on the other hand, a slow growth is antici pated in employment of political scientists. In addition to those re quired to staff new positions, many political scientists will be needed to fill positions vacated because of re tirements, deaths, or transfers. Employment opportunities will be more limited for those having less than the Ph. D. degree, but openings will be available to them in Federal, State, and municipal government agencies; research bu reaus; political organizations; and civic and welfare agencies. For new graduates having only the bachelor’s degree, opportunities for employ ment in the political science field probably will continue to be very limited. However, those planning to continue their studies in law, foreign affairs, journalism, and other re lated fields will find their political science background very helpful. Some who meet State certification requirements will be able to enter high school teaching. Earnings In educational institutions the av erage beginning salary of political scientists having the master’s degree was $6,000 to $8,500 in 1970, ac cording to a recent survey. The N a tional Science Foundation reports that the median salary for all those in educational institutions was $12,000 for the academic year and $15,300 for the calendar year. In the Federal Government, the starting salary for political scientists having a bachelor’s degree was about $6,500 a year in 1970. Those having a superior academic record or a year of graduate training were eligible for positions at an annual salary of about $8,100. Most of the 189 SOCIAL SCIENTISTS experienced political scientists in the Federal Government earned considerably more. Some political scientists, particu larly those in college teaching, sup plement their income by doing sum mer teaching or consulting work. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on em ployment opportunities in political science and public administration may be obtained from the following organization: American Political Science Associa tion, 1527 New Hampshire Ave. N W , Washington, D.C. 20036. SOCIOLOGISTS (D.O.T. 054.088) Nature of the Work Sociologists study the groups which man forms in his association with others— families, tribes, com munities, and States, and a great va riety of social, religious, political, business, and other organizations. They study the behavior and inter action of these groups, trace their origin and growth, and analyze the influence of group activities on indi vidual members. Some sociologists are concerned primarily with the characteristics of the social groups and institutions themselves; others are more inter ested in the ways individuals are af fected by groups to which they be long. Many work in specialties such as social organization, social psychol ogy, or rural sociology; others spe cialize in intergroup relations, fam ily problems, social effects of urban living, population studies, or analy ses of public opinion. Some conduct surveys or concentrate on research methods. Growing numbers apply sociological knowledge and methods in penology and correction, educa tion, public relations in industry, and regional and community plan ning. A few specialize in medical sociology— the study of social fac tors that affect mental and public health. M ost sociologists are college teachers, but, as a rule, these teach ers also conduct research. Sociologi cal research often involves the col lection of data, preparation of case studies, testing, and the conduct of statistical surveys and laboratory experiments. In their research work, sociolo gists may study individuals, families, or communities in an attempt to dis cover the causes of social problems — such as crime, juvenile delin quency, or poverty; the normal pat tern of family relations; or the dif ferent patterns of living in commu nities of varying types and sizes. They may collect and analyze data from official government sources to illustrate population trends, includ ing changes in age, sex, race, and other population characteristics; and also the extent of population move ment among rural, suburban, and ur ban areas and among different geo graphic areas. Sociologists may conduct surveys which add to basic sociological knowledge or which may be used in public opinion, marketing, and ad vertising research. Some specialize in the use of mass communication facilities, including radio, television, newspapers, magazines, and circu lars. Sociologists sometimes supervise research projects or the operation of social agencies, including family and marriage clinics. Others are consult ants and advise on such diverse problems as the management of hospitals for the mentally ill, the re habilitation of juvenile delinquents, or the development of effective ad vertising programs to promote public interest in particular products. Places of Employment Approximately 12,000 persons were employed as sociologists in 1970. Numerous others were em ployed in positions requiring some training in this field, including many in social, recreation, and public health work. About three-fourths of all sociol ogists are employed in colleges and universities. The remainder work in Federal, State, local, or interna tional government agencies, in pri vate industry, in welfare or other nonprofit organizations, or are selfemployed. Since sociology is taught in most institutions of higher learning, soci ologists may be found in nearly all college communities. They are most heavily concentrated, however, in large colleges and universities which offer graduate training in sociology and opportunities for research. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master’s degree with a major in sociology usually is the minimum requirement for employment as a sociologist. The Ph. D. degree is es sential for attaining a professorship in most colleges or universities, and is commonly required for directors of major research projects, impor tant administrative positions, or consultants. 190 Sociologists with master’s degrees may qualify for many administrative and research positions, provided they are trained in research meth ods and statistics. They may be re sponsible for specific portions o f a survey or for the preparation o f analyses and reports under general supervision. A s they gain experi ence, they may advance to supervi sory positions in both public and private agencies. Sociologists with the master’s degree may qualify for some college instructorships. Most colleges, however, appoint as in structors only people with training beyond the master’s level— fre quently the completion of all re quirements for the Ph. D . degree except the doctoral dissertation. Outstanding graduate students often can get teaching or research assistantships which will provide both fi nancial aid and valuable experience. Young people with only a bache lor’s degree in sociology are not usually recognized by the profes sion as sociologists, although they may secure jobs as interviewers or as research assistants working under close supervision. Many are em ployed as caseworkers, counselors, recreation workers, or administra tive assistants in public and private welfare agencies. Sociology majors with sufficient training in statistics may obtain positions as beginning statisticians. Those who meet State certification requirements may teach high school. The choice of a graduate school is very important for people plan ning to becom e sociologists. Stu dents interested in research should select schools which emphasize training in research methods and statistics, and provide opportunities to gain practical experience in re search work. Professors and chair OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK men o f sociology departments fre quently aid in the placement of graduates. Sociologists may spend much time studying and doing research and m ust possess the necessary oral and writing skills to communicate the results o f their research. Sociol ogists should have mathematical skills and the ability to work inde pendently. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for sociologists having the Ph. D . are expected to be good during the 1970’s. Those having only the mas ter’s degree will probably continue to face considerable competition. Sociologists well trained in re search methods and advanced statis tics will have the widest choice of jobs. Employment opportunities are expected to be very good for re search workers in rural sociology, community development, popula tion analysis, public opinion re search, and various branches of medical sociology. Employment op portunities also will increase in other applied fields, such as the study of juvenile delinquency and education. Some openings are antic ipated in a relatively new area, the sociology of law. Growth in employment of sociol ogists is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s. Because of ex panding enrollments, most new po sitions will be in college teaching. Some of these openings will result from the growing trend to include sociology courses in the curricula of other professions, such as medicine, law, and education. A substantial rise in the number of sociologists in nonteaching fields is anticipated to cope with social and welfare prob lems and to implement educational and social legislation to develop human resources. In addition, sev eral hundred openings will occur each year to replace sociologists who die, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. Earnings In 1970, the median academic year salary of sociologists in educa tional institutions was $12,200, ac cording to the National Science Foundation. Sociologists working in nonprofit organizations and indus try had average annual salaries of $14,700 and $16,200, respectively. In the Federal Government, the beginning salary in 1970 for sociol ogists having a master’s degree and a superior academic record was $9,881. Salaries of experienced so ciologists in the Federal Govern ment generally ranged between $11,905 and $19,643 a year. In general, sociologists with the Ph. D. degree earn substantially higher salaries than those with the master’s degree. Many sociologists supplement their regular salaries with earnings from other sources, such as summer teaching and con sulting work. Sociologists employed by colleges and universities are the most likely to have additional earn ings. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on sociol ogists may be obtained from : The American Sociological Associa tion, 1001 Connecticut Ave.,'NW ., Washington, D.C. 20036. T E A C H IN G Teaching is the largest of the pro fessions. A bout 2.6 million men and wom en were full-time teachers in the Nation’s elementary schools, secondary schools, and colleges and universities in the 1 9 7 0 -7 1 school year. In addition, thousands taught part time; among them were many scientists, physicians, accountants, members of other professions and graduate students. Similarly, large numbers of craftsmen instructed part time in vocational schools. Many other people taught in adult education and recreation programs. No other profession offers women so many employment op portunities. About 1.7 million or al most 2V z times as many women are teachers as registered nurses, the second largest profession for women. W omen teachers far out number men in kindergarten and elementary schools and hold more than half the teaching positions in secondary (junior and senior high) schools. However, only about onefourth of all college and university teachers are women. © The number of teachers needed by the Nation’s schools depends chiefly on the number of students enrolled. A t the beginning of the 1 9 7 0 -7 1 school year, 59.2 million people— almost 30 percent of the country’s total population— were enrolled in the Nation’s schools and colleges. Through the 1970’s, con tinued growth of the school and col lege population and continued in creases in high school and college attendance rates are expected to produce a slight increase in school enrollments and a very rapid rate of increase in college enrollments. Total enrollments in all schools and colleges combined, according to U.S. Office of Education estimates, may exceed 62 million by 1980. To staff the new classrooms that must be provided for the rising numbers of students, and to con tinue to improve the student-teacher ratio, the Nation’s full-time teaching staff in 1980 will need to be about 7 percent or almost 180,000 more than in 1970. An even larger num ber of teachers— perhaps as many Growth in teacher requirements is closely related to student enrollment patterns Percent change 1970-80 -1 0 0 10 20 College Secondary school Elementary school College Secondary school Elementary school SOURCE: US. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. EDUCATION. AND W ELFARE, OFFICE OF EDUCATION 30 40 50 as 1.8 million— will be required to replace those who leave the profes sion. The outlook for teachers at each educational level— in elementary and secondary schools and also in colleges and universities— is dis cussed in the following statements. KINDERGARTEN AND ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS (D.O.T. 092.228) Nature of the Work Elementary school teaching is the largest field of professional employ ment for women and is a growing field for men. In the 197 0 -7 1 school year, over 1.2 million kindergarten and elementary teachers were em ployed. In addition, an estimated 60,000 principals and supervisors were working in public and private elementary schools. Kindergarten teachers conduct a program of education for young children. Most frequently, they teach one group in the morning and another group in the afternoon. Some, however, work with one group all day. They provide the children with experiences in play, music, artwork, stories, and poetry; and introduce them to science, numbers, language, and social stud ies. In a variety of ways, kindergar ten teachers help to develop chil dren’s curiosity and zeal for learn ing, as well as to stimulate their ability to think. After school hours, kindergarten teachers may plan the next day’s work, prepare the chil dren’s school records, confer with parents or professional personnel concerning individual children, par191 192 ticipate in teachers’ in-service activ ities, and locate and become famil iar with teaching resources. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK tion, including teaching machines and “talking typewriters,” and the increasing use of teacher aids are freeing growing numbers of elemen tary and kindergarten teachers from routine duties and allowing them to give more individual attention to their students. Places of Employment Elementary school teachers are employed in all cities, towns, vil lages, and in rural areas. As a result of reorganization of school districts, many teachers are employed in con solidated schools in small towns. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A ll States require that teachers in the public schools have a certificate. Several States require certification for teachers in parochial and other private elementary schools. In 1970, 47 States and the Dis trict of Columbia issued regular teaching certificates only to persons Elementary school teachers usu ally work with one group of pupils during the entire schoolday. They teach several subjects and supervise various activities such as lunch and play periods. In som e school sys tems, however, teachers in the upper elementary grades may teach one or two subjects to several groups of children. Many school systems also employ special teach ers to give instruction and to assist classroom teachers in certain sub jects such as art, music, physical ed ucation, industrial arts, foreign lan guages, and homemaking. Teachers in schools which have only a few students, largely in rural areas, may be required to teach all subjects in several grades. Programed instruc having at least 4 years of approved college preparation. Teacher certifi cation in most States also requires professional education courses. Twelve States require that teachers work toward a fifth year or master’s degree within a certain number of years. Some school systems have higher educational requirements than those for State certification. In nearly all States, certificates are issued by State departments of education on the basis of transcripts of credits and recommendations from approved colleges and univer sities. Certificates may be issued to teachers from other States if the prescribed programs have been completed at accredited colleges or if the teachers meet the academic and other requirements of the State to which they are applying. Under certain conditions, usually related to a shortage of qualified teachers, most States will issue emergency or temporary certificates to partially prepared teachers. However, these certificates must be renewed an nually. A ll States have certain additional requirements for public school 193 TEACHING teaching. For example, they may re quire a health certificate, evidence of citizenship, or an oath of alle giance. The prospective teacher should inquire about the specific re quirements of the area in which he plans to work by writing to the State department of education or to the superintendent of the local school system. Most institutions of higher educa tion offer teacher preparation. In a 4-year teacher-preparation curricu lum, prospective elementary school teachers spend about one-fourth of the time in professional courses— learning about children, the place of the school in the community, and materials and methods of instruc tion— including student teaching in an actual school; the remainder of their time is devoted to liberal arts subjects. Some study of human be havior and learning usually is in cluded. After gaining experience, teach ers will find opportunities for ad vancement through annual salary increases in the same school system; by transferring to a system with a higher salary schedule which recog nizes experience gained in another school system; by appointment to a supervisory, administrative, or spe cialized position in the school sys tem; or by transferring to higher levels of teaching for which their training and experience may qualify them. Among the most important per sonal qualifications for elementary school teaching are an enjoyment and understanding of children. Teachers must be patient and selfdisciplined, and have high standards of personal conduct. A broad knowledge and appreciation of the arts, sciences, history, and literature also are valuable. Customs and atti tudes of the community may influ ence and sometimes restrict the civic, Social, and recreational activi ties of teachers. Employment Outlook Enrollments in kindergartens and elementary schools in 1980 are ex pected to be below the 1970 levels. As a result, the number of teaching positions is expected to decline slightly despite an anticipated re duction in the pupil-teacher ratio. Nevertheless, large numbers of teachers will be needed to replace those who retire, die, or leave the profession for other reasons. Also, more than 50,000 teachers will be needed to replace persons not meet ing certification requirements. In creasing emphasis on the education of very young children, children in low-income areas, the mentally re tarded, and other groups needing special attention may result in larger enrollments and smaller studentteacher ratios than trends would in dicate, with an accompanying in crease in the number of teachers required. The number of persons qualified to teach in elementary schools will exceed the number of openings if patterns of entry and reentry to the profession continue in line with past trends. New graduates, therefore, may face keen competition for jobs during the 1970’s. Young people seeking their first teaching assign ment will find schools placing great emphasis on their academic work and the quality of their training. Nevertheless, employment opportu nities may be very favorable in urban ghettos, rural districts, and in all geographic areas where teaching salaries are low and better paying opportunities are available in other fields in the community. The out look for teachers who are trained to work with children having various handicaps also will be favorable. Many students, however, who are considering elementary teaching as a career will have to change their occupational choice and pursue other careers. Earnings and Working Conditions The average salary for classroom teachers in public elementary schools, according to National Edu cation Association (N E A ) esti mates, was $9,025 in 1970-71. In the five highest paying States (Alaska, New York, California, Michigan, and Hawaii), teachers’ salaries averaged $10,000 or more; in the six States having the lowest salaries (Mississippi, South Dakota, Arkansas, North Dakota, South Carolina, and Idaho), they were less than $7,000. An increasing number of States (31 in the 197071 academic year) have established minimum salary levels. Although the average time spent in the classroom (less than 6 hours) usually is less than the average workday in most other occupations, the elementary school teacher must spend additional time each day giv ing individual help, planning work, preparing instructional materials, developing tests, checking papers, making out reports, and keeping records. Conferences with parents, meetings with school supervisors, and other professional activities also frequently occur after classroom hours. Since most schools are in session fewer than 12 months a year, teach ers often take courses for profes sional growth or work at other jobs during the summer. Some school systems, however, are extending the teachers’ working year to 12 months, including a 1-month vaca tion in the summer. Employment in teaching is steady 194 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK and usually is not affected by changes in business conditions. Ten ure provisions protect teachers from arbitrary dismissal. Pension and sick leave plans are common, and a growing number of school systems grant other types of leave with pay. An increasing number of teachers are being represented by profes sional teacher associations or by un ions that bargain collectively for them on wages, hours, and other conditions of employment. Sources of Additional Information Information on schools and certi fication requirements is available from the State department of educa tion at each State capital. Information on the Teacher Corps, internships, graduate fellow ships, and other information on teaching may be obtained from: U.S. Department o f Health, Edu cation, and Welfare, Office of Education, Washington, D.C. 20202. Other sources of general informa tion are: American Federation of Teachers, 1012 14th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards, National Education As sociation, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. SE C O N D A R Y SCHO O L TE A C H ER S (D.O.T. 091.118 through .228) Nature of the Work Secondary school teachers— those employed in junior and senior high schools— usually specialize in a particular subject. They teach sev eral classes every day, either in their main subject, in related sub jects, or both. The most frequent combinations are English and his tory or other social sciences; mathe matics and general science; and chemistry and biology or general science. Teachers in some fields, such as home economics, agricul ture, commercial subjects, driver education, music, art, and industrial arts, less frequently conduct classes in other subjects. The teaching method may vary from formal lec tures to free discussions, depending on the subject and the students’ needs and aptitudes. The choice of method usually is left to the teacher. Besides giving classroom instruc tion, secondary school teachers plan and develop teaching materials, de velop and correct tests, keep rec ords and make out reports, consult with parents, supervise study halls, and perform other duties. The growing use of teaching machines, programmed instruction, and teacher aids relieves the teacher of many routine tasks. Many teachers supervise student activities, such as clubs and social affairs— sometimes after regular school hours. Main taining good relations with parents and the community is an important aspect of their jobs. More than 1 million teachers were employed in the Nation’s public and private secondary schools in 1970-71. Almost half the classroom teachers in public sec ondary schools were men. Men far outnumber women as supervisors and administrators in both public and private schools. 195 TEACHING Places of Employment The number of grades in second ary schools depends on the way the local school system is organized. Many secondary school teachers are employed in 6-year combined jun ior-senior high schools (grades 7 -1 2 ); others are in separate junior high schools of either two or three grades (7 -8 or 7 -9 ) ; and the re mainder teach in 4-year high schools (grades 9 -1 2 ) and in senior high schools ( grades 1 0 -1 2 ). Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In every State, a certificate is re quired for public secondary school teaching. To qualify for this certifi cate, the prospective teacher must have at least the equivalent of onehalf year of education courses, in cluding practice teaching, plus pro fessional courses in one or more subjects commonly taught in sec ondary schools. Twelve States require a fifth year of study or qualification for a mas ter’s degree within a specified period following the teacher’s beginning employment. Many school systems, especially in large cities, have re quirements beyond those needed for State certification. Some systems re quire additional educational prepa ration, successful teaching experi ence, or special personal qualifica tions. College students preparing for sec ondary school teaching usually de vote about one-third of the 4-year course to their major, which may be in a single subject or a group of re lated subjects. About one-sixth of the time is spent in education courses — learning about children, the place of the school in the commu nity, and materials and methods of instruction— including student teach ing in an actual school situation. The remaining time is devoted to general or liberal arts courses. Accepted teacher-preparation curriculums are offered by universities with schools of education, by colleges with strong education departments and adequate practice-teaching facilities, and by teachers’ colleges. Although certification require ments vary among the States, the person who is well prepared for sec ondary school teaching in one State usually has little trouble meeting re quirements in another State. A well-qualified teacher ordinarily can obtain temporary certification in a State while preparing to meet its ad ditional requirements. Qualified secondary school teach ers may advance to department heads, supervisors, assistant princi pals, principals, superintendents, or other administrative officers as openings occur. At least 1 year of professional education beyond the bachelor’s degree and several years of successful classroom teaching are required for most supervisory and administrative positions. Often, a doctorate is required for appoint ment as superintendent. Some expe rienced teachers are assigned as part- or full-time guidance counsel ors or as teachers of handicapped or other special groups of children. Usually, additional preparation and sometimes special certificates are required for these assignments. Probably the most important per sonal qualifications for secondary school teaching are an appreciation and understanding of adolescent children. Patience and self-disci pline are desirable traits, as are high standards of personal conduct. In addition to an enthusiasm for the subjects they teach, a broad knowl edge and appreciation of the arts, sciences, history, and literature also are desirable. Civic, social, and rec reational activities of teachers may be influenced, and sometimes re stricted, by the customs and atti tudes of their community. Employment Outlook A slowing of enrollment growth in secondary schools is expected dur ing the 1970’s. Most teaching posi tions will result, therefore, from the need to replace the large number of women teachers who leave the profession for family responsibilities. If the total number of degrees awarded increases as projected by the U.S. Office of Education, and if trends in the proportion of grad uates prepared to teach in second ary schools continues through the 1970’s, the total number of new graduates available for secondary school teaching positions will in crease significantly. In addition, many women will continue to wish to reenter teaching after a period of full-time homemaking. New gradu ates, therefore, may face keen com petition for jobs. Also, young people planning to teach, therefore, are likely to find school boards placing much greater emphasis on the type and quality of an applicant’s profes sional training and academic per formance. Despite the anticipated improved supply situation, opportunities will be very favorable in some geographic areas and in subject fields such as the physical sciences, for which the demand in private industry and government is also great. In addition, increased demand for teachers trained in the education of children who are mentally retarded or physically handicapped are ex pected. Considerable additional de mand for teachers also may be gen erated by Federal legislation that 196 provides for supplementary educa tional centers and services and the Teacher Corps. These extensive ad ditions to present teaching services will be available to both public and private school children. Neverthe less, if patterns of entry and reentry to the profession continue in line with past trends, the number of per sons seeking to enter secondary teaching will significantly exceed re quirements. Many students, there fore, who are considering secondary teaching as a career, will have to change their occupational choice and pursue other careers. Earnings and Working Conditions The average annual salary for all classroom teachers in public sec ondary schools was about $9,540 in 1970-71, according to estimates by the National Education Association. In Alaska, California, and New York, average salaries were $11,400 or more. The average was $7,500 or less in Mississippi, Ar kansas, Idaho, South Carolina, Ken tucky, Alabama, and Oklahoma. At the beginning of the 1970-71 aca demic year, 31 States had minimum teacher salary laws. Teachers of vocational education, physical education, and other spe cial subjects often receive higher salaries than other teachers. Under salary schedules in effect in most school systems, teachers in all sub ject fields get regular salary in creases as they gain experience and additional education. Teachers’ salaries usually are lower in towns and small cities than in larger cities or suburbs, but higher educational and experience requirements are likely to prevail in large city school systems. On the average, salaries of principals in the largest cities, where administrative OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK responsibilities are great, are much higher than in towns and small cit ies. Salaries of superintendents in 1970-71 averaged nearly $40,000 in the largest school systems. Teachers often add to their in comes by teaching in summer school, working as camp and recre ational counselors, or doing other work. Some teachers supplement their incomes during the regular school year. They may teach in adult or evening classes, work parttime in business or industry, or write for publication. Some form of retirement is pro vided for most teachers. Nearly all school systems have some provision for sick leave, and an increasing number grant other types of leave with pay. According to a recent survey, the average workweek of secondary school teachers is about 46 hours a week, of which 23 Vi hours are spent in classroom instruction and the remainder in out-of-class in struction and other duties. An in creasing number of teachers are rep resented by professional teacher as sociations or by unions that bargain collectively for them on wages, hours, and other conditions of em ployment. Sources of Additional Information Information on schools and certi fication requirements is available from the State department of educa tion at the State capital. Information on the Teacher Corps, internships, graduate fellow ships, and other information on teaching may be obtained from: U.S. Department of Health, Educa tion, and Welfare, Office of Edu cation, Washington, D.C. 20202. Other sources of information are: American Federation of Teachers, 1012 14th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards, National Education A s sociation, 1201 16th St. N W , Washington, D.C. 20036. COLLEGE A N D U N IV E R S IT Y TE A C H ER S (D.O.T. 090.168 and .228) Nature of the Work About 720,000 teachers were employed in the Nation’s 2,600 col leges and universities in the fall of 1970. Approximately 336,000 were full-time teachers of degree credit courses; in addition, 167,000 taught such courses part time. The remain der included junior instructional staff (primarily graduate students), and staff who taught non-degree courses and gave instruction by television, radio, or mail. Most full-time college and uni versity teachers instruct in the social sciences, teacher education, English and journalism, fine arts, mathemat ics, physical or biological sciences, engineering, or the health profes sions. Teaching duties may include preparing and delivering lectures, leading class discussions, directing graduate students in teaching fresh man courses, preparing tests and in struction materials, counseling and assisting individual students, and checking and grading assignments and tests. Grading sometimes is done by teaching assistants or, for objective tests, by computers. In many 4-year institutions, the usual teaching load is 12 to 15 hours a week. Associate professors and full 197 TEACHING professors— who advise graduate students and often engage actively in research— may spend only 6 to 8 hours a week in actual classroom work. In addition to teaching, many col lege teachers conduct or direct re search, write for publication, or aid in college administration. Some act as consultants to business, in dustrial, scientific, or government organizations. Places of Employment About nine-tenths of all full- and part-time teachers were employed by universities and 4-year colleges in 1970; most of the remainder were in 2-year institutions. Men predominate in college teaching and hold more than ninetenths of the positions in engineer ing, the physical sciences, agricul ture, and law. However, most teach ers in nursing, home economics, and library science are women. College teachers are concen trated in the States having the larg est college enrollments. In the fall of 1970, resident and extension en rollments exceeded 1.1 million in California and were over 700,000 in New York. Three other States had enrollments of more than 400,000: Illinois, Texas, and Pennsylvania. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To qualify for most beginning po sitions, applicants must have at least the master’s degree, and for many, they must have completed all re quirements for the doctorate except the dissertation. A number of States require State certification to teach in public 2-year colleges. To obtain such a certificate, the master’s de gree and certain courses in educa tion are required. To enter college teaching, spe cialization in some subject field is necessary. In addition, undergradu ate courses in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and the mastery of at least one foreign lan guage are important. Intensive in struction in the selected field of spe cialization is given in graduate school. Outstanding graduate stu dents receive valuable experience through part-time teaching assistantships. Some students develop teaching competence by participat ing in informal seminars or meetings on teaching methods. Some prospective college teachers, espe cially those in education depart ments and junior colleges, gain ex perience in high school teaching. Most 4-year colleges and univer sities recognize four academic ranks: Instructor, assistant profes sor, associate professor, and full professor. A National Education Association survey indicates that one-quarter of the teaching faculty are professors, nearly one-quarter associate professors, one-third are assistant professors, and almost onefifth are instructors or lecturers. Few institutions grant tenure (permanent appointment) to in structors having less than 3 years of service. Advancement to associate professorship generally requires considerable teaching experience and often a doctor’s degree. In some institutions, research and pub lication also may be required. A doctor’s degree and 7 or more years of teaching experience usually are necessary to become a full profes sor. Outstanding achievements, gen erally through research or publica tions, hastens advancement. Beginning teachers in fields that are in strong demand, such as engi neering, mathematics, and medi cine, sometimes are appointed at higher ranks than other teachers having comparable experience and education. A doctor’s degree is re quired particularly for advancement in the biological sciences, physical sciences, psychology, social sci ences, philosophy, and religion; it is least likely to be a requirement in business and commerce, engineer ing, fine arts, health and physical education, and home economics. Fellowships are available under the National Defense Education Act to candidates for doctoral degrees who plan careers in college or uni versity teaching. The Education Professions Development Act of 1967 authorizes Federally supported OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 198 fellowships for master’s degree study for those planning to enter or already engaged in teaching at twoyear colleges, four-year colleges, and universities. Employment Outlook College teaching opportunities are expected to be good for those having doctoral degrees or having completed all requirements for the doctorate except the dissertation. Opportunities also will be favorable for new entrants having the master’s degree, particularly in 2-year col leges. A great increase in college enroll ment is in prospect. The number of young people in the 18- to 21-year age group is expected to rise by nearly 2.7 million between 1970 and 1980. At the same time, larger proportions of young people of col lege age will attend college— owing to rising family income, recent Fed eral legislation to help needy college students, and greater demand for college-trained personnel. The an ticipated increase in the number of community colleges and schools of fering evening classes also will per mit more young people and adults to attend. If the proportion contin ues to increase and facilities are available, college enrollments for degree credit will increase from 7.6 million in 1970 to more than 11.2 million in 1980, according to the U.S. Office of Education. Taking all these factors into ac count, the Office of Education esti mates that the full-time college teaching staff for resident degree credit courses will increase from 336,000 in 1970 to 460,000 in 1980, or by 37 percent. The supply of new college teach ers, which consists largely of stu dents receiving graduate degrees, also is expected to grow. The U.S. Office of Education estimates that the number of doctorates conferred through 1980 will average about 50,000 a year, and the number of master’s degrees about 360,000 an nually. It is difficult, however, to say how many of these will enter teach ing. Industry, government, and non profit organizations also offer em ployment opportunities to persons having graduate degrees, often at higher salaries than colleges. How ever, a smaller proportion of each year’s doctor’s degree recipients will be needed to meet the demand for college teachers. As a result, per sons may face some competition in obtaining positions of their choice. Earnings and Working Conditions The median salary of full-time faculty who were engaged primarily in teaching in 4-year institutions was estimated at $11,745 in 196970 (9 m o.), based on National Ed ucation Association data. Salaries generally were higher in universities than in colleges, and highest in large universities. Highest median salaries were paid in the Far West and New England. Estimated median salaries by rank were: P ro fesso r............................................$16,799 Associate P r o fe sso r ....................... 12,985 Assistant Professor ....................... 10,698 Instructor or L ectu rer.................. 8,416 The median salary paid full-time faculty in public 2-year colleges in 1969-70 was estimated at $10,850. Teachers in nonpublic 2-year col leges received an estimated median salary of $8,190. Faculty members who teach year round usually receive higher salaries than those employed for the aca demic year only. Teachers in pro fessional schools (medicine, dentis try, etc.) and graduate schools gen erally receive higher salaries than teachers in other colleges. Some faculty members supple ment their regular salaries with earnings from a variety of sources. The chief source is additional teach ing (often in summer sessions). Consulting work may be a major source of extra income, particularly in engineering and physical sci ences. Research grants are now common, especially in many large, well-known universities; fees for lecturing and royalties on publica tions are other possible sources of income. Opportunities for addi tional income usually increase as the faculty member gains recogni tion. For most college teachers, ad ditional income is small. Retirement plans differ consider ably among institutions, but an in creasing number are participating in the Government social security pro gram, often as an accompaniment to plans of their own. The greatest number of institutions have set 65 years as the normal retirement age, although most of these extend the age limit if desired. Many colleges and universities provide benefits such as: Sabbatical leaves of absence— typically, 1 year’s leave with half salary or a half-year’s leave at full salary after 6 or 7 years of employment; other types of leave for advanced study; life, sickness, and accident insur ance; reduced tuition charges or cash-tuition grants for children of faculty members; housing allow ances; travel funds for attending professional meetings; and other benefits. Sources of Additional Information Information on college teaching as a career is available from: 199 TEACHING U.S. Department of Health, Edu cation, and Welfare, Office of Education, Washington, D.C. 20202. American Association of University Professors, 1 Dupont Circle NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. American Council on Education, 1 Dupont Circle NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036. American Federation of Teachers, 1012 14th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005 National Education Association, 1201 16th St. N W , Washington, D.C. 20036. Professional societies in the vari ous subject fields will generally provide information on teaching re quirements and employment oppor tunities in their particular fields. Names and addresses of societies are given in the statements on spe cific professions elsewhere in the H andbook. TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS Technician occupations are growing rapidly because of the needs of an expanding and increas ingly technical economy matched to the growing recognition of the im portance of technicians. This chap ter is concerned with the technicians who work with engineers and scien tists, and with draftsmen, also usu ally considered technicians. Infor mation on surveyors, often classified as technicians, and on technical oc cupations in the health field— in cluding dental laboratory techni cians, radiological technologists, and dental hygienists— is presented elsewhere in the H an dbook. E N G IN E E R IN G A N D SC IE N C E T E C H N IC IA N S (D.O.T. .002 through .029) Nature of the Work The term “technician,” as used here, refers to workers whose jobs require both knowledge and use of scientific and mathematical theory; specialized education or training in some aspect of technology or sci ence; and who, as a rule, work di rectly with scientists and engineers. There is no generally accepted defi nition of the term “technician.” For example, it is used by employers to refer to workers in a great variety of jobs, requiring a wide range of ed ucation and training. The term is applied to employees doing rela tively routine work, to persons per forming work requiring skills within a limited sphere, and to persons 200 doing highly technical work, among them assistants to engineers and sci entists. The workers’ job titles may be descriptive of their technical level (for example, biological aid, or en gineering technician) or their work activity (for example, quality-con trol technician, production analyst, tool designer, materials tester, or time-study analyst). Some em ployees use the word “technician,” preceded by adjectives, such as me chanical, electrical, electronics, or chemical, which describes areas of technology in which their personnel are employed. The jobs of engineering and sci ence technicians are more limited than those of the professional engi neer or scientist, and have a greater practical orientation. Many techni cian jobs require the ability to ana lyze and solve engineering and sci ence problems and to prepare for mal reports on experiments, tests, or other projects. Most of these jobs require some aptitude in mathemat ics; others, the ability to visualize objects and to make sketches and drawings. Design jobs often require creative ability. Many technician jobs require some familiarity with one or more of the skilled trades, although not the ability to perform as a craftsman. Others demand ex tensive knowledge of industrial ma chinery, tools, equipment, and proc esses. Some jobs held by these tech nicians are supervisory and require both technical knowledge and the ability to supervise people. In carrying out their assignments, engineering and science technicians frequently use complex electronic and mechanical instruments, experi mental laboratory apparatus, and drafting instruments. Almost all of the technicians whose jobs are de scribed in this statement must be able to use engineering handbooks and computing devices, such as the slide rule or calculating machine. Technicians engage in virtually every aspect of engineering and sci entific work. In research, develop ment, and design, one of the largest areas of employment, they conduct experiments or tests; set up, cali brate, and operate instruments; and make calculations. They also assist scientists and engineers in develop ing experimental equipment and models by making drawings and sketches and, under the engineer’s direction, frequently do some design work. Technicians also work in jobs re lated to production, usually follow ing a program course laid out by the engineer or scientist, but often without close supervision. They may aid in the various phases of produc tion operation, such as working out specifications for materials and methods of manufacture, devising tests to insure quality control of products, or making time-and-motion studies (timing and analyzing 201 TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS the worker’s movements) designed to improve the efficiency of a partic ular operation. They also may per form liaison work between engi neering and production or other de partments. Technicians often do work that might otherwise have to be done by engineers. They may serve as tech nical sales or field representatives of manufacturers; advise on installa tion and maintenance problems of complex machinery; or write speci fications and technical manuals. (See statement on Technical Writ ers.) The following sections describe a number of technological fields in which engineering and science tech nicians are trained and employed. A ero n a u tical T echnology. Tech nicians specializing in this area of technology work with engineers and scientists in many phases of the de sign and production of aircraft, heli copters, rockets, guided missiles, and spacecraft. Many aid engineers in preparing layouts of structures, control systems, or equipment in stallations by collecting information, making calculations, and perform ing many other tasks. They work on projects involving stress analysis, aerodynamics, structural design, flight test evaluation, or weight con trol. For example, under the direc tion of an engineer, a technician might estimate weight factors, cen ters of gravity, and other items af fecting load capacity of an airplane or missile. Other technicians work ing on engineering projects prepare or check drawings for technical ac curacy, practicability, and economy. Technicians sometimes help to estimate the cost of the materials and labor needed to manufacture aircraft and missiles. They also may be responsible for liaison between the engineers who do the planning and development work, and the craftsmen who convert the engi neers’ ideas into finished products. For example, as an aircraft or mis sile is built, the liaison technician checks it for conformance to speci fications, keeps the engineer in formed as to progress, and in vestigates any production engi neering problems that arise. He sometimes recommends minor changes in the design, the ma terials, or the method of fabri cation. Other aeronautical technicians are employed as manufacturer’s field service representatives, serving as the link between their company and the military, commercial air lines, and other customers. Techni cians often prepare instruction man uals, bulletins, catalogs, and other technical materials. (See statements on Aerospace Engineers and Air plane Mechanics, and chapter on Occupations in Aircraft, Missile, and Spacecraft Manufacturing.) A ir-C o n d itio n in g , H eating, and R efrigeration T ech n ology. Air-con ditioning technology involves the control of air including its heating, cooling, humidity, cleanliness, and movement. Technicians in this field often become specialists in one area of work, such as refrigeration, and sometimes in a particular type of activity, such as research and devel opment or design of layouts for heating, cooling, or refrigeration systems. In the manufacture of air-condi tioning, heating, and refrigeration equipment, technicians work in re search and engineering depart ments, usually as aids to engineers and scientists. They may be as signed to such jobs as devising methods for testing equipment or analyzing production methods. Technically trained personnel also assist in designing the air-condition ing, heating, or refrigeration sys tems for a particular office, store, or other location and prepare instruc tions for their installation. In de signing the layout for an air-condi tioning or heating system, they must determine the cooling or heating re quirements, decide what kind of equipment is most suitable, and es timate costs. Technicians employed as salesmen by equipment manufac turers must be able to supply con tractors who design and install sys tems with information on such tech nical subjects as installation, main tenance, operating costs, and ex pected performance of equipment. (See also statement on Refrigera tion and Air-Conditioning Mechan ics.) C h em ical T echnology. Techni cians specializing in this area work mainly with chemists and chemical engineers in the development, pro duction, sale, and utilization of chem ical and related products and equip ment. The field of chemistry is so broad that chemical technicians often become specialists in the problems of a particular industry, such as food processing, or in a par ticular activity, such as quality con trol. Most chemical technicians work in research and development, test ing, or other laboratory work. They conduct experiments and tabulate and analyze the results. In testing work, technicians make chemical tests of materials to determine whether the materials meet specifi cations or whether particular sub stances are present and, if so, in what quantities. They may, for ex ample, analyze steel for carbon, phosphorous, and sulfur content, or water for the amount of silica, iron, and calcium present. They also per form experiments to determine the characteristics of substances such as the specific gravity and ash content of oil. Technicians employed in re 202 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK search or testing laboratories often assemble and use such apparatus and instruments as dilatometers (which measure the dilation or ex pansion of a substance), analytical balances, and centrifuges. Outside the laboratory, chemical technicians are sometimes employed to supervise various operations in the production of chemical products and as technical salesman of chemi cals and chemical equipment. (See also statements on Chemists and Chemical Engineers, and chapter on Occupations in the Industrial Chemical Industry.) C ivil E ngineering T echnology. Technicians trained in this area as sist civil engineers in performing many of the tasks necessary in the planning, design, and construction of highways, railroads, bridges, via ducts, dams, and other types of structures. During the planning stage, technicians may help to esti mate costs, to prepare specifications for materials, or participate in sur veying, drafting, detailing, or de signing work. Once the actual con struction work has begun, they may assist the contractor or superintend ent in scheduling construction activ ities or inspecting the work to as sure conformance to blueprints and specifications. (See also statements on Civil Engineers, Draftsmen, and Surveyors.) E lectron ics T ech n ology. This field includes radio, radar, sonar, telemetering, television, telephony, and other forms of communication; industrial and medical measuring, recording, indicating, and control ling devices; navigational equip ment; missile and spacecraft guid ance and control instruments; elec tronic computers; and many other types of equipment using vacuum tubes, transistors, semiconductors, and printed circuits. Because the field is so broad, technicians gener ally become specialists in one area — for example, induction or dielec tric heating, servomechanisms, au tomation controls, or ultrasonics. Technicians working with engi neers and scientists in the field of electronics do complex technical work that is more difficult than rou tine operating and repair work. (For additional information on broadcast technicians see chapter on Occupations in Radio and Tele vision Broadcasting.) Industrial P ro d u ctio n T echnol ogy. Technicians trained in this area are sometimes called industrial technicians o r p ro d u ctio n techni cians. They assist industrial engi neers on problems involving the ef ficient use of personnel, materials, and machines in the production of goods or services. Their work in cludes preparing layouts of machin ery and equipment, planning the flow of work, and making statistical studies and analyses of production costs. The industrial technician also may conduct time-and-motion stud ies. In the course of their duties, many industrial technicians acquire experience which enables them to qualify for other jobs. For example, those expert in machinery and pro duction methods may move into the field of industrial safety. Others who specialize in job analysis may be come involved in the setting of job standards and in the interviewing, testing, hiring, and training of per sonnel. Still others may move into production supervision. (See state ments on Personnel Workers and Industrial Engineers.) M ech an ical T ech n ology. Me chanical technology is a broad term usually used to cover a large num ber of specialized fields, including automotive technology, diesel tech nology, tool design, machine design, and production technology. Technicians in the above areas of mechanical technology often assist engineers in design and develop ment work by making freehand sketches and rough layouts of pro posed machinery and other equip ment and parts. They help to deter mine whether a proposed design change in a product is practical and how much the product will cost to produce. They also may be required to solve design problems such as those involving tolerance, stress, strain, friction, and vibration. The planning and testing of ex perimental machines and equipment for performance, durability, and ef ficiency provide a large area of work for technicians. In the testing procedure, they record data, make computations, plot graphs, analyze results, and write reports. They sometimes make recommendations for design changes to improve per formance. Their jobs often require skill in the use of instruments, test 203 TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS equipment and gages, such as dyna mometers, as well as the ability to prepare and interpret drawings. One of the better known spe cialties which may be grouped under mechanical engineering tech nology is that of to o l d esig n e r. The tool designer designs tools and de vices for the mass production of manufactured articles. He originates and prepares sketches of the designs for cutting tools, jigs, dies, special fixtures, and other attachments used in machine operations. He also may make detailed drawings of these tools and fixtures or supervise oth ers in making them. Besides devel oping new tools, designers fre quently redesign tools to improve their efficiency. Machine drafting, with some de signing, is another major area of work often grouped under mechani cal technology. The work is de scribed elsewhere in this chapter. Some mechanical technicians are employed in manufacturing depart ments to help develop plans for test ing and inspecting machines and equipment, or to work with engi neers in eliminating production problems. Some obtain jobs as tech nical salesmen. (See statements on Mechanical Engineers, Automobile Mechanics, Manufacturers’ Sales men, and Diesel M echanics.) As industry becomes increasingly mechanized, new technical occupa tions continue to emerge. For exam ple, in stru m e n ta tio n te c h n o lo g y has evolved from the introduction of au tomatic controls and precision-meas uring devices in manufacturing op erations. In industrial plants and laboratories, instruments are used to record data, to control and regulate the operation of machinery, and to measure time, weight, temperature, speed of moving parts, mixtures, volume, flow, strain, and pressure. Technicians in this field work with engineers and scientists who de velop and design these highly com plex devices, as well as with those who use them for research and de velopment work. (See also state ment on Instrument Makers.) Another new area of work for technicians, which has resulted from recognition of the need for a more scientific approach toward the re duction of industrial hazards, is safety technology. In the rapidly growing atomic energy field, in par ticular, technicians work with scien tists and engineers on problems of radiation safety, inspection, and decontamination. (See chapter on Occupations in the Atomic Energy F ield.) Other new areas include the environmental control field, where technicians are concerned with the problems of air and water pollution. Places of Employment An estimated 650,000 engineer ing and science technicians, not in cluding draftsmen and surveyors, were employed in 1970— about 11 percent were women. Nearly 4 6 0,000 of these technicians (more than 7 out of 10) were employed by private industry. The manufacturing industries employing the largest numbers of engineering and science technicians were electrical equip ment, chemicals, machinery, and aerospace. In the nonmanufacturing sector, large numbers of technicians were employed in the communica tions industry and by engineering and architectural firms. In 1970, the Federal Government employed over 85,000 engineering and science technicians; chiefly as engineering aids and technicians, electronic technicians, equipment specialists, cartographic aids, mete orological technicians, and physical science technicians. Of these engi neering and science technicians, the largest number worked for the D e partment of Defense. Most of the others were employed by the D e partments of Transportation, Agri culture, Interior, and Commerce. State Government agencies em ployed nearly 50,000 engineering and science technicians in 1970 and local governments about 12,000. The remainder were employed by colleges and universities, mostly in university-operated research insti tutes, and by nonprofit organiza tions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Young men and women who wish to prepare for careers as engineer ing or science technicians can obtain the necessary training from a great variety of educational institutions or can qualify for their work right on the job. Most employers, however, seek workers who have had some form of specialized training for more responsible technician jobs. Specialized formal training pro grams are offered in post-secondary schools— technical institutes, junior and community colleges, area voca tional technical schools, and exten sion divisions of colleges and univer sities— as well as in technical and technical-vocational high schools. Other ways in which persons can become qualified for technician jobs are by completing an on-the-job training program, through work ex perience and formal courses taken on a part-time basis in post-second ary or correspondence schools, or through training and experience ob tained while serving in the Armed Forces. In addition, many engineer ing and science students who have not completed all the requirements 204 for a bachelor’s degree, as well as some other persons having a college education in mathematics and sci ence, are able to qualify for techni cian jobs after they obtain some ad ditional technical training and expe rience. In general, post-secondary school technical training is required for a growing number of engineer ing and science technician jobs. Engineering and science techni cians usually begin work as trainees or in the more routine positions under the direct supervision of an experienced technician, scientist, or engineer. A s they gain experience, they are given more responsibility, often carrying out a particular as signment under only general super vision. Technicians may move into supervisory positions. Those having exceptional ability sometimes obtain additional formal education and are promoted to professional engineer ing positions. For admittance to most schools offering post-secondary technician training, a high school diploma is usually required. Some schools, how ever, admit students without a high school diploma if they are able to pass special examinations and other wise demonstrate their ability to per form work above the high school level. A ll engineering and science occupations require basic training in mathematics and science, thus students should obtain a sound back ground in these subjects when in high school. Many post-secondary schools have arrangements for help ing students make up deficiencies in these subjects. Programs offered by schools spe cializing in post-secondary technical training require 1, 2, 3, or 4 years of full-time study. The majority are 2 -year programs leading to an asso ciate of arts or science degree. Eve ning as well as day sessions are gen erally available. The courses offered OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK in science, mathematics, and engi neering are usually at the college level. They include instruction in laboratory techniques and the use of instruments, and emphasize the practical problems met on the job. Students also are instructed in the use of machinery and tools to give them a familiarity with this equip ment rather than to develop skills. Some 4-year programs for the bachelor’s degree in technology place more emphasis on courses in the humanities and business admin istration than the 2-year programs, while other 4-year programs em phasize additional technical train ing. Because of the variety of educa tional institutions and the differ ences in the kind and level of edu cation and training, persons seeking a technical education should use more than ordinary care in selecting a school. Information should be se cured about the fields of technology in which training is offered, accredi tation, the length of time the school has been in operation, instructional facilities, faculty qualifications, transferability of credits toward the bachelor’s degree, and the type of work obtained by the school’s grad uates. Briefly discussed here are some of the types of post-secondary edu cational institutions and other sources where young people can ob tain training as technicians. T e c h n ic a l In stitu te s. Technical institutes offer training designed to qualify the graduate for a specific job or cluster of jobs immediately upon graduation with only a mini mum of on-the-job training. In general, the student receives inten sive technical training but less theo retical and general education than is provided in curriculums leading to a bachelor’s degree in engineering and liberal arts colleges. A few technical institutes and community colleges offer cooperative programs in which a student spends part of his time in school and part in paid employment related to the occupa tion for which he is preparing him self. Some technical institutes are op erated as regular or extension divi sions of colleges and universities. Others are separate institutions op erated by States or municipalities, privately endowed institutions, and proprietary schools. J u n io r C o lle g e s a n d C o m m u n ity Many junior and com munity colleges offer the necessary training to prepare students for technician occupations. Some of these schools offer curriculums that are similar to those given in the freshman and sophomore years of 4-year colleges. Graduates can transfer after the junior college into a 4-year college or qualify for some technician jobs. Most large com munity colleges offer 2-year techni cal programs, and many employers express a preference for graduates having this more specialized train ing. Junior college courses in tech nical fields are often planned around the employment needs of the industries in their locality. C o lle g e s. A rea S c h o o ls. V o c a tio n a l-T e c h n ic a l Area vocational-technical schools are post-secondary public institutions that are established in central locations to serve students from several surrounding areas. In general, the admission requirements of vocational-technical schools are as rigid as those of other schools of fering post-secondary technician training. Area school curriculums are usually designed to train the types of technicians most needed in the area. O th e r T ra in in g . Some large cor porations conduct training programs to meet their need for technically 205 TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS trained personnel. This type of training is primarily technical and rarely includes any general studies. Training for some occupations in the technician category— tool de signer and electronic technican, for example— may be obtained through a formal apprenticeship. Some training also is available in special purpose institutions that spe cialize in a single field, such as elec tronics. Correspondence schools also pro vide technician training for those who wish to learn more about their jobs. Technician training is offered by all branches of the Armed Forces. Many of the technicians trained by the military utilize their training in civilian employment, especially in the field of electronics, after they leave the Armed Forces. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for engineering and science technicians are expected to be very good through the 1970’s. The demand will be strongest for graduates of post-secondary school technician training programs. Am ong the factors underlying the increase in demand for technicians are the anticipated expansion of in dustry and the increasing complex ity of modern technology. A s prod ucts and the methods by which they are manufactured become more complex, more technicians will probably be required to assist engi neers. They may be needed in such activities as production planning, and maintaining liaison between production and engineering depart ments, and in technical sales work. Furthermore, as the employment of scientists and engineers continues to grow, increasing numbers of techni cians will be needed to assist them. The trend toward automation of in dustrial processes will probably also add to the demand for technical personnel; so will the growth of new areas of work, such as those related to space and oceanographic explo ration, atomic engery, environmen tal control, or urban development. In addition to the technicians needed to fill new positions, thou sands will be needed each year through the 1970’s to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Another factor supporting the ex pected increase in demand for engi neering and science technicians is the growth anticipated in research and development (R&D) expendi tures. During the 1970 decade, R&D expenditures of Government and industry are expected to in crease, although at a slower rate than during the 1960’s. The antici pated slowdown in Federal R&D spending basically reflects antici pated reductions in the relative im portance of the space and defense components of R&D expenditures. These trends were evidenced in the late 1960’s and in 1970. Expenditures for defense and space programs also affect the de mand for technical personnel, be cause a large number are engaged in activities related to the defense and space programs. The above outlook for technicians is based on the assumption that defense activity as measured by expenditures will be somewhat higher than the level be fore the Vietnam buildup, approxi mating the level of the early 1960’s. If defense activity should differ sub stantially from that level, the de mand for technicians would be af fected accordingly. Well-qualified women technicians should continue to find favorable employment opportunities, chiefly in designing jobs, in chemical and other laboratory work, and in com putation and other work requiring the application of mathematics. Over the long run, it is likely that more women will be trained and will find employment in these and other technician occupations. Earnings In general, a technician’s earn ings depend upon his education arid technical specialty, as well as his ability and work experience. Other important factors which influence his earnings are the type of firm for which he works, his specific duties, and the geographic location of his job. In Federal Government agencies in 1970, beginning engineering and science technicians were offered $5,212, $5,853 or $6,548, depend ing upon the type of job vacancy and the applicant’s education and other qualifications. Some Federal Government agencies hire high school graduates and train them for technician jobs. Beginning salaries for these jobs were $4,621 a year. Starting salaries in private indus try in 1970, for technicians holding associate degrees, ranged from about $6,500 to $8,300 a year; the average was about $7,400. Most technicians can look for ward to an increase in earnings as they move to higher positions. In 1970 annual salaries of workers in responsible technician positions in private industry averaged almost $11,000 and approximately onefourth of the workers had annual sal aries above $11,900, according to a Bureau of Labor Statistics survey. 206 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Sources of Additional Information D R A FTS M E N General information on careers for engineering and science techni cians may be obtained from : (D.O.T. 001. through 019.) American Society for Engineering Education, Suite 400, 1 Dupont Circle, Washington, D.C. 20036. Nature of the Work Engineers’ Council for Professional Development, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. National Council of Technical Schools, 1835 K. Street, NW., Room 907, Washington, D.C. 20006. Information on training oppor tunities may also be obtained from the Engineers’ Council for Profes sional Development, a nationally recognized accrediting agency for engineering technology programs; the National Council of Technical Schools; and the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, Division of Higher Education and/or Division of Vocational and Technical Educa tion, Washington, D.C. 20202. State departments of education at each State capital also have infor mation about approved technical in stitutes, junior colleges, and other educational institutions within the State offering post-high school train ing for specific technical occupa tions. Other sources include: American Association of Junior Col leges, Suite 410, 1 Dupont Circle, Washington, D.C. 20036. National Home Study Council, 1601 18th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. In making a space capsule or an electric iron, a nuclear submarine or a television set, a bridge or a type writer, detailed drawings are needed that give the exact physical dimen sions and specifications of the en tire object and each of its parts. The workers who draw these plans are draftsmen. Draftsmen translate the ideas, rough sketches, specifications, and calculations of engineers, architects, and designers into working plans which are used in making a product. Draftsmen may calculate the strength, reliability, and cost of ma terials. In their drawings and speci fications, they describe exactly what materials and workers are to use on a particular job. To prepare their drawings, draftsmen use instruments such as compasses, dividers, pro tractors, templates and triangles, as well as machines that combine the functions of several devices. They also may use engineering hand books, tables, and slide rules to as sist in solving technical problems. Draftsmen are often classified ac cording to the type of work they do or their level of responsibility. S e n io r d ra ftsm e n use the preliminary information provided by engineers and architects to prepare design “layouts” (drawings made to scale of the object to be built). D e ta ile r s make drawings of each part shown on the layout, giving dimensions, material, and any other information necessary to make the detailed drawing clear and complete. C h e c k e r s carefully examine drawings for errors in computing or in recording dimensions and specifications. Un der the supervision of draftsmen, tra c e rs make minor corrections and prepare drawings for reproduction by tracing them on transparent cloth, paper, or plastic film. Draftsmen also may specialize in a particular field of work, such as mechanical, electrical, electronic, aeronautical, structural, or architec tural drafting. Places of Employment An estimated 3 1 0 ,000 draftsmen were employed in 1970; almost 4 percent were women. About 9 out of 10 draftsmen are employed in 207 TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS private industry. Manufacturing industries that employ large num bers are those making machinery, electrical equipment, transportation equipment and fabricated metal products. Nonmanufacturing indus tries employing large numbers are engineering and architectural con sulting firms, construction compa nies, and public utilities. Over 20,000 draftsmen worked for Federal, State, and local govern ments in 1970. Of those employed by the Federal Government, the large majority worked for the D e partments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force. Draftsmen employed by State and local governments worked chiefly for highway and public works departments. Several thou sand draftsmen were employed by colleges and universities and by nonprofit organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Young persons interested in be coming draftsmen can acquire the necessary training from a number of sources, including technical insti tutes, junior and community col leges, extension divisions of uni versities, vocational and technical high schools, and correspondence schools. Others may qualify for draftsmen jobs through on-the-job training programs combined with part-time schooling or through 3- or 4-year apprenticeship programs. The prospective draftsman’s training, whether obtained in high school or post-high school drafting programs, should include courses in mathematics and physical sci ences, as well as in mechanical drawing and drafting. The study of shop practices and the learning of some shop skills also are helpful, since many higher level drafting jobs require knowledge of manufac turing or construction methods. Many technical schools offer courses in structural design, strength of ma terials, and physical metallurgy. Young people having only high school drafting training usually start out as tracers. Those having some formal post-high school technical training can often qualify as junior draftsmen. As draftsmen gain skill and experience, they may advance to higher level positions as check ers, detailers, senior draftsmen, or supervisors of other draftsmen. Some may become independent de signers. Draftsmen who take courses in engineering and mathe matics are sometimes able to trans fer to engineering positions. Qualifications for success as a draftsman may include the ability to visualize objects in three dimen sions as well as the ability to do freehand drawing. Although such artistic ability is not generally re quired, it may be very helpful in some specialized fields. Drafting work also requires good eyesight (corrected or uncorrected), eye-hand coordination, and manual dexterity. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for draftsmen are expected to be favor able through the 1970’s. Prospects will be best for those having posthigh school drafting training. Wellqualified high school graduates who have had only high school drafting, however, also will be in demand for some types of jobs. Employment of draftsmen is ex pected to rise rapidly as a result of the increasing complex design prob lems of modern products and proc esses. In addition, as engineering and scientific occupations continue to grow, more draftsmen will be needed as supporting personnel. On the other hand, photoreproduction of drawings and expanding use of electronic drafting equipment and computers are eliminating some routine tasks done by draftsmen. This development will probably bring about a reduction in the need for some less skilled draftsmen. In addition to draftsmen needed to fill new positions, many will be required each year to replace those who retire, die, or move into other fields of work. Earnings In private industry, persons in beginning drafting positions earned an average of about $470 a month in 1970, according to a Bureau of Labor Statistics survey. As they gain experience, draftsmen may move up to higher level positions with a substantial increase in earn ings. For example, the earnings of senior draftsmen averaged about $850 a month. Most earned about $700 per month. In the Federal Civil Service in 1970, the entrance salary for high school graduates without work ex perience who were employed in trainee-draftsman positions was about $380 a month. For those hav ing post-high school education or some experience in drafting, en trance salaries were higher. The majority of experienced draftsmen working for the Federal Govern ment earned between $600 and $740 a month. Sources of Additional Information General information on careers for draftsmen may be obtained from: OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 208 American Institute for Design and Drafting, Post Office Box 2955, Tulsa, Oklahoma 74101. American Federation of Technical Engineers, 1126 16th Street, NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. See also section on Sources of Additional Information in the state ment on Engineering and Science Technicians. WRITING OCCUPATIONS NEW SPA PER REPO RTERS (D.O.T. 132.268) Nature of the Work Newspaper reporters gather in formation on current events and use it to write stories for publication in daily or weekly newspapers. In cov ering events, they may interview people, review public records, attend news happenings, and do research. As a rule, reporters take notes or use electronic recording devices while collecting the facts, and write their stories upon return to the office. Sometimes, to meet dead lines, they telephone their stories to other staff members known as “re write men,” who write the stories for them. Large dailies frequently assign some reporters to “beats,” such as police stations or the courts, to cover news originating in these places. Other local news, such as a story about a lost child or an obit uary of a community leader, is han dled by general assignment re porters. Specialized reporters, who are well-versed in a subject-matter field as well as in writing, increas ingly are interpreting and analyzing the news in fields such as medicine, politics, science, education, busi ness, labor, and religion. Reporters on small newspapers get broad ex perience; they not only cover all as pects of local news, but also may take photographs, write headlines, lay out inside pages, and even write editorials. On the smallest weeklies, they also may solicit advertise ments, sell subscriptions, and per form general office work. Places of Employment A n estimated 39,000 newspaper reporters were employed in the United States in 1970; more than 35 percent were women. The ma jority of reporters work for daily newspapers; others work for weekly papers, press services, and newspa per syndicates. Reporters work in cities and towns of all sizes throughout the country. Of the 1,760 daily and 9 ,0 0 0 weekly newspapers, the great majority are in medium-size towns. Large numbers of reporters, how ever, are in cities, since big city dailies employ many reporters, whereas a small-town paper gener ally employs only a few. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M ost newspapers will consider only applicants having a college ed ucation. Graduate work is increas ingly important. Some editors prefer graduates who have a degree in journalism, which usually involves a liberal arts education as well as pro fessional training. Other editors consider a degree in liberal arts equally desirable. Although talented writers having little or no academic training beyond high school some times become reporters on city news papers, most reporters without col lege training begin— and usually remain— on rural, small-town or suburban papers. Professional studies leading to a bachelor’s degree in journalism can be obtained in nearly 200 colleges; about two-thirds of these have sepa rate departments or schools of jour nalism. The typical undergraduate journalism curriculum is offered during the junior and senior years of college, and is divided about equally between cultural and pro fessional subjects. Am ong the pro fessional courses are reporting, copyreading, editing, feature writ ing, and the history of journalism. Over 250 junior colleges offer journalism programs. Credit se cured in most is transferable to the 4-year college programs in journal ism. In addition, some junior col leges offer programs especially de signed to prepare the student di rectly for employment as a general assignment reporter on weekly and small daily newspapers. The master’s degree in journal ism is awarded by 52 schools; 20 of them offer the doctor’s degree in mass communications. Young people who wish to pre pare for newspaper work through a liberal arts curriculum should take English courses that include writing, as well as subjects such as sociol ogy, political science, economics, history, psychology, and speech. Ability to read and speak in a for eign language and some familiarity with mathematics also are desirable. Those who look forward to becom 209 210 ing technical writers, or reporters in a special field such as science, should concentrate on course work in their subject matter areas as much as possible. (See statement on Technical Writers.) The Armed Forces also provide some training in journalism. The Department of Defense maintains a Defense Information School at Fort Benjamin Harrison, Indianapolis, Ind. Summer internships on newspa pers, providing college students an opportunity to learn the rudiments of reporting or editing, are available from the Newspaper Fund and indi vidual newspapers. Moreover, in addition to many loan programs, more than 2 ,8 0 0 journalism schol arships, fellowships, and assistantships were offered in 1970 by uni versities, newspapers, and profes sional organizations. Important personal characteris tics include a “nose for news,” curi osity, persistence, initiative, re sourcefulness, an accurate memory, and the physical stamina necessary for an active and often fast-paced life. Skill in typing generally is re quired since reporters usually must type their own news stories. On small papers, a knowledge of news photography also is valuable. Some who compete for regular positions, find it is helpful to have had experience as a “stringer”— one who covers the news in a particular area of the community for a news paper and is paid on the basis of the stories printed. Experience on a high school or college newspaper also may be helpful in obtaining employment. Many beginners work on weekly or on small daily newspapers. Some college graduates are hired as gen eral assignment reporters; others start on large city papers as copy editors. Beginning reporters usually OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK are assigned to news events such as reporting on civic and club meet ings, summarizing speeches, writing obituaries, interviewing important visitors to the community, and cov ering police court proceedings. As they gain experience, they may re port more important developments, cover an assigned “beat,” or spe cialize in a particular field of knowl edge. Newspapermen also may advance to reporting for larger papers or for press services and newspaper syndi cates. Some experienced reporters becom e columnists, correspondents, editors, top executives, or publish ers; these positions represent the top of the field and competition for them is keen. Other reporters trans fer to related fields such as writing for magazines, or preparing copy for radio and television news re ports. Employment Outlook Well-qualified beginners with ex ceptional writing talent will find fa vorable employment opportunities through the 1970’s. In 1970, editors of large newspapers were seeking young reporters with exceptional talent. Other beginners, however, were facing competition for jobs, especially on large city dailies, and probably will continue to do so. In addition to seeking young reporters with exceptional talent, editors also were looking for reporters who were qualified to handle news about highly specialized or technical sub jects. Weekly or daily newspapers lo cated in small towns and suburban areas will continue to offer the most opportunities for beginners entering newspaper reporting. Openings arise on these papers as young peo ple gain experience and transfer to reporting jobs on larger newspapers or to other types of work. Prefer ence in employment on small papers is likely to be given to beginning re porters who are able to help with photography and other specialized aspects of newspaper work and are acquainted with the community. Large city dailies will provide some openings for the inexperi enced with good educational back grounds and a flair for writing to enter as reporter trainees. Some op portunities may continue to be available for young people who enter as copy boys and advance to reporting jobs. In addition to jobs in newspaper reporting, new college graduates who have journalism training may enter related fields such as advertis ing, public relations, trade and tech nical publishing, radio, and televi sion. Some job opportunities also will be found in teaching journal ism. The broad field of mass commun ication, which has grown rapidly in recent years, will continue to ex pand in the future. Factors contrib uting to this continuing expansion include rising levels of education and income; increasing expenditures for newspaper, radio, and television ad vertising; and a growing number of trade and technical journals and various types of company publica tions. As newspapers share in this growth, employment of reporters is expected to increase slowly. The greatest number of job openings, more than a thousand each year, will continue to arise from the need to replace reporters who are pro moted to editorial or other positions, transfer to other fields of work, re tire, or leave the profession for other reasons. 211 WRITING OCCUPATIONS Earnings and Working Conditions Many daily newspapers have ne gotiated, with the American N ew s paper Guild, contracts which set minimum wages based on experi ence and provide for annual salary increases. In 1970, the minimum starting salaries on most daily news papers with Guild contracts ranged between $100 and $135 a week for reporters having no previous experi ence. On a few small dailies, the Guild minimum starting salaries were less than $90 a week; on a few large dailies, Guild minimum rates for beginning reporters exceeded $140 a week. Young persons work ing as copy boys earn less than new reporters; minimum Guild rates for copy boys with some experience ranged from about $65 to $120 a week. On most dailies, minimum Guild rates for reporters who have some experience (usually for those with 4 to 6 years) ranged from $170 to $230 a week in 1970. Contract minimums for experienced reporters on a few small dailies were less than $160 a week; on a few large dailies, they were over $250 a week. Papers under Guild contracts often pay sal aries higher than the minimum rates called for in their contracts. Particu larly successful, experienced re porters on city dailies may earn over $300 a week. Newspaper reporters on big city papers frequently work 7 to 7 Vi hours a day, 5 days a week; most other reporters generally work an 8 -hour day, 40-hour week. M ost of those employed by morning papers start work in the afternoon and finish about midnight. Many news papers pay overtime rates for work performed after the regularly sched uled workday, or for more than 40 hours of work a week; they often provide various employee benefits such as paid vacations, group insur ance, and pension plans. TE C H N IC A L W R IT E R S (D.O.T. 139.288) Sources of Additional Information Information about opportunities with daily newspapers may be ob tained from: American Newspaper Publishers As sociation, 750 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. Information on opportunities in the newspaper field, as well as a list of scholarships, fellowships, assistantships, and loans available at col leges and universities, may be ob tained from: The Newspaper Fund, Inc., Box 300, Princeton, N J. 08540. Information on union wage rates is available from: American Newspaper Guild, Re search Department, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. General information on journal ism opportunities may be obtained from: American Council on Education for Journalism, School of Journalism, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. 65201. Association for Education In Jour nalism, 425 Henry Mall, Uni versity of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. 53706. Sigma Delta Chi, 35 East Wacker Drive, Chicago, 111. 60601. Names and locations of daily newspapers and a list of depart ments and schools of journalism are published in the E d ito r a n d P u b lish e r In te r n a tio n a l Y earbook, available in most large newspaper offices and public libraries. Nature of the Work The many technical and scientific developments of recent years have created a growing demand for writ ers skilled in interpreting these de velopments. The technical writer organizes, writes, and edits material about science and technology so that it is in a form most useful to those who need to use it— be it a technician or repairman, a scientist or engineer, an executive, or a housewife. When writing for the nonspecialist, he must present his material in a simple, clear, and fac tual manner; for the specialist, he must include technical detail, using a highly specialized vocabulary. R e gardless of what kind of writing he does, the technical writer serves to establish easy communication be tween scientists, engineers, and other technical specialists, and the users of their information. The technical writer’s product takes many forms, such as a public ity release on a company’s scientific or technical achievement or a manu facturer’s contract proposal to the Federal Government. It may be a manual that explains how to oper ate, assemble, disassemble, main tain, or overhaul components of a missile system or a home appliance. Technical writers also write for sci entific and engineering periodicals and for popular magazines. Technical writers, as defined in this statement, include only those people primarily employed to inter pret, write about, or edit technical or scientific subject matter. It ex cludes those primarily employed as scientists, engineers, or other techni- 212 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK fense and Agriculture, the Atomic Energy Commission, and the N a tional Aeronautics and Space A d ministration. Some work in firms that specialize in technical writing. Others are in business for them selves as freelance technical writers. Technical writers are employed all over the country, but primarily in the Northeastern States, Texas, and California. They are concen trated in the Washington, D.C., Los Angeles-Long Beach, Houston, Fort Worth-Dallas, Chicago, New York, Boston, St. Louis, Kansas City, Denver, and Philadelphia metropol itan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Technical writer discusses project with engineer. cal specialists who also do a consid erable amount of writing. Before starting a writing assign ment, a technical writer usually must research his subject. This proc ess involves studying reports, read ing technical journals, and consult ing with the engineers, scientists, and other technical personnel who have worked on the project. Then he prepares a rough draft that may be revised several times before it is in final form. Technical writers usu ally arrange for the preparation of tables, charts, illustrations, and other artwork, and in so doing may work with technical illustrators, draftsmen, or photographers. Places of Employment An estimated 20,000 technical writers and editors were employed in 1970. Most technical writers are employed in the electronics and aerospace industries. Many work for research and development firms or for the Federal Government— mainly in the Departments of D e The bachelor’s degree is the de sirable minimum entrance require ment for work in this field, although talented and experienced writers having less academic training may qualify. Employers do not agree on the most appropriate kind of college training needed by technical writers, but graduates usually must have a combination of courses in writing and scientific and technical subjects. Some employers prefer applicants who have degrees in engineering or science who have had courses in writing. Others seek graduates who majored in English or journalism and have taken some courses in sci entific and technical subjects. R e gardless of the college training they prefer, all employers place great emphasis on writing skills. An increasing number of schools offer formal undergraduate pro grams leading to a bachelor’s degree in technical writing or technical journalism. Some schools now offer graduate work and degrees in the field. In addition, about 170 col leges and universities provide pro- 213 WRITING OCCUPATIONS fe ssio n a l ed u ca tio n b a c h e lo r ’s m o st o f d egree th ese lea d in g in offer to Employment Outlook a d e fe n se jou rn alism ; at le a st o n e W ell-q u a lified an d e x p er ie n c ed co m p o n e n ts of R&D ex p en d itu res. T h e se trend s w ere e v i d e n ced in th e la te 1 9 6 0 ’s and in c o u rse in tec h n ica l w ritin g or te c h n ica l jou rn alism as part o f th e regu tec h n ica l w riters are e x p e c te d to find g o o d e m p lo y m e n t o p p o r tu n itie s lar cu rriculu m . L ib eral arts c o lle g e s th ro u g h the 1 9 7 0 ’s. B e g in n e rs w h o T e c h n ic a l w riters w h o h a v e train in g in jo u rn a lism also w ill find o p an d so m e en g in eerin g sc h o o ls offer h a v e g o o d w ritin g ab ility and ap p ro p o rtu n ities in o th er fields that e m E n g lish sh arp en p riate and oth er co u rses that w riting sk ills. M a n y c o l ed u ca tio n a lso sh o u ld find 1970. p lo y w riters, su ch as a d v ertisin g , trad e p u b lish in g , m a n y o p p o rtu n ities; th o se w h o h a v e p u b lic and rad io and te le v isio n b ro a d ca st sh ort-term su m m er w ork sh o p s and m in im u m q u a lifica tio n s w ill find stiff c o m p e titio n fo r jo b s, h o w e v er . T h e sem in ars for tech n ica l w riters. g rea test d em a n d p ro b a b ly w ill b e ties resu ltin g from grow th ex p e c te d fo r in this p r o fe ssio n , h u n d red s o f te c h le g es and u n iversities conduct W h en still in h igh sc h o o l y o u n g te c h n ic a l w riters w ith b ack rela tio n s, ing. In ad d itio n to n e w o p p o r tu n i p e o p le w h o p lan to b e c o m e tec h n i gro u n d s in e lec tr o n ic s and c o m m u n ica l w riters w ill b e n e ed ed ea ch c a l w riters sh o u ld su p p lem e n t th e n ica tio n s to w o rk in th e a er o sp a ce y ea r to rep la ce th o se w h o retire, d ie, or tran sfer to o th er o cc u p a tio n s. m a th em a tics an d related in d u stries, p articu larly c o u rses w ith as m an y e lec tiv e c o u rses in gram m ar and c o m p o si in resea rch and d e v e lo p m e n t a ctiv i req u ired sc ie n c e an d tio n as p o ssib le. T h ey also m a y gain h elp fu l ex p er ie n c e b y w o rk in g as ed itors or w riters for th eir sc h o o l p a p ers. In a d d ition to th e ab ility to w rite w e ll, tech n ica l w riters m u st b e ab le to thin k lo g ic a lly , an d sh o u ld a lso lik e to d o d etailed accu rate w ork . T h ey sh o u ld b e able to w o rk and c o m m u n ica te w ell w ith oth ers, sin ce th ey o fte n w ork as part o f a tea m . A t oth er tim es, h o w ev er , tec h n ica l w riters m u st w ork a lon e w ith little o r n o su p ervision . B eg in n ers o fte n assist e x p er i e n c e d tech n ica l w riters b y d o in g li b rary research , b y ed itin g , an d b y p rep arin g drafts o f p o rtio n s o f re p orts. E x p er ie n c ed w riters in o rg a n iz a tio n s that h a v e large tec h n ica l w ritin g staffs m ay a d v a n ce to p o s i tio n s o f tech n ica l ed itors o r p rogress to su p ervisory and ad m in istrative p o sitio n s. A fter ga in in g ex p e r ie n c e an d co n ta cts, a few m ay o p e n their o w n jo b sh op s. ties. The e m p lo y m e n t of tec h n ica l Earnings and Working Conditions w riters is ex p e c te d to in cr ea se m o d erately d u rin g the 1 9 7 0 ’s, b e c a u se o f In 1 9 7 0 , in e x p er ien ce d tec h n ica l th e n e e d to p u t the in cr ea sin g v o l u m e o f scien tific and te c h n ic a l in w riters h a v in g b a c h e lo r ’s d eg rees w ere hired in p rivate in d u stry at fo rm a tio n in to la n g u a g e that ca n b e startin g u n d er sto o d by m a n a g e m e n t for d e $ 6 ,0 0 0 to $ 8 ,0 0 0 a year; th o se w h o c isio n m ak in g and b y tec h n icia n s for o p era tin g an d m a in ta in in g c o m p li have m o d e ra te fro m $ 8 ,0 0 0 ca te d in d u strial eq u ip m en t. A lso , sin ce m a n y p ro d u cts w ill co n tin u e h ig h ly sa la ries ran gin g from e x p e r ie n c e earn ed $ 1 2 ,0 0 0 a year; to ex p e r ie n c e d w riters earn ed fro m $ 1 2 ,0 0 0 to $ 1 6 ,0 0 0 ; and th o se to b e a sse m b le d from co m p o n e n ts in su p erv iso ry and m a n a g e m e n t p o m a n u fa ctu red by d ifferen t c o m p a sitio n s, up to $ 2 0 ,0 0 0 or m o re. D if n ies, tec h n ica l w riters w ill b e in d e fer en ces in the earn in gs o f e x p e r i m an d to d escrib e, in sim p le term s, e n ce d w riters d ep en d e d n ot o n ly on th e in terrela tio n sh ip s o f th e se c o m p o n e n ts. T h e grow th in th is o c c u p a tio n w ill b e a cc eler a te d a lso by the n e e d fo r im p r o v ed an d sim p lified o p era tin g an d m a in ten a n ce in stru c tio n s fo r n e w co n su m e r p ro d u cts. T h e d em a n d for tec h n ica l w riters w ill co n tin u e to b e rela ted to re sea rch and d e v e lo p m e n t e x p e n d i th eir ab ility and p rev io u s e x p er i en c e , b u t a lso on factors su ch as the ty p e, size, and lo c a tio n o f th eir e m p lo y in g firm s. E a rn in g s o f fre ela n ce tec h n ica l w riters vary greatly and are rela ted to th e w riter’s rep u tation in th e field. In th e F ed er a l G o v e rn m e n t in late 1 9 7 0 , in ex p er ien ce d tec h n ica l tures. D u r in g th e 1 9 7 0 - 8 0 d eca d e w riters w ith a b a c h e lo r ’s d eg ree and research and d e v e lo p m e n t e x p e n d i tures o f G o v e rn m e n t and industry cred it for a b o u t five sc ie n c e co u rses c o u ld start at eith er $ 6 ,5 4 8 or $ 8 ,0 9 8 a year, d ep en d in g o n their It a lso is p o ssib le to a d v a n ce b y are e x p e c te d to in cr ea se , alth o u g h b e c o m in g a sp ecia list in a p articu lar at a slo w e r rate than d uring th e 1 9 6 0 ’s. T h e an ticip a ted slo w d o w n c o lle g e record s. T h o se w h o h a v e 2 sc ien tific or tech n ica l su b ject. T h e se y e a r s’ e x p er ie n c e c o u ld w riters sy n d i in F ed er a l R & D sp en d in g b a sica lly $ 9 ,8 8 1 3 y e a r s’ e x p er i ca te d n ew sp a p er co lu m n s or articles reflects a n ticip a ted re d u ctio n s in the rela tiv e im p o rta n ce o f th e sp a c e and en c e , $ 1 1 ,9 0 5 . T e c h n ic a l w riters so m etim es p rep are fo r p o p u la r m a g a zin es. an d w ith b eg in u su a lly at w o rk OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 214 th e stand ard 4 0 -h o u r w e e k . T h e y m a y w o rk u n d er co n sid er a b le p res sure, freq u en tly w o rk in g o v er tim e w h e n a d ea d lin e h as to b e m e t o n a p u b lic a tio n o r report. Sources of Additional Information A d d itio n a l o c c u p a tio n , in fo r m a tio n in clu d in g a on list this of sc h o o ls offerin g a cc ep ted c o u rses o f stu d y an d sp ecific train in g p rogram s in a cc re d ite d c o lle g e s an d u n iv e rsi ties, m a y b e o b ta in ed f r o m : Society for Technical Communica tions, Inc., Suite 421, 1010 Ver mont Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. O TH E R P R O FE SS IO N A L AND RELATED O C C U P A T IO N S firm s w h ich offer d isp a tc h in g serv ic es to sm a ll airlin es. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement AIRLINE DISPATCHERS D isp a tc h e rs are required to h a v e (D.O.T. 912.168) an F A A d isp a tch er certificate. T o q u a lify , an a p p lica n t h as to w ork at Nature of the Work and Places of Employment D isp a tc h e rs flight (so m e tim e s su p e rin ten d e n ts) are le a st a year u n d er th e su p erv isio n o f a certified d isp a tch er or co m p le te an F A A -a p p r o v e d d isp a tc h e r’s ca lled co u rse at a sc h o o l or an airline em train in g cen ter. If an a p p lica n t h as p lo y e d by th e airlin es to co o r d in a te flight sch ed u les and o p era tio n s n eith er sc h o o lin g n or e x p e r ie n c e , he a lso m a y q u a lify if he h as sp en t 2 o f the p rev io u s 3 y ea rs in air traffic w ith in an assig n ed area; th ey also m a k e sure that all F ed er a l A v ia tio n A d m in istra tio n (F A A ) and c o n tro l w ork , or in airlin e jo b s su ch com as d isp a tch clerk , a ssista n t d is p atch er, or rad io op era to r, or in sim ilar w ork in m ilitary serv ice. p a n y flight and safety reg u la tio n s are ob served . A fter ex a m in in g w ea th er co n d itio n s, the d isp atch er An a p p lica n t for an F A A d is m ak es a prelim inary d ec isio n as to p a tch er certificate m u st p a ss a w rit w h eth er a flight m ay b e u n d ertak en sa fely . H e freq u en tly m u st arrange ten e x a m in a tio n o n su b jects su ch as F ed er a l a v ia tio n reg u la tio n s, to n o tify the p assen g ers and crew if th ere is an y ch a n g e from th e sc h e d w ea th e r a n a ly sis, a ir-n a v ig a tio n fa Airline dispatcher assists pilot in pre-flight planning. u led d ep arture tim e. T h e d isp a tch er co n fers w ith th e cap tain a b o u t the and the altern ate fields th at m a y be u sed if la n d in g at the sc h e d u le d air p o rt is h azard ou s. T h e d isp a tch er and th e ca p ta in m u st agree o n all d eta ils o f the flight b efo r e th e p la n e le a v e s th e airport. In so m e in sta n c es, the d isp atch er is a lso re sp o n sib le for k eep in g reco rd s and c h e c k in g m atters su ch as th e a v a ila b ility o f aircraft and eq u ip m en t, the as rep o rted at regular in terv a ls by th e ca p ta in o n th e rad io, and k eep s th e ca p ta in in fo rm ed o f ch a n g in g w ea th e r an d o th er c o n d itio n s that m ig h t affect h is flight. T h e a ssista n t d isp a tch er h elp s the d isp a tch er p lo t th e p ro g ress o f fligh ts, secu re w ea th e r in fo rm a tio n , and h a n d le c o m m u n ic a tio n s w ith aircraft. In 1970 o n ly ab o u t 1 ,2 0 0 d is th e a m o u n t o f tim e flow n b y ea ch p a tch ers and assista n ts w ere e m p lo y e d in sc h e d u led d o m e stic and w eig h t an d b a la n ce o f lo a d e d ca rg o , aircraft, and th e n u m b er o f h ours in tern a tio n a l flow n b y ea ch crew m em b er b a sed at at his station. S tates. A fte r the flight h as b eg u n , the d isp a tch er p lo ts the p la n e ’s p rogress p ort an d airw ay traffic p ro ced u res. In an oral test, h e a lso h as to d em q u an tity o f fu el n eed ed , th e b est ro u te and altitu d e at w h ich the p la n e w ill fly, th e total flyin g tim e, c ilities, rad io p ro ced u res, and air large o p era tio n s, airports An even in prim arily th e U n ite d o n stra te h is ab ility to in terpret w ea th e r in fo rm a tio n , h is k n o w le d g e o f la n d in g an d cru isin g sp ee d s and o th er aircraft o p era tio n a l ch a ra cter istics, an d h is fam iliarity w ith airline ro u tes and n a v ig a tio n a l fa cilities. A lic e n se d d isp a tch er is ch e c k e d p eri o d ic a lly by h is e m p lo y er to m a k e su re that h e is m a in ta in in g the sk ills requ ired b y F ed er a l regu la tio n s. A ll q u alified d isp atch ers are g iv en a d d itio n a l in stru ctio n b y their airlin es at sp ec ia l training cen ters so that th ey m ay b e c o m e fam iliar w ith n ew flight p ro ced u res and w ith ch a ra cteristics o f n ew aircraft. E a c h yea r, h e a lso is requ ired to “ fly the sm aller n u m b e r 1 lin e ” as an o b ser v er o v er th e p o r w o rk ed for large certifica ted su p p le tion o f the sy stem w h ich h e serv ices, m en ta l airlin es, an d fo r p rivate to m a in ta in h is first h an d fam iliarity 215 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 216 w ith airlin e rou tes and flight o p e r a Earnings and Working Conditions tion s. W h en an a rch itect is c o m m is ab le to m a k e in d e p e n d e n t d e c isio n s. B e g in n in g d isp a tch ers ea rn ed b e tw e en $ 8 6 0 to $ 1 ,1 4 0 a m o n th in sio n e d to d esig n a b u ild in g , h e d is cu sse s w ith th e c lie n t th e p u r p o se, req u irem en ts, an d c o s t lim ita tio n s, O ral sk ills are essen tia l b e c a u se d is p a tc h e rs’ in stru ctio n s m u st b e c o n 1 9 7 0 . D isp a tc h e rs h a v in g 10 y e a r s’ as w ell as p refe ren ce s as to sty le se rv ice earn ed b e tw e e n $ 1 ,1 8 5 and an d p la n . S u b seq u e n tly , th e archi $ 1 ,6 7 0 a m o n th . A ssista n t d isp a tc h te c t jo b s, ers ea rn ed $ 5 7 2 an d o v e r a m o n th and co n sid er s n o t o n ly th e requ ire w h ich m ay n o t requ ire certifica tio n , to b eg in and up to $ 9 5 0 a m o n th after 3 yea rs. A ssista n t d isp a tch ers m en ts o f th e b u ild in g , b u t a lso lo ca l lea st 2 years o f c o lle g e or w h o h a v e w ho m ay la w s, fire reg u la tio n s, an d o th er or w o rk ed an e q u iv a len t a m o u n t o f tim e in so m e p h a se o f air tra n sp o r earn $ 2 5 a m o n th extra. M o st d is p a tch ers are m em b ers o f th e A ir- d in a n ce s. F o r e x a m p le , in p la n n in g a sc h o o l, th e a rch itect m u st d ecid e tation , co m m u n ica tio n s. L in e D isp a tc h e rs A sso c ia tio n . O th th e a m o u n t o f corrid or and stairw ay P referen ce is giv en to c o lle g e grad ers are rep resen ted b y th e T ra n s p ort W o rk ers U n io n o f A m e rica sp a ce w h ich stu d en ts n e e d to m o v e An airline d isp a tch e r m u st cise an d ea sily u n d ersto o d . F o r a ssista n t d isp a tc h e r airlin es p refer su ch m en as w ho have be at u ates w h o h a v e h ad co u rses in m a th em a tics, p h y sics, and rela ted su b jects. S o m e ex p er ie n c e in flyin g, m eteo r o lo g y , or b u sin ess a d m in is tration is a lso h elp fu l. M e n w h o h a v e w ork ed in grou n d o p era tio n s as d isp atch clerk s, m e te o r o lo g ists, or rad io op era to rs are p referred w h e n a ssista n t d isp a tch er p o sitio n s are filled. A few jo b s are filled b y form er p ilo ts. have FAA certifica tes an d th e In tern a tio n a l A sso c ia tio n o f M a c h in ists an d A e r o sp a c e W ork ers. Sources of Additional Information Air Line Dispatchers Association, 929 West Broad St., Falls Church, Va. 22130. ( S e e in tro d u cto ry se c tio n fo r ad d itio n a l so u rces o f in fo r m a tio n and fo r g en era l in fo r m a tio n o n su p p le an d m akes S tate h u n d red s b u ild in g o f d ecisio n s c o d e s, zo n in g e a sily from o n e c la ss to an oth er; the ty p e and arra n g em en t o f sto ra ge sp a ce , an d th e lo c a tio n , siz e, and in terio r o f c la ssr o o m s, la b o ra to ries, lu n c h r o o m , g y m n a siu m , an d a d m in istrative offices. T h e a rc h ite ct m a k es p relim in ary d raw in gs o f th e stru cture and m eets w ith th e c lie n t to d e v e lo p a final d e sign . T h is d esig n in clu d es floor p la n s an d th e in terior a n d exterior d eta ils o f th e b u ild in g . T h e final d e m en tary b en efits and w o rk in g c o n d itio n s.) Employment Outlook sign th en is tran slated in to w o rk in g d raw in gs, sh o w in g th e e x a c t d im en sio n s o f e v e ry p art o f th e structure T h e n u m b er o f w o rk ers in this very sm a ll o cc u p a tio n is n o t e x p ecte d to ch a n g e m u c h d u rin g th e 1 9 7 0 ’s. M o s t n ew w o rk ers w ill b e h ired as assistan t d isp a tch ers o r d is p atch clerk s. T h e n eed for so m e a d d itio n a l d is p atch ers w ill resu lt from th e in crea se in air traffic, th e a d d itio n and an d th e lo c a tio n o f th e p lu m b in g, h ea tin g , elec tr ica l, a ir-co n d itio n in g , a n d o th er eq u ip m en t. C o n su ltin g en g in ee rs u su a lly p rep are d eta iled d raw in gs o f th e stru ctural, p lu m b in g , h ea tin g , and elec tr ica l w ork . E n g in e e r s’ d raw in gs are co o rd in a ted w ith th e a rc h ite ct’s w o rk in g d raw ARCHITECTS (D.O.T. 001.081) in gs, and sp ec ifica tio n s are prep ared ex te n sio n o f ro u tes, an d th e extra d ifficulties in d isp a tch in g jet air listin g th e co n stru ctio n m aterials to craft. H o w e v e r , th ese fa cto rs w ill b e largely o ffset b y im p ro v ed ra d io and tele p h o n e w h ich term in als to d isp atch ers d isp a tch fa cilities A r c h ite cts p lan and d esig n b u ild at m ajor co m m u n ica tio n a llo w b e u sed , th e eq u ip m en t, an d , so m e c a se s, th e furn ish in gs. Nature of the Work in gs and o th e r stru ctures th at are aircraft at sa fe, u sefu l, an d p le a sa n t in a p p ea r The arch itect th en a ssists in his c lien t in se le c tin g a b u ild in g c o n tractor an d in n eg o tia tin g the c o n w ith tract b e tw e e n clien t and co n tractor, an d h e acts as th e c lie n t’s ad v isor w h ich fly b etw e en o v e r se a s p o in ts o th er p ro fessio n a ls, su ch as en g i n eer s, urb an p la n n ers, an d la n d an d cities in th e U n ite d S tates, a lso sca p e a rch itects, to d esig n cities and an d rep resen ta tiv e in d ea lin g s w ith th e co n tra cto r. A s co n stru ctio n p ro w ill p ro v id e a few job o p p o r tu n itie s to w n s an d p la n and im p ro v e o v era ll ce e d s, th e a rch itect m a k es p erio d ic for d isp atch ers. p h y sica l en v iro n m en ts. v isits to th e co n stru ctio n site to see oth er airports an d o v er large g e o grap h ic areas. F o re ig n -fla g airlin es, a n ce. A rc h ite cts a lso w o rk OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS 217 if th e d esign is b ein g fo llo w e d , and tio n w ritin g, o r c o n stru ctio n con esta te that th e m aterials sp ecified in the tract ad m in istration (in su r in g that a n e sse s co n tra ct are b ein g used . T h e arch i stru ctu re is b u ilt a cc o rd in g to p lan s p rogram s. O th ers are em p lo y ed b y te c t’s w ork is n o t co m p leted u n til and sp e c ific a tio n s). the p roject is finished, all requ ired g o v er n m e n t a g en cies, o fte n in fields su ch as city and co m m u n ity p la n tests are m ad e, and gu a ra n tees are n in g receiv ed from the con tractor. A b o u t 1 ,5 0 0 o f th ese are em p lo y ed M o st se lf-e m p lo y ed Places of Employment structures, ranging from h o m e s to ch u rch es, h o sp ita ls, office b u ild in g s, and airports. T h ey a lso p lan an d d e sign m ultib u ild in g urban ren ew al co m p le x e s p rojects, for co lle g e An estim a ted 3 3 ,0 0 0 an d h a v in g and fo r large urban o th e r b u si co n stru ctio n re d e v elo p m en t. b y th e F ed er a l G o v ern m en t. arch itects p la n an d d esign a w id e va riety o f firm s, registered (lic e n s e d ) arch itects w ere em p lo y ed in th e U n ite d S tates in la te 1 9 7 0 . In a d d itio n , m a n y o th er arch itectu ral sc h o o l grad u ates w h o are u n licen se d w ere w o rk in g in p o sitio n s requ iring ca m p u ses, in dustrial parks, and n ew a k n o w le d g e o f a rch itectu re. A b o u t 4 p erc en t o f all a rch itects are to w n s. S o m e architects sp ec ia liz e in A rc h ite cts are e m p lo y e d in all parts o f th e cou n try. H o w e v e r , th ey are co n ce n tr a te d w ith la rg e in th o se m etro p o lita n S tates areas. N e a r ly h a lf o f all a rch itects are e m p lo y e d in six S tates— C a lifo rn ia , N e w Y o rk , Illin o is, T e x a s, P e n n sy l v a n ia , and O h io . w om en. o n e particu lar typ e o f structure or p roject. W h en tw o -fifth s of all arch itects are se lf-e m p lo y e d , eith er sca le p rojects or for large a rc h ite c p ra ctic in g in d iv id u a lly o r as p art tural freq u en tly arch itectu ral firm s. S o m e a rch itects Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement ners. M o st o f th e o th ers w o rk for sp ec ia liz e in o n e p h ase o f th e w ork , architects on A p p r o x im a te ly large- firm s, w ork in g su ch as d esign , drafting, sp ec ifica w ork fo r en g in eers, b u ild ers, real A lic e n se fo r th e p ra ctic e o f ar ch itectu re is req u ired b y la w in all S tates an d th e D istr ic t o f C o lu m b ia , m a in ly to in su re that arch itectu ral w o rk w h ich m ay affect th e sa fety o f life , h ea lth , o r p ro p erty is d o n e b y q u alified arch itects. R eq u irem e n ts fo r a d m issio n to th e lic e n sin g e x a m in a tio n are set by th e in d iv id u a l S tates. T h ese g en er a lly in clu d e gra d u a tio n from an a ccred ited p ro fe ssio n a l sc h o o l fo llo w e d b y 3 years o f p ractical ex p e r ie n c e in an arch i te c t’s office. A s a su b stitu te fo r fo r m a l training, m o st S tates a cc ep t lo n g e r p erio d s o f p ra ctica l ex p er i e n c e (u su a lly 10 to 12 y e a r s) fo r a d m issio n to th e lic en sin g e x a m in a tion . In 1 9 7 0 . p ro fessio n a l train in g in arch itectu re w a s offered b y 8 5 c o l le g e s and u n iv ersities in th e U n ite d S ta tes, 6 7 o f w h ich w ere a ccred ited b y th e N a tio n a l A rch itectu ra l A c cred itin g B o a rd . M o st o f th e se sc h o o ls offered a 5 -y ea r cu rricu lu m le a d in g to th e b a ch elo r o f a rch itec ture d egree. M any arch itectural sc h o o ls a lso offered grad u ate ed u ca tio n le a d in g to th e m a ste r’s d eg ree, 237 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 218 an d a fe w sc h o o ls offered th e P h. D . ev e r, th e a rc h ite ct’s g o a l is to esta b m in istra tio n in th e b u ild in g in d u stry d eg ree. G ra d u a te train in g is n o t e s se n tia l fo r th e p ra ctice o f a rc h ite c lish h is o w n p ra ctice. and d o n o t en ter th e p ro fessio n . T h u s, th o se w h o c h o o s e to en ter the field an d b e c o m e reg istered sh o u ld tu re, b u t is o fte n d esira b le fo r re search an d tea c h in g p o sitio n s. M o s t sc h o o ls of a rch itectu re a d m it q u alified h ig h sc h o o l grad u h a v e g o o d e m p lo y m e n t o p p o r tu n i Employment Outlook The o u tlo o k ates w h o m e e t th e en tra n ce req u ire rap id m en ts o f th e c o lle g e o r u n iv ersity th rou gh grow th th e is of fo r th e 1 9 7 0 ’s. ties th ro u g h th e 1 9 7 0 ’s. co n tin u ed p r o fessio n E m p lo y m e n t Earnings and Working Conditions w ith w h ic h th e sc h o o l is a sso c ia ted . o p p o r tu n itie s are e x p e c te d to b e fa S o m e sc h o o ls req u ire 1 o r 2 y ea rs v o ra b le b o th fo r ex p e r ie n c e d archi S tartin g sa la ries o f a rch itectu ral o f c o lle g e e d u ca tio n b e fo r e ad m it tin g th e stu d en t to a 3 - o r 4 -y e a r ar tec ts an d fo r n e w g rad u ates. A m a jo r fa cto r co n trib u tin g to s c h o o l g ra d u a tes e m p lo y e d in p ri v a te in d u stry w er e g en er a lly b e ch itectu ra l this fa v o ra b le tw e en $ 1 2 0 an d $ 1 6 0 a w e e k in train in g program . In o u tlo o k is th e ex p ecte d grow th in th e v o lu m e o f n o n - 1 9 7 0 , a cc o rd in g to a v a ila b le in fo r in clu d e resid en tia l c o n stru ctio n — th e m ajor m a tio n . D r a ftsm e n h a v in g 3 y ea r s’ m a th em a tics, sc ien ce , so c ia l stu d ie s, area o f w o rk fo r a rch itects. M o r e e x p e r ie n c e o r m o re ea rn ed b etw e e n $ 1 3 5 an d $ 1 8 0 a w ee k ; job c a p gen eral, architectural sc h o o ls p refer th a t stu d en ts’ p rep aratio n la n g u a g e, and art. A ty p ic a l cu rricu o v er, th e in cr ea sin g siz e an d c o m lu m p lex ity n o n r esid en ta l tain s, sp ec ifica tio n m a th em a tics, b u ild in g s, as w e ll as th e h o m e o w n o th e r se n io r p h y sic s, ch em istry , s o c io lo g y , e c o as in clu d es arch itectu ra l c o u rses w e ll as E n g lish , of m odem w riters, e m p lo y e e s and u su a lly ers’ g ro w in g a w a ren ess o f th e v a lu e ea rn ed fro m $ 1 5 0 to $ 2 5 0 a w ee k . n o m ic s, an d a fo reig n lan g u a g e. P er so n s p la n n in g a ca reer in ar o f a rc h ite cts’ se rv ic es, are lik ely to b rin g a b o u t a greater d em a n d fo r S en io r y ea r ly b o n u se s in a d d itio n to their ch itectu re sh o u ld h a v e a c a p a city to arch itectu ral se rv ic es. U rb a n re d e v salaries. m a ster tech n ica l p ro b lem s, a g ift fo r e lo p m e n t an d city an d co m m u n ity e m p lo y e e s o fte n re ce iv e A r c h ite c ts w e ll e sta b lish ed in p ri artistic crea tio n , and a flair fo r b u si p la n n in g gro w in g v a te p ra ctic e g en er a lly earn m u ch n ess an d for h u m an rela tio n s. S tu areas o f e m p lo y m e n t fo r a rch itects, m o re th an h ig h -p a id sa la ried e m p lo y e e s o f arch itectu ra l firm s. T h e p ro jects, o th er d en ts are freq u en tly en co u ra g e d to a lso are e x p e c te d to in cr ea se c o n w o rk fo r arch itects or fo r b u ild in g co n tra cto rs d uring su m m ers to gain sid era b ly in th e y ea rs ah ead . (S e e ra n g e in th eir in c o m e s is v ery w id e, sta te m e n t o n U rb a n P la n n e r s.) In a d d itio n , e x p a n d in g c o lle g e e n ro ll m en ts w ill crea te a n e e d fo r a d d i tio n a l a rch itects to tea c h a rc h ite c h o w e v er . S o m e a rch itects th a t h a v e k n o w le d g e o f p ractical p ro b lem s. N e w grad u ates u su a lly b e g in as ju n ior d raftsm en in arch itectu ral firm s w h ere th ey m a k e d raw in gs and m o d e ls o f b u ild in g p rojects o r draft d eta ils in th e w o rk in g d raw in gs. A s th ey g ain ex p e r ie n c e , th ey are g iv e n m o re c o m p le x w ork . A fte r sev era l y ea rs, th ey m a y p rogress to c h ie f or sen io r d raftsm an , w ith resp o n sib ility fo r a ll th e m ajor d eta ils o f a se t o f m a n y y ea rs o f e x p e r ie n c e an d g o o d re p u ta tio n s earn w e ll o v er $ 2 5 ,0 0 0 a yea r. Y o u n g a rch itects starting th eir o w n p ra ctic es m a y g o throu gh a p erio d w h e n their e x p e n se s are greater than th eir in co m e. D e p e n d in g o n th eir c o lle g e r e c tural co u rses. B e sid e s th o se n e e d e d to fill n ew p o sitio n s d u e to grow th , d ea th s and retirem en ts w ill a c c o u n t fo r a b o u t 1 ,0 0 0 n e w o p e n in g s ev ery year. A lo n g w ith th e a n ticip a ted rise in ord s, a rch itects h a v in g b a c h e lo r ’s d e grees an d n o ex p e r ie n c e c o u ld start d em a n d fo r a rch itects, an in cr ea se in th e F ed er a l G o v e rn m e n t in 1 9 7 0 is e x p e c te d in th e n u m b er o f arch i at eith er $ 8 ,5 1 0 o r $ 1 0 ,5 2 8 a year. w o rk in g d raw in gs an d fo r th e su p er tectu ra l g rad u ates. If this field fo l A r c h ite c ts w h o h ad c o m p le te d all v isio n lo w s th e tren d e x p e c te d in all c o l le g e g ra d u a tio n s, th e n u m b er o f ar req u irem en ts fo r th e m a ste r’s d e a rch itects m a y w o rk as d esig n ers, co n stru ctio n co n tra ct ad m in istrators, ch itec tu ra l o r sp ecifica tio n w riters. A n e m p lo y e e d eg ree w h o is p articu larly v a lu ed b y h is firm y ea r d u rin g th e 1 9 7 0 ’s sh o u ld b e c o n sid er a b ly greater th an th e e sti m a y b e d esig n a ted an a sso c ia te an d m a y re ce iv e , in ad d itio n to h is salary, m a ted 4 9 0 0 a w a rd ed in 1 9 7 0 . H o w ev e r, m a n y a rch itectu ral grad u ates M o s t a rch itects w o rk in w e lllig h ted , w e ll-e q u ip p e d o ffices an d a sh a re o f th e p rofits. U su a lly , h o w w o rk in field s su ch as sa le s an d a d sp en d of o th er d raftsm en . O th er d eg re es a w a rd ed ea c h g ree c o u ld start at $ 1 0 ,5 2 8 or $ 1 1 ,8 5 5 ; th o se h a v in g th e P h . D . c o u ld b eg in at eith er $ 1 3 ,4 9 3 o r $ 1 4 ,6 6 5 a year. lo n g h o u rs at the d raw in g OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS b oard . H o w ev e r, their ro u tin e o fte n 219 T h e city m a n a g er is a p p o in te d b y is varied b y in terv iew in g clien ts or th e con tracto rs or d iscu ssin g th e d esig n , and is d irectly r e sp o n sib le to th e ap p o in tin g b o d y . T h e city m a n a g e r’s co n stru ctio n p roced u res, or b u ild in g co m m u n ity ’s e le c te d o fficials C ity m a n a g ers k e e p in c lo se c o m m u n ica tio n w ith th e p la n n in g d e p a rtm en t to c o o r d in a te th e in tro d u c tio n o f n ew p rogram s w ith the m aterials o f a p roject w ith o th er ar d u ties vary b y city size, b u t g e n e r o p era tio n s c h itec ts or en gin eers. A rc h ite cts in ally in clu d e a p p o in tin g d ep a rtm en t sm a ller cities w h ich h a v e n o p erm a of e x istin g o n e s. In v o lv e d in co n stru ctio n co n tra c t a d h ea d s and their staffs; co o r d in a tin g n en t p la n n in g staff, th at d uty m ay m in istration freq u en tly w o rk o u t o f and a d m in isterin g th e a ctiv ities o f th e o p era tin g d ep a rtm en ts su ch as b e a ssu m e d en tirely b y th e m a n ager. tax c o lle c tio n an d d isb u rsem en t, law en fo rc em en t, an d p u b lic w ork s; and S u p p ort p e rso n n el, su ch as the a ssista n t city m a n a g er, a d m in istra p rep arin g th e a n n u al b u d g et for the tiv e a ssista n ts, an d d ep a rtm en t h ead c o u n c il’s ap p ro v a l. T h e y a lso study p ro b lem areas su ch as u n io n iz a tio n assista n ts, o p era te u n d er d irectio n o f th e city m a n a g er. A ssista n t city o f g o v er n m e n t e m p lo y e e s an d urban ren ew a l and rep ort their fin d in gs to m a n a g ers re lie v e th e city m a n ager o f ro u tin e d u ties an d a ct fo r him in d o o rs during in sp e ctio n s stru ction sites. at con Sources of Additional Information G en era l in fo rm a tio n about ca reers in architecture is in clu d ed in a n u m b er o f p u b lica tio n s o f th e A m e rica n In stitu te o f A rc h ite cts; a c a ta lo g o f p u b lica tio n s is a v a ila b le, as w ell as tw o free p u b lic a tio n s, “D e sig n in g a B e tte r T o m o r r o w ” a n d “Y o u r B u ild in g , Y o u r A r c h i te c t.” T h ey ca n b e ob ta in ed from : The American Institute of Archi tects, 1785 Massachusetts Ave., NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. th e co u n c il, id en tify in g altern ate s o h is a b sen ce . In a d d itio n , th ey m ay lu tio n s. C ity m a n a g ers p la n fo r fu ture d e v e lo p m e n t o f c ities an d the su rrou n d in g areas to p ro v id e for a ssu m e resp o n sib ility fo r so m e p roj p o p u la tio n grow th and e x p a n sio n o f p u b lic se rv ic es. T h ey a lso fre q u en tly ap p ear at c iv ic m ee tin g s to a d v o ca te p ro p o se d p rogram s or to in fo rm citizen s o f cu rren t g o v er n m en t o p era tio n s. ec ts, su ch as d e v e lo p in g a p relim i nary an n u al h ea d a ssistan ts b u d g et. p erso n n el, fin an ce, or la w , b u t a lso trative assista n ts, a lso ca lle d e x e c u tiv e a ssistan ts or a ssista n ts to the Nature of the Work T h e co u n tr y ’s g ro w in g p o p u la tio n and ex p a n d in g in du stry are p la cin g in crea sed p ressu res o n th e h o u sin g , tran sp ortation , recrea tio n a l, and o th er fa cilities o f ou r N a tio n ’s c it ies. O ther p ro b lem s a sso c ia ted w ith g ro w in g m od ern co m m u n ities su ch as air and w a ter p o llu tio n , an d ris in g crim e rates a lso d em a n d a tte n tio n . C o p in g w ith th ese p ro b lem s e f requ ires so p h istic a ted tech n iq u es. T h u s, c o m m u n ities are turnin g to a sp e cia list h a v in g su ch sk ills— th e city m anager. re m a y a ssist in o th er areas. A d m in is (D.O.T. 188.118) m a n a g em en t are sp o n sib le for o n e a ctiv ity , su ch as CITY MANAGERS fe c tiv e ly D ep a rtm e n t g en er a lly City manager discusses urban renewal project with staff. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 220 city m anager, u su a lly p erfo rm ad tio n in p o litic a l sc ie n c e or p u b lic ad d erstan d and w o rk w ell w ith p e o p le . m in istrative and staff w o rk . T h e e f m in istra tio n . T h e city m a n a g er, b e c a u se h e is th e forts o f ad m in istrative a ssista n ts are d eg ree in p u b lic or m u n icip a l ad m o st n o t co n cen tra ted in o n e area, b u t m in istra tio n is p referred. o fficia ls, m u st b e ab le to sa tisfa c are u tilized in all d ep artm en ts at the d irectio n o f the city m a n a g er. F o r H ow ever, a m a ste r’s In 1 9 7 0 , a b o u t 2 0 0 c o lle g e s and a c c e ssib le of g o v er n m e n t torily d ea l w ith c itiz e n ’s co m p la in ts in stan ce, th ey m ay c o m p ile o p era t in g statistics, review and a n a ly ze u n iv e rsitie s offered a m a ste r’s d e gree p rogram in p u b lic or m u n icip a l a d m in istra tio n . D egree req u ire w ork p ro ced u res, and an sw er p u b lic m en ts in so m e sc h o o ls in clu d e su c in qu iries. c e ssfu l c o m p le tio n o f an in tern sh ip p rogram in a city m a n a g e r’s office. m en t, tact, se lf-c o n fid e n c e , and the D u rin g this in tern sh ip p erio d , w h ich ab ility to p erform w ell u nd er stress. m ay la st from 6 m o n th s to a year, T h e city m a n a g er m a y b e ca lled Places of Employment and m a in ta in to fo u r th o u sa n d p erso n s w ere e m p lo y e d as su p p ort p erso n n el. A b o u t O th er fo u r-fifth s of all city m a n a g ers upon g en cy lo r ’s o r m a ste r’s d egree p rogram s en ter the o c c u p a tio n b y ta k in g m a n w o rk ed in cities w h ich h a v e a c o u n c il-m a n a g er form o f g o v ern m en t. M o st o f the rem ain d er w ere e m p lo y ed in m u n icip a lities w h ich h a v e as in tern s or lo w er le v el a ssista n ts in traits in clu d e: at an y tim e to so lv e em er situ a tio n s an d h e m u st b e ab le to q u ic k ly iso la te th e p ro b lem areas, id en tify th e u n d erly in g ca u se s, and p ro v id e altern ate so lu tio n s. so m e n ew gra d u a tes d esire p o sitio n s a n oth er form o f g o v ern m e n t su ch as m a y o r-co u n c il g o v ern m e n t in w h ich d esira b le ager p o sitio n s in sm a ll to w n s and th ey rela c o m m u n ic a tio n sk ills, so u n d ju d g ern m en t o p era tio n s an d p erfo rm s resea rch w o rk und er d irect su p erv i sio n o f th e city m an ager. S o m e n ew grad u ates from b a c h e w o rk in g tio n sh ip s w ith h is fe llo w officials. the d eg ree ca n d id a te o b ser v es g o v A n estim a ted 2 ,6 0 0 city m a n a g ers w ere em p lo y e d in th e U n ite d S tates in 1 9 7 0 . A n ad d itio n a l three good th e city m an ager is a p p o in ted b y th e m a y o r, and ca lled “ ad m in istrative th en se ek p o sitio n s in large cities as g a in ex p e r ie n c e . H ow ever, large cities. L arger cities offer greater o p p o r tu n itie s fo r e x p er ie n c e in a w id er ran ge o f p r o b le m -so lv in g a ssista n t.” A sm all n um b er o f m a n areas su ch as freew a y p lan n in g, agers are e m p lo y ed b y m etro p o lita n urb an ren ew a l, and crim e co n tro l. or reg io n a l p la n n in g o rg a n iz a tio n s. A s th e y o u n g p r o fe ssio n a l gain s O v er o n e -h a lf o f the cities w h ich a d d itio n a l sk ills and c o m p e te n c e , he h ad a p o p u la tio n o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 to m ay a d v a n ce to a p o sitio n o f greater 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 h ad a city m a n a g er. S o m e re sp o n sib ility su ch as d ep a rtm en t city m an agers a lso w o rk ed for h ea d a ssista n t. In this p o sitio n , he co u n ty g o v ern m en ts. A lth o u g h city m a y gain the su p erv iso ry and p la n m an agers are em p lo y ed in 4 8 o f the n in g sk ills n ecessa ry to o v e r se e an 5 0 S tates, n early 4 5 p erc en t are lo en tire d ep a rtm en t. ca ted in C a lifo rn ia , M a in e , M ic h i ex p e r ie n c e gan, P en n sy lv a n ia , and T e x a s. fin an ce, in p u b lic the A d m in istra tiv e d ep a rtm en ts w o rk s, or of p u b lic p la n n in g a lso m ay p ro v id e the n e c essa ry sk ills and e x p er ie n c e for ad v a n cem e n t to m an ager. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement E m p lo y m e n t o p p o r tu n itie s for city m a n a g ers are e x p e c te d to b e e x c e lle n t th rou gh th e 1 9 7 0 ’s, e s p e cia lly fo r p erso n s h a v in g a m a ster’s d eg ree in p u b lic or m u n icip a l ad m in istra tio n . In a d d itio n to o p en in g s resu ltin g from the n eed to fill n ew p o sitio n s, m a n y o p en in g s w ill arise ea c h y ea r from the n eed to rep la ce city m a n a g ers w h o retire, d ie, or tran sfer to o th er fields o f w ork . T h e em p lo y m e n t o f city m a n a g ers is e x p e c te d to in cr ea se very rap id ly th rough th e 1 9 7 0 ’s as m eth o d s for d ea lin g w ith the p ro b lem s o f ou r g ro w in g cities b e c o m e c o m p le x . E x a m p le s o f this m o re com p lex ity are co m p u ter ize d d ata c o l le ctio n o f p o lic e in fo rm a tio n , ad v a n c e s in te c h n o lo g y o f traffic c o n C ertain p erso n a l q u a lifica tio n s or traits en h a n c e the city m a n a g e r’s c h a n ces o f su cc ess. H e m u st b e d e d trol, an d th e a p p lica tio n o f sy stem s a n a ly sis to urb an p ro b lem s. T h e n eed for city m a n a g ers is e x sin ce he p e c te d to in cr ea se as cities co n v ert g rou n d n eed ed fo r en tra n ce in to this p ro fessio n is a b a c h e lo r ’s d eg ree, o fte n m u st p u t in lo n g hard h ou rs in tim es o f crises. A n o th e r im p ortan t to th e co u n cil-m a n a g e r fo rm o f g o v ern m en t, cu rren tly the fa ste st g ro w p referab ly w ith a m ajor c o n c e n tr a p erso n a l q u ality is the ab ility to u n in g form o f lo c a l g o v ern m en t. G ity T h e m in im u m e d u ca tio n a l b a c k ic a te d to p u b lic serv ice, Employment Outlook 221 OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS m an agers a lso w ill b e need ed in Sources of Additional Information ern m en t. E lec te d officials are ex p ected to rely in creasin gly u p o n th e city m an ager’s sk ills to co p e w ith th e d a y -to -d a y o p era tio n s o f g o v M a n y a sse m b le and m a in ta in a li brary o f ca reer g u id a n ce in fo r m a p la ces h a v in g other form s o f g o v International City Management As sociation, 1140 Connecticut Ave. NW. Washington, D.C. 20036. tio n an d recru itm en t literature from p u b lic an d p rivate so u r c e s fo r th e u se o f stu d en ts and alu m n i. S uch m a teria l in clu d es in fo r m a tio n on v a rio u s o c c u p a tio n s, to g eth e r w ith ern m en t. d ata o n current o p p o r tu n itie s, ed u Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of city m an a g ers and COLLEGE CAREER PLANNING AND PLACEMENT COUNSELORS ca tio n a l req u irem en ts, ea rn in g s, ad - (D.O.T. 166.268) th eir assistan ts vary a ccord in g to the a m ou n t and type o f ed u ca tio n and e x p erien ce as w ell as job r e sp o n si b ility and size o f city. T h e average Nature of the Work salary earned b y p erso n s in b e g in n in g p o sitio n s w as ab ou t $ 7 ,5 0 0 in C areer p la n n in g and p la ce m e n t 1 9 7 0 a ccord in g to the In tern a tio n a l C ity M a n a g em en t A sso c ia tio n . T h is c o u n se lo r s, so m e tim e s ca lled co lle g e figure is so m ew h a t lo w er than start o f se rv ic es to c o lle g e stu d en ts and in g salaries in b u sin ess an d indu stry, a cco rd in g to su rvey reports. S a la ries, h o w ev er, g en erally ten d to be lo w er in g overn m en t, e sp e c ia lly lo c a l govern m en t. In 1 9 7 0 , the m ed ia n salary for city m an agers T h ey are c o n c e r n e d w ith stu d y in g h im self, ex p lo r in g and c h o o sin g an o c c u p a tio n a l area, m a k in g a d e c isio n eith er to p u rsu e ab o u t grad u ate stu d y or to en ter th e lab or m ark et. T h e y a lso aid stu d en ts in o b ta in in g p a rt-tim e an d su m m er p o $ 3 4 ,0 0 0 in cities w ith 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 in sitio n s to m ee t an e c o n o m ic n eed or to a ssist in career ex p lo r a tio n . h ab itan ts in cities o f in h ab itan ts, or m ore. from alu m n i. th e a sp ects o f a stu d en t’s d e v e lo p m en t in v o lv in g h is ca reer se lec tio n : 1 0 ,0 0 0 to to ab o u t $ 1 7 ,0 0 0 2 5 ,0 0 0 varied p la c e m e n t officers, p ro v id e a variety A ssista n t city m an agers earned m ed ia n sa la ries o f o v e r $ 1 4 ,0 0 0 a year. A w o rk w eek o f lo n g er th an 4 0 h ou rs is c o m m o n for m o st city m a n agers. T h is m ay in clu d e w o rk on w ee k e n d s and ev en in g s to settle e m erg en cy p ro b lem s that m a y arise. M eetin g s w ith in d ivid u a ls an d c iti z e n ’s grou p s co n su m e a d d itio n a l T h e y arrange fo r e m p lo y e r rep re se n ta tiv es to v isit th e ca m p u s to d is cu ss their firm s’ p erso n n el n eed s an d to in terv iew q u alified ap p li can ts. C areer p la n n in g and p la c e m en t co u n selo r s p ro v id e in fo r m a tio n ab o u t stu d en ts to e m p lo y e r rep resen ta tiv es and a ssist in ap p raisin g th e q u a lifica tio n s o f stu d en ts. T h e y College career planning and placement counselor and student discuss em ployment offers. a lso m a k e n ew co n ta c ts w ith e m v a n c e m e n t, an d th e lo n g -ter m o u t in clu d e p lo y er s to d e v e lo p a d d itio n a l em lo o k . h ea lth and life in su ran ce p rogram s, p e n sio n p lan s, sick le a v e , v a ca tio n p lo y m e n t o p p o rtu n ities. In ad d ition , th ey m a y su g g est im p r o v em en ts in P la c e m e n t co u n selo r s m a y sp e cia liz e in areas su ch as la w and b en efits, and o fte n the ava ila b ility e m p lo y er recru itm en t literature and o f a car fo r official b u sin ess. M a n a g in form the c o lle g e fa cu lty o f any p a rt-tim e an d su m m er w ork . H o w ev e r, th e ex te n t o f sp ec ia liz a tio n ers g en erally are reim bu rsed for e x p e n se s incurred w h ile atten d in g ch a n g e in job req u irem en ts that m ig h t w arrant ad ju stm en t in cu rric u su a lly d ep en d s u p o n th e siz e an d ty p e o f the c o lle g e , as w e ll as th e p ro fessio n a l m eetin g s and sem in ars. u lum . size o f th e p la ce m e n t staff. tim e. F rin g e b en efits u su a lly 222 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK im p o rta n t fo r ca reer c o u n se lin g and Places of Employment p la c e m e n t N ea r ly all c o lle g e s an d u n iv e rsi w ork ers. G rad u ate grad u ates tio n s. se e k in g b eg in n in g p o s i ties offer career p la n n in g and p la c e co u rses th at are co n sid er ed h elp fu l in clu d e c o u n se lin g th eo ry and te c h m en t serv ices. L a rg e c o lle g e s m a y e m p lo y sev era l co u n se lo r s w o rk in g n iq u es, v o c a tio n a l testin g, th eo ry o f fo r grou p d y n a m ics, and o c c u p a tio n a l p la c e m e n t cr ea sin g n u m b e r o f c o lle g e stu d en ts; a c o m b in a tio n o f p la ce m e n t fu n c resea rch and e m p lo y m e n t trends. S o m e p erso n s en ter th e career p la n n in g and p la c e m e n t field after tion s is p erfo rm ed b y o n e d irector and h is clerica l staff. In so m e c o l p e rien ce in b u sin ess, in d u stry, g o v le g es, esp e cia lly th e sm a ller o n e s, th e ern m en t, o r ed u ca tio n a l o rg a n iz a fu n ctio n s o f c o u n selo r s m a y b e p er tio n s. A ls o h elp fu l is an in tern sh ip in a career p la n n in g and p la ce m e n t u n d er a d irector o f p la ce m e n t a c tiv ities; in m an y in stitu tio n s, h o w e v er , fo rm ed on a p art-tim e b a sis by m em b ers o f the fa cu lty o r a d m in is g a in in g a b ro a d b a ck g ro u n d o f e x office. A m o n g th e fa cto rs e x p e c te d to co n trib u te to th e fa v o ra b le o u tlo o k c o lle g e ca reer p la n n in g c o u n se lo r s are th e an d in a g ro w in g n u m b er o f m in o rity grou p stu d en ts an d stu d en ts from lo w -in c o m e fa m ilies w h o requ ire sp ecia l c o u n se lin g an d a ssista n ce in o b ta in in g p a rt-tim e jo b s to h elp fin a n ce th eir ed u ca tio n ; th e e x p a n sio n o f c o u n se lin g and p la c e m e n t p rogram s on m a n y ca m p u se s as greater re c o g P er so n s w h o w o u ld lik e to en ter n itio n is g iv e n to th e n eed fo r su ch m ajor b ran ch or ca m p u s. In m o st th e career p la n n in g and p la ce m e n t field sh o u ld h a v e an in terest in p e o p rogram s; an d th e in crea sin g n u m b er o f tw o -y e a r in stitu tio n s and the u n iv ersities, there is a cen tral office p le. T h e y m u st b e ab le to c o m m u n i e sta b lish m en t o f ca reer c o u n se lin g w h ich co o rd in a tes th e w o rk o f all ca te w ith an d gain th e c o n fid e n c e o f stu d en ts, fa cu lty , and em p lo y ers. an d p la c e m e n t o ffices o n th e se c a m p u ses. trative staff. U n iv ersities freq u en tly have p la ce m e n t career offices p la n n in g and for ea ch p la ce m e n t office T h e a b ility to d e v e lo p a k een in sig h t R e g io n a l c o lle g e p la c e m e n t a sso c ia tio n s and th eir co o r d in a tin g o r A n estim a ted 2 ,8 0 0 ca r ee r p la n in to th e e m p lo y m e n t p ro b lem s o f b o th em p lo y er s and stu d en ts an d to n in g an d p la c e m e n t c o u n se lo r s w ere m a in ta in co n fid en tia l C o u n c il, fo ste r a ctiv itie s to u p grad e e m p lo y ed in 4 -y e a r c o lle g e s and u n iv ersities in 1 9 7 0 , m o st o f th em c o m m u n ic a tio n s a lso is im p o rta n t in c o lle g e p la c e m e n t w ork . T h e y m u st b e en er g etic and a b le to w o rk u n d er an d ex p a n d e x istin g ca reer p la n n in g p ressu re an d to o rg a n ize and ad m en t se r v ic e s w h ere n o n e p resen tly ex ist. T h e resu lts o f th eir efforts sh o u ld crea te a d d itio n a l job o p p o r c o u n selo r s; in so m e, ea c h w ork s as a sep arate unit. o n a fu ll-tim e b a sis. O f this to ta l n u m b er, ab ou t o n e-fo u rth w ere w o m e n . In ad d itio n , an in crea sin g n u m b er o f p la ce m e n t officers are e m p lo y ed fu ll-tim e or p a rt-tim e in 2 -y e a r co lleg e s. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement h o n e st an d m in ister a w id e va riety o f tasks. A d v a n c e m e n t for ca reer p la n n in g an d p la c e m e n t p r o fe ssio n a ls u su a lly is th rou gh p ro m o tio n to an a ssista n t o r a sso c ia te p o sitio n , p la ce m e n t d irector, d irector o f stu d en t p erso n n el se rv ic es, o r to so m e o th er h igher le v e l a d m in istra tiv e p o sitio n . H o w ever, th e e x te n t o f su ch o p p o rtu n ity p rogram c o lle g e o r u n iversity an d th e siz e o f P la c e m e n t an d p la c e m e n t p ro g ra m s and e n c o u ra g e th e esta b lish m en t o f p la c e tu n ities fo r p ro fe ssio n a l p erso n n el in th is field. S o m e o p e n in g s a lso w ill o cc u r ea c h y ea r as p la c e m e n t officers tran sfer to o th e r p o sitio n s, retire, or le a v e th e field fo r o th e r rea so n s. u su a lly d ep en d s u p o n th e ty p e o f e x ists to prep are p erso n s fo r c o lle g e ca reer p la n n in g an d p la ce m e n t g a n iza tio n , th e C o lle g e No w ork . sp ecific e d u ca tio n H ow ever, a b a c h e lo r ’s d e In 1 9 7 0 , a n n u a l ea rn in g s o f p la c e m e n t o ffice d irecto rs ran ged gree, p referab ly in o n e o f th e b e h a v io ra l sc ien ce s, is co n sid er ed th e m in im u m req u irem en t for entry in to th e field. In 1 9 7 0 , m ore than 1 0 0 c o lle g e s an d u n iv ersities offered p rogram s Employment Outlook fro m le ss th an $ 5 ,0 0 0 to a h ig h o f o v e r $ 2 7 ,5 0 0 , w ith th e m ed ia n sa l T h e n u m b er o f job o p p o rtu n ities in th e c o lle g e career p la n n in g and p la c e m e n t field is e x p e c te d to rise very rap id ly th ro u g h th e 1 9 7 0 ’s. In le a d in g to a grad u ate d eg ree in c o l le g e stu d en t p erso n n el w ork . G ra d gen era l, e m p lo y m e n t p ro sp ec ts w ill u a te stu d y is b e c o m in g in cr ea sin g ly b e g o o d fo r n ew o r re ce n t co lle g e Earnings and Working Conditions th e staff. ary a b o u t $ 1 2 ,2 5 0 , a cc o rd in g to a N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A sso c ia tio n sur v e y o f p u b lic an d p rivate c o lle g e s an d u n iv ersities. T h e su rv ey reports that a n n u a l ea rn in g s o f d ea n s o f testin g and c o u n se lin g in 1 9 7 0 223 OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS ranged from under $6,500 to more than $29,500 with a median salary of $13,800. In general, the larger institutions paid the highest salaries. Career planning and placement professionals frequently work more than a 40-hour week; irregular hours and overtime often are neces sary, particularly during the “re cruiting season.” Most placement personnel are employed on a 12month basis. They are paid for hol idays and vacations, and receive the same benefits as other professional personnel employed by colleges and universities. Sources of Additional Information The College Placement Council, Inc., P.O. Box 2263, Bethelem, Pa. 18001. C O O PER A TIVE EX TE N S IO N SER VIC E W O RKER S (D.O.T. 096.128) Nature of the Work Extension Service workers are engaged in educational work in ag riculture, home economics, youth activities, and community resource development. They are employed jointly by State landgrant universi ties and the U.S. Department of A g riculture. Extension workers must be proficient in both subject matter and teaching methods. Extension workers help people analyze and solve their farm and home problems and aid in commun ity improvement. Much of this edu cational work is carried on in groups, through meetings, tours, demonstrations, and local voluntary leaders. Individual assistance is given on problems that cannot be solved satisfactorily by group meth ods. Extension workers rely heavily on mass communication media such as newspaper, radio, and television. County extension workers help farmers produce higher quality crops and livestock more efficiently and assists them in developing new market outlets and in planning production to meet market de mands, including quality standards and varieties. This also helps com munity leaders to improve the com munity and to plan and provide for economic development, recreation, and more adequate public facilities such as schools, water supply and sewer systems, and libraries. They assist homemakers to provide more family enjoyment from existing re sources, a higher level of nutrition, and a more pleasant home environ ment. Some extension workers help youth to become more useful citi zens and gain more personal satis faction through programs in career selection, recreation, health, and leadership. The essence of exten sion work is to help people help themselves to achieve the goals they think are important. County extension workers are supported by State Extension Spe cialists. Their job is to keep abreast of the latest research in their par ticular field of interest, interpret this for use in extension programs, and assist county extension workers in developing educational programs, activities and events to demonstrate use of this new knowledge. Cooperative Extension Services employ persons with a wide range of skills. Extension staffs include people skilled in all phases of crop and livestock production, conserva tion, environmental improvement, farm management and marketing, family living, human development, nutrition, home management, child development, sociology, psychology, veterinary medicine, engineering, textiles and clothing, resource eco nomics, and business and public ad ministration. Places of Employment Extension workers are located in county offices, area offices serving multi-county units, and State offices which are usually located on the campus of the land-grant college or university. Agents are located in nearly every county in the 50 States, Puerto Rico, and the District of Columbia. The county staffs range in size from one agent serving a wide variety of clientele interests to staffs of a dozen or more specialized agents in counties with high-density population and great diversity of in terests. Staffs are located in coun tries ranging from the most rural to the most urban. Training and Other Qualifications Cooperative Extension agents as signed to counties are required to be proficient in a discipline related to the needs and programs of the clientele with whom they work. They must have a B.S. degree in their subject-matter, and some training in educatical techniques is desirable. Often they receive training in ex tension techniques in a pre-induc tion training program and are up graded through regular in-service training programs in both educa tional techniques and the subjectmatter for which they are responsi ble. In addition to subject-matter proficiency and extension tech niques, successful extension workers 224 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK must like to work with and to help people. In most States, specialists and agents assigned to multicounty and State staff jobs are required to have at least one advanced degree and many must have the Ph. D. Sources of Additional Information Additional information may be obtained from county extension offices, the State Director of the Co operation Extension Service located at each land-grant university; or the Extension Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250. Employment Outlook Extension services employ more than 15,000 professional people. The demand for additional work ers is expected to continue, especially in depressed rural areas. As agricultural technology becomes more complicated, and as farm peo ple become more aware of the need for organized activity, more help will be sought from trained Exten sion Service personnel. The Exten sion Service also is being extended to new segments of the population, as residents recognize the value of their assistance, particularly in help ing the disadvantaged. Counterparts of the Cooperative Extension Service are being estab lished in many countries, and E x tension Service personnel often are recruited to help initiate and orga nize these programs. Earnings and Working Conditions The salaries of extension workers vary from State to State and county to county. In the main, however, they are fully competitive with simi lar jobs in industry and government. Generally speaking, the career lad der for extension workers proceeds from assistant county agent to more responsible jobs within that county, or in another county in the State, to assignments on the State extension staff. FBI SPEC IA L AG EN TS (D.O.T. 375.168) Nature of the Work T o perform their duties, Special Agents may interview people, ob serve the activities of suspects, and participate in raids; their duties may involve extensive travel. Because of the highly confidential nature of the F B I’s work, Special Agents may not disclose any of the information which they gather in the course of their official duties to unauthorized persons, including members of their families. Special Agents may have to testify in court about cases that they investigate, but they do not make recommendations pertaining to prosecution, express opinions concerning the guilt or innocence of suspects, nor issue “clearances” of any kind. In most assignments, Special Agents work alone but must main tain continued contact with their su periors by radio or telephone. For potentially dangerous duties, such as arrests and raids, two agents or more are assigned to work together. Federal Bureau of Investigation (F B I) Special Agents investigate many types of violations of Federal laws, such as bank robberies, kid nappings, frauds against the Gov ernment, thefts of Government property, espionage, and sabotage. The FBI, which is part of the U.S Department of Justice, has jurisdic tion over more than 185 Federal in Places of Employment vestigative matters. Special Agents may be assigned to any type of case, Most of the more than 7,900 but those having specialized training Special Agents employed in 1970 in accounting are likely to be as were assigned to the FB I’s 59 field signed chiefly to cases involving offices located throughout the N a complex financial records; for ex tion and in Puerto Rico. These ample, frauds involving Federal R e agents work either in the city where serve Bank records. the field office headquarters is lo The FBI is a fact-gathering and cated or in resident agencies (sub fact-reporting agency, and its Spe offices) established under the su cial Agents function strictly as in pervision of the field office to pro vestigators. (Its authority does not vide prompt and economic handling include affording personal protec of investigative matters arising tion to individuals nor does it in throughout the field office territory. clude police functions to assure that Some agents are assigned to the Bu the law is obeyed. Such matters are reau headquarters staff in Washing within the purview of local and ton, D .C., which supervises all FBI State law enforcement agencies.) activities. OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To be eligible for appointment as an FBI Special Agent, an applicant must have graduated from a Stateaccredited resident law school or a 4-year resident college with a major in accounting. The law school train ing must have been preceded by at least 2 years of resident undergrad uate college work. Accounting grad uates also must have had at least 3 years of experience in accounting or auditing or a combination of both. Applicants for the position of FBI Special Agent must be male citizens of the United States, at least 23 and not more than 40 years of age, and willing to serve anywhere in the United States or Puerto Rico. They must be at least 5 feet 7 inches tall and capable of strenuous physical exertion; they must have excellent hearing and vision, normal color perception, and no physical defects which would prevent their using firearms or participating in dangerous assignments. Each appli cant must pass a rigid physical ex 225 amination, as well as written and oral examinations testing his knowl edge of law or accounting and his aptitude for meeting the public and conducting investigations. A ll of the tests except the physical examina tions are given by the FBI at its fa cilities. Exhaustive background and character investigations are made of all applicants. Appointments are made on a probationary basis and become permanent after 1 year of satisfactory service. Each newly appointed Special Agent is given approximately 14 weeks of training before he is as signed to a field office. He receives most of this training at FBI head quarters at Washington, D.C., and the rest at the FBI Academy at the U.S. Marine Corps Base in Quantico, Va. During this period, he re ceives intensive training in defensive tactics and firearms. In addition, he is also thoroughly schooled in Fed eral criminal law and procedures, FBI rules and regulations, finger printing, and investigative work. After assignment to a field office, the new agent usually works closely with an experienced agent for a period of about 2 weeks before handling any assignments independ ently. All administrative and supervi sory positions are filled from within the ranks by selecting those FBI Special Agents who have demon strated the ability to assume more responsible positions. Employment Outlook The FBI has experienced a sub stantial expansion in its jurisdiction over the years. Although it is im possible to forecast Special Agent personnel requirements, employ 226 ment may be expected to increase with growing FBI responsibilities. The FBI provides a career serv ice and its rate of personnel turn over is traditionally low. Neverthe less, the FBI is always interested in applications from qualified men who would like to be considered for the position of Special Agent. Earnings and Working Conditions The entrance salary for FBI Spe cial Agents in 1970 was $10,869 a year. FBI Special Agents are not appointed under Federal Civil Serv ice regulations, but, like other Fed eral employees, they receive peri odic within-grade salary raises if their work performance is satisfac tory, and they can advance in grade as they gain experience. The top sal ary for regular field Special Agents in 1970 was about $23,000. Agents in supervisory and administrative positions received higher salaries. Special Agents are subject to call 24 hours a day and must be availa ble for assignment at all times and places. They frequently work longer than the customary 40-hour week and, under certain specified condi tions, receive over-time pay up to a maximum of $ 2,870 a year. They are granted paid vacations, sick leave, and annuities on retirement. Sources of Additional Information The Federal Bureau of Investiga tion, U.S. Department of Justice, Washington, D.C. 20535. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK FLIG H T E N G IN E ER S (D.O.T. 621.281) Nature of the Work and Places of Employment The flight engineer monitors the operation of the different mechani cal and electrical devices aboard the airplane. Before takeoffs, he may in spect the tires and other outside parts of the plane and make sure that the plane’s fuel tanks have been filled properly. Inside the plane, he assists the pilot and copilot in mak ing preflight checks of instruments and equipment. Once the plane is airborne, the flight engineer watches and operates many instruments and devices to check the performance of the engines and the air-conditioning, pressurizing, and electrical systems. In addition, he keeps records of en gine performance and fuel con sumption. He reports any mechani cal difficulties to the pilot and, if possible, makes emergency repairs. Upon landing, he makes certain that mechanical troubles that may have developed are repaired by a me chanic. Flight engineers employed by smaller airlines may have to make minor repairs at those few air ports where mechanics are not sta tioned. Flight engineers or second officers are required by the Federal Aviation Administration (F A A ), to be on almost all three- and fourengine aircraft and some two-engine jet aircraft. An evaluation of the aircraft and the functions to be per formed by the crew determines the need for a flight engineer. In 1970 about 8,500 workers were em ployed to perform flight engineers’ duties, mostly by major airlines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All flight engineers must be li censed by the F A A . A man can qualify for a flight engineer’s certifi cate if he has had 2 years of training or 3 years of work experience in the maintenance, repair, and overhaul of aircraft and engines, including a minimum of 6 months’ training or a year of experience on four-engine piston and jet planes. He also may qualify with at least 200 hours of flight time as a captain of a four-en gine piston or jet plane, or 100 hours of experience as a flight engi neer in the Armed Forces. The most common method of qualifying is to complete a course of ground and flight instruction approved by the FA A . In addition to such experience or training, an applicant for a license must pass a written test on flight theory, engine and aircraft perform ance, fuel requirements, weather as it affects engine operation, and maintenance procedures. In a prac tical flight test on a four-engine plane, he must demonstrate his skill 227 OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS in performing preflight duties and normal and emergency in-flight du ties and procedures. He also must pass a rigid physical examination every year. Most scheduled airlines now require applicants for flight en gineer positions to have a commer cial pilot’s license. engineers without pilot qualifica tions can advance from less desir able to more desirable routes and schedules as they gain seniority. Young men can acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to qualify as airline flight engineers through military training as aircraft pilots, mechanics, or flight engi neers. They also may attend a civil ian ground school and then gain ex perience as an airplane mechanic. Employment of flight engineers is expected to increase very rapidly during the 1970’s as the number of heavier jet-powered aircraft, requir ing flight engineers, increases. This development will contribute to em ployment growth in this field, since, in most cases, the third required crew member will be a qualified pilot serving as a flight engineer until his promotion to copilot. (See also the H a n d b o o k statement for Pilots and Copilots.) For flight engineers, airlines gen erally prefer men who are 21 to 35 years of age, from 5 feet 6 inches to 6 feet 4 inches tall, and in excellent physical condition. Good eyesight (including color-vision) and eyehand co-ordination are essential. All the major carriers require a high school education but prefer at least 2 years of college. They prefer to hire young men who already have a flight engineer certificate and a commercial pilot’s license, although they may train applicants who have only a commercial pilot’s license. A young person considering a career as a flight engineer must be able to cope with the pressures and respon sibilities that are part of the occupa tion, and he must be concerned with details. He also must be able to function as part of a team and quickly learn to operate new equip ment. Advancement opportunities usu ally depend on qualifications and seniority provisions established by airline union-management agree ments. The flight engineer with pilot qualifications, generally called the second officer, advances on the basis of his seniority to copilot, and then follows the regular line of advance ment open to other copilots. Flight Employment Outlook month, 300 hours every 90 days, or 350 hours every 90 days, depending on the size of the flight crew. Most flight engineers who are not qualified pilots belong to the Flight Engineers’ International Association or the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers. Those who are qualified pilots (Sec ond Officers) are represented by the Air Line Pilots Association, In ternational. Sources of Additional Information Flight Engineers’ International As sociation, 100 Indiana Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20001. (See the introductory section for additional sources of information and for general information on sup plementary benefits and working conditions.) Earnings and Working Conditions Flight engineers earned from $1,277 a month for new employees to approximately $2,465 for experi enced flight engineers on jet aircraft on international flights. Many flight engineers earned between $1,590 and $2,020 a month. Average monthly earnings for all flight engi neers in domestic operations was nearly $1,702. Those employed on international flights averaged nearly $1,920. The earnings of flight engi neers depend upon size, speed, and type of plane; hours and miles flown; length of service; and the type of flight (such as night or inter national). Engineers are guaranteed minimum monthly earnings, which represent a substantial proportion of their total earnings. Their flight time is restricted, under the Federal Aviation Act, to 85 hours a month. Flight engineers in international op erations are limited to 100 hours a H O M E E C O N O M IS TS (D.O.T. 096.128) Nature of the Work Improving products, services, and practices that affect the comfort and well-being of the family is the pri mary function of home economists. These professional workers have a broad knowledge of the home eco nomics field or are specialists in a particular area, such as food, cloth ing and textiles, housing, home furnishings and equipment, child development, household manage ment, or family economics. Teachers make up the largest group of home economists. Second ary school teachers instruct classes OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 228 in food, nutrition, clothing, textiles, child development, family relations, home furnishings, home manage ment, and consumer education. In addition, they may sponsor local chapters of Future Homemakers of America and conduct related activi ties. Other work done by home eco nomics teachers is similar to that described in the statement on Sec ondary School Teachers, elsewhere in this H a n d b o o k . Teachers in adult education programs help homemak ers to increase their understanding of family relations and to improve their homemaking skills. They also train those who wish to prepare for jobs in home economics. College teachers may combine teaching and research, and often specialize in one particular area of home economics. Private business firms and trade associations employ home econo mists to promote the development, use, and care of specific home prod ucts. These home economists may do research; test products; prepare advertisements and booklets with instructional materials; plan, pre pare, and present programs for radio and television; serve as con sultants; give lectures and demon strations before the public; and con duct classes for such workers as salesmen and appliance servicemen. They also may study consumer needs and help manufacturers trans late these needs into useful prod ucts. H om e economists employed by food manufacturers often work in test kitchens or laboratories to im prove products or help create new products. They may also publicize the nutritional value of specific foods. Those employed by utility companies describe the operation and benefits of appliances and serv ices and often give advice on household problems. Home econo mists employed by manufacturers of kitchen and laundry equipment may work with engineers on product de velopment. Those engaged in com munications work for magazines, newspapers, radio and television stations, advertising and public rela tions agencies, trade associations, and other organizations. They usu ally prepare articles, advertise ments, and speeches about home products and services. Their work may include product testing and analysis, and the study of consumer buying habits. Still other home economists work for dress-pattern companies, department stores, inte rior design studios, and other busi ness firms that design, manufacture, and sell products for the home. A small number of home economists are employed in financial institu tions, giving customers advice on spending, saving, and budgeting. Some home economists are en gaged in research for the Federal Government, State agricultural ex periment stations, colleges, universi ties, and private organizations. The U.S. Department of Agriculture em ploys the largest group of these workers, some of whom study the buying and spending habits of farm families, and then develop budget guides. A few in other Federal agencies are engaged in research on space travel, working on such prob lems as food needs in outer space. Cooperative Extension Service home economists conduct adult ed ucation programs for women and 4-H Club programs for girls in such areas as home management, con sumer education, family relations, and nutrition. Home economists employed on social-welfare programs by Federal, State, county, city, and private wel fare agencies may act as advisers and consultants on household budg ets and improved homemaking. They help handicapped homemakers and their families adjust to physical limi tations by changing the arrange 229 OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS ments in the home and revising methods of work. Other home econ omists in welfare agencies super vise or train workers who provide temporary or part-time help to households disrupted by illness. Places of Employment About 105,000 persons were em ployed in home economics occupa tions in 1970. This figure includes an estimated 30,000 dietitians and approximately 5,200 extension work ers who are discussed in separate statements on Dietitians and Co operative Extension Service Work ers in the H a n d b o o k . About 65,000 home economists were teachers. A p proximately 45,000 were secondary school teachers. About 13,500 were adult education instructors, some of whom also taught part-time in sec ondary schools. In addition, there were about 4,000 college and uni versity teachers. The remainder taught in elementary schools, kinder gartens, nursery schools, recreation centers, and other institutions. More than 5,000 home economists were in private business firms and associa tions. Several hundred were govern ment research workers, and some worked in social welfare programs. A few were self-employed. Although home economics is gen erally considered a woman’s field, a growing number of men are em ployed in home economics posi tions. Most men specialize in foods and institution management, though some are in the family relations and child development field, applied arts, and other areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Approximately 4 0 0 colleges and universities offer training leading to a bachelor’s degree in home eco nomics, which qualifies graduates for most entry positions in the field. A master’s or doctor’s degree is re quired for college teaching, for cer tain research and supervisory posi tions, for work as an extension spe cialist or supervisor, and for some jobs in the nutrition field. The undergraduate curriculum in home economics gives students a strong background in science and liberal arts and also includes courses in each of the areas of home ecoi omics. Students majoring in home economics may specialize in various subject-matter areas. A d vanced courses in chemistry and nu trition are important for work in foods and nutrition; science and sta tistics for research work; and jour nalism for advertising, public rela tions work, and all other work in the communications field. To teach home economics in a high school, a student must complete the profes sional education courses and other State requirements for a teacher’s certificate. Scholarships, fellowships, and assistantships are available for under graduate and graduate study. A l though colleges and universities offer most of these financial grants, government agencies, research foundations, businesses, and the American Home Economics A sso ciation Foundation provide addi tional funds. Home economists must be able to work with people of various living standards and backgrounds and should have a capacity for leader ship, including an ability to inspire cooperation. Good grooming, poise, and an interest in people also are essential, particularly when dealing with the public. The ability to com municate effectively is also impor tant. Employment Outlook Home economists are expected to have good employment opportuni ties through the 1970’s. The great est demand will stem from the need to fill teaching positions in second ary schools and in colleges and uni versities. Many business establish ments also are becoming increas ingly aware of the contributions that can be made by professionally trained home economists and prob ably will hire more of them to promote home products and to act as consultants to customers. In creased national focus on the needs of low-income families may also in crease the demand for home econo mists. In addition, the need for more home economists in research is expected to increase because of the continued interest in improving home products and services. Many home economists will be needed to replace those who die, re tire, or leave the field because of family responsibilities or other rea sons through the 1970’s. Opportuni ties for those who leave the profes sion but later wish to return will be good, especially as part-time teach ers in adult education programs. Earnings and Working Conditions Home economics teachers in public schools generally receive the same salaries as other teachers, as most school districts have a single salary schedule, based on education and experience. In school districts of 100,000 pupils or more, the me dian salary of beginning teachers who have a bachelor’s degree was $7,200 for the school year 1 9 7 0 -7 1 , according to a National Education Association survey; in districts of 50,000 to 99,999 enrollment, the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 230 median starting salary was $6,800; and in districts of 2 5,000 to 49,999 enrollment, $6,850. The median sal ary of home economics instructors teaching in colleges and universities was about $ 8,360 a year in 1 9 6 9 70. In 1970, average annual salaries received in the Cooperative Exten sion Service were as follows: inexpe rienced county extension home econ omists, $7,000; experienced county extension home economists, $9,600; and State specialists, $13,400. The Federal Government paid in experienced workers who have a bachelor’s degree in home econom ics $6,548 or $8,098 in late 1970, depending on their scholastic rec ords. For those having additional education and experience, salaries generally ranged from $9,881 to $16,760 a year, depending upon the type of position and level of respon sibility. Many home economists work a regular 40-hour week or less. Those in teaching and extension positions, however, frequently work longer hours as they are expected to be available for evening lectures, dem onstrations, and other work. Most home economists receive fringe benefits, such as paid vacation, sick leave, retirement pay, and insurance benefits. home economic majors offered in each school granting degrees in home economics, and graduate scholarships may be obtained from: American Home Economics Asso ciation, 2010 Massachusetts Ave nue, NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. LA N D S C A P IN G A R C H ITE C TS (D.O.T. 019.081) Nature of the Work Everyone enjoys walking through an attractively designed park or driving along a scenic road. Land scape architects plan, design, and supervise the arrangement of these outdoor areas for people to use and enjoy. The attractiveness of parks, highways, housing projects, cam puses, and country clubs reflects the skill of these architects in design ing useful and pleasing landscapes. Their knowledge of site planning al lows landscape architects to serve many types of clients, from a real estate firm embarking on a new sub urban development to a city prepar ing to build an airport. Landscape architects may plan the entire arrangement of a site and supervise the grading, construction, and planting required to carry out the plan. Whether they perform all or only part of these services on a particular project, however, de pends on the client’s wishes and the available funds. To plan a site, landscape archi tects first study the nature and pur- Sources of Additional Information A list of schools granting degrees in home economics is available from: Home Economics Education, Bureau of Adult, Vocational, and Tech nical Education, Division of Vo cational and Technical Education, U.S. Department of Health, Edu cation, and Welfare, Washington, D.C. 20202. Additional information about ca reers in this profession, the types of Landscape architect plans site design. OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS pose of the client’s project, and the various types of structures needed. N ext, they study the site itself, ob serving and mapping features such as the slope of the land and the po sition of existing buildings and trees. They also consider the parts of the site that will be sunny or shaded at different times of the day, the struc ture of the soil, existing utilities, and many other factors. Then, after con sultation with the architect and en gineer working on the project, they draw up preliminary plans for the development of the site. After the client approves the preliminary plans, working drawings are made which show all existing and pro posed features such as buildings, roads, walks, terraces, grading, and drainage structures in planted areas. Landscape architects outline in de tail the methods of constructing fea tures such as walks and terraces and draw up lists of materials to be used. Landscape contractors then are invited to submit bids for the work. Firms of landscape architects usually handle a wide variety of as signments. Some, however, special ize in projects such as parks and playgrounds, campuses, hotels and resorts, shopping centers, roads, or public housing. Places of Employment An estimated 10,000 landscape architects were employed in 1970. The majority were self-employed or worked for other landscape archi tects in private firms. About onethird of all landscape architects were employed by government agencies concerned with public housing, city planning, urban re newal, highways, and parks and rec reational areas. Some were on the staffs of engineering firms; others were employed by landscape con tractors and a few taught in colleges and universities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in landscape architecture is usually the minimum requirement for entering the profes sion. This training is offered in at least 64 colleges and universities, of which 24 have been accredited by the American Society of Landscape Architects. Another 40 schools offer courses in landscape architecture but not a complete 4-year program. The curriculum for the bachelor’s degree requires 4 to 5 years of study, depending on the institution. Fifteen universities also offer mas ter’s degrees in landscape architec ture. Entrance requirements for the landscape architecture course are usually the same as those for admis sion to the liberal arts college of the same university. Some schools also require completion of a high school course in mechanical or geometrical drawing, and most schools advise high school students to take courses in art and more mathematics than the minimum required for college entrance. Courses in design, including ar chitecture and drawing as well as landscape design, constitute over half of the typical curriculum in landscape architecture. Other major fields of study are civil engineering and horticulture. In addition, courses in English, science, the so cial sciences, and mathematics usu ally are required. A bachelor’s de gree in landscape architecture provides a good background for graduate work in city planning. Young people who plan to be come landscape architects should be 231 interested in both art and nature, for the profession demands a talent for design and an understanding of plant life, as well as technical abil ity. Successful practice as an inde pendent landscape architect also re quires a good business sense and the ability to deal with people. Working for landscape architects or landscape contractors during summer vacations will help the stu dent to discover the phases of land scape architecture that interest him most and may better qualify him for employment upon graduation. New graduates usually begin as junior draftsmen, or designers trac ing drawings and doing other simple drafting work. As their skill in creases, they progress to more re sponsible work. After 2 or 3 years, they usually become registered as landscape architects and are quali fied to carry a design through all stages, from preliminary sketches to finished working drawings. Experi enced draftsmen often handle other aspects of landscape architects’ work also, such as preparing specifi cations and detailing methods of construction. Employees who dem onstrate ability for all phases of work may become associates of the firm; landscape architects who pro gress this far often open their own offices. A license is required for the inde pendent practice of landscape archi tecture in 20 States— Arizona, Cali fornia, Colorado, Connecticut, Flor ida, Georgia, Hawaii, Kansas, Loui siana, Massachusetts, Michigan, N e braska, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, Utah and Washington. Candidates for the licensing examination are usually required to have 6 to 8 years’ experience, or a degree from an accredited school of landscape 232 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK architecture plus 2 to 4 years’ expe rience. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for graduates that have professional training in landscape architecture are expected to be favorable throughout the 1970’s. The profes sion probably will continue to ex pand in the years ahead as a result of the continued growth of metro politan areas with their needs for parks and recreational areas, the growing population’s requirements for outdoor recreational facilities, the continued increase in public construction (including public hous in g ), and the rising interest in city and regional planning. The ex pected increase in homeownership, coupled with rising per capita in comes and living standards, also will spur the demand for landscape ar chitects. Women represent between 10 and 15 percent of all landscape ar chitects. Well-trained and compe tent women landscape architects can look forward to interesting and worthwhile careers in the profes sion, particularly as specialists in garden and planting design. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, starting salaries in pri vate offices for new graduates hav ing bachelors’ degrees in landscape architecture ranged from about $7,000 to $9,000 annually; holders of master’s degrees generally earned starting salaries between $12,000 and $15,000. Experienced persons employed by private firms typically earned from about $15,000 to $20,000 a year, although it was not unusual for especially well-qualified people to receive annual salaries of more than $25,000. Landscape architects in independ ent practice often earn more than salaried employees with considera ble experience, but their earnings may vary widely and may fluctuate from year to year. In the Federal Civil Service in 1970, newly graduated landscape architects were paid annual en trance salaries of either $8,510 or $10,528 depending on their qualifi cations. Others with advanced de grees earned between $11,855 and $13,493. The salary schedule also provides for periodic increases above this amount. Salaried employees both in the government and in landscape archi tectural firms usually work regular hours. Self-employed persons often work long hours, especially during the latter stages of a project. Sala ried employees in private firms may also work overtime during seasonal rush periods. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on the profession and a list of colleges and universities offering accredited courses of study in landscape archi tecture may be obtained from : American Society of Landscape Architects, Inc., 2013 I St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. For information on a career as a landscape architect in the Forest Service, write to: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, D.C. 20250. LAW YERS (D.O.T. 110.108, .118 and 119.168) Nature of the Work When people need legal help they retain lawyers, who advise them of their rights and obligations and, when necessary, represent them in courts of law. In addition, lawyers (also called a tto r n e y s ) negotiate settlements out of court and repre sent clients before quasi-judicial and administrative agencies of the gov ernment, such as the Internal Reve nue Service and the Social Security Administration. They may act as trustees, guardians, or executors. Government attorneys play a large part in developing and administering Federal and State laws and pro grams; they prepare drafts of pro posed legislation, establish law en forcement procedures, and argue cases. Most lawyers are engaged in gen eral practice, handling all kinds of legal work for clients. However, a significant number specialize in one branch of law, such as corporation, criminal, labor, patent, real estate, tax, or international law. Some attor neys devote themselves entirely to trying cases in the courts. Others never appear in court but instead spend all their time drawing up wills, trusts, contracts, mortgages, and other legal documents; conduct ing out-of-court negotiations; and doing the investigative and other legal work necessary to prepare for trials. Still others are primarily en gaged in teaching, research, writing, or administrative activities. Many people who have legal training are not employed as law yers but are in other occupations where they can use their knowledge OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS of law. They may, for example, be insurance adjusters, tax collectors, probation officers, credit investiga tors, or claims examiners. A legal background also is a valuable asset to people seeking or holding public office. M ost of the remainder teach in law schools. Some lawyers in salaried legal positions also have an inde pendent practice; others do legal work on a part-time basis working primarily in another occupation. Most lawyers work in cities and in the more populous States. Places of Employment Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement About 2 8 0,000 lawyers were em ployed in 1970, the great majority working full time. Of the total num ber almost three-fourths were in private practice. About half of the private practitioners were in prac tice by themselves; the other half were in partnership or working for other lawyers or law firms. Government agencies employ the greatest number of salaried attor neys. In 1970, about 10,000 attor neys worked for the Federal Gov ernment, chiefly in the Justice, D e fense and Treasury Departments, and the Veterans Administration. About twice as many attorneys were employed by State and local govern ment. Other salaried lawyers are employed by private companies, such as large manufacturing firms, banks, and insurance companies. Before a person can practice law in the courts of any State, he must be admitted to its bar. In all States, applicants for bar admission must pass a written examination; how ever, a few States waive this re quirement for graduates of their own law schools. Other usual re quirements are U.S. citizenship and good moral character. A lawyer who has been admitted to the bar in one State can usually be admitted in another without taking an examina tion, provided he meets that State’s standards of good moral character and has a specified period of legal experience. The special rules of each court or agency control the right to practice before Federal courts and agencies. To qualify for the bar examina 233 tions in the majority of States, an applicant must have completed a minimum of 3 years of college work and, in addition, must be a graduate of a law school approved by the American Bar Association or the proper State authorities. A few States will accept as qualification study of the law wholly in a law office or in combination with study in a law school. Only one State will accept study of the law by corre spondence. A number of States re quire registration and approval by the State Board of Examiners be fore students enter law school or during the early years of legal study. In a few States, candidates must complete a period of clerkship in a law office before they are admitted to the bar. As a rule, 7 years of full-time study after high school is necessary to complete the required college and law school work. The most usual preparation for becoming a lawyer is 4 years of college study followed by 3 years in law school. However, many law schools admit students after only 3 years of col lege work. A few schools may ac cept students after 2 years of col lege work. On the other hand, an increasing number of law schools are requiring applicants to have a college degree. Law schools seldom specify the college subjects which must be included in students’ prelegal education. However, English, history, economics and other social sciences, logic, and public speaking are all important for prospective lawyers. In general, their college background should be broad enough to give them an understanding of society and its institutions. Students interested in a particular aspect of the law may find it helpful to take related courses; for example, engi neering and science courses for the prospective patent attorney, and ac 234 counting for the future tax lawyer. Prospective lawyers should also enjoy working with people and be capable of winning their confidence. Acceptance by most law schools is dependent upon the applicant’s ability to demonstrate an aptitude for the study of law, usually through the “Law School Admissions Test.” Of the 173 law schools in exist ence in 1970, 148 were approved by the American Bar Association and the others— chiefly night schools— were approved by State authorities only. A substantial num ber of full-time law schools have night divisions designed to meet the needs of part-time students; some law schools have only night classes. Four years of part-time study are usually required to complete the night-school curriculum. In 1969, almost a quarter of all law students in A B A approved schools were en rolled in evening classes. The first 2 years of law school are generally devoted to fundamen tal courses such as contracts, crimi nal law, property law, and judicial procedure. In the third year, stu dents may elect courses in special ized fields such as tax, labor, or cor poration law. Practical experience is often obtained by participating in school-sponsored legal aid activities, in the school’s practice court where students conduct trials under the su pervision of experienced lawyers, as well as by writing on legal issues for the school’s law journal. Graduates receive the degree of juris doctor (J .D .) from many schools, although other schools confer the bachelor of laws (L L .B .) as the first profes sional degree. Advanced study is often desirable for those planning to specialize or to engage in research and law-school teaching. Most beginning lawyers start in salaried positions, although some go into independent practice immedi OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK ately after passing the bar examina tion. Young salaried attorneys usu ally act as assistants (law clerks) to experienced lawyers or judges. Ini tially, their work is limited to re search, such as checking points of law; they rarely see a client or argue a case in court. After several years of progressively responsible salaried employment, many lawyers go into practice for themselves. Some law yers, after years of practice, become judges. Employment Outlook Graduates from highly regarded law schools, as well as those who rank high in their classes, will have good employment prospects through the 1970’s. They should find oppor tunities for salaried positions with well-known law firms, on the legal staffs of corporations and govern ment agencies, and as law clerks to judges. Graduates of the less promi nent schools and those who gradu ate with lower scholastic ratings may experience some difficulty in finding salaried positions as lawyers. However, numerous opportunities will be available for law school graduates to enter a variety of other types of salaried positions requiring a knowledge of law. Prospects for establishing a new practice will probably continue to be best in small towns and expand ing suburban areas. In such com munities, competition is likely to be less than in big cities, and rent and other business costs somewhat lower. Also, young lawyers may find it easier to become known to poten tial clients. On the other hand, sala ried employment will be limited largely to metropolitan areas where the chief employers of legal talent — government agencies, law firms and big corporations— are concen trated. For many able and well- qualified lawyers, opportunities to advance will be available in both salaried employment and private practice. Although the majority of employ ment opportunities for new lawyers will arise from the need to replace those who retire, die, or otherwise leave the field, the total number of lawyers is expected to grow moder ately over the long run. Most of the growth will result from continuing expansion of business activity and population, and the increased use of legal services by low- and middleincome groups. For example, ex pansion of legal services for lowincome groups has come about through the Community Action Programs authorized under the Ec onomic Opportunity Act of 1964. In addition, the growing complexity of business and government activi ties is expected to create a steadily expanding demand for lawyers who have extensive experience in corpo ration, patent, administrative, labor, and international law. However, continuing a recent trend, the num ber of lawyers in independent prac tice may remain stable or decline somewhat. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, law firms in several States offered annual starting sala ries as high as $15,000 to law school graduates from widely recog nized schools or those having high academic standing. For lawyers em ployed by manufacturing and other business firms the average starting salary was over $11,500 a year in 1970; with 1 year’s experience, over $13,000; and with a few years’ ex perience, an average of $16,800. In the Federal Government, annual starting salaries for attorneys pass ing the bar were either $9,881 or OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS $11,905 in 1970, depending upon their academic and personal qualifi cations. Those with a few years’ ex perience earned $16,760 a year. Some exceptional government law yers earned more than $35,000 an nually. Beginning lawyers engaged in legal aid work usually receive the lowest starting salaries. New lawyers starting their own practices may earn little more than expenses dur ing the first few years and may work part time in another occupation. Lawyers’ earnings generally in crease with experience. Those on a salaried basis receive increases as they assume greater responsibilities. In 1970, the average annual salary in private industry for those in charge of legal staffs was more than $33,000. Incomes of lawyers in pri vate practice usually grow as their practice develops. Private practition ers who are partners in law firms generally have greater average in comes than those who practice alone. Lawyers often work long hours and are under considerable pressure when a case is being tried. In addi tion, they must keep abreast of the latest laws and court decisions. However, since lawyers in private practice are able to determine their own hours and workload, many stay in practice until well past the usual retirement age. Sources of Additional Information The specific requirements for ad mission to the bar in a particular State may be obtained from the clerk of the Supreme Court or the secretary of the Board of Bar E x aminers at that State capital. Infor mation on law schools and on law as a career is available from: Information Service, The American Bar Association, 1155 East 60th St., Chicago, 111. 60637. Association of American Law Schools, Suite 370, 1 Dupont Circle, NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. LIB R A R IA N S (D.O.T. 100.118 through .388) Nature of the Work Making information available is the job of librarians. Librarians se 235 lect and organize collections of books, pamphlets, manuscripts, pe riodicals, clippings, and reports, and assist readers in their use. In many libraries, they also may make avail able phonograph records, maps, slides, pictures, tapes, films, paint ings, braille and talking books, mi crofilms, and computer tapes and programs. In addition to classifying and cataloging books and other loan items, they publicize library serv ices, study the reading interests of people served by the library, and provide a research and a reference service to various groups. Librari ans also may review and abstract 236 published materials and prepare bibliographies. In small libraries, librarians per form a great variety of tasks. In a large library, each librarian may perform only a single function, such as cataloging, publicizing library services, or providing reference serv ice, or he may specialize in a sub ject area such as science, business, the arts, or medicine. Librarians are generally classified by the type of library in which they are employed: Public library, school media center, college or uni versity library, or special library. There are two principal kinds of li brary work— reader services and technical services. Those who per form reader services— for example, reference librarians and children’s librarians— work directly with the public. Librarians who perform technical services, such as catalog e d or acquisition librarians, deal less frequently with the public. P u b lic lib ra ria n s serve all kinds of readers— children, students, teachers, research workers, and oth ers. Increasingly, librarians are pro viding special materials and services to culturally and educationally de prived persons and to physically handicapped persons unable to use conventional print. The professional staff of a large public library system may include the chief librarian, an assistant chief, and several division heads who plan and coordinate the work of the entire library system. This system also may include librar ians who supervise branch libraries, and other librarians who are spe cialists in certain areas. The duties of some of these specialists are briefly described as follows: A c q u is itio n lib ra ria n s purchase books and other library materials recommended by staff members, or requested by patrons, keep a wellbalanced library in quantity and OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK quality, make sure that the library receives what it orders, and main tain close contact with book jobbers and publishers. C a ta lo g e rs classify books under various subjects and otherwise describe them so they may be located through catalogs on cards or in other forms. R e fe r e n c e lib ra ria n s aid readers in their search for information— answering specific questions or suggesting sources of information. This work requires a thorough understanding of biblio graphic material and a general knowledge of library materials in various subject fields. C h ild r e n 's li b ra ria n s plan and direct special pro grams for young people. Their du ties include helping children find books they will enjoy, instructing them in the use and content of the library, giving talks on books, con ducting film programs, and main taining contact with schools and community organizations. Often, they conduct regular story hours at libraries, playgrounds and day care centers, and sometimes on radio or television. A d u lt s e r v ic e s lib ra ria n s may select materials for adult read ers and advise them. They are often asked to suggest reading materials, and to cooperate in or plan and conduct educational programs on such topics of adult interest as com munity development, public affairs, creative arts, problems of the aging, or home and family life. Y o u n g a d u lt s e r v ic e s lib ra ria n s may select books and other materials for young people of junior Jhigh school and high school age and gitide them in the use of these materials. They may arrange book or film discussion groups, concerts of recorded popu lar and classical music, and other programs related to the interests of young adults. They also may help to coordinate the services of the school libraries and the local public library. B o o k m o b ile lib ra ria n s take library materials into areas where public li brary services are nonexistent or in adequate, in inner city neighbor hoods, migrant camps, and institu tions such as hospitals and homes for the aged and others. S c h o o l m e d ia s p e c ia lis ts (school librarians) instruct students in the use of the library and visit class rooms to familiarize students with print and nonprint materials relating to the subjects being taught. They also work with teachers and school supervisors in planning and devel oping units of study and independ ent study programs and participate in team teaching. They prepare lists of printed and nonprinted materials on certain subjects; meet with fac ulty members to select materials for school programs; and select, order, and organize library materials. Many school media specialists are employed by school district central offices as supervisors to plan and coordinate library services for the entire school system, as catalogers and as librarians to administer pro fessional libraries for teachers and administrators. Very large high schools may employ several media specialists, each responsible for a special function of the library pro gram or for special subject mate rials. C o lle g e a n d u n iv e rs ity lib ra ria n s work with students, faculty mem bers, and research workers in gen eral reference work or in a particu lar field of interest, such as law, medicine, economics, or music. In addition, they may teach one or more classes in the use of the li brary. A few librarians who are em ployed in university research proj ects operate documentation cen ters. Computers and other modern devices are being increasingly used to record and retrieve specialized information. S p e c ia l lib ra ria n s work in librar OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS ies maintained by commercial and industrial firms, such as pharmaceu tical companies, banks, advertising agencies, and research laboratories; professional and trade associations; government agencies; and other types of organizations such as hos pitals and museums. They plan, ac quire, organize, catalog, and re trieve information from collections designed to provide intensive cover age of information resources about subjects of special interest to the or ganization. Special librarians utilize their extensive knowledge of the subject matter, as well as of library science, in building library re sources, advising and assisting li brary users, abstracting, and routing available materials. They must be able to evaluate the importance of new information to their organiza tion. Literature searching and the preparation of summaries, transla tions, bibliographies, and special re ports are among the major duties of special librarians. These operations may involve the use of electronic data processing equipment. In fo rm a tio n sc ie n c e sp e c ia lists, like special librarians, work in tech nical libraries maintained by com mercial and industrial firms. H ow ever, they must possess a more ex tensive technical and scientific back ground than special librarians. They not only perform many of the duties of special librarians, but they also develop coding and programing techniques for using electronic and electromechanical information stor age devices and abstract compli cated information into short, reada ble form, and interpret and analyze data for a highly specialized clien tele. Information on library techni cians, is found in a separate state ment in the H a n d b o o k . Places of Employment In 1970, about 125,000 persons were employed as professional li brarians. Most of them worked full time. School librarians accounted for more than two-fifths of all li brarians; public librarians repre sented nearly one-fourth; librarians in colleges and universities ac counted for one-fifth; and those em ployed in special libraries (includ ing libraries in government agen cies), one out of seven. Some librarians were employed in correc tional institutions, hospitals, and State institutions. A small number of librarians were employed as teachers and administrators in schools of library science. More than 85 percent of all li brarians are women. Men are more frequently employed than women in executive and administrative posi tions in large library systems and in special libraries concerned with sci ence and technology. Most librarians work in cities and towns. Those attached to bookmo bile units serve widely scattered population groups, mostly in subur ban or rural areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To qualify as a professional li brarian, one must ordinarily have completed a 1-year master’s degree program in library science. A Ph. D. degree is an advantage to those who plan a teaching career in li brary schools or who aspire to a top administrative post, particularly in a college or university library or in a large school library system. For those who are interested in the spe cial libraries field, a master’s degree or doctorate in the subject of the li 237 brary’s specialization also is highly desirable. In 1970, 46 library schools in the United States were accredited by the American Library Association. Many other colleges offer courses within their 4-year undergraduate programs, as well as at the graduate level, which prepare students for some types of library work. Entrance requirements to most graduate schools of library science include ( 1 ) graduation from an ac credited 4-year college or univer sity, (2 ) a good undergraduate rec ord, and ( 3 ) a reading knowledge of at least one foreign language. Some schools also require introduc tory undergraduate courses in li brary science. Most library schools prefer a liberal arts background and majors in areas such as social sci ences, physical and biological sci ences, the arts, or comparative liter ature. Some schools require en trance examinations. Special librarians and science in formation specialists must have ex tensive knowledge of their subject matter as well as training in library science. In libraries devoted to sci entific information, librarians should be proficient in one foreign lan guage or more. They also must be well informed about new equip ment, methods, and techniques used in storing and recalling technical in formation. Many students attend library schools under cooperative workstudy programs, combining their ac ademic program with practical work experience in a library. Most library schools make every effort to arrange the student’s schedule to permit him to take the necessary courses while working part-time. Scholarships for training in library science are avail able under certain State and Federal programs and from library schools, 238 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK as well as from a number of the large libraries and library associa tions. Loans, assistantships, and fi nancial aids also are available. School librarians must be certi fied in most States as having met the requirements for both librarians and teachers. Sometimes local, county, or State authorities establish other requirements, that are based on dif ferent combinations of education and experience. In the Federal Gov ernment, beginning positions re quire completion of a 4-year college course and all the work required for a master’s degree in library science or the equivalent in experience and education. In addition to an appropriate ed ucational background, a person in terested in becoming a librarian should have an interest in people, intellectual curiosity, an ability to express himself clearly, a desire to search for recorded materials and use them, and an ability to work with others. Experienced librarians may ad vance to administrative positions or to specialized work. However, pro motion to these positions is limited primarily to those who have com pleted graduate training in a library school, or to those who have had specialized training. Employment Outlook The employment outlook for trained librarians is expected to be good through the 1970’s. The best opportunities probably will be in school and college and university li braries, especially in research, sub ject specialties, and some languages. Some librarians will probably con tinue to find opportunities for em ployment in the Armed Forces and the U.S. Information Agency over seas. Persons who have only a bache lor’s degree with a major in library science, probably will encounter stiff competition in finding profes sional level jobs. Many part-time positions also will be available for persons trained in library work. The demand for qualified librari ans to meet the requirements of a growing and increasingly well-edu cated population will be intensified by the vast and continuing expan sion in the volume and variety of materials which must be processed for reader use. Because of the ever-increasing demands upon high-level executives in business and industry, management will rely more heavily on the services of spe cial librarians and science informa tion specialists to keep abreast of new developments. Expanding use of computers to store and retrieve information also will contribute to increased demands for science in formation specialists. The increase of Federal grant assistance through the Library Services and Construc tion Act, the Medical Assistance Act, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, and the Higher Ed ucation Act may further increase the demand for librarians. Im proved standards for school media centers and college libraries and the expanding student population also will contribute to the demand for li brarians. Additional librarians will be needed to provide services to in mates and patients in correctional institutions and to residents in schools for the blind, deaf, and handicapped people who cannot use conventional materials. In addition to openings resulting from growth of the occupation, many librarians also will be needed each year to fill positions vacated by young women who leave their jobs to care for their families, and to re place librarians who transfer to other types of work, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. Oppor tunities for women wishing to reen ter the field also will be favorable. Earnings and Working Conditions The annual starting salary of new library school graduates averaged about $8,700 in 1970. The degree of responsibility and technical skill required, as well as geographic loca tion, size, and type of library, are important factors determining indi vidual salaries. The higher paying positions generally are found in col lege, school, and special libraries. College and university libraries of fered an average beginning salary of about $8,700 in 1970. New gradu ates employed in special libraries received about $8,400; those em ployed in public libraries averaged about $8,100. Librarians having ex tensive experience and information specialists having a Ph. D. degree in a subject matter field generally earned between $10,000 and $15,000 a year. Qualified special librarians can usually expect to earn salaries in ex cess of those paid to public and school librarians because of their additional specialized subject train ing. The annual salary for all special librarians was $11,800 in 1970, but head librarians reported an average salary of $13,600, with a few mak ing over $20,000 a year. Informa tion science specialists received an average of $ 1 2 ,0 0 0 a year in 1970. In the Federal Government, the annual entrance salary for librarians having a master’s degree in library science was $9,881 in 1970. Expe rienced librarians generally earned from $10,200 to $19,800. OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS The typical workweek for librari ans is 5 days, ranging from 35 to 40 hours. The work schedule of public and college librarians may include some Saturday, Sunday, and eve ning work. School librarians gener ally have the same workday sched ule as classroom teachers. A 40hour week during normal business hours is common for government and other special librarians. The usual paid vacation after a year’s service is 3 to 4 weeks. V aca tions may be longer in school librar ies, and somewhat shorter in those operated by business and industry. Many librarians are covered by sick leave; life, health, and accident in surance; and pension plans. Information on information sci ence specialists may be obtained from: American Society for Information Science, 1140 Connecticut Ave nue, NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Individual State library agencies can furnish information on scholar ships available through their offices, on requirements for certification aqd general information about ca reer prospects in their regions. State boards of education can furnish in formation on certification require ments and job opportunities for school librarians. Sources of Additional Information Additional information, particu larly on accredited programs, and scholarships or loans may be ob tained from: American Library Association, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, 111. 60611. Information on requirements of special librarians may be obtained from: Special Libraries Association, 235 Park Ave., South, New York, N.Y. 10003. Information on Federal assist ance for library training under the Higher Education A ct of 1965 may be obtained from: Division of Library and Educational Facilities, Bureau of Libraries and Educational Technology, Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C. 20202. Those interested in a career in Federal libraries should write to : Secretariat Federal Library Com mittee, Room 310, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540. LIC EN SE D M E R C H A N T M A R IN E O FFICERS Nature of the Work The Coast Guard licenses ship’s professional and supervisory per sonnel consisting of deck, engine, and radio officers. In command of every ocean-going vessel is the c a p ta in (D .O .T . 197.168) or m a ste r who is the shipowner’s sole repre sentative. H e has complete author ity and responsibility for the opera tion of the ship, including discipline and order, and the safety of the crew, passengers, cargo, and vessel. While in port, the captain may function as the agent for the ship owners by conferring with custom officials. In some cases, he may act as paymaster for the ship. Although not technically a member of a spe cific department, he generally is as sociated with the deck department, from whose ranks he was promoted. 239 D e c k D e p a r tm e n t. Acting under supervision of the captain, deck of ficers or “mates” as they are tradi tionally called, direct the navigation and piloting of the ship and the maintenance of the deck and hull. American vessels are equipped with modern navigational devices, such as radar, sonar, and radio direc tional finders. Deck officers must be familiar with these and other instru ments to operate ships safely and efficiently. While on duty, the deck officer maintains the authorized speed and course; plots the vessel’s position at frequent intervals; posts lookouts when required; records his watch in the ship’s “log” of the voyage; and immediately notifies the captain of any unusual occurrences. Besides acting as watch officer, each deck officer performs other duties. The c h ie f m a te (D .O .T . 1 9 7 .1 3 3 ) , or first mate or chief officer, as he is also known, is the captain’s key assistant in assigning duties to the deck crew and main taining order and discipline. He also plans and carries out the loading, unloading, and stowing of cargo, and assists the captain in taking the ship in and out of port. On some ships he also may be in charge of first aid treatment. By tradition, the s e c o n d m a te (D .O .T . 197.133) is the naviga ting officer. He sees that the ship is provided with the necessary naviga tion charts and that navigating equipment is maintained properly. The th ird m a te (D .O .T. 1 9 7 .1 3 3 ) , the most junior-rated deck officer, is responsible for the care and the maintenance of the navigating bridge and the chartroom. He acts as the signal officer and is in charge of all signaling equipment and assists in the super vision of cargo loading and unload- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 240 Chief mate directs speed and course of cargo ship. ing operations. Third mates fre quently inspect life boats and other lifesaving equipment to be sure they are ready for use in fire, shipwreck, or other emergencies. E n g in e D e p a r tm e n t. Marine engi neers operate and maintain all en gines and machinery aboard the ship. The c h ie f en g in e e r (D .O .T. 197.130 ) supervises the engine de partment, and is responsible for the operating efficiency of engines and other mechanical equipment. He oversees the operation of the main power plant and auxiliary equip ment while the vessel is underway and is responsible for the log of equipment performance and fuel consumption. The first a ssista n t e n g in e e r (D .O .T . 1 9 7.130) supervises en gine room personnel and directs op erations such as starting, stopping, and controlling the speed of the main engines. He oversees and in spects the lubrication of engines, pumps, electric motors, generators, and other machinery, and with the aid of the chief engineer, directs all types of repairs. A s with the deck department, the engineroom is operated on a 24hour basis. Second and third as sistant engineers are assigned watch periods during which they are re sponsible for the operation of the ship’s propulsion plant and auxiliary machinery and the supervision of engine department personnel. Ma rine engineers on watch must notify the chief engineer of any unusual occurrence and keep a record of equipment performance. Each member of the engineering staff performs specific duties. The s e c o n d a ssista n t e n g in e e r (D .O .T. 197.130) has charge of the boiler and associated equipment such as the water-feed system and pumps. He is responsible for the mainte nance of proper steam pressure and oil and water temperatures. He su pervises the cleaning of the boilers and is usually responsible for their operation and the operation of the steam generator. The th ird a ssista n t en g in ee r (D .O .T . 197.130) supervises the operation and maintenance of the lubrication system and engineroom auxiliaries. At least one third assist ant engineer is employed as a day man (nonwatchstander) and is re sponsible for the electrical and re frigeration systems aboard ship. O th e r o fficers. A ship maintains contact with shore and other vessels through its r a d io o fficer (D .O .T. 1 9 3 .2 8 2 ), who also maintains radio equipment. A passenger ship car ries three to six radio officers; the average cargo vessel employs one. The officer sends and receives mes sages by voice or Morse code. He periodically receives and records time signals, weather reports, posi tion reports, and other navigation and technical data. The radio officer may also maintain depth recording equipment and electronic navigation equipment. Some cargo and tanker vessels and all passenger vessels carry p u rs ers (D .O .T . 1 9 7 .1 6 8 ). The purser or staff officer performs the exten- OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Marine engineer controls running speed of main engine. sive paperwork required to enter and clear a ship in each port, pre pare payrolls, and assist passengers as required. In recent years, the Staff Officers Association has es tablished a program to train pursers to act also as pharmacist mates. This instruction is designed to im prove the medical care aboard freighters and tankers and facilitate Public Health clearance when a ship arrives in port. All passenger ships must carry licensed doctors and nurses. vessels during m id-1970. Deck officers and engineering officers ac counted for more than four-fifths of total employment, and radio officers made up most of the re mainder. About 70 percent of the officers were aboard dry cargo vessels and 27 percent were aboard tankers. The remaining 3 percent manned passenger vessels. Places of Employment Persons applying for the first time for an officer’s license in the deck and engineering departments of oceangoing vessels must meet cer Nearly 11,000 officers were em ployed aboard U.S. Flag oceangoing Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement 241 tain legal requirements. Captains, chief and second mates, and chief and first assistant engineers must be at least 21 years of age. The mini mum age for third mates, third as sistant engineers, and radio opera tors is 19. In addition, applicants must present documentary proof of U.S. citizenship and obtain a U.S. Public Health Service certificate at testing to their vision, color percep tion, and general physical condition. In addition to legal and medical requirements, candidates for deck officer rating must pass Coast Guard examinations that require ex tensive knowledge of seamanship, navigation, cargo handling, and the operations of the deck department. Marine engineering officer candi dates must demonstrate in-depth knowledge of propulsion systems, electricity, plumbing and steam fit ting, metal shaping and assembly, and ship structure. To advance to higher ratings, officers must pass progressively more difficult exami nations. For a Coast Guard license as a radio officer, applicants must have a first or second-class radiotelegraph operator’s license issued by the Federal Communications Commis sion. For a license to serve as the sole radio operator aboard a cargo vessel, the Coast Guard also re quires 6 months of radio experience at sea. Unlike most professions, no edu cation requirements have been es tablished for officers. A seaman who has served for 3 years in the deck or engine department may apply for either a third mate’s li cense or for a third assistant engi neer’s license. However, because of the complex machinery, naviga tional, and electronic equipment on modern ships, formal training usu ally is needed to pass the Coast OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 242 Guard’s examination for these licen ses. The fastest and surest way to be come a well-trained officer is through an established training pro gram. Such programs are available at the U.S. Merchant Marine Acad emy at Kings Point, N .Y . and at five State merchant marine academies: California Maritime Academy, Val lejo, Calif.; M aine Maritime A cad emy, Castine, Maine; Massachusetts Maritime Academy, Hyannis, Mass.; Texas Maritime Academy, Galveston, Tex.; and New York Maritime College, Fort Schuyler, New York, N .Y . Approximately 600 students graduate each year from the six schools; about one-half are trained as deck officers and one-half as marine engineers. En trance requirements for each of the academies are very high. Admission to the Federal academy is through nomination by a member of Con gress, whereas entrance to the other academies is made through written application directly to the school. Each of the academies offers 3or 4-year courses in nautical science or marine engineering, as well as practical experience at sea. Subjects include navigation, mathematics, electronics, seamanship, propulsion systems, electrical engineering, lan guages, history, and shipping man agement. Each student receives a subsistence allowance and a bache lor of science degree upon gradua tion. After Coast Guard examina tions are passed, licenses are issued for either third mate or third assist ant engineer. In addition, graduates may receive commissions as ensigns in the U.S. Naval Reserve. Because of their thorough grounding in theory and its practical application, academy graduates are in the best position to move up to master and chief engineer ratings. Their well-rounded education also helps qualify them -for shoreside jobs such as marine superintendent, operating manager, or shipping ex ecutive. A number of trade unions in the maritime industry provide officer training. These unions include the International Organization of Mas ters, Mates and Pilots; the Seafar ers’ International Union; the Brotherhood of Marine Officers; and the National Marine Engineers’ Beneficial Association. Most union programs are designed to upgrade experienced seamen to officer rat ings, although some programs ac cept inexperienced young men. For example, the National Marine Engi neers’ Beneficial Association (M E B A ) operates the Calhoon M EBA Engineering School in Balti more, Md., which offers high school graduates a 3-year apprenticeship training program in preparation for a third assistant engineer’s license. The program consists of both class room instruction and sea experience and provides free room, board, medical care, and text books in ad dition to a monthly grant. Trainees must agree to serve at least 3 years in the U.S. Merchant Marine after the 3-year training period. Advancement for deck and en gine officers is along well-defined lines and depends primarily upon specified sea experience, passing a Coast Guard examination, and leadership ability. Deck officers start as third mates. After 1 year’s service they are eligible to take a second mate examination. A second mate may apply for a chief mate’s license after 1 year of service, and a chief mate may apply for a captain’s license after 1 year of service. An officer in the engine department starts as third assistant engineer. After 1 year of service, he may apply for a second assistant’s li cense. After further experience, he may apply for first assistant’s license and finally a chief engineer’s li cense. Whether an officer’s best pros pects lie in the deck or the engi neering department is a question generating considerable debate among the unions representing these workers. It seems clear, however, that the present sharp craft line drawn between deck and engineer ing jobs will become blurred. The emphasis will be on job function; the newest automated equipment will cut across departmental lines, union jurisdictions, and present work specialties. Some jobs will be entirely new, and both officers and seamen will require a new inventory of skills to hold them. For example, experience gained by standing watch in an engineroom of a con ventional vessel may be secondary compared with basic courses in electronics. In anticipation of this trend, the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy now selects 10 percent of the ap proximately 300 men who enter the academy each year to be trained as “omnicompetent” officers. They are taught both navigational and techni cal skills so they can work in either department. Employment Outlook Employment of ship officers is expected to decline moderately dur ing the 1970’s. However, some jobs will arise each year from the need to replace experienced officers who retire, die, or take shoreside em ployment. The primary factors responsible for the expected employment de cline are the continued decrease in the size of the fleet and the smaller crews on new vessels which result from mechanization. Future em- OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS ployment requirements in the final analysis will depend upon govern ment policy with respect to the level of U.S. flag participation in water borne foreign commerce. (See in troductory statement on Merchant Marine Occupations for additional information on employment out look.) Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of officers depend upon rank and the size and type of ship. Wages are highest on large ships. The accompanying tabulation shows monthly base wages for officers aboard an average freighter. Addi tional payments for overtime, sup plemental pay and “penalty pay” generally average about 50 percent of base pay. A monthly sum in lieu of overtime is paid to captains, chief mates, chief engineers and first and third assistant engineers who do not stand watch. The officer’s rank and the type of ship determine the monthly sum, which ranged from $218 to $700 in 1970. Base pay1 Captain .......................................... $2,305 First m a te............................. 1,271 Second m ate......................... 901 Third mate ........................... 809 Radio officer......................... 996 Purser ................................... 2 743 Chief engineer .................... 2,126 First assistant engineer........ 1,271 Second assistant engineer.... 901 809 Third assistant engineer...... 1 East Coast wages in August 1970 aboard a 12,000-17,000 power ton single screw ship. 2 Purser/pharmacist mate, $806. Officers and their dependents enjoy substantial benefits from non contributory pension and welfare plans. For example, deck officers are eligible for a monthly pension of $325 after 20 years of service, and up to one-half their monthly rate 243 after 25 years of service. Men scales and other particulars can be forced to retire prematurely due to obtained from local maritime un a permanent disability receive par ions. If no seafaring union is listed tial pensions. Comprehensive medi in a local telephone directory, infor cal care and hospitalization are pro mation may be obtained from the vided for officers and their families' following: through union programs. International Organization of Mas Aboard ship, each officer has a ters, Mates and Pilots, 39 Broad way, New York, N.Y. 10006. private room with hot and cold run ning water, and his room is cleaned National Marine Engineers’ Benefi cial Association, 17 Battery Place, daily by a steward. Officers eat in a New York, N.Y. 10004. dining salon separate from the messhall in which seamen eat. A number of labor organizations M A N U FA C T U R E R S ' represent merchant marine officers. SA LESM EN The two largest are the Interna tional Organization of Masters, (D.O.T. 260. through 289.458) Mates and Pilots representing deck officers and the National Marine Engineers’ Beneficial Association Nature of the Work representing engineering officers. Unions for Officers may require Practically all manufacturers— initiation fees as high as $1,000. whether they make electronic com The Brotherhood of Marine puters or can openers— employ Officers represents deck and engine salesmen. Manufacturers’ salesmen officers on about 30 vessels. The sell mainly to other businesses— fac Staff Officers Association represents tories, railroads, banks, wholesalers, pursers on all Atlantic and Gulf and retailers. They also sell to hos Coast passenger vessels and certain pitals, schools, and other institu freighters. Radio officers are repre tions. sented by the American Radio A s Most manufacturers’ salesmen sociation and the Radio Officers sell nontechnical products. Sales Union. In addition, a number of in men in this kind of work must be dependent unions represent officers well informed about their firms’ on tankers. products and also about the special (See introductory statement on requirements of their customers. Merchant Marine Occupations for When a salesman visits firms in his more information on earnings and territory, he uses an approach working conditions.) adapted to his particular line of merchandise. Thus, a salesman of Sources of Additional Information crackers or cookies emphasizes the General information about jobs wholesomeness of his products, in the merchant marine may be ob their attractive packaging, and the variety. Sometimes salesmen pro tained from: mote their products by displays in Office of Maritime Manpower, Mari hotels and conferences with whole time Administration, U.S. De salers and other customers. partment of Commerce, Washing ton, D.C. 20235. Information about job openings, qualifications for employment, wage A salesman of highly technical products, such as electronic equip ment, often is called a sa le s e n g i 244 n e e r or an in d u stria l sa le sm a n . In addition to having a thorough knowledge of his firm’s products, he must be able to help prospective buyers with technical problems. For example, he may spend days or weeks analyzing a firm’s manufac turing problems to determine the kinds of equipment and materials best suited to its operation. He then presents his solution to company of ficials and tries to negotiate the sale. Often, sales engineers work with the research and development depart ments of their own companies in de vising ways to adapt products to a customer’s specialized needs. Sales men of technical products som e times train their customers’ em ployees in the operation and main tenance of new equipment, and make frequent return visits to be certain that it is giving the desired service. Although manufacturers’ sales men spend most of their time visit OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK ing prospective customers, they also do some paperwork including re ports on sales prospects in their ter ritories or customers’ credit ratings. In addition they must plan their work schedules, compile lists of prospects, make appointments, con duct some sales correspondence, and study literature relating to their products. Places of Employment Over 500,000 manufacturers’ salesmen were employed in 1970; about 4 5 ,0 0 0 were sales engineers. Some manufacturers’ salesmen work out of home offices, often lo cated at manufacturing plants. The majority, however, work out of branch offices, usually in big cities near prospective customers. More salesmen work for compa nies that produce food products than for any other industry. Other industries that employ large num bers of salesmen include printing and publishing, chemicals, fabri cated metal products, and electrical and other machinery. The largest employers of sales engineers pro duce heavy machinery, transporta tion equipment, fabricated metal products, and professional and sci entific instruments. About 10 per cent of all manufacturers’ sales people are women, most of whom are employed in industries produc ing food products. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although high school graduates can be successful manufacturers’ salesmen, college graduates increas ingly are preferred as trainees. Manufacturers of nontechnical products often prefer college gradu ates who have a degree in liberal arts or business administration. Training at a college of pharmacy usually is required for jobs as drug salesmen. A salesman of compli cated equipment needs a technical education. For example, manufac turers of electrical equipment, heavy machinery, and some types of chemicals prefer to hire collegetrained engineers or chemists. (In formation on chemists, engineers, and other professionally trained workers who may be employed as manufacturers’ salesmen is pre sented elsewhere in the H a n d b o o k .) Although many prospective sales men are hired at the sales offices of manufacturing concerns, represent atives of manufacturers sometimes recruit college seniors who are well qualified academically and have participated in extra-curricular ac tivities. A pleasing personality and appearance and the ability to meet and get along well with many types of people are important. Since salesmen may have to walk or stand for long periods of time or carry product samples, physical stamina is necessary. As in most selling jobs, arithmetic skills are an asset. Beginning salesmen are given specialized training before they start on the job. Some companies, espe cially those manufacturing complex technical products, have formal training programs lasting 2 years or longer. In some of these programs, trainees are rotated among jobs in several departments of the plant and office to learn all phases of production, installation, and distri bution of the product. Other train ees receive formal class instruction at the plant, followed by intensive on-the-job training in a branch office under the supervision of field sales managers. Sales representatives who have 245 good sales records and leadership ability may advance to sales super visors, branch managers, or district managers. Those having managerial skill eventually may advance to sales manager or other executive positions; many top executive jobs in industry are filled by men who started as salesmen. Because of frequent contact with businessmen in other firms, sales men often transfer to better jobs. Some salesmen go into business for themselves as manufacturers’ agents selling similar products of several manufacturers. Experienced sales men often find opportunities in ad vertising, market research, and other fields related to selling. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for manufacturers’ salesmen are ex pected to be favorable during the 1970’s. Several thousand openings will occur annually as employment in this occupation rises and as exist ing jobs become vacant because of retirements or deaths. Still other va cancies will occur as salesmen leave their jobs to enter other types of employment. The number of manufacturers’ salesmen is expected to rise moder ately due to general economic growth and the greater emphasis manufacturers will be placing on their sales activities. The devel opment of new products and im proved marketing techniques proba bly will heighten competition among the manufacturers. Because of the increase in the volume of business transacted with some customers— modern industrial complexes, chain store organizations, and large insti tutions of many kinds— competition among the manufacturers supplying these organizations will intensify the need for effective sales organiza tions. Despite the filling of thou sands of sales jobs each year, manu facturers are expected to be selec tive in hiring. They will look for ambitious young people who are both well trained and temperamen tally suited for their jobs. As mar kets for technical products expand, demand for trained salesmen is likely to be particularly strong. Earnings and Working Conditions According to limited data, start ing salaries for beginning salesmen averaged about $8,500 a year in 1970. By including commissions and bonuses most salesmen earned more than this amount annually. The highest starting salaries gener ally were paid by manufacturers of electrical and electronic equipment, construction materials, hardware and tools, and scientific and preci sion instruments. Some manufacturing concerns pay experienced salesmen a straight commission, based on their dollar amount of sales; others pay a fixed salary. The majority, however, use a combination plan: salary and com mission, salary and bonus, or salary-commission and bonus. Com missions vary according to the sales man’s efforts and ability, the com mission rate, location of his sales territory, and the type of product sold. Bonus payments may be con tingent upon the individual sales man’s performance, that of all sales men in his group or district, or upon the company’s sales performance. Some firms pay annual bonuses; others offer them as incentive pay ments on a quarterly or monthly basis. In 1970, many experienced salesmen earned between $16,000 and $32,000 annually; some earned considerably more. Some manufacturers’ salesmen have large territories and do consid erable traveling. Others usually work in the neighborhood of their “home base.” For example, a sales man of heavy industrial equipment may be assigned a territory covering several States and often may be away from home for days or weeks at a time. On the other hand, a salesman of food products may work in a small area and commute from home. When on business trips, salesmen are reimbursed for expenses such as transportation and hotels. Some companies provide a car or pay a mileage allowance to salesmen who use their own cars. Salesmen call at the time most convenient to customers and may have to travel at night or on week ends. Frequently, they spend eve nings writing reports and planning itineraries. However, some sales men plan their schedules for time off when they want it. Most sales men who are not paid a straight commission receive 2 to 4 weeks’ paid vacation, depending on their length of service. They usually share in company benefits, including life insurance, pensions, and hospi tal, surgical, and medical benefits. Sources of Additional Information For more information on the oc cupation of manufacturers’ sales man, write to: Sales and Marketing Executives In ternational, Student Education Division, 630 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 246 S Y S TE M S A N A LYSTS (D.O.T. 033.187, 012.168, 020.081 and 020.088) Nature of the Work Systems analysts plan, schedule, and coordinate the activities neces sary to develop systems which proc ess data to solve business, scien tific, or engineering problems. Indi vidual parts of a problem are viewed within the context of the overall problem. Although a system can be developed to process data manually, mechanically, or with electronic computers, most systems analysts develop methods for com puter usage. (This statement dis cusses only the work of systems analysts who devise systems using electronic computers to process data and solve problems.) Business firms employ systems analysts to solve accounting, inven tory, and other problems. With the assistance of managers or subject matter specialists, they determine the exact nature of the data-processing problem. Then systems analysts define, analyze, and structure the problem logically. They identify all of the data needed and define ex actly the way it is to be processed. They prepare charts, tables, and diagrams to describe the processing system and the steps necessary to its operation. Systems analysts use var ious techniques as tools of analysis; these may include cost accounting, sampling, and mathematical meth ods. After analyzing the problem and devising a system for processing data, systems analysts recommend the equipment to be used and pre pare instructions for programers. They also interpret and translate final results into terms that are un derstandable to management, subject matter specialists, or customers. Data processing problems are vast and solutions so varied and complex that many systems analysts specialize in a particular area. For example, systems analysts who work for scientific or engineering organi zations may determine the flight of a space vehicle. Other analysts may develop systems to plan and forecast sales or conduct marketing research. Some analysts improve systems already in use to handle additional or different types of data. Others do research, described as advanced systems design, to devise new meth ods of systems analysis. Analysts engaged in this type of activity usually have mathematical, scientific, or engineering backgrounds. Systems analysts, who are manag ers or administrators and responsi ble for overall systems design, as sign analysts to various phases of a project. They also ize, and control throughout the which they work ports. may plan, organ systems analysis organization in and prepare re Places of Employment More than 100,000 persons were estimated to be employed as sys tems analysts in 1970. They work mainly for insurance companies, manufacturing concerns, banks, wholesale and retail businesses, and the Federal Government. A growing number of systems analysts are em ployed by universities and independ ent service organizations that fur nish computer services to business firms and other organizations on a fee basis. Systems analysts work chiefly in large cities. OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There is no universally accepta ble way of preparing for work in sys tems analysis. Some employers pre fer that candidates have a bache lor’s degree and experience in mathematics, science, engineering, accounting, or business. Other em ployers stress a graduate degree. Educational preparation and ex perience often determine the kind of job opportunities available. For example, employers are likely to seek an analyst having a back ground in business administration to work in finance or similar areas; those having an engineering back ground are sought for engineering or scientifically oriented systems. Applicants also may qualify on the basis of professional experience in scientific, technical, or managerial occupations, or practical experience in data processing jobs such as com puter operator or programer. M ost employers prefer to hire people who have had some experi ence in computer programing. A young person can learn to use elec tronic data-processing equipment on the job or can take special courses offered by his employer, computer manufacturers, or colleges. In the Federal Government, for example, systems analysts usually begin their careers as programers. After gain ing some experience, they may be promoted to systems analyst trainees and later qualify as systems analysts. In large electronic data-processing departments, a person who be gins as a junior systems analyst and gains experience may be promoted to senior or lead systems analyst. Systems analysts having proven leadership ability also can advance to positions as manager of systems analysis or an electronic data-proc essing department. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for systems analysts should be excellent through the 1970’s. Systems analyst has ranked among the fastest grow ing professional occupations in re cent years. However, because peo ple having a systems analysis or similar background work in fields such as mathematics and science, employers have had difficulty re cruiting these workers. A growing demand for systems analysts will result from the rapid expansion of electronic data-proc essing systems in business and gov ernment. Greater emphasis will be placed on developing computer sys tems that will retrieve information more efficiently; solve complex business, scientific, and engineering problems; and monitor industrial processes. These developments and others, such as the extension of computer technology to small busi ness, the use of systems analysis to determine plant and store location, and the growth of computer centers to serve individual clients for a fee, signify a rapid rise in employment. In addition to opportunities due to growth, some openings will occur as systems analysts advance to more responsible positions or leave their jobs to enter other employment. Be cause many of the workers are young, relatively few positions will result from retirement or death. 247 of experienced systems analysts av eraged $14,300 annually, and in some cases they were paid $25,000 or more a year. Systems analysts usually work about 40 hours a week— the same as other professional and office workers. Unlike many console oper ators who work on two or three shifts, systems analysts generally work only during the day. Occasion ally, evening or weekend work may be necessary to complete emergency projects. Sources of Additional Information Additional information about the occupation of systems analyst may be obtained from the following sources: American Federation of Informa tion Processing Societies, 210 Summit Avenue, Montvale, N.J. 07645. Data Processing Management As sociation, 505 Busse Highway, Park Ridge, 111. 60068. A list of reading materials on ca reer opportunities in the data proc essing field may be obtained from: Association for Computing Ma chinery, 1133 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10036. PILO TS A N D C O PILO TS Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, beginning salaries of systems analysts averaged between $ 8 ,9 5 0 and $12,700 a year, accord ing to a private survey which cov ered more than 80,000 workers in business, government, and educa tional data-processing installations in all parts of the country. Earnings (D.O.T. 196.168, .228, .268, and .283) Nature of the Work The men who have the responsi bility for flying a multimillion dollar plane and safely transporting pas sengers are the pilot and copilot. The pilot (called “captain” by the 248 airlines) operates the controls and performs other tasks necessary for flying a plane, keeping it on course, and landing it safely. He supervises the copilot, flight engineer, and flight attendants. The copilot is sec ond in command. He assists the captain in air-to-ground communi cations, monitoring flight and engine instruments, and in operating the controls of the plane. Both captain and copilot must do a great deal of planning before their plane may take off. They confer with the company meteorologist about weather conditions and, in cooperation with the airline dis patcher, they prepare a flight plan along a route and at altitudes which offer the best weather and wind conditions so that a safe, fast, and smooth flight may be possible. This flight plan must be approved by Fed eral Aviation Administration (F A A ) air traffic control personnel. The copilot plots the course to be flown and computes the flying time between various points. Before takeoff, both men check the opera tion of each engine and the func tioning of the plane’s many instru ments, controls, and electronic and mechanical systems. During the flight, the captain or copilot reports by radio to ground control stations regarding their alti tude, air speed, weather conditions, and other flight details. The captain also supervises the navigation of the flight and keeps close watch on the many instruments which indicate the plane’s fuel load and the condi tion of the engines, controls, elec tronic equipment, and landing gear. The copilot assists in these duties. Before landing, the captain or the copilot recheck the operation of the landing gear and request landing clearance from air traffic control personnel. If visibility is limited when a landing approach is being OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK made, the captain may have to rely primarily on instruments such as the altimeter, air speed indicator, artifi cial horizon, and gyro compass and instrument landing system. Both men must complete a flight report and file trip records in the airline office when the flight is ended. Some pilots, employed by airlines as “check pilots,” make at least two flights a year with each captain to observe his proficiency and adher ence to F A A flight regulations and company policies. Airlines employ some pilots to fly planes leased to private corporations. Airlines also employ pilots as instructors to train both new and experienced pilots in the use of new equipment. Although pilots employed in gen eral aviation usually fly planes smaller than those used by the scheduled airlines, their preflight and flight duties are similar to those of airline pilots. These pilots seldom have the assistance of flight crews. In addition to flying, they may per form minor maintenance and repair work on their planes. In some cases, such as in business flying, they may mingle with and act as host to their passengers. Pilots who are self-em ployed, such as airtaxi operators, in addition to flying and doing some maintenance work, have duties sim ilar to those of other small business men. Places of Employment The scheduled airlines employed over 27,000 pilots and copilots in 1970. In addition, approximately 1,600 pilots were employed by the certificated supplemental airlines (airlines that provide charter and nonscheduled service). A n estimated 18,000 pilots and copilots were employed full-time in general aviation in 1970. Several thousand worked in business flying and air-taxi operations. About 1,600 pilots were employed in aerial ap plication flying. The Federal Gov ernment employed approximately 2,500 pilots (about one-fifth in the F A A ) to perform a variety of serv ices such as examining applicants for pilots’ licenses, inspecting navi gation facilities along Federal air ways, testing planes that are newly designed or have major modifica tions, enforcing game laws, fighting forest fires, and patrolling national boundaries. In addition, State and OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS local governments employed about 800 pilots. Several thousand pilots were employed by companies to in spect pipelines and installations for oil companies, and to provide other aerial services such as private flight instruction, and flights for sightsee ing and aerial photography. A small number worked for aircraft manu facturers as test pilots. In addition, thousands of pilots were employed on a part-time basis. These workers were distributed among all the vari ous general aviation activities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To do any type of commercial flying, pilots or copilots must be li censed by the FA A . Airline cap tains must have an “airline trans port pilot’s” license. Copilots, and most pilots employed in general avi ation, must have a “commercial air plane pilot’s” license. In addition, pilots who are subject to F A A in strument flight regulations or who anticipate flying on instruments when the weather is bad, must have an “instrument rating.” Pilots and copilots also must have a rating for the class of plane they can fly (sin gle-engine, multi-engine, or sea p lane), and for the specific type of plane they can fly, such as DC-9 or Boeing 747. To qualify for a license as a com mercial pilot, applicants must be at least 18 years old and have at least 200 hours of flight experience. To obtain an instrument rating, appli cants must have at least 40 hours of instrument time, 20 hours of which must be in actual flight. Applicants for an airline transport pilot’s li cense must be at least 23 years old and have a total of 1,500 hours of flight time during the previous 8 years, including night flying and in strument flying time. Before a person may receive any license or rating, he must pass a physical examination and a written test given by the F A A covering sub jects such as principles of safe flight operations, Federal Aviation Regu lations, navigation principles, radio operation, and meterology. He also must submit proof that he has com pleted the minimum flighttime re quirements and, in a practical test, demonstrate flying skill and techni cal competence. His certification as a professional pilot remains in effect as long as he can pass an annual physical examination and the peri odic tests of his flying skills required by Government regulation. An air line transport pilot’s license expires when the pilot reaches his 60th birthday. A young man may obtain the knowledge, skills, and flight experi ence necessary to become a pilot through military service or from a private flying school. Graduation from flying schools approved by the F A A satisfies the flight experi ence requirements for licensing. Applicants who have appropriate military flight training and experi ence are required to pass only the Federal Aviation Regulations exam ination if they apply for a license within a year after leaving the serv ice. Those trained in the armed services have the added opportunity to gain experience and accumulate flying time on large aircraft similar to those used by the airlines. As a rule, applicants for a copilot job with the airlines must be be tween 20 and 35 years old, although preference is given to applicants who are between ages 21 and 28. They must be 5 feet 6 inches to 6 feet 4 inches tall and weigh be tween 140 and 210 pounds. All ap plicants must be high school gradu ates; some airlines require 2 years of college and prefer to hire college 249 graduates. Physical requirements for pilots, especially in scheduled airline employment, are very high. They must have at least 2 0 /1 0 0 vision corrected to 2 0 /2 0 , good hearing, outstanding physical stam ina, and no physical handicaps that would prevent quick reactions. Since flying large aircraft places great responsibilities upon a pilot, the airlines use psychological tests to determine an applicant’s alert ness, emotional stability and matu rity, and his ability to assume re sponsibility, command respect, and make quick decisions and accurate judgments under pressure. Men hired by the scheduled air lines (and by some of the larger supplemental airlines) usually start as flight engineers, although they may begin as copilots. An applicant for a flight crew member job with a scheduled airline often must have more than the FA A minimum quali fications for commercial pilot licens ing. For example, although the FA A requires only 200 flying hours to qualify for such a license, the air lines generally require from 500 to 1,000 flying hours. Airlines also re quire a “restricted” radio-telephone operator permit, issued by the Fed eral Communications Commission, which allows the holder to operate the plane’s radio. Pilots employed in business flying are required to have a commercial pilot’s license. In addition, some employers require their pilots to have instrument ratings, and some require pilot applicants to have air transport pilot ratings. Because of the close relationship between pilots and their passengers, employers look for job applicants who have pleasant personalities. All newly hired airline copilots go through company orientation courses. In addition, some airlines give beginning copilots or flight en 250 gineers from 3 to 10 weeks of train become dispatchers for an airline ing on company planes before as when they are no longer able to fly. signing them to a scheduled flight. Trainees also receive classroom in Employment Outlook struction in subjects such as flight theory, radio operation, meteorol A rapid rise in the employment ogy, Federal Aviation Regulations, of airline pilots is expected through and airline operations. the 1970’s. In addition to those The beginning copilot generally is needed to staff new positions, sev permitted only limited responsibil eral thousand job openings will re ity, such as operating the flight con sult from the need to replace pilots trols in good weather over a route who transfer to other fields of work, that is easy to navigate. As he gains retire, or die. Although larger, experience and skill, his responsibil faster, and more efficient jet planes ities are increased gradually, and he are likely to be used in the years is promoted to copilot on larger, ahead, increased passenger and more modern aircraft. When he has cargo miles may exceed substan proved his skill, accumulated suffi tially the increase in capacity real cient experience and seniority; and ized from the new equipment. passed the test for an airline trans Therefore, employment of pilots is port pilot’s license, a copilot may likely to increase to the extent that advance to captain as openings increased growth of traffic exceeds arise. A minimum of 2 or 3 years’ increased capacity. service is required for promotion Employment of pilots in general but, in actual practice, advancement aviation activities is expected to often takes at least 5 to 10 years or continue to grow very rapidly, par longer. The new captain works first ticularly in business flying, aerial on his airline’s smaller equipment application, air-taxi operations, and and, as openings arise, he is ad patrol and survey flying. Growth in vanced to larger, more modern air these areas will result from the craft. greater use of aircraft to perform A few opportunities exist for cap these general aviation activities. tains who have administrative abil ity to advance to chief pilot, flight operations manager, and other su pervisory and executive jobs. Most Earnings and Working Conditions airline captains, however, spend Captains and copilots are among their entire careers flying. As they increase their seniority, they obtain the highest paid wage earners in the a better selection of flight routes, Nation. Those employed by the types of aircraft, and schedules scheduled airlines averaged about which offer higher earnings. Some $30,000 a year in domestic air pilots may go into business for transportation and nearly $37,000 themselves if they have adequate fi in international operations in 1970. nancial resources and business abil Most of the senior captains on large ity. They may operate their own aircraft earned well over 35,000 a flying schools or air-taxi and other year; those assigned to large jet air aerial services. Pilots also may shift craft may earn as much as $48,000. to administrative and inspection Pilots employed by the scheduled jobs in aircraft manufacturing and airlines generally earn more than Government aviation agencies, or those employed elsewhere, although OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK pilots who work for supplemental airlines may earn almost as much. Some experienced copilots were earning as much as $27,000 a year in domestic flying and more than $30,000 in international flying in 1970. The earnings of captains and co pilots depend on factors such as the type, size, and speed of the planes they fly, the number of hours and miles flown, and their length of serv ice. They receive additional pay for night and international flights. Captains and airline copilots who have at least 3 years of service are guaranteed minimum monthly earn ings which represent a substantial proportion of their earnings. Under the Federal Aviation Act, airline pilots cannot fly more than 85 hours a month; some unionmanagement contracts, however, provide for 75-hour a month maximums. Though pilots and copilots, in practice, fly approximately 60 hours a month, their total duty hours, including before- and after flight activities and layovers before return flights, usually exceed 100 hours each month. Some pilots prefer shorter dis tance flying usually associated with local airlines and commercial flying activities, such as air-taxi opera tions, because they are likely to spend less time away from their home bases and fly mostly during the daytime. These pilots, however, have the added strain of making more takeoffs and landings daily. Although flying does not involve much physical effort, the pilot often is subject to stress because of his great responsibility. He must be constantly alert and prepared to make decisions quickly. Poor weather conditions also can make his work more difficult. Most airline pilots are members of the Airline Pilots Association, In OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS ternational. The pilots employed by one major carrier are members of the Allied Pilots Association. Sources of Additional Information Air Line Pilots Association, Inter national, 1329 E St., N W , Wash ington, D.C. 20004. PR O G R A M ER S (D.O.T. 020.188) Nature of the Work An electronic computer, although sometimes called a “mechanical brain,” can only follow step-by-step instructions. The programer pre pares these instructions. A computer not only makes mathematical calculations at fantas tic speeds, but stores large amounts of data for later use. Because com puters work with masses of infor mation at tremendous speed and ac curacy, they are used for much “data processing” that otherwise would require many employees. They handle varied assignments such as maintaining inventories and controlling production machinery in factories. Every “problem” processed in a computer first must be carefully an alyzed so that exact and logical steps for its solution can be worked out. An experienced programer or systems analyst does this prelimi nary work. (See the statement on systems analysts elsewhere in the H andbook.) Once this preliminary work has been completed, the “program,” or detailed instructions for processing the data, can be prepared by the programer. Exactly how he does this 251 depends not only on the type of equipment to be used but on the na ture of the problem. The mathemat ical calculations involved in billing a firm’s customers, for example, are very different from those required, in most kinds of scientific and tech nical work. The programing tech niques also are different. Still other techniques are required in writing programing “aids” to reduce the amount of detail. Because of these differences, many programers spe cialize in certain kinds of work. In business offices, computers frequently are used to bill custom ers, make up payrolls, and keep track of inventories. First, the pro gramer determines what informa tion is necessary to prepare the doc uments and the form in which it is entered on company records. He next makes a flow chart or diagram, showing in what order the computer must do each step. Then, he pre pares detailed instructions for the computer’s control unit to tell the machine exactly what to do with each piece of information. The pro gramer also prepares an instruction sheet for the console operator to follow when the program is run. (The work of the console operator is described in the statement on Electronic Computer Operating Personnel.) The final step in programing is “debugging”— that is, checking on whether the instructions have been correctly written and will produce the desired information. A program usually is debugged in two steps. First, the programer takes a sample of the data to be processed and re views step by step exactly what will happen as the computer follows the series of instructions that make up the program. Then, after he has re vised the instructions to take care of any difficulties that have appeared, he completes the test by having a trial run made in the computer. The console operator sometimes helps with this part of the debugging proc ess. A comparatively simple program Programer prepares flow chart. 252 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK can be made for a computer within a very few days. A program that deals with a complex problem or is designed to produce many different kinds of information may require a year or more of preparation— sometimes by a large number of programers. On involved problems, several programers at different lev els of responsibility often work as a team, under the supervision of a senior programer. The programer may perform other related duties, such as design ing forms to use in data presenta tion. In addition, existing programs must be updated to keep pace with administrative changes or to im prove efficiency. Also, larger or newer model computers often re quire that programs be rewritten. Places of Employment Nearly 200,0 0 0 programers were employed in 1970. In addition, some professional workers such as engineers, scientists, mathemati cians, economists, and accountants spend a portion of their time pro graming. Programers are employed chiefly by large business organizations and government agencies. A great many work for insurance companies and banks, public utilities, wholesale and retail establishments, and man ufacturing firms of almost every kind. A considerable number are government employees doing work related either to scientific and tech nical problems, or to the processing of the vast amount of paperwork that is handled in many government offices. In addition, a growing num ber of programers are employed by computer manufacturers and inde pendent service organizations that furnish computer and programing services to business firms and other organizations on a fee basis. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The special abilities most sought by employers when they hire pro gramers are similar for all types of positions, but requirements regard ing education and experience vary according to the problems with which the programer will be oc cupied. Some programers are col lege graduates having degrees in en gineering, for example, whereas others have had years of experience in work such as accounting or in ventory control. In selecting pro gramers, employers look for people having an aptitude for logical think ing and the exacting kind of analysis that is part of the job. The work also calls for patience, persistence, and the ability to work with extreme accuracy. Ingenuity and imagination are particularly important in jobs where programers have to solve problems in new ways. Organizations which use comput ers for science and engineering pre fer programers who are college graduates having degrees in engi neering, the physical sciences, mathematics, or computer science. Graduate degrees may be required for some positions; for almost all positions, an applicant who has no college training is at a severe disad vantage. Employers who use computers to process business records may not require programers to have techni cal college training. Many em ployers promote qualified workers having previous experience in machine tabulation, payroll, or ac counting. When hiring outsiders, employers usually prefer applicants having training beyond high school. College courses in data processing or accounting, business administra tion, engineering, or mathematics provide especially good preparation. Entrance requirements for jobs in the Federal Government are similar to those in private industry. Appli cants are required to have a college degree, preferably with training in mathematics or the equivalent work experience. Young people interested in pro graming can acquire some of the necessary skills at a steadily increas ing number of technical schools, colleges, and universities. Instruc tion ranges from introductory home study and extension courses to ad vanced computer technology at the graduate level. High school courses in computer programing also are of fered in many parts of the country. High school and post-high school instruction, however, do not entirely eliminate the need for on-the-job training. Since technology changes continually and each type of com puter has its own special program ing, some additional training usually is necessary. Most beginners in this occupation attend training classes for a few weeks and then, as they work on minor programing assignments, con tinue with further specialized train ing. A year or more of experience usually is necessary before a pro gramer can handle all aspects of his job without close supervision. Once he becomes skilled, his prospects for further advancement are good. Ex perienced and capable programers are in strong demand. In large or ganizations, employees may be promoted to systems analyst posi tions or senior programing jobs hav ing supervisory responsibilities. Employment Outlook Many thousands of new jobs for programers will become available each year through the 1970’s. Em ployment is expected to increase 253 OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS v ery rapidly, as the n u m b er o f c o m p u ter in sta lla tio n s rises to m e e t the g ro w in g d em an d fo r d a ta p r o c e ss ing. T h e in crease in em p lo y m e n t is e x p ec ted to b e particu larly sharp in firm s that u se com p u ters to p ro ce ss b u sin ess records or to co n tro l m a n u factu rin g p ro cesses. T h e rise in em p lo y m e n t is e x p ecte d be a cco m p a n ied co v e r e d m o re than 8 0 ,0 0 0 d ata p r o c essin g w ork ers in a ll p arts o f the co u n try . E x p e r ie n c e d p rogram ers a v eraged $ 1 2 ,1 7 0 a y ea r, w itn so m e ea rn in g up to $ 2 0 ,0 0 0 an n u ally. T h e a verage salary fo r p rogram ers h a v in g su p ervisory d u ties w as o c c u p a tio n o f p rogram er m a y b e o b ta in ed from : Data Processing Management As sociation, 505 Busse Highway, Park Ridge, 111. 60068. American Federation of Informa tion Processing Societies, 210 Summit Ave., Montvale, N.J. 07645. A list o f read in g m aterials o n c a by $ 1 4 ,2 5 0 a year; so m e p rogram in g c h a n g es in the nature o f th e w o rk su p erv iso rs earn ed up to $ 2 4 ,0 0 0 reer d o n e b y p rogram ers. A d v a n c e s in p rogram in g tech n iq u es an d e q u ip an n u ally. m a y b e o b ta in ed from : m en t, su ch as th e u se o f m o re ad ie d van ced to p rogram ers a v eraged $ 8 ,5 3 0 a year, a cco rd in g to a p rivate su rv ey w h ich la n g u a g es su b sta n tia lly . Som e w ork ers program earn ed up to five tim es as m u ch as p arts stored in lib raries fo r future r eferen ce, w ill elim in a te m u c h o f th e rou tin e w ork a sso c ia ted w ith p ro g ra m in g Association for Computing Ma chinery, 1133 Avenue o f the Americas, New York, N .Y. 10036. p r o c e sse d , th e c o m p u ter u sed , the w ritin g in o th ers in th e sa m e p o sitio n . T h e se in du stry, an d its lo c a tio n . a program . and T h e su rvey in d ica ted salaries var o p p o rtu n ities As a con se d ifferen ces w er e d u e to th e d ata q u en ce, p ro fessio n a lly train ed p er F e d e r a l G o v e rn m e n t sa la ries for so n n e l q ualified to h a n d le b o th p ro PSYC H O LO G ISTS p rogram ers w ere co m p a ra b le to th o se in p rivate indu stry. T h e great gram ing and sy stem s an a ly sis are lik ely to b e in creasin gly in d em an d , m ajority earn ed b e tw e e n (D.O.T. 045.088 and .108) Nature of the Work $ 8 ,1 0 0 The p ro b lem s of se v er e em o e sp e cia lly fo r w ork o n scien tific and en g in eerin g p ro b lem s. F o r o th er p o an d $ 1 4 ,2 0 0 a year. T h e m in im u m en tra n ce salary for b eg in n ers w as tio n a l stress and a b n o rm a l b eh a v io r, sitio n s, m an y o f th em in large b u si $ 6 ,5 5 0 a y ea r in 1 9 7 0 , an d th e to p th e c a u se s o f lo w m o ra le , o r th e e f n ess offices w h ere the an a ly sis is sa la ries o f ex p e r ie n c e d p rogram ers re sp o n sib le for c o m p le x p rogram in g fe c tiv e p erfo r m a n ce o f an astron au t, are a m o n g th e c o n ce rn s o f p sy c h o l d o n e b y acco u n ta n ts and o th er su b jec t m atter exp erts, 2 years o f p o st- or su p ervisory and ad m in istrative o g ists se ek in g to u n d ersta n d p e o p le and to ex p la in their a ctio n s. P sy h igh sc h o o l training m a y p ro v id e a w o rk ran ged to $ 2 2 ,9 0 0 or m o re a su fficien t b a ck grou n d fo r b eg in n in g p rogram ers. year. P rogram ers w o rk a b o u t 4 0 h ours d iv id u a ls and grou p s and o fte n h elp M o s t o f the o p en in g s for p rogram ers in the years just a h ea d w ill b e n ew job s that arise as the n u m b er o f co m p u ter in sta lla tio n s co n tin u es to in crea se, and co m p u ters are p u t to n e w u ses. S o m e op en in g s also w ill o cc u r as program ers a d v a n ce to m o re resp o n sib le p o sitio n s, or as th ey le a v e their job s to en ter o th er a w e e k . U n lik e m an y c o m p u ter c o n so le and au xiliary eq u ip m en t o p era tors w h o w o rk o n tw o o r three sh ifts, p rogram ers u su a lly w o rk o n ly d uring th e d ay. O c c a sio n a lly , e v e n in g o r w ee k e n d w o rk m a y b e n e c in d iv id u a ls a ch ie v e sa tisfa cto ry p er so n a l ad ju stm en ts. T h eir w o rk in c lu d es v aried a ctiv ities su ch as typ es o f em p lo y m en t. B e c a u se this o cc u p a tio n in clu d es m an y co m p a ra tio n e d . E m p lo y er s r e co g n iz e th e d e sirab ility o f p ro v id in g th e b e st p o s s i tiv ely y o u n g w ork ers, few er p o s i b le w o rk su rrou n d in gs so th at p ro essary. W o rk p la ce s u su a lly are m od ern o ffices, w ell-lig h ted and air c o n d i ch o lo g ists stu d y th e b eh a v io r o f in te a c h in g in c o lle g e s an d u n iversities; c o u n se lin g in d iv id u a ls; p la n n in g an d c o n d u c tin g train in g p rogram s fo r w ork ers; p erfo rm in g b a sic an d ap p lie d research ; a d v isin g o n p sy c h o l o g ic a l m eth o d s and th eo ries; and a d m in isterin g p sy c h o lo g y p rogram s in h o sp ita ls, c lin ics, resea rch la b o ra to ries, an d o th er p la ce s. tio n s are lik ely to b e c o m e v a ca n t gram ers c a n c o n ce n tr a te m o re read P sy c h o lo g ists o b ta in in fo r m a tio n b eca u se o f retirem ent or d eath th an ily o n th e ex a c tin g a n a ly sis that is a b o u t th e c a p a cities, traits, in terests, in oth er o cc u p a tio n s o f sim ila r size. essen tia l to th eir job. b eh a v io r, and a ctio n s o f p e o p le in se v er a l w a y s. T h e y m a y in terv iew Earnings and Working Conditions Sources of Additional Information in d iv id u a ls, d e v e lo p an d ad m in ister tests and ratin g sc a les, stu d y per In 1 9 7 0 , b eg in n in g salaries for A d d itio n a l in fo r m a tio n a b o u t the so n a l h isto rie s, an d c o n d u c t c o n 254 trolled OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ex p erim en ts. In ad d ition , sa tisfa cto ry p erso n a l, so c ia l, e d u ca p erim en ts, an d p erfo rm ad m in istra tio n a l, tive d u ties. In a d d itio n , th e y m ay or o c c u p a tio n a l adjust p sy ch o lo g ists o fte n c o n d u c t su rv ey s, eith er b y p erso n a l in te rv iew s or b y m en ts ); w ritten q u estio n n a ires. (th e P sy c h o lo g ists u su a lly sp e c ia liz e in one of th e m an y in terrelated e s s e s ) ; in d u strial p sy c h o lo g y ( d e v elo p in g tec h n iq u es fo r se le c tin g e d u ca tio n a l stu d y of p sy c h o lo g y ed u ca tio n a l p ro c tea c h in c o lle g e s, h e lp c o u n se l stu d en ts o r h a n d ica p p e d p e r so n s, or — if th e y h a v e h ad p rev io u s te a c h in g e x p e r ie n c e — a ct as sc h o o l p sy b ra n ch es o f the p ro fessio n . C lin ica l and train in g w ork ers and im p ro v in g ch o lo g ists o r c o u n se lo r s. ( S e e sta te p sy ch o lo g ists are th e la rg est grou p w o rk er o f sp ecia lists. G en era lly , th ey w ork and m en ts o n S c h o o l C o u n selo rs R e h a b ilita tio n C o u n se lo r s.) in m en ta l h o sp ita ls or clin ics and stu d y o f m a n -m a c h in e and o th er c o m p le x sy stem r e la tio n sh ip s). are co n ce rn ed m a in ly w ith p ro b lem s m o tiv a tio n en g in ee rin g an d m o r a le ); p sy c h o lo g y (th e o f m en ta lly o r e m o tio n a lly d istu rb ed p e o p le . T h ey in terv iew and T h e P h. D . d eg ree is n e e d e d for m a n y en tra n ce p o sitio n s an d is b e c o m in g in cr ea sin g ly im p o rta n t for p a tie n ts, a d v a n c em en t. P sy c h o lo g ists h a v in g g iv e d ia g n o stic tests, an d p ro v id e in d o cto ra tes q u a lify fo r th e m o re re Places of Employment d ivid u al and grou p p sy ch o th er a p y . O ther sp ec ia lties in p sy c h o lo g y in clu d e ex p erim en ta l p sy c h o lo g y (th e la b oratory stu d y o f b a sic learn in g and m o tiv a tio n an d se n so r y and p ercep tu a l p r o c e s s e s ); d e v e lo p m e n tal p sy c h o lo g y (th e stu d y o f sp ecific age grou p s su ch as y o u n g ch ild ren , teen a g ers, and th e a g e d ) ; p e r so n a l ity and so c ia l p sy c h o lo g y (th e stud y o f h u m a n rela tio n sh ip s to g a in u n d ersta n d in g of p sy c h o lo g y (c o n c e r n e d b e h a v io r ); sc h o o l w ith c h o lo g ic a l fa cto rs in v o lv e d p sy in the ed u ca tio n a l p erfo rm a n ce an d g e n eral w e ll b ein g o f s c h o o l age c h il d r e n ); co m p a ra tiv e p sy c h o lo g y (co m p a r a tiv e b eh a v io r o f d ifferen t a n im a ls ); p h y sio lo g ic a l p sy c h o lo g y (th e rela tio n sh ip o f b e h a v io r to p h y sio lo g ic a l p r o c e s s e s ); co u n se lin g p s y c h o lo g y (h e lp in g p e o p le a ch ie v e An estim a te d 4 0 ,0 0 0 sp o n sib le p sy c h o lo gists w er e e m p lo y e d in 1 9 7 0 . A b o u t o n e-q u a rter are w o m e n . C o lle g e s a n d u n iv e rsitie s e m p lo y th e la rg est n u m b er o f p sy c h o lo g ists — n ea rly three-fifth s o f th e to ta l. G o v e rn m e n t a g en cies— F ed er a l, S tate, an d lo c a l— em p lo y th e se c o n d la rg est grou p . W ith in th e F e d eral G o v e rn m e n t, th e a g en cies h a v in g th e m o st p sy c h o lo g ists are the V eter a n s A d m in istra tio n , th e D e p a rtm en t o f D e fe n se , an d th e P u b lic H e a lth S erv ice. M a n y p sy c h o lo g ists a lso w o rk in p u b lic sc h o o ls , in du stry, and n o n profit fo u n d a tio n s and c lin ics. S o m e are in in d e p e n d en t p ra ctic e, an d o th ers serv e as c o m m issio n e d officers in th e A r m e d F o r c e s and th e P u b lic H e a lth S erv ice. clin ica l, and the h ig h er le v e l p o sitio n s in c o lle g e s and u n iv e rsitie s, and in F ed er a l and S ta te p rogram s. A t le a st 1 y ea r o f fu ll-tim e grad u ate stu d y is n e e d e d to earn th e m a s ter’s d eg re e. A n a d d itio n a l 3 to 5 y ea rs o f gra d u a te w o rk u su a lly is re q u ired fo r th e P h . D . d eg ree. In c lin ic a l o r c o u n se lin g p sy c h o lo g y , th e req u irem en ts fo r th e P h. D . d e g ree g en er a lly in clu d e an a d d itio n al 1 y ea r o f in tern sh ip o r su p erv ised ex p e r ie n c e . M a n y grad u ate stu d en ts receive fin a n cia l h e lp fro m u n iv e rsitie s and o th e r so u rc es in th e form o f fe llo w sh ip s, sc h o la r sh ip s, o r p art-tim e em p lo y m e n t. S ev era l F ed er a l a g en cies p ro v id e fu n d s to g rad u ate stu d en ts, g en er a lly th ro u g h th e ed u ca tio n a l in stitu tio n g iv in g th e train in g. T h e V e te r a n s Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement resea rch , c o u n se lin g p o sitio n s, as w e ll as for A d m in istra tio n offers a la rg e n u m b er of p red o cto ra l tra in eesh ip s, d u rin g w h ich tim e the stu d en ts r e c e iv e p a y m e n ts an d gain su p erv ised e x p e r ie n c e in V A h o sp i d egree tals an d c lin ics. T h e P u b lic H e a lth w ith a m a jo r in p sy c h o lo g y is the m in im u m ed u c a tio n a l req u irem en t G e n e ra lly , th e m a ste r’s S erv ice p ro v id es fu n d s fo r p r e d o c toral an d p o st d o cto ra l tra in eesh ip s fo r p ro fe ssio n a l e m p lo y m e n t in th e field . P sy c h o lo g ists h a v in g this d e and resea rch fe llo w sh ip s. T h e N a tio n a l S c ie n c e F o u n d a tio n , th e U .S . g ree ca n q u a lify fo r p o sitio n s w h ere O ffice o f E d u c a tio n , th e R e h a b ilita th ey a d m in ister and in terp ret p sy c h o lo g ic a l tests, c o lle c t an d a n a ly ze tio n S erv ices th e N a tio n a l sta tistica l d ata, c o n d u c t resea rch e x H e a lth a lso A d m in istra tio n , In stitu te p r o v id e of and M en ta l fe llo w sh ip s, 255 OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS grants, an d lo a n s fo r C o n tin u e d v ery rapid e x p a n sio n a d v a n ced train in g in p sy ch o lo g y . T h e A m erica n B o a rd o f E x a m in of th e p r o fe ssio n is T h e m ed ia n an n u al salary fo r all e x p e c te d p sy c h o lo g ists in the N a tio n a l S ci e n c e F o u n d a tio n ’s R eg iste r o f S ci in d u strial, th ro u g h th e 1 9 7 0 ’s. M e n ta l h o sp i ta ls, co r re ctio n a l in stitu tio n s, m en ta l h y g ien e clin ics, a n d co m m u n ity h ea lth cen ters w h ich are cu rren tly and sc h o o l p sy ch o lo g y to th o se h a v u n d erstaffed , w ill n eed m a n y c lin i ary for th o se h a v in g a P h . D . w as $ 1 6 ,0 0 0 . A c c o r d in g to th e R eg iste r, in g ou tsta n d in g ed u ca tio n a l reco rd s an d ex p erien ce an d w h o p a ss th e ca l, co u n se lin g , an d so c ia l p sy c h o lo gists in th e future. M a n y o p en in g s a lly h a v e h igh er in c o m e s th an sa la requ ired ex a m in a tio n s. fo r ried e m p lo y e e s. ers in P r o fessio n a l P sy c h o lo g y aw ards d ip lo m a s in th e sp ec ia lties of clin ica l, co u n selin g , p sy c h o lo g ists a lso are a n tici en tific an d T e c h n ic a l P er so n n el w as $ 1 5 ,0 0 0 in 1 9 7 0 . T h e m ed ia n sa l se lf-e m p lo y e d p sy c h o lo g ists g en er S o m e u n iversities requ ire an u n p a te d in th e F ed er a l G o v e rn m e n t, M e d ia n sa la ries in grad u ate d e dergradu ate m ajor in p sy c h o lo g y for p rim arily in th e V eter a n s A d m in is p artm en ts o f p sy c h o lo g y ran ged fro m $ 1 1 ,7 0 0 fo r a ssista n t p ro fes a d m issio n to grad u ate w o rk in that tration an d th e D ep a rtm e n t o f D e field. O th ers p refer stu d en ts w ith b ro a d er ed u ca tio n a l b a ck g ro u n d s, fen se. sors to $ 1 9 ,2 0 0 fo r fu ll p ro fesso rs d u rin g th e a c a d e m ic y ea r 1 9 7 0 - 7 1 in clu d in g n o t o n ly so m e b a sic p sy In cr ea sin g a w a ren ess o f th e n eed fo r testin g an d c o u n se lin g ch ild ren c h o lo g y co u rses b u t a lso co u rses in is e x p e c te d to in cr ea se th e n eed for v e y c o n d u c te d fo r th e C o n fer en ce th e b io lo g ic a l, p h y sica l an d so c ia l sc ien ce s, statistics, and m a th em a t p sy c h o lo g ists in sc h o o ls. In c o lle g e s o f C h airm en o f G ra d u a te D ep a rt an d u n iv ersities, m o re p sy c h o lo g ists m en ts o f P sy c h o lo g y . ics. w ill b e n e ed ed fo r stu d en t p erso n n el In th e F e d e r a l G o v e rn m e n t, p sy P sy ch o lo g ists d esirin g to en ter in w o rk , as w e ll as fo r te a c h in g an d re ch o lo g ists h a v in g a P h . D . d egree d ep en d e n t p ractice m u st m e e t certi fication or lic en sin g req u irem en ts in sea rch . In cr ea se d p u b lic co n ce rn fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f h u m a n re an d an in creasin g n u m b er o f S tates. In so u rc es as e v id e n c e d b y th e M e n ta l age 1 9 7 0 , 4 2 S tates had th e se req u ire m en ts. R e ta rd a tio n M e d ic in e Y o u n g p erso n s w h o w ish to p u r su e a career in p sy ch o lo g y m u st b e em o tio n a lly stab le, so c ia lly m atu re, and ab le to d eal effec tiv e ly w ith p e o p le . S en sitivity, p a tie n c e, an d a g en u in e in terest in oth ers are p a rtic u larly im p o rta n t attribu tes fo r w o rk in clin ica l an d co u n selin g p sy c h o l o g y . R ese a rc h p sy ch o lo g ists sh o u ld b e ab le to d o d eta iled an d in d e p e n d en t w ork . V er b a l an d w ritin g sk ills are n ecessa ry in co m m u n ica tin g re sea rch findings. F a c ilitie s an d C om ( 9 - 1 0 m o n th s ), a cc o rd in g to a sur lim ited e x p e r ie n c e started at $ 1 3 ,4 9 3 in 1 9 7 0 . T h e an n u al aver salary in an d th e D e p a r tm e n t o f S u rgery, V eter a n s m u n ity M e n ta l H e a lth C en ters C o n stru ctio n A c t o f 1 9 6 3 , as am en d ed ; A d m in istra tio n , w h ic h req u ires the d o cto ra l d eg ree fo r all sp ec ia lties, an d M e d ica r e, M e d ic a id , an d oth er w a s a b o u t $ 1 8 ,8 0 0 in 1 9 7 0 . fed er a l p rogram s w ill fu rth er in cr ea se th e d em a n d fo r p sy c h o lo Sources of Additional Information gists. M a n y v a c a n c ie s a lso w ill o cc u r e a c h y ea r as a resu lt o f retirem en ts an d d ea th s. T h e tran sfer o f p sy c h o l o g ists to d o w o rk o f a p u r ely a d m in istrative n atu re a lso m a y create so m e job v a ca n cies. M o s t o p p o r tu n ities, h o w e v e r , w ill resu lt from th e rap id e x p a n sio n th at is a n ticip a ted fo r th e p r o fe ssio n . G e n e ra l in fo r m a tio n o n career o p p o r tu n itie s, certifica tio n o r lic e n s in g req u irem en ts, a n d ed u c a tio n a l fa c ilitie s an d fin a n cia l a ssista n ce for grad u ate stu d en ts in p sy c h o lo g y m a y b e o b ta in ed from : American Psychological Association, 1200 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Employment Outlook Earnings and Working Conditions E m p lo y m e n t o p p o r tu n itie s for p sy ch o lo g ists h a v in g th e P h . D . d e gree are ex p ec ted to b e e x c e lle n t th rou gh th e 1 9 7 0 ’s. P sy c h o lo g ists In 1970, startin g sa la ries for p sy c h o lo g ists h a v in g a m a ster’s d e g ree a v era g ed a b o u t $ 9 ,6 0 0 a y ea r, h o ld in g m a ster’s d egrees w ill b e in a cc o rd in g to th e A m e rica n P sy c h o d em an d , b u t th eir op p o r tu n itie s w ill b e le ss fa v o ra b le th an fo r th o se h a v in g th e P h. D . d egree. lo g ic a l A sso c ia tio n . B e g in n in g sa la ries fo r th o se h a v in g th e d o cto ra te d eg ree avera g ed $ 1 0 ,9 0 0 . In fo r m a tio n o n tra in eesh ip s and fe llo w sh ip s m a y b e o b ta in e d from c o lle g e s an d u n iv ersities h a v in g g rad u ate p sy c h o lo g y d ep a rtm en ts. 256 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK R E C R E A TIO N W O R K ER S d irect sp o rts, re cr ea tio n cen ters. T h e y p ro v id e in m en ta l p ro b lem s an d p h y sic a l d isa stru ctio n in th e arts an d crafts an d b ilitie s. S c h o o l re crea tio n in sp orts su ch as ten n is an d b a sk e t (D.O.T. 079.128, 187.118, 195.288) a g en cies d irect a ctiv itie s at n eig h b o r h o o d p la y g ro u n d s an d in d o o r o rg a n iz e th e le isu re -tim e a ctiv itie s b all. Nature of the Work T h ey m a y su p e r v ise recrea d ra m a tics, and arts and crafts fo r p erso n s su fferin g from of sc h o o l-a g e w o rk ers ch ild ren d uring tio n a l a ctiv itie s at co r re ctio n a l in sti sc h o o l-d a y s, a d v a n ces tu tio n s an d w o rk c lo se ly w ith so c ia l tion s. in crea sin g ly h a v e raised th e sta n d w o rk ers in o rg a n iz in g p ro g ra m s o f ard o f liv in g an d p ro v id ed le isu re re cr ea tio n fo r th e y o u n g an d th e Som e p a rt-tim e recrea tio n w o rk ers an d v o lu n tee rs a ssist fu ll tim e fo r m o st p e o p le . H o w p e o p le sp en d their n o n w o rk in g h o u rs is n o w a m ajor co n cern . R e c r e a tio n a g ed at c o m m u n ity cen ters an d s o tim e w o rk ers th r o u g h o u t th e year M o d er n te c h n o lo g ic a l w e e k e n d s, an d vaca cia l w elfa r e a g en cies. but M a n y p erso n s w o rk in in d u strial, h o sp ita l, m ilitary, o r sc h o o l recre m o n th s. ers. T h e y w o rk p rim a rily as recrea b y org a n izin g in d iv id u a l an d gro u p a tio n . R e c r e a tio n a l w o rk ers in in d ustry p lan p rogram s fo r co m p a n y a ctiv ities e m p lo y e e s w ork ers h elp p e o p le to en jo y and u se their leisu re tim e co n stru ctiv e ly an d by a d m in isterin g an d o rg a n ize b o w lin g m o stly d u rin g P a rt-tim e th e su m m er w o rk ers are la rg ely c o lle g e stu d en ts an d tea c h tio n le a d e rs an d c a m p c o u n se lo r s, o rg a n iz in g an d le a d in g g a m es and p h y sic a l, so c ia l, an d cu ltu ra l p ro le a g u e s, so ftb a ll tea m s, an d sim ila r o th e r a ctiv itie s at c a m p s an d p la y gram s fo r all age grou p s at ca m p s, p la y g ro u n d s, co m m u n ity cen ters, a ctiv itie s. gro u n d s. S o m e tim e s, th ey p la n o p era te fu n d d rives an d co m p a n y so c ia l fu n ctio n s. H o sp ita l recrea tio n re crea tio n a l fa cilities and stu d y th e re crea tio n n eed s o f in d iv id u a ls and fo r th e ill an d th e h a n d ica p p e d in c o m m u n ities. R e c r e a tio n w o rk ers e m p lo y e d by o th e r lo c a l m e d ic a l d ire ctio n , th ey o rg a n iz e and an d h o sp ita ls. T h ey g o v er n m e n t a lso an d v o lu n ta ry w o rk ers p la n re crea tio n p rogram s h o sp ita ls, c o n v a le sc e n t h o m e s, an d in stitu tio n s. W o rk in g u n d er Places of Employment A b o u t 1 3 ,5 0 0 p r o fe ssio n a l rec re a tio n w o rk ers w e r e e m p lo y e d fu ll tim e in 1 9 7 0 ; a b o u t o n e -h a lf are w o m e n . T h e m a jo rity w o rk ed fo r lo c a l g o v er n m e n ts a g e n c ie s. M ost of an d v o lu n ta ry th e rem ain d er w ere e m p lo y e d b y re lig io u s organ iz a tio n s o r b y th e F e d e r a l G o v ern m en t in n a tio n a l p ark s, th e A r m e d F o r c e s, th e V e te r a n s A d m in istra tio n , an d co r re ctio n a l in sti tu tio n s. S o m e recr ea tio n a l w ork ers w er e e m p lo y e d b y in d u stry, an d a fe w ta u g h t in c o lle g e s an d u n iv e rsi ties. R e c r e a tio n w o rk ers are e m p lo y e d in all p arts o f th e cou n try; h o w e v er, a la rg e p ro p o rtio n are e m p lo y e d in C a lifo rn ia , M a ssa c h u se tts, N e w Jer se y , N e w Y o r k , O h io , P en n sy lv a n ia , an d T e x a s. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement M ost Recreation worker instructs archery class. em p lo y e r s p refer c o lle g e g ra d u a tes w h o h a v e m a jo red in r e c 257 OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS reation , so c ia l sc ien ce , o r p h y sic a l rea tio n w ork ers sh o u ld b e ab le to p rep a ra tio n o f b u d g ets an d th e a n a l ed u ca tio n for w ork in th e recrea tio n accep t y sis o f recrea tio n p rogram s. field. H o w e v e r , few er th an o n e -h a lf o f the recreation w ork ers cu rren tly e m p lo y ed h a v e this ed u ca tio n a l ju d g m en t sin ce th ey u su a lly w ork a lo n e. T o in crea se their lea d ersh ip sk ills b ack grou n d . P erso n s re sp o n sib ility and e x e rc ise O p p o rtu n ities fo r a d v a n c em en t to and u n d ersta n d in g o f p e o p le , stu ad m in istra tiv e p o sitio n s o fte n are lim ited fo r p erso n s w h o h a v e n o grad u ate training. H o w e v e r , ad b eco m in g recreation w ork ers sh o u ld d en ts v a n cem e n t tak e a b road range o f c o u rses in ex p e r ie n c e in h ig h sc h o o l an d c o l th rou gh a c o m b in a tio n o f e d u ca tio n and ex p er ie n c e. A d m in istra tiv e jobs c o lle g e . The in terested ty p ica l p rogram in sh o u ld o b ta in rela ted w ork is so m e tim e s p o ssib le of leg e. T h e y m ay d o v o lu n tee r, part- stu d y in clu d es co u rses in c o m m u n i tim e, or su m m er w o rk in recreation requ ire va ry in g y ea rs o f ex p e r ie n c e c a tio n , n atural sc ien ce s, th e h u m a n d ep a rtm en ts, ca m p s, y o u th -se rv in g in itie s, p h ilo so p h y , so c io lo g y , dram a, o rg a n iz a tio n s, in stitu tio n s, and c o m p e n d in g u p o n th e siz e o f th e c o m a n d m u sic. S p ecific co u rses in recre m u n ity cen ters. m u n ity o r o rg a n iza tio n and th e p ro a tion in clu d e group lea d e rsh ip , p ro M o st c o lle g e grad u ates en terin g o rg a n iza tio n , recrea tio n w o rk , d e gram . th e recrea tio n field b eg in as lead ers h ea lth an d safety p roced u res, o u t fu ll-tim e o r sp ec ia lists, a lth o u g h e a c h year a gram p la n n in g and d o o r and in d o o r sp orts, d a n ce, arts sm a ll n u m b er o f c o lle g e grad u ates an d crafts, and field w o rk (a c tu a l recrea tio n lead ersh ip e x p e r ie n c e ). en ter tra in ee p rogram s th at le a d d i rectly to recrea tio n ad m in istra tio n . A d v a n c e d co u rses in recrea tio n A fe w large cities and o rg a n iz a tio n s offer th e se p rogram s w h ich g en er ally la st 1 year. ers is e x p e c te d to in cr ea se very rap id ly, th rou gh th e 1 9 7 0 ’s. S ev eral T h e N a tio n a l R e c r e a tio n and Park A sso c ia tio n a d m in isters a n a n e e d e d a n n u ally fo r grow th and to re p la ce p erso n n el w h o le a v e the terested in in du strial recrea tio n m ay tio n a l in tern sh ip field b e c a u se o f retirem en ts, d ea th s, find it d esirab le to take co u rses in b u sin ess adm in istration ; and th o se a d v a n c ed train in g and e x p e r ie n c e to or tran sfers to o th e r o c c u p a tio n s. In grad u ates o f recrea tio n cu rricu lu m s. recen t y ears, th e n u m b er o f c o lle g e in terested in w o rk in g w ith th e aged S tip en d s va ry in g from $ 6 ,0 0 0 $ 8 ,0 0 0 a y ea r are a v a ila b le. tio n h a s fa lle n far sh o rt o f th e d e o r p u b lic ad m in istration le a d in g to the m a ster’s d egree are d esira b le for p erso n s in terested in h igh er lev el ad m in istrative p o stio n s. S tu d en ts in in h o sp ita ls as recreatio n sp ec ia lists sh o u ld tak e co u rses in p sy c h o lo g y , h ealth ed u ca tio n , an d so c io lo g y . p ro g ra m to g iv e to R e c r e a tio n lead ers w o rk d irectly w ith grou p s and in d iv id u a ls to o r Employment Outlook E m p lo y m e n t o f recrea tio n w o rk th o u sa n d recrea tio n w o rk ers w ill b e grad u ates h a v in g a m ajor in recrea m an d , an d this p attern is e x p e c te d to c o n tin u e. T h u s, m a n y n e w recre b ach e g a n ize an d teach d iversified a c tiv i ation w ork ers w ill c o n tin u e to be lo r ’s d egree w ith a m ajor in recrea tio n w a s av a ila b le in o v er 1 3 0 sc h o o ls in 1 9 7 0 . A b o u t 7 0 o ffered a d egree and ab o u t 3 0 o f d octorate in recreation . jun ior co lleg e s offer p ro recreation . ties, su ch as a th letics an d so c ia l recrea tio n in in d o o r and o u td o o r cen ters. T h e y a lso su p e rv ise n o n p ro fe ssio n a l w ork ers an d a ssist in ad m in isterin g recrea tio n p rogram s. R e c r e a tio n sp ec ia lists o rg a n ize and d e v e lo p o n e activity o r sev era l c lo se ly Y o u n g p eo p le p la n n in g a career as a recreation w o rk er m u st h a v e related a ctiv ities. T h e y so m etim es o v e r se e n o n p r o fe ssio n a l w ork ers. h ired from th e fields o f so c ia l sc i en ce , p h y sic a l e d u ca tio n , and h ea lth ed u ca tio n . P er so n s h a v in g le ss th an fu ll p r o fe ssio n a l train in g a lso w ill find e m p lo y m e n t o p p o rtu n ities. A s a resu lt o f th e great d em a n d fo r r e c rea tio n w o rk ers, p art-tim e and v o l u n teer p erso n n el w ill b e n e e d e d , p articu larly in so c ia l w elfa re a g en T rain in g m a ster’s fered a O v er 6 0 gram s in lea d in g to a the ab ility to m o tiv a te p e o p le and A fte r b e sen sitiv e to their n eed s. G o o d re cr ea tio n a fe w h ealth and p h y sica l stam in a are re m ay q uired to p articip ate in sp orts. A c th o se tivity p la n n in g o fte n ca lls fo r cr e h o w e v er , y ea r s’ ex p e r ie n c e , lea d ers b ecom e h a v in g an d sp ec ia lists recrea tio n d irectors; g rad u ate training, cies an d at th e lo c a l g o v er n m e n t le v el. F a cto rs grow th th at w ill in clu d e co n trib u te in crea sed to leisu re start at this le v e l. tim e and risin g le v e ls o f p er ca p ita a tiv en ess and reso u rcefu ln ess. S in ce th e recreation w ork er o rg a n izes D ire cto rs are r e sp o n sib le fo r th e o p era tio n o f th e fa cilities, sta ff su p er in c o m e . A s in c o m e le v e ls rise, m o re sp orts, su p ervises art p ro jects, and g ives fu n d -ra isin g sp e e c h e s, he v isio n , and the d e v e lo p m e n t an d e x e c u tio n o f p rogram s at a p articu lar sh o u ld h a v e a variety o f sk ills. R e c re cr ea tio n m ay cen ter, as w e ll as the p erso n s w ill p a rticip a te in a v a riety o f co m p e titiv e and n o n c o m p e titiv e sp orts an d larger n u m b ers w ill travel to p arks an d resorts fo r 258 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ca m p in g , h ik in g, fish ing, a n d o th er re crea tio n a l p u rsu its. In a d d itio n , tw e e n $ 7 ,2 0 0 an d $ 7 ,8 0 0 a n n u a lly in 1 9 7 0 , a cc o rd in g to th e N a tio n a l im p ro v em en ts in th e n a tio n a l h ig h R e c r e a tio n w a y sy stem w ill m a k e m a n y S tate In th e sa m e y ea r, th e sa la ries o f re c p ark s an d n a tio n a l fo re sts m o r e a c re a tio n from tra tio n h o sp ita ls m a y b e o b ta in ed c e ssib le fa m ilies. $ 8 ,5 0 0 to $ 1 0 ,0 0 0 , d e p en d in g u p o n d irectly fro m th e h o sp ita ls o r fro m P o p u la tio n grow th a lso w ill cr e a te a th eir q u a lific a tio n s an d th e siz e o f d em a n d th e co m m u n ity in w h ic h th ey w ere th e D e p a r tm e n t o f M e d ic in e and S urgery, V e te r a n s A d m in istra tio n , w ork ers to e x p a n d ex istin g recrea e m p lo y e d . W a sh in g to n , D .C . 2 0 4 2 1 . tio n larger d irecto rs o r su p e rin ten d e n ts gen er n u m b ers o f m en ta lly a n d p h y sic a lly a lly ra n g ed fro m $ 1 2 ,0 0 0 in so m e to v a c a tio n in g fo r m o re p rogram s h a n d ica p p e d an d to p erso n s. recrea tio n aid L on ger an d P ark su p erv iso rs S a la ries A sso c ia tio n . sociation, 1700 Pennsylvania Ave. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. ran ged of recrea tio n life about em p lo y m e n t sm a ll c o m m u n itie s to o v e r $ 2 2 ,0 0 0 an d earlier retirem en ts w ill in cr ea se In fo r m a tio n o p p o r tu n itie s in V e te r a n s A d m in is in m a n y la rg e c ities. R e g io n s varied th e n u m b er o f clu b s an d o rg a n iz a in th eir sa la ry le v e ls— h ig h er sa la tio n s fo r retired p erso n s, an d thu s in cr ea se th e n e e d fo r re cr ea tio n ries g en er a lly w er e p a id in th e W est S E C U R IT IE S SA LESM EN th a n in o th e r areas o f th e co u n try . (D.O.T. 251.258) w ork ers. O th e r rea so n s fo r th e a n ticip a ted In 1 9 7 0 , th e a n n u a l sta rtin g sa l lo n g ru n e x p a n sio n in th e n u m b er o f ary fo r in e x p e r ie n c e d re crea tio n w o rk er s in th e F e d e r a l G o v e rn m e n t re crea tio n w o rk ers in clu d e a g ro w w a s $ 6 ,5 4 8 o r $ 8 ,0 9 8 , d ep en d in g Nature of the Work in g in terest a n d p a rticip a tio n in r e c o n th eir a c a d e m ic reco rd s or sp e W h en an in v e sto r b u y s o r sells re a tio n c ia liz e d train in g. E x p e r ie n c e d recre sto c k s, b o n d s, o r sh ares in m u tu a l a ctiv ities by th e g en era l p o p u la tio n ; th e c o n tin u e d tren d to a tio n w o rk ers in F e d e r a l p o sitio n s fu n d s, h e d o e s so th ro u g h a se cu ri w ard u rb an liv in g ; th e rise in in g en er a lly ties sa le sm a n w h o p u ts th e “m a rk et d u strial recrea tio n activ itie s as m o re an d $ 1 4 ,2 0 0 a n n u a lly . T h e a v er a g e w o r k w e e k fo r recre c o m p a n ie s p ro m o te recr ea tio n p r o ea rn ed b e tw e e n $ 9 ,9 0 0 m a c h in e r y ” in to o p era tio n . A sa le s in a tio n w o rk ers is 4 0 h o u rs, a lth o u g h m a n ’s se r v ic e s are req u ired b o th b y th e in d iv id u a l h a v in g a fe w h u n d red cr ea sed a tten tio n to p h y sic a l fitn ess so m e w o rk u p w a rd s o f 5 0 h o u rs. A d o lla rs to in v e st a n d b y th e large in b y g o v ern m en t, ed u ca to rs, in d u stry p e r so n en ter in g th e re cr ea tio n field stitu tio n in v e stin g m illio n s. S ecu ri a n d oth ers; an d th e in itia tio n o f p r o gram s to in su re th e p reser v a tio n o f o u td o o r recrea tio n areas. A n u m b er o f re ce n t F ed er a l la w s a lso w ill c o n trib ute to th e risin g d em a n d fo r rec re a tio n w ork ers. A m o n g th e se are th e E lem en ta r y a n d S eco n d a ry E d u ca tio n A c t o f 1 9 6 5 , w h ic h in c lu d e s p r o v isio n s fo r gran ts to lo c a l e d u c a sh o u ld e x p e c t so m e n ig h tw o rk an d irregu lar h o u rs, fo r m an y recrea tio n p e r so n n e l w o rk w h ile o th e r p erso n s are e n jo y in g th eir le isu re tim e. M o st p u b lic an d p riv a te re cr ea tio n a g en c ie s p ro v id e from 2 to 4 w e e k s’ v a c a tio n an d o th e r frin g e b en efits, ties sa le sm e n are o fte n c a lle d cus gram s fo r th eir em p lo y e e s; su ch as sic k le a v e an d h o sp ita l in In e x e c u tin g a b u y o r se ll tra n s a ctio n , a se cu ritie s sa le sm a n relays th e o rd er th ro u g h h is firm ’s ord er ro o m to th e flo o r o f a secu ritie s e x c h a n g e. In th e o v e r -th e -c o u n te r su ra n ce. m ark et, h e sen d s th e ord er to his tio n a l a g e n c ie s fo r im p r o v in g an d e x p a n d in g recrea tio n o p p o r tu n itie s firm ’s trad ing d ep a rtm en t an d n o ti fies th e cu sto m e r w h e n th e tra n sa c fo r th e ed u ca tio n a lly d ep riv ed ; an d th e O ld er A m e rica n s A c t o f 1 9 6 5 , to m ers’ b ro k ers, reg istered rep re sen ta tives, o r a cco u n t execu tives. tio n is c o m p le te d . H e a lso p ro v id es Sources of Additional Information m a n y k in d s o f rela ted se rv ic es for In fo r m a tio n a b o u t re cr ea tio n as a h is c u sto m e rs. T o an in e x p e r ie n c e d in v esto r, fo r e x a m p le , h e m a y e x ca reer an d a b o u t e m p lo y m e n t o p p o rtu n ities in th e field m a y b e o b p la in th e m e a n in g o f sto ck m ark et term s a n d trad in g p ra ctic es. F o r ta in e d fro m : cu sto m e rs h a v in g a v a riety o f h o ld w h ich p ro v id es gran ts to S ta tes fo r p ro g ra m s, in clu d in g recr ea tio n , fo r o ld e r p erso n s. Earnings and Working Conditions in g s, th e sa le sm a n m a y o ffer su g g e stio n s a b o u t th e p u r ch a se or B e g in n in g recr ea tio n le a d e rs h a v National Industrial Recreation Asso ciation, 20 North Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60606. in g a b a c h e lo r ’s d eg re e ea rn ed b e National Recreation and Park As to m e r s’ in v e stm e n t o b je c tiv e s vary. sa le o f a p articu lar secu rity . C u s OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS An in d ivid u al m ay p refer lo n g term in v estm en ts d esig n ed to p r o v id e a stea d y in co m e o v e r the y ears or sh ort-term in v estm en ts 259 pay sa le sm e n ca n q u a lify as registered m en ts th at flu ctu a te w ith th e v a lu e rep resen ta tiv es, th ey m u st p ass th e o f secu rities o r o th er v a ria b le fa c t o r s ). O v er o n e-th ird o f all se c u r i S ecu rities and E x c h a n g e C o m m is s io n ’s G e n e ra l S ecu rities E x a m in a (c o n tr a c ts y ie ld in g p e rio d ic w h ich ap pear lik ely to rise in p rice ties sa le sm e n w o rk p art tim e; th e tio n , or ex a m in a tio n s p rep ared b y q u ick ly . m ajority are m en . th e ex c h a n g e s a n d /o r th e N A S D . S a lesm en , th erefo re, m ay b e ca lled o n to fu rn ish in fo r m a tio n S ecu rities sa le sm e n are em p lo y e d a b o u t the ad va n ta g es and d isa d v a n b y h u n d red s o f b ro k era g e firm s, in m a n ’s k n o w le d g e o f th e se cu ritie s ta ges o f ea c h typ e o f in v estm en t. v estm e n t b a n k ers, an d m u tu a l fu n d b u sin ess. S a lesm en o fte n are ex p e c te d to fu r firm s in all p arts o f th e co u n try . n ish the latest sto ck an d b o n d q u o ta tio n s as w ell as in fo r m a tio n re g ard in g the a ctiv ities and fin an cial M a n y o f th e se firm s are v ery sm all. M o st sa le sm en , h o w e v er , w o rk fo r a re la tiv ely sm a ll n u m b er o f large a lso are requ ired . M o st em p lo y er s p ro v id e train in g p o sitio n s o f corp o ra tio n s. firm s that op era te m ain o ffices lo to a ssist th eir sa le sm en in m eetin g th e req u irem en ts for reg istra tio n . In m a n y firm s, in clu d in g all m em b ers S a lesm en m a y serve all ty p e s o f cu sto m ers or sp ec ia liz e in o n ly o n e ca te d in b ig cities N e w Y o r k C it y ) , th e train in g p erio d eq u a ls at le a st 6 ty p e su ch as in stitu tio n a l in v esto rs. T h ey a lso m ay sp ec ia liz e in certa in m a tely 7 ,0 0 0 b ran ch o ffices in o th er m o n th s. In large firm s, tra in in g p ro areas. gram s are so m e tim e s q u ite e la b o rate. T r a in ee s m a y r e ce iv e c la ss (e sp e c ia lly in and a p p r o x i k in d s o f secu rities. F o r e x a m p le , a sa lesm a n m a y h a n d le o n ly tra n sa c tio n s in m u n icip a l b o n d s o r o n ly sh ares in m u tu al fun ds. If h is e m p lo y er u n d erw rites “n e w Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement iss u e s,” T h ese test th e p ro sp ec tiv e C h a ra cter sa le s in v estig a tio n s o f th e N e w Y o r k S to ck E x c h a n g e , ro o m in stru ctio n in su b jec ts su ch as secu rity a n a ly sis an d e ffec tiv e sp e a k ing, tak e c o u r se s offered b y sc h o o ls o f b u sin e ss and o th e r in stitu tio n s su ed fo r p la n t e x p a n sio n fu n d s, h e B e c a u se a secu rities sa le sm a n m u st be w ell in fo r m e d a b o u t e c o and a sso c ia tio n s, and u n d erg o a p erio d o f o n -th e -jo b train in g. O th er m ay tak e part o n ly in the in itial sale o f th ese n ew secu rities. n o m ic c o n d itio n s and trend s, a c o l tra in in g le g e e d u ca tio n is b e c o m in g in c r e a s sm a ll firm s, m a y b e re la tiv ely in in gly im p o rta n t fo r a p p lica n ts in this fo rm a l and b rief. In p ro g ra m s o f su ch as the co rp o ra tio n se cu ritie s is E sta b lish in g a clien te le im p ortan t to sa le sm a n ’s su cc ess. the n ew is very secu rities field. A lth o u g h em p lo y er s se ld o m b e g in requ ire sp e c ia liz e d train in g, a d e n in g, h e m a y sp en d m u c h o f h is g ree in b u sin ess a d m in istra tio n , e c o tim e c o n ta ctin g p o te n tia l in v esto rs n o m ic s, o r lib era l arts is regard ed as good p rep a ra tio n . C o u r ses in fin a n ce and o th er su b jects related to th e secu rities b u sin e ss, a v a ila b le at c o lle g e s an d u n iv ersities th ro u g h o u t th e co u n try , a lso are h elp fu l. In th e and form er cu sto m ers o f h is firm , or se ek in g n e w cu sto m ers in o th er w a y s. O n the o th er h and , an e x p e r i e n ce d sa lesm a n m a y sp en d m o st o f his tim e serv icin g th e a cc o u n ts o f e sta b lish ed cu sto m ers. Places of Employment In 1 9 7 0 , a b o u t 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 m en and w o m e n so ld secu rities. M o s t w ere fu ll-tim e em p lo y e e s firm s— sa lesm en , b ran ch office of secu rities p lica n t m a y h a v e to fu rn ish a p er so n a l b o n d or p a ss w ritten ex a m in a tio n s. In a d d itio n , p ra ctica lly or v a ria b le m ay b u sin ess. M a n y em p lo y er s c o n sid e r p er so n a lity traits as im p o rta n t as a ca d em ic train in g in sp ec ia liz ed field s. E m p lo y er s se ek ap p lica n ts w h o are w ell g ro o m e d , w h o p o sse ss th e a b il ity to d eal w ith p e o p le , and w h o are a m b itio u s an d h a v e a se n se o f re sp o n sib ility . B e c a u se m atu rity an d th e ab ility to w ork in d e p e n d en tly a lso are im p ortan t, m a n y em p lo y er s p refer p ro sp e c tiv e sa le sm e n to h a v e p rev io u s ex p e r ie n c e in o th er job s. and rep resen ta tiv e o f h is firm a cco rd in g so m e tim e s g iv e n tests to d eterm in e to re g u la tio n s o f th e se cu ritie s e x their a p titu d e for this k ind o f sa les w ork . ( N A S D ) , or b o th . B e fo r e b eg in n in g fu n d s tra in ee B e fo r e b ein g h ired, a p p lica n ts are tu al e m p lo y e d th e read a ssig n ed m aterials and o b ser v e o th er sa le sm e n as th ey tran sact sa le sm a n m u st b e reg istered as a c h a n g e o r ex c h a n g e s w h e re it tran s acts b u sin ess, o r the N a tio n a l A s s o cia tio n o f S ecu rities D e a le r s, In c. regularly ty p e, in ev ery o u tsid e the secu rities b u sin ess; m o st o f th e se p erso n s so ld sh ares in m u w ere latter p articu larly O th ers p artn ers, m a n a g ers. A lm o st a ll S tates requ ire se cu ri ties sa le sm e n to b e lic en se d . State lic e n sin g req u irem en ts vary. T h e a p th e p ro g ra m s, in jo b s a n n u ities T h e p rin cip a l form o f a d v a n c e m en t fo r secu rities sa le sm e n is an in cr ea se in the n u m b er and th e size 260 o f the a cc o u n ts they h a n d le. A l tio n a l in v esto rs a lso ca n be ex th ou gh a b eg in n er u su a lly starts by p e c te d to h a v e m o re fu n d s for in riod u su a lly ran ge from $400 to $ 5 0 0 a m o n th ; b rok ers e m p lo y e d in serv icin g the a cco u n ts o f in d iv id u a l v estm e n t in th e fu tu re as m o re p e o large firm s r e c e iv e so m e w h a t h igh er in v esto rs, ev e n tu a lly h e m a y h a n d le p le p u r ch a se in su ra n ce; p a rticip a te sa la ries. F a c to r s w h ich h elp d eter very large a cco u n ts su ch as th o se o f in p e n sio n p lan s; co n trib u te to th e m in e salary d uring th e tra in in g p e in stitu tio n a l in v esto rs. S o m e e x p er i e n d o w m e n t fu n d s o f c o lle g e s, u n i riod in clu d e lo c a lity o f th e firm , the en ced sa lesm en m ay a d v a n ce to p o v ersities an d o th er n o n p ro fit in stitu sitio n s as b ran ch office m a n a g ers, tio n s; an d d e p o sit th eir sa v in g s in in d iv id u a l’s ed u c a tio n a l g ro u n d , an d h is e x p er ie n c e. w ho sa lesm en w h ile e x e c u tin g b u y and b a n k s. M a n y m o re secu rities sa le s m e n w ill b e n e e d e d a lso to se ll n ew h is train in g, ea rn in g s are u su a lly in sell ord ers fo r their o w n cu sto m e rs. se cu ritie s issu e d b y ex p a n d in g c o r th e form o f c o m m issio n s from c u s A few sa le sm en m ay b e c o m e p art n ers in their firm s or p erfo rm o th er p o r a tio n s an d b y S ta te and lo c a l g o v er n m e n ts fin a n cin g c o n stru ctio n to m e r s’ sa le and p u r ch a se o f se cu ri ties. S ize o f th e c o m m issio n d ep en d s o f n ew road s an d o th er p u b lic im p artly o n th e p o lic ie s o f th e firm , su p ervise th e w o rk o f o th er a d m in istrative w ork . p ro v em e n ts. b ack O n c e th e sa le sm a n h a s c o m p le te d p artly o n th e ty p e o f secu rity b o u g h t or so ld , and a lso o n w h e th er it w a s Employment Outlook trad ed o n a sto c k e x c h a n g e o r in th e Earnings and Working Conditions E m p lo y m e n t o f secu ritie s sa le s m en is e x p ec ted to in cr ea se m o d e r T r a in ee s are u su a lly p a id a salary a tely d uring th e 1 9 7 0 ’s. S o m e n ew u n til su ch tim e as th ey are a b le to o v e r -th e -c o u n te r m ark et. C o m m is sio n ea rn in g s m a y flu ctu a te b e c a u se o f ex tr em es in m a rk et a ctiv ity . E a rn in g s are lik ely to b e h igh w h en th ere is m u c h b u y in g and se llin g p o sitio n s w ill b e created to serv e m e e t lic e n sin g an d reg istra tio n re th e gro w in g n u m b er o f in d iv id u a ls q u irem en ts. A fte r reg istra tio n , a few an d lo w e r w h e n th ere is a sev ere an d in stitu tio n s in v estin g m o n e y in slu m p in m a rk et a ctiv ity . T o p r o secu rities o f all k ind s. M o st p o s i firm s c o n tin u e to p a y a salary u n til th e n ew sa le sm a n ’s c o m m issio n s in tio n s, h o w e v er , w ill b e v a c a n c ie s th at o ccu r as sa le sm e n retire or crea se to a m in im u m a m o u n t. T h e salaries p a id d uring th e train in g p e com e, le a v e the o cc u p a tio n fo r oth er r ea so n s. T h e n u m b er o f b eg in n e rs w h o le a v e the o cc u p a tio n ten d s to b e h ig h b e c a u se o f th e d ifficulty n ew sa le sm en h a v e in esta b lish in g a clien tele . S ev era l factors sh o u ld co n trib u te to ex p a n d in g em p lo y m e n t o p p o r tu n ities for secu rities sa le sm e n o v er the n ex t d eca d e. B o th th e n u m b er o f in d iv id u a l in v esto rs and th e fu n d s th ey h a v e to in v est w ill c o n tin u e to in cr ea se as a resu lt o f e c o n o m ic g row th , risin g p erso n a l in c o m e s, and a n u m b er o f oth er fa cto rs. T h e latter in clu d e in terest stim u la ted b y the and a ctiv ities of a sso c ia tio n s, in v estm en t p la n s clu b s en a b lin g sm a ll in v esto rs to m a k e m in im u m m o n th ly p a y m e n ts to w a rd th e p u r c h a se o f secu rities, an d th e in cr ea s ing n eed fo r p aren ts to se t asid e fu n d s fo r th eir ch ild ren ’s e d u ca tio n and their o w n retirem en t. In stitu v id e their sa le sm e n w ith a stea d y in a g a in st m o st firm s pay a c o m m issio n ”— th at “ draw is, a 261 OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS J o b titles m a y id en tify th ese three m in im u m salary b a sed o n th e c o m In fo r m a tio n a b o u t the in v estm en t m issio n s w h ich sa le sm en ca n b e e x p ected to earn— p lu s co m m issio n s from a d d itio n a l sa les. A fe w firm s b a n k in g b u sin ess and sa le s p o sitio n s b a sic w ith in v estm en t b a n k ers m a y b e o b ta in e d from : grou p w o rk , o r c o m m u n ity org a n i za tio n . T h e trend is fo r th e so c ia l p a y sa le sm en o n ly salary and b o n u se s, u su a lly d eterm in ed b y c o m p an y b u sin ess. E arn in gs o f secu ritie s tw o or all three a p p r o a ch es in p ro b (D.O.T. 195.108, .118, .208, and .228) in u n d ersta n d in g their p ro b lem s and in secu rin g n ece ssa r y se rv ic es, in .168, clu d in g fin an cial a ssista n ce , fo ste r care, and h o m e m a k er service. G ro u p w ork ers h elp p e o p le through p aid o n a co m m issio n b a sis m ay re c e iv e an nu al b o n u ses w h e n b u sin ess a ctivity. In large o ffices, ro w s o f sa le sm en g en erally sit at d esk s in fron t o f “ q u o te b o a rd s” and w all screen s, w h ich co n tin u a lly flash in fo rm a tio n o n secu rities tra n sa ctio n s and p rices. M o st offices p ro v id e seats so that cu sto m ers an d oth er p erso n s m a y w a tch the la test m ark et d ev elo p m en ts. A lth o u g h secu rities sa le sm e n u su ally are not requ ired to o b ser v e fixed h ou rs o f w ork , m a n y w o rk ap p ro x im a te ly th e sa m e h ou rs as o th ers in the b u sin ess co m m u n ity . S o m e a lso m u st adjust their tim e to a cc o m m o d a te th o se cu sto m e rs w h o c a n m ee t w ith th em o n ly o u tsid e b u sin ess h ou rs— for e x a m p le , at h o m e in the ev en in g s o r o n w e e k en d s. Sources of Additional Information grou p a ctiv itie s to u n d ersta n d th e m Nature of the Work se lv e s an d o th ers b etter, an d to w ork D e v e lo p m e n t o f a m o re c o m p le x u rb an so c ie ty h as greatly in crea sed th e n e e d fo r o rg a n ized so c ia l serv ic e s. S o c ia l w o rk ers p ro v id e th e lin k b e tw e e n th e se se rv ic es, and in d iv id u a ls an d fa m ilies w h o are n o t a b le to p ro v id e fo r th e m se lv e s or w h o n eed a ssista n ce in so lv in g their p ro b lem s. cia l w o rk ers in clu d e p o v erty ; b ro k en h o m e s; p h y sic a l, m en ta l, and e m o tio n a l h a n d ica p s; a n tiso c ia l b e h avior; racial ten sio n s; an d u n sa tis fa cto ry co m m u n ity co n d itio n s su ch as in a d e q u a te h o u sin g and m ed ica l care, an d la c k o f ed u ca tio n a l, recre a tio n a l, and cu ltu ral o p p o rtu n ities. A v ariety o f p u b lic an d volu n ta ry a g en cies h a v e so c ia l w o rk p rogram s d esig n ed to m ee t sp ecific n eed s in sp ecific w a y s: fo r ex a m p le, in c o m e m a in ten a n ce p rogram s; fa m ily and ch ild w elfa r e se rv ices; so c ia l serv ic e s fo r th e crip p led , d isa b led , ill, an d agin g; an d p rogram s fo r th e p rev e n tio n o f ju v e n ile d elin q u e n c y . th at are m em b ers o f the N e w Y o r k M a n y so c ia l w o rk a g en cies e m p h a S to ck E x c h a n g e an d a b o u t th e n a siz e se r v ic e to in d iv id u a ls o r fa m ilies; ture o f th e secu rities b u sin e ss New York Stock Exchange, 11 Wall St., New York, N.Y. 10005. is w ith o th ers to a ch ie v e a co m m o n g o a l. T h e y p la n and c o n d u c t a ctiv i ties for ch ild ren , a d o le sc e n ts, and o ld e r p erso n s in a variety o f se t tin gs, in clu d in g se ttle m e n t h o u se s, h o sp ita ls, h o m e s fo r th e aged , and co r re ctio n a l in stitu tio n s. C o m m u n ity o rg a n iza tio n w o rk ers h elp p lan an d d e v e lo p h ea lth , h o u sin g , w e l fare, an d recrea tio n se rv ic es fo r a T h e p ro b lem s w h ich c o n ce rn s o F u rth er in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e w ork o f secu rities sa le sm e n in firm s a v a ila b le from : so c ia l th rou gh in terv iew s. T h e y aid them SO CIAL W O RKER S 1 9 7 0 , a cco rd in g to th e lim ited o ffice w h ich is the sc en e o f m u ch th e p ro b lem s o f in d iv id u a ls and fa m ilies b etw e en $ 8 ,0 0 0 an d $ 1 7 ,0 0 0 a y ea r is g o o d . A secu rities sa lesm a n w o rk s in an ca sew o rk , le m -so lv in g , h o w ev er. C a sew o rk ers id en tify sa le sm e n d ata a v ailab le. M an y su c c e ssfu l sa le sm en have in co m e s o v er $ 2 5 ,0 0 0 a year, h o w ev er . S a lesm en as w o rk er to u se co m b in a tio n s o f any Investment Bankers Association of America, 425 13th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20004. w o rk in g fu ll tim e g en era lly ran ged in a p p ro a ch es n eig h b o r h o o d o r larger area. T h ey o fte n co o r d in a te e x istin g so c ia l serv ic es an d o rg a n ize fu n d raisin g for co m m u n ity so c ia l w elfa re a ctiv ities. T h e m ajority o f so c ia l w o rk ers p ro v id e so c ia l se rv ic es d irectly to in d iv id u a ls, fa m ilies, o r grou p s. H o w e v e r , a su b sta n tia l n u m b er p er form e x e c u tiv e , ad m in istra tiv e, or su p erv iso ry d u ties. O th ers are c o l le g e tea ch ers, research w ork ers, or co n su lta n ts. T h e w id e ran ge o f serv ic es p ro v id ed b y so c ia l w o rk ers is su g g ested b y th e d esc rip tio n s o f the p rin cip a l areas o f so c ia l w o rk w h ich fo llo w : S o cia l w ork ers in fa m ily se rv ic e p o sitio n s in S tate an d lo c a l g o v er n m en ts and v o lu n ta ry a g en cies p ro on v id e c o u n se lin g and so c ia l serv ices that stren g th en fa m ily life and h elp w o rk in g w ith larger grou p s; an d still clien ts to im p r o v e th eir so c ia l fu n c so m e p la c e p rim ary e m p h a sis o th ers are co n ce rn ed m a in ly w ith tio n in g . the c o m m u n ity ’s so c ia l w elfa re. clien ts o n th e co n stru ctiv e u se o f fi T h ey a lso a d v ise their OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 262 n a n cia l a ssista n ce and o th er so c ia l services. S o cia l w ork ers in ch ild w elfa r e a d ju stm en t to th eir h o m e s, jo b s, and to so c ie ty . T h e y in v estig a te th e so co m m u n ities. T h e y h a v e p articu lar cia l h isto ry and b a ck g ro u n d o f the r e sp o n sib ility fo r h elp in g th e fa m p erso n u n d er th e ju r isd ictio n o f the p o sitio n s in g o v er n m e n t an d v o lu n tary a g en cies im p ro v e th e p h y sica l ilies o f p a tie n ts to u n d ersta n d the c o u rt an d m a k e rep orts to the co u rt and n atu re o f th e illn ess. S o cia l w o rk ers to h elp th e ju d g e in h is ju d icia l d e c i of d e a lso p a rticip a te in co m m u n ity m e n sio n s. T h e y a lso c o u n se l p erso n s on tro u b led ch ild ren and tal h ea lth p rogram s co n ce rn ed w ith p ro b a tio n or p a ro le , m a y h elp th em yo u th . T h e y a d vise p aren ts o n ch ild th e p rev e n tio n o f m en ta l illn e ss and se cu re n e c e ssa r y e d u ca tio n o r e m care an d ch ild rearing, c o u n se l c h il d ren an d y o u th w ith so c ia l ad ju st re a d ju stm en t o f m en ta l p a tien ts to n o rm a l h o m e and co m m u n ity livin g. se r v ic e s m en t d ifficu lties, arrange h o m e m ak er se rv ic es d uring a m o th er’s ill S o m e co n d u c t research . S o cia l w o rk ers in reh a b ilita tio n m arital n e ss, in stitu te le g a l a ctio n fo r th e se rv ic es a ssist e m o tio n a lly o r p h y si sh ip s. p ro tec tio n o f n eg le cted o r m istrea ted ch ild ren , p ro v id e serv ic es to u n m ar c a lly d isa b led p erso n s in ad ju stin g to th e d em a n d s o f ev e ry d a y livin g. e m o tio n a l prived and w e ll-b e in g ried p aren ts, an d c o u n se l co u p le s A s p art o f a reh a b ilita tio n w h o w ish to a d o p t ch ild ren . T h ey team , o c c u p a tio n a l th era p ists, th e se so c ia l tio n or fo ste r h o m e s or in sp ec ia liz ed w o rk ers serv e as a lin k w ith the in stitu tion s. S o cia l w ork ers a lso in se e k th e to and co m m u n ity . re so lv e T h ey p ro b lem s p a ren t-c h ild in re la tio n Places of Employment w h ich u su a lly in clu d es p h y sic a l or m a y p la ce ch ild ren in su ita b le a d o p p lo y m e n t, an d d irect th em to oth er A bout 1 7 0 ,0 0 0 so c ia l w ork ers w ere e m p lo y e d in 1 9 7 0 ; a b o u t 6 0 co m m u n ity w h ile p a tien ts are in th e p erc en t w o r k e d in F e d e r a l, S ta te, by h o sp ita l; later, th ey h elp th em ad c o u n ty a n d city g o v er n m e n t a g en sc h o o ls aid ch ild ren w h o se u n sa tis ju st to h o m e an d co m m u n ity life. (R e h a b ilita tio n co u n se lo r s, a re v o lu n ta ry fa cto ry b eh a v io r e m p lo y e d or p ro g ress in sc h o o l is p ro b lem s. related to their so c ia l T h e se w ork ers c o n su lt and w ith w o rk p aren ts, tea ch ers, la ted o c c u p a tio n a l grou p , are d is c u sse d in a sep a ra te sta te m e n t.) P ro b a tio n an d p a ro le officers and c o u n selo r s, an d oth er sc h o o l p er o th er so n n e l in id en tify in g and se e k in g a p erso n s so lu tio n to the p ro b lem s that h in d er an d ju v e n ile o ffen d ers in read ju stin g sa tisfa cto ry ad ju stm ent. S o cia l w ork ers e m p lo y e d b y h o s p itals, clin ics, h ea lth a g en cies, reh a b ilita tio n cen ters, an d p u b lic w e l fare a g en cies aid p atien ts and their fa m ilies w ith so c ia l p ro b lem s a c co m p a n y in g illn ess, reco v e ry , and reh ab ilitation . T h ey u su a lly fu n ctio n as p art o f a m ed ica l team c o m p o se d of p h y sicia n s, th era p ists, and n urses. S o m e so c ia l w ork ers p ro v id e serv ic e s fo r p a tien ts in m en ta l h ea lth cen ters, h o sp ita ls, or clin ics. A s m em b ers o f team s c o m p o se d o f p sy ch iatrists, p sy ch o lo g ists, an d o th er p ro fessio n a l p erso n n el, th e y d e v e lo p an d report in fo rm a tio n o n th e p a tien t’s fa m ily an d so c ia l b a ck g ro u n d fo r u se in d ia g n o sis an d treatm en t. T h e y h elp p atien ts resp o n d to treat m en t an d gu id e th em in th eir so c ia l co r re ctio n a l on w o rk ers p ro b a tio n and a ssist p a ro le c ies. M o st o f th e rem a in d er w er e in or p riv a te a g en cies. A sm a ll n u m b er o f e x p e r ie n c e d so c ia l w o rk ers from th e U n ite d S tates w er e serv in g in o th e r p arts o f the w o rld as c o n su lta n ts, tea c h e rs, or tec h n icia n s en g a g ed in settin g up a g e n c ie s, sc h o o ls , o r a ssista n ce p ro- OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS cation. Nearly two-thirds of the full-time students in graduate schools receive some type of finan cial aid from either the schools or employing agencies. Some social welfare agencies, both voluntary and public, offer plans whereby Training, Other Qualifications, workers are granted “educational and Advancement leave” to obtain graduate education. The agency may pay the expenses A bachelor’s degree, preferably in or a salary, or both. social welfare, generally is the mini Personal qualities essential for mum educational requirement for social workers include emotional beginning jobs in social work. In maturity, objectivity, sensitivity, a most fields of practice, certain spe basic concern for people and their cialized areas require a master’s de social problems, and the ability to gree in social work. For teaching form and sustain good working rela positions, a master’s degree in social tionships and to encourage social work is required, and a doctorate is adjustment in others. Students preferred. In research work, train should try to obtain as much related ing in social science research meth experience as possible during high ods is required, in addition to a school and college to determine graduate degree and experience in whether they have the interest and social work. In most States, begin capacity for professional social ners must pass a written examination work. They may do volunteer, in social work for employment in a part-time, or summer work in government agency. places such as camps, settlement A master’s degree in social work houses, community centers, or so is awarded on successful completion cial welfare agencies. Some social of 2 years of specialized study and welfare agencies, both voluntary and supervised field instruction in an ac public, hire college students and, in credited school of social work. some cases, high school students for Social workers who have a mas nonclerical jobs in which the stu ter’s degree and belong to the N a dents assist social workers. tional Association of Social Workers are eligible for certification as mem bers of the Academy of Certified Employment Outlook Social Workers (A C SW ). Employment opportunities for In 1970, 70 graduate schools of social work in the United States social workers are expected to be were accredited by the Council on very good through the 1970’s. D e Social Work Education. For admis spite the anticipated increase in the sion to these schools, a student must number of graduates of master’s de have a bachelor’s degree represent gree programs in social work, the ing broad knowledge of the liberal demand for these highly trained so arts, preferably including courses in cial workers is expected to continue economics, history, political science, to exceed the supply. The outlook psychology, sociology, and social for persons having a bachelor’s de gree in social welfare or in related anthropology. Many scholarships and fellow fields will continue to be favorable. ships are available for graduate edu Qualified and experienced women grams. They were employed by the Federal Government, the United Nations or one of its affiliated agen cies, national professional associa tions, or voluntary agencies. 263 who wish to work part time should have very good employment prospects. Many factors will contribute to the need for more social workers to maintain existing programs and to staff new ones. The occupational structure of the economy is ex pected to continue to change and create severe problems for many unskilled workers and others whose jobs have been replaced by ma chines. In addition, family life will continue to be affected by social change. The increasing population of the very young and the very old, the age groups most in need of so cial work services, is expected to contribute to the demand for social workers. Many openings also will arise because of the need to replace workers who retire, die, or other wise leave the profession. Earnings and Working Conditions According to an early 1971 sur vey of selected occupations by the Public Personnel Association, the average starting salary paid social caseworkers by various State agen cies was about $6,600. This figure, however, reflects very large numbers of persons who do not have a mas ter’s degree in social work. Case work supervisors in State agencies had average annual salaries ranging from $8,900 for those having little experience to about $11,300 for those having considerable experi ence. Salaries of psychiatric social workers averaged from $8,900 to $11,300; those of probation and parole officers averaged from about $7,600 to $9,100. Salaries of social workers in a cross-section of cities and urban counties were, on the average, above those paid by State agencies. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 264 For example, according to the sur vey cited above, the average start ing salary of social case workers in selected urban areas was about $7,700. Salaries of casework super visors averaged $ 1 0 ,6 0 0 for those with little experience to about $13,000 for those with considerable experience. Beginning psychiatric social workers had average salaries of about $10,200, probation and pa role officers averaged about $8,500 a year. In the Federal Government in 1970, graduates of accredited schools of social work received a starting salary of $9,881 a year. Those with 2 years of progressively responsible experience under pro fessional supervision received a Federal Government starting salary of $11,905. Persons having a bach elor’s degree or 3 years’ experience in technical or investigative work in a welfare activity began at $6,548 and $8,098 a year. The predominant scheduled workweek for social workers in 1970 was generally 4 0 hours; how ever, as many as one-third regularly worked 3 7 x i hours or less a week. In / some social work agencies, the na ture of the work requires evening and/or weekend work, for which social workers usually receive com pensatory time off. Virtually all so cial work agencies provide fringe benefits such as paid vacations and sick leave and retirement plans. National Association of Social Workers, 2 Park Ave., New York. N.Y. 10016. Places of Employment SO IL S C IE N T IS T S (D.O.T. 040.081) Nature of the Work Soil scientists study the physical, chemical and biological characteris tics and behavior of soils. They in vestigate the soils both in the field and in the laboratory and grade them according to a national system of soil classification. From their re search, scientists can classify soils in terms or of response to management practices and capability for produc ing crops, grasses, and trees, as well as in terms of their utility as engi neering materials and foundations for buildings and other structures. Soil scientists prepare maps, usually based on-aerial photographs, on which they plot the individual kinds of soil and other landscape features significant to soil use and manage ment in relation to land lines, field boundaries, roads, and other con spicuous features. Soil scientists also conduct re search to determine the physical and chemical properties of soils and their water relationships, in order to understand their behavior and ori gin. They predict the yields of culti vated crops, grasses, and trees, Sources of Additional Information under alternative combinations of Information on admission re management practices. Soils science offers opportunities quirements and scholarship in ac credited graduate schools of social for those who wish to specialize in work and colleges offering courses soil classification and mapping, soil in social work, as well as on social geography, soil chemistry, soil phys work as a career, may be obtained ics, soil microbiology, and soil man agement. Training and experience troniv in soil science also will prepare per sons for positions as farm managers, land appraisers, and many other professional positions. Most soil scientists are employed by agencies of the Federal Govern ment, State equipment stations, and colleges of agriculture. However, many are employed in a wide range of other public and private institu tions, including fertilizer companies, private research laboratories, insur ance companies, banks and other lending agencies, real estate firms, land appraisal boards, State high way departments, State conserva tion departments, and farm manage ment agencies. A few are indepen dent consultants, and others work for consulting firms. An increasing number are employed in foreign countries as research leaders, con sultants, and agricultural managers. Training and Advancement Training in a college or university of recognized standing is important in obtaining employment, as a soil scientist. For Federal employment, the minimum qualification for en trance is a B.S. degree with a major in Soil Science or in a closely re lated field of study, and having 30 semester hours of course work in the biological, physical, and earth sciences, including a minimum of 15 semester hours in soils. Those hav ing graduate training— expecially those with the doctor’s degree— can be expected to advance rapidly into a responsible and high paying posi tion. This is particularly true in soil research, including the more re sponsible positions in soil classifica tion, and in teaching. Soil scientists OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS who are qualified for work with both field and laboratory data have a special advantage. Many colleges and universities offer fellowships and assistantships for graduate training or employ graduate students for part-time teaching or research. Employment Outlook The demand is increasing for soil scientists to help complete the sci entific classification and evaluation of the soil resources in the United States. One of the major programs objectives of the Soil Conservation Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture is to complete the soil survey of all rural lands in the United States. This program includes research, soil classification and correlation, inter pretation of results for use by agri culturists and engineers, and train ing of other workers to use these re sults. Also, demand is increasing for both basic and applied research to increase the efficiency of soil use. Earnings The incomes of soil scientists de pend upon their education, profes sional experience, and individual abilities. The entrance salary in the Federal service for graduates having a B.S. degree was $6,938 since Jan uary 1971. They may expect ad vancement to $8,522 after 1 year of satisfactory performance. Further promotion depends upon the indi vidual’s ability to do high-quality work and to accept responsibility. Earnings of well-qualified Federal soil scientists with several years ex perience range from $12,615 to $20,815 per year. Sources of Additional Information Additional information may be obtained from the U.S. Civil Service Commission, Washington, D.C. 20415: Office of Personnel, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Wash ington, D.C. 20250; or any office of the Department’s Soil Conservation Service. Also see statements on Chemists and Biologists. SO IL C O N S E R V A TIO N IS TS (D.O.T. 040.081) Nature of the Work Soil conservationists supply farm ers, ranchers, and others with tech nical assistance for soil and water conservation. Farmers and other land managers use this technical as sistance in making adjustments in land use; protecting land against soil deterioration; rebuilding eroded and depleted soils; stabilizing runoff and sediment-producing areas; improv ing cover on lands devoted to crop raising, forest, pasture, range, and wildlife; conserving water for farm and ranch use and reducing damage from flood water and sediment; and in draining or irrigating farm or ranches. The types of technical services provided by soil conservationists are as follows: Maps presenting inven tories of soil, water, vegetation, and other details essential in conserva tion planning and application; infor mation on the proper land utiliza tion and the treatment suitable for the planned use of each field or part of the farm or ranch, groups of 265 farms or ranches, or entire wat ersheds; and estimates of the rela tive cost of, ranches, or entire wat ersheds; and estimates of the rela tive cost of, and expected returns from, various alternatives of land use and treatment. After the landowner or operator decides upon a conservation pro gram that provides for the land to be used within its capability and treated according to the planned use, the conservationist records the relevant facts as part of a plan which, together with the maps and other supplemental information, constitute a plan of action for con servation farming or ranching. The soil conservationist then gives the land manager technical guidance in applying and maintaining the con servation practices. Where Employed Most soil conservationists are employed by the Federal Govern ment, mainly by the U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture’s Soil Conser vation Service and by the Depart ment of the Interior’s Bureau of Indian Affairs. Some are employed by colleges and State and local gov ernments; others by banks and pub lic utilities. Training and Advancement A Bachelor of Science degree with a major in soil conservation or one of the closely related natural science or agricultural fields, and having 30 semester hours in fields of natural science or agriculture, including the equivalent of a 3-se mester-hour course in soils, consti tute the minimum requirement for OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK 266 professional soil conservationists. Those who have unusual aptitude in the various phases of the work have good chances of advancement to higher salaried technical administra tive jobs. ment of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250; or any office of the Department’s Soil Conservation Service. U R B A N PLA N N ER S Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for well-trained soil conservationists are good. Opportunities in the profes sion will expand because govern ment agencies, public utility compa nies, banks, and other organizations are becoming interested in conser vation and are adding conservation ists to their staffs. Other new open ings will occur in college teaching, particularly at the undergraduate level. In addition, some openings will arise because of the normal turnover in personnel. Earnings Since January 1971, soil conser vationists having a bachelor’s de gree and employed by the Federal Government received $6,938 a year. Advancement to $8,582 could be expected after 1 year of satisfac tory service. Further advancement depends upon the individual’s abil ity to accept greater responsibility. Earnings of well-qualified Federal soil conservationists with several years’ experience range from $12,615 to $20,815 a year. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on em ployment as a soil conservationist may be obtained from the U.S. Civil Service Commission, Washington, D.C. 20415; Employment Division, Office of Personnel, U.S. Depart (D.O.T. 199.168) Nature of the Work Urban planners develop compre hensive plans and programs for the growth and overall revitalization of urban communities. They attempt to remedy urban problems such as deteriorating business and residen tial areas, traffic congestion, inade quate parks and recreation facilities, shortages of suitable space for in dustrial development, and air pol lution. In addition, the growth of the suburbs has added increased pres sure on the urban center to provide more and better transportation and parking facilities. Urban planners visualize future conditions in the light of trends in population growth and social and economic change; they also estimate the community’s long-range needs for land, housing, community facilities, transportation, recreation, business, and industry. The urban planner analyzes alterna tives and proposes methods for achieving an efficient and attractive community within a framework de termined by the community’s gov erning body. Before they can produce plans for long-range community develop ment, however, urban planners must make detailed studies, includ ing the preparation of maps and charts, which show the current use of land for residential, business, and community purposes; the arrange ment of streets, highways, and water and sewer lines; and the location of such community facilities as schools, libraries, and playgrounds. These studies also provide information on the types of industry in the com munity, population densities and characteristics, social features, in come levels, employment and eco nomic trends, and other related in formation. After they have analyzed and evaluated the facts, urban planners design the layout of recommended facilities and land use and supervise the preparation of illustrative mate rials. They also prepare plans to show how their proposed programs can best be carried out and what the cost is likely to be. Much of their time is spent conferring with private land developers, civic leaders, and officials of public agencies who do specialized planning. They also may prepare materials for community re lations programs, speak at civic meetings, and appear before legisla tive councils and committees to ex plain and defend their recommenda tions or proposals. In small planning organizations, planners must be able to handle several kinds of work. In large or ganizations, which may have several dozen planners, each may specialize in an area such as physical design, survey and research, or community relations work. Some specialize in new town planning, the rehabilita tion of city slum areas, or the recon struction of rundown business dis tricts. Places of Employment About 8,000 people were em ployed as professional urban plan ners in 1970. The majority of urban planners are employed by govern mental agencies, mainly city, OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS county, and metropolitan regional planning organizations; a growing number are employed by various State governments and by the Fed eral Government. About one-fifth of the planners do consulting work, ei ther independently in addition to their full-time job, or as an em ployee or partner in a private con sulting firm providing services for private developers or for govern ment agencies. Urban planners also work for large land developers or private research organizations and teach in colleges or universities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers consider a master’s degree in planning the most desira ble educational background for pro fessional work in this field. In Fed eral agencies and in a growing num ber of other government agencies, 2 years of graduate work in city plan ning, or its equivalent, are required for most entrance level positions. However, young people having bachelor’s degrees in city planning, architecture, landscape architecture, engineering, public administration, and some other social science fields also may qualify for entrance level positions. In 1970, more than 50 colleges and universities awarded the mas ter’s degree in urban planning. For entrance into the programs, most schools require that students have undergraduate degrees in fields such as architecture, landscape architec ture, engineering, economics, statis tics, sociology, public administra tion, or city and regional planning. Nearly all schools require students to spend considerable time in work shop, laboratory, or studio courses, learning to analyze and solve practi cal problems in urban planning. M ost schools require candidates for the master’s degree to take 2 years of graduate work and to prepare a Urban planners discuss community renewal plans. 267 thesis or take a final comprehensive examination. A few schools have re cently adopted a 3-year master’s de gree program. Nearly half of the schools require some practical expe rience or internship. This latter re quirement is usually fulfilled by reg ular paid employment during sum mer months in a planning office ap proved by the school’s faculty. A very few schools which stress physi cal design grant a master’s degree on completion of 1 year of graduate work to students who hold a bache lor’s degree in architecture or engi neering. Planners must have the ability to think in terms of spatial relation ships and to visualize the effects of their plans and designs. Planners also must be able to cooperate with others, since they sometimes encounter differing atti tudes and viewpoints which must be evaluated and accepted or rejected with tact to achieve the desired goal. On occasion, they face the dis couragement of seeing carefully de signed plans fall through because of conflicting political interests or apa thy. Beginners in urban planning offices are likely to spend some time doing routine work or making field surveys and compiling statistics re quired to make projections for fu ture plans. As they become more experienced, workers may be as signed to outline proposed studies, write reports, design the physical layout of a large development, make statistical analyses and projec tions, or perform other duties which require a high degree of independ ent judgment. Senior planners and planning directors are likely to spend much time meeting with officials in other organizations, ad dressing civic groups, and supervis ing other professionals. Advance ment often occurs through a 268 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK transfer to a larger city, where the problems are more complex and the responsibilities are greater. Candidates for the position of urban planner in Federal, State, and local government agencies fre quently must pass civil service ex aminations to becom e eligible for appointment. These examinations are often advertised nationally and usually do not impose residence re strictions. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for graduates having professional train ing in city and regional planning are expected to continue to be very good through the 1970’s. Shortages of qualified planners have been re ported in recent years, even though the number of graduates has been rising. In 1970, the American Soci ety of Planning Officials estimated that there were about 1,300 va cancies in planning agencies be cause of the shortage of well-quali fied planners. Although most open ings will stem from new positions, some also will result from the need to replace planners who transfer to other fields of work, retire, die, or leave the field for other reasons. This profession is expected to grow through the 1970’s as more com munities turn to professional plan ners for help in determining the most effective way to meet the ris ing requirements for physical facili ties that result from urbanization and growth in population. As urban communities continue to spill into neighboring areas or merge with other urban areas, open spaces for recreation disappear, smog and traf fic problems multiply, and the need for more and better planned facili ties becomes acute. The construction of new cities and towns also is expected to con tribute to a rising need for planners. In addition, Federal assistance to communities for urban planning, slum clearance and urban renewal, and beautification and open space land improvement will continue to stimulate the demand for planners. Although many openings will be with the government, more and more private enterprises are em ploying urban planners. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries of inexperienced planners having only a bachelor’s degree were between $8,3 0 0 and $ 1 1 ,3 0 0 a year in 1970. Starting salaries for persons having a mas ter’s degree were generally higher, ranging from $9,300 to $12,300 a year. Planners having a master’s de gree and 2 to 5 years experience earned annual salaries of between $ 9 ,500 and $16,500 or more. Sala ries of Directors of Planning depend to a great extent on the size of the city in which they are employed. In 1970, the average annual salary for a Planning Director in a city having between 10,000 and 25 ,0 0 0 people was $12,500. In cities of over 2 5 0 ,000 people, the average annual salary of Planning Directors was $22,000. Consultants are generally paid on a fee basis. Their earnings are often high and vary greatly ac cording to their reputation and pre vious experience. In 1970, the usual entrance sal ary for urban planners employed by the Federal Government was $9,881 a year. In a few cases, de pending upon their academic rec ords, individuals having less than 2 years of graduate work or its equiv alent were hired as interns at yearly salaries of $6,548 or $8,098. Since most planners work for government agencies, they usually have sick leave and vacation privi leges, and are covered by retirement and health plans. Although most city planners have a scheduled workweek of 40 hours, they some times work in the evenings and on weekends because of the need to at tend meetings with citizen’s groups. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on plan ning and a fist of schools offering training may be obtained from: American Institute of Planners, 917 15th St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. American Society of Planning Of ficials, 1313 East 60th St., Chi cago, 111. 60637. III. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK SERVICE PUBLICATIONS AND MATERIALS The Bureau of Labor Statistics issues the O c c u p a tio n a l O u tlo o k H a n d b o o k , a basic tool in the voca tional guidance of young people seeking a field of work. In addition, the Bureau issues the O c c u p a tio n a l O u tlo o k Q u a rte rly , which provides current information on occupational developments between editions of the H a n d b o o k , and the Occupa tional Outlook Reprint Series, which now consists of 141 reprints of H a n d b o o k statements. Both pub lications also assist young people seeking career information. In addition, the Bureau issues at regular intervals occupational out look bulletins which give more de tailed information than can be in cluded either in the H a n d b o o k or Q u a rte rly . Recent T e c h n ic ia n M a n p o w er, bulletins are 1 9 6 6 -8 0 (BLS Bulletin 1 6 3 9 ), projected re quirements for science and engi neering technicians; P h .D . S c ie n tists a n d E n g in e e rs in P riv a te In d u s tr y , 1 9 6 8 - 8 0 (BLS Bulletin 1 6 4 8 ), a study of factors influencing private industry’s need for scientists and en gineers with doctorates; C o lle g e E d u c a te d W o rk e rs, 1 9 6 8 - 8 0 (BLS Bulletin 1 6 7 6 ), a study of supply and demand for college graduates; and O c c u p a tio n a l M a n p o w e r a n d T ra in in g N eeds (BLS Bulletin 17 0 1 ), showing the number of total annual openings over the 1 9 6 8 -8 0 period and available data on the number of workers currently being trained. The Bureau also has developed a visual aid for counselors entitled J o b s fo r th e 1 9 7 0 ’s. It consists of a set of 40 color slides that show the changing occupational and in dustrial mix and trends for man power development, education, and training. The slides, which have an accompanying narrative, are availa ble directly from the Bureau of Labor Statistics Regional Offices for $ 1 0 a set. Anyone wishing to receive the above materials or have his name added to the Bureau’s mailing list for announcements of new publica tions should send a request, with his address, to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C. 20212. 269 IV. SOURCES OF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION OR ASSISTANCE Persons using this publication may want more detail on the occu pations discussed in the occupa tional reports, or information on fields of work which are not covered in this publication. Suggestions as to sources of addi tional information on the occupa tions discussed are given in most of the occupational reports. In addi tion, several types of publications of the U.S. Department of Labor pro vide further information on topics such as earnings, hours of work, and working conditions, Other sources likely to be helpful include public libraries; schools; State em ployment services; business estab lishments; and trade unions, em ployers’ associations, and profes sional societies. A brief description of each follows. Public Libraries These libraries usually have many books, pamphlets, and magazine ar ticles giving information about dif ferent occupations. They also may have several books and current in dexes which list the great numbers of publications on occupations, and the librarians may be of assistance in finding the best ones on a partic ular field of work.. Schools School and college libraries and placement offices also often have extensive reading materials on occu pations. In addition, placement officers and professors usually know of any local occupational informa tion which has been assembled through special surveys made by schools or other community agen cies. Also, professors can often give information about occupations re lated to the subjects they teach. State Employment Services Counselors in local public em ployment offices are in a particu larly good position to supply infor mation about job opportunities, hir ing standards, and wages in their lo calities. Business Establishments Employers and personnel officers usually can supply information about the nature of the work per formed by employees in their indus try or business and the qualifica tions needed for various jobs, as well as other facts about employ ment conditions and opportunities. The names of local firms in a partic ular industry can be found in the classified sections of telephone directories, or can be obtained from local chambers of commerce. Trade Unions, Employers’ Associations, and Professional Societies Frequently, these organizations have local branches; their officials can supply information relating to the occupations with which they are concerned. 271 * U. S . G O V E R N M E N T P R IN T IN G O F F IC E : 1972 O - 469 -6 3 9 Stay on top of the facts with the HANDBOOK'S timely supplement .. .the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK QUARTERLY The OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK QUARTERLY is published 4 times during the school year to keep you up to date on important occupational and manpower developments between editions of the biennially published HANDBOOK The QUARTERLY contains timely articles about emerging jobs, new educational opportunities. Federal manpower programs, new salary surveys, and the impact of changing technology on jobs It also discusses recent occupational guidance publications, as well as labor force and occupational outlook reports issued by the Bureau of Labor Statistics Recent QUARTERLY articles have included • Safeguarding Our Water-Pollution Control Workers • Why Junior Colleges? • Physician’s Assistant—Medical Occupation in the Making • Will Women College Graduates Find Jobs in the Seventies? • Five Million Opportunities in the Crafts • What's a College Education Worth? Price of the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK QUARTERLY is $3 for a 2-year subscription. To order, fill out form below and mail, with payment, to your nearest Bureau of Labor Statistics Regional office. MAKE CHECK PAYABLE TO SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS. Bureau of Labor Statistics regional offices are located at. 1 6 0 3 -A F e d e ra l B ld g B o s to n . 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