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Zi

3!

Occupational
Manpower and
Training
Needs

1° I




Dayton & Montgomery Co.
Public Library

AUG 10 1971

DOCUMENT COLLECTION

BULLETIN 1701

U. S. DEPARTMENT
OF LABOR
BUREAU OF
LABOR STATISTICS

Occupational
Manpower
and
Training
Needs
Information for
Planning Training
Programs for the 1970’s
BULLETIN 1701

U. S. DEPARTMENT
OF LABOR
J. D. Hodgson, Secretary
BUREAU OF
LABOR STATISTICS
Geoffrey H. Moore, Commissioner
1971

F or sa le by the Superintendent of D ocum ents, U. S. G overnm ent P rin tin g O ffice




W ashington, D. C . , 20402 - P r ic e 75 cent
Stock Num ber 2901-0656




Preface
The Bureau of Labor Statistics has as one of its major tasks the development and
dissemination of information on future occupational manpower requirements and supply.
The following formats are used to present its projections.
The Occupational Outlook Handbook, first issued in 1949 and published biennially since
1957, presents information for vocational counseling of individuals.
Tomorrow’s Manpower Needs, a four-volume publication, BLS Bulletin 1606 presents a
comprehensive set of national projections to 1975 for use in developing State and area
projections for policymakers and planners at the local level.
Occupational Employment Patterns for 1960 and 1975 BLS Bulletin 1599 provides
national information on industry occupational patterns for educational and manpower
planning.
“America’s Industrial and Occupational Manpower Requirements, 1964-75,” The
Outlook for Technological Change and Employment, Appendix Volume I, Technology
and the American Economy, The Report of the National Commission on Technology,
Automation, and Economic Progress presents data on the impact of technological change
on manpower requirements.
Manpower needs for specific occupations have been projected for organizations
concerned with policy matters relating to particular occupations. For example,
projections for scientists, engineers, and technicians have been prepared at the request of
the National Science Foundation, and published in Scientists, Engineers, and Technicians
in the 1960’s (NSF 63-12), Technician Manpower: Requirements, Resources, and
Training Needs BLS Bulletin 1612, and Technician Manpower, 1966-80 BLS Bulletin
1639. A set of projections of health occupations, presented in Health Manpower, 1966-75
BLS Report No. 312, was prepared at the request of the Intradepartmental Committee
on Health Manpower.
A systematic set of projections of the economy to 1980 that provide estimates of
manpower requirements by occupation for the 1970’s have been published by the Bureau
in The US. Economy in 1980, BLS Bulletin 1673 and Patterns o f U.S. Economic Growth,
BLS Bulletin 1672. Ways of using those occupational projections with other manpower
information in planning education and training are discussed in this bulletin.
Chapter I illustrates ways to use information on projections of occupational
requirements and supply, and training in planning education and training programs. The
remainder of the report provides available information.
Chapter II presents material on projections of future occupational requirements.
Chapter III presents information on occupational training and the number of persons
completing such programs.
Chapter IV summarizes for each occupation the data on manpower requirements,
annual openings, methods of training, and available statistics on training completions.
This bulletin was prepared in the Division of Manpower and Occupational Outlook,
Office of Manpower and Employment Statistics, Bureau of Labor Statistics. The report
was written by Gerard C. Smith and Michael F. Crowley, under the direction of Neal H.
Rosenthal.




ill

Contents
Page

Chapter 1. Occupational Data Needs in Planning Education and T ra in in g ...............................
Data on projections......................................................................................................................
Data on tra in in g ...........................................................................................................................
Using occupational projections and training information ......................................................
Illustrations of ways information may be u s e d ........................................................................
Engineers .....................................................................................................................................
C arpenters.....................................................................................................................................
Waiters and w aitresses.................................................................................................................

1
2
2
3
5
5
5
6

Chapter II. Occupational P rojections............................................................................................
Growth of occupations ..............................................................................................................
Selected occupations...................................................................................................................
Professional and technical workers .....................................................................................
Managers, officials, and proprietors.....................................................................................
Clerical workers ...................................................................................................................
Sales workers .........................................................................................................................
Service w orkers......................................................................................................................
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers ........................................................................
Semiskilled w o rk e rs..............................................................................................................
Nonfarm laborers ........................................
Job o p en in g s................................................................................................................................

8
8
11
11
13
13
14
14
15
15
16
16

Chapter III. The Status of Occupational Training ........................................................................
Types of occupational training .........................
Vocational ed u c atio n ............................................................................................................
Private vocational sc h o o ls............................
Federal apprenticeship programs ...............
Employer tra in in g .................................................................................................................
Armed F o rc e s.........................................................................................................................
Federal manpower program s.......................................................................................................
Job opportunities in the Business Sector ..........................................................................
Manpower Development and Training Act ........................................................................
Job Corps ..............................................................................................................................
Neighborhood Youth C orps.................................................................................................
Work Incentive P ro g ra m .......................................................................................................
Public Service Careers Program ............................................................................................
Home study courses ...................................................................................................................
Junior colleges or community colleges .....................................................................................
Colleges and university training ...............................................................................................
Supply and demand for workers having bachelor’s and advanced degrees............................

17
17
17
18
18
18
18
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
21
21

Chapter IV. Relating Training to Occupational N e e d s ................................................................

22

Professional and Related Occupation
Business Administration and related professions.....................................................................
Clergymen.....................................................................................................................................
Conservation occupations............................................................................................................
Counseling o ccupations..............................................................................................................
Engineers .....................................................................................................................................




iv

22
23
24
24
25

Contents-Continued
Page

Health service occu p atio n s.........................................................................................................
Mathematics and related o ccu p atio n s.......................................................................................
Environmental science occupations ..........................................................................................
Life science occupations ............................................................................................................
Physical science occupations.......................................................................................................
Performing a r tis ts ........................................................................................................................
Social scientists ...........................................................................................................................
Political scientists........................................................................................................................
T eachers........................................................................................................................................
T echnicians...................................................................................................................................
Writing occupations ...................................................................................................................
Other professional and related occupations .............................................................................

25
29
30
31
31
33
33
34
34
35
35
36

Managerial Occupations
Bank o ffic e rs................................................................................................................................
Conductors (railroads).................................................................................................................
Industrial traffic managers .........................................................................................................
Managers and assistants (hotel) .................................................................................................
Purchasing a g e n ts ........................................................................................................................

40
40
40
40
40

Clerical and Related Occupations
Bank c le r k s ...................................................................................................................................
Bank te lle rs ...................................................................................................................................
Bookkeeping workers .................................................................................................................
Cashiers ........................................................................................................................................
Clerks (railro ad )...........................................................................................................................
Dental assistants...........................................................................................................................
Electronic computer operating personnel ...............................................................................
Front office clerks (hotel) .........................................................................................................
Library technicians......................................................................................................................
Mail carriers...................................................................................................................................
Office machine o p e ra to rs............................................................................................................
Postal clerks ................................................................................................................................
Receptionists............... ' ...............................................................................................................
Shipping and receiving clerks ....................................................................................................
Station agents ..............................................................................................................................
Stenographers and secretaries ....................................................................................................
Telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen (railroad)................................................................
Telephone o p e ra to rs...................................................................................................................
Traffic agents and clerks (civil aviation) ..................................................................................
T y p ists..........................................................................................................................................

41
41
41
41
41
41
41
42
42
42
42
42
42
42
42
43
43
43
43
43

Sales Occupations
Insurance agents and brokers ....................................................................................................
Manufacturer’s salesmen ...........................................................................................................
Real estate salesmen and b ro k e rs...............................................................................................
Retail trade salesworkers ...........................................................................................................
Automobile parts counterm en....................................................................................................
Automobile salesmen .................................................................................................................




v

44
44
44
44
44
44

Contents— Continued
Automobile service advisers ......................................................................................................
Securities salesm en......................................................................................................................
Wholesale trade salesworkers......................................................................................................

Page

45
45
45

Service Occupations
B arbers..........................................................................................................................................
Bellmen and bell captains (hotel) ............................................................................................
Building custodians......................................................................................................................
Cooks and c h e f s ...........................................................................................................................
Cosmetologists.................................
FBI special ag e n ts........................................................................................................................
F irefighters...................................................................................................................................
Licensed practical nurses ............................................................................................................
Hospital atten d a n ts......................................................................................................................
Housekeepers and assistants (hotel) ..........................................................................................
Police officers (municipal) .........................................................................................................
Private household workers .........................................................................................................
State police officers ...................................................................................................................
Stewardesses (civil aviation) .......................................................................................................
Waiters and w aitresses.................................................................................................................

45
46
46
46
46
46
46
47
47
47
47
47
47
47
48

Craftsmen
Construction trad e s......................................................................................................................
Machining occupations ..............................................................................................................
Mechanics and repairm en............................................................................................................
Printing (graphic arts) occupations............................................................................................
Telephone industry occupations .......................
Other crafts occupations ............................................................................................................

48
53
54
57
58
58

Operatives
Driving occupations ...................................................................................................................
Other operative occupations......................................................................................................

60
61

Laborers Nonfarm
Tables:
1. Projected annual job openings for construction craftsmen, 1968—80, under illustrative
atternative assumptions ......................................................................................................
2. Employment by major occupational group, 1968 and projected 1980 requirements . .
3. Enrollments in federally aided vocational-technical education, by field of education,
fiscal year 1969

4
11
18

Charts:
1. Employment is shifting toward white-collar occupations.................................................
2. Percent change in major occupational groups, 1968—80 projected ...............................
3. Openings are determined by growth plus replacements
..............................................

9
10
10

Appendixes:
A. Methodology and assumptions of requirements projections............................................
B. Detailed occupational projections...................................................
C. Detailed training statistics....................................................................................................



vi

65
67
75

O CCU PA TIO N AL MANPOWER AND TR A IN IN G N EEDS
Chapter I. Occupational Data Needs in Planning Education and Training
Traditionally, most education and training in the
United States have been offered in response to the desire
of students or trainees. Underlying the development and
utilization of trained workers are many decisions made
by individuals to suit their own interests, opportunities,
and capabilities. For instance, a high school student may
become a carpenter rather than attend college; a chemist
may leave his job and teach high school; a secretary may
have a child and remain at home temporarily. Decisions
by government and educational institutions influence
choices of individuals. Examples of such decisions are
building a junior college; establishing a training program
for the disadvantaged; revising the draft or tax laws; and
changing salaries that make one occupation more attrac­
tive than another.
In this country, individuals are encouraged to make
educational choices. The system has worked reasonably
well for most individuals and for the country. Because of
this success, the question is asked: Why make projec­
tions for use in planning education and training pro­
grams if the development and use of manpower resulting
from the many decisions are satisfactory and individuals
can adjust to market demands?
The ability of the system to work has depended on the
flexibility of employers, workers, and educational and
training institutions. Employers have adjusted their
operations to the available labor supply through a
variety of methods including restructuring their work
when skilled workers were in short supply; upgrading or
training workers on the job; or substituting machinery
for scarce labor. Workers have adjusted to the needs of
employers, sometimes in response to relative wage levels
among occupations, by taking training or moving.
Educational and training institutions have responded to
changing manpower needs, both in the initial training of
workers and in retraining and upgrading programs.
Despite the success of these adjustments, the market
has worked less than perfectly. Health officials have com­
plained of shortages of physicians and nurses; consumers
have called for more and better trained automobile
mechanics and repairmen; industry has needed more
engineers, technicians, and other highly trained workers.




In general, the market adjusts slowly to changes in
demand for occupations that require long training
periods. One effect is a disproportionate rise in wage
levels which result in costs of some socially essential
services, such as medical care rising faster than the
ability of people to pay. Sometimes, the progress of
socially desirable work, such as education or com­
bating environmental pollution is slowed. In the face
of rising demand, shortages of trained workers con­
tribute to inflationary pressures. This situation is made
more pointed if occurring at the same time that
less-skilled workers-who have high unemployment rates
even when total umemployment is low—are un­
employed.
These factors create the need for education planning
and training, especially when the government con­
tributes to rapidly rising manpower needs in some fields
by mounting large programs, such as highway con­
struction or space exploration. Such programs create
shortages of trained workers that affect industry and
threaten the effectiveness of the government’s own
programs.
In major legislation on training and education, Con­
gress has been very explicit in indicating that manpower
training financed by the Government should be based on
future manpower needs. For example, in the Vocational
Education Amendments of 1968, Congress declared the
purpose of the Act to include assuring that persons who
needed it will have ‘‘ready access to vocational training
or retraining . . . which is realistic in the light of actual
or anticipated opportunities for gainful employment”
(Public Law 90-576, 90th Congress).
Also, in the Manpower Development and Training Act
of 1962, the Congress stated that “improved planning
and expanded efforts will be required to assure that
men, women, and young people will be trained and
available to meet shifting employment needs; that many
persons now unemployed or underemployed, in order to
become qualified for reemployment or full employment
must be assisted in providing themselves with skills
which are or will be in demand in the labor market
(Public Law 87-415, as amended).

1

Data on projections

To meet needs of officials concerned with planning
education and training, this bulletin brings together
information on future manpower requirements on more
than 230 occupations emanating from research of the
Bureau of Labor Statistics. Together, these occupations
make up more than 50 percent of all professional and
technical workers, 99 percent of salesworkers, 81 per­
cent of craftsmen, and 65 percent of clerical workers.
Occupational projections also are used for purposes
other than planning education and training. For ex­
ample, in 1967 a working group of the President’s
Committee on Manpower1 prepared a report enumer­
ating six specific purposes and uses which manpower
projections serve:
1. To alert Government (and other interested parties) to
emerging manpower problems; commonly, an imbalance be­
tween the demand for and supply o f workers in the labor
force.
2. To help choose between alternative proposed policies.
3. To assist in administering specific Government programs.
4. To provide an essential element for developing other
general types o f projections by Government and private
organizations.
5. To provide information for vocational guidance o f
young people interested in choosing a field o f work.
6. To encourage an informed and responsible public con­
cern for manpower problems; and to help provide the
ordinary citizen with information which would be o f use to
him in his role as a citizen, and apart from that o f an eco­
nomic producer.

Information in this report serves all of these purposes
as well as providing information specifically for planning
education and training programs. Other Bureau publi­
cations, however, focus on some other uses more
sharply. For example, the Occupational Outlook Hand­
book, as mentioned before, drawing on the same body
of research findings, focuses on providing information
for use in vocational guidance.
Data on tra in in g

Estimates of future manpower requirements constitute
only part of the data needed to evaluate the adequacy of
education and training programs. Information also is
needed on training. By comparing the approximate
number of newly trained workers needed annually and
the present output of the various training programs,
training efforts can be appraised and plans expanded, if
necessary.
Workers receive training from a wide variety of
sources: Colleges and universities, junior and community

colleges, apprenticeship and other formal employer
training programs, correspondence schools, self-study,
vocational education programs (secondary and post­
secondary), the Armed Forces, and Federal Manpower
programs for the disadvantaged, underemployed, and
unemployed. Many also “pick up” needed skills in­
formally on-the-job. Informal training is not limited to
low skilled jobs. One study,2 for example, has revealed
that only about 40 percent of all craftsmen had learned
their current job through formal training.
Many occupations, especially those not requiring a
college degree, have no single, well-identified training.
Certain paths may be preferred by employers; others
may produce a qualified worker in less time. All types of
training, however, may not be available to an individual.
For example, certain schools are not found in all
localities. Training paths are not mutually exclusive. A
person may study drafting in a vocational high school,
work as a clerk to receive further training, and finally be
sponsored as an apprentice in drafting by the company.
Knowledge of the different ways people can train for
occupations, however, does not provide the information
needed for supply-demand analysis or for assessment of
the adequacy of vocational education and training
programs. Data are needed on the relative importance
and number of individuals completing each type of
training, the proportion of those who enter the occupa­
tions, and the value employers place on the skill level of
workers who enter through each route. Information also
is needed on the slippage between completion of training
and employment. Although varying among occupations,
such information usually is lacking.
For each of the 230 occupations for which projections
are presented, an attempt was made to compile statistics
on training. During this research, it was found that a
major problem confronting manpower analysts is the
paucity of data on current output of educational and
training programs. Not only are coverage gaps in
collecting data significant, but many problems of com­
parability are involved. For example, much data of the
Federal Manpower programs pertain to enrollments over
a period of years; little information is available on
completions. Additionally, the level of training of
various sources differs. Some may be lengthy and
theoretical, whereas others for the same occupation may
be short and emphasize practical skills. Some training
prepares students for the most basic of entry levels.
Other programs are designed so that a person can enter
the labor force at the professional level.

2
F o r m a l O c c u p a t i o n T r a in in g o f A d u l t W o r k e r s (U.S. Depart­
1
M a n p o w e r P r o j e c t i o n s : A n A p p r a i s a l a n d a P la n o f A c t i o n ment of Labor, Office o f Manpower Automation and Training,
(U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Administration, August
Manpower Administration, Manpower/Automation Research
1967), pp. 22-25.
Monograph No. 2), December 1964.

2



During its research, the Bureau has found that data
gaps in training statistics are the most severe restriction
to occupational analysis. Major problem areas and data
gaps can be grouped for discussion under training source
output data; occupational training of the current work
force; and entry rates from the various training pro­
grams.
Training Sources Output Data. To evaluate whether
the present level of training should be expanded, total
inputs from all sources must be considered in each
occupation. Relatively good data are available for college
and university, junior and community colleges, and
vocational education programs, but even these have
problems. Outputs of community colleges and post­
secondary vocational education programs overlap to
some degree. In addition, data on community colleges
pertain primarily to programs that train students for
immediate employment after completing the course of
study; many students are trained in the transfer pro­
grams of the community colleges. Because of their
training persons dropping out of 4-year college programs
enter certain jobs and are not counted. For example,
many dropouts from engineering take technician jobs.
No agency—public or private—currently collects data
on enrollments and graduates of private vocational
schools. The contribution of these schools must be
assessed before total training needs can be evaluated.
Detailed information also is needed on the role of the
military in training. Some systematic follow-up is needed
for individuals separated from the Armed Forces.
Also needed are better data on specific training of
various Federal, State, and local manpower programs.
For example, data are available on numbers of persons
enrolled in MDTA on-the-job and institutional programs
for selected occupations, but data are not available on
completion. Even less data are available on other Labor
programs. A special survey to determine the occupations
of employed WIN program participants in six States
showed that 21.5 percent were employed in clerical and
sales occupations, but no more detail was provided. The
JOBS program has no specific occupational information
on the number of persons enrolled; data are available
only on major occupational categories and selected
occupational groups. In addition, available data show
cumulative totals through June 1969 rather than for the
year.3
O ccupational Training o f the Current Work
Force. The most effective type of training for a partic3
The Manpower Administration already has taken steps
remedy the lack o f detailed occupational data for WIN and
JOBS.




ular occupation can be learned by evaluating past
methods. To analyze such data, information about types
of training taken by new entrants and persons employed
for several years is necessary. This area needs consider­
able research.
Entry Rates from Various Training Programs. Not all
graduates of training programs actually enter occupa­
tions for which they were trained. For example, elec­
tronic technology graduates may become industrial
technicians or draftsmen. Some graduates continue their
education to train for higher-level occupations. Others
accept jobs using only part of their training. Still others
enter the Armed Forces and are temporarily out of the
civilian labor force. Some women who complete training
become housewives and do not enter the labor force.
To develop effective training programs, statistics are
needed on the proportion of those completing a training
program who actually enter the occupation for which
they were trained. High attrition rates may suggest a
need for improved programs if employment opportu­
nities exist.
Using Occupational Projections and
Training Information

This bulletin presents four key elements to evaluate
training needs:
1. Projections o f the number o f workers required in each
occupation.
2. Estimates o f needs to replace workers who die, retire,
and where data allow, who transfer to another occupation.
3. Data on output from various training programs.
4. Information on ways workers prepare for occupations.

In this report the Bureau has assembled data, including
gaps and imperfections, to help those responsible make
decisions on education and training programs and to
indicate the work that can be done to help the Bureau
and others who are concerned do a better job of
developing these data.
In addition, projections of manpower needs are built
upon assumptions regarding such factors as the inter­
national political situation and the direction of Federal
Government programs. For example, among the assump­
tions underlying the Bureau’s 1980 projections are that
the international climate will improve, the United States
will no longer be Fighting a war, but a still guarded
relationship between major powers will permit no major
reduction in armaments; that fiscal and monetary
policies will achieve a satisfactory balance between low
unemployment and relative price stability without reto
ducing the long-term economic growth rate; and that all
levels of government will join efforts to meet a wide
3

variety of domestic requirements. (For a more complete
presentation of assumptions, see appendix A). Assump­
tions, however, vary widely over the long run. Should
circumstances arise that prove certain assumptions to be
off the mark, users should develop alternate assump­
tions. For illustrative purposes examples of alternative
assumptions for construction are presented later in this
chapter.
Projections for some types of economic activity and
related manpower needs are heavily dependent on the as­
sumptions used. For example, an assumed level of defense
expenditures has a great impact on scientific and technical
manpower and the assumed level of housing has a great
impact on the demand for construction craftsmen.
Meaningful alternative projections, based on different
patterns of growth, are possible within a framework of
continued economic growth and full employment. Esti­
mates derived from alternative projections, however,
may have substantially the same implications for man­
power planning officials. The following alternative
model for construction craftsmen illustrates this situ­
ation. In line with the National Housing Goals embodied
in the Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968, the
BLS 1980 economic model assumes production of 2.7
million new housing units in the target year. This level
may be high in view of the relative low level of housing
starts in 1970, experience of the 1960’s, and financial
problems that may not allow this number of units to be
constructed. If the assumption were made that resi­
dential construction will grow rapidly but to a level
about 10 percent below the 2.7 million units assumed in

the original model (2.43 million units), growth require­
ments for construction craftsmen would of course be
lower than the levels initially projected. Among in­
dividual crafts, the effect of this alternative projection
would be different. (See table 1.) For example, carpen­
ters and painters, heavily involved in residential con­
struction, would feel the greatest impact, whereas,
operating engineers, primarily engaged in road building
and other heavy constuction, would be limited.
Approximately the same conclusions for individual
occupations are implied by the alternative assumption as
by the original projection. For example, annual openings
for carpenters, the occupation most affected by the
housing assumption, was reduced from 39,300 in the
primary model to 35,900 in the alternative. Most
carpenters are trained on the job rather than in formal
prografms; for example, between 1961-68 apprenticeship
completions averaged 3,256 a year, only 36 percent of
estimated entrants during this period. To keep the same
ratio of apprenticeship completions to annual openings
in the 1970’s as in the 1960’s would require a significant
increase in training under both assumptions. The limited
data on other types of formal training (MDTA and
vocational education) indicate similar conclusions. Thus,
the analysis presented for carpenters later in the report
which indicate the need to expand training based on the
primary projections (page 6), would be virtually identi­
cal to that based on the alternative projection. Never­
theless, alternatives along with primary projections can
indicate a range of annual openings on which plans may
be based.

Table 1. Projected annual job openings for construction craftsmen, 1968-80, under illustrative
alternative assumptions
All industries

Craft

Bricklayers........................
Carpenters .......................
Cement and concrete
finishers ........................
Electricians .....................
Excavating, grading,
and road machine
operators .....................
Painters and
paperhangers ...............
Plasterers ..........................
Plumbers and
p ip e fitte rs .....................
Roofers and slaters . . . .
Structural metal
workers ........................

Construction industry

Primary
BLS
projection

Alternative
projection

Difference

Percent
change

Primary
BLS
projection

Alternative
projection

Difference

Percent
change

7.6
39.3

7.2
35.9

0.4
3.4

-5.3
-8.7

7.2
30.0

6.8
26.6

0.4
3.4

-5.6
-11.3

3.6
21.3

3.2
20.8

0.4
0.5

-11.1
2.3

3.6
10.5

3.1
10.0

0.5
0.5

-13.9
-4.8

14.8

14.4

0.4

-2.7

10.0

9.6

0.4

-4.0

18.2
0.7

17.3
0.7

0.9

-4.9

12.3
0.6

11.3
0.6

1.0
—

-8.1

19.5
3.0

19.0
2.5

0.5
0.5

10.8
2.5

10.4
2.1

0.4
0.4

3.7
-16.0

3.9

3.9

3.0

3.0

...

...

...

-2.6
-16.7
...

Note: Because of rounding, the sum of individual items may not equal total.

4



...

....

Illustrations of ways information
may be used

To illustrate the ways basic information can be used,
examples of how the data can be evaluated in planning
training for three occupations have been developed and
presented below. The occupations in the examples were
selected to illustrate: (1) an occupation for which 4
years of specialized college is generally required and
preferred, but in which entrants come from a variety of
other sources (engineers); (2) an occupation for which
formal vocational training (apprenticeship) is recom­
mended but in which many workers nevertheless enter
by casual on-the-job training (OJT) methods (carpenter),
and (3) an occupation for which formal occupational
training generally is not required (waiter and waitress).
These examples, given below, are purely illustrative and
in evaluating supply and demand individual factors
should be considered.
Engineers

1. Job Openings, 1968-80. Annual job openings are
projected to average 73,000 for the 1968-80 period. This
estimate includes average annual needs of 36,000 for
growth, 17,000 to replace those who will die and retire,
and 20,000 to replace engineers shifting to other
occupations.
2. Supply and Demand Relationships. New engi­
neering graduates are the primary source of supply of
new engineers. However, in recent years the flow of
graduates into engineering has not been sufficient to
meet manpower needs. This opened up opportunities for
significant numbers to enter the field from other
sources: workers who shift into the field from other
occupations (including technicians who are upgraded);
persons not in the labor force (including those in the

Armed Forces); immigrants; and college graduates who
did not major in engineering. Of course, some of these
“other” entrants are not as well qualified as new
engineering graduates.
Nevertheless, large numbers of workers are expected to
continue to come from these sources, as employers will
continue to upgrade their highly qualified technicians,
engineers will continue to immigrate to the United
States, and some college graduates not majoring in
engineering will continue to become employed as engi­
neers either by choice or due to circumstances in the job
market.
If the assumption is made that the past patterns of
entry to engineering from these other sources would
continue, about 36,000 engineers would enter the field
from these sources from 1968-80. Under this assump­
tion, only 38,000 new engineering graduates would have




to enter the field annually if requirements are to be met.
Follow-up studies of college graduates indicate that
about 85 percent of all new engineering graduates enter
the profession. Therefore, about 45,000 engineering
graduates would be needed each year to obtain 38,000
entrants. In 1968, about 41,000 bachelor’s degrees in
engineering were granted. U.S. Office of Education
projections of engineering degrees based on a continu­
ation of patterns of study over the past 10 years indicate
that for the 1968-80 period the number of bachelor’s
degrees in engineering will average slightly above the
1969 level, an increase of only 1,000. To meet require­
ments, the number of bachelor’s degrees granted will
have to increase faster than implied by past trends and
average 10 percent, or 4,000 above the 1969 level.
However, it should be pointed out if graduates were
increased to levels averaging even higher than 45,000, we
would not only meet requirements but reduce our
dependence on those who are less well trained for
engineering jobs than college graduates with an engi­
neering degree.
3.
Implications for Training. Based on an analysis of
the foregoing information are a number of implications
for training. Many factors should be considered before
concluding that more engineering schools should be built
or existing facilities expanded. Engineering schools may
not be filled to capacity and the problem may revolve
around the need to attract students to the field. The
retention rates of students who enroll in engineering
schools may be relatively low and perhaps changes are
necessary in the practices of engineering schools that
affect the retention of students. Decisions could be
made that relate to the adequacy of engineers who enter
the profession from routes other than formal engineering
training. For example, studies may be conducted which
indicate that a large portion of new engineers who are
not engineering graduates are not sufficiently trained
and, therefore, the quality of our country’s engineers is
suffering. Such information could have a major effect on
the decisions as to the extent of increase in training that
is needed.
Carpenters

1. Job Openings, 1968-80. Annual job openings are
projected to average 39,000 for the 1968-80 period. This
includes average annual needs of 17,000 for growth and
22,000 to replace carpenters who will die and retire.4
2. Training. In 1968, approximately 3,400 carpenters
completed registered apprenticeship training and became
4 See discussion on alternative projections on page 4.

5

journeymen.5 As in other construction crafts many
began apprenticeship training but dropped out during
the year, some of whom became employed in their
trade. In addition, 4,400 persons were enrolled in
Manpower Development and Training Act (MDTA)
on-the-job, and institutional training programs in car­
pentry. MDTA programs are short-term skill upgrading
programs and if all completed the training presumably
they would be job-ready sometime in 1968. About
7,700 persons completed secondary (7,000) and post­
secondary (700) vocational education programs in
carpentry; there is no information on how many of these
enter the occupation. In sum, a maximum potential of
15,500 persons could have been specifically prepared to
enter carpentry during the year through formal training;
the actual number who entered is most likely lower.
Preparation in each of these different programs varies,
however, and graduates are not equally well qualified. A
4-year apprenticeship program is most desirable and is
recommended by training authorities. In addition, many
individuals pick up their skills on the job and qualify as
carpenters although statistics are not available on the
number.
3.
Implication for Training. Between 1968 and 1980
an annual average of about 39,000 carpenters will be
needed to fulfill requirements. (Note discussion of
alternative projections on page 4.) To meet this need
through formal training, the number trained annually,
therefore, would have to be raised by about 25,000 or
more than 150 percent above the number trained in
1968. Many carpenters will continue to be trained on
the job or pick up their skills through casual methods
and many job openings will be filled by trained workers
returning to the occupation who left the trade during
periods of reduced construction activity. If preparation
for the trade through a training program is better than
that obtained through casual methods then the data
indicate that an expansion of training is needed to
upgrade the carpenter force qualitatively as well as
quantitatively. Data for the 1960-68 period which
indicated openings averaged 23,900 and apprenticeship
completions averaged 3,250 annually illustrate the point.
To keep the same ratio of apprenticeship completions to
annual openings in the 1970’s as in the 1960’s would
require annual average apprenticeship completions to
increase about two-thirds along with the expected
increase in annual openings (23,900 to 39,000). To
upgrade the quality of the carpenter work force, an even
greater increase would be needed.
5U.S. Department o f Labor, Manpower Administration,
Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, and Cooperative State
Apprenticeship Agencies.

6



In planning training of carpenters and other construc­
tion crafts, a special problem is encountered because of
the seasonal and cyclical nature of the industry, as well
as work time lost resulting from the completion of one
project and the shifting to another. The rate of
unemployment is well above the national average even
when construction levels are high; in 1969, for example,
the unemployment rate for construction workers aver­
aged 6 percent, compared to a national average of 3.5
percent. Since construction craftsmen training is long
(most apprenticeship programs last 4 years), generally
trainees must receive some instruction through troughs
and peaks of business cycles. Keeping a smooth flow of
trainees to meet long-term manpower needs is difficult.
During the troughs of a business cycle employers and or­
ganized labor have difficulty being concerned with taking
on new trainees when trained workers are unemployed.
Since work may not be available during the trough of a
seasonal cycle to support the training, taking on large
numbers of new apprentices is difficult to rationalize,
even during periods of peak activity.
The problem is further compounded because most
formal apprenticeships for these trades are given in
unionized sectors of the industry; very little is given by
nonunion employers or firms which employ workers for
“force-account” construction or maintenance and repair.

Waiters and waitresses

1. Job Openings, 1968-80. Annual job openings are
projected to average 67,000 for the 1968-80 period. This
includes average annual openings of 23,000 for growth
and 44,000 to replace waiters and waitresses who die
and retire.
2. Training. Available training data for this occupa­
tion indicates that a total of 738 persons completed
secondary and post-secondary vocational education pro­
grams for waiters and waitresses in 1968. In addition,
1,700 MDTA on-the-job trainees were enrolled in 1968.
MDTA programs are short-term programs and if all
completed training in which they were enrolled, it is
reasonable to assume they would have been job ready
sometime in 1968. In sum, a maximum of 2,438 trained
waiters and waitresses could have been specifically
prepared to enter this occupation in 1968.
Increasingly, employers prefer that beginners have at
least 2 or 3 years of high school. Most newly hired
waiters and waitresses, however, learn their skills on the
job.
3. Implications for Training. Only a very small por­
tion of all waiters and waitresses are formally trained

and such training is not needed, although employees
with some formal training are of course in a better
position in the job market. One possible implication of
this information is that this may be a good area to
expand training for disadvantaged persons who need jobs
that can be learned in a short time and have potential for
upgrading to better paying jobs. For example, waiters
and waitresses can be trained in a short period of time
and after gaining experience move to better paying jobs
in larger restaurants; some other career ladder possi­
bilities are cashier, headwaiter, hostess, or restaurant
management positions. Since workers are primarily
trained on the job, an expansion of training in this
occupation is not necessary to meet manpower require­
ments. Other factors which revolve around the relative
attractiveness (due to salary differentials, working con­
ditions, etc.) of the job would come into play in a
shortage situation.




Local Use of Data

Data in this report reflect the national situation.
However, most educational and training planning is done
locally. Methods used to convert BLS national man­
power projections to local needs are presented in
Tomorrow’s Manpower Needs.6 The report indicated
that training data and its analysis may be more complete
at the local level than at the national level because data
may be available locally on the output of private
schools, community colleges, public training programs,
and individual firms. Local sources also may supply
information on the proportion of trainees who actually
enter employment in the local labor market.7
6 Bulletin 1606.
7 See

H a n d b o o k f o r P r o je c tin g E m p lo y m e n t b y O c c u p a tio n

a n d M a jo r A r e a s (U.S.
Manpower Administration) in process.

fo r

S ta te s

Department

o f Labor,

7

Chapter II. Occupational Projections
Many factors change the occupational composition of
our nation’s labor force, but the principal influence is
the variation in growth among industries requiring
different numbers and types of workers. For example,
the health service industry can be expected to demand
more licensed practical nurses, hospital attendants, and
other workers while electronics manufacturers will de­
mand more engineers, assemblers, and inspectors.
Factors not directly related to industry growth also
influence occupational structure. Technological changes
in machines and processes have a major effect. For
example, the computer has changed the occupational
composition in production and office operations in
many industries by creating new occupations and
increasing or decreasing worker demand. Changes in
business organization, such as more chain stores and
supermarkets, also have altered the economy’s occupa­
tional structure. Union-management agreements are still
another factor influencing the relative demand for
different kinds of workers as in the railroad industry.
Changes in government priorities also may require
different types of workers, for example, space research
vs. urban renewal. Even the supply of workers in one
occupation affects demand for another. Technicians
have been substituted when a shortage of engineers
exists.
This bulletin presents projections based on an ex­
tensive interrelated program of studies on economic
growth, technological change, and industrial and oc­
cupational trends conducted in the Bureau of Labor
Statistics. More details on economic and industry pro­
jections and on the methodology used to develop the
1980 projections are presented in The U.S. Economy in
1980, BLS Bulletin 1673, and Projections o f U.S.
Economic Growth, BLS Bulletin 1672.
Growth of Occupations

Many other factors also have caused the nation’s job
structure to shift. Since World War II, a basic trend has
been toward white-collar jobs. In 1956 for the first time
in the Nation’s history, white-collar—professional, mana­
gerial, clerical, and sales—outnumbered blue-collar
workers—craftsmen, operators, and laborers. Larger pro­
portions of service workers and smaller proportions

8



of farmers and laborers constitute other significant
trends. (See chart 1.)
Between 1960 and 1968, employment of white-collar
workers rose from about 28.5 million to 35.6 million or
by 25 percent compared to a growth in total employ­
ment of 15 percent. White-collar workers as a proportion
of total employment increased 43 percent in 1960 to
almost 47 percent in 1968. Employment of service
workers rose from about 8.0 million to 9.4 million, an
increase of 17 percent, while employment of blue-collar
workers, rising from 24.1 million to 27.5 million
increased about 14 percent. The number of farm
workers, falling from 5.2 million in 1960 to 3.5 million
in 1968 actually declined about one-third.
Through the 1970’s, the rapid growth in requirements
for white-collar occupations will continue, faster than
average growth among service workers, slower than
average growth for blue-collar occupations, and farm
workers will decline even further.8 For example, whitecollar occupations will constitute about 50 percent of all
employed workers by 1980. Requirements in these
occupations will rise from 35.6 million in 1968 to 48.3
million in 1980. (See table 2.) By 1980, blue-collar
occupations will make up 32.7 percent of the work
force, a reduction from 36.3 percent in 1968. Employ­
ment, however, will rise from 27.5 million in 1968 to
31.1 million in 1980. Through the 1970’s, needs for
workers in service occupations will continue to expand
and increase nearly 40 percent, more than IVi times the
expansion for all occupations combined. Employment
will rise to 13.1 million in 1980, from 9.4 million in
1968. And finally, requirements for farm workers will
continue to decline as machines and improved farming
techniques take over many more of the production
processes on the farm; employment will shrink from 3.5
million in 1968 to 2.6 million in 1980.
The professional and technical occupation group,
whose growth rate has outpaced that of all major
occupational groups in recent decades, will continue to
lead from 1968-80; its estimated rate of increase is 50
percent, compared with 25 percent for all occupations.
(See chart 2.) Service workers, who will increase nearly
8The Bureau’s projections rely strongly on assumptions
presented in appendix A, along with the methodology used to
develop the projections.

C HART 1.
EM P LO YM EN T IS SHIFTING
T O W A R D W H IT E-C O LLA R O C C U P A T IO N S
PERCENT
100

90

80

WHITE COLLAR
WORKERS

70

60

50

40

SERVICE
WORKERS

30

20

BLUE COLLAR
WORKERS

10

0
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics




FARM
WORKERS
* Projected

9

CHART 2.
PERCENT C H A N G E IN M A J O R O C C U P A T I O N A L GRO U PS,
1 9 6 8 -8 0 PROJECTED
PERCENT

-25

-20 -15

-10

- 5

10

0

A L L WORKERS

15

20

25

..................... .........

30

35

40

45

]

PROFESSIONAL AND TECHNICAL
SERVICE WORKERS
CLERICAL WORKERS
SALES WORKERS
MANAGERS, OFFICIALS AND PROPRIETORS
CRAFTSMEN AND FOREMEN
OPERATIVES
NONFARM LABORERS

I

I

I

FARM WORKERS
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics

C H A R T 3.
O P E N IN G S ARE DETERMINED BY G RO W TH PLUS REPLACEMENTS
(W O RKER S NEEDED, 1968-1980, IN M ILLIONS)
-1

10



0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

50

40 percent, will be the second fastest growing group.
Clerical workers, whose projected growth rate is 35
percent, will be the third fastest growing occupation.
They will be followed by sales workers. Managers,
officials, and proprietors (22 percent); and operatives
(10 percent) are projected to grow less rapidly than total
employment; the employment level of nonfarm laborers
is expected to be about the same in 1980 as in 1968.
Further declines are expected in the number of farm
workers.
Selected Occupations
Appendix B presents detailed projections, including
estimates of annual average job openings for 232
occupations. These estimates result from growth and
replacement of workers who die or withdraw from the
labor force, but not from openings resulting from
workers who transfer occupations. Such data are avail­
able only for a small group of occupations requiring
college training and are included in the text of this
report and in Appendix B only where specifically stated.
The following discussions highlight projections for
many of the major occupations:
Professional and technical workers. Employment re­
quirements for professional and technical workers in
1980 are projected at 15.5 million, 50 percent more
than the 10.3 million employed in 1980. This rate
represents a slower growth than the annual average
between 1958 and 1968. As in the earlier period,

demand for goods and services resulting from population
growth and rising incomes will be a major factor
underlying increasing requirements for these highly
specialized workers. Concentration of the population in
metropolitan areas also will create new demands for
professional and technical workers in fields such as
environmental protection, urban renewal, and mass
transportation systems. In addition, efforts to develop
further the nation’s resources and industry and the quest
for knowledge—in scientific, technical, and many other
fields—will require more professional workers.
Manpower needs will increase in almost every profes­
sional and technical occupation, but rates of increase
will differ among occupations.
Teaching, the largest profession, is expected to require
2.7 million workers in 1980, compared with 2.5 million
employed in 1968. Rates of increase among the three
major levels of teaching—elementary, secondary, and
college—will vary widely. The smallest growth, about 3
percent, is expected for elementary school teachers.
Although more teachers will be required because of the
demand to reduce the average class size, declining
enrollments in elementary schools between 1968 and
1980 will limit employment growth. The 14-percent
increase in requirements for secondary school teachers is
primarily attributable to higher enrollments in secondary
schools in 1980 than in 1968. Demand for college and
university teachers is expected to grow almost 40
percent as the number of 18-21 year olds rises nearly 2.7
million between 1968 and 1980. At the same time rising
family income, programs of student financial assistance,

Table 2. Employment by major occupational group, 1968 and projected 1980 requirements
[In thousands]
Occupational Group

Projected 1980
requirements

1968

Change

1968-80

Number

Percent

Number

Percent

Number

Percent

T o t a l .......................................................................

75,920

100.0

95,100

100.0

19,180

25.3

White-collar workers .....................................................
Professional and technical ......................................
Managers, officials, and
p ro p rie to rs..............................................................
Clerical w o rk e rs ........................................................
Sales workers .......................... ................................

35,551
10,325

46.8
13.6

48,300
15,500

50.8
16.3

12,749
5,175

35.9
50.1

7,776
12,803
4,647

10.2
16.9
6.1

9,500
17,300
6,000

10.0
18.2
6.3

1,724
4,497
1,353

22.2
35.1
29.1

Blue-collar workers ........................................................
Craftsmen and foremen .........................................
Operatives .................................................................
Nonfarm la b o re rs .....................................................

27,525
10,015
13,955
3,555

36.3
13.2
18.4
4.7

31,100
12,200
15,400
3,500

32.7
12.8
16.2
3.7

3,575
2,185
1,445
-55

13.0
21.8
10.4
-1.5

..............................................................

9,381

12.4

13,100

13.8

3,719

39.6

.................................................................

3,464

4.6

2,600

2.7

-864

-33.2

Service workers
Farm workers

Note: Because of rounding, sums of individual items may not equal totals.
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics.




11

and the increasing availability of community colleges
will enable larger proportions of youth to attend college.
Requirements in Engineering, the second largest pro­
fession and the largest profession for men, is expected to
increase from nearly 1.1 million to about 1.5 million
workers, or 40 percent between 1968 and 1980. New
engineers will be needed to meet the demands of a
growing population for additional goods and services,
and for expanded research and development programs.
Particularly rapid growth is expected in industrial,
electrical, and civil engineering. Industrial growth, ex­
pansion of automated processes, and increasing emphasis
on scientific management will result in increased demand
for industrial engineers. Mass transit, highway transpor­
tation systems, and expanded environmental programs
are expected to require more civil engineers. Demand for
electrical engineers is tied closely to the growth of
automatically controlled production processes and rising
consumer requests for electrical and electronic goods.
Physical scientists in many fields will experience
rapidly growing demand for their services from 1968 to
1980. Requirements for physicists in 1980 are projected
at 75,000, or 64 percent more than the 45,000
employed in 1968. Chemist requirements are expected
to grow from 130,000 to 200,000 or 56 percent.
Requirements for scientists in each of these fields are
heavily predicated on increasing expenditures for re­
search and development although the rate is expected to
be slower than that experienced from the late 1950’s
through the late 1960’s. In addition, the demand for
chemists will continue to reflect the growing market for
plastics, manmade fibers, drugs, nuclear fuels, and other
industrial products having a chemical origin.
Employment requirements for life scientists, including
botanists, zoologists, and microbiologists, are projected
to increase to 240,000 in 1980, or about 41 percent over
the 170. 00 employed in 1968. Growth is related to
expanded /-search in health and environmental quality
control, 'f /ds for biochemists are expected to grow
rapidly,
rarity as the result of expanded medical
research
cancer, heart disease, mental illness, and
other health problems.
Oceanographer requirements are projected at 9,700 in
1980, compared wit; 5,200 in 1968. This 85-percent
increase is more rapid than that projected for any other
natural science occupation. Growth is linked to ex­
panded research to the potential development of the
ocean’s resources for food, fresh watt*, and energy; and
long-range weather forecasting.
Engineering and science technicians are expected to
grow from 620,000 to 890,000 or more than 4G percent
between 1968 and 1980. Their growth needs will be
stimulated by the same factors that will increase demand

12



for the engineers and scientists with whom they work. In
addition, technicians will be used in increasing numbers
to relieve professional engineers and scientists whose
duties do not require full professional preparation.
Draftsmen are projected to increase from 295,000 to
435.000 or 48 percent, largely as a result of the
increasingly complex design of modern products and
processes.
Requirements in health service occupations also are
expected to increase substantially. Population growth,
rising incomes, prepayment arrangements, and govern­
ment programs such as Medicare and Medicaid, are
principal factors underlying projected requirements.
Other factors are the rising standards of health care,
growing interest in preventive medicine, and the expan­
sion of medical research.
Employment requirements for physicians are expected
to increase to 469,000 in 1980, a 53-percent increase
over 1968 employment of 307,000. To some extent, the
rise in the demand for physicians’ services is expected to
be offset by developments that will enable physicians to
care for more patients. For example, new drugs will
continue to shorten illnesses and fewer housecalls will be
made because of the growing practice of treating
patients in hospitals and physicians’ offices.
Dentist requirements are projected at 130,000 in
1980, a 32-percent increase over the 100,000 employed
in 1968. Requirements for dentists would be higher
except for the increasing use of auxiliary workers
including dental assistants and dental hygienists. De­
mand for dental assistants alone is projected to grow 50
percent during the period 1968-80, or from 100,000 to
150,000. This level assumes that dentists will employ on
the average 1.2 dental assistants in 1980 compared with
1.0
in 1968. Dental hygienists are expected to increase
from 16,000 in 1968 to 33,500 in 1980 or 109 percent.
Registered nurses, who constitute the largest occupa­
tion group in the professional health field, will be in
increasing demand. Requirements for registered nurses
are projected to grow from 660,000 to 1 million, or 52
percent between 1968 and 1980.
Medical laboratory worker requirements are expected
to expand as physicians increasingly depend upon
laboratory tests in routine physical checkups as well as
in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. Growth of
these workers—including medical technologists, medical
laboratory technicians, and medical laboratory assist­
ants—is projected to increase 90 percent, from 100,000
in 1968 to 190,000 in 1980.
Need for accountants, one of the largest occupations
for men, are expected to increase 43 percent, from
500.000 employed in 1968 to 720,000 in 1980. Greater
use of accounting information in business management,

increasingly complex and changing tax systems, growth
in the size and number of business corporations required
to provide financial reports to stockholders, and the
increasing use of accounting services by small firms are
the primary factors underlying this projected growth.
Systems analyst and programmer requirements are
expected to increase steeply in response to the rapid
growth in the number of electronic data processing
systems used by business, government, universities, and
other organizations. Programmer requirements are pro­
jected at 400,000 in 1980, a 129-percent increase over
the 175,000 employed in 1968. An even more rapid
growth rate-183 percent—is expected for system
analysts, with requirements increasing to 425,000 in
1980 from an employment of 150,000 in 1968. The
faster growth of the more highly trained systems
analysts compared with programmers is related to the
increasing capabilities of computers for solving complex
scientific, engineering, and business problems; extension
of systems analysis to new problems; and the growth of
computer centers to serve small clients.
Managers, officials, and proprietors. Employment re­
quirements for managers, officials, and proprietors are
projected to rise to 9.5 million in 1980, compared with
the 7.8 million employed in 1968. This 22-percent
increase represents a slightly higher average annual rate
of growth than during the 1960-68 period. As in the
earlier period, the growth in requirements will be related
to the increasing size of firms and the growing com­
plexity of their operations. However, this gross rate
conceals sharp differences in the growth of the individual
occupations that make up this broad category.
Salaried managers and officials, who make up more
than 70 percent of all managerial workers, are expected
to grow very rapidly as business and government depend
increasingly on trained management specialists. Techno­
logical development will contribute further to em­
ployment growth of these occupations. For example, an
increasing number of technical managers are needed to
plan research and development programs and make
decisions on the installation and use of automated
machinery and data processing systems.
Proprietors are expected to continue to decline as large
firms restrict the growth of the total number of firms.
Expansion of self-service groceries, laundries, and drycleaning shops, and hamburger and frozen custard
drive-ins, however, will restrain the rate of decline.
Clerical workers. By 1980, the clerical group is
expected to grow rapidly to 17.3 million, a 35-percent
increase over the 12.8 million employed in 1968 but
considerably slower than in the 1960-68 period. In­




creased size and complexity in mail, telephone, and
telegraphic communication and in recordkeeping of
firms, government, and other institutions will contribute
to the growing demand for clerical workers.
Technological developments will limit growth for
certain types of clerical workers. To illustrate, electronic
computers and bookkeeping machines are expected to
reduce the number of clerks in jobs such as filing,
payroll, inventory control, and customer billing. On the
other hand, growing requirements for clerical personnel
to prepare computer inputs will offset somewhat laborsaving innovations.
Requirements for stenographers and secretaries, who
made up the largest of the clerical occupational groups,
are expected to reach 3.7 million in 1980, an increase of
37 percent over the 2.7 million employed in 1968.
Rapid growth particularly in finance, insurance, and real
estate, which employ large clerical staffs, is a major
factor in the projected demand. Furthermore, as both
private industry and government continue to grow in
size and complexity, paperwork will expand. Techno­
logical innovations in offices are not expected to limit
demand for stenographers and secretaries. Typist de­
mand, on the other hand, which is projected to increase
to 930,000 in 1980, up 37 percent from the 700,000
employed in 1968, would be even higher except for
duplicating equipment.
Bookkeeping worker needs are expected to increase 19
percent to 1.5 million in 1980 from the 1.2 million
employed in 1968 as a result of economic expansion and
the increasing complexity of business. Laborsaving in­
novations, such as automatic data processing and book­
keeping machines, will limit more routine bookkeeping
tasks. However, many companies lack the volume of
work or capital to automate; others will continue to
combine electronic data processing and conventional
equipment.
Cashier demand is projected to increase to 1.1 million
in 1980, or 51 percent over 1968, when employment
stood at 730,000. Growth is related to business expan­
sion plus the increasing adoption of self-service merchan­
dising.
Office machine operator requirements are expected to
increase to 460,000 in 1980, or 39 percent over the
325,000 employed in 1968. Growth is based on the
tremendous increase in paperwork as the economy grows
and firms increase in size and complexity. Automated
recordkeeping may displace some tabulating and billing
machine operators. In addition, keypunch operator
demand may be affected adversely by automatic reading
devices in computer systems. On the other hand,
demands for some office machine operators, including
calculating machine operators, are expected to grow

13

partly as a result of the need to prepare data for
computer processing. The need for electronic computer
operating personnel, including console and auxiliary
equipment operators, is expected to reach 400,000 in
1980, a 129-percent increase over the 1968 employment
of 175,000.
Sales workers. Employment requirements for sales
workers are projected to increase 29 percent from 1968
to 1980, or from 4.6 million to 6.0 million workers,
considerably more rapid than during the 1960-68 period.
As in the past, increased sales attributable to population
growth, rising income levels, new product development,
and business expansion, will be major factors in in­
creased employment of salesworkers.
The need for retail salesworkers, by far the largest sales
group, is expected to increase to 3.5 million in 1980, 24
percent more than the 2.8 million employed in 1968.
Longer hours in metropolitan and suburban areas will
exert some influence on the demand for retail sales­
workers; on the other hand, vending machines, selfservice, and checkout counters will tend to dampen
requirements.
Wholesale salesmen requirements are projected to
increase to nearly 700,000, a 30-percent increase over
the 530,000 employed in 1968. Growth factors will
include the trend for special services to customers and
emphasis on sales as centralized purchasing increases the
size of accounts.
Manufacturers' salesmen are projected to reach
735.000 in 1980, a47-percent increase over the 500,000
employed in 1968. This rapid growth reflects in part the
continued development of new products and services
and heightened competition among manufacturers for
sales.
Insurance agents and brokers needs are expected to
increase to 480,000, a level of 17 percent above the
410.000 employed in 1968. Population growth, increases
in major consumer purchases such as homes and auto­
mobiles, and expansion in industrial plant and equip­
ment are ra j or factors in the expected growth.
Service workers. Employment requirements for ser­
vice workers are projected at 13.1 million in 1980, a
40-percent increase over the 9.4 million in 1968. This
growth represents a considerable increase over the
annual average growth between 1960 and 1968. As in
that period, however, the major factors underlying rising
requirements will be a growing population, expanding
business, increasing leisure, and more disposable personal
income. Rates of growth will fluctuate among service
occupations.
Employment requirements for private household

14



workers, the largest of the service occupations, are
expected to reach about 2.0 million in 1980, a 15-per­
cent increase over the 1.7 million employed in 1968.
Demand will grow in response to increasing population,
rising family incomes, and the growing proportion of
housewives employed outside the home.
Building custodian demand is expected to increase to
1.5 million in 1980, a 33-percent increase over the 1.1
employed in 1968. Employment is expected to grow as
increases in population and high levels of economic
activity spur construction of new apartments, office
buildings, hotels, and hospitals. However, new cleaners,
solvents, and laborsaving cleaning equipment will tend to
restrict growth of this occupation.
The need for cooks and chefs is projected at 900,000
in 1980, a 33-percent increase over 1968, when 670,000
were employed, while waiters and waitresses will in­
crease to 1.2 million, a 28-percent increase over the
1968 employment of 960,000. The rapid increase in the
population of groups that customarily patronize restau­
rants—workers, students, and travelers and increasing
numbers of patients and hospital personnel—are factors
in the growing requirements. Prepared foods and laborsaving devices as well as vending machines will limit
requirements for waiters and cooks.
Licensed practical nurse requirements are expected to
increase from 320,000 to 600,000 or 88 percent, and
hospital attendants to 1.5 million in 1980, 88 percent
more than the 800,000 employed in 1968. Require­
ments for these workers, as for the professional health
workers discussed earlier, are linked to the rising demand
for medical care.
Cosmetologist requirements are expected to increase
to 685,000 in 1980, up 43 percent over the 475,000
employed in 1968, while barber demand is projected at
260.000, or 24 percent over the 210,000 employed in
1968. Growth in these occupations is linked to in­
creasing population, rising incomes, and, for cosmetolo­
gists, growing proportions of women who work outside
the home.
Municipal police officer employment requirements are
projected at 360,000 in 1980, up 28 percent over the
285,000 employed in 1968. Primary growth factors will
be population and economic growth, which create a
need for more officers to protect life and property, and
to regulate traffic. The growth concentration of the
population in urban areas and rising crime rates in many
cities will further increase demands.
The need for firefighters is projected to grow to
245.000, an increase of 34 percent over the 180,000
employed in 1968. Requirements for firefighters will
increase to meet the needs for fire protection in growing
urban communities.

Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers (skilled
workers). Requirements for craftsmen and foremen are
expected to reach 12.2 million in 1980, a 22-percent
increase over the level of employment in these occupa­
tions in 1968. The rate of growth projected is the same
as in the 1958-68 period. As in the earlier period, the
demand for skilled workers will continue to be spurred
by population increase, the rapid formation of new
families, the anticipated increase in such industries as
construction and manufacturing, and the increasing
ownership of consumer durables. Rates of employment
growth will continue to differ among skilled occupa­
tions. Carpenters, the largest occupation in the building
trades, are expected to increase to almost 1.1 million in
1980, up 24 percent over the 869,000 employed in
1968.9 Demand would exceed the projected level except
for the growing use of prefabricated building com­
ponents, power tools, and improved materials such as
stronger adhesives and nails having improved holding
properties.
Plumber and pipefitter requirements are expected to
increase to 475,000 in 1980, a 44-percent increase over
the 330,000 employed in 1968.10 The trend toward
more bathrooms per dwelling unit is likely to continue.
Increasing sales of appliances, such as washing machines
for clothes or dishes, and waste disposal units, as well as
automatic heating and cooling systems will require
additional plumbers for installation and servicing. In
addition, pipework is growing in importance in industry,
especially in the chemicals industry and in other
industries that are automating more of their production.
Increasing industrial activities related to atomic energy
and greater use of refrigeration and air-conditioning
equipment also will result in more work for plumbers
and pipefitters. On the other hand, technological de­
velopments such as prefabricated plumbing assemblies
are expected to limit the growth of jobs for plumbers
and pipefitters.
Needs for construction machinery operators—crane­
men, bulldozer operators, derrick operators, and others
—are expected to increase to 410,000 in 1980, up about
two-fifths over the 285,000 employed in 1968.11 This
growth rate is higher than for any of the other large
construction occupations. The growing volume of high­
way construction, resulting from the Federal Government’s long-range, multi-billion dollar highway develop­
ment program, is particularly important in increasing
demand for these workers.
9
See discussion o f alternative projections for
craftsmen on page 4.
10Ibid.
11 Ibid.




Motor vehicle mechanics, the largest of the mechanic
and repairmen occupations, are expected to reach 1
million in 1980, a 21-percent increase over 1968
employment of 825,000. Growth of requirements is
related primarily to the increasing number of auto­
mobiles, trucks, and buses, and the growing proportion
that will be equipped with air-conditioning, power
brakes, and devices that reduce exhaust fumes—all of
which increase maintenance. Growth will be partially
offset by the greater use of test equipment, such as
dynamometers and engine analyzers, and the growth of
diagnostic centers.
Aircraft mechanic requirements are expected to in­
crease to 230,000 in 1980, a 70-percent increase over
the 135,000 employed in 1968. The anticipated increase
in the number of aircraft is a major growth factor.
Business machine servicemen will experience a very
rapid growth in demand as requirements rise to 200,000,
about three-fourths more than the 115,000 employed in
1968. The expected increase in the use of many types of
office machines, more complex equipment requiring
increased maintenance, such as electric typewriters and
the rapid expansion of data processing are major factors
behind the rising demand for business machine service­
men. The fastest growing occupations in this group are
expected to be typewriter servicemen, data-processing
equipment servicemen, and duplicating and copying
machine servicemen.

Semiskilled workers (operatives). Semiskilled worker
employment requirements are projected at 15.4 million
in 1980, a 10-percent increase over the almost 14.0
million employed in 1968. This rate appears to be much
lower than that experienced from 1960-68 according to
employment levels at the beginning and end of that
period. However, employment of operatives, after fluc­
tuating between 11.8 million and 12.8 million in the 12
years following the end of the War, dropped to 12.0
million in 1960 then increased significantly beginning in
1961 primarily because of the increase in manufacturing.
Three of every 5 semiskilled workers in 1968 were
employed as factory operatives in manufacturing in­
dustries. Large numbers were assemblers or inspectors
and many worked as operators of material moving
equipment such as powered forklift trucks. Among the
nonfactory operatives, drivers of trucks, buses, and
taxicabs made up by far the largest group.
Employment trends among the individual semiskilled
occupations since World War II have reflected the
different rates of growth of the industries in which the
construction
workers were employed as well as the differing impact of
technological innovations on occupations. For example,
the rapid decline in employment of spinners and weavers

15

reflected not only the relatively small increase in the
demand for textile mill products, but also the increased
mechanization of spinning and weaving processes. In­
creases in production and growing motor truck trans­
portation of freight will be major factors in expanding
demands for operatives in the 1968-80 period.
Local truck drivers, the largest of the operative
occupations, are expected to increase to 1.5 million.
Growth is linked to the anticipated increase in local
freight volume, and the wider area served as suburbs
expand. However, the use of radio telephones to
instruct drivers enroute will reduce the time needed for
making deliveries.
The need for over-the-road truck drivers is expected to
increase to 800,000 in 1980, up 25 percent from the
640.000 employed in 1968. Growth in demand is related
to increased commercial and industrial activity and the
continued decentralization of industry. Increased de­
mand also is expected to result from improvements in
trailer design that make it possible to ship frozen goods
and livestock over long distances, as well as new trucking
methods that reduce handling, such as the use of two
trailers hitched in tandem. Other recent freight trans­
portation innovations, however, will limit somewhat the
demand that otherwise might be anticipated.
Requests for assemblers, who put together parts or
finished products in manufacturing plants, are expected
to grow to 850,000 in 1980, an increase of 8 percent
over the 785,000 employed in 1968. Demand for these
workers will be restricted by further increases in the use
of automatic assembly processes, the increasing use of
printed circuits in the manufacture of radio and tele­
vision sets, and the increasing adoption of other tech­
nological changes.
Inspectors (manufacturing) are expected to increase to
635,000, a 9-percent growth over the 585,000 in this
occupation in 1968. Industry growth, the increasing
complexity of manufactured products, and rising quality
standards will create additional demand for these
workers, although the increasing use of mechanized and
automatic inspection equipment will partially offset
growth factors.
Welders and oxygen and arc cutters, one of the largest
occupations in the operative group, are expected to
increase more rapidly than most others in this major
group. Employment requirements are projected at
675.000 in 1980, up 41 percent over the 480,000
employed in 1968. Growth is related to the generally
favorable longrun outlook for metalworking industries
and the wider use of the welding process.
Gasoline service station attendant requirements are
projected at 475,000 in 1980, up 16 percent from the
400.000 employed in 1968. Growth is related to the
expected increase of motor vehicles as the population of

16



driving age grows, incomes rise, multiple-car ownership
expands, and the move to suburbs continues.
Nonfarm laborers. Employment of laborers, reaching
a low of 3.3 million in 1961 and a high of 3.7 million in
1965, fluctuated around 3.5 million between 1960 and
1968. Between 1968 and 1980, employment require­
ments are expected to change little despite the rapid rise
anticipated in manufacturing and construction, the
primary employers of laborers.
Increases in demand are expected to be offset by rising
output per worker resulting from the continuing substi­
tution of mechanical equipment for manual labor. For
example, power-driven equipment such as forklifts der­
ricks, cranes, hoists, and conveyor belts, will take over
more and more materials handling in factories, at freight
terminals, and in warehouses. Other power-driven
machines will do excavating, ditch digging, and similar
work. In addition, integrated systems of processing and
materials handling equipment will be installed in an
increasing number of plants in the years ahead.
Job Openings

Up to this point this chapter has discussed the relative
growth in requirements for occupations from 1968-80.
Although growth is a key indicator of employment
outlook, more openings will result over the 1968-80
period from deaths, retirements, and other labor force
separations than from employment growth. Replace­
ment needs will be particularly significant in occupations
having large proportions of older workers or women,
since many women leave the labor force each year
because of family responsibilities. Furthermore, large
occupations that have no or little growth may have more
openings than faster growing small occupations. Among
the major occupational groups, for example, openings
for operatives resulting from growth and replacement
combined will be greater than for craftsmen, although
the rate of growth of craftsmen will be more than twice
as rapid as for operatives. (See chart 3.)
Many job openings also are created because of occupa­
tional shifts. For example, when a technician is upgraded
to an engineer, a technician job opening is created. Of
course, this shift also adds to the supply of engineers.
Data for estimating transfer losses and gains generally are
not available. Estimates of job openings in this bulletin
(appendix B), therefore, do not include transfers except
for some professions for which data are available, as
indicated in a footnote.
Rather than show data for the entire 1968-80 period,
appendix B presents annual openings which can be easily
compared with annual training output as presented in
appendix C. Annual data present openings for the entire
1968-80 period divided by 12.

Chapter III. The Status of Occupational Training
Each year occupational training is needed by millions
of young people who must bridge the gap between
school and work, persons whose skills have become
obsolete as a result of technology, and the disadvantaged
who need to qualify for entry level jobs and progress up
the occupational skill ladder.
As was shown in the preceding chapter, the Nation
increasingly is shifting from producing goods to
producing services, and hence, from blue-collar to
white-collar jobs—jobs that require higher levels of
education and skill acquired through formal training.
Furthermore, an increasingly larger proportion of
blue-collar workers will become craftsmen who require
more training than other blue-collar workers. Additional
factors that will influence training needs include
technological developments that create new jobs
requiring much training and that eliminate jobs requiring
little training. The need for specialized training will
cover more jobs than ever before. In addition, the goals
of occupational training are being broadened to include
more than specific preparation for a job or career, such
as training given that facilitates a worker’s adaptation to
constantly changing demands of his job or the labor
market.
This chapter discusses available training for
occupations. Chapter IV discusses kinds of training
needed to enter each of the 232 occupations for which
estimates of manpower requirements are presented.
Appendix C presents statistics on training completions
for the most recent year data are available on each
occupation for which the Bureau has projected man­
power requirements.
Types of Occupational Training

Vocational education. Vocational education in
public school provides training opportunities “so that
persons of all ages in all communities of the
State . . . will have ready access to vocational training
which is of high quality, which is realistic in the light of
actual or anticipated opportunities for gainful
employment and which is suited to their needs, interests
and ability to benefit from such training.’’12 The 1968
amendments to the Vocational Education Act




emphasized vocational training related to current job
markets. The amended act emphasized national, state,
and local planning for the expansion of instructional
programs. Future vocational education must consider
market needs and employment opportunities so that
greater cooperation will result among schools, business
and industrial organizations, and the public employment
service.
In 1969, approximately 8 million persons were
enrolled in federally aided vocational-technical
education programs.
During fiscal year (FY) 1969, enrollments in
post-secondary vocational and technical programs
numbered 960,000, and secondary programs 4.6 million.
Except for agriculture and distributive fields,
enrollments increased from FY 1968 in all fields of
education; the greatest increase was in the health and
office fields.
Graduates of secondary and post-secondary programs
have good job placement records. About 75 percent of
all graduates who sought jobs in 1968 obtained
employment in the field for which they were trained or
in a related field.13 Many others found work not related
to their training. Placement rates for students
completing post-secondary programs were 87 percent
compared with 72 percent for secondary school
graduates.
Of the 885,000 persons who had completed
vocational education programs in 1968. approximately
480.000 were available for placemen: 365,000 at the
secondary level and 1 16,000 at the post secondary level.
Of the 304,500 not available for placement, about
210.000 or 69 percent continued s.:r o’ full time and
53.000 or 17.4 percent entered the Armed Forces.14
Although vocational education programs generally
prepare students in a specific occupation, e.g., dental
assistant programs train dental assistants, many programs

12Vocational Education Amendments of 1968 Public Law
90-576.
13
Source, M a n p o w e r R e p o r t o f th e P r e s i d e n t , 1970, p. 68.
14

Based on data from M a n p o w e r R e j t o r t o f th e P r e s id e n t ,
(U.S. Department of Health, I duration, and Weilare,
Office of Education), p. 69.
1970

17

Table 3. Enrollments in federally aided vocational-tech­
nical education, by field of education, fiscal year 1969
[Number in thousands]
Number

Percent
distribution

T o t a l............................................

7,981

100.0

A g ric u ltu re ............................................
Distributive .........................................
Health ..................................................
Home E co n o m ics ................................
O ffic e .....................................................
T echn ica l...............................................
Trades and Industry ..........................
Other .....................................................

851
566
176
2,449
1,837
315
1,723
64

10.7
7.1
2.2
30.7
23.0
3.9
21.6
.8

Field of education

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
Office of Education.

prepare students for employment in several related
occupations, e.g., machine shop and blue-print reading.
Private vocational schools. Private vocational schools
prepare students for employment in many areas, but the
three main types of schools are business, trade and
technical, and cosmetology and barber schools. In 1966,
about 3,000 trade and technical schools enrolled over
800,000 students; 1,300 business schools enrolled more
than 400,000 students; and nearly 2,800 barber and
cosmetology
schools
enrolled
nearly
300,000
students.15
Such schools vary in size from 10 to over 1,200
students; the length of courses and types of programs
offered also vary. Some schools have many courses
leading to certificates in several different occupations.
Some business schools, for example, offer refresher
courses in shorthand, a full program in beginning
secretarial work; and the fundamentals of accounting.
About 230 different courses were taught in 544 trade
and technical schools.16 The six categories offering the
widest range were: automobile maintenance and related
services; data processing; drafting; electronics; medical
services; and radio-television. Business schools teach all
types of clerical work—typing, shorthand, filing—as well
as accounting, data processing, and related fields. The
number of graduates of private vocational schools is not
available.
F ederal apprenticeship programs. Apprenticeship
training combines theory and on-the-job instruction to
prepare journeymen in skilled crafts. The Department of
Labor registers but does not finance such programs. It
1

5Belitsky, A. Harvey, P r iv a te V o c a t io n a l S c h o o l s a n d T h e ir
(Schenkman Publishing Company, Inc., Cambridge,
Mass.), 1969.

S tu d e n ts

16Belitsky, op. cit.

18



provides technical assistance to employers and unions in
establishing programs. Of the almost 240,000
apprentices in 1969, over 55 percent were in
construction, 24 percent in metalworking, and 5.4
percent in printing.
In addition to federally registered programs, many
programs are provided whose sponsors have chosen not
to register. Many of these are of high quality. No
information is available, however, on the number of such
programs or of apprentices involved.
Employer training. Employer training may be formal
or informal. Generally, workers receive on-the-job
formal training in conjunction with classroom work.1 7
A 1963 Department of Labor study showed that only a
small proportion of workers had learned their skills in
such programs.18 The likelihood of a firm having formal
training varies directly with the size of the firm; larger
firms can better afford monetary and manpower costs
involved in training.19
In most instances, training is informal and takes place
mainly in the work environment. Most workers, ac­
cording to the 1963 study, had “just picked up” their
current skills informally on the job.
Current statistics on completion of employer training
programs are not available. Furthermore, the feasibility
of collecting such data raises some question. The Bureau
of Labor Statistics, with the support of the Manpower
Administration, currently is embarking upon a study to
determine the feasibility of collecting statistics on
occupational training in private industry.
Armed Forces. The Armed Forces offers training in
electronics, aircraft maintenance, metalworking, and
other skills to help young men obtain civilian jobs upon
separation. Military personnel also may enroll in volun­
tary off-duty academic and technical programs. Approxi­
mately 200 such correspondence courses range from
elementary school through the second year of college.
Project Transition, an Armed Forces-wide training
program, prepares men who have between 1 and 6
months left in service for employment in civilian life. In
operation for 2 years, Project Transition is a joint effort

^A pprenticeship programs fall into this category but were
discussed in the preceding sections.
1 8 F o r m a l O c c u p a t i o n a l T r a in in g o f A d u l t W o r k e r s - I t s E x ­
t e n t , N a tu r e , a n d U se (Washington: U.S. Department o f Labor,

December, 1964, Manpower/Automation Research Monograph
No. 2).
1 9 T r a in in g o f W o r k e r s in A m e r i c a n I n d u s t r y (Washington:
U.S. Department o f Labor, Bureau o f Apprenticeship and
Training, 1962).

of private industry and the government. It provides
training in many skills, including Post Office positions.
Participants volunteer and may take only courses offered
at the bases where they are stationed. When openings are
limited, preference is given to those who have combat
disabilities and then to those who have no civilian skills.
Although some statistics are available, data on the
number trained and entering civilian jobs are not
available.
Federal manpower programs20

Job Opportunities in the Business Sector (JOBS). .The
JOBS program was begun in 1968. Initial commitment
was by the business community in about 50 metro­
politan areas to hire and give on-the-job training and
other services, such as counseling and health care, to
thousands of disadvantaged persons. The Department of
Labor recruits job applicants, provides technical support,
and meets extra costs of employing persons who have
special problems and needs; the National Alliance of
Businessmen (NAB) enlists the support of the private
business sector and secures job pledges. The program is
built on the premise that immediate placement in jobs at
regular wages, followed by training and supportive
services, provides superior motivation for disadvantaged
persons. Through January 1970, only 80,000 persons
had been hired under JOBS contracts with the Depart­
ment of Labor. Independent companies had taken on
300.000 without Federal financial assistance. Of the
380.000 hired, 200,000 were still on the job in January
1970. About 20 percent of those in JOBS programs were
in clerical and sales occupations; another 15 percent
worked in machining occupations; and nearly 20 percent
were engaged in structural work.
Manpower Development and Training A ct (MDTA).
This act was passed primarily to retrain workers
whose skills were obsolete; however, that portion of the
program initially devoted to youth has been expanded,
and major emphasis has been placed on training the
disadvantaged.
Two basic types of training are authorized under the
MDTA: institutional instruction (classroom), and onthe-job training (OJT). Most training, conducted pri­
marily in public vocational schools, has been institu­
tional. MDTA programs are sponsored jointly by the
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare and the
20
Information on Department o f Labor sponsored Federal
manpower programs are based on information appearing in the
M a n p o w e r R e p o r t o f t h e P r e s id e n t , 1970, and on unpublished
Labor Department records. Most o f the specific occupational
statistics shown for Labor Department programs are based on
unpublished records.




Department of Labor. Under OJT, training is provided at
the jobsite by an employer under contract with the
Department of Labor. Private businesses, trade associ­
ations, labor unions, and public agencies sponsor such
programs.
OJT programs are designed to equip workers with
entrance level skills; to provide remedial training for the
underemployed and those subject to job displacement;
and to provide training for workers from minority
groups, the disadvantaged, and other hard-to-train per­
sons. In addition, training programs are offered in
occupations in short supply which are deemed critical to
the economy and to national defense.
OJT is sometimes coupled with classroom training;
such instruction usually covers directly related technical
subjects, but may include academic education essential
to effective job performance. In 1969, approximately
135,000 persons were enrolled in MDTA institutional
training programs. The largest number, over 33,000, were
being trained for clerical occupations, mostly in steno­
graphic and typing fields. More than 30,000 recieved
training in the machine trades as machinists, machine
tool operators, and business machine repairmen. An­
other 6,400 received training in benchwork occupations
such as TV assembly and repair, and upholstering. (See
table 5 for statistics on enrollments by occupation.)
Over 23,000 were enrolled in structural occupations
such as transportation equipment assemblers, bodymen,
arc welders, and combination welders. Over 18,000
received professional and managerial training including
refresher courses for professional nurses.
Approximately 85,000 persons were enrolled in
MDTA on-the-job training programs in 1969. Training
was provided for many occupations including motor
vehicle mechanics, machinists, waiters and waitresses,
bodymen, carpenters, and salesmen.

Job Corps. The Job Corps trains high school dropouts
16 through 21 years of age who have records of low
educational achievement, have been out of work for at
least 3 months, or need full-time employment. The
program provides financial assistance while youth are
being introduced to work requirements and basic man­
power skills. In fiscal 1967, universities or nonprofit
organizations ran seven of the urban centers and private
firms ran the remaining 21. Job Corps centers generally
are located in former hotels, hospitals, military bases, or
similar facilities. Besides living space, including dormi­
tory facilities and a cafeteria, centers have classrooms,
vocational shops, a clinic, a library, and recreational
facilities.
The Job Corps emphasizes programs coupling the
unique residential services of Job Corps centers with
19

other programs. For example, the Job Corps may refer
ex-corpsmen to MDTA skills training, as well as to JOBS
programs. Approximately 53,000 first-time enrollees
were served in fiscal 1969. Job Corpsmen are trained for
a variety of occupations, including air conditioning
mechanic, cook, heavy equipment operator, and meat
cutter.
Little data are available on training by occupation.
Furthermore, because Job Corps training is remedial
rather than strictly occupational, information cannot be
presented in the format used in appendix C of this
report.
Neighborhood Youth Corps (NYC). This program
provides work experience and, in some cases, related
training to help young persons from low income families
stay in school, return to school, or increase employment
possibilities of those out of school who do not plan to
return. Training and work experience help enrollees
acquire habits and attitudes necessary to hold a job. The
out-of-school program is currently being restructured to
deal with problems that confront unskilled 16- and
17-year old dropouts attempting to enter the labor
force. For example, in fiscal 1969, about 120,000 young
adults 18 years and over were enrolled in out-of-school
projects. The restructured program will channel out-of­
school youths 18 years old and over to other programs
and provide extensive academic and occupational prevocational training for 16- and 17-year olds. To date,
reliable data on job placements are not available.
Work Incentive Program (WIN). This program stresses
economic independence for all employable persons ages
16 and over in families now receiving Aid to Families
with Dependent Children. By the end of 1969, about
62,000 persons were enrolled in WIN projects. De­
pending on their degree of job readiness, clients are
referred by local welfare agencies to employment service
offices for interviewing, testing, counseling, and place­
ment in jobs, training, or special work experience.
Clients are helped to obtain meaningful jobs as rapidly as
possible at not less than the minimum wage. Some
potential participants have been denied enrollment
because child care, though provided, is not available.
Limited data indicate that WIN participants have found
employment primarily in clerical, service, and structural
occupations.
Public Service Careers Program. Formally known as
the New Careers Program, this operation is designed to
develop entry-level jobs in government service agencies
for disadvantaged workers, and also, to help upgrade
employees who are in dead-end, low-paid positions.
20



Approximately 3,800 persons were first-time enrollees in
1969. Examples of occupations for which disadvantaged
persons have been readily trained are mail clerk, guard,
switchboard operator, messenger, and payroll clerk. In
general, under this program a government agency hires
and trains persons on the job. Public Service Careers
funds pay the extra cost of training and supportive
services such as child care and transportation for
disadvantaged workers. Other Federal Programs. A
number of other federally funded programs, including
“Operation Mainstream” and the “Special Impact Pro­
gram,” are designed to provide work experience and
related services to the disadvantaged. For example, in
fiscal 1969, about 11,000 persons were first-time en­
rollees in Operation Mainstream programs. No informa­
tion is presented on specific occupational training in these
programs, which are quite small.
Home study courses

Nearly 5 million persons were enrolled in home study
or correspondence courses in 1969. Offered in many
different types of institutions, the courses range from
kindergarten through post-college refresher. These
courses may not be occupationally related and are set up
by trade associations as well as high schools. In 1969
about 1.8 million students were enrolled by private
schools; nearly 2.5 million through the Federal Govern­
ment, mostly persons in the Armed Forces; 300,000 by
colleges and universities; over 100,000 by religious
schools; and 40,000 were taking home-study courses
related to business and industrial training.21 Not all
students complete the courses and much of the training
is part of an employer training program. Thus, even if
statistics on completion were available, data would not
represent new entrants to an occupation. Nevertheless,
in evaluating occupational training, home study pro­
grams cannot be discounted.
Junior colleges or community colleges

Originally called junior colleges and now more com­
monly called community colleges, these institutions
serve a variety of educational needs. For some students
they provide the first 2 years of academic training
leading to a bachelor’s degree, so that students may take
their first 2-college years at, or closer to home, and
thereby reduce the costs of a college education; such
students transfer to a 4-year college for the last 2 years
of undergraduate work. A second need met by com­
munity colleges is for adult education, not necessarily
21
information based on data supplied by the National Home
Study Council, Washington, D.C.

oriented to completion of a formal college education or
to vocational preparation. A third educational need they
serve is for “terminal occupational education,” programs
designed to prepare students for entry into specific
occupations immediately upon graduation.
Junion colleges have a large number of programs to
prepare students for specific occupations immediately
after graduation. These courses vary from 6 months to 3
years, but most are 2-academic years. Types of career
education are: science and engineering technologies;
public services that emphasizes transportation planning
and social service-aide occupations; business and com­
mercial fields where food service and distribution are
receiving increasing attention; allied health and medical
fields, and many other types of training including data
processing and graphic arts.
Junior colleges increased rapidly during the 1960’s.
Between 1961 and 1968, about 50 new institutions
opened each year, and enrollments increased 200 per­
cent between 1958 and 1968. Nearly 40 percent of the
more than 6 million students in junior colleges in 1968
majored in career-education programs and were em­
ployed immediately after graduation.
College and university training

College training differs from vocational training in
several ways. For example, the market for college
graduates is nationwide whereas vocational school
graduates generally begin work in the geographic area of
their training. Furthermore, college students receive a
more general education than those enrolled in vocational
training.
More data are available for workers who attend college
than for workers trained in other methods. As a result,
development of detailed supply-demand analysis is pos­
sible for noncollege graduates but not for other workers.
This section of the report presents an overview of
prospective supply-demand conditions for college
graduates for the 1970’s rather than data on training
output. Persons interested in greater detail should see
College Educated Workers, 1968-80 22
Supply and demand for workers having
bachelor's and advanced degrees

The number of bachelor’s degrees awarded between
1968 and 1980, will increase 48 percent: the number of
master’s degrees, 95 percent; and the number of
doctorate degrees, 117 percent. In numerical terms,

about ! 3.3 million degrees are expected to be awarded
between 1968 and 1980: 10.2 million bachelor’s de­
grees, 2,7 million master’s degrees, and 400,000
doctorates.23
Not all degree recipients enter the labor market when
they receive their degrees. Over the 1968-80 period,
about 9.3 million of the 13.3 million new degree
recipients will enter the civilian labor force upon
graduation. Bachelor’s degree recipients will constitute
8.4 million; master’s degree holders, 900,000; and those
holding doctorates, 18,000.
The supply of new college graduates will be augmented
by persons who received degrees before 1968, but were
not in the labor force at that time and can be expected
to enter or reenter the labor force between 1968 and
1980. Immigrants are another source of supply. Re­
entrants, delayed entrants, and immigrants are expected
to provide about 1.2 million additions to the supply of
civilian workers having 4 years of more of college
training. This number added to that available from new
degree recipients brings total expected additions to the
college educated work force during the 1968-80 period
to 10.5 million.
The need for workers with college degrees over the
1968-80 period will stem from two sources: growth in
demand and the need to replace workers who die, retire,
or leave the labor force for other reasons. Another factor
that must be considered in estimating the demand for
college trained workers is the increasing entry require­
ments for occupations that make a college degree
necessary for jobs once performed by workers with less
education.
An assessment of these three factors-growth, replace­
ment, and rising entry requirements—indicates a need for
about 10.4 million college graduates over the 1968-80
period, 6.1 million to meet growth needs and 4.3 million
for replacements.
The statistical analysis of supply and demand thus
indicates the likelihood of a rough balance between the
overall supply of and demand for college educated
personnel for the 1970’s as a whole (10.4 million v. 10.5
million). However, this overall picture does not imply
that imbalances between supply and demand in individ­
ual occupations will not exist: prospective imbalances
are in the offing in several occupations unless corrective
measures are taken. When possible, discussions of occu­
pations presented in chapter IV include a supply-demand
analysis. Additional information is presented in College
Educated Workers, 1968-80.24
23Projections of degrees in this report are based on those
prepared by the U.S. Office of Education and appear in
P r o je c tio n s o f E d u c a t i o n a l S ta t is tic s .

2 ‘'C o l l e g e E d u c a t e d

W o rk e rs , 1 9 6 8 - 8 0

1970).




(BLS Bulletin 1676,

24Op. cit.

Chapter IV. Relating Training to Occupational Needs
This chapter presents information on ways workers
qualify for jobs in each of the 232 occupations for
which the Bureau of Labor Statistics has presented
projections in appendix B. Each discussion of occupa­
tional training requirements is followed by statistics on
1968 employment, projected 1980 requirements, per­
cent growth 1968-80, annual openings for growth and
replacement (as presented in appendix B), and known
data on the number of persons completing training (as
presented in appendix C). In addition, data are presented
on annual openings and apprenticeship completions for
the 1960-68 period for occupations whose data are
considered valuable to officials concerned with appren­
ticeship training and upgrading skilled occupations. (See
discussion on carpenters on p. 6) for illustrative uses of
historical data.) Whenever possible, a brief supplydemand analysis is presented for occupations requiring
at least a bachelor’s degree. For other occupations a
discussion is presented if data are complete or such a

discussion is meaningful, as in scientific, technical, and
health occupations. However, anthropology graduates
enter other occupations because openings in that field
are few, and a discussion of training needs would have
little relevance to educational planning. Discussions
generally are not presented for occupations, such as
bus driver, when training is given on the job and all
persons physically normal can enter; in developing
special programs which require little formal training,
statistics on annual openings of such occupations should
be valuable.
Training completion data are those available when the
report was prepared. Data for each type of training
reflects the following time period:
Junior college graduates-academic year 1968-69
MDTA enrollm ents-fiscal year 1969
Vocational education com pletions—1969 fiscal year
Apprenticeship com pletions-calendar 1969
College graduates-academic 1968-69

Professional and Related Occupations
Although most jobs in professional and related fields
require a bachelor’s degree, some demand one or more
advanced degrees; others require only 2 years of training
in a junior college, technical institute, or specialized
school. Still other professional jobs emphasize skill or
creative talent rather than academic training. For oc­
cupations of this type, on-the-job training ranging from
several months to a few years is sufficient. When a
professional or related job requires a license or certifi­
cate, the candidate generally must complete a recognized
training program and pass an examination by a State
examination board.
Employment 1968 ........................................................... 10,325,000
Projected 1980 requirements ....................................... 15,500,000
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0
50.1
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 total
777,000
Growth ........................................................................
431,000
R ep lacem en ts..............................................................
346,000

Business administration and related professions

Accountants. Although junior college, business
school, or correspondence course training is acceptable
for some accounting jobs, many positions require the
bachelor’s degree with a major in accounting, and
22



sometimes a master’s degree. All States require “certified
public accountants” to be certified by the State board of
accountancy. In nearly all States at least 2 years of
public accounting experience is necessary before CPA
certification can be issued. About half of the States do
not require the CPA candidates to be college graduates.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

500,000
720,000
43.4
33,000
19,000
14,000

Available training data :
Junior college graduates..............................................
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s............. ...........................................
Master’s degrees
.......................................................
Doctorate d e g r e e s ........................................................

4,741
20,032
1,333
40

Advertising workers. In hiring advertising trainees,
most employers seek college graduates who have liberal
arts, marketing, journalism, or business administration
training. Majors in other college fields also can enter
advertising. Many successful advertising workers do not
have a college degree.

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training data

140,000
155,000
8.1
5,700
950
4,750
—

Marketing
research workers. Marketing research
trainees usually need a bachelor’s degree; a master’s
degree is helpful for advancement. Marketing, statistics,
psychology, speech, English composition, and economics
are helpful. Sometimes specialized training is needed,
such as sales experience or a background in engineering
or data processing techniques.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 total
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

20,000
42,000
105.8
2,700
1,800
900

Available training data:1
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s ........................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctorate d e g r e e s ........................................................

868
62
1

1 Marketing degrees only.

Personnel workers. Although many employers prefer
college graduates who have majored in personnel admini­
stration, general business, or liberal arts, many college
majors are adaptable to personnel work. Specialized
knowledge or graduate training may be needed for some
jobs involving employee counseling, testing safety stan­
dards, or labor-mt ".agement relations.
Employment 1968 .................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 ................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

110,000
155,000
42.9
6,900
3,900
3,000

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Clergymen. Because the data on numbers being
trained are not available separately by religion, the
requirements and training statistics for clergymen are
presented after the discussions of training.
Protestant clergymen. Educational requirements for
the ministry have a broad range. Some religious groups
have no formal educational requirements; others require
training in a college, Bible Institute, or theological
seminaries. Some clergymen complete a 3-year course in
theological seminaries after college graduation. Institu­
tions accredited by the American Association of
Theological schools admit only candidates having a
bachelor’s degree or its equivalent. Preseminary studies
in liberal arts, natural and social sciences, religion,
philosophy, English, and history are recommended.
Rabbis. Entrance requirements for admission to a
program of Rabbinic studies vary, but almost all
seminaries require completion of a 4-year college course
plus prior preparation in Jewish studies. The Rabbinic
course in a Jewish theological seminary generally is
completed in 3 to 6 years. Some seminaries grant
advanced academic degrees in fields such as Biblical or
Talmudic studies.
Roman catholic priests. Roman Catholic priests study
8 years or more beyond high school. Study for the
priesthood may begin in the first year of high school, at
the college level, or in theological seminaries after
college graduation. The seminary college program
stresses behavioral sciences, history, philosophy and
religion, natural science, and mathematics. Seminary
courses, which provide the remaining 4 years of prepara­
tion, include sacred scripture, theology, church history,
liturgy, and canon laws.
R e q u i r e m e n t s a n d tr a in in g d a t a f o r a l l c l e r g y m e n
P r o te s ­
ta n t
T o ta l
R a b b is
c le r g y ­
m en

Public relations workers. A college education is the
best preparation for a career in public relations. Al­
though employers differ about the field of study,
courses in journalism, social sciences, business admini­
stration, psychology, and public speaking are recom­
mended. Secretarial skills also are useful, especially in
small firms.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 - 8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training data




100,000
165,000
64.0
8,800
5,300
3,500

Employment 1968 . . . . 312,000
Projected 1980
requirements ............. . 377,100
Percent growth,
1 9 6 8 -8 0 .......................
20.1
Annual openings,
1 9 6 8 -8 0 total . . . . .
14,100
Growth ....................
5,200
Replacements . . . .
8,900
Available training data:1
Bachelor’s degrees .
First professional
degrees ....................
Master’s degrees . . .
Doctoral degrees . .

C a th ­
o lic
p r ie s ts

244,000

6,000

62,000

295,000

7,100

75,000

20.1

20.1

20.1

11,000
4,100
6,900

300
100
200

2,800
1,000
1,800

5,276
4,338
2,884
346

1 Includes all degrees granted in religion. Data on those trained
for specific denomination are not available.

23

Conservation Occupations

Foresters. A bachelor’s degree with a major in forestry
is the minimum preparation for a professional career as a
forester. Teaching and research generally require ad­
vanced degrees. College curriculums in forestry include
courses in methods of growing and improving crops;
forest protection and management; and forest economics
and utilization. Most colleges require that students spend
a summer in a field camp operated by the college.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

25,000
32,000
28.0
1,000
600
400

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s .......................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

1,921
563
124

Forestry aids. Young persons qualify for beginning
positions as forestry aids through work experience or by
a 1- or 2-year post-high school curriculum. Specialized
courses include forest protection, wood utilization,
surveying, and mathematics. In addition, time is spent in
a forest or camp operated by the school.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u irem en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

13,000
20,000
57.3
900
600
300

Available training data:
Junior college graduates..............................................

596

Range managers. A bachelor’s degree with a major in
range management, range conservation, or a closely
related field usually is required for employment as a
range manager. Graduate degrees generally are needed
for teaching and research. A curriculum in range
management usually includes botany, animal husbandry,
soils, mathematics, and other specialized areas. Many
colleges students obtain important experience through
summer jobs with such Federal Government agencies as
the Forest Service or Bureau of Land Management.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u irem en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

4,000
5,200
30.0
200
100
100

Available training d a t a .......................................................

—

Counseling occupations

Employment Counselors. A bachelor’s degree plus 15
semester hours in counseling and related courses is the

24



accepted minimum requirement for a position as an
employment counselor. For higher level jobs employers
require an advanced degree in vocational counseling or a
related field, such as psychology, personnel admini­
stration, or education. All States require counselors in
their public employment offices to meet State civil
service requirements that include certain minimum
educational and experience standards and written or oral
examinations, or both.
Rehabilitation counselors. The minimum educational
requirement for entry into this occupation is a
bachelor’s degree with courses in counseling, psy­
chology, and related fields. Most employers prefer a
master’s degree in vocational or rehabilitation counseling
or a related discipline, such as psychology; some seek
candidates having a doctorate in counseling psychology.
In the majority of State Rehabilitation Agencies, appli­
cants must comply with State civil service regulations
that require a written competitive examination.
School counselors. Most States require counselors to
have both a counseling and a teaching certificate. An
applicant generally must complete graduate work and
have from 1 to 5 year’s teaching experience to be issued
a counseling certificate; specific requirements for certifi­
cation vary considerably among the States.
Supply-demand analysis. In addition to new college
graduates, the supply of counselors will be augmented
by counselors who have been out of the labor force. If
past trends of entry from master’s degree programs
continue and if reentry patterns follow the reentry
pattern of women in teaching, about 12,000 graduates
with master’s degrees in counseling and guidance, and
related fields would be needed annually to meet pro­
jected annual requirements of 5,550. Thus, over the
1968-80 period the average annual output from these
programs will have to increase at least 15 percent above
1969 levels to meet manpower needs.

T o ta l

Employment 1968 . .
Projected 1980
requirements . . . .
Percent growth.
1 9 6 8 -8 0 ................
Annual openings,
1 9 6 8 -8 0 total . . .
Grow t l i ...............
Replacements . .

E m p lo y ­
m ent

R eh a­
b ili­

S d io o l

ta tio n

. . . 71,300

5,300

12,000

54,000

. . .106,800

10,800

21,000

75,000

. . .

49.8

102.3

72.6

41.8

. . .
. . .
. . .

5,500
3,050
2,500

700
450
250

1,050
700
350

3,800
1,900
1,900

Available training data:
Bachelor’s degrees . . .
Master’s degrees . . . .
Doctoral degrees . . . .

129
10,474
442

Engineers. A bachelor’s degree generally is required
for entry positions as an engineer. However, some
persons become engineers after long experience in a
related occupation, such as draftsman or engineering
technician, plus some college level training. Graduate
degrees are necessary for beginning positions in teaching
and research; and in some engineering specialties, such as
nuclear engineering training is generally available only at
the graduate level. All 50 States and the District of
Columbia require licenses as registration for engineers
whose work may affect life, health, or property, or those
who offer their services to the public.
New graduates are the primary source of new engineers
but for many years graduates have not fully met the
need. Significant numbers come from other sources:
workers who shift occupations (including technicians
who are upgraded); persons not in the labor force
(including those in the Armed Forces); immigrants; and
college graduates who did not major in engineering.
Limited data on past patterns of entry25 indicate that
large numbers of workers have entered from sources
other than new engineering graduates. Although patterns
of entry from these other sources are affected by the
availability of engineering graduates, large numbers of
workers are expected to continue as employers upgrade
highly qualified technicians, engineers immigrate to the
United States, and college graduates who are non­
engineer majors enter engineering either by choice or
circumstances resulting from economic conditions. If
past patterns continue, about 36,000 engineers would
enter the field from these sources from 1968-80. Under
this assumption, only 38,000 new engineering graduates
would have to enter the field annually to meet require­
ments.
Followup studies of new college graduates indicate
that about 85 percent of all new engineering graduates
enter the profession. Therefore, about 45,000 engi­
neering graduates would be needed annually to obtain
38,000 entrants.
In 1969, about 41,000 bachelor’s degrees were granted
in engineering. U.S. Office of Education projections of
engineering degrees based on patterns of study over the
past 10 years indicate that for the 1968-80 period the
number of bachelor’s degrees in engineering will average
25Data on past patterns of entry are available from
A fte r

th e

C o lle g e

D e g re e -W o rk

a n d F u r th e r S t u d y

2 Y ears
P a tte r n s

(N S17 63-26, 1963) and the P o s t c e n s a l S u r r e y o f P r o f e s s io n a l a n d
T e c h n i c a l P e r s o n n e l - d followup study of persons who were re­
ported in professional and technical occupations in the 1960
Census. Selected data from the study are presented in BLS Bulle­
tin 1512, 1966. Data on scientists and engineers from abroad
has been published by the National Science f oundation based on
special tabulations prepared by the Immigration and Naturaliza­
tion Service o f the Department of Justice. Also see: “Projections
of Manpower Supply in a Specific Occupation" by Neal Rosen­
thal, M o n t h l y L a b o r R e v i e w , November 1966.




slightly, an increase of only 1,000, above the 1969 level.
To meet requirements, the number of bachelor’s degrees
granted will have to increase 10 percent or 4,000 above
the 1969 level. However, if graduates increase to levels
averaging above 45,000, not only would requirements be
met but less dependence would be placed on those who
are less well trained for engineering jobs than graduate
engineers.
Employment 1968 .............................................................. 1,100,000
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts.......................................... 1,500,000
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
40.2
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
73,400
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
36,000
Replacements ..............................................................
37,400
Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s .......................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ..........................................................

41,248
15,240
3,377

Health Service Occupations

Physicians. A license to practice medicine is required
in all States and the District of Columbia. To quality for
a license, the physician must graduate from an approved
medical school; pass a licensing examination; and, in
some States, serve a 1-year hospital internship. Most
students who enter medical school have earned the
bachelor’s degree; most medical schools require appli­
cants to complete at least 3 years of college. In­
creasingly, physicians acquire training beyond a 1-year
internship. To specialize, physicians must pass specialty
board examinations. To be eligible for these examina­
tions, a candidate needs 2 to 4 years in advanced
hospital residency, followed by 2 years or more of
practice in his specialty.
If over the 1968-80 period the annual number of
immigrant physicians does not change significantly from
the level of recent years (about 2,000), each year
medical schools would have to graduate on the average
more than twice as many physicians as in 1969 to meet
annual manpower needs of 20,000.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training data:
M.D. d e g r e e s .................................................

295,000
450,000
53.1
20,000
13,000
7,000

8,025

Osteopathic physicians. All States require osteopathic
physicians to be licensed. A candidate must graduate
from an approved school of osteopathy and pass a State
board examination to qualify for a license; many States
require a 12-month internship at an osteopathic hospital.
A minimum of 3 years’ preosteopathic college work is
25

needed for entrance to a school of osteopathy; however,
most entrants have earned the bachelor’s degree. Osteo­
pathic physicians who specialize must complete 2 to 5
years’ of training after internship, followed by 2 years of
supervised practice in their specialty.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

12,000
18,500
54.2
800
500
300

Available training data:
D.O. degrees .................................................................

427

Dentists. All States and the District of Columbia
require a license for the practice of dentistry. A
candidate must graduate from an approved dental school
and pass a State board examination to qualify for a
license. In 10 States, dentists cannot be licensed as
specialists without 2 or 3 years of graduate education;
several years of specialized experience; and passing a
special State examination. The minimum educational
requirement for graduation from an approved dental
school is 2 years’ predental college work, followed by 4
years’ professional dental school training.
To meet projected needs between 1968 and 1980, an
average of about 5,000 new dentists would have to
graduate each year over the 12-year period. Thus, to
meet requirements the average annual number of dental
school graduates will have to increase about 17 percent
above 1969 levels.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1968 —80 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 total
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

100,000
130,000
31.7
4,900
2,600
2,300

Available training data:
DDS. or D.M.D. d e g r ee s..............................................

3,408

Dental hygienists. Dental hygienists must pass a licens­
ing examination in the State where they plan to practice.
In all States except Alabama and Georgia, only graduates
of accredited dental hygiene schools are eligible for
licensing. Most schools of dental hygiene accredited by
the Council of Dental Education of the American Dental
Association provide 2-year certificate or associate degree
programs. Some offer 4-year programs leading to the
bachelor’s degree; others offer both. For dental hygien­
ists interested in practicing in private dental offices the
2-year program usually is sufficient; for work in re­
search, teaching, and public or school health programs,
completion of a 4-year program is required.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................

26



16,000
33,500
109.4

Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..........................
Available training data:
Junior College graduates ...........................................
Vocational Education:
Completions:
Post Secondary ....................................................

2,400
1,500
900

1,456

929

Dental laboratory technicians. No minimum formal
educational requirements are required to enter the
occupation, but a high school diploma is recommended.
Most technicians learn the craft through on-the-job
training which may take 3 to 4 years’ time. Some
technicians take courses in dental laboratory work at
public vocational high schools and junior colleges; or at
schools offering 1 to 2-year programs in dental tech­
nology. Regardless of educational background, actual
work experience is necessary to qualify as a technician.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training data:
Junior College graduates ...........................................
Vocational Education:
Completions:
S e c o n d a r y ........................................................
Post S e c o n d a r y ..............................................

27,000
37,500
38.9
2,100
900
1,200

364

96
246

Registered nurses. A license is required to practice
professional nursing in all States and in the District of
Columbia. Graduation from a school approved by a
State board of nursing and successful completion of a
State board examination are necessary for licensing. All
schools of nursing require a high school diploma for
admission. Nursing education programs vary in length
from 2 to 5 years. Nurses who complete 2-year courses
earn associate degrees; those in 3-year programs a
diploma; and students in 4- or 5-year courses are
awarded the bachelor’s degree.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
660,000
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts........................................... 1,000,000
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
51.5
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
65,000
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
28,000
Replacements ..............................................................
37,000
Available training data:
D ip lo m a s ........................................................................
Associate degrees ........................................................
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s ........................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

28,197
6,213
9,186
1,249
4

Licensed practical nurses. Licenses usually are issued
only to candidates who have completed a State board

approved course in practical nursing and passed a
licensing examination. To enroll in a State-approved
training program, young people generally must be at
least 17 years old and have completed at least 2 years of
high school or its equivalent. Some States accept
candidates who have completed only eighth or ninth
grade; others require high school graduation. An ap­
proved program in practical nursing generally is 1 year in
length; junior colleges, local hospitals and health
agencies; and public schools offer this training.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

320,000
600,000
87.5
48,000
23,000
25,000

Available training data:
Junior College G r a d u a te s...........................................

5,564

Vocational Education:
Completions:
Secondary ...........................................................
Post-Secondary .................................................

2,192
19,586

Optometrists. A license is required to practice optom­
etry in all States and the District of Columbia. Appli­
cants for licenses must graduate from an accredited
school of optometry and pass a State board examina­
tion. Students should choose a school approved by the
Board of Optometry in the State where they expect to
practice. At least 6 years of college are needed to
become an optometrist—2 years of preoptometry educa­
tion in an approved college, followed by 4 years of
training in optometry school leading to the degree of
Doctor of Optometry. A master’s or Ph. D. degree in
physiological optics or a related field usually is required
for teaching or research.
Approximately 17,000 optometrists were employed in
the United States in 1968. Employment requirements
are expected to increase by nearly one-fourth to 21,000
over the 1968-80 period. In addition to these growth
needs of almost 4,000, 5,800 optometrists will be
needed to replace those who die or retire.
To meet projected needs for 9,600 optometrists
between 1968 and 1980, each year schools would have
to provide about 800 graduates over the period. Thus,
the annual number of graduates must average about 350
above 1969 levels, an increase of more than 70 percent
over 1969 levels. Thus, training in optometry must be
increased much faster than current trends if require­
ments for optometrists are to be met.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r e q u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................

17,000
21,000
23.5
800

Growth ..................................................................

300

Replacements

500

..............................................................




Available training data:
O.D. degrees .................................................................

463

Pharmacists. A bachelor’s degree in pharmacy is the
minimum educational requirement for most positions in
this profession. In addition to the necessary education, a
license is required to practice pharmacy. To obtain a
license, one must graduate from an accredited pharmacy
college, pass a State board examination, and, in most
States, also have 1 year of practical experience or
internship. The master’s or doctor’s degree in pharmacy
or a related field usually is required for research or
college teaching, and is desirable for work in hospitals.
To meet the projected needs over the 1968-80 period
would require an annual average of 4,400 graduates from
colleges of pharmacy. Therefore, the annual number of
graduates must increase 10 percent above the 1969 level.
U.S. Office of Education projections show the annual
number of bachelor’s degrees in pharmacy increasing
even faster and averaging about one-fourth above the
1969 level. Thus, expansion of training in pharmacy
could be curtailed somewhat and manpower needs for
pharmacists could probably still be met.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

121,000
130,000
7.0
4,400
700
3,700

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s ..........................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

4,073
232
74

Podiatrists. A license is required for the practice of
podiatry. An applicant must graduate from an accredited
4-year program in a college of podiatry and must pass a
State board examination. Michigan, New Jersey, and
Rhode Island require applicants to serve a 1-year
internship in addition to obtaining a license. Oklahoma
requires 1 year of practice under direct supervision.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 total ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training data:
D.P.M. or D.P. degrees1 .......................

8,500
9,500
11.8
200
100
100

204

1 1967 data.

Chiropractors. Most States and the District of Colum­
bia regulate the practice of chiropractic by granting
licenses to applicants who meet certain educational
requirements and pass a State board examination. The
27

educational requirements differ between States but most
require completion of a 4-year chiropractic course.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training data:
D.C. degrees1 .............................

16,000
19,000
18.8
900
250
650

589

1 1967 data.

Occupational therapists. A degree or certificate in
occupational therapy is the minimum requirement for
entry into the profession. After graduation and com­
pletion of clinical practices, therapists may register with
the American Occupational Therapy Association and
become Occupational Therapist Registered (O.T.R.). A
graduate degree is often required for teaching, research,
or administration.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 - 8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

7,000
19,000
171.4
1,500
1,000
500

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s .......................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................

566
43

Physical therapists. All States and the District of
Columbia require an applicant to have a degree or
certificate from a school of physical therapy. In ad­
dition, all but two States require applicants to pass a
State board examination. A graduate degree, combined
with clinical experience, increases advancement oppor­
tunities, especially in teaching, research, and admini­
stration.
Employment 1968
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1968- 80 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

14,000
36,000
157.1
2,800
1,800
1,000

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s .......................................................
Master’s degrees ..........................................................

1,071
41

Speech pathologists and audiologists. Most States re­
quire a master’s degree in speech pathology or audiology
or its equivalent for beginning jobs. Other States require
the bachelor’s degree for entry positions. Persons who
wish to work in public schools should complete the
educational and other requirements for a teacher’s
certificate. Persons intending to work with handicapped
children must fulfill special requirements in some States.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................

28



18,000
33,000

Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

83.3
2,300
1,300
1,000

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s .......................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

3,879
1,785
200

Medical laboratory workers. For medical technolo­
gists, the usual minimum beginning requirement is 3
years of college plus completion of a specialized training
program in medical technology, which usually requires
12 months of study and laboratory work. Some States
require licensing examinations. Medical laboratory
technicians generally require 1 or more years of post­
secondary training in a junior college or vocational
school. Medical laboratory assistants may take post­
secondary training of 1 year or more; many are also
trained on the job.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ...............................................................
Available training data:
Junior college graduates . .
Vocational education:
Completions:
S e c o n d a r y .......................................................
Post secondary
.............

100,000
190,000
90.0
12,800
7,500
5,300

772

600
1.058

Radiologic technologists. Training programs con­
ducted by hospitals or medical schools, and junior
colleges for radiologic technicians usually take 24
months to complete. A few schools offer 3- or 4-year
programs. Some master’s degree programs also are
available.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s .......................................................
Master s degrees ..........................
Junior College graduates
.......................................
Vocational education:
Completions:
S e c o n d a r y ....................................
...
Post S e c o n d a r y ..............................................

75,000
120,000
60.0
7,300
3,800
3,500

16
10
570

93
442

Medical record librarians. Medical record librarians
need about 1 year of specialized academic training. The
prerequisites for specialized training vary from 2 to 4
years of college level work.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent change, 1968 80 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................

12.000
20,000
66.7
1,400

Growth ......................
Replacements .......................................
Available training data:
Total number trained in AMAapproved programs1 ....................

700
700

118

1 1968 data.

Dietitians. The minimum educational requirement for
dietitians is a bachelor’s degree with a major in foods
and nutrition or institution management. To qualify for
professional recognition, the American Dietetic Associ­
ation recommends completion of internship programs
lasting 12 or 18 months or 3 years of preplanned
experience.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent change, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth .......................
Replacements ..............................................................

30,000
42,100
40.3
2,700
1.000
1,700

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s .......................................................
Master’s degrees ................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

1,206
224
28

Hospital administrators. Educational requirements for
hospital administrators vary among institutions. Most
employers prefer individuals having at least a master's
degree in hospital administration. Other employers look
for formal training in social or behavorial sciences,
industrial engineering, or business administration plus
extensive experience in the health field. A few institu­
tions require their administrators to be physicians or reg­
ister professional nurses. The Ph.D. degree in hospital ad­
ministration is especially helpful for those interested in
teaching and research.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent change, 1968 80 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth .............................................................
Replacements ...................................

15,000
22,000
46.7
900
600
300

Available training data:
Bachelor's d e g r e e s .......................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

37
403
2

Sanitarians. Although a bachelor’s degree in a basic
science generally is acceptable, a bachelor’s degree in
environmental health is preferred for a beginning job as a
professional sanitarian. A graduate degree in some aspect
of public health usually is required for high level
positions. In some cases, sanitarian technicians having 2
years of college and work experience can advance to
professional sanitarian positions.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent change, 1968 80 .................................................




10.000
14,000
41.0

Annual openings. 1968 80 t o t a l .............................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..........................

600
300
300

Available training data ........................................................

—

Veterinarians. A license is required to practice veteri­
nary medicine. To obtain a license, an applicant must
have the degree of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine
(D.V.M.), pass a State board examination, and in some
States have some practical experience under supervision.
In addition, research and teaching positions require the
master’s or Ph. D. degree in a field such as pathology,
physiology, or bacteriology. The minimum requirements
for the D.V.M. degree are 2 years of preveterinary
college work followed by 4 years of professional study
in a college of veterinary medicine.
Employment 1968 .......................................................
Projected 1980 req u irem en ts..........................................
Percent change, 1968 80 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l .............................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training data:
D.V.M. degrees ..............................................

24,000
34,000
41.7
1,400
800
600

1,146

Mathematics and related occupations

Mathematicians. The minimum educational require­
ment for most beginning positions is the bachelor's
degree with a major in mathematics, or with a major in
an applied field arid a minor in mathematics. Advanced
degrees are required for research and in many areas of
applied mathematics. The Ph. D is necessary for full
faculty status at most colleges and universities.
About 70,000 persons were employed as mathe­
maticians in 1968. Employment requirements are ex­
pected to increase by 60 percent to 110.000 in 1980. In
addition to these manpower needs of almost 42,000
resulting from growth, nearly 60,000 mathematicians
will be needed to replace those who die, retire, or
transfer to other fields of work. Over the 1068-80
period, openings are. therefore, expected to total more
than 100,000, an average of about 8,400 a year.
Annual requirements for mathematicians ma\ no met
by persons who shift to occupations in mathematics
from other occupations; from persons not in the labor
force; from immigrants; from new college graduates who
did not major in mathematics; as well as from the major
source, new college graduates receiving degrees in mathe­
matics.
Limited data on patterns of entry26 indicate that in
the past a significant number of workers have entered
mathematics from sources other than new college
graduates majoring in the field. Although a variety of

26 Ibid,
29

factors affect the number of these “other entrants,”
including the availability of mathematics graduates,
significant numbers probably will continue to enter. If
past patterns of entry from other sources and of new
mathematics graduates continue, an average of about
22,000 bachelor’s degree graduates in mathematics
would be needed annually to meet projected require­
ments. Therefore, to meet requirements the number of
degrees granted annually in mathematics could decline
below 1969 levels. Projections of the U.S. Office of
Education based on past trends of study patterns of
college studies show the average annual number of
bachelor’s degrees in mathematics increasing about 40
percent above 1969 levels during the 1968-80 period.
Thus, the very rapid growth of training in mathematics
could be curtailed and manpower requirements could
still be met.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent change, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements1 ..............................................................

65,000
110,000
60.4
8.400
3,500
4,900

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s .......................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

26,905
5,217
956

in c lu d e s an estimated 3,800 replacements for those who
transfer to other occupations.

Statisticians. A bachelor’s degree with a major in
statistics or mathematics is required for many entry
positions. For other beginning positions, a major in
economics or other subject matter fields and a minor in
statistics is preferred. A graduate degree in mathematics
or statistics is essential for faculty positions at colleges
and universities.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent change, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

23.000
33,000
45.9
1,600
900
700

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s .......................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

304
496
141

Actuaries. A bachelor’s degree with a thorough foun­
dation in calculus, probability, and statistics is required.
Persons with majors in mathematics, statistics, eco­
nomics, or business administration can usually qualify
for beginning positions. After entering a beginning
actuarial position, 5 to 10 years are required to complete
the entire series of examinations required for full
professional status.
30



Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r e q u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 ..........................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

4,000
6,700
59.5
300
200
100

Available training d a t a .................................................... combined
with
statisticians

Environmental science occupations

Geologists and geophysicists. A bachelor’s degree in
geology is adequate for only a few entry jobs in geology.
A master’s degree is required for beginning positions in
research, teaching, and sometimes exploration. A Ph. D.
is usually required for high-level research and admini­
strative posts.
A bachelor’s degree with a major in geophysics or
geophysical specialties is required for many beginning
jobs as geophysicists. A bachelor’s degree in a related
science or in engineering is adequate for some entry jobs.
Graduate education in geophysics or in a related physical
science is required for responsible positions in explora­
tion and some other specialties. Teaching and research in
geophysical work generally require a Ph. D. in geo­
physics or a related science.
Although new earth sciences college majors are the
major source of supply of new earth scientists, new
college graduates who did not major in geology and
geophysicists, immigrants, persons not in the labor force,
and persons employed in other occupations may enter
the field. Limited data on patterns of entry27 indicate
that: in the past a significant number of workers have
entered geology and geophysics from sources other than
new college graduates majoring in these fields. Although
a variety of factors affect the number of these “other
entrants” including the relative availability of geology
and geophysics graduates, significant numbers probably
will continue to enter. If past patterns of entry from
other sources and of new geology and geophysics college
graduates continue, an average of about 2,100 bachelor’s
degree graduates in geology and geophysics would be
needed annually to meet projected requirements.
In 1969, about 2,1002 8 bachelor’s degrees were
granted in earth sciences. To meet requirements, the
average number would have to remain at 1969 levels.
Projections of the U.S. Office of Education, based on
past trends, show the average number of bachelor’s
degrees in sciences declining slightly from 1969 levels
27Ibid.
2
8 Represents degrees in earth sciences which includes some
fields in addition to geology and geophysics.

over the 1970’s. Therefore, to meet requirements action
must be taken so that the number of geologist and
geophysicist graduates will not decrease.
T o ta l

Employment 1968 ....................... 29,600
Projected 1980 requirements . . 35,700
Percent growth, 1968 80 . . . .
22.7
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 total
1 100
G r o w t h ....................................
550
Replacements .......................
550
Available training data:
Bachelor s d e g r e e s ................
Master's d e g r e e s ....................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ....................

2,013
675
314

G e o lo ­
g is ts

G eo­
p h y s ic is ts

22,800
27,100
18.9
800
400
400

6,800
8,600
26.5
300
150
150

1 973
620
288

40
55
26

Meteorologists. A bachelor’s degree with a major in
meteorology is the usual minimum requirement, how­
ever, a bachelor’s degree in a related science or in
engineering is acceptable for many positions if the
applicant has credit for courses in meteorology. An
advanced degree is essential for research and teaching,
and many top-level positions in meteorology.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r e q u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth 1968 80 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ................................
Replacements ..............................................................

4 000
5,500
34.1
200
100
100

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s .......................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

228
140
46

Oceanographers. The minimum educational require­
ment for beginning professional positions is the bache­
lor’s degree with a major in oceanography, biology,
mathematics, engineering, geo-science, or one of the
other basic sciences. Graduates training in oceanography
or one of the basic sciences is usually required for
research, teaching, and advancement to high-level
positions.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

5,200
9,700
85.4
500
400
100

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s ........................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

113
123
43

Life Science Occupations

Life scientists. A bachelor’s degree with a major in
one of the sciences is adequate for many beginning jobs,
but promotion for those without graduate training may




be limited to intermediate level positions. A master’s
degree is required for most entry positions in applied
research and for some types of positions in college
teaching and basic research. A Ph. D. generally is
required for higher level college teaching positions,
independent research, and the administration of research
programs.
Although new graduates who majored in life sciences
are the major source of supply of new life scientists,
workers also enter the field from other sources; immi­
grants, persons not in the labor force; graduates with
majors other than in life science; and workers who shift
into the field from other occupations. Limited data on
entry29 indicate that a significant number of workers
have entered the life sciences from these “other”
sources. Although a variety of factors affect the number
of these “other entrants” including the relative avail­
ability of life science graduates, significant numbers
probably will continue to enter. If past patterns of entry
to the life sciences from other sources and of new
graduates continue, an average of about 15,000 bache­
lor’s degree graduates in the life sciences would be
needed annually to meet projected requirements.
In 1969, about 45,00030 bachelor’s degrees were
granted in the life sciences. Therefore, to meet require­
ments, the number of bachelor’s degrees granted
annually in the life sciences could be as much as
two-thirds below 1968 levels. U.S. Office of Education
projections show the average annual number of degrees
granted increasing by about one-third above the 1969
levels over the 1968-80 period. Thus, the rapid expan­
sion of training in the life sciences could be curtailed and
manpower requirements still could be met.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts............. .............................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

170,000
240,000
41.1
15,200
5,800
9,400

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s ........................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

35,308
5,743
3,051

Physical science occupations

Chemists. A bachelor’s degree with a major in chemis­
try is usually the minimum requirement for entry
positions. New graduates having this degree usually
qualify for positions in analysis and testing, quality
control, technical service and sales, or assist senior
29See footnote 25.
30

Includes some degrees awarded in general science programs
not specifically identified as life science degrees.

31

chemists in research and development. Graduate training
is essential for many positions, particularly in research
and college teaching, and is helpful for advancement in
all types of work. Chemists having the master’s degree
often qualify for applied research positions in govern­
ment or private industry. A Ph. D. generally is required
in a college or university, and advancement to top-level
positions in administration.
Although the major source of supply of chemists is
from new graduates majoring in chemistry, requirements
may also be met from other sources: persons not in the
labor force; immigrants; and graduates who did not
major in chemistry. Limited data on entry31 indicate
that a significant number of workers have entered
chemistry from these other sources. Although a variety
of factors affect the number of “other entrants”
including the relative availability of chemistry graduates,
significant numbers probably will continue to enter. If
past patterns of entry from other sources and of new
chemistry graduates continue, an average of about
17,000 bachelor’s degree graduates in chemistry would
be needed annually to meet projected requirements.
In 1968, about 10,800 bachelor’s degrees were granted
in chemistry. To meet requirements, therefore, this
number would have to average almost 65 percent above
1968 levels. U.S. Office of Education projections indi­
cate that the number of bachelor’s degrees awarded in
chemistry annually would average about 5 percent above
1968 levels for the 1968-80 period. Therefore, to meet
requirements for chemists we will have to take action to
increase the number of graduates even faster than past
trends.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements1 ..............................................................

130,000
200,000
55.7
12,800
6,000
6,800

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s .......................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ..........................................................

11,702
2,023
1,895

1 Includes an estimated 3.700 replacements for those who
transfer to other occupations.

Biochemists. The minimum educational requirement
for entry positions is the bachelor’s degree with a major
in biochemistry or chemistry, or a major in biology and
a minor in chemistry. For most entry positions in
research and teaching, graduate training in biochemistry
is required. Graduate work is needed for advancement to
most high-level positions.

3‘ ibid.
32



Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 requirements . . .
Percent growth, 1968- 80 .................................................
Annual openings 1968 80 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

1 1.000
17,000
55.5
700
500
200

Available training data:1
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s .......................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

347
269
471

1 Degrees in biochemistry only.

Physicists. A bachelor’s degree in physics qualifies an
applicant for jobs in applied research and development
in private industry or the Federal Government. A
master’s degree qualifies applicants for many research
jobs and instructor’s jobs in colleges and universities. A
doctor’s degree usually is required for full faculty status
at college and universities and for most positions
involving research and development.
Although new physics graduates are the major source
of supply of new physicists, entrants also come from
other sources: immigrants; college graduates with majors
other than physics; persons reentering the labor force;
persons in other occupations. If past patterns of entrants
from these sources continue, only about 3,600 physics
graduates would have to enter each year. Fewer than
half of those who receive bachelor’s degrees in physics
actually enter the field. Therefore, if past trends
continue, 8,000 physics graduates would be needed
annually to meet projected requirements.
In 1969, about 5,500 bachelor’s degrees were granted
in physics. To meet requirements, the average annual
number of degrees would have to increase 45 percent.
Projections of the U.S. Office of Education based on
patterns of study over the past 10 years indicate that the
average annual number of bachelor’s degrees in physics is
likely to remain roughly at 1969 levels during the
1968-80 period. Therefore, to meet requirements for
physicists the number of graduates in this field will have
to increase much faster than current trends indicate.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements1 ..............................................................

45,000
75,000
63.9
4,600
2,400
2,200

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s .......................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

5,518
2,252
1,296

1 Includes an estimated 1,400 replacements for those who
transfer to other occupations.

Astronomers. A bachelor’s degree in astronomy,
physics, or mathematics with a physics minor is the

minimum educational requirement. The Ph. D. usually is
required for high-level positions in teaching and research
and is important for other types of work. An advanced
degree should be obtained for professional careers.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l .............................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

1,400
1,900
35.7
100
50
50

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s ........................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

115
80
87

Performing artists

Actors and actresses. Formal training in acting is
increasingly necessary. Young people should get as much
acting experience as possible in school plays or working
with little theater or other acting groups.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

14,000
18,500
32.4
900
400
500

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Dancers. Serious training traditionally begins by age
12 or earlier. Girls wishing to become ballet dancers
should begin lessons at the age of 7 or 8. Professional
training typically takes from 10 to 12 lessons a week for
11 or 12 months and many additional hours of practice.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r e q u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements .......................................

23,000
27,500
18.3
1,400
400
1,000

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements . ..........................................

8,600
1,900
6,700

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Singers and singing teachers. Singers who plan to
teach music in public elementary or secondary schools
need at least a bachelor’s degree with a major in music
education and must meet the State certification require­
ments for teachers. Young people can prepare for careers
as singers by enrolling in a music conservatory, a school
or department of music conducted with a college or
university, or by taking private voice lessons.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 total ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

60,000
70,000
14.2
3,100
700
2,400

Available training d a t a .......................................................

—

Social scientists

Anthropologists. College graduates with bachelor’s
degrees can obtain temporary positions and assistantships in graduate schools when they are working for
advanced degrees. A master’s degree, plus field ex­
perience, is sufficient for many beginning professional
positions, but promotion to top positions is generally
reserved for individuals holding a Ph. D. Many colleges
and most universities require a Ph. D. for permanent
teaching positions.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

3,000
4,100
36.4
200
100
100

Available training data:
Bahelor’s d e g r e e s...........................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

2,990
507
180

Economists. The bachelor’s degree with a major in
economics is sufficient for many beginning research jobs.
A master’s degree generally is required for appointment
as a college instructor. A Ph. D. is required for a
professorship in a high-ranking college or university and
is an asset in competing for other responsible positions.

Musicians and music teachers. Music related positions
require intensive training either through private study
with an accomplished musician, in a college or university
which has a strong music program, or in a conservatory
of music. An audition frequently is required to qualify
for advanced study in a music conservatory or in a
college or university school of music. A bachelor’s
degree and State certification are required for ele­
mentary and secondary school music teaching. Advanced
degrees usually are required for college teaching.

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent change, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

31,000
48,000
54.6
2,200
1,400
800

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1968 80 .................................................

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s .......................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

16,867
2.108
634




166,000
190,000
13.8

33

Geographers. The minimum educational requirement
usually is a bachelor’s degree with a major in geography.
Most positions in research and teaching and advance­
ment in many other types of work require graduate
training.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent change, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

3,900
5,200
32.0
200
100
100

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s .......................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

3,338
563
124

Historians. A bachelor’s degree with a major in history
is sufficient for some beginning jobs, although persons in
such positions may not be regarded as professional
historians. A master’s degree in history is the minimum
requirement for a college instructor. A Ph. D. is essential
for high-level college teaching, research, and admini­
stration.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

14,000
19,000
35.7
800
400
400

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s .......................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

40,939
5,271
826

Political scientists

Although the bachelor’s degree qualifies young people
as trainees in public relations or research work, graduate
training generally is required for employment as a
political scientist. The master’s degree is required for
administration and research. The Ph. D. generally is
required for advancement to college professor.
Teachers

College and university teachers. At least a master’s
degree is required for most beginning positions, although
a Ph. D. is generally preferred. For many positions all
requirements for the doctorate except the dissertation
must have been completed. A number of States require
State certification to teach in public 2-year colleges.
Specialization in some subject field is necessary to enter
college teaching.
Manpower needs for full-time college teachers of
degree credit courses between 1968 and 1980 are
expected to average about 17,000 annually. To meet the

34



demand from Ph. D. recipients only, colleges and uni­
versities would have to grant an average 34,000 doctoral
degrees each year for the 1968-80 period to obtain
17,000 if, as in the past, about one-half of all Ph. D.
recipients enter college teaching. The U.S. Office of
Education projects that the number of doctorate degrees
will average about 43,000 annually over this period.
Thus, the current level of Ph. D.’s will more than provide
the needs for college teaching.
Employment 19681
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

286,000
395,000
37.8
17,000
9,000
8,000

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

1 Full time for resident degree-credit courses.

Elementary and secondary school teachers. All States
require public elementary school teachers to have a
certificate. Several States require a certificate for
teachers in parochial and other private elementary
schools. Most States issue a certificate only to persons
having at least 4 years of approved college preparation,
including a number of professional education courses.
Many States also require work toward a fifth year or
master’s degree within a certain number of years.
Emergency or temporary certificates may be issued to
partially prepared teachers. However, these certificates
must be renewed annually until all requirements for
regular certification have been met. Student or practice
teaching are included in the 4-year teacher preparation
curriculum.
A certificate is required for public secondary school
teaching in every State. To qualify for this certificate,
the teacher must have at least 4 years of approved
college preparation, including one-half year of education
courses, practice teaching, and professional courses in
one subject or more taught in secondary schools. Some
States require a fifth year of study or qualification for a
master’s degree within a specified period following the
teacher’s beginning employment. Temporary certificates
are issued to teachers who are preparing to meet all
requirements for full certification.
To meet the projected need of about 2.4 million
elementary and secondary teachers (200,000 for growth,
2.1 million for replacement, 90,000 not meeting certi­
fication requirements) between 1968 and 1980, an
annual average of 200,000 persons must enter the
profession over the 12-year period.
New degree recipients, reentrants, and delayed en­
trants32 are primary sources of teacher supply. Almost
3
2 College graduates not entering the field in the year they
graduate from college.

11 million bachelor’s degrees are expected to be awarded
between 1968 and 1980. In the recent past, more than
one-fifth of all recipients of bachelor’s degrees have met
high school teachers’ certificate requirements, and nearly
15 percent have met certificate requirements for ele­
mentary school teaching. However, for many reasons
including higher salaries, better working conditions, and
preferred locations, not all who have certificates become
teachers. For the past several years, about 4 out of every
5 who met elementary school requirements taught in
elementary school; two-thirds of those who met high
school requirements taught in high school.33 If these
trends continue, 2.7 million new graduates could enter
teaching between 1968 and 1980.
About two-fifths of all entrants in the past few years
have come from other sources. If the re-entries each year
through 1980 should be governed by the number of
teachers who separated 8 years previously since the
average separation is 8 years, about 1.4 million re­
entering teachers would be added to the supply over the
1968-80 period. Altogether, elementary and secondary
school teachers could number about 4.1 million, more
than three-fourths above the 2.4 million needed.
The above analysis indicates that teacher training
could be curtailed sharply and manpower requirements
still met. Because of the very large number of individuals
involved in this “potential surplus,” education planning
for elementary and secondary school teachers may well
be the most pressing problem for educational planners in
the 1970’s.
Employment 1968 .................................
Projected 1980 req u irem en ts.............
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 ....................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 total . . .
G r o w t h ..............................................
Replacements .................................
Available training data3

E le m e n ta r y

S econ dary

1.230.000
1.270.000
3.3
99,000
3,300
1 95,700

940,000
1,065,000
13.6
101,000
11,000
2 90,000

77,000

101,500

1 In addition to 53,000 deaths and retirements each year, the
estimates include 38,000 to replace those who leave the
profession annually, and 4,700 annually to replace sub-standard
teachers.
2 In addition to deaths and retirements o f 29,000 per year, the
estimates include replacements for almost 58,000 who leave the
profession annually, and 2,800 annually to replace sub-standard
teachers.
3 Represents the number of bachelor’s degree recipients who
are prepared to teach and actually entered the profession.

Technicians

Engineering and science technicians. At least some
post-high school technical training is required for most
engineering and science technician jobs. This training
3 3 Source: National Education Association.




may consist of 1 to 4 years of full-time study. Most
training programs continue 2 years and lead to either an
associate of arts or science degree. Training is also
available on the job and in the Armed Forces. Training
for such occupations as tool designer and electronics
technician may be obtained through a formal appren­
ticeship.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training data:
Junior college grad u ates.............................................
Vocational education completions:
Secondary ..............................................................
P ost-secondary.......................................................

620,000
890,000
43.2
31,000
22,000
9,000

30,018
12,332
30,149

Draftsmen. Post-high school technical training is
generally required. Necessary skills'may also be obtained
on-the-job combined with part-time schooling or
through 3- or 4-year apprenticeship programs.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

295,000
435,000
48.1
15,300
11,800
3,500

Available training data:
Vocational education completions:
Secondary ..............................................................
Post-Secondary ....................................................

12,853
3,099

Writing occupations

Newspaper reporters. Although some opportunities do
exist for talented writers who have little or no academic
training beyond high school, most newspapers will
consider only applicants having a college education.
Graduate work is increasingly important. A degree in
journalism or liberal arts usually is required.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

37,000
45,000
21.6
1,800
650
1,150

Available training data:1
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s .......................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

5,197
785
22

1 Journalism degrees only.

Technical writers. The bachelor’s degree is the desired
entrance requirement, although talented and ex­
perienced writers having less academic training may

35

qualify. Degrees may be in engineering or science that
includes writing courses, or in English or journalism that
includes scientific and technical courses.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r e q u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

30,000
35,000
29.2
1,300
700
600

Available training d a t a .......................................................

--

Other professional and related occupations

Airline dispatchers. An FAA certificate is required for
airline dispatcher jobs. To qualify for this certificate, an
applicant (1) must spend at least a year in dispatching
work under the supervision of a certified dispatcher; (2)
complete an FAA-approved dispatcher’s course at a
school or airline training center; or (3) spend 2 of the 3
previous years as an air-traffic controller, dispatch clerk,
assistant dispatcher, or radio operator. Although assist­
ant dispatchers may not need certification, 2 years of
college or an equivalent amount of time working in some
phase of air transportation is required.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
R eplacem ents.................................................................

1,200
1,600
33.3
50
25
25

Available training d a t a .......................................................

—

Air traffic controllers. Applicants must have an air
traffic control certificate. This certificate is obtained
after 9 weeks of formal training to learn the funda­
mentals of airway systems, Federal Aviation Regula­
tions, and radar and aircraft performance characteristics.
An additional 2 to 3 years on the job is required at the
FAA control tower or center.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

14,600
18,000
23.5
425
225
200

Available training d a t a .......................................................

—

Architects. A 5-year curriculum leads to the bachelor
of architecture degree from an architectural school. A
license, which is needed to practice architecture, may be
obtained by graduates of these curriculums after 3 years
of practical experience in an architect’s office and the
passing of a State examination. As a substitute for
formal training, most States accept 10 to 12 years of
practical experience for admission to the licensing
examination.
36



Based on past relationships between graduates and
registration, approximately 4,200 architectural graduates
would be needed annually to meet projected require­
ments of 2,300 a year. In 1969, about 3,300 bachelor’s
or first-professional degrees were granted in architecture.
Therefore, to meet requirements over the 1968-80
period, degrees granted will have to be about 27 percent
above 1969 levels. U.S. Office of Education projections
show the average number of bachelor’s degrees in
architecture increasing roughly at the required level.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

34,000
50,000
47.1
2,300
1,300
1,000

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s ........................................................
Master’s degrees ...................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

3,331
579
7

Broadcast technicians. A Radiotelephone First Class
Operator License from the Federal Communications
Commissions is required to become a broadcast tech­
nician. To obtain this license, applicants must pass a
series of written tests covering the construction and
operation of transmission and receiving equipment; the
characteristics of electro-magnetic waves; and Federal
Government and international regulations and practices
governing broadcasting. Training at a technical school or
college is useful.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

20,000
23,000
14.9
400
250
150

Available training d a t a .......................................................

College placement officers. A bachelor’s degree is
generally the minimum requirement for college place­
ment officer employment. Important undergraduate
courses for the prospective placement officer include
psychology, sociology, counseling, and personnel
administration or related business subjects.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

2,500
4,000
60.0
200
125
75

Available training d a t a .......................................................

—

Commercial artists. Two or 3 years of professional
study in an art school or institute is usually required for
commerical artist positions. A growing number of art

schools, especially those in or connected with uni­
versities, require 4 years or more of study and confer a
bachelor's of fine arts degree. Limited training may also
be obtained through public vocational high schools,
private schools, home-study, and practical experience on
the job but supplemental training is usually needed for
advancement.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

50,000
57,000
13.0
1,900
500
1,400

Available training d a t a .......................................................

Flight engineers. Flight engineer applicants must qual­
ify for an FAA flight engineer’s certificate after 2 years
of training or 3 years of work experience in the
maintenance, repair, and overhaul of aircraft and engi­
neers, including four engine piston and jet aircraft. The
applicant may also qualify with at least 200 hours of
flight time as a captain of a four-engine piston or jet
airplane, or with 100 hours experience as a flight
engineer in the Armed Forces. Completion of an FAA
course of ground and flight instruction is the most
common qualification.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

7,500
12,000
59.3
225
125
100

Available training d a t a .......................................................

—

Ground radio operators and teletypists. A second-class
radio-telephone or radio-telegraph operator’s permit
issued by the Federal Communications Commission is
preferred. However, a third-class operator’s permit is
acceptable. A high school education, a good speaking
voice, the ability to type at least 40 words a minute, and
a knowledge of standard codes and symbols used in
communications are important qualifications for this
work.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

8,200
10,000
21.6
225
125
100

Available training d a t a .......................................................

—

Home economists. A bachelor’s degree in home eco­
nomics is required. A master’s or a doctor’s degree
usually is needed for college teaching and research.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................




100,000
30,000
30.0

Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

7,800
2,500
5,300

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s .......................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

8,979
1,149
102

Industrial designers. The usual requirement for indus­
trial designer positions is the completion of a 4- to
5-year course in industrial design in a college or art
school. Persons with engineering and architecture de­
grees may qualify if they have appropriate experience
and artistic talent.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

10,000
11,500
15.0
300
100
200

Available training d a t a .......................................................

—

Interior designers and decorators. The usual require­
ment for this job is completion of either a 2- or 3-year
course at a recognized art school or institute specializing
in interior decorating and design, or a 4-year college
course leading to a bachelor’s degree with a major in
interior design and decoration. In most cases, 1 to 3
years of on-the-job training also is required.

Landscape architects. A bachelor’s degree in landscape
architecture is usually the minimum requirement for
employment. The degree curriculum requires 4 to 5
years of study. Many States require a license. To obtain
this license requires 6 to 8 years’ experience, or a degree
from an accredited school plus 2 to 4 years’ experience.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training d a t a ....................................................
(combined with architecture)

8,500
11,500
33.3
500
250
250
—

Lawyers. Most lawyers have completed 4 years of
college followed by 3 years of law school. Applicants
must be admitted to the bar for court practice. Four
years of part-time law study usually is required to
complete the night school curriculum.
Based on past relationships between law school gradu­
ates, numbers taking and passing bar examinations, and
numbers actually entering the occupation, an average of
about 20,000 law school graduates would be needed
37

annually over the 1968-80 period to meet projected
requirements of 14,500 a year.
In 1968, almost 17,000 persons received bachelor’s or
first professional degrees in law. Thus, to meet require­
ments, the average number of law degrees granted
annually will have to increase roughly 20 percent above
1968 levels. U.S. Office of Education projections based
on trends in the study patterns of college students show
the average number granted increasing roughly at this re­
quired level.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

270,000
335,000
22.7
14,500
5,500
9,000

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s .......................................................
First professional d e g r e e s ..........................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

415
17,053
830
18

Librarians. Usually 4 years of college followed by 1
year of training in library science is required for
librarians. This training qualifies them for the master’s
degree.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

106,000
135,000
28.6
8,200
2,500
5,700

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s ........................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

1,000
5.932
17

Models. Although no formal educational requirements
exist for models, many employers require a high school
diploma, and a few prefer some college. Training in a
modeling school or modeling experience also are good
qualifications.

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

60,000
72,000
18.0
2,200
900
1,300

Available training d a t a .......................................................

—

Pilots and copilots. All pilots must be licensed by the
FAA. Copilots and most pilots employed in general
aviation must have a “commerical airplane pilots”
license. An “instrument rating” also is often required.
To qualify for a commercial airplane pilots license or an
instrument rating license, applicants must be at least 18
years and have 200 hours of flight experience. All
captains must have an “airplane transport pilots” license.
Applicants for this license must be at least 23 and have
1,200 hours of flight time including night flying and
instrument flying time. Training may be obtained from a
private flight school, airline flight school, or through
military service.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 ...................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

52,000
114,000
116.9
1,800
1,100
700

Available training data:
Vocational education completions:
P ost-secondary........................................................

791

Programmers. Although educational requirements
vary, most employers prefer applicants having a college
degree. Graduate degrees may be required for some
high-level programming positions.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

175,000
400,000
129.0
23,000
19,000
4,000

Available training d a t a .......................................................
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

50,000
64,000
15.9
1,700
700
1,000

Available training d a t a .......................................................

—

Photographers. A wide education range exists for
photographer positions. Many persons work on the job 2
or 3 years. Others train through 3-year apprenticeship
programs. In addition, several colleges and universities
offer 4-year curriculums leading to a bachelor’s degree
with a major in photography. A few institutions offer
2-year photography curriculums.

38



Psychologists. Generally, the master’s degree with a
major in psychology is required for these positions. The
Ph. D. is needed for many entrance positions and is
important for advancement. Psychologists entering in­
dependent practice must meet certification or licensing
requirements in many States.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

32,000
58,000
81.3
3,100
2,200
900

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s ........................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

29,332
4,011
1,551

Radio and television announcers. Educational require­
ments vary for radio and television announcers. Training
may be obtained in high schools, vocational schools, or
college. Announcer positions with the national networks
usually require a college degree and experience.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

14,000
16,000
14.9
600
200
400

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements . ...........................................................

160,000
270,000
66.7
16,700
9,000
7,700

Available training data:
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s ........................................................
Master’s degrees .................................................... ... .
Doctoral d e g r e e s ...........................................................

3,367
5,037
90

Recreation Workers. Most employers prefer appli­
cants having a bachelor’s degree with a major in
recreation, social science, or physical education.

Surveyors. The most common way to prepare for
surveying is through a combination of post-high school
courses in surveying and extensive on-the-job training. A
professional career in photogrammetry usually requires a
bachelor’s degree in engineering or the physical sciences.
Many States require 4 to 8 years’ experience in surveying
and successful completion of an examination for
licensing.

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

40,000
70,000
75.0
4,100
2,500
1,600

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

45,000
68,000
50.2
2,600
1,900
700

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Available training d a t a ........................................................

Social workers. A bachelor’s degree, preferably in
social welfare, is the minimum requirement for social
workers. A master’s degree is required for many begin­
ning jobs. Jobs in teaching and research usually require
an advanced degree. After 2 years’ experience social
workers are eligible for certification as members of the
Academy of Certified Social Workers.
The primary source of entrants into the profession are
new college graduates having degrees in social work and
experienced social workers reentering the occupation
after a period outside the labor force. If patterns of
reentry of women in social work follow the reentry
patterns of women teachers, and if past patterns of entry
to the profession continue, approximately 20,500 gradu­
ates with bachelor’s and master’s degrees in social work
would be needed annually to meet projected require­
ments.
In 1968 about 7,200 bachelor’s and master’s degrees
were granted in social work. To meet requirements, the
average number granted annually would have to increase
by 185 percent. Projections developed by the U.S.
Office of Education based on trends in patterns of study
show the average annual number of bachelor’s and
master’s- degrees in social work increasing by 60 percent
above 1968 levels over the 1968-80 period. Therefore,
the training in social work will have to be increased
much faster than trends indicate if requirements are to
be met.




Systems analysts. Although systems analysts have no
single acceptable way of preparing, most employers
prefer applicants having college backgrounds and ex­
perience in computer programming. Many employers
seek candidates who have mathematics, science, engi­
neering, or business backgrounds; others stress a
graduate degree. Systems analyst trainees can learn to
use data processing equipment on the job or through
special courses offered by colleges and computer manu­
facturers.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

150,000
425,000
183.0
27,000
23,000
4,000

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Urban planners. For some jobs, a bachelor’s degree in
urban planning or a related field is acceptable; but a
master’s degree in urban planning is increasingly desired.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

7,000
13,500
93.0
800
600
200

Available training data

39

Managerial Occupations
Employers increasingly require beginning managers to
have a college degree. A bachelor’s degree in business
administration and a major in accounting, economics, or
finance are desired by some employers. Other firms seek
applicants having technical training in engineering,
science, or mathematics. Still others train liberal arts
graduates on the job. The number of formal manage­
ment trainee programs is relatively small. Advancement
to high-level management jobs often occurs after several
years of progressively more responsible work experience.
Employment 1968 .............................................................. 7,776,000
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts........................................... 9,500,000
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
22.2
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
380,000
Growth ...........................................................................
144,000
Replacements ..............................................................
236,000

Bank officers

Bank officer positions are filled by promoting either
experienced clerical employees or management trainees.
A business administration curriculum and a major in
finance or liberal arts that includes a c c o u n tin g ,
economics, commercial law, political science, and sta­
tistics courses are excellent preparation for trainee
positions.

these positions. However, a college education is
becoming increasingly important. When college training
is required, some employers prefer business admini­
stration graduates who have majored in transportation;
other employers prefer liberal arts majors who have
taken courses in transportation management, economics,
statistics, marketing, or commercial law.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

15,000
17,000
10.4
500
150
350

Available training d a t a .......................................................

Managers and assistants (hotel)

Hotel experience is generally the first consideration to
selecting hotel managers; however, employers in­
creasingly emphasize a college education. The best
college preparation is provided by specialized 4-year
curriculums in hotel and restaurant administration.
Some large hotel organizations have special management
trainee programs both for college graduates and persons
promoted from within.

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

125,000
193,000
53.8
11,600
5,600
6,000

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u irem en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

150,000
198,000
27.6
9,500
3,600
5,900

Available training d a t a .......................................................

—

Available training data:1
Bachelor’s d e g r e e s .......................................................
Master’s degrees ...........................................................

520
22

Conductors (railroad)

1 Degrees in hotel and restaurant administration.

Qualified brakemen are promoted to conductors on a
seniority basis. To qualify, a man usually must have
several year’s experience as a brakeman and pass
examinations covering signals, air brakes, time tables,
operating rules, and related subjects.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

38,000
39,000
2.7
2,500
1,000
1,500

Available training d a t a .......................................................

—

Industrial traffic managers

Experience in traffic departments enables some per­
sons having only a high school education to qualify for
40



Purchasing agents

For these jobs, employers often prefer to hire gradu­
ates of schools of business administration or engineering
who have had courses in accounting, economics, and
purchasing; and some require applicants to have graduate
training in business administration. Other employers
prefer experience with the company, whether or not
applicants have a college education.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u irem en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training data

140,000
185,000
27.2
6,700
3,300
3,400

Clerical and Related Occupations
Cashiers

All but the most routine clerical positions require
graduation from high school. Most employers regard
instruction in business subjects as a particularly good
qualification. The instruction may be obtained in high
school or special schools, or in cooperative work-study
programs.

For cashier jobs, employers prefer people who have
completed high school. Courses in business arithmetic,
bookkeeping, typing, and other business subjects are
good preparation for this work.

Employment 1968 ........................................................... 12,803,000
Projected 1980 requirements ....................................... 17,300,000
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 ..............................................
35.1
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l .................................
912,000
Growth ........................................................................
375,000
R ep lacem en ts..............................................................
537,000

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
730,000
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts............................................. 1,110,000
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
50.6
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
69,000
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
31,000
Replacements ..............................................................
38,000

Bank clerks

Available training d a t a .......................................................

High school graduation is adequate preparation for
most beginning clerical jobs in banks. For most jobs,
courses in bookkeeping, typing, business arithmetic, and
office machine operation are desirable.

Clerks (railroad)

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ......................
Replacements ..............................................................

400,000
512,000
28.8
29,500
9,500
20,000

Available training d a t a .......................................................

—

Bank tellers

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

230,000
337,000
46.2
20,000
8,000
12,000

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Bookkeeping workers

For bookkeeping jobs, most employers prefer high
school graduates who have taken business arithmetic and
bookkeeping courses. Some prefer applicants who have
completed a post-high school business training program
or junior college.
Employment 1968 .............................................................. 1,200,000
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts.......................................... 1,500,000
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
18.9
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
78,000
Growth ...........................................................................
20,000
Replacements ..............................................................
58,000




A high school education is generally required for
railroad clerk jobs. Railroads prefer workers who have
training or some experience in working with figures.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

93,000
89,000
-4 .8
2,700
-4 0 0
3,100

Available training d a t a .......................................................

Dental assistants

Banks prefer high school graduates with experience in
related clerical positions when filling teller positions.
Applicants also must meet bonding standards.

Available training data

—

Although most entrants are trained on the job an
increasing number of dental assistants are entering the
occupation through formal post-high school dental
assisting programs. Based on the known training sources,
programs to train dental assistants could double and all
requirements still would not be met by those receiving
academic training.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training data:
Junior college graduates..............................................
Vocational education completions:
Secondary ..............................................................
Post-secondary
....................................................

100,000
150,000
50.0
9,000
4,400
4,600

1,307
1,201
1,952

Electronic computer operating personnel

In filling these jobs, employers usually require at least
a high school education. For console operator positions,
some college training may be preferred.
41

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

175,000
400,000
129.0
20,400
18,800
1,600

Available training data:
Junior c o l l e g e s ..............................................................

4,633

Front office clerks (hotel)

Although education beyond high school generally is
not required for these jobs, hotel employers are attach­
ing greater importance to college training in selecting
applicants who may later advance to managerial posi­
tions.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

50,000
69,000
27.6
3,200
1,250
1,950

amount of training dealing with business machines varies
by type of machine used.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u irem en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

325,000
460,000
39.4
25,000
10,000
15,000

Available training d a t a .......................................................

—

Postal clerks

Although no formal education or prior experience is
required for postal clerks, applicants must pass civil
service and physical examinations.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u irem en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

290,000
385,000
32.8
14,600
7,900
6,700

Available training d a t a .......................................................
Available training d a t a .......................................................

Receptionists

Library technicians

A high school diploma or its equivalent is the standard
entrance requirement for both academic and on-the-job
library technician training programs. An increasing
number of new entrants will be required to have training
in formal academic programs.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

70,000
125,000
77.1
9,000
4,500
4,500

Available training data:
Junior college graduates..............................................

134

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

240,000
400,000
65.6
30,000
13,000
17,000

Available training d a t a .......................................................

Mail carriers

Although no formal education or prior experience is
required for mail carriers, applicants must pass civil
service and physical examinations.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

Formal educational requirements are rarely specified
beyond a high school diploma. Nevertheless, about 1
receptionist in 5 has some college training. Business
courses are valuable for applicants seeking beginning
positions.

246,000
335,000
36.2
12,200
7,400
4,800

Available training d a t a .......................................................

Office machine operators

Shipping and receiving clerks

High school graduates are preferred for beginning jobs
as shipping and receiving clerks. Post-high school training
or courses in transportation are important for advance­
ment to warehouse managers, industrial traffic managers,
or purchasing agents.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

370,000
465,000
25.3
15,400
7,800
7,600

Available training data:
MDTA enrollment O.J.T...............................................

1,500

Station agents

Graduation from high school or business school is the
minimum educational requirement for all but the most
routine office machine operator jobs. The necessary
42



Experienced telegraphers usually become agents in
small stations or assistants in larger ones.

Employment 1968 .......................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

10,900
5,200
-5 2 .1
-2 2 5
-475
250

Available training d a t a .......................................................

Stenographers and secretaries

Graduation from high school is essential for practically
all secretarial and stenographic positions. Graduates
whose high school courses included shorthand, typing,
and other business subjects meet the requirements of
many employers. Some employers prefer persons having
a background of academic high school subjects supple­
mented by technical training taken after graduation.
Employment 1968 .............................................................. 2,650,000
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts.......................................... 3,650,000
Percent growth, 1968—80 .................................................
36.8
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
237,000
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
82,000
Replacements ..............................................................
155,000
Available training data:
MDTA enrollment:
I n s titu tio n a l...........................................................
Vocational education completions:
Secondary ..............................................................
P ost-secondary........................................................

6,480

education. Courses required or considered helpful in­
clude English, business arithmetic, and typing.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

400,000
480,000
20.9
28,000
6 ’90o
21 100

Available training d a t a .......................................................

Traffic agents and clerks (civil aviation)

These jobs generally require high school graduation,
and college training is considered desirable. College
courses in transportation are helpful for higher level
positions such as traffic representative.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

37,500
60,000
60.1
2,600
1,500
1,100

Available training d a t a .......................................................

126,782
15,373

Typists
Telegraphers, telephones, and towermen (railroad)

Most railroads prefer high school graduates for begin­
ning positions and require applicants to pass examina­
tions on train operating rules and duties related to their
future assignments.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

13,200
12,700
3.8
100
-5 0
150

Available training d a t a .......................................................

Most employers require applicants for typing positions
to meet certain standards of speed and accuracy. Typists
should have a good understanding of spelling, vocabu­
lary, punctuation, and grammar. Most typists learn their
skills by attending day or evening classes in public or
private schools. High school graduates generally are
preferred by employers.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .......................................... ... .
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

700,000
930,000
36.8
63,000
21,000
42,000

Available training data:
Vocational education completions:
Secondary ..............................................................
Post-secondary ....................................................

80,472
7,592

Telephone operators

In hiring beginning telephone operators, employers
prefer young people who have at least a high school

Sales Occupations
The minimum educational requirements for sales
careers vary widely. Some sale positions require no
formal education; others specify a college degree in a
technical or scientific field. Even for routine sales jobs,
however, a high school diploma is an asset for the
beginner. Training for some sales jobs, such as those in




retail stores, is usually received on the job. Some persons
combine on-the-job training with home study or courses
offered by manufacturers or local universities.
Employment 1968 .............................................................. 4,647,000
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts........................................... 6,000,000
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
29.1

43

Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

263,000
113,000
150,000

Insurance agents and brokers

Although not required, a college degree is helpful to an
insurance agent or broker. Courses in accounting, eco­
nomics, business law, and insurance are very useful.
Some insurance companies sponsor classes in sales and
insurance principles; other training is available from local
educational institutions or through correspondence
courses. All agents and most brokers must be licensed in
the State where they sell insurance. To receive a license,
most States require candidates to pass a written ex­
amination in insurance fundamentals and State insurance
laws.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u irem en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

410,000
480,000
16.9
16,200
5,800
10,400

Available training d a t a .......................................................

--

Manufacturers' salesmen

Increasingly, employers prefer college graduates for
positions as manufacturers’ salesmen, although many
persons succeed with little or no training beyond high
school. Employer preferences for college training in a
specified field vary with the nature of the product sold.
Training at a college of pharmacy usually is required of
drug manufacturer salesmen; industrial salesmen often
need a scientific or technical background. Beginning
salesmen are given specialized training before they start
to work. Some companies have formal training programs
which may last from 1 to 2 years; other firms offer
classroom instruction followed by additional training on
the job under supervision of field managers.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u irem en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

500,000
735,000
47.1
32,000
19,500
12,500

Available training d a t a .......................................................

—

Real estate salesmen and brokers

A high school diploma is preferred by employers hiring
real estate salesmen. Most real estate salesmen have some
college training and many are college graduates. Courses
in real estate, psychology, economics, finance, and
business are helpful. Many firms offer their own formal

44



training programs for beginning salesmen. Other courses
are available at local educational institutions. All States
and the District of Columbia require real estate salesmen
to be licensed. This licensing requires the passing of a
written examination; in over half the States, a specific
amount of selling experience or equivalent eduation also
is necessary.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

225,000
270,000
20.1
14,200
3,800
10,400

Available training d a t a .......................................................

Retail trade salesworkers

Although not essential, employers prefer to hire high
school graduates for retail sales positions. Salesmanship,
home economics, and commercial arithmetic are among
the high school subjects that are useful in a sales career.
Most salesworkers are trained on the job; but, part-time
selling experience gained while still in school may be
helpful in obtaining full-time sales employment. In larger
stores, applicants may spend a few days in formal
training sessions before beginning actual sales work.
Employment 1968 .............................................................. 2,800,000
Projected 1980 req u irem en ts.................................... ... . 3,460,000
24.0
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
150,000
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
55,000
Replacements ..............................................................
95,000
Available training d a t a ........................................................

Automobile parts countermen

Although not essential, employers prefer to hire high
school graduates for entry jobs as parts countermen.
High school or vocational school courses in auto
mechanics, commercial arithmetic, salesmanship, and
bookkeeping are important; experience gained through
gasoline service station work also is an asset to the
prospective parts counterman. Most countermen learn
their skills on the job; up to 2 years’ working experience
may be necessary before an employee is fully qualified.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

65,000
80,000
23.1
2,500
1,250
1,250

Available training d a t a .......................................................

Automobile salesmen

Many employers require beginning automobile sales­
men to be at least 21 years old and a high school

graduate. A growing number of salesmen have education
beyond high school. Courses in public speaking, com­
mercial arithmetic, business law, and salesmanship are
useful; previous sales experience or work requiring
contact with the public also is helpful. Most beginning
salesmen are trained on the job, although large firms
sometimes provide formal classroom training.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1968—80 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

120,000
145,000
20.8
4,400
2,100
2,300

Available training d a t a .......................................................

Automobile service advisers

For service adviser trainee jobs, employers seek high
school graduates over 21 years of age who have work
experience in automobile repair or related activities. A
driver’s license usually is required and high school or
vocational school courses in automobile mechanics,
commercial arithmetic, salesmanship, and English are
important. Beginning service advisers are trained on the
job under the guidance of more experienced service
advisers and the service manager. A beginner usually
becomes a qualified service adviser in 1 to 2 years.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

10,000
12,500
25.0
300
200
100

Available training d a t a .......................................................

--

Securities salesmen

A college education is increasingly necessary for
beginners seeking to enter this field. A degree in business

Service (
Training requirements differ greatly among the various
service occupations. Although a high school diploma is
always an advantage, some service jobs usually do not
require any formal education requirements. Some others
require a college degree, and still others demand special
training.
Employment 1968 ........................................................... 9,381,000
Projected 1980 requirements ....................................... 13,100,000
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 ..............................................
39.6
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l .................................
752,000
Growth ........................................................................
310,000
R ep lacem en ts..............................................................
442,000




administration, economics, or liberal arts is good prep­
aration for securities sales work. Almost all States
require securities salesmen to be licensed; personal bonds
or written examinations are needed to obtain this
license. In addition, practically every salesman must be a
registered representative of his firm according to the
regulations of the firm’s securities exchange, other
exchanges through which it does business, or the
National Association of Securities Dealers. Examinations
and character investigations are required for registration.
Most firms provide training for beginners, which may
vary from short informal programs to combined class­
room instruction and on-the-job experience that lasts 6
months or more.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

135,000
170,000
24.0
7,400
2,800
4,600

Available training d a t a .......................................................

—

Wholesale trade salesworkers

High school graduation is the usual educational re­
quirement for a wholesale salesman, although selling
scientific or technical equipment often requires training
beyond high school. In some cases, engineering degrees
are necessary. A beginner usually is trained on the job in
several non-selling positions before being assigned as a
salesman. Generally 2 years or longer are required before
a trainee is ready for a territory of his own.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

530,000
695,000
29.5
25,200
13,200
12,000

Available training d a t a .......................................................

upations
Barbers

To be eligible for a license that is required in
practically all States, a candidate must have completed
at least the eighth grade and graduated from a
State-approved barber school. All but a few States
require beginners to take an examination for an appren­
tice license. After working 1 or 2 years, the apprentice
takes a second examination for his license as a registered
barber.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u irem en ts..........................................

210,000
260,000

45

Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1968—80 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training data:
Vocational education completions:
Secondary ..............................................................
Post-secondary ....................................................

23,8
12,800
4,200
8,600

139
553

Bellmen and bell captains (hotel)

Although no specific educational requirements exist
for bellmen, graduation from high school enhances
opportunities for promotion to front office clerical jobs.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u irem en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

30,000
32,000
10.6
1,100
300
800

Available training data:
MDTA enrollment O.J.T..............................................
Institutional .................................................................
Vocational education completions:
Secondary ..............................................................
Post-secondary ....................................................

1,800
3,600
1,563
423

Cosmetologists

All States require that cosmetologists be licensed, and
that applicants have completed at least eighth grade—in
many States the tenth grade, and in a few the twelth
grade. Successful completion of a State-approved cos­
metology course is recognized as adequate preparation
for the State licensing examination; in some States, a
period of apprenticeship may be substituted.
Employment 1968 .......................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1968—80 .................................................
Annual openings, 1968—80 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

475,000
685,000
42.9
38,000
17,000
21,000

Available training data:
Vocational education completions:
Secondary ..............................................................
Post-secondary ....................................................

7,126
2,476

Available training d a t a ........................................................

Building custodians

There are no formal educational requirements for most
positions in custodial work, and most custodians acquire
their skills on the job. However, entry workers should be
able to do simple arithmetic and follow written direc­
tions. High school shop courses may help the worker
perform the many handyman tasks that are required.
Employment 1968 .............................................................. 1,100,000
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts.......................................... 1,460,000
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
32.7
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
80,000
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
30,000
50,000
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training d a t a ........................................................

Cooks and chefs

Most cooks—particularly those who work in small
eating places—acquire their skills on the job. Less
frequently, they are trained as apprentices under trade
union contracts or new employee training programs
conducted by large hotels and restaurants. Training
offered by a number of schools and other institutions
is a distinct advantage for applicants seeking jobs as
cooks or chefs in some large restaurants or other estab­
lishments which provide food.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1968—80 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

46



670,000
900,000
33.2
48,000
19,000
29,000

FBI special agents

An applicant must have graduated from a State-ac­
credited resident law school or a 4-year resident college
with a major in accounting. The law school training must
have been preceded by at least 2 years of resident
undergraduate college work. Accounting graduates also
must have had atleast 3 years of experience in
accounting or auditing or a combination of both.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ......................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

6,600

---

Available training d a t a .......................................................

Firefighters

In most communities, qualifying examinations are
open to men who have a high school education. The men
who receive the highest grades on their examinations
have the best chances for appointment. The examina­
tions test the applicant mentally and physically. Some
post-secondary training currently is being provided for
firefighting positions.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................

180,000
245,000
34.0

Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

7,700
5,200
2,500

Available training data:
Vocational education completions:
Secondary ..............................................................
Post-secondary ....................................................

34
823

Licensed practical nurses

All States and the District of Columbia license
practical nurses. Usually only candidates who have
completed a course in practical nursing and passed an
examination are licensed. Generally, at least 2 years of
high school must be completed to enroll in practical
nursing courses.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1968—80 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training data:
Junior college grad u ates..............................................
Vocational education completions:
Secondary ..............................................................
Post-secondary........................................................

320,000
600,000
87.5
48,000
23,000
25,000

5,564
2,192
19,586

Hospital attendants

Although some institutions hire persons with less than
a high school education, high school graduates are
preferred. Hospital attendants usually learn their skills
on the job with some supplemented classroom work.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
800,000
Projected 1980 requirements ........................................... 1,500,000
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
87.5
Annual openings, 1968—80 t o t a l ....................................
100,000
Growth ...........................................................................
58,000
42,000
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training data:
Secondary .....................................................................
P ost-secon d ary..............................................................

7,270
3,939

Housekeepers and assistants (hotel)

Although no specific educational requirements exist
for housekeepers, most employers prefer applicants who
have at least a high school diploma.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training data




25,000
35,000
27.6
2,400
600
1,800

Police officers (municipal)

Some police departments accept recruits who have less
than a high school education, particularly if they have
worked in a field related to law enforcement. A few
cities require some college training and some hire law
enforcement students as police interns. College training
is required of women because of their special assign­
ments.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training data:
Junior college grad u ates..............................................
Vocational education completions:
Secondary ..............................................................
Post-secondary ....................................................

285,000
360,000
27.5
15,000
6,500
8,500

2,851
168
4,846

Private household workers

Although a high school diploma is an advantage, no
formal education is required for most private household
workers.
Employment 1968 .............................................................. 1,700,000
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts........................................... 1,980,000
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
14.8
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
121,000
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
21,000
Replacements ..............................................................
100,000
Available training d a t a ........................................................

--

State police officers

Most States require that applicants have a high school
education or an equivalent combination of education
and experience. In all States, recruits enter a formal
training program of several months.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

35,000
52,000
47.7
2,800
1,700
1,100

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Stewardesses (civil aviation)

Applicants must have a high school education. Those
having 2 years of college, nurses’ training, or experience
in dealing with the public are preferred. Most large
airlines train their own stewardesses; however, a few
airlines that do not operate their own schools may hire
graduates who have been trained at private stewardesses’
schools.
47

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1968—80 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements1 ..............................................................

25,000
65,000
150.7
-3,300

Available training d a t a .......................................................
1Not available. Stewardesses generally are not affected by
normal death and retirements rates because of the extremely
high turnover for this occupation. Many leave the occupation
before age 30.

Waiters and waitresses

Most waiters and waitresses acquire their skills on the
job. Increasingly, employers prefer that beginners have

at least 2 or 3 years of high school. In certain
restaurants, knowledge of a foreign language may be
important.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
960,000
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts........................................... 1,240,000
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 ..............................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
67,000
Growth ...........................................................................
23,000
Replacements ...............................................................
44,000

Available training data:
Vocational education completions:
Secondary ..............................................................
....................................................
Post-secondary

663
110

Craftsmen
A large proportion of skilled workers learn their trades
informally on-the-job; others acquire the necessary skills
from apprenticeship or other formal training. Most
training authorities recommend a formal apprenticeship
program lasting from 2 to 6 years as the best way to
learn a skilled trade. In addition, many companies
provide on-the-job training and related classroom
instruction. Some young persons move from one semi­
skilled job to another and, over a period of years,
acquire the expertise demanded of a skilled worker.
Others learn a skilled trade in vocational, trade, or
technical schools. In addition, many men in the Armed
Forces acquire training that helps them to qualify, with
additional experience, for skilled jobs in civilian life.
Employment 1968 ........................................................... 10,015,000
Projected 1980 requirements ....................................... 12,200,000
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 ..............................................
21.8
Annual openings, 1968- 80 t o t a l .................................
396,000
Growth ..........................
182,000
R ep lacem en ts..............................................................
214,000
Available training d a t a ....................................................

—

Construction trades

In interpreting data for the construction trades, note
should be taken of the points made in the discussion on
page 6, on the special problems of planning training in
the construction trades because of such factors as the
cyclical and seasonal nature of the construction in­
dustry. In addition it must be kept in mind that in the
construction trades all annual openings do not have to
be filled by newly trained workers. The economy has a
trained cadre of construction workers who have ob­
tained construction trade skills during the peak periods
of construction activity of business and seasonal cycles.
During periods of increasing construction activity, as
implied in the projections presented in this report, many

48



of these trained workers will be drawn into the
construction crafts from the ranks of the unemployed
and from other occupations to which they shifted during
periods of reduced construction activity.
As indicated earlier in this report, the projections
presented here are based on a series of assumptions,
concerning such factors as the international political
situation, the direction of Government programs, and
general economic conditions, all of which are subject to
wide variability over the long run. In construction and
other industries where the demand for workers is
particularly affected by changes in economic conditions
and the economic policy of government these assump­
tions become even more critical. Officials concerned
with planning training programs must keep these as­
sumptions clearly in mind in using the projections and
make judgments as to the effect on training needs of
circumstances which indicate that the assumptions will
not be borne out.34
In this section on construction trades occupations,
data are presented on employment and manpower needs
for these workers in the construction industry as well as
an all-industry total. As an additional aid to individuals
engaged in planning training programs, information is
also presented on annual openings and apprenticeship
completions over the 1960-68 period as well as the data
on 1968-80 projections and current training. (See dis­
cussion on page 6 for illustrative uses of historical data).
Asbestos and insulating workers. Most asbestos
workers learn their trade through a 4-year “improvership” program where they learn to use the tools of the
trade and to work with insulating materials.

3 4 See discussion on alternate projections for construction
craftsmen in chapter E p. 4.

Employment 1968 .......................
Projected 1980 requirements . .
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, 1968 —80 total.
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................
Available training data

A ll
in d u s tr ie s

C o n s tr u c tio n
in d u s tr y

22,000
28,000
27.3
800
500
300

15,000
21,000
14.0
700
500
200

—

................

—

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 8 a n d p r o je c te d 1 9 8 0 r e q u ir e m e n ts

Employment 1968 ....................
Projected 1980 requirements
Percent growth ..........................
Annual openings, t o t a l .............
G r o w th ....................................
R e p la c e m e n ts.......................

A ll
i n d u s tr ie s

C o n s tr u c tio n
in d u s tr y

869,000
1,075,000
23.7
39,300
17,200
22,100

670,000
825,000
23.1
30,000
13,000
17,000

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 0 - 6 8

Bricklayers. Completion of a 3-year apprenticeship
program is the desired training for bricklayers. During
the 1960’s apprenticeship completions numbered nearly
one-half of openings resulting from growth and death
and retirement. A high school education or its equivalent
is important for entry to apprenticeship programs. Some
skills of the trade may also be obtained through
vocational school courses. Training may also be obtained
informally on the job.
E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 8 a n d p r o je c te d 1 9 8 0 r e q u ir e m e n ts 1

Employment 1968
................
Projected 1980 requirements
Percent growth ..........................
Annual openings, t o t a l .............
G r o w th ....................................
R e p la c em e n ts.......................

A ll
in d u s t r i e s

C o n s tr u c tio n
in d u s tr y

200,000
260,000
30.0
8,400
5,000
3,400

175,000
225,000
28.6
7,200
4,200
3,000

E m p lo y m e n t, 1 9 6 0 - 6 8

Employment 1960 ....................
Employment 1968 ...................
Percent growth .......................... .
Annual openings, t o t a l .............
G r o w th .......................... ... . . .
R e p la c em e n ts.......................

200,000
200.000
3,000

1,430 (annual
average
1 9 6 1 -6 8 )

4,032
272

1 Includes stonemasons, marblesetters, and tile setters.

Carpenters. A 4-year apprenticeship program, in­
cluding 144 hours of related classroom instruction, is
recommended. During the 1960’s, apprenticeship com­
pletions numbered about 14 percent of openings re­
sulting from growth and death and retirements. A high
school education or its equivalent is desirable. Training
may also be acquired on the job. Some knowledge of the
trade may also be obtained through vocational school
courses.




Available training data:
MDTA (OJT) .......................
3,700
MDTA Institutional . . . .
500
Apprenticeship ................... . 3,698 (1969)

Vocational education com­
pletions:
S e c o n d a r y .......................
P o st-se co n d a r y .............

3,256 (annual
average
1 9 6 1 -6 8 )

7,472
1,080

Cement Masons. A 3-year apprenticeship program that
includes related classroom instruction is recommended.
During the 1960’s, apprenticeship completions num­
bered about 12 percent of openings resulting from
growth and death and retirement. Education above the
grade school level is desirable. Skills may also be
acquired informally on the job.

3,000

Apprenticeship completions ............................. . 1,651 (1969)

832,000
869,000
4.4
23,900
4,600
19,300

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 8 a n d p r o je c te d 1 9 8 0 r e q u ir e m e n ts

Available training data:

Vocational education
completions:
S e c o n d a r y .......................
Post-secondary .............

Employment 1960 ....................
Employment 1968 ....................
Percent growth ..........................
Annual openings, t o t a l .............
G r o w th ....................................
R e p la c e m e n ts.......................

Employment 1968 ...................
Projected 1980 requirements
Percent growth ..........................
Annual openings, t o t a l .............
G r o w th ....................................
R e p la c em e n ts.......................

A ll
i n d u s tr ie s

C o n s tr u c tio n
in d u s tr y

60,000
90,000
50.0
3,600
2,500
1,100

55,000
85,000
54.5
3,600
2,500
1,100

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 0 - 6 8

Employment 1960 ...................
Employment 1968 ...................
Percent growth ..........................
Annual openings, t o t a l .............
G r o w th ....................................
R e p la c e m e n ts.......................
Available training data:
Apprenticeship com­
pletions ............................. .

45,000
60,000
33.3
2,700
1,900
800

300 (1969)

327 (annual
average
1 9 6 1 -6 8 )

Electricians (construction). A high school education is
required for electrician jobs. An apprenticeship program
lasting 4 years and including 144 hours of classroom
instruction each year is recommended. During the
1960's, apprenticeship completions numbered about 55
49

percent of openings resulting from growth and death and
retirement. Most cities require electricians to pass
licensing examinations. Training may also be acquired on
the job. Some skills of the trade may also be acquired
through vocational school courses.
E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 8 a n d p r o je c te d 1 9 8 0 r e q u ir e m e n ts

Employment 1968
Projected 1980 requirements . .
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................

190,000
270,000
42.1
10,500
6,700
3,800

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 0 - 6 8

Employment 1960
Employment 1968
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................

155,000
190,000
22.6
7,200
4,400
2,800

Available training data:1
Apprenticeship com­
pletions ................................. 5,091 (1969)

Percent growth ..........................
Annual openings, t o t a l .............
G r o w th ....................................
R e p la c e m e n ts.......................
Available training data

.............

27.0
1,700
800
900

26.9
1,250
575
675
—

.

Glaziers (construction). Although many learn the
trade informally on the job, a 3-year apprenticeship is
recommended. During the 1960’s, completions of
apprenticeship programs numbered about 45 percent of
openings resulting from growth and death and retire­
ment of glaziers in the construction industry, but some of
these apprentices work outside of construction. A high
school diploma or its equivalent is required for entry to
apprenticeship programs.
E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 8 a n d p r o je c te d 1 9 8 0 r e q u ir e m e n ts

4,005 (annual
average
(1 9 6 1 -6 8 )

Employment 1968
Projected 1980 requirements . .
Percent growth ..............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................

9,000
13,000
44.4
500
350
150

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 0 - 6 8

1Vocational education curriculums are provided for elec­
tricians but the statistics on completions are combined with data
on maintenance electricians.

Elevator constructors. Training is obtained through
employment as an elevator constructor helper for a
number of years. At least 2 years of continuous job
experience including 6 months’ on-the-job training at the
factory of a major elevator firm is usually necessary. The
helper-trainee generally attends evening classes in voca­
tional schools.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

14,500
18,000
24.1
500
300
200

Employment 1960
Employment 1968
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l .................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................

5,000
9,000
80.0
500
400
100

Available training data:
Apprenticeship com ­
pletions .................................

217 (1969)

226 (annual
average
1 9 6 1 -6 8 )

Lathers. Although many lathers acquire their skills
informally on the job, a 2-year apprenticeship is recom­
mended. During the 1960’s, apprenticeship completions
numbered about 40 percent of openings resulting from
growth and death and retirement. A high school educa­
tion is encouraged.

Available training data
E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 8 a n d p r o je c te d 1 9 8 0 r e q u ir e m e n ts

Floor covering installers. Employers prefer that floor
covering installers have a high school education. Al­
though many workers acquire their skills through in­
formal training, a 3-to-4 year apprenticeship program,
including related classroom instruction, is recommended.
Training may also be obtained through formal on-the-job
tra in in g .

Som e

sk ills o f th e

tr a d e

m ay

be

a c q u ir e d

th r o u g h v o c a tio n a l s c h o o l c o u rs e s.

Employment 1968 .......................
Projected 1980 requirements . .

50



A ll

C o n s tr u c tio n

in d u s t r i e s

in d u s tr y

37,000
47,000

26,000
33,000

A ll
in d u s tr ie s 1

Employment 1968
Projected 1980 requirements . .
Percent growth ..............................
Annual openings, t o t a l .................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................

30,000
38,000
26.7
1,250
650
600

E m p lo y m e n t, 1 9 6 0 - 6 8

Employment 1960 ................
Employment 1968 ................
Percent growth .......................
Annual openings, total . . . .
G r o w th .................................
R e p la c e m e n ts....................

27.000
29.000
7.4
750
250
500

Available training data:
Apprenticeship com­
pletions ................

145 (1969)

310 (annual
average
1 9 6 1 -6 8 )

1 Nearly all are employed in the construction industry.

Operating engineers. A 3-year apprenticeship program
is the recommended training. A high school education or
its equivalent is required for entry to these programs.
Training may be obtained informally on the job by oilers
(operating engineers assistants), and helpers to heavy
equipment repairmen who demonstrate the initiative and
skill to be given instructions by experienced operating
engineers. Some skills of the trade may also be acquired
through vocational school courses.

Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................

18,200
6,700
11,500

12,300
4,200
8,100

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 0 - 6 8

Employment 1960 .......................
Employment 1968 .......................
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................

415,000
430,000
3.6
12,500
1,900
10,600

Available training data:
Apprenticeship completions .

829 (1969)

Vocational education com­
pletions:
Secondary ..........................
P o st-se c o n d a r y ................

860 (annual
average
1 9 6 1 -6 8 )

405
33

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 8 a n d p r o je c te d 1 9 8 0 r e q u ir e m e n ts

Employment 1968 .......................
Projected 1980 requirements . .
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................

A ll

C o n s tr u c tio n

in d u str ie s

in d u s tr y

285,000
410,000
43.9
14,800
10,400
4,400

220,000
300,000
36.4
10,000
6,700
3,300

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 8 a n d p r o je c te d 1 9 8 0 r e q u ir e m e n ts

E m p lo y m e n t, 1 9 6 0 - 6 8

Employment 1960 .......................
Employment 1968 .......................
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c em e n ts..........................
Available training data:
Apprenticeship completions .................................
MDTA enrollment
(OJT) ....................................
Vocational education
completions:
Secondary ..........................
P o st-se c o n d a r y ................

210,000
285,000
35.7
12,500
9,400
3,100

Employment 1968 .......................
Projected 1980 requirements . .
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................

829

103
299

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 8 a n d p r o je c te d 1 9 8 0 r e q u ir e m e n ts




A ll
i n d u s tr ie s

C o n s tr u c tio n

40,000
40,000
0
700
0
700

35,000
35,000
0
600
0
600

in d u s tr y

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 0 - 6 8

Employment 1960 .......................
Employment 1968 .......................
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................

800

Painters and paperhangers. A high school education is
preferred but not essential for painter and paperhanger
employment. Although a 3-year formal apprenticeship
program including related classroom instruction is
recommended, training may also be obtained informally,
on the job. During the 1960’s, apprenticeship com­
pletions numbered only about 7 percent of openings
resulting from growth and death and retirement. Some
skills of the trade may be acquired through vocational
school courses.

Employment 1968 .......................
Projected 1980 requirements . .
Percent growth .............................

Plasterers. A 3 to 4 year apprenticeship including
classroom instruction is recommended for work as a
plasterer. Skills may also be acquired on the job by
working as plasterers’ helpers or laborers. Some skills of
the trade may also be acquired through vocational
school courses.

A ll

C o n s tr u c tio n

in d u s t r i e s

in d u s tr y

430.000
510.000
18.6

300,000
350,000
16.7

Available training data:
Apprenticeship com­
pletions ....................................

Vocational education
completions:
S e c o n d a r y ..........................
P o st-se co n d a r y ................

50,000
40,000
-2 0 .0
-4 5 0
-1 ,2 5 0
800

228 (1969)

248 (annual
average
1 9 6 1 -6 8 )

26
11

Plumbers and pipefitters. A 5-year apprenticeship
including related classroom instruction is recommended
for these jobs. Plumbing and pipe fit ting skills also may
be acquired informally on the job. Some skills of the
trade may be acquired through vocational school
courses. Some localities require workers to pass a
licensing examination.

51

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 8 a n d p r o je c te d 1 9 8 0 r e q u ir e m e n ts

Employment 1968 .......................
Projected 1980 requirements . .
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................

A ll
in d u str ie s

C o n s tr u c tio n

330,000
475,000
43.9
19,500
12,100
7,400

210,000
285,000
35.7
10,800
6,200
4,600

in d u s tr y

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 0 - 6 8

Employment 1960 .......................
Employment 1968 .......................
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................

325,000
330,000
1.5
6,700
600
6,100

Available training data:
Apprenticeship com ­
pletions .................................

4,888 (1969)

Vocational education
completions:
S e c o n d a r y ..........................
P o st-se co n d a r y ................

3,248 (annual
average
1 9 6 1 -6 8 )

725
162

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 8 a n d p r o je c te d 1 9 8 0 r e q u ir e m e n ts
A ll
in d u s tr ie s

C o n s tr u c tio n
in d u s tr y

55,000
80,000
45.5
3,000
2,100
900

50,000
70,000
40.0
2,500
1,700
800

E m p lo y m e n t, 1 9 6 0 - 6 8

Employment 1960 .......................
Employment 1968 .......................
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................
Available training data:
Apprenticeship com­
pletions .............................

50,000
55,000
10.0
1,300
600
700

266 (annual average 1 9 6 1 -6 8 )

Sheet metal workers. A 4-year apprenticeship program
including related classroom instruction is recommended
for sheet metal workers. During the 1960’s, the number
of apprenticeship completions totaled more than open­
ings for sheet metal workers in the construction in­
dustry, but many individuals completing the training
went into other industries. A high school education or
its equivalent is required for entry to apprenticeship
programs. Many workers in this trade acquire their skill

52



E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 8 a n d p r o je c te d 1 9 8 0 r e q u ir e m e n ts

Employment 1968 ......................
Projected 1980 requirements . ,
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th ......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................

A ll

C o n s tr u c tio n

i n d u s tr ie s

in d u s tr y

50,000
70,000
40.0
2,500
1,700
800

40,000
55,000
37.5
2,000
1,250
750

E m p lo y m e n t, 1 9 6 0 - 6 8

Roofers. A 3-year apprenticeship including related
classroom instruction is recommended for this work.
Training also may be acquired informally on the job. A
high school education or its equivalent is desirable for
roofers.

Employment 1968 .......................
Projected 1980 requirements . .
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, total ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c em e n ts..........................

informally on the job. Skills of the trade may also be
acquired through vocational school courses.

Employment 1960 ......................
Employment 1968 ......................
Percent growth .......................... ..
Annual openings, t o t a l ............. ..
G r o w th ....................................
R e p la c e m e n ts....................... ..

48,000
50,000
4.2
1,200
500
700

Available training data:
Apprenticeship com­
pletions ................................. 2,544 (1969)

Vocational education
completions:
S e c o n d a r y ..........................
P o st-se co n d a r y ................

1,829 (annual
average
1 9 6 1 -6 8 )

1,388
254

Stonemasons, marble setters, tilesetters, and terrazzo
workers. A 3-year apprenticeship program including
related classroom instruction is recommended for these
jobs. However, many persons acquire their skills through
on-the-job training. A high school education or its
equivalent is desirable for this work.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1968—80 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

30,000
35,000
16.7
850
350
500

Available training d a t a .......................................................

--

Structural-, ornamental-, and reinforcing-iron work­
ers, riggers; and machine movers. A 3-year apprentice­
ship program including related classroom instruction is
recommended for these jobs. During the 1960’s, appren­
ticeship completions numbered about 40 percent of
openings resulting from growth and death and retire­
ment. However, many workers acquire skill on the job.
A high school education or its equivalent is desirable.
E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 8 a n d p r o je c te d 1 9 8 0 r e q u ir e m e n ts

Employment 1968 ....................
Projected 1980 requirements
Percent growth ..........................
Annual openings, t o t a l .............
G r o w th ....................................
R e p la c em e n ts.......................

A ll
i n d u s tr ie s

C o n s tr u c tio n

75,000
103,000
40.0
3,900
2,500
1,400

45,000
70,000
55.6
3,000
2,100
900

in d u s tr y

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 0 - 6 8

Employment 1960
................ ...
Employment 1968 . . . . . . . .
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c em e n ts..........................
Available training data

65,000
75,000
15.4
2,400
1,300
1,100

................

--

Machining occupations

All-round machinists. Although a 4-year apprentice­
ship is the best way of learning the machinist trade,
many persons qualify through years of experience in
machining jobs. A high school or vocational school
education that includes courses in mathematics, physics,
or machine shop is helpful. A typical apprenticeship lasts
about 4 years and includes 8,000 hours of shop training
and 570 hours of related classroom instruction.

Instrument makers-mechanical. Most instrument
makers learn their trade through apprenticeships. A
typical 4-year apprenticeship consists of about 8,000
hours of shop training and 570 hours of classroom
instruction. Shop training includes the use of hand and
machine tools and measuring instruments; classroom
instruction covers subjects such as mathematics, physics,
blueprint reading, chemistry, and electronics. Employers
generally prefer that apprentices have a high school
education, including courses in algebra, geometry,
science, and machine shop work.
Employment 1968 ........................................................................
Projected 1980 r e q u ire m en ts.......................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 ....................................................... ...
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ..............................................
Growth .....................................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

(*)
(*)
C)

(*)
(*)
C )
—

Available training d a t a .......................................................
1 Included in all-round machinists’ total.

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 8 a n d p r o je c te d 1 9 8 0 r e q u ir e m e n ts

Setup men (machine tools). A set-up man usually
must qualify as an all-round machinist or skilled machine
tool operator. A set-up man must have thorough training
in the operation of one or more kinds of machine tools;
reading blueprints; and making computations to select
speeds and feeds for machine tools.

Employment 1968
400,000
Projected 1980 requirements . .
450.000
Percent growth .............................
12.5
Annual openings, t o t a l ....
12,600
Growth . f ....................
4,200
R e p la c em e n ts....................... .
8.400
E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 0 - 6 8

Employment 1960
300,000
Employment 1968
400,000
Percent growth .............................
33.3
Annual openings, total . . . . . .
19,300
Growth .
12,500
R e p la c em e n ts.............
6,800

Employment 1968 ................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 ....................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 total ....................................
Growth . . . . . . .
. ........................................... .
Replacements .............................

70,000
85,000
26.9
2,600
1.500
1,100

Available training data:
Apprenticeship com ­
pletions ..........................

Available training data ........................................................

—

3,527 (1969)

MDTA enrollment
(OJT) ....................................
In stitu tio n a l.............................

1,581 (an­
nual av­
erage
1 9 6 1 -6 8 )

1,900
1,800

Layout men. From 6 to 10 years' training and
experience are needed to develop the skills required for
this occupation. A machinist apprenticeship or equiva­
lent knowledge of machining operations is necessary. A
layout man must be trained in mathematics; blueprint
reading; and the use of precision-measuring tools.
Employment 1968 ........................................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts....................................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 ...........................................................
Annual openings. 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ..............................................
Growth / .................................................................................
Replacements ........................................................................
Available training d a t a .................................
1 Included in all-round machinists’ total.




( ’)
(*)
(‘ )
( ‘)
( ‘)
C)

Tool and die makers. Tool and die making can be
acquired through formal 4 or 5 years formal apprentice­
ship or equivalent time on the job. Most employers
prefer apprentices who have a high school or trade
school education. Several years' experience is necessary
to qualify for more difficult work. Many metal machine
workers, after years of experience, take classroom train­
ing to become tool and die makers.
E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 8 a n d p r o je c te d 1 9 8 0 r e q u ir e m e n ts

Employment 1968
Projected 1980 requirements . .
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, total ................
Growth . f ............. ...................
Replacements . . . . . . . . .

150.000
160,000
6.7
3,700
800
2.900

E m p lo y m e n t, 1 9 6 0 - 6 8

Employment 1960
Employment 1968
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
Growth.. T .................................
R e p la c em e n ts..........................

140.000
150.000
—
3,800
1,300
2,500

53

Available training data:
Apprenticeship com­
pletions ................................. 4,125 (1969)

1,873 (annual
average
1 9 6 1 -6 8 )

Mechanics and repairmen

Air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechan­
ics. Most air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating
mechanics start as helpers and learn their skills on the
job. Increasingly, employers prefer on-the-job trainees to
be high school graduates who have had courses in
mathematics, physics, and blueprint reading. Many high
schools and vocational schools offer courses to prepare
students for entry jobs as air-conditioning and refrigera­
tion mechanics or oil burner mechanics.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

100,000
140,000
40.0
5,000
3,300
1,700

Available training d a t a ........................................................

Aircraft mechanics. Aircraft mechanics must be
licensed by the FAA or the FCC. Mechanics may prepare
for the trade and their licenses by working as trainees or
apprentices, or as helpers to experienced mechanics. The
larger airlines train apprentices in a carefully planned 3or 4-year program of instruction and work experience.
For trainee or apprentice jobs, the airlines prefer men
who have a high school or trade school education
including courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry,
and machine shop. Other mechanics prepare for their
trade by graduating from an FAA-approved mechanics
school. Most of these schools have an 18 to 24-month
program. Several colleges and universities also offer
2-year programs that prepare the student for the FAA
mechanics examination.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

135,000
230,000
70.4
9,700
7,900
1,800

Available training d a t a ........................................................

Appliance servicemen. Appliance servicemen usually
are hired as helpers and acquire their skills on-the-job.
Trainees generally are supervised closely for 6 to 12
months. Some servicemen need up to 3 years’ experience
to become fully qualified. Many trainees take corre­
spondence courses or attend technical schools to im­
prove their skills.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................

54



205,000
260,000

Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

26.8
8,600
4,600
4,000

Available training data:
Vocational education completions:
Secondary ..............................................................
Post-secondary........................................................

880
1,781

Automobile body repairmen. Generally, 3 to 4 years
of on-the-job training is necessary to become a fully
qualified automobilebody repairman. Most training
authorities recommend the completion of a 3- or 4-year
formal apprenticeship program as the best way to learn
the trade. These programs include on-the-job and related
classroom instruction. Although high school graduation
usually is not required for an entry job, most employers
consider this an asset.
E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 8 a n d p r o je c te d 1 9 8 0 r e q u ir e m e n ts

Employment 1968
Projected 1980 requirements . .
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................

100,000
125,000
25.0
3,500
2,100
1,400

E m p lo y m e n t, 1 9 6 0 - 6 8

Employment 1960
Employment 1968
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................

86,000
100,000
3,000
1,800
1,200

Available training data:
MDTA enrollment
(OJT) ....................................
2,000
In stitu tio n a l.............................
3,900
Apprenticeship com ­
pletions ................................. 211 (1969) 163 (annual
average
1 9 6 1 -6 8 )
Vocational education
completions:
S e c o n d a r y ..........................
4,164
P o st-se c o n d a r y ................
1,586

Automobile mechanics. Most automobile mechanics
learn the trade through 3 to 4 years of on-the-job
experience. An additional year or two usually is needed
to learn a specialty, such as automatic transmission
repair. Most training authorities recommend completion
of a 3- or 4-year formal apprenticeship program as the
best way to learn this trade. Work experience as a
gasoline service station attendant, training in the Armed
Forces, and courses offered at high schools, vocational
schools, or private trade schools are helpful.
E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 8 a n d p r o je c te d 1 9 8 0 r e q u ir e m e n ts

Employment 1968 .......................
Projected 1980 requirements . .

615,000
745,000

Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................

Electric sign servicemen. Most electric sign servicemen
are trained on the job; generally, 3 years of on-the-job
training are required to become fully qualified. Some
qualify through apprenticeship programs that combine
on-the-job training and classroom instruction and last 3
to 5 years. Employers prefer to hire high school
graduates. Many cities require servicemen to have
licenses. An applicant can obtain a license by passing a
comprehensive examination in electrical theory.

21.1
20,050
11,300
8,750

E m p lo y m e n t, 1 9 6 0 - 6 8

Employment 1960 .......................
Employment 1968 .......................
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................

535,000
615,000
17,300
10,000
7,300

Available training data:
MDTA enrollment
2,200
(OJT) ....................................
9,700
In stitu tio n a l..............................
Apprenticeship com ­
pletions ................................. 1,017 (1969)

524 (average
annual
1 9 6 1 -6 8 )

Bowling-pin machine mechanics. Pinsetting machine
mechanics learn their skills at schools maintained by
bowling-machine manufacturers. To become a trainee at
a factory school, candidates usually must be 16 years
old, and take written tests of mechanical ability and
personality traits. After attending factory schools,
trainees need several months of on-the-job experience.
Employers prefer to hire persons who are high school
graduates.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

6,500
6,000
-7 .7
50
-5 0
100

Available training d a t a ........................................................

--

Business machine servicemen. Most business machine
servicemen acquire their skills through on-the-job train­
ing and work experience following instruction in
manufacturer’s or dealer’s training schools. Employers
prefer trainee applicants who are high school graduates
and under 30 years of age, although candidates having
unusual mechanical aptitude or related work experience
may be accepted without meeting these requirements. A
serviceman usually needs 1 to 3 years of practical
experience and on-the-job training following a formal
training program before he is considered fully qualified.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

115,000
200,000
73.9
8,500
7,100
1,400

Available training data:
Vocational education completions:
Secondary ..............................................................
P ost-secondary........................................................

379
119




Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1968—80 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

6,100
8,200
34.4
300
200
100

Available training d a t a .......................................................

—

Farm equipment mechanics. Most farm equipment
mechanics begin as helpers and learn their skills on the
job. Generally, at least 3 years of on-the-job training is
necessary before a person can become a qualified
mechanic. Some mechanics have completed a 3 to 4 year
apprenticeship program that includes on-the-job training
and related classroom instruction.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r e q u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements . ...........................................................

40,000
45,000
12.5
1,100
400
700

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Industrial machinery repairmen. Most workers who
become industrial machinery repairmen begin as helpers
and acquire their skills through several years’ experience
on the job. Others learn their trade through 4-year formal
apprenticeship programs consisting of on-the-job training
and related classroom instruction.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

175,000
220,000
25.7
7,500
3,750
3,800

Available training d a t a ........................................................

Instrument repairmen. Instrument repairmen may
learn their trade on-the-job or through formal appren­
ticeship programs. Apprenticeships generally last 4 years
and combine courses with actual work experience. Some
train for instrument repair work in technical institutes or
junior colleges. These schools offer programs that
usually last 2 years and emphasize basic engineering
courses, science, and mathematics. Men hired as trainees
or apprentices generally must be high school graduates.

55

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training data:
Vocational education completions:
Secondary ..............................................................
P ost-secon dary........................................................

£ 5,000
129.000
‘ 1.2
4,600
2,900
1,700

232
211

Maintenance electricians. Maintenance electricians
learn the skills of their trade on the job or through
formal apprenticeship programs. Apprenticeships usually
last 4 years and combine on-the-job training with
classroom instruction in related technical subjects. More
than 4 years generally are required to become a
maintenance electrician informally, on the job. A
growing number of cities and counties require elec­
tricians to pass a comprehensive examination and get a
license.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

240,000
305,000
27.1
9,900
5,400
4,500

Available training d a t a .......................................................

—

Millwrights. Millwrights acquire their skills on the job
or through apprenticeship programs. Apprenticeships
generally last 4 years and combine shop training with
related classroom instruction. Many companies require
that apprentice applicants be high school graduates
between the ages of 18 and 26. High school courses in
science, mathematics, mechanical drawing, and machine
shop are important for the prospective millwright.
Employment 1968 ........................................................
Projected 1980 requirements......................................
Percent growth, 1968-80 ............................................
Annual openings, 1968-80 t o t a l ................................
Growth ....................................................................
Replacements ........................................................
Available training d a t a ............................................

75,000
85,000
13.3
2,400
900
1,500

Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 total .....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

3,000
1,700
1,300

Available training d a t a .......................................................

—

Truck mechanics and bus mechanics. Most truck or
bus mechanics learn their skills on the job. Generally, 3
to 4 years’ experience is necessary to qualify as an
all-round mechanic. A formal 4-year apprenticeship is
the recommended way to learn these trades. Typical
apprenticeships consist of about 8,000 hours of shop
training and 576 hours of related classroom instruction.
For entry jobs, employers usually seek high school
graduates who are at least 18 years of age. High school
or vocational school courses in automobile repair, and
mathematics are useful. For some jobs that require
driving, the mechanic must have a State chauffeur’s
license or meet qualifications for drivers established by
the U.S. Department of Transportation.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

110,000
130,000
18.2
2,900
1,400
1,500

Available training d a t a .......................................................

Vending machine mechanics. Although not required,
many beginning vending machine mechanics are high
school graduates. High school or vocational school
courses in electricity and machine repair are helpful.
Mechanic trainees acquire their skills by working 6
months to 2 years on the job or by attending manu­
facturer-sponsored

training

sessions.

A

com m ercial

driver’s license and a good driving record usually are
required for vending machine repair jobs.
Employment 1968 ........................................................
Projected 1980 requirements......................................
Percent growth, 1968-80 ............................................
Annual openings, 1968-80 t o t a l ................................
Growth ....................................................................
Replacements ..............

16,000
20,000
25.0
650
350
300

Available training d a t a ..................................................

—

—

Television and radio service technicians. Workers may
qualify as television and radio service technicians
through technical, vocational, or high school training in
electronics subjects, mathematics, and physics. Two or 3
days’ combined training and on-the-job experience are
needed to become a qualified technician. Home study
courses also are helpful. Young men often gain ex­
perience in servicing electronic equipment through
military service.

Watch repairmen. Many persons prepare for this trade
through courses given in private watch repair schools or
public vocational high schools. Some are trained in­
formally on the job or through formal apprenticeship.
Although not required, students in most watch repair
schools are high school graduates. A few States require
watch repairmen to pass a qualifying examination and
obtain a license.

Employment 1968 ........................................................
Projected 1980 requirements......................................
Percent growth, 1968 - 80 ............................................

Employment 1968 ........................................................
Projected 1980 requirements......................................
Percent growth. 1968 80 ............................................

56



125,000
145,000
16.0

20,000
21,000
5.0

1,400
800
600

Annual openings, 1968- 80 total
G r o w t h ....................................
Replacements .......................
Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Printing (graphic arts) occupations

Bookbinders and related workers. A 4- or 5-year
apprenticeship that combines on-the-job training with
related classroom instruction generally is required to
qualify as a skilled bookbinder. Apprenticeship appli­
cants usually must have a high school education and be
at least 18 years of age. For the less skilled bindery
occupations, the training period may last from several
months to 2 years.
E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 8 a n d p r o je c te d 1 9 8 0 r e q u ir e m e n ts

Employment 1968
Projected 1980 requirements . .
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c em e n ts..........................

30,000
25,000
-1 6 .7
400
-4 0 0
800

Available training data:
Apprenticeship com­
pletions ................................. 837 (1969)

767 (average
annual
1 9 6 1 -6 8 )

Electrotypers and stereotypers. Electrotypers and
stereotypers usually learn their trades through appren­
ticeships which last 5 or 6 years and includes training on
the job and classes in related technical subjects. Appren­
ticeship applicants usually must be at least 18 years of
age and have a high school education or its equivalent.
E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 8 a n d p r o je c te d 1 9 8 0 r e q u ir e m e n ts

Employment 1968
Projected 1980 requirements . .
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................

Employment 1960
Employment 1968
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................

28,000
30,000
7.1
1,200
300
900

Available training data:
Apprenticeship com­
pletions ................................ 315 (1969)

5,300
1,300
4,000

8,000
6,000
-2 5 .0
-2 5
-1 7 5
150

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 0 - 6 8

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 0 - 6 8

Employment 1960
Employment 1968
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c em e n ts..........................

Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .........................................
R e p la c e m e n ts............................

9,000
8,000
-11.1
500
- 1 ,2 0 0
1,700

Available training data:
Apprenticeship com­
pletions ................................. 27 (1969)
228 (average
annual
1 9 6 1 -6 8 )

Composing room occupations. Most compositors learn
their trade through apprenticeships that generally re­
quire 6 years of progressively advanced training
supplemented by classroom instruction or corre­
spondence courses. Some work as helpers for several
years or combine trade school and helper experience. A
typical apprenticeship program for compositors includes
instruction in elementary hand composition; page make­
up; proofreading; and intensive training in one or more
specialized fields. Applicants for apprenticeships usually
must be high school graduates.

80 (average
annual
1 9 6 1 -6 8 )

Lithographic occupations. A 4- or 5-year apprentice­
ship usually is required to become a well-rounded
lithographic craftsman. In this program, an apprentice
becomes familiar with all lithographic operations, al­
though the specific occupation in which he seeks
journeyman status is emphasized. Apprenticeship appli­
cants generally must be at least 18 years of age, high
school graduates, and in good physical condition.
Employment 1968 . ..................
Projected 1980 requirements..............
Percent growth, 1968-80 ............................................
Annual openings, 1968-80 t o t a l ................................
Growth ....................................................................
Replacements ........................................................

73,000
80,000
9.6
1.800
600
1,200

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 8 a n d p r o je c te d 1 9 8 0 r e q u ir e m e n ts

Employment 1968
Projected 1980 requirements . .
Percent growth ..........................
Annual openings, t o t a l ...............
G r o w t h ...................................
Replacements........................

190,000
180,000
-5.3
3,200
-800
4,000

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 0 - 6 8

Employment 1960
Employ ment 1968
Percent growth ...........................




180,000
190,000
5.6

Available training data:
Apprenticeship completions

. .....................

785

Photoengravers. Most photoengravers learn their skills
through a 5-year apprenticeship which includes at least
800 hours of related classroom instruction. Applicants
must be at least 18 years of age, have a high school
education or its equivalent, and know chemistry,
physics, and art. Credit for previous experience acquired
57

in photoengraving work may shorten the required
apprenticeship time.

with some college education, especially those with
engineering training, often are hired for these jobs.

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

22,000
22,000
0.0
400
0
400

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Available training data:
Apprenticeship completions

18,000
18,000
0.0
300
0
300

....................................

54

Printing pressmen and assistants. The most common
way of learning the pressman’s trade is through a 2- to
5-year apprenticeship that combines on-the-job training
and related classroom or correspondence school work.
Some workers learn the skills as helpers or press
assistants or through a combination of work experience
and training in vocational or technical schools. A high
school education or its equivalent generally is required;
courses in physics and chemistry are recommended.

Linemen and cable splicers. Telephone companies
train high school or vocational school graduates as
linemen and cable splicers. Men who have received
telephone training and experience in the Armed Forces
frequently are given preference for job openings.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

4 0,000
39,000
6.8
600
200
400

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 8 a n d p r o je c te d 1 9 8 0 r e q u ir e m e n ts

Employment 1968
Projected 1980 requirements . .
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................

90,000
105,000
16.7
2,850
1,250
1,600

Telephone and PBX installers and repairmen. The
minimum educational requirement for telephone PBX
installers and repairmen is a high school or vocational
school education. Telephone companies give classroom
and on-the-job training to inexperienced men. These
workers continue training to qualify for more difficult
assignments.

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 0 - 6 8

Employment 1960
Employment 1968
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................

76,000
90,000
18.4
3,100
1,800
1,300

Available training data:
Apprenticeship com­
pletions .................................

826 (1969)

538 (average
annual
1 9 6 1 -6 8 )

Telephone industry occupations

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

80,000
92,000
15.8
2,700
1,000
1,700

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Central office equipment installers. Applicants must
have a high school or vocational school education. Men




86,000
100,000
16.9
3,000
1,200
1,800

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Other crafts occupations

Central office craftsmen. The telephone companies
usually hire inexperienced men to train for skilled jobs
in central offices. Applicants for these jobs must have at
least a high school or vocational school education.
Telephone training and experience in the Armed Forces
or technical training beyond high school may be helpful.

58

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

Automobile trimmers and installers (automobile up­
holsterers). A high school education is desirable but not
essential. High school and vocational school courses in
furniture upholstery provide valuable training; courses in
mathematics also are helpful. Although a small number
of workers learn through 3- or 4-year apprenticeships,
most automobile upholsterers learn their skills on the
job.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training data

8,000
10,000
25.0
350
175
175

Blacksmiths. Most workers enter this occupation by
obtaining jobs as helpers in blacksmith shops; others
enter through 3 or 4 years of formal apprenticeship
training.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1968—80 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

15,000
14,000
-6 .7
500
-1 0 0
600

Available training d a t a ........................................................

Boilermaking occupations. Although many men work
as helpers to experienced boilermakers, and many layout
men and fit up men acquire skills on the job, training
authorities agree that a 4-year apprenticeship is the best
way to learn this trade. Most employers prefer to hire
beginning workers having a high school education.
E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 8 a n d p r o je c te d 1 9 8 0 r e q u ir e m e n ts

Employment 1968
Projected 1980 requirements . .
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c em e n ts..........................

25,000
30,000
20.0
1,000
400
600

E m p lo y m e n t 1 9 6 0 - 6 8

Employment 1960
Employment 1968
Percent growth .............................
Annual openings, t o t a l ................
G r o w th .......................................
R e p la c e m e n ts..........................

24,000
25,000
4.2
600
100
500

Available training data:
Apprenticeship com­
pletions ................................. 180 (1969)

Employment 1968 .............................................................. 1,444,000
Projected 1980 r e q u ire m en ts.......................................... 1,730,000
Percent growth, 1968—80 .................................................
19.8
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
56,200
Growth ...........................................................................
24,000
Replacements ..............................................................
32,000
Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Furniture upholsterers. The most common way to
learn this trade is to complete on-the-job training in an
upholstery shop. Other ways of acquiring training are by
working for furniture manufacturers in jobs closely
related to upholstering and through vocational or high
school courses. A few people acquire the necessary skills
through formal apprenticeship programs.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

32,000
33,000
3.1
800
100
700

Available training data:
Vocational education completions:
Secondary ..............................................................
P ost-secondary........................................................

1,330
332

Jewelers and jewelry repairmen. Young persons gener­
ally learn the jewelry trade either by serving a 3- to
4-year formal apprenticeship or through informal onthe-job training while working for an experienced
jeweler.
100 (average
annual
1 9 6 1 -6 8 )

Dispensing opticians and optical mechanics. Although
most optical mechanics and dispensing opticians learn
skills on the job, training authorities agree that an
apprenticeship offers more job opportunities, security,
and advancement than learning on the job.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .......................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

22,000
23,000
4.5
500
100
400

Available training data:
Vocational education completions:
Secondary ..............................................................
P ost-secondary........................................................

44
77

Foremen. Most workers who are promoted to fore­
men are high schoc1 graduates who have learned their
skills on the job. Althou0h fewer than one-tenth of all
foremen are college graduates, a growing number of




employers are hiring foremen trainees with college
backgrounds.

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

25,000
25,000
0.0
200
0
200

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Locomotive engineers. Firemen (helpers) who have
qualified for promotion are selected on a seniority basis
to fill engineer positions. To qualify, the applicant must
pass a comprehensive examination.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

35,000
33,000
-5 .7
1,350
-1 5 0
1,500

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Locomotive firemen. Employers prefer applicants
who have a high school education or equivalent. Firemen
who have sufficient experience and seniority and who
pass qualifying examinations can be promoted to
59

engineer. Newly hired firemen who have demonstrated
ability on trial trips and passed qualifying examinations
are subject to call for temporary work assignments.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training data

19,000
14,100
-2 5 .8
-2 0 0
-4 0 0
200

....................................................

Motion picture projectionists. Most motion picture
theaters in urban areas are unionized, and young people
who aspire to work as motion picture projectionists in
these theaters must complete a period of apprenticeship.
A high school education is preferred by employers. In a
non-union theater, a young man may start as an usher or
helper and learn the trade by working with an experi­
enced projectionist.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

16,000
18,000
12.5
750
150
600

Available training d a t a .......................................................

Shoe repairmen. Most shoe repairmen are hired as
helpers and receive on-the-job training in large shoe
repair shops. Some shoe repairmen learn this trade in
vocational schools. Others enter the occupation through
apprenticeship training programs.
Employment 1968 .........................................................
Projected 1980 requirements......................................
Percent growth, 1968-80 ............................................

30,000
30,000
0.0

Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

1,500
0
1,500

Available training data:
Vocational education completions:
Secondary ..............................................................
P ost-secondary........................................................

248
26

Shop trades (railroad). Apprenticeship training is a
common way of entering the railroad shop trades,
although many workers are upgraded from helpers and
laborers. Others enter the railroad industry as shop
craftsmen.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent change, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

87,000
85,000
-2 .3
2,250
-1 5 0
2,400

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Stationary engineers. Many stationary engineers start
as helpers or craftsmen in other trades and acquire their
skills informally on the job. Most training authorities,
however, recommend formal apprenticeship training as
the best way to learn this trade. In selecting apprentices,
most joint labor-management apprenticeship committees
prefer high school or trade school graduates.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

260,000
275,000
5.8
7,050
1,250
5,800

Available training data . . . .

Operatives
These workers ordinarily receive only brief on-the-job
training. The simplest repetitive and routine semiskilled
jobs can be learned in a day and mastered in a week.
Even those jobs that require a higher degree of skill can
be learned in a few months. The ability to learn new jobs
quickly, however, is an important qualification for
semiskilled workers.
Employment 1968 ..................................................... 13,955,000
Projected 1980 requirements ................................... 15,400,000
Percent growth, 1968-80 .........................................
10.4
Annual openings, 1968 80 t o t a l .............................
426,000
Growth / ..............................................................
120,000
Replacements........................................................
306,000

Available training data . . .

60



Driving occupations

Busdrivers, intercity. Most companies prefer appli­
cants having a high school education or its equivalent.
Some States require the applicant to have a chauffer’s
license. All drivers must be 21 years old and meet
minimum health and experience qualifications estab­
lished by the U.S. Department of Transportation.
Applicants must have a good record and 1 year’s driving
experience. On-the-job training usually lasts for 2 to 6
weeks but can extend to 3 months.
Employment 1968 ...............
Projected 1980 requirements
Percent growth, 1968-80 . .

24.000
28.000
17.5

Annual openings 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ...................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

900
350
550

Available training d a t a .......................................................

—

Busdriver-local transit. Many employers prefer appli­
cants having a high school education or its equivalent.
Generally, a motor vehicle operator’s permit and 1 or 2
years of driving experience on some type of motor
vehicle are basic requirements. Most States require a
chauffer’s license. Most companies train new workers on
the job.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ................

65,000
56,000
-1 3 .9
500
-8 0 0
1,300

Available training d a t a ........................................................

--

who have taken vocational school courses, such as
blueprint-reading, are preferred by many employers
although a high school diploma is not usually required.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth. 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ......................

785,000
850,000
8.4
26,000
5,500
20,500

Available training d a t a .......................................................

Taxi drivers. In addition to a State-issued chauffer’s
license, a taxi driver must have a special operator’s
license issued by the local police, safety department, or
Public Utilities Commission. Some companies teach the
applicant taxicab regulations and the location of streets.
Formal education seldom is required. However, many
companies prefer applicants who have at least an eighth
grade education.

Routemen. In most States, a routeman is required to
have a chauffer’s license. Most employers require high
school graduation. Sales experience or a job as routeman’s helper or work in a bakery, dairy, laundry, or dry
cleaning establishment are valuable qualifications. Most
companies train new workers on the job.

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ............................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

85,000
75,000
-1 0 .7
1,200
-7 0 0
1,900

Available training d a t a .......................................................

—

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

235,000
250,000
5.1
3,800
1,000
2,800

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Truck drivers, local. Some employers prefer applicants
who have completed 2 to 4 years of high school.
Training is often informal. Applicants sometimes ride
with and observe an experienced driver. Some companies
give a 1- or 2-day indoctrination course which covers
general duties, the efficient operation and loading of a
truck, company policies, and the preparation of delivery
forms and company records. A few receive training
sponsored by Federal Government programs.

Truck drivers, over-the-road. Many employers require
at least a grade school education; others require 2 years
of high school. Driver training courses in high school,
driving schools, or technical vocational schools are
recommended. A course in automotive mechanics is
helpful. Some companies have formal testing and
training programs. At least 1 year of driving experience
is required and most States require a chauffer’s license.
Previous experience in local trucking is a valuable
qualification.
Employment 1968 ........................................................
Projected 1980 requirements......................................
Percent growth, 1968-80 ............................................
Animal openings, 1968-80 t o t a l ................................
Growth ....................................................................
Replacements ........................................................

640,000
800,000
24.7
21,600
13,200
8.400

Available training d a t a ....................... ..

Other operative occupations

Assemblers. As s embl ear e usually trained on the job
in a few days or weeks. High school graduates or workers




Employment 1968 ........................................................... 1,200.000
Projected 1980 requirements..........................
1.450.000
Percent growth, 1968-80 ............................................
21.9
Annual openings. 1968-80 t o t a l ................................
37,000
Growth ....................................................................
21.500
Replacements ........................................................
15,500
Available training d a t a ........................

—

Automobile painters. Most automobile painters start
as helpers and acquire their skills informally by working
for 3 to 4 years with experienced painters. A small
number learn through a 3-year apprenticeship. Appli­
cants having a high school education are preferred.
Employment 1968 ........................................................
Projected 1980 requirement .......................................
Percent growth, i 968 - 80 .
...................................
Annual openings. 1968 80t o t a l.............................

30,000
35,000
25.0
1.200

G row t i i ......................................................................

6Q0

Replacements

60 0

...............................................

Available training data
61

Brake men railroad. A high school education or its
equivalent is preferred. No previous training is required.
The usual training is on the job and lasts about a year.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r e q u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

74,000
70,000
-5 .2
1,000
-3 0 0
1,300

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Electroplaters. Most electroplaters learn their skills on
the job. Others train through a 3- or 4-year appren­
ticeship. High school, vocational school, college, and
technical institute courses in electroplating are useful.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

13,000
15,700
20.8
600
200
400

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Gasoline and service station attendants. A high school
education is preferred for these jobs. Most gasoline and
service station attendants acquire their skills on the job.
These workers must have a driver’s license, a general
understanding of how an automobile works, and a
knowledge of simple arithmetic. It usually takes from
several months to a year for a gasoline service station
attendant to become fully qualified. Formal training for
this occupation is available in some high schools. Most
oil companies conduct 2 to 8 weeks of formal training
programs for service station managers.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

400,000
475,000
15.9
10,900
6,200
4,700

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Inspectors (manufacturing). Inspectors are usually
trained on the job for a brief period—from a few hours
or days to several months. Workers having a high school
education are preferred.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

585,000
635,000
8.5
19,200
4,200
15,000

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Machine tool operators. Usually IVi to 2 years of
on-the-job training is needed for this work. Courses in
mathematics and blueprint reading are useful.
62



Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

500,000
520,000
4.0
10,500
1,700
8,800

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Meat cutters. Most meat cutters acquire their skills
either through a 2- to 3-year apprenticeship program or
on the job. Workers having a high school education are
preferred. Training in mathematics, English, and the use
of power tools is helpful.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1968—80 total .................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training data:
MDTA enrollment completions
Institutional ..............................................................
Vocational education completions:
Secondary ..............................................................
P ost-secondary........................................................

200,000
200,000
2.6
4,500
400
4,100

630
630
107

Photographic laboratory workers. Although generally
is not required for semiskilled jobs in photographic
laboratory work, completion of high school frequently is
needed for advancement to supervisory jobs. Generally,
the training time required to become a specialist in a
particular activity is less than that needed to become an
all-round darkroom technician. Training on the job to
become a fully qualified darkroom technician usually
takes 3 or 4 years. Completion of college level courses in
this field is important for people aspiring to supervisory
jobs in photographic laboratories. On-the-job training for
workers in semiskilled photo lab occupations range
from a few weeks to several months.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

30,000
39,000
29.9
1,600
750
850

Available training data:
Vocational education completions:
Secondary ..............................................................
P ost-secondary........................................................

711
666

Power truck operators. Most workers can learn to
operate a power truck in a few days. It may take several
weeks, however, to learn the physical layout and
operation of a plant or other establishment and the most
efficient way of handling the materials to be moved.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................

163,000
183,000
12.2

Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

4,100
1,500
2,600

Available training d a t a ........................................................

Production painters. High school graduation is not
generally required for a production painter. Most
workers in this field receive on-the-job training that lasts
from 2 weeks to several months.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

160,000
170,000
8.5
4,000
1,100
2,900

Available training d a t a ........................................................

Signal department workers (railroad). Railroads pre­
fer that these workers have a high school education
or its equivalent. Knowledge of electricity and mechan­
ical skill are assets to young men seeking these jobs. New
employees are hired as helpers and after about 1 year of
training on the job they usually advance to assistant.
Openings for signalmen and signal maintainers are filled
by promoting qualified assistants according to seniority
rules.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

12,100
11,600
-4 .5
-4 5 0
-5 5 0
100

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Stationary firemen (boiler). Some large cities and a
few States require stationary firemen to be licensed.
Although requirements differ from State to State, the
applicant usually must have the necessary experience
and pass an examination to qualify. Firemen sometimes
supplement on-the-job training by taking courses in
subjects such as practical chemistry; elementary physics;
blueprint reading; applied electricity; and the theory of
refrigeration, air-conditioning, ventilation, and heating.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

73,000
58,000
-2 0 .6
-6 0 0
-1 ,3 0 0
700

Available training d a t a ........................................................

Waste water treatment plant operators. Entry jobs
generally do not require specific training, and most
operators learn their skills on the job. Most municipal­
ities accept men with less than a high school education;
however, in a number of large municipalities applicants




must have a high school education or its equivalent.
Most States have certification programs that issue
qualification standards for operators. Sixteen States have
adopted mandatory certification, while voluntary certifi­
cation programs are in effect in 29 States.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

23,500
40,000
68.9
2,500
1,400
1,100

Available training d a t a ........................................................

—

Bridge and building workers (railroad). New em­
ployees usually receive their training on the job as
helpers.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r eq u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

11,200
10,900
-2 .7
275
-2 5
300

Available training d a t a ........................................................

Track workers (railroad). Track workers generally are
trained on the job. Up to 2 years are required to learn
the skills of an all-round trackman. Most railroads seek
men between the ages of 21 and 45 who are able to read,
write, and perform heavy work. Applicants often are
required to take physical examinations.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 r e q u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

57,000
55,000
-3 .7
1,300
-2 0 0
1,500

Available training d a t a ........................................................

Welders and oxygen and arc cutters. Generally, it
takes several years of training to become a skilled
manual arc or gas welder, and somewhat longer to
become a combination welder. Some skilled jobs may
require a knowledge of blueprint reading, welding
symbols, metal properties, and electricity. Some of the
less skilled jobs, however, can be learned after a few
months of on-the-job training. For entry in manual
welding jobs, most employers prefer to hire young men
who have high school or vocational school training in
welding methods. Before being assigned to work where
the strength of the weld is a highly critical factor,
welders may be required to pass a qualifying examina­
tion. Where critical safety factors are involved, certifi­
cation may be necessary. Some localities require welders
to obtain a license before they can do certain types of
outside construction work.
63

Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts..........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................

480,000
675,000
40.6

Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 ..............................................
G r o w t h ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................

23,000
16,000
7,000

Available training data:
MDTA enrollment completions:
O J T ...........................................................................
I n s titu tio n a l...........................................................
Vocational education completions:
Secondary ..............................................................
P ost-secondary........................................................

1,700
8,800
6,596
4,254

Laborers (Nonfarm)
Much of the work that nonfarm laborers perform
involves simple tasks that require little special training.
Brief instruction and a few hours of on-the-job training
usually are sufficient preparation for a job as a nonfarm
laborer.
Employment 1968 .............................................................. 3,555,000
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts........................................... 3,500,000
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
-1 .5
60,000
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
-4 ,0 0 0
Replacements ..............................................................
64,000
Available training d a t a ........................................................
—

64



Construction laborers and hod carriers. Little formal
training is required for work as a building or construc­
tion laborer. Employers generally seek young men who
are at least 18 years of age and in good physical
condition.
Employment 1968 ..............................................................
Projected 1980 req u ire m en ts...........................................
Percent growth, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 .................................................
Annual openings, 1 9 6 8 -8 0 t o t a l ....................................
Growth ...........................................................................
Replacements ..............................................................
Available training data

750,000
925,000
23.3
29,000
15,000
14,000

Appendix A. Methodology and Assumptions of Requirements Projections
The methods used to develop the projected 1980
requirements presented in this report are the same as
those used in other Bureau of Labor Statistics studies of
future occupational needs. The BLS has developed
projections that encompass a number of interrelated
components and permit a comprehensive view of tomor­
row’s economy and its manpower needs. The projections
prepared by BLS cover labor force, hours of em­
ployment, output per manhour, potential demand, gross
national product or GNP, the composition of demand,
output and productivity by 82 detailed industry groups,
and employment in over 250 industries and in detailed
occupations.1
Projection methods

The first step in making industry and occupational
projections is to use statistics made by the Bureau of
Census of total population to the target year and its
composition by age, sex, and color. As a second step, the
Bureau of Labor Statistics develops projections of the
labor force by age, sex, and color on the basis of
population and changing labor force participation rates
for each group in the population. These changes reflect a
variety of factors, including changing educational stan­
dards, retirement practices, and participation of women
in the labor force. Labor force projections are then
translated into the level of gross national product (GNP)
that can be produced by a fully employed labor force.
GNP is derived by subtracting unemployment from the
labor force and multiplying that figure by an estimate of
output per worker in the target year of the projection.
Calculations are not so simple as it may seem. Allowance
must be made for average growth in productivity and
expected changes in hours of work.
The next step is to distribute this potential growth in
real GNP among the major components of GNP:
consumer expenditures, business investment, govern­
ment expenditures—Federal, State, and local-and net
foreign demand. In distributing GNP among its com-

l A summary report of all 1980 projections with a more
detailed statement on methodology has been published by the
Bureau entitled. T h e U.S. E c o n o m y in 1 9 8 0 (BLS Bulletin
1673).




ponents, alternatives are considered.
After calculating and distributing potential GNP
growth among its major categories, projections are
developed for each of the major demand categories, such
as the amount spent by consumers for food, clothing,
rent, automobiles, drugs, cosmetics, trips abroad,
medical expenses, and other goods and services. For each
of the major GNP demand categories, a different
procedure is followed in allocating demand to the
producing industry.
Once estimates are developed for the products or
service to be purchased, the production load is allocated
not only to the various industries which make the final
product but also to the intermediate and basic industries
which provide raw materials, components, transporta­
tion, electric power, and other goods or services required
in making final products. For this purpose, the Depart­
ment of Commerce has developed an input-output table
for the economy of the United States. This table shows
transactions among industries; effects of such trans­
actions can be traced among industries.
Estimates of production in each industry are then
translated into employment requirements by projecting
changes in output per man-hour in each industry and
dividing this figure into output. Changes in output per
man-hour are developed through studies of productivity
and technological trends in all industries. These studies
provide inputs to assess such things as potential competi­
tion among products, potential employment and eco­
nomic effects of new technologies and inventions, and
the effect of technological changes on the occupational
structure of industries.
As an independent check and to develop more detailed
industry employment projections than allowed for by
input-output tables, a regression analysis is conducted
relating production and employment in various in­
dustries against the levels of final demand and other key
variables. Also, detailed in-depth studies are conducted
on several industries which encompass the development
of projections of requirements through the analysis of a
variety of economic variables. Results of the regression
analysis and input-output model are evaluated along
with detailed industry analyses to develop final industry
projections.
Projections of industry manpower requirements are
65

then translated into occupational requirements. This
calculation is made through the use of occupational
composition patterns for all industries in the United
States, which are summarized in the BLS Industry-Oc­
cupational Matrix. This matrix, which is divided into
120 industry sectors, shows the percentage composition
of employment according to 160 occupations.2 These
patterns are applied to current employment and to
projected requirements by industry to estimate current
employment and future requirements by occupation. In
making these projections, allowance is made for
changing occupational structures based on studies of the
way each industry has changed in the past and is likely
to change in the future. To arrive at a total for the
economy, future employment requirements for each
occupation are aggregated across all industries.
For many occupations, requirements are projected on
the relationship of certain independent variables rather
than on proportional representation in each industry.
For example, employment requirements for automobile
mechanics are projected on the expected stock of motor
vehicles and their maintenance requirements, and ele­
mentary school teachers on trends in pupil-teacher ratios
applied to projected school attendance. Projections
developed independently are meshed with other occupa­
tional data in the matrix.
After estimating the requirements of each occupation,
projections are prepared of the number of workers who
will be needed as replacements. These separations
from the labor force resulting from all causes including
occupational transfers constitute a very significant por­
tion of total annual training needs.
Tables of working life have been developed based on
actuarial experience for deaths and general patterns of
2 See the “Industry-Occupational Matrix,” in O c c u p a t i o n a l
1960 and 1975 (BLS Bulletin 1599).

E m p l o y m e n t P a t te r n s ,

66



labor force participation of each age.3 Withdrawals from
the labor force can be projected for men and women
separately in each occupation for which age and sex are
known. The net effects of inter-occupational transfers,
however, are not known in any systematic fashion and
can only be estimated in projecting manpower training
needs.
Assumptions

The BLS projections to 1980 presented in this report
are based on these specific assumptions:
The intemotional climate will improve. The United
States will no longer be fighting a war, but a still guarded
relationship between the major powers will permit no
major reductions in armaments. This assumption would
still permit some reduction from the peak levels of
defense expenditures during the Vietnam conflict.
Armed Forces strength will drop back to about the
same level that prevailed in the pre-Vietnam escalation
period.
The institutional framework o f the American economy
will not change radically.
Economic, social, technological, and scientific trends
including values placed on work, education, income, and
leisure will continue.
Fiscal and monetary policies will achieve a satisfactory
balance between low unemployment rates and relative
price stability without reducing the long-term economic
growth rate.
All levels o f government will join efforts to meet a
wide variety of domestic requirements, but Congress will
channel more funds to State and local government.
Fertility rates will be lower than they have been in the
recent past.
3See T o m o r r o w ’s M a n p o w e r
I) for detailed information.

N eeds

(BLS Bulletin 1606, Vol.

Appendix B. Detailed Occupational Projections

Appendix B presents employment estimates, projected
requirements, and annual job openings in tabular form
for 232 occupations in more detail than any other which
the Bureau has published. They are presented only for
individuals who need statistics on projections for their
specific purposes. Chapter IV presents the same data
along with ways workers are trained in specific occupa­
tions; statistics on completions of training programs;
appendix C summarizes the training statistics in tabular
form. In the table, occupations are classified in the
traditional way; professional and technical workers
followed by managerial, clerical, sales, craftsmen, opera­
tives, nonfarm laborers, service, and farm workers.
Within each of these major groups, however, individual
occupations are classified into related fields, e.g., health,
counseling, building trades, etc.
When applicable, the table includes the program code

Table B— 1.
occupation

for the related instructional program used by the Office
of Education in Vocational Education and Occupa­
tions.1 Projections cover the following proportion of
workers in the five program areas:
P ro g ra m area

P ercen t

T e c h n ic a l.......................................................................................
H e a lth .............................................................................................
Trade and in d u str ia l...................................................................
O f f i c e .............................................................................................
D istributive....................................................................................

96
93
82
73
22

In the table, absolute figures are rounded and percent­
ages shown to one decimal place. Hence, totals and
percentages calculated on the basis of unrounded figures
do not always correspond exactly with rounded data in
the table.
O ffic e o f Education Bulletin OE-80061, 1969.

Estimated 1968 employment, projected 1980 requirements, and average annual openings, 1968— 80, by

Occupation

Voca­
tional
educa­
tion
codes1

Professional and technical occupa­
tions ..................................................
Business administration and
related professions:
A c c o u n ta n ts ..........................
Advertising w o rk e rs ...............
Marketing research workers .
Personnel w o rk e rs ..................
Public relations workers . . .
Clergymen:
Protestant c le rg y m e n ............
Rabbis ...................................
Roman Catholic priests . . . .
Conservation occupations:
F o re s te rs ................................
Forestry a id e s .................... .
Range m anagers.....................
Counseling occupations:
Employment counselors . . .
Rehabilitation counselors . .
School cou nse lors..................

04.01
04.01
14.06

16.0603

Esti­
mated
employ­
ment,
1968

Pro­
jected
require­
ments,
1980

Percent
change
1968-80

Average annual openings, 1968— 80

Total

Employ­
ment
change

Replace­
ment
needs

10,325,000

15,500,000

50.1

777,000

431,000

346,000

500,000
140,000
20,000
110,000
100,000

720,000
155,000
42,000
155,000
165,000

43.4
8.1
105.8
42.9
64.0

33,000
5,700
2,700
6,900
8,800

19,000
950
1,800
3,900
5,300

14,000
4,750
900
3,000
3,500

244,000
6,000
62,000

295,000
7,100
75,000

20.1
20.1
20.1

11,000
300
2,800

4,100
100
1,000

6,900
200
1,800

25,000
13,000
4,000

32,000
20,000
5,200

28.0
57.3
30.0

1,000
900
200

600
600
100

400
300
100

5,300
12,000
54,000

10,800
21,000
75,000

102.3
72.6
41.8

700
1,050
3,800

450
700
1,900

250
350
1,900

See footnotes at end of table.




67

Table B ~ 1. Continued - Estimated 1968 employment, projected 1980 requirements, and average annual openings,
1968—80, by occupation
Voca­
tional
educa­
tion
codes1

Average annual openings, 1968— 80

Esti­
mated
employ­
ment,
1968

Pro­
jected
require­
ments,
1980

1,100,000
65,000
12,000
10,000
50,000
180,000
230,000
120,000
215,000
6,000
5,000

1,500,000
75,000
14,500
12,000
67,000
270,000
345,000
185,000
275,000
8,500
5,300

40.2
16.3
20.0
20.0
25.8
48.9
49.0
56.5
27.6
42.4
6.0

295,000
12,000
100,000

450,000
18,500
130,000

16,000
27,000

Percent
change
1968-80

Employ­
ment
change

Replace­
ment
needs

73,400
1,400
400
400
1,600
11,500
12,500
7,200
8,600
300
100

36,000
900
200
200
1,100
7,400
9,500
5,500
5,200
200
25

2 37,400
500
200
200
500
4,100
3,000
1,700
3,400
100
75

53.1
54.2
31.7

20.000
800
4,900

13,000
500
2,600

7,000
300
2,300

33,500
37,500

109.4
38.9

2,400
2,100

1,500
900

900
1,200

660,000

1,000,000

51.5

65,000

28,000

37,000

17,000
121,000
8,500
16,000
7,000
14,000

21,000
130,000
9,500
19,000
19,000
36,000

23.5
7.0
11.8
18.8
171.4
157.1

800
4,400
200
900
1,500
2,800

300
700
100
250
1,000
1,800

500
3,700
100
650
500
1,000

18,000

33,000

83.3

2,300

1,300

1,000

100,000

190,000

90.0

12,800

7,500

5,300

Medical record librarians . . .
D ieticians................................
Hospital administrators . . . .
S a n ita ria n s.............................
Veterinarians..........................

75,000
12,000
30,000
15,000
10,000
24,000

120,000
20,000
42,100
22,000
14,000
34,000

60.0
66.7
40.3
46.7
41.0
41.7

7,300
1,400
2,700
900
600
1,400

3,800
700
1,000
600
300
800

3,500
700
1,700
300
300
600

Mathematics and related occupa­
tions:
Mathematicians .....................
Statisticians ...........................
A c tu a rie s ................................

65,000
23,000
4,000

110,000
33,000
6,700

60.4
45.9
59.5

8,400
1,600
300

3,500
900
200

34,900
700
100

Natural science occupations:
Environmental scientists:
Geologists .......................
G eo physicists.................
Meteorologists.................
Oceanographers..............

22,800
6,800
4,000
5,200

27,100
8,600
5,500
9,700

18.9
26.5
34.1
85.4

800
300
200
500

400
150
100
400

400
150
100
100

Life science occupations:
Life scientists .......................
Biochemists ..........................

170,000
11,000

240,000
17,000

41.1
55.5

15,200
700

5,800
500

4 9,400
200

Occupation

Total

P ro fe s s io n a l an d t e c h n ic a l o c c u p a ­
t io n s —C o n t in u e d

E n g in e e rs......................................
Aerospace .............................
Agricultural ..........................
C e ram ic...................................
C h e m ic a l................................
C i v il.........................................
E le c tric a l................................
In d u s tria l................................
M echanical.............................
M e ta llu rg ica l..........................
Mining ...................................
Health service occupations . . . .
Physicians .............................
Osteopathic physicians . . . .
D e n tists...................................
Dental hygienists ..................

07.000

07.0102
16.0301
07.0103
07.0301
16.0305

Dental laboratory technicians
Registered nurses ..................

O p to m e trists..........................
Pharmacists ..........................
Podiatrists .............................
Chiropractors .......................
Occupational therapists . . . .
Physical therapists..................
Speech pathologists and
audiologists .......................
Medical laboratory workers

Radiological technologists

07.02
16.0303

. .

07.0501,
02, 03
16.0304

ii

See footnotes at end of table.

68



Table B—1. Continued- Estimated 1968 employment, projected 1980 requirements, and average annual openings,
1968- 80, by occupation
Voca­
tional
educa­
tion
codes1

Occupation

Esti­
mated
employ­
ment,
1968

Pro­
jected
require­
ments,
1980

130,000
45,000
1,400

Average annual openings, 1968— 80
!
|

Percent
change
1968-80

Total

200,000
75,000
1,900

55.7
63.9
35.7

12,800
4,600
100

6,000
2,400
50

56,800
6 2,200
50

14,000
23,000

18,500
27,500

32.4
18.3

900
1,400

400
400

500
1,000

166,000

190,000

13.8

8,600

1,900

6,700

60,000

70,000

14.2

3,100

700

2,400

3,000
31,000
3,900
14,000
11,400
10,000

4,100
48,000
5,200
19,000
17,000
14,000

36.4
54.6
32.0
35.7
49.1
37.8

200
2,200
200
800
800
600

100
1,400
100
400
450
300

100
800
100
400
350
300

|
|

Employment
change

Replace­
ment
needs

P ro fe ssio n a l an d t e c h n ic a l o c c u p a t io n s —C o n tin u e d

Physical scientists:
C h e m is ts ................................
Physicists .................................
A stron om ers..........................
Performing artists:
Actors and actresses...............
D ancers...................................
Musicians and music
teachers .............................
Singers and singing
teachers .............................
Social scientists:
A n th ro p o lo g is ts .....................
Econom ists.............................
Geographers ..........................
Historians .............................
Political s c ie n tis ts ..................
Sociologists ..........................

i

Teachers:
College and university
teachers .............................
Kindergarten and ele­
mentary school teachers . .
Secondary school teachers . .

|

Technicians:
Draftsmen .............................
Engineering and science . . .
Writing occupations:
Newspaper reporters ............
Technical writers ..................
Other professional and related
occupations:
Airline dispatchers ...............
Air traffic c o n tro lle rs ............
Architects .............................
Broadcast tech nicia ns............
College placement officers . .
Commercial artists ...............

Flight engineers ....................
Ground radio operators and
teletypists ..........................
Home e c o n o m ists..................
Industrial d e sig n e rs...............
Interior designers and
decorators ..........................
Landscape architects ............
Lawyers ....................... ..
Librarians .............................
Models ...................................
P hotographers.......................

286,000

395,000

37.8

17,000

9,000

8,000

1,230,000
940,000

1,270,000
1,065,000

3.3
13.6

99,000
101,000

3,300
11,000

795,700
*90,000

295,000
620,000

435,000
890,000

48.1
43.2

15,300
31,000

11,800
22,000

3,500
9,000

37,000
30,000

45,000
35,000

21.6
29.2

1,800
1,300

650
700

1,150
600

1,200
14,600
34,000
20,000
2,500

1,600
18,000
50,000
23,000
4,000

33.3
23.5
47.1
14.9
60.0

50
425
2,300
400
200

25
225
1,300
250
125

25
200
1,000
150
75

50,000

57,000

13.0

1,900

500

1,400

17.0402

7,500

12,000

59.3

225

125

100

17.0703

8,200
100,000
10,000

10,000
130,000
11,500

21.6
30.0
15.0

225
7,800
300

125
2,500
100

100
5,300
200

15,000
8,500
270,000
106,000
50,000
60,000

17,300
11,500
335,000
135,000
64,000
72,000

15.0
35.3
22.7
28.6
15.9
18.0

700
500
14,500
8,200
1,700
2,200

200
250
5,500
2,500
700
900

500
250
9,000
5,700
1,000
1,300

17.13
16.01

!
!
j

i

17.0403

I
j

16.0108
17.07
17.19

17.0701
.0702

1

|i

!

See footnotes at end of table.




69

Table B —1. Continued-Estimated 1968 employment, projected 1980 requirements, and average annual openings,
1968—80, by occupation

Occupation

Professional and technical occupa­
tions— Continued
Other professional and technical
occupations— Continued
Pilots and c o p ilo ts ..................
Programmers..........................
Psychologists..........................
Radio and television
announcers..........................
Recreation w o r k e r s ...............
Social w o rk e rs ........................
S urveyors................................
Systems analysts.....................
Urban planners .....................
Managerial occupations .....................
Bank o ffic e r s ................................
Conductors (ra ilro a d ).................
Industrial traffic managers . . . .
Managers and assistants
(hotels) ......................................
Purchasing agents ........................
Clerical and related occupations . . .
Bank c le r k s ...................................
Bank te lle rs ...................................

Bookkeeping w o rk e rs ..................
C ashiers.........................................

Clerks (railroad) ...........................
Dental assistants..........................
Electronic computer op­
erating personnel .....................

Voca­
tional
educa­
tion
codes1

70




Average annual openings, 1968— 80
Percent
change
1968-80

Total

Employ­
ment
change

Replace­
ment
needs

114,000

116.9

1,800

1,100

700

175,000
32,000

400,000
58,000

129.0
81.3

23,000
3,100

19,000
2,200

4,000
900

14,000
40,000
160,000
45,000
150,000
7,000

16,000
70,000
270,000
68,000
425,000
13,500

14.9
75.0
66.7
50.2
183.0
93.0

600
4,100
16,700
2,600
27,000
800

200
2,500
9,000
1,900
23,000
600

400
1,600
7,700
700
4,000
200

7,776,000
125,000
38,000
15,000

9,500,000
193,000
39,000
17,000

22.2
53.8
2.7
10.4

380,000
9,900
2,500
500

144,000
5,600
1,000
150

236,000
4,300
1,500
350

150,000
140,000

198,000
185,000

27.6
27.2

9,500
6,700

3,600
3,300

5,900
3,400

12,803,000
400,000

17,300,000
512,000

35.1
28.8

912,000
29,500

375,000
9,500

537,000
20,000

230,000

337,000

46.2

20,000

8,000

12,000

1,200,000

1,500,000

18.9

78,000

20,000

58,000

730,000

1,110,000

50.6

69,000

31,000

38,000

07.0101

93,000
100,000

89,000
150,000

-4.8
50.0

2,700
9,000

-400
4,400

3,100
4,600

14.0201,
.0202,
02.0201

175,000

400,000

129.0

20,400

18,800

1,600

50,000
70,000
246,000
325,000
290,000
240,000
370,000
10,900
2,650,000

69,000
125,000
335,000
460,000
385,000
400,000
437,000
5,200
3,650,000

27.6
77.1
36.2
39.4
32.8
65.6
18.1
-52.1
36.8

3,200
9,000
12,200
25,000
14,600
30,000
12,400
-225
237,000

1,250
4,500
7,400
10,000
7,900
13,000
5,400
-475
82,000

1,950
4,500
4,800
15,000
6,700
17,000
7,000
250
155,000

13,200
400,000

12,700
480,000

-3.8
20.9

100
28,000

-5 0
6,900

150
21,100

37,500
700,000

60,000
930,000

60.1
36.8

2,600
63,000

1,500
21,000

1,100
42,000

4,647,000

6,000,000

29.1

263,000

113,000

150,000

410,000
500,000

480,000
735,000

16.9
47.1

16,200
32,000

5,800
19,500

10,400
12,500

14.0204

04.10
04.99

04.04,
14.0105
14.0102,
14.0104
04.08,
14.0103

Sales occupations.................................

See footnotes at end of table.

Pro­
jected
require­
ments,
1980

52,000

16.0601
16.0401
14.0203

04.10
Front office clerks (hotels) . . . .
Library technicians .....................
Mail carriers ................................
14.0403
Office machine o p e ra to rs ............ 0301.0404
Postal clerks ................................
14.0403
R eceptionists................................
14.0405
Shipping and receiving clerks . . .
14.0503
Station agents (railroad) ............
Stenographers and secretaries . .
14.07
Telegraphers, telephoners, and
towermen (ra ilro a d )..................
Telephone op era to rs.....................
14.0401
Traffic agents and clerks (civil
aviation) ...................................
Typists .........................................
14.09

Insurance agents and brokers . . .
Manufacturers'salesmen ............

Esti­
mated
employ­
ment,
1968

04.13

Table B —1. Continued- Estimated 1968 employment, projected 1980 requirements, and average annual openings,
1968—80, by occupation
Voca­
tional
educa­
tion
codes1

Occupation

Sales occupations— Continued
Real estate salesmen and
b r o k e r s ......................................
Retail trade salesw orkers............
Automobile parts counter­
men ......................................
Automobile salesm en............
Automobile service advisors .
Securities salesmen .....................
Wholesale trade salesworkers . . .

Esti­
mated
employ­
ment,
1968

Pro­
jected
require­
ments,
1980

Percent
change
1968-80

Total

Employ­
ment
change

Replace­
ment
needs

04.17

225,000
2,800,000

270,000
3,460,000

20.1
24.0

14,200
150,000

3,800
55,000

10,400
95,000

04.03
04.03
04.03
04.04

65,000
120,000
10,000
135,000
530,000

80,000
145,000
12,500
170,000
695,000

23.1
20.8
25.0
24.0
29.5

2,500
4,400
300
7,400
25,200

1,250
2,100
200
2,800
13,200

1,250
2,300
100
4,600
12,000

10,015,000

12,200,000

21.8

396,000

182,000

214,000

17.1004
17.1001

22,000
200,000
869,000

28,000
260,000
1,075,000

27.3
30.0
23.7

800
8,400
39,300

500
5,000
17,200

300
3,400
22,100

17.1099
17.1002
17.1099
17.1099
17.1009
17.1006

60,000
190,000
14,500
37,000
9,000
30,000

90,000
270,000
18,000
47,000
13,000
38,000

50.0
42.1
24.1
27.0
44.4
26.7

3,600
10,500
500
1,700
500
1,250

2,500
6,700
300
800
350
650

1,100
3,800
200
900
150
600

17.100302
17.1005
17.1006
17.1007
17.1010
17.2205

285,000
430,000
40,000
330,000
55,000
50,000

410,000
510,000
40,000
475,000
80,000
70,000

43.9
18.6

10,400
6,700

43.9
45.5
40.0

14,800
18,200
700
19,500
3,000
2,500

12,100
2,100
1,700

4,400
11,500
700
7,400
900
800

17.1004

30,000

35,000

16.7

850

350

500

17.1099

75,000

105,000

40.0

3,900

2,500

1,400

400,000

450,000

12.5

12,600

4,200

8,400

70,000

85,000

26.9

2,600

1,500

1,100

17.2307

150,000

160,000

6.7

3,700

800

2,900

17.01
17.0401
17.02
17.0301
17.0302,
.0303,
17.12

100,000
135,000
205,000
100,000

140,000
230,000
260,000
125,000

40.0
70.4
26.8
25.0

5,000
9,700
8,600
3,500

3,300
7,900
4,600
2,100

1,700
1,800
4,000
1,400

615,000
6,500

745,000
6,000

21.1
-7.7

20,000
50

11,300
-5 0

8,750
100

115,000

200,000

73.9

8,500

7,100

1,400

C ra ftsm e n ............................................
Building trades:
Asbestos and insulating
w o rk e rs ................................
B rickla ye rs .............................
C a rp e n te rs .............................
Cement masons (cement and
concrete finishers) ............
Electricians (construction) . .
Elevator co n s tru c to rs ............
Floor covering installers . . .
G laziers...................................
L a th e rs ...................................
Operating engineers (construc­
tion machinery operators) .
Painters and paperhangers . .
Plasterers................................
Plumbers and pipefitters . . .
R o o fe rs ...................................
Sheet-metal workers ............
Stonemasons, marble setters,
tile setters, and terrazzo
w o rk e rs ................................
Structural-, ornamental-, and
reinforcing-iron workers;
riggers; and machine movers
Machine occupations:
All-round machinists (includes
layout men, instrument
makers— mechanical) . . . .
Setup men (machine tools) . .

Tool and die makers

............

Mechanics and repairmen:
Air-conditioning, refrigeration,
and heating mechanics . . .
A ircraft mechanics ...............
Appliance servicem en............
Automobile body repairmen .
Automobile mechanics . . . .

Bowling-pin machine me­
chanics ................................
Business machine servicemen .

17.2302,
.2303
17.2302,
.2303

17.06

Average annual openings, 1968— 80

0.0

See footnotes at end of table.




71

Table B—1. Continued—Estimated 1968 employmei t, projected 1980 requirements, and average annual openings,
1968—80, by occupation
Voca­
tional
educa­
tion
codes1

Occupation

Esti­
mated
employ­
ment,
1968

Pro­
jected
require­
ments,
1980

Average annual openings, 1968— 80
Percent
change
1968-80

Total

Employ­
ment
change

Replace­
ment
needs

C r a ft s m e n —C o n t in u e d

Electric sign servicemen . . .
Farm equipment mechanics .
Industrial machinery repair­
men ......................................
Instrument repairm en............
Maintenance electricians

. . .

M illw rig h ts .............................
Television and radio
service technicians ............
Truck mechanics and bus
mechanics ..........................
Vending machine mechanics .
Watch repairmen ..................
Printing (graphic arts) occupations:
Bookbinders and related
w o rk e rs ................................
Composing room occupations
Electrotypers and stereo­
typers ...................................
Lithographic occupations . .
Photoengravers ....................
Printing pressmen and as­
sistants ................................
Telephone industry occupations:
Central office crafstmen . . .
Central office equipment
in s ta lle rs .............................
Linemen and cable
s p lic e rs ................................
Telephone and PBX in­
stallers and repairmen . . .
Other crafts occupations:
Automobile trimmers and
installation men (auto­
mobile upholsterers) . . . .
Blacksmiths ..........................
Boilermaking occupations . .
Dispensing opticians and
optical m echanics...............
Foremen ................................
Furniture upholsterers . . . .
Jewelers and jewelry re­
pairmen .............................
Locomotive engineers............
Locomotive firemen (helpers)
Motion picture pro­
jectionists ..........................
Shoe repairmen ....................
Shop trades (ra ilro a d )............
Stationary engineers ............
O peratives............................................
Driving occupations
Busdrivers, intercity . . .
See fo o tn o t e s at end o f table.

72



6,100
40,000

8,200
45,000

34.4
12.5

300
1,100

200
400

100
700

175,000

220,000

25.7

7,550

3,750

3,800

85,000

120,000

41.2

4,600

2,900

1,700

240,000
75,000

315,000
85,000

31.3
13.3

10,800
2,400

6,300
900

4,500
1,500

125,000

145,000

16.0

3,000

1,700

1,300

110,000
16,000
20,000

130,000
20,000
21,000

18.2
25.0
5.0

2,900
650
1,400

1,400
350
800

1,500
300
600

30,000
190,000

25,000
180,000

-16.7
-5.3

400
3,200

-400
-800

800
4,000

8,000
73,000
18,000

6,000
80,000
18,000

-25.0
9.6

-175
600

0.0

-2 5
1,800
300

0

150
1,200
300

90,000

105,000

16.7

2,850

1,250

1,600

17.1501

80,000

92,000

15.8

2,700

1,000

1,700

17.1501

22,000

22,000

0.0

400

0

400

17.1402

40,000 |

39,000

6.8

600

200

400

86,000

100,000

16.9

3,000

1,200

1,800

17.35
17.2399
17.1099

8,000
15,000
25,000

10,000
14,000
30,000

25.0
-6.7
20.0

350
500
1,000

175
-100
400

175
600
600

7.0601

22,000
1,444,000
32,000

23,000
1,730,000
33,000

4.5
19.8
3.1

500
56,200
800

100
24,000
100

400
32,200
700

25,000
35,000
19,000

25,000
33,000
14,100

0.0
-5.7
-25.8

200
1,350
-200

0
-150
-400

200
1,500
200

16,000
30,000
87,000
260,000

18,000
30,000
85,000
275,000

-2.3
5.8

750
1,500
2,250
7,050

150
0
-150
1,250

600
1,500
2,400
5,800

13,955,000

15,400,000

10.4

426,000

120,000

306,000

24,000

28,000

17.5

900

350

17.21,
.2101
17.1002,
17.14
17.1099

17.2102

17.35

17.3402
17.32

04.19

12.5

0.0

|

550

Table B—T . Continued—Estimated 1968 employment, projected 1980 requirements, and average annual openings,
1968—80, by occupation
Esti­
mated
employ­
ment,
1968

Pro­
jected
require­
ments,
1980

Percent
change
1968-80

Total

Employ­
ment
change

Replace­
ment
needs

65,000
235,000
85,000
1,200,000

56,000
250,000
75,000
1,450,000

-13.9
5.1
-10.7
21.9

500
3,800
1,200
37,000

-800
1,000
-700
21,500

1,300
2,800
1,900
15,500

640,000

800,000

24.7

21,600

13,200

8,400

785,000
30,000
74,000
13,000

850,000
35,000
70,000
15,700

8.4
25.0
-5.2
20.8

26,000
1,200
1,000
600

5,500
600
-300
200

20,500
600
1,300
400

400,000

475,000

15.9

10,900

6,200

4,700

585,000

635,000

8.5

19,200

4,200

15,000

500,000
200,000

520,000
200,000

4.0
2.6

10,500
4,500

1,700
400

8,800
4,100

30,000
163,000
160,000

39,000
183,000
170,000

29.9
12.2
8.5

1,600
4,100
4,000

750
1,500
1,100

850
2,600
2,900

12,100

11,600

-4.5

-450

-550

100

73,000

58,000

-20.6

-600

-1,300

700

17.3203

23,500

40,000

68.9

2,500

1,400

1,100

17.2306

480,000

675,000

40.6

23,000

16,000

Laborers nonfarm .............................
Bridge and building workers
(ra ilro a d ).............................
Track workers (railroad) . . .
Construction laborers and
hod carriers .......................

3,555,000

3,500,000

-1.5

60,000

-4,000

Service occupations

Occupation

Operatives— Continued
Busdrivers, local
transit ..........................
R o u te m e n .......................
T axid rivers........................
Truckdrivers, local . . . .
Truckdrivers, over-theroad .............................
Other operative occupations
Assemblers.......................
Automobile painters . . .
Brakemen (railroad) . . .
E le ctro p la te rs..................
Gasoline service station
a tte n d a n ts .....................
Inspectors (manu­
facturing) ....................
Machine tool op­
erators ..........................
Meat c u tte r s ....................
Photographic labora­
tory occupations . . . .
Power truck operators . .
Production painters . . . .
Signal department w ork­
ers (railroad) ...............
Stationary firemen
(b o ile r)..........................
Waste water treatment
plant o p e ra to rs ............
Welders and oxygen
and arc cutters ............

Voca­
tional
educa­
tion
codes1

04.19
04.06
04.19

04.16

17.2302
.2303

17.0901

7,000
64,000

17.2601
04.10
17.11
17.2602
17.2801
7.0302
7.0303,
04

11,200
57,000

10,900
55,000

-2.7
-3.7

275
1,300

-25
-200

300
1,500

750,000

925,000

23.3

29,000

15,000

14,000

9,381,000

13,100,000

39.6

752,000

310,000

442,000

210,000

260,000

23.8

12,800

4,200

8,600

1,100
80,000
48,000
38,000

300
30,000
19,000
17,000

800
50,000
29,000
21,000

7,700
48,000

5,200
23,000

2,500
25,000

100,000

58,000

42,000

2,400
15,000

600
6,500

1,800
8,500

30,000
1,100,000
670,000
475,000
6,600
180,000
320,000

32,000
1,460,000
900,000
685,000

10.6
32.7
33.2
42.9

245,000
600,000

34.0
87.5

800,000

1,500,000

87.5
i

Housekeepers and assistants
(hotels) ......................................
Police officers (mu- cipal) . . . .

'

!

..........................

Barbers ................................... .. .
Bellmen and bell captains
(hotels) ......................................
Building custodians ....................
Cooks and chefs ..........................
Cosm etologists.............................
FBI special a g e n ts .......................
F ire fig h te rs ...................................
Licensed practical n u rs e s ............
Hospital attendants ....................

Average annual openings, 1968— 80

04.10
16.0605

25,000
285,000

35,000
360,000

27.6
27.5

i
;
!

i

'

See foo tn otes at end o f table.




73

Table B - 1 . Continued-Estimated 1968 employment, projected 1980 requirements, and average annual openings,
1968—80, by occupation

Occupation

Service occupations— Continued
Private household workers . . . .
State police o f f ic e r s .....................
Stewardesses (civil aviation) . . .
Waiters and waitresses..................

Farm w o rk e rs ......................................

Voca­
tional
educa­
tion
codes1

16.0605
04.19
04.07
17.2904

Esti­
mated
employ­
ment,
1968

Pro­
jected
require­
ments,
1980

Percent
change
1968-80

1,700,000
35,000
25,000

1,980,000
52,000
65,000

960,000
3,464,000

1 Vocational Education Codes are from Vocational Education
and Occupations, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, Offices of Education and U.S. Department of Labor
Manpower Administration, U.S. Government Printing Office,
1968.
2 Includes an estimated 20,400 replacements for those who
transfer to other occupations. Replacements for the selected
branches of engineering do not include transfer losses.
3 Includes an estimated 3,800 replacements for those who
transfer to other occupations.
4 Includes an estimated 5,300 replacements for those who
transfer to other occupations.

74



Average annual openings, 1968— 80

Total

Employ­
ment
change

Replace­
ment
needs

14.8
47.7
150.7

121,000
2,800

21,000
1,700

100,000
1,100

1,240,000

28.3

67,000

2,600,000

-3 3 .0

25,000

—

—

23,000
. . .

____

44,000
25,000

in clu d e s an estimated 3,700 replacements fo r those who
transfer to other occupations.
6 Includes an estimated 1,400 replacements for those who
transfer to other occupations.
7 Includes annual replacements of 53,000 who die and retire,
38.000 who shift to another profession, and 4,700 who take the
place of sub-standard teachers.
8 Includes annual replacements of 29,000 who die and retire,
58.000 who shift to another profession, and 2,800 who take the
place of sub-standard teachers.
NOTE: Percents may not agree with totals because of round­
ing.

Appendix C. Detailed training Statistics

This appendix presents two tables containing all
available statistics on the numbers of persons completing
training for occupations for which appendix B presents
projections. Table C-l presents statistics for occupations
that require fewer than 4 years of college; Table C-2
presents data on occupations for which a college degree
and graduate degrees are required. Data are presented in
tabular form for use of individuals only needing statistics
on training for their specific purpose. These same data
are presented in chapter IV along with the discussion of
the ways workers get their training in specific occupa­
tions and the statistics on projections that are sum­
marized in tabular form in appendix B.

Data in table C-l are not comparable because different
programs cover different time periods (fiscal years,
academic years, calendar years). Some refer to enroll­
ments which are used as a proxy for completions
although all individuals enrolled in a specific program do
not complete the required training. Nevertheless, the
information is valuable if used as recommended in the
body of this bulletin. The table emphasizes the frag­
mentary and inconsistent nature of the data on this
subject and the need for its improvement. Footnotes are
used extensively to indicate data limitations. (See
discussion on p. 2).

Table C— 1. Known training in occupations which generally require less than a college degree and fo r which projec­
tions o f manpower requirements have been prepared

Occupation

Junior
college
graduates
academic year
1968-69

MDTA enrollments,
fiscal year 1969
On-the-job

Institutional

Vocational education com­
pletions, fiscal year 1969
Secondary

Post-secondary

Apprentice­
ship
completions
1969

P ro fe ssio n a l an d relate d
o c c u p a tio n s

Health service occupations:
Dental h y g ie n is ts ..................
Dental laboratory
technicians ........................
Registered nurses1 ...............
Medical laboratory
workers .............................
Radiological tech­
nologists ..............................
Medical record libararians . .
Other health service
o ccu p a tio n s........................

1,956

4

929

364
8,960

96
29

246
6,228

772

600

1,058

570

93

442

3,023

3,618

12,853

3,099

12,332

30,149

1,996

2,600

18,600

Forestry aides:
Technicians:
D ra fts m e n ..............................
Engineering and science
technicians ........................
Surveyors .............................
Other professional and
related occupations:
Broadcast technicians . . . .
Commercial a r t is t s ...............
Pilots and copilots ...............

30,018

791

See footnotes at end of table.




75

Table C —1. Continued- Known training in occupations which generally require less than a college degree and for
which projections of manpower requirements have been prepared

Occupation

Clerical and related occupations . . .
Bank clerks ................................
Bank tellers ................................
Bookkeeping w o rk e rs ..................
Cashiers ......................................
Clerks (ra ilro a d )..........................
Dental assistants..........................
Electronic computer op­
erating personnel .....................
Front office clerks
(h o te ls )......................................
Library te c h n ic ia n s .....................
Mail c a r r ie r s ................................
Office machine operators . . . .
Postal c le r k s ................................
Receptionists .............................
Shipping and receiv­
ing c le rk s ...................................
Station agents (rail­
roads) ......................................
Stenographers and
secretaries ................................
Telegraphers, telephoners,
and towermen (railroad) . . . .
Telephone operators ..................
Traffic agents and clerks
(civil a v ia tio n )..........................
T y p is t s .........................................
Sales occupations .............................
Manufacturers' salesm en............
Real estate salesmen and
b ro k e rs ......................................
Retail trade salesworkers............
Automobile parts
countermen .............................
Automobile salesmen..................
Automobile service
advisors ...................................
Wholesale trade sales­
workers ...................................
Service o c cu p a tio n s ..........................
B a rb e rs .........................................
Bellmen and bell cap­
tains .........................................
Building cu sto d ia n s....................
Cooks and c h e fs ..........................
Cosmetologists ..........................
Firefighters ................................
Licensed practical
nurses ......................................
Hospital a tte n d a n ts .....................
Housekeepers and as­
sistants (h o te ls ) .......................
Police o f f ic e r s .............................
Private household
workers ...................................
State police o ffic e rs ....................
Waiters and waitresses ...............

See footnotes at end of table.

76



Junior
college
graduates
academic year
1968-69

MDTA enrollments,
fiscal year 1969
On-the-job

Institutional

Vocational education com­
pletions, fiscal year 1969
Secondary

Post-secondary

2 218,149

39,492

1,201

1,952

126,782

15,373

80,472

7,592

396,928

320,595

44,991
139

248
553

800
1,563
7,126
34

74
423
2,476
823

5,564

2,192
7,270

19,586
3,939

52,851

5168

54,846

6663

6 110

17,092

2 26,700

2 10,200

1,307
4,633

134

1,500

170

6,480

3,685

4 11,400

4 14,000

1,800

3,606

Apprentice­
ship
completions,
1969

Table C- 1. Continued- Known training in occupations which generally require less than a college degree and for
which projections of manpower requirements have been prepared

Occupation

Junior
college
graduates
academic year
1968-69

MDTA enrollments,
fiscal year 1969
On-the-job

Institutional

Vocational education com­
pletions, fiscal year 1969
Secondary

Post-secondary

Apprentice­
ship
completions,
1969

Craftsmen
Building trades:
Asbestos and insulat­
ing w o r k e r s ............
Bricklayers ...............
Carpenters ..................
Cement masons . . . .
Electricians (con­
struction) ...............
Elevator constructors
Floor covering in­
stallers .....................
Glaziers .....................
L a thers........................
Operating engineers
Painters and paperhangers ..................
Plasterers ..................
Plumbers and pipe­
fitters .....................
Roofers .....................
Sheet-metal workers .
Stonemasons ............
Structural iron
workers ..................
Riggers and machine
m o v e rs .....................
Other construction oc­
cupations ...............
Machine occupations . . .
All-round machinists .
Setup m a n ..................
Tool-and die-makers .
Mechanics and repairmen
Air-conditioning, re­
frigeration, and
heating mechanics .
Aircraft mechanics . .
Appliance service­
men ........................
Automobile body re­
pairmen ..................
Automobile mechanics
Bowling-pin machine
re p a irm e n ...............
Business machine ser­
vicemen .....................
Electric sign service­
men ........................
Farm equipment
m ech an ics...............
Industrial machinery
re p a irm e n ...............
Instrument repairmen
Maintenance electri­
cians ........................
Millwrights ...............
TV and radio service
technicians ............

3,700

500

4,032
7,472

272
1,080

71,651
3,698
300
5,091

217
145
103

299

405
43

33
25

829
228

725

162

1,385

254

4,888
290
2,544

2,006

51,295
1,900

911,455
1016,547

1,064
10 3,454

1,063
3,527

1,800

4,125

2,000
2,200

3,900
9,700

1 124,465

1 1 13,666

880

4,043
1,781

1,098

267

4,164

1,586
1,017

349

119

232

211

See footnotes at end of table.




77

Table C —1. Continued—Known training in occupations which generally require less than a college degree and for
which projections of manpower requirements have been prepared

Occupation

Junior
college
graduates
academic year
1968-69

MDTA enrollments,
fiscal year 1969
On-the-job

Institutional

Vocational education com­
pletions, fiscal year 1969
Secondary

Post-secondary

210,281

121,739

Apprentice­
ship
completions,
1969

Craftsmen” Continued
Truck and bus me­
chanics ..................
Vending machine me­
chanics ..................
Watch repairmen . .
Printing (graphic arts)
o c c u p a tio n s ..................
Bookbinders and re­
lated workers . . . .
Composing room oc­
cupations ...............
Electrotypers and
stereotypers............
Lithographic occu­
pations .....................
Photoengravers . . . .
Printing pressmen and
assistants ...............
Other printing occupations

315
837
27
785
54
826
99

Telephone industry occu­
pations ......................................
Central office crafts­
men ...................................
Central office equip­
ment installers ..................
Linemen and cable
splicers................................
Telephone and PBX
installers and
re p a irm e n ..........................
Other craft occupations ............
Automobile trimmers
and installation
men ...................................
B la cksm ith s...........................
Boilermaking occupa­
tions ...................................
Dispensing opticians
and optical mechanics . . .
F o re m e n ................................
Furniture upholsterers . . . .
Jewelers and jewelry
re p a irm e n ..........................
Locomotive engineers . . . .
Locomotive firemen
(h e lp e rs ).............................
Motion picture pro­
jectionists ..........................
Shoe re p a irm e n .....................
Shop trades (rail­
road) ...................................
Stationary e n g in e e rs............
O p e ra tiv e s

..................................................

Driving occupations . .
Busdrivers, intercity

See footnotes at end of table.

78



396

180

62,400

161,600

44

77

*1,330

4332

5248

526

624,465

16 4,043

Table C —1. Continued—Known training in occupations which generally require less than a college degree and for
which projections of manpower requirements have been prepared

Occupation

Junior
college
graduates
academic year
1968-69

MDTA enrollments,
fiscal year 1969
On-the-job

Institutional

Vocational education comApprenticepletions, fiscal year 1969
ship
--------------------------------------------- completions,
Secondary
Post-secondary
1969

O p e ra tiv e s—C o n t in u e d

Busdrivers, local
t r a n s i t ................................
R o u te m e n ..............................
Taxi drivers ...........................
Truckdrivers, local ...............
Truckdrivers, over-the-road. .
Other operative occupations:
Assemblers..............................
Automobile p a in te rs ............
Brakemen (railroad) ............
E le ctro pla te rs........................
Gasoline service sta­
tion a tte n d a n ts ..................
Inspectors (manufacturing). .
Machine tool operators . . .
Meat c u tte rs ..........................
Photographic labora­
tory o ccu p a tio n s ...............
Power truck operators . . . .
Production painters ............
Stationary firemen
(boiler) .............................
Waste water treatment
plant o p e ra to rs ..................
Welders and oxygen
and arc cutters ..................

630

1,700

8,800

1,026
630

156
107

711

666

6,596

4,254

Construction laborers
*The total number of registered nurses trained was 33,800 in
academic year 1968— 69. In addition to the training sources
shown, many were trained in hospital programs and some in
4-year college programs.
2 Includes training in occupations such as typists, bank tellers,
office machine operators, bookkeeping workers, electronic com­
puter operating personnel, and railway clerks. The number being
trained in each occupation cannot be ascertained from the
available data.
3 Includes all persons who completed distributive education
programs.
4 Includes kitchen workers, maids and housemen (hotels and
restaurants), porters and cleaners, and attendants. The number
being trained in each occupation cannot be ascertained from the
available data.
5May include some State police officer training.
6Also includes some steward department occupations in the
Merchant Marine.
7 Includes brick, stone, and tile workers.
8 Includes riveters, construction occupations not classified, and
miscellaneous structural workers. The number in each occupa­
tion cannot be ascertained from the available data.
9The number in each occupation cannot be ascertained from




the available data.
10 Includes structural iron workers, machinists, machine tool
operators, instrument makers, set up men, inspection occupa­
tions, boilermakers, welders, and others. The number in each
occupation cannot be ascertained from available data.
1 1 Includes many repairmen such as auto, truck, and bus
mechanics; appliance servicemen; and industrial machine repair­
men. The number in each occupation cannot be ascertained from
available data.
12 Includes composing room occupations, printing pressmen,
electrotypers, and stereotypers. The number in each occupation
is not ascertainable from the available data.
13 Includes linemen, testboardmen, telephone repairmen, and
other occupations. The number in each occupation cannot be
ascertained from the available data.
14 Includes some upholsterers other than furniture.
15 Also includes shoe manufacturing occupations.
16 Includes trainees in many different industries and occupa­
tions such as punching and shearing occupations, spinning
occupations, wood machining occupations; and occupations in
plastics, rubber, machinery (assembly), electronics, and trans­
portation equipment.

79

Table C— 2.

Degrees from institutions o f higher education by field o f study and level, United States, 1968— 69
Major field of study

Bachelor's
degrees

First
professional
degrees

Master's
degrees

Doctoral
degrees

A g ric u ltu re .......................................................................
Architecture ....................................................................
Biological sciences...........................................................
Biology, g e n e ra l........................................................
Botany, general ......................................... ..
Zoology, general .....................................................
Bacteriology, virology, micology, parasitology,
microbiology ........................................................
Biochemistry ...........................................................
Biological sciences, all o t h e r ...................................

8,044
3,331
35,308
23,305
576
5,488

1,696
579
5,743
2,503
412
812

605
7
3,051
363
249
310

1,357
347
4,235

430
268
1,318

331
471
1,327

Business and com m e rce..................................................
Accounting ..............................................................
Business and commerce, all o t h e r ..........................

93,561
20,032
73,529

19,325
1,333
17,992

533
40
493

Education .......................................................................
Counseling and g u id a n c e .........................................
Elementary education ............................................
Secondary e d u c a tio n ...............................................
Education, all o th e r ..................................................
Engineering.......................................................................
English and lite ra tu r e .....................................................
Fine and allied arts ........................................................
Foreign languages and lite ra tu re ...................................
Forestry ..........................................................................
Geography .......................................................................

152,257
15
80,610
2,285
69,347
41,248
54,279
31,588
21,685
1,921
3,333

71,076
9,325
12,753
4,584
44,414
15,240
8,524
7,413
5,034
374
563

4,829
401
177
143
4,108
23,377
1,151
684
749
94
124

Health professions...........................................................
Dentistry (D.D.S. and D.M.D.) .............................
Medical te c h n o lo g y ..................................................
Medicine ( M .D .) ........................................................
Nursing and/or public health n u rs in g ....................
Pharmacy .................................................................
Veterinary medicine (D .V .M .) ................................
Health professions, all o t h e r ...................................

19,825

4,067

283

Home economics ...........................................................
Journalism .......................................................................
Law (LL.B., J.D., or Higher degrees) ..........................
Library science.................................................................

8,979
5,197
415
1,000

Mathematical subjects.....................................................
M athe m atics..............................................................
Statistics (including actuarial science) ..................

13,673
3,408

2,811

28
8,025

10,328
4,073

1,385
232

3
74

2,422

177

1,149
785
830
5,932

102
22
18
17

27,209
26,905
304

5,713
5,217
496

1,097
956
141

Military science ..............................................................
P h ilo s o p h y .......................................................................

1,895
6,100

694

286

Physical sciences..............................................................
Chemistry .................................................................
Geology ....................................................................
P h y s ic s .......................................................................
Physical sciences, all o t h e r ......................................

21,480
11,702
1,973
5,578
2,287

5,895
2,023
620
2,252
1,000

3,859
1,895
288
1,296
380

P sycho lo gy.......................................................................
R e lig io n ............................................................................

29,332
5,276

4,011
2,884

1,551
346

Social scie nces.................................................................
E co n o m ics.................................................................
H is to r y .......................................................................
Political science or g o v e rn m e n t.............................
Sociology .................................................................
Social work, administration, welfare ....................
Social sciences, all other .........................................

140,960
16,867
40,939
23,789
26,219
3,367
29,779

22,649
2,108
5,271
2,107
1,656
5,037
6,470

3,150
634
826
467
430
90
703

See footnotes at end of table.

80



2,613

1,146
1,094

17,053

4,338

Table C— 2.
1968-69

Continued— Degrees from institutions of higher education by field of study and level, United States,

Major field of study
Trade and industrial tr a in in g .........................................
Other broad general curriculums and miscellaneous
fields .............................................................................

First
professional
degrees

Bachelor's
degrees
4,269
9,420

276

Master's
degrees

Doctoral
degrees

129

14

2,439

175

Source: NCES, Digest o f Educational Statistics, 1970, p. 89, table 117.




☆ U .S . GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1971 O - 437-211 (64)

81







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