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U 3,357a UWARY UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BULLETIN OF THE WOMEN’S BUREAU, NO. 70 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES [Public—No. 259—66th Congress] [H. R. 13229] An Act To establish in the Department of Labor a bureau to be known as the Women’s Bureau Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That there shall be established in the Department of Labor a bureau to be known as the Women’s Bureau. Sec. 2. That the said bureau shall be in charge of a director, a woman, to be appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, who shall receive an annual compensation of $5,000.. It shall be the duty of said bureau to formulate standards and policies which shall promote the welfare of wage-earning women, improve their working conditions, increase their efficiency, and advance their opportunities for profitable employment. The said bureau shall have authority to investigate and report to the said department upon all matters pertaining to the welfare of women in industry. The director of said bureau may from time to time pub lish the results of these investigations in such a manner and to such extent as the Secretary of Labor may prescribe. Sec. 3. That there shall be in said bureau an assistant director, to be appointed by the Secretary of Labor, who shall receive an annual compensation of $3,500 and shall perform such duties as shall be prescribed by the director and approved by the Secretary of Labor. Seo. 4. That there is hereby authorized to be employed by said bureau a chief clerk and such special agents, assistants, clerks, and other employees at such rates of compensation and in such numbers as Congress may from time to time provide by appropriations. Seo. 5. That the Secretary of Labor is hereby directed to furnish sufficient quarters, office furniture, and equipment for the work of this bureau. Seo. 6. That this act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage. Approved, June 5, 1920. f si i -^^^■>- .—**Sg*- pRS- ' ■ fy V ~~ sIS*®*1 S‘,r-' *• NEGRO WOMEN WEIGHING COILS OP WIRE FOR BED SPRINGS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR JAMES J. DAVIS, Secretary WOMEN’S BUREAU MARY ANDERSON, Director BULLETIN OF THE WOMEN’S BUREAU, NO. 70 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES oL UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1929 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAT BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS U.S.GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 CENTS PER COPY CONTENTS Page Letter of transmittal________________________________________________ Chapter I. Introduction Scope and method__ _ Summary of outstanding facts______________________ II. Occupational distribution 13 Tobacco and cigars 15 Food______________________________________________ Textiles 20 Wood products__________ Glass 25 Miscellaneous industries 26 Summary 28 . III. Hours 31 Daily hours 31 Weekly hours 33 IV. Extent of timework and piecework 35 V. Earnings 39 Week’s earnings 39 Week’s earnings and weekly rates of pay_____________ Week’s earnings of timeworkers and of pieceworkers in the same occupation 43 Year’s earnings 46 Summary 47 VI. The workers__________________________________ ________ Age_________________ Time in the trade 50 Marital status_______________ Summary 54 Appendixes: A. List of occupations of negro women 57 B. General tables 62 v 1 2 4 18 24 42 49 49 52 TEXT TABLE Table 1. Number of negro women reported by the census of 1920 and proportion covered by Women’s Bureau surveys, by industry. _ 3 APPENDIX TABLES Table 1. Scheduled daily and weekly hours of the largest groups of negro women in chief industries 62 2. Week’s earnings, weekly rates, and year’s earnings of negro women in 11 States, by State and year of survey___________ 3. Week’s earnings, by industry, occupation, and year of survey.. 4. Week’s earnings and weekly rates in chief industries, by State and year of survey 66 5. Week’s earnings of timeworkers and pieceworkers, in the same occupation, by industry, occupation, and year of survey_____ 6. Week’s earnings and year’s earnings in chief industries, by year of survey 72 63 64 68 ILLUSTRATION Negro women weighing coils of wire for bed springsFrontispiece. CHARTS Negro women gainfully employed, 1910 and 1920________________________ Industrial distribution of 12,284 negro women in 15 StatesI. Median week’s earnings of 5,390 negro women in 10 States_____________ Time in the trade: 2,819 negro women in 12 States____________________ hi vi 12 39 51 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL United States Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau, Washington, January 10,1929. I have the honor to transmit herewith the bulletin “ Negro Women in Industry in 15 States.” The material in this bulletin is from industrial surveys made by the Women’s Bureau in 15 States in which negro women were in cluded in the survey. The research work and the writing of the report have been done by Miss Mary Elizabeth Pidgeon, assistant editor of the Women’s Bureau. Respectfully submitted. Mary Anderson, Director. Hon. James J. Davis, Secretary of Labor. Sir : NEGRO WOMEN GAINFULLY EMPLOYED (figures from U.S.Census of Occupations) 52.2% 1.051,137-612,261 67,937-104-,983 8,313-14,683 29,645-59,127 Aoricu Iture Manufacturing Trade and and Mechanical Transportation * u.s.Dept.of Labor Womens Bureau VI Professional . 3,132—8,501 853,387-790.651 Clerical Domestic an<* Personal __________________________ _________________ NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES CHAPTER I.—INTRODUCTION At the end of 1920, two years after the close of the war, the Women’s Bureau made a survey of negro women, covering 11,812 women in 150 manufacturing plants in nine States.1 Since the time for investigation was short, an exhaustive study could not be made. Instead, facts were gathered from selected places over a widely extended territory. The chief object of this study was to outline changes in industrial status occasioned by the war. An opening of opportunity and a marked transition of negro women from domestic service and other home pursuits to factory work was discovered. Especial attention was given to the particular occupations in which negro women were engaged. Since the time of this earlier negro study, the figures of the Four teenth Census have become available. According to these, the number of negro women gainfully employed in 1920 was 1,571,289,2 nearly 443,000 fewer than in 1910, though the number of employed women of all races had increased by nearly 474,000. In 1920 the negro women engaged in gainful occupations formed 38.9 per cent of all negro women; they formed 18.4 per cent of all employed women. These per cents show considerable decreases from 1910, when 54.7 per cent of all negro women were gainfully occupied, forming 24.9 per cent of all women so employed. The decrease among negro women was largely in agriculture, in which their number fell off by 438,876, a reduction that undoubtedly was mainly due to the fact that the census of 1910 was taken in April and that of 1920 was taken in January. The number of negro women in domestic and personal service also declined in the 10 years to the extent of 7.4 per cent, much less than the proportion of decrease for all women so engaged, which was 13.6 per cent. In all the occupational groups but the two described, negro women gained in numbers; manufacturing employed 37,046 more in 1920 than in 1910. The proportion of the employed negro women who were in the manufacturing and mechanical industries nearly doubled, rising from 3.4 per cent of the total in 1910 to 6.7 per cent of the total in 1920, when 104,983 are listed in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits. This is in vivid contrast to the increase of only one-tenth of 1 per cent in all women so engaged, and shows a very striking change in the status of negro women during the decade. Dabor. Womens Bureau. Negro Women in Industry. Bui. 20, 1922. this bulletin ran through three editions, with a total of 21,000 copies. Although how out Of print, it may be obtained in many libraries in all parts of the country. Vr..,i Department of Labor. Women’s Bureau. Facts About Working Women. Bui. 4b, 1925, pp. 12-16. (Data from U. S, Bureau of the Census and Women’s Bureau surveys.) 1 2 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES In brief: At the earlier census, of every 20 negro women, between 10 and 11 were in agriculture, between 8 and 9 were in domestic and personal service, and 1 was in other lines of work; 10 years later, of every 20 negro women, between 7 and 8 were in agriculture, 10 were in domestic and personal service, and between 2 and 3 were in other work. SCOPE AND METHOD In addition to its study of negro women previously referred to, the Women's Bureau has made industrial surveys of 15 States in which negro women were found. Of these, 2 were made prior to the time of the special negro study, 3 were carried on at about the same period, and 10 were conducted at later dates. The States included, the years of their surveys, and the numbers of negro women in manufacturing and general mercantile establishments are as follows: Alabama, 1922 1G7 Arkansas, 1922_______________ 76 Georgia, 1920-21 931 Illinois, 19241,533 Indiana, 1918_________________ 64 Iowa, 1920___________________ 18 Kansas, 1920 176 Kentucky, 19211,127 Mississippi, 1925______________ 246 Missouri, 19221,154 New Jersey, 1922_____________ 121 Ohio, 1922 697 South Carolina, 1921-22_______ 268 Tennessee, 1925______________ 674 Virginia, 1919-205,032 These 15 State studies included 17,134 negro women in 682 estab lishments. Of this number 4,850 women in 370 plants have not been tabulated for the present study, since the interest of this bulletin cen ters in the negro woman in the newer manufacturing pursuits and those excluded were known to be engaged in occupations considered customary for negro women, such as sweeping and cleaning, or were in laundries, hotels, or restaurants. Of the number remaining, 12,123 were in 251 manufacturing plants, and 161 were in 61 general mercan tile establishments, the latter in 12 only of the 15 States. It is prob able that not quite all the women in the more traditional types of work have been excluded, since some whose occupations were not reported are likely to have been sweepers or cleaners, as may also have been some whose departments were reported but whose exact occupations were not specified; but if the duties of these wTere not especially un usual, at least the scene of their labors had been shifted into the manufacturing world. Most of those in stores were maids, as were also a very few in certain miscellaneous industries. The 12,123 in manufacturing for whom reports were obtained form 11.5 per cent of the 104,983 negro women whom the 1920 census records as in manufacturing and mechanical industries; and, if exact occupations could be analyzed, the census numbers undoubtedly would include some of the sweepers and cleaners vTho have been omitted from the present study. The industries in which the largest numbers of negro women were found vTere tobacco, food, textiles, and vrood. ihe proportions that those included form of the total numbers of negro women reported by the census in these industries and in glass making may be seen from the table following: 3 INTRODUCTION Table 1.—Number of negro women reported by the census of 1920 and pro portion covered by Women’s Bureau surveys, by indu'stry Women’s Bureau, 1919-1925 2 United States Census of 1920 1 Number of negro women Industry Semi Labor skilled ers opera tives Industry Total 8,383 13,446 21,829 280 960 1,051 '466 298 1,204 976 532 578 2,164 2,027 '998 3,122 944 4, 066 2,634 515 26 Textile mills not specified... 298 1,099 833 65 774 3,733 1,348 91 1,072 Food industries: Fruit and vegetable canning. Slaughter and packing house. Glass factories.. ------- ---------Lumber and furniture indusTextile industries: 1 U. S. Bureau of the Census. Negro women Per cent of those Num re ber ported in 1920 census 6,411 Food: Canning and preserving 3__. Slaughtering and meat 29.4 164 28.4 880 Other food, including nuts. 1,049 298 Glass_________ __________ ____ 978 Textiles: 319 Hosiery and yarn. _. .......... 350 95 Bags and waste__ ________ 412 40. 7 51.8 29.9 24.1 8. 5 26.0 38.4 Fourteenth Census: 1920, vol. 4, Population, Occupations, pp. 342-359, J ttuic o. 2 The numbers include also the following, studied late in 1918: In glass products, 54 women; in wood products, 10 women. 3 Includes 17 women who were not in fruit and vegetable canneries. The methods employed were the same in all the State studies. Definite information as to numbers of employees and their hours and earnings, together with facts concerning the conditions under which they worked, was scheduled by investigators, who secured the data from interviews with employers and managers, from time-book rec ords of the hours worked by employees and the sums paid to them, and from personal inspection of the plants. To obtain exact informa tion the investigators copied direct from the written records of the firm the data on actual time worked and amounts received. Records ordinarily were obtained for a week in the same month in all estab lishments visited in a State, except where plants had been running slack or where time records were not available, and in these cases an other week, selected by the firm, was taken. Every effort was made to obtain records for a week in which there were no holidays or shut downs and no unusual situations affecting hours or earnings. Em ployees were asked to furnish information as to age, nativity, experi ence in the trade, and marital status. In some cases this material was supplemented by facts obtained in home visits. While the methods used were similar, the study in each State formed an independent unit. The combined data in regard to negro women in all the States included form a fairly representative pic ture in respect to hours of labor, to extent of timework and piecework, and to personal facts such as age, time in the trade, and marital status, little variation occurring in these during a period of several years. In respect to earnings, however, since account would have to be taken of the industrial fluctuations occurring during the length of time over which the various State studies extended, the figures must 4 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES take account of the year, and the data taken in different States can not in all cases be compared. In respect to exact occupations, since the chief purpose in each State study was to discover the hours, the earnings, and the conditions of work for women rather than to note their particular occupations, such occupations can not always be given, although in many cases this is possible. In addition, the in dustrial progress during the time from late 1918 to date naturally has resulted in the introduction of changes in certain processes and in their attending occupations. While some of the older and more arduous methods have now been superseded, the description herein given must necessarily conform to the occupations as actually found at the time of the study. After a preliminary consideration of the occupations in which negro women were engaged, the general plan followed in setting forth the material under each of the different headings will be to deal with totals, with States, with industries, and finally, where possible, with occupations. The data in regard to the 12,284 negro women have been arranged by industry for the daily hours of 11,923 workers; for the weekly hours of 11,921; for the marital status of 3,048; and for the time during which 2,787 women had been in their trades. In addition, it has been possible to arrange by occupational groups as well as by in dustry the data for the proportion of timeworkers and pieceworkers among 6,428 women; for the age of 3,150; for the weekly rate of pay of 1,689; for the actual week’s earnings of 5,558; and for the year’s earnings of 326 workers. Since the women studied in manufacturing form a good proportion of all negro women recorded by the 1920 census as engaged in-manu facturing and mechanical pursuits, and in practically all the indus tries employing the largest numbers of negro women those reported form a good proportion of the total census numbers in the same in dustries; since in each State establishments were selected as repre sentative of the chief industries employing women and of the various localities within the State; and since, also, the different sections where negroes are employed are well represented, it may be confidently asserted that the conditions found present a fairly accurate cross section of the prevailing status of negro women in manufacturing during the first half of the present decade. SUMMARY OF OUTSTANDING FACTS Scope of survey: Number of States studied 15 Number of establishments visited 682 Number of negro women employed_______________________ 17,134 Number of establishments in manufacturing and mercantile indus tries 312 Number of negro women employed in these, exclusive of women known to be sweepers or cleaners_____________________ 12, 284 Number of women in manufacturing plants____ _________________ 12,123 Number of women in general mercantile establishments___________ 161 Industries included: Clothing—States, 6; establishments, 16; women__________________ Drugs and chemicals—States, 4; establishments, 8; women________ Food products— Bakeries—States, 3; establishments, 7 ; women_______________ Candy—States, 6; establishments, 10; women________________ 123 55 36 205 INTRODUCTION 5 Industries included—Continued. Food products—Continued. 164 Canning and preserving—States, 4 ; establishments, 6; women.. Slaughtering and meat packing—States, 3; establishments, 9; 880 women Nuts—States, 2; establishments, 6; women----------------------------- 1,017 84 Other food—States, 4; establishments, 7 ; women-------------------298 Glass—States, 5; establishments, 5; women------------------------- ,-------341 House furnishings—States, 2; establishments, 6; women---------------78 Metal products—States, 3; establishments, 4 ; women-------------------Paper and paper products— 74 Paper—States, 2; establishments, 2; women-------------------------19 Paper boxes—States, 2; establishments, 3 ; women------------------Textiles— 296 Bags—States, 4; establishments, 7 ; women---------------------------96 Cordage and twine—States, 3; establishments, 5 ; women-------288 Cotton yard goods—States, 6; establishments, 25; women------327 Hosiery and knit goods—States, 6; establishments, 7; women— 116 Waste—States, 2; establishments, 2; women------------------------23 Yarn—States, 2; establishments, 3; women----------------------------31 Other textiles—States, 2; establishments, 3 ; women---------------Tobacco and tobacco products— 616 Cigars—States, 6; establishments, 15; women----------------------Tobacco—States, 6; establishments, 49; women---------------------- 5, 795 Wood products— Boxes and crates—States, 5; establishments, 12; women---------332 187 Furniture—States, 3 ; establishments, 5; women----------------------55 Lumber and veneer—States, 4; establishments, 6; women-------Other wood—States, 6; establishments, 9; women..---------------406 Miscellaneous manufacturing— Electrical supplies—States, 1; establishments, 1; women---------50 13 Glue—States, 1; establishments, 1; women----------------------------Leather—States, 1; establishments, 1; women------------------------12 Millinery—States, 1; establishments, 2; women---------------------17 Printing and publishing—States, 1; establishments, 1; women— 10 Rags—States, 1; establishments, 1; women---------------------------2 Rubber—States, 1; establishments, 1; women-------------- ---------29 Scientific instruments—States, 1; establishments, 1; women— 53 Toilet goods—States, 1; establishments, 2; women------------------Other—States, 3 ; establishments, 3; women-------------------------K General mercantile—States, 12; establishments, 61; women---------Hours: 1. Daily hours— a. Per cent distribution of 11,923 women in 304 establish ments in 15 States: 8 hours or less 13. 6 Over 8 and under 9 hours 7. 3 9 and under 10 hours-------------------------------------------39. 4 10 and under 12 hours 36. 8 12 hours and over--------------------------------------------------3.1 b. Industries in which specified scheduled hours prevailed; Less than 8 hours___ Glass and glass products—37.7 per cent of 215 women. (34.9 per cent had a schedule of 8 hours.) Bakeries—57.1 per cent of 21 women. 8 hours___ Cigars—36.5 per cent of 613 women. (31.3 per cent had a schedule of 9 hours.) General mercantile—39.8 per cent of 161 women. (37.9 per cent had a schedule of over 8 and under 9 hours.) Metal products—69.2 per cent of 78 women. Slaughtering and meat packing—98.9 per cent of 880 women. 6 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES Hours—Continued. 1. Daily hours—Continued. b. Industries in which specified scheduled hours prevailed—Contd. Over 8 and under 9 hours----- House furnishings—85.9 per cent of 341 women. 9 hours----- Canning and preserving—70.7 per cent of 147 women. Clothing—54.5 per cent of 123 women. Cordage and twine—92.6 per cent of 95 women. Drugs and chemicals—36.4 per cent of 55 women. (34.5 per cent had a schedule of over 8 and under 9 hours.) Nuts—59.1 per cent of 1,017 women. Over 9 and under 1 0 hours----- Bags—53.1 per cent of 288 women. Candy—67.8 per cent of 180 women. Hosiery and knit goods—32.4 per cent of 327 women. (31.8 per cent had a schedule of over 8 and under 9 hours.) Paper and paper products—71 per cent of 93 women. 10 hours----Cotton yard goods:—68.2 per cent of 277 women. Textiles—25 per cent of 1.157 women. (23.4 per cent had a schedule of over 0 and under 10 hours.) Tobacco and tobacco products—48.6 per cent of 6,229 women. Tobacco—52.2 per cent of 5,616 women. "Wood products (boxes and crates, furniture, lum ber and veneer)—76.2 per cent of 564 women. Over 10 and under 11 hours------Waste—81 per cent of 116 women. 11 hours— Yarn—91.3 per cent of 23 women. 2. Weekly hours— a. Per cent distribution of 11,921 women in 303 establishments in 15 States: 48 hours or less jg 7 Over 48 and under 55 hours 44. 3 55 and under 60 hours 33’0 60 hours and over g g 6. Industries in which specified scheduled hours prevailed: Hess than 44 hours. Bakeries—57.1 per cent of 21 women. Over 44 and under 48 hours----- Cigars—30.7 per cent of 613 women. (2S.1 per cent had a week of 50 hours.) Glass—37.7 per cent of 215 women. (34.9 per cent had a week of 48 hours.) . Metal products—67.9 per cent of 78 women. 48 hours— Slaughtering and meat packing—98.9 per cent of 880 women. Over 48 and under 50 hours----- General mercantile—24.8 per cent of 161 women. House furnishings—86.8 per cent of 341 women. 50 hours----Canning and preserving—70.7 per cent of 147 women. Clothing—29.3 per cent of 123 women. (25.2 per cent had a week of over 52 and under 54 hours.) 7 INTRODUCTION Hours—Continued. 2, Weekly hours—Continued. 5. Industris in which specified scheduled hours prevailed—Contd. 50 hours__ Cordage and twine—02.6 per cent of 95 women. Drugs and chemicals—63.6 per cent of 55 women. Nuts—59.1 per cent of 1,017 women. (20.9 per cent had a week of over 44 and under 48 hours.) Tobacco and tobacco products—26 per cent of 6,229 women. (22.1 per cent had a week of 55 hours.) Tobacco—25.8 per cent of 5,616 women. (24.5 pen cent had a week of 55 hours.) Over 50 and under 52 hours----- Candy—38.9 per cent of 180 women. Paper and paper products—71 per cent of 93 women. 52 hours Bags—53.1 per cent of 288 women. 55 hours— Cotton yard goods—69.3 per cent of 277 women. Hosiery and knit goods—47.7 per cent of 327 women. Textiles—32.4 per cent of 1.157 women. (10.4 per cent had a week of 60 hours and over.) Wood products (boxes and crates, furniture, lumber and veneer)—61.3 per cent of 564 women. 60 hours and over_. Waste—81 per cent of 116 women. Yarn—91.3 per cent of 23 women. Extent of timework and piecework: Number for whom it could be ascertained whether they were timeworkers or pieceworkers6, 428 Per cent Timeworkers 41. 7 Pieceworkers 56. 7 Workers on both time and piece 1.6 System prevailing in chief Industries Timework— General mercantile____________________________ Glass Slaughtering and meat packing_________________ Drugs and chemicals__________________________ Cotton yard goods_____________________________ Wood products (boxes, furniture, and lumber veneer)_____________________________________ Bags-------------------------------------------------------------Waste_____________________________,__________ Piecework— Nuts__________________________________________ Paper and paper products______________________ House furnishings_____________________________ Metal products------------------------------------------------Candy________________________________________ Canning and preserving________________________ Hosiery and knit goods________________________ Clothing______________________________________ Tobacco_______________________________________ Cordage and twine____________________________ Cigars________________________________________ Number of women Per cent reported . 100.0 161 . 99.3 152 . 94.5 696 . 83.3 54 68.4 136 . . - 65.8 59.7 54.3 491 288 116 _ 100.0 . 95.9 _ 91.0 _ 89.6 . 83.9 _ 74.8 _ 74.3 - 73.5 - 73.5 73.1 . 72.8 1,017 74 335 77 31 151 202 102 1,338 93 464 8 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES Earnings: 1. Week’s earnings— a. Medians of the earnings of 5,558 women in 209 establishments in 11 States— 1920, summer—Kansas,312 establishments, 168 Women. $19. 50 1920, June-July, and 1921, February-April—Georgia, 26 establishments, 931 women 6.10 1921, October, November—Kentucky, 18 establish ments, 1,126 women 8.35 1921-22, November, December, January—South Caro lina, 12 establishments, 268 women 5.25 1922, February—Alabama, 26 establishments, 155 women-_________________________________________ 6. 20 1922, February—Arkansas, 11 establishments, 76 women 5. 05 1922. April—Missouri, 17 establishments, 1,154 women. 5.10 1922, September—New Jersey, 13 establishments, 121 women-------------------------------------------------------------- 11. 30 1922, September—Ohio. 16 establishments, 652; women. 8.65 1925, January—Mississippi, 12 establishments, 243 women______________________________ __________ 5. 70 1925, February—Tennessee, 46 establishments, 664 women 7, 55 6. Highest and lowest median, by industry— 1920—High : General mercantile—8 women in 7 estab lishments 20.50 Low: Slaughtering and meat packing—157 women in 4 establishments 19. 70 1920-21—High : Sugar—48 women in 1 establishment. 10.35 Low: Clothing—33 women in 1 establish ment ---------------------------------------------------3.85 1921—High: General mercantile—7 women in 2 estab lishments 9.25 Low: Tobacco—1,086 women in 10 establish ments ------------------------------------------------------8.30 1921-22—High : General mercantile—10 women in 2 establishments10. 25 Low: Cigars—192 women in 2 establish ments 4.80 1922—High : Scientific instruments—29 women in 1 es tablishment 13.65 Low: Lumber and veneer—20 women in 2 estab lishments ; 3. 00 1925—High : Paper box—8 women in 1 establishment. 10. 50 Low’: Boxes and crates—137 women in 3 estab lishments 5.55 Hosiery and knit goods—43 women in 1 establishment 5. 55 e. Highest and lowest median, by occupation—• 1920—High: Make and stuff sausage—6 women in 2; establishments 22. 35 Low: Pick chickens—11 women in 2 establish ments 7.75 1920-21—High : Shuck oysters;—17 women in 1 estab lishment 11.50 Low: Clothing, operate machine—28 women in 1 establishment 3. 80 * The unusually high median in Kansas is caused by the high payments in slaughtering and meat packing, the industry employing 93.5 per cent of the negro women whose earn ings were reported in that State. These amounts followed the award of the United States arbitrator for labor disputes in that industry. See U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Monthly Labor Review', July, 1920, pp. 101 ff, for an article based on seven pamphlets issued by the United States administration for adjustment of labor ques tions arising in certain packing-house industries, Samuel Alschulcr, U. S. administrator. Findings and awards, Feb. 15, 1919, to Apr. 26, 1920. (Chicago, 1919, 1920.) INTRODUCTION 3 Earnings—Continued. 1. Week’s earnings—Continued. c. Highest and lowest median, by occupation—Continued. 1921—High : Tobacco, feed—20 women in 3 establish ments$14. 00 . Low: Tobacco', pick—7 women in 1 establish ment 7.30 1921-22—High: General mercantile, make altera tions—91 women in 1 establishment______ 10.15 Low: Tobacco', bunch—16 women in 1 estab lishment,______________________________ 1- 85 1922—High : Tobacco', leaf shake—5 women iii 1 estab lishment 15.25 Low: Lumber and veneer, pull—5 women in 1 establishment----------------------------------------------1.60 1925—High : Tobacco, twist—48 women in 1 establish ment 12- 60 Low: Boxes and crates, staple girls.—5 women in 1 establishment-------------------------------------3. 75 2. Week’s earnings and weekly rates— a. Medians of the week’s earnings of 1,689 women in 154 establishments in 10 States fell below medians of the weekly rates of the same women in each State by the following proportions: Per cent Percent _ 12.0 Alabama 8.8 Missouri New Jersey -_ 3.5 16.2 Georgia 13.5 Ohio South Carolina 6.9 7.3 Mississippi 7.0 Tennessee y. Industries in which the medians of earnings varied in the greatest degree from the median for all women reported in the State in which they were found— Exceeding the median for all women reported in State— General mercantile—of 8 women in 5 establishments, 75.4 per cent. General mercantile—of 10 women in 2 establishments, 69.4 per cent. Furniture—of 20 women in 1 establishment, 47.7 per cent. Cotton yard goods—of 14 women in 5 establishments, 43.4 per cent, “ Other textiles ”—of 27 women in 2 establishments, 43.4 per cent. Lumber and veneer—of 6 women in 1 establishment, 39.3 per cent. Falling- below the median for all women reported in State— Canning and preserving—of 7 women in 1 establishment, 53.3 per cent. General mercantile—of 8 women in 6 establishments, 45.2 per cent. Waste—of 41 women in 1 establishment, 29.5 per cent. Bags—of 101 women in 1 establishment, 24.6 per cent. “ Other wood ”—of 30 women in 3 establishments, 22,9 per cent. Bags—of 44 women in 3 establishments, 21 per cent. Furniture—of 58 women in 3 establishments, 20.3 per cent. 3. Week’s earnings of tlmeworkers and of pieceworkers in the same occupation at the same time, including reports on 1,743 women in 10 States— a. Timeworkers’ highest earnings— Tobacco— Stemmers, 1922.— 8 timeworkersmedian__ $12. 50 137 pieceworkers------------------------------ do-----5. 30 Stemmers, 1921— 27 timeworkersdo----- 12.10 547 pieceworkers------------------------------ dO'-----6. 75 10 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES Earnings—Continued. 3. Week’s earnings of time-workers and of pieceworkers, etc.—Contd. а. Timeworkers’ highest earnings—Continued. Cigars, stemmers, 1922— 11 timeworkersmedian— $10. 20 22 pieceworkersdo___ 10. 35 Bags, turners, 1925— 6 timeworkersdo___ 9.15 25 pieceworkersdo___ 5.15 б. Pieceworkers’ highest earnings— Furniture, assemblers, 1925—; 34 pieceworkersdo___ 11. 20 3 timeworkersrange— 1.15-6. 88 Bags, patchers, sewers, menders, 1922— 16 pieceworkersmedian_11.00 4 timeworkersrange_7. 00-10.10 Cigars, stemmers, 1922— 22 pieceworkersmedian_10. 85 11 timeworkers,_________________________ do___ 10. 20 Boxes and crates, machine operators, 1925— 5 pieceworkersdo___ 9 .85 3 timeworkersrange_5.62-6.87 4. Year’s earnings— u. Medians of the earnings of 326 women in 55 establishments in 9 States— 1920—Kansas, 5 establishments, 108 women_________ 860 1920 and 1921—Georgia, 11 establishments, 44 women, 414 1921—Kentucky, 6 establishments, 26 women________ 500 1921-22—South Carolina, 3 establishments, 12 women. 303 1922—Alabama, 6 establishments, 18 women________ 291 Missouri, 4 establishments, 14 women_________ 541 Ohio, 6 establishments, 48 women____________ 450 1925—Mississippi, 5 establishments, 24 women_______ 288 Tennessee, 9 establishments, 32 women_______ 450 6. Highest and lowest medians of the year’s earnings— 1920-21—High : “ Other wood,” 14 women in 1 estab lishment 425 Low: Boxes and crates, 5 women in 2 estab lishments,______________________________ 310 1921—Tobacco,4 25 women in 5 establishments______ 488 1921—Cigars,4 8 women in 1 establishment__________ 344 1922—High : Bags, 6 women in 2 establishments_____ 621 Low: Cotton yard goods, 12 women in 4 estab lishments___ _ 291 1925—High : Furniture, 13 women in 3 establishments. 483 Low: Candy, 5 women in 1 establishment_____ 232 c. Occupations with highest and lowest medians where ascer tainable or individual earnings— 1920—High: Slaughtering and meat packing, casing and chitterling workers, 40 in 2 establish ments-------------------------------------------- median.. 882 Low: General mercantile, 1 stock girl_________ 421 1920-21—High: “ Other wood,” 1 sorter______________ 702 Low : Boxes and crates, 1 puller__________ 252 1921—High: Canning and preserving, 1 cook_________ 659 Low: Tobacco, stemmers and strippers, 19 in 4 establishmentsmedian_ 563 1921-22—High: General mercantile, 1 alteration worker 608 Low: Cigars, 1 stemmer 231 1922—High : Bags, 1 patcher, sewer, mender__________ 895 Low : Cotton yard goods, 1 roving hauler_______ 186 1925—High: Tobacco, twisters, 5 in 1 establish ment _______________ ___________ median___ 725 Low: Candy, wrappers, 5 in 1 establish ment median_______________________________ 232 Only industry for which years’s earnings were reported during this period. INTRODUCTION 11 The workers: 1. Age distribution of 3,150 women in 12 States, per cent— Under 20 years 13.1 20 and under 30 years---------------------------------------------------------- 42.7 30 and under 40 years---------------------------------------------------------- 25.7 40 and under 50 years 12. 7 50 and under 60 years-------------------------------------------------------4.3 60 years and over 1. 5 2. Marital distribution of 3,048 women in 12 States, per cent— Single 30. 2 Married 39. 9 Widowed, separated, or divorced 29. 8 3. Time in the trade— а. Per cent distribution of 2,819 women in 143 establishments in 12 States, per cent— Under 1 year 22.1 1 and under 5 years 49. 0 5 and under 10 years----------------------------------------------- 17.6 10 years and over U. 4 б. in chief industries in which negro women were employed— Under 1 yearNuts, 39.6 per cent of 444 women. 1 and under 5 years . Slaughtering and meat packing, 69 per cent of 355 women. Textile industries, 54.5 per cent of 224 women. Wood products, 68.2 per cent of 370 women. 5 years and over_____Tobacco products, 50.7 per cent of 834 women. 34574°—29----- 2 to 2.8% 2.4% 1.0% Tobacco products Textiles Wood Slaughter- Other House industry products ing and food furnish- products meat products inps packing ■ Clothing 0.8% 0.6% ■■ Metal PapeT Miscel- General and products loneous mercantile manufac paper products turing NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES INDUSTRIAL DISTRIBUTION OF 12,284 NEGRO WOMEN IN IS STATES 52.2% CHAPTER n.—OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION The novelty of the entrance of a considerable number of negro women into the manufacturing and mechanical industries is attested by census figures. In 1890 reports for the entire United States in cluded only 26,817, who formed but 2.61 per cent1 of all women so engaged and but 2.76 per cent12 of all negro women gainfully oc cupied. Of 975,530 colored women gainfully employed, a figure in cluding Indians3 and a few Chinese and Japanese, 38.74 per cent were in agriculture, 30.83 per cent were “ servants ” (cooks, chamber maids, etc.), and 15.59 per cent were laundresses. The industrial history of any highly organized community will show that, as members of a new and inexperienced nationality, sex, or race arrive at the doors of its industries, the occupations that open to them ordinarily are those vacated by an earlier stratum of workers who have moved on to more alluring places. The history of the earlier processions of women workers in New England textile mills, for instance, shows a picture typical of such occupational changes as those that occur to-day and that may sometimes be less clearly seen because complicated by the many social and economic factors incident to the more intensively organized urban community of the present age. * * * the moving of the New England girls of the old stock out of the mills into higher-grade occupations', and the tilling of the vacant posts by Irish women, had become common enough in the latter half of the forties. * * * Irish women who would have entered domestic service during the first decade after Irish immigration began, gradually drifted into the mills during the forties, and in the early fifties, * * *.4 After the war of 1861-1865 other places were open to women, and— Not only the native-born, but the immigrant Irish operatives were seeking higher-grade employments, and a new wave of immigration was beginning to fill their places with less skilled and less efficient hands from the French-Canadian provinces.5 The occupations for which the management is forced to look for new and untried recruits are likely to be, for one reason or another, those that are the more undesirable in the industry or in the com munity. For the foregoing reasons the negro woman, like all new entrants into industry, usually has found open to her only those occu pations left by workers who have moved on into more agreeable employment. The tasks in which she was first engaged generally have been the more menial, the lower paid, the heavier, the more hazardous—in short, for some reason the least agreeable—in the in dustry or in the community. This would have been true because of 1U. S. Bureau of the Census. Eleventh Census: 1890. Population Ft. II n exvii 2 Ibid., p. cxvi. 3 Ibid., p. exxi. 4 Abbott, Edith. pp. 137 and 138. 5 Ibid., p. 143. Women in Industry. D. Appleton & Co., New York and London, 1924, , 13 14 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES her race alone, since it was the case also with negro men. It has been doubly true because, in many occupations, her sex had been but recently admitted. The situation in which negroes, and especially negro women, gen erally have found themselves in relation to industry has been well summarized by two recent writers, each a sociologist of note. Jerome Dowd, of the University of Oklahoma, says in a recent publication: In the traditional skilled trades in the North, the Negro has found the field preempted by the whites, but in recent years, skilled labor of a new and more varied kind has been open to him in some of the large manufacturing plants, although 90 per cent of the Negroes employed in these plants are as yet unskilled workers. In recent years, the restriction on foreign immigration has greatly increased the demand for unskilled labor. Speaking of the situation in the North, he continues: It has been very difficult for Negroes to get employment in the skilled trades except when and where there has been a shortage of white labor. Of the South, Professor Dowd says— Probably 90 per cent of the Negroes employed in manufacturing and mechan ical occupations and in trade and transportation, are doing unskilled work.68 97 The reason why many negroes are still found in the less skilled occupations is clearly given by Edward B. Reuter, of the University of Iowa, who says— The employment of Negroes in industry has in nearly all cases been because white laborers were not available. * * * Rightly or wrongly, there has been a general belief that they are not fitted to' perform technical tasks of other than a routine nature. * * * When individuals have been given a trial at skilled labor the results have sometimes been surprising to employers and superintendents. A number of facts for which the Negroes themselves are in no way responsible have operated severely to limit their occupational field and virtually to exclude them from many occupations.7 The citation of conditions in certain important industrial com munities will serve to illustrate further the position of the negro woman in industry. In the summary of a report issued in 1922 the Chicago Commission on Race Relations spoke of the “ limited field of employment within which negroes are restricted.”8 The same publication stated that— Before the war created openings in industry for Negro women, they were even more definitely restricted in their choice of occupations than were Negro men. Restricted opportunity is evident from the fact that, in 1910, almost two-thirds of the gainfully occupied Negro women in Chicago were engaged in two occupational groups, “ servants,” and “ laundresses not in laundries,” * * *. Labor shortage was given as the reason for employing Negro women and girls by all of the firms employing them in large numbers. Many of the establishments in question had employed large numbers of Negro women as an experiment and had found them satisfactory.” In Detroit, as late as 1927, the Mayor’s Committee on Race Rela tions reported as follows: 6 Dowd, Jerome. The Negro in American Life. Century Co., Now York and London, 1926, pp. .20, 21, and 94. 7 Reuter, Edward Byron. The American Race Problem. Thomas Y. Crowell Co.. New York, 1927, pp. 241 and 242. 8 Chicago Commission on Race Relations. The Negro in Chicago. University of Chi cago Press, Chicago, 1922, p. 647. 9 Ibid., pp. 378, 380, and 625. OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION 15 Negro women are under special disadvantage in securing employment in this city. There is comparatively little employment for women of any race in the metal industries of the city, * * *. * * * a widespread discrimination, either overt or covert, against Negroes in many labor unions, which forces the Negroes to secure employment wherever or however they can.10 11 It is now platitudinous to point out that opportunities in occupa tions entirely new to women opened to them during the Great War, when man power in industry was diminished and the flow of immi grant labor was stopped. Negro women then stepped into new types of work, often those left by white women or by negro men, who went on to war work or to more desirable posts. In several of the 15 States studied by the Women's Bureau the surveys were made con siderably later than the war period of phenomenal industrial activity and of labor shortage. Seven were studied in 1921 and 1922; two in 1925. Negro women in many of the occupations included, therefore, were not merely temporary war employees, a fact that makes it of special interest to note the types of work in which they were found. The total numbers reported in the different industries, and in the occupations as far as significant or as far as known, are listed in Appendix A. In order to show the general character of the work engaged in, the processes involved in the industries in which the larg est numbers of negro women were working must be outlined briefly. Many of the occupations in which negro women were found re quire care, many require some skill, but as a whole they are the simpler types of work and are not highly skilled. In any one in dustry there may, of course, be many variations in method from plant to plant, and in some plants workers may be shifted from one occupa tion to another even during the same day. The following descrip tions can not delineate the exact order followed in all plants in an industry, but they seek rather to indicate the general character of the occupations and the numbers found who ordinarily were engaged in them. The descriptions of processes are true of the time of study, and it should go without saying that, while negro women often were found in the more undesirable occupations, these are continually being made less arduous by the introduction of newer methods. TOBACCO AND CIGARS As early as 1880 the tobacco industry employed 20,480 women 16 years of age and over, and its work, therefore, is not new to their sex.11 Since the institution of the factory method of rehandling, negro women have held a monopoly of the heavy and dusty labor in the preparation of tobacco for manufacturing. ' In 1910 tliere were more than 10,000 of them in cigar and tobacco factories. It is not surpris ing, therefore, that more than one-half of all the negro women in cluded in the present study were engaged in this industry. Data were obtained in 64 tobacco establishments in 9 States, and in these there were 6.411 negro women, who formed 29.4 per cent of the 21,829 recorded12 by the 1920 census as laborers and semiskilled workers in “ Detroit, Mich. Mayor's Committee on Race Relations. Report. Tublic Business, vol. 4, No. 3, Mar. 10, 1927, p. 13. Detroit Bureau of Governmental Research. 11 U. S. Bureau of the Census. Twelfth Census: 1900, vol. 7, Manufactures, Pt. I, p. 8, Table I. 12 See table on p. 3. 16 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES cigar and tobacco factories. Fifteen of the plants studied made cigars and employed 616 of the negro women; the other 5,795 women were in 49 plants engaged in the preparation of tobacco. Idle processes involved are simple in character and lack variety, but frequently they require a considerable degree of manual dexterity. Skill in performance leads to no advance in type of work, however, since the different occupations are entirely independent. While the order of preparation may not be exactly the same in different estab lishments and while many workers may be shifted from one occupa tion to another, a summary of the chief occupations of negro women in tobacco rehandling w7ill give some idea of the types of work in which they w7ere engaged at the time of study. When the hogsheads of tobacco come from the warehouse, the leaves are taken out and, after each bunch is given a little shake to remove dust, they may be placed in a pile or perhaps on a moving belt from which workers pick out sticks and trash. Leaves are next taken up, tied into bunches, and hung on racks ready to be fed into the steamer. In some plants much irritating dust is likely to affect workers in these occupations. The tobacco is fed into a revolving drum or screen through which steam passes and from which the leaves, emerging moist and softened for stemming, are taken off and put into trays. In many steaming rooms wrorliers are likely to be subject to a high degree of humidity and to the heavy odor of the tobacco, although during a part of the time of this study, and since, efforts to minimize the disagreeable features have given a large measure of relief in more and more plants. The bunches of tobacco are next separated and shaken out. The workers sometimes dip one hand in a pan of oil and grease the leaves, which are then spread out and sorted according to size, and different varieties are blended in order to secure the desired quality of the finished product. The poorer leaves are placed aside to be used for the filler of cigars, and the better leaves, or more often those of a special kind or grade of tobacco, are assigned for the wrappers, the latter being further graded. In the foregoing processes, all of which are preparatory to stemming, the following numbers of negro women were found in the plants surveyed: 24 spreading leaves, 227 picking or searching, 918 tying and hanging, 463 feeding, 57 classifying and sorting, 45 in blending departments, and 2 leaf greasing. The largest numbers of negro women found in any one occupation were stemming or stripping, designations used interchangeably. When this is done by hand it ordinarily consists of removing the midvein from the moist leaf by folding the leaf along the center, underside outermost, holding the tip in one band, grasping the mid rib between thumb and forefinger of the other hand, and with a quick, deft turn of the wrrist tearing out the rib with as little damage to the leaf as possible. If the tobacco is for filler in cigars, the worker may lay the leaves together in pound packages or in large boxes, weighing them. Leaves for binding the filler and for the final outside wrapping of cigars must be stripped with great care to avoid tearing and they are almost always stemmed by hand, especially in the case of wrappers. When the stemming is done by machine, the leaf must be placed in position Jo be carried under a knife that cuts OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION 17 out the vein. The question of whether the hand or the machine method shall predominate is largely one of policy, depending on various factors, such as kind of tobacco and size of establishment. Certain varieties of tobacco appear to lend themselves better to the one or to the other of these methods, and, in addition, since the machine can not work so carefully in saving tobacco as can the hand stemmer, it is more likely to be found in the larger concerns where spoiled leaves can be used. The great majority of the negro women stripped by hand. Some were found at machine stemming, which, while not a skilled occupation, represents the highest-paid work for negro women in tobacco factories. In 12 cigar firms in 6 States 401 negro women were stemming or stripping, and in 27 other tobacco establishments in 6 States 3,011 were engaged in the same process. This represents more than one-half of all the negro women whose occupations were reported in cigar and tobacco factories. After stripping the treatment varies more widely according to the final product, if it is to be prepared for cigars or for pipe use, the tobacco may be cut, ground, or shredded, by hand or machinery. In one firm 28 women were found at this work. Bunching or break ing for cigars is a semiskilled process requiring more or less judg ment. Provided with a supply of binders and a given weight of tobacco shredded and ground into long and short filler from which to make a specified number of cigars, the worker places the tobacco on the binder, into which it is wrapped either by hand or by machine. In 4 States 54 negro women were found bunching and in an estab lishment in 1 of these States 9 women wTere grinders. If smoking or chewing tobacco is to be made, the next process is casing or mixing with the desired flavoring. This requires care and is usually performed by men. For some kinds of smoking tobacco the leaf is dipped by hand and shaken out as taken from the liquid. In 2 States a few negro women were shaking the leaves and in 1 of these 4 women were in cooking and casing departments and 2 were special leaf dippers. If the tobacco is to be made into plugs, lump makers weigh out the proper amount for a lump and feed it through a machine that presses it into shape. Chewing tobacco is sometimes prepared in a twist and this may be made by hand. In a. small firm in one State negro women were in the casing department and some were making lumps and twisting; in another State a larger number were twisters; and in still another some were operating wringing machines for extracting excess juice from the tobacco. In addition to the women working with the tobacco, a considerable number reported in the same plants were engaged in auxiliary proc esses connected with the making of boxes or containers for the to bacco, or with the final preparation for the market. In 1 firm a woman was putting the paper bands on cigars, an occupation not usually performed by negro women. Others in the finishing or aux iliary processes were as follows: 15 packing cigars, 57 pasting and folding boxes, 4 sewing sacks for pipe tobacco, 117 wrapping, pack ing, boxing, and labeling tobacco. Special note should be taken of one significant instance, that of a negro woman reported as a time keeper in a tobacco factory. 18 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES FOOD Negro women were reported in five food industries: Bakeries, candy, the canning and preserving of fruits and vegetables, slaugh tering and meat packing, and nuts. The census figures do not take separate account of the last-named, but indicate that the other four are comparatively new to negro women. Few were employed in them in 1910, and in the case of each the increase by 1920 was con siderable.13 Slaughtering and meat packing. The 1910 census records only 173 negro women in slaughtering and meat-packing establishments, but by 1920 there were 2.164 re ported—960 as laborers and 1,204 as semiskilled operatives. Studies made by the Women’s Bureau in 9 establishments in 3 States include 880 negro women, a number that forms 40.7 per cent of those reported in 1920. This industry, in which many of the occupations necessarily are disagreeable in the extreme, forms a good example of the placing of newcomers in the most undesirable of its tasks, since in many cases it was in the most unpleasant of these that negro women, a group recently come into the industry, were engaged. For 60 per cent of all the women included, occupations were reported. About one-third worked with casings and chitterlings. The latter are the intestines of hogs; the former, coverings for sausage, prepared from intestines and other internal membranes of cattle, sheep, and hogs. The earlier processes of removing the contents, turning wrong side out, scraping, brushing, and trimming are often done in rooms with cement or brick floors that sometimes are covered with so much standing or running water that the workers find it necessary to wear rubber boots. While work in these surroundings usually is performed by men, some negro women were found in casing and offal departments and on the killing floor. They turned, cleaned, scraped, and washed casings; washed fat; pulled fat from casings; and trimmed fat. A few singed off hair, and additional occupations in this department were cleaning racks, splitting weasands, braining heads, taking out hogs’ eyes, ripping guts, measuring bladders, shaving ears, plucking lungs, and skinning sheep tongues. Casings are again handled in the sausage department, where it is more usual to find negro women than in the earlier processes. In the making of wet (fresh) sausage they were washing casings, pulling fat from chitterlings, tying and linking sausage, and one was a scaler (weigher). In the preparing of dry sausage they were turning, brushing, scraping, salting, trim ming, cutting, matching, and sewing casings. In 7 establishments in 3 States 110 women were reported as cut ting meat and trimming, which is done with a knife by hand and requires skill or dexterity, and often strength. Some of these were meat trimmers in the canning department. At least 26 were reported as pork trimmers, which is often thought “ too heavy ” for American white women, although this and sausage linking are considered the most skilled of women’s jobs. Others worked in hog-killing depart 13 Census figures in this chapter, except where otherwise specified, are from the follow ing : U. S. Bureau of the Census. Thirteenth Census: 1910, vol. 4, Population, Occupa tions, Table 6, Manufacturing and mechanical industries, pp. 312-411; and ibid., Four teenth Census: 1920, vol. 4, Population, Occupations, Table 5, pp. 342-350. OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION 19 ments and trimmed livers, giblets, and paunches, took out glands and tongues, split hearts, and trimmed off fat. In 3 plants 60 negro women found in various departments were engaged in the miscellaneous occupations of wrapping, packing, stamping, labeling, or inspecting, including some who packed fresh sausage, tongue, ham, or fancy meat, topped cans, or “scaled” the full cans. From later visits made by agents of the Women’s Bureau to some of the same plants it is reported that negro women are now found in these jobs to only a very small extent. In 2 States 38 women were reported in canning and packing depart ments, chiefly as general workers or can washers and as meat trim mers. Additional occupations in which a few negro women were found are the following: Making gut strings, sewing burlap, picking chickens, weaving, and opening ropes in the handling of curled hair. Candy. In candy making the 1910 census reported only 126 negro women; in the 1920 census 803 were recorded. The number studied by the Women’s Bureau forms 25.5 per cent of the 1920 census number and includes 205 in 10 establishments in 6 States. For nearly two-thirds of these the occupations were reported. More than four-fifths of these were wrapping the pieces of candy, occasionally by machinery; packing them in boxes; labeling, sometimes by machine; and inspect ing. Some put the candy on trays, .after cutting, or removed it from the trays. The more expert processes of mixing the materials and cooking were done by men. Most of the occupations engaged in by negro women involved simple operations or movements repeated indefinitely and were connected with preparing the cheaper grades of candy. In one establishment 4 women were found picking out the bad peanuts from those carried by on a moving belt; in another, 2 operated cutting machines; and in the same State women in 1 firm were at enrobing machines, which coat the candy centers with choco late. Usually 4 girls are found at an enrober, 2 placing the creams on the wire conveyor to be dipped in chocolate and 2 at the other end separating the chocolates with a wire to prevent them from run ning together and taking them off. Canning and preserving. In the canning of fruits and vegetables the 1910 census reported 124 negro women, the 1920 census 578. Of the latter figure the negro women studied by the Women’s Bureau form 25.4 per cent, and in clude 147 negro women in 5 canneries in 4 States. Of these, 70.7 per cent were pitting fruit or peeling. A number were helpers or 1 aborers; some were washing cans and bottles; some sorting, bottling, or labeling. In addition to those canning fruits and vegetables, 17 women in 1 firm were shucking oysters, which is rough, dirty work, usually done in damp, insanitary surroundings. In a firm making preserves, jams, and jellies, 10 women were cooking. In a small pickle factory, 2 negro women were foreladies—1 in charge of bottling, the. other in charge of all women. The work of the latter involved the engaging and the entire management of women employees. Her position/although in a small establishment, was one of the most significant found. 20 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES Bakeries. In 7 bakeries in 3 States there were 34 negro women, about onethird of whom wrapped bread, while some washed dishes and some packed bread. A few were engaged in the somewhat more skilled occupations noted below, occupations which, although they remained traditional in that they were connected with cooking, were notable in that they represented the carrying of the older processes into the newer industrial organization. It is of interest to note also that in this food industry negro women found place in larger numbers earlier than in the other food industries considered. The 1910 census reported 274 in bakeries, which was more than twice as many as those at that time in candy., and over 100 more than those in slaughtering and meat packing. By 1920, however, although the number had increased it was smaller than that in any one of the three other indus tries under consideration. Seven of the women studied by the Women’s Bureau made pies, 2 prepared fillings, 2 iced cakes, and 1 topped pies. All those employed upon these more skilled duties were found in a southern State in firms in which negro women worked also as dishwashers. Nuts. Except for tobacco and the combined textile industries, the nut establishments studied employed a larger number of negro women than did any other industry. “This included 1,017 women in 6 estab lishments in 2 States. Despite the number, the occupations were not significant, all but 5 women of those reported being engaged in picking out and sorting nut meats. One stenciled bags, 1 sorted bags, and 1 was listed as a cook. A negro forelady was found in charge of 19 women in the sorting department of one firm. Other food products. In the preparation of other food products, such as sugar, oil and lard, coffee and spices, macaroni, or molasses, the work done by negro women required little training of any kind and included such occu pations as washing, picking nuts for peanut butter, packing and labeling, and picking over material in a chewing-gum firm. TEXTILES .The census of 1910 listed 1,157 negro women in cotton and knitting mills. Of those in cotton factories with occupations reported, more than 60 per cent were laborers, scrubbers, sweepers, sorters, and pickers of waste matter from raw cotton; and about 22 per cent were listed as spinners, weavers, speeders and rovers, winders, reelers and spoolers, machine hands, and carders, combers, and lappers. Of the 274 with occupations specified in knitting mills, only 30 were labor ers, and 111 were knitters, loopers and toppers, inspectors, and sewers and sewing-machine operators. In these two branches of the textile industry, the 1920 census listed 5,081 negro women, of whom 3,149 were laborers, the remainder being reported as semiskilled operatives. The laborers formed 70.6 per cent of those in cotton mills and only 38.3 per cent of those in knitting mills. TV omen s Bureau studies in 7 States included 615 negro women in 32 plants making cotton yard goods or hosiery and knit goods. This OCCUPATIONAL, DISTRIBUTION 21 number of women forms 12.1 per cent of those reported in 1920 in cotton and knitting mills. In 20 additional textile plants that can be less clearly compared to the census classifications, the Women’s Bureau studies include 561 negro women, of whom 296 were in bag making, 95 in the manufacture of cordage and twine, 23 in yarn plants, 116 in waste factories, and 31 in other textile mills, one of which made fine yard goods, 1 silk thread, and 1 woolen cloth and cotton goods. As a rule, the occupations of negro women in textiles, except those in hosiery and knit goods, were concerned chiefly with cleaning, with the simpler performances, with the traditional hand occupations, or with the heavier or dirtier parts of the work. In hag making the largest numbers were engaged in sewing or in the heavier work of turning; a few were riveting, which requires some skill. For the few in cordage and twine factories, spinning and machine operations formed the chief occupations; some skill and experience are necessary for spinners, even though the work in twine mills is with relatively coarse material. In firms manufacturing yarn nearly one-half of the few involved were in the drawing departments. In establish ments making cotton yard goods, many cleaned or handled waste, while the largest group was formed by battery hands who filled with yarn the frames and looms of the machines. Very few were actually operating machines. In waste factories nearly one-half were prepar ing waste for wiping machinery. Hosiery and knit goods. Only in the making of hosiery and knit goods did fairly large numbers of negro women appear to be engaged upon parts of the work that bore a considerable degree of importance in the manufac turing process, and that required some skill. In this branch of the industry 327 women were reported in 7 factories in 6 States, 5 of the States included being in the South. If 23 in 3 yarn factories be added, the number forms 26 per cent of those reported in knitting mills in the 1920 census. In addition, in a plant more recently visited and not) tabulated, 100 negro women were employed, some of them as loopers, as seamers, or as boarders. Two-thirds of the 327 in hosiery and knit wear carried on parts of the work contributing to the manufacture and preparation of the product as distinguished from finishing. The operations involved in hosiery malting are chiefly in connection with machines. They are light and rather mo notonous and usually are not considered highly skilled, although they are as skilled as much power-machine sewing and require dexterity and exactness. Frequently they involve long standing and subject workers to great strain from speed and sometimes to eyestrain. Nearly one-third of the negro women in hosiery were seamers or inspected seams; 70 were boarders; there were a number of winders, of knitters, of loopers, of inspectors, menders, and turners, and there were 9 spinners ; a few were pairers, folders, stampers, and ticketers, and the remaining occupations included a doffer, a bobbin cleaner, a teacher, and a woman in a drawing department. A brief description of the processes followed in making hosiery and knit goods will indicate the types of work done by these women. In the spinning room, the roving, composed of evenly laid fibers not yet formed into thread, is twisted for strengthening and wound 22 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES on a bobbin or cop. Women operate the frame spinner, an occupa tion that, while it requires a knack somewhat difficult to attain at first, needs very little knowledge of the machine. The chief duty is that of placing full bobbins of roving on the creel (or frame) of the machine, where they are set close together but become empty at different times as the yarn is transferred to the small spinning bobbin. This is known as “ setting in roving.” The worker must walk up and down the aisle between her frames to see when bobbins run out, and she must piece up ends of broken threads. Three or four times a day she cleans the frame by picking out lint and lap from its rollers. The wrorkers who remove full bobbins from the spinning frame are known as doffers, a term applied to those who take off work from any of the machines but especially signifying the spinning frames. Doff ing is considered rather difficult work; the frames must be carefully watched in order that full bobbins may be removed quickly. While doffers occasionally have free time, they sometimes must move very rapidly to keep up with the work, and are likely to be almost con stantly on their feet, walking back and forth by the frames. After the yarn is spun, it is transferred from the spinners’ bobbins to cones that are evenly wound. The winders place the cones in posi tion, carefully examine the yarn to see that it is of smooth texture and winds evenly, tie broken ends, replace empty bobbins, and remove cones when filled. The knitters put the cones on the knitting ma chines, watch the yarn closely to see that it runs properly and that there are no defects in the fabric, and remove the completed material. In one firm 24 winders were found, while in this and in an establish ment in another State there wTere 49 knitters. The toes, and some times the heels, of stockings are at first left open. The work of closing these is known as looping. In factories making hose that are full-fashioned (shaped to the leg and having a seam down the back), these may be seamed at the time the toes are joined. The women who loop and seam carry bundles of hose frequently weighing 35 to 50 pounds. Then, stitch by stitch, they place together, on a series of fine needles or quills, the corresponding opposite loops of the open edges of a stocking, so that the looping machine can catch each stitch and complete a perfect seam. While these machines are not dangerous, the work is likely to strain the eyes and it produces a considerable nervous tension when done at high speed. After the hose are made they must be turned, which may be done by hand by the seated inspectors, who carefully examine the fabric for defects and also mend dropped stitches. Turning is sometimes done by drawing the hose quickly over a metal bar fastened upright to a table and taking them from the bar right side out. This must be done standing, and the same workers change off to inspecting and mending, for which they are seated. While still damp from the dyeing room the hose come to the boarders, who pull them onto wooden or metal forms shaped to the leg and foot, place them in drying kilns, and later strip or take them from the forms. This task of stretching the hose evenly usually has been performed by men. It is a somewhat difficult, one and is made rather disagreeable by the fact that the dye is still wet. Finally stockings must be mated or paired, stamped with the name of the firm, and folded for placing in boxes. This may be done by OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION 23 “ general workers ” who can fill in wherever needed as_ well as by those permanently assigned to certain processes. Stamping is often done by hand and requires deftness and care in making the impres sion clear, even, and neat. In one firm fouT negro women were pairers, folders, stampers, and ticketers, and in an establishment in another State four were general workers. In one hosiery mill there was a negro woman as teacher, but she did not work full time and her earnings were very low. Bags. In bag making, 296 negro women weTe studied in seven establish ments in four States. These, with the women in waste factories, form 38.4 per cent of the number reported in unspecified textile mills in 1920. More than one-tenth of those found by the Women’s Bu reau were turning bags in a manner similar to that described in hosiery, except that it was done over two upright rods adjusted to the width of the bag instead of over one as for hose. This is a strenuous operation and is now often done by an improved machine method. Three negro women in one plant were riveting bags, which is also fairly heavy work and requires some degree of skill, and three were sewing-machine operators. Cotton yard goods. In 25 cotton-yard-goods factories in 6 States there were 288 negro women. In this branch of the industry were found most of the night workers, 11 of 19, the remainder being in bag plants. Negro wojnen in cotton mills were not, as were those in hosiery, found in the more skilled occupations. Of those whose occupations were reported, 73 per cent were fillers of frames and batteries; cleaners of hoppers, quills (the fine needles), or machines; and breakers, waste hands, or pickers; or they were in drawing departments, where they were chiefly engaged in filling frames. There were 15 who hauled roving. Perhaps those who may be considered the most skilled were seven twisters, a creeler, a butt winder, and a sewer in the gray room—that is, where the cloth is handled before dyeing. Less well paid were four rope-forming tenders. Some idea of the actual work done by these women may be obtained from a brief survey of the processes in which they were engaged. The raw cotton is fed into a bale breaker, a hopper fitted with spikes that tear the matted sheets into small bunches, after which it is “ picked ”■ —beaten as it runs through a machine—to remove dust and foreign matter. It is then sent through carding machines, which comb it, lay the fibers even, and finally deliver it in soft strands called roving. Carding machines must be cleaned, or stripped, two or three times a day—a very dirty job. The negro women reported as cleaners, or as miscellaneous workers in carding rooms, usually were room cleaners and only rarely did stripping. In the drawing department the roving is run through several sets of machines to draw it to the fineness desired foT yarn or thread. The work is done by drawing frames, or on a series of fly (or roving) frames, including a slubber and several speeders. Spinning, as described in hosiery and knit wear (see pp. 21-22), next takes place, after which the yarn is twisted into two, three, or four ply strands, and that from several spools is wound upon one bobbin to the type to fit in the shuttle. 24 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES Twisters and spoolers must stand at their work, but if the machines run smoothly there may be some opportunities to sit. The material may next be dressed or brushed for smoothness, and sizing put in for strength. r Unless the yarn is to; be dyed at this stage the threads that are to form the warp, or lengthwise threading of the cloth, are wound on a broad beam. In order to do this, spools are placed on a creel or frame so that they will unwind without tangling. The occupation of changing the empty spools for full ones and tying the last end of mu '<l ( hi,the first end of the new is known as creeling or tying over. Ihis requires little skill and allows some free time to the worker but since the rack is about 6 feet high and extends almost to the floor it necessitates much reaching and bending. Negro women were not reported as warpers on weaving machines, and in the remaining proc esses they were doing only sweeping and cleaning of various types. At present quills ordinarily are cleaned by machine with an extra woman picking out the thread remaining, but at the time of survey negro women were found cleaning quills by an older method involv ing very heavy work and great strain on the muscles of the back and arms, which was thus described by the investigator: J hey stand on a low table on which bobbins, taken from the looms, are cleaned or, rather, short lengths of yarn removed from the quills, * * *, Quills are dumped on table and several women get up on the table and lift bunches * * *. They pull and pull and the quills unwind until ail are clear of thread. WOOD PRODUCTS While in 1910 a considerable number of negro women_1 452 in all were reported in box and furniture factories, sawmills, and other wood plants, 64.6 per cent of them were laborers; and if the repairers of furniture, the caners and seaters of chairs, and the basket makers be added the proportion is 81.9 per cent. Only eight were re ported as machine hands. In 1920 nearly three times as many (4,066) were listed as laborers and semiskilled operatives in lumber ai)d furniture plants. The Women’s Bureau studies include 980, which is 24.1 per cent of the 1920 figure. Of these, 59 were assisting at saws, more than one-half of their number catching and off-bearing’ work requiring care but usually of a type not skilled. In addition’ 31 w,ere operating, tending, or feeding machines such as cleatino-, coupling, boring, or nail. . the number studied (332) about one-third were in plants mak ing wooden boxes, vegetable crates, and egg cases; 18T were in furni ture factories, and 55 in lumber and veneer mills; 406 were in estab lishments each of which produced some one or more of a variety of miscellaneous articles such as matches, brooms, gunstocks, railroadtie plugs, ice-cream freezers, machine shafts, or screen doors. In the making of boxes and crates more than one-half of those with occupations reported were stacking lumber, baskets, or hampers, or iveie grading and sorting. A number were saw girls, a few were on-bearers, taking the wood from the machinery, and 10 operated machines. In addition, a few were cleating boards with wire or feeding the cleat machine, bundling, laying boards, matching parts, oi serving as end holders. In furniture factories the largest group were finishing with varnish or sandpaper, and a number were assem OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION 25 bling parts, serving as off-bearers, or packing. Negro women were in furniture machine shops in 2 firms in 1 State. In lumber and. veneer mills the chief occupations were stacking lumber, assembling parts, off-bearing, grading, or tying bundles. In 1 plant 5 were saw girls. The occupations of 70 per cent of those in other establish ments making wood products were not reported. Some of the re maining number were assembling parts or piling wood in the yard. A few in one plant were packing ice-cream freezers. In another, several were dipping gunstocks in tar, a heavy and dirty occupation. In a match factory some were nesting boxes, sorting wood scrap, or sorting “skillets”' (the match sticks before the ends are finished). In a firm manufacturing brooms and in one making railroad-tie plugs negro women were assorting the products, and in the latter 3 women were tending machines. Establishments making screen doors in 2 States employed negro women in assembling and off-bearing, and in addition a few in each of a variety of occupations, such as operating boring machines or nail machines, driving spindles, gluing doors, and stringing the wire on doors. GLASS The census of 1910 recorded 77 negro women in glass factories, most of whom were laborers or helpers. One was a blower, 3 were snappers-up, 2 were pressers and molders, and 2 were carriers. In 1920 there were recorded 2 glass blowers, 466 laborers, and 532 semi skilled operatives in glass factories—a total of 1,000. Three-tenths of this number are covered by the Women’s Bureau studies, which include 298 negro women in' 5 establishments making blown and pressed glassware in 5 different States. For over 40 per cent of these occupations were reported. . The glass industry is a very ancient one and has tended to be con servative, its first really revolutionary change being in the use of the Siemens regenerative furnace, invented in 1861, and in the replace ment of open or closed pots by the continuous melting tank invented in 1872.14 Although the side-lever press dates back to 1827, the really revolutionary change in the making of pressed glassware came with the “ feed and flow ” devices in 1917;15 that in bottle making with the successful introduction of the Owens automatic machine in 1904.14 For some time after the introduction of machinery systems and devices of the past were found side by side with newer methods, not infrequently in the same factory. One of the largest plants visited, where good working conditions prevailed and modern ma chinery was used, still employed also, for the making of small orders of unusual sizes, the older hand method, with its characteristic organization into a small unit or “ shop,” composed of two skilled workers and from five to seven unskilled helpers. As is often their case in other industries, many of the negro women in glass factories were employed in the less-skilled tasks and, in some cases, as their list of occupations shows, in the older processes where these still survived at the time of study. More than one-half of those «U. S. Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. the Glass Industry, 1927, Bui. 441, pp. 3 to 0. Ibid., p. 92, Productivity of Labor in 26 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES whose occupations were reported (78 in contrast to the 2 of the 1910 census) were carriers-in and takers-off. The former took the glass from the very hot furnace rooms to the leer, the oven where reheating is done, handling the articles on small long-handled metal trays and constantly walking with new loads over floors of cement or sometimes of uneven brick for a distance of some 15 to 50 feet. The takers-off operated at the cooler end of the leer. There were a number of negro women in one other occupation, that of cracking-off. These were, on the whole, the best paid in glass. Their work sometimes was interchangeable with that of the snappersup. The cracker-off quickly removes the bottle or other article from the mold; the snapper-up takes it in a pair of pincers, inserts it in a “ snap,” a sort of vice made to fit the object, and, after rapidly rolling it back and forth on a piece of sheet iron or on a flat stone to remove excess glass, places it at once in the “ glory hole,” or reheating furnace, so that it will be fire-polished and pliable for the finisher. This may be a very hot task, since the furnace is hot enough to melt the glass. In the making of finer glass, such as tableware, the iron mold used is lined with a thin coating of paste, that must be kept moist so that the glass does not stick to the iron and may be shifted within the mold to prevent the formation of seams in the glass where the mold is joined. Glass thus made has a better texture, may be thinner, and is supposed to be more durable. Two negro women were paste-mold assistants, whose duties were to open and close the mold and to keep the paste moist with water after each using. One additional occupation should be especially noted—that of a timekeeper found in a glass factory. Her work, while not necessarily incident to the glass industry, may be considered of a responsible and exacting type, although she had lost several weeks’ time and her rate of pay did not exceed the middle ranges. MISCELLANEOUS INDUSTRIES In addition to the negro women studied in the four types of industry employing the largest groups, and in glass, some were found in each of several other manufacturing industries and a comparatively small number in stores. There were 161 women in 61 stores in 12 States. Of these, 121 were maids and 11 in 3 States were in alteration departments, usually as seamstresses. Ten stock girls were found in 4 States, one of these in the warehouse of the establishment. Eight women were pressers, 1 was custodian of a sample room, 1 worked in a cloak room, and 1 was a bootblack. Negro women were not selling in department stores, and four listed as “ sales ” girls were soda-fountain attendants in a store in a Southern State. In 2 States, 341 negro women were found in 6 establishments making such house furnishings as mattresses, cushions, and springs. Three-fourths of those whose work was reported were sewing-machine operators. Many of these, although not the majority, were on power machines. Some were assemblers, some checkers, some hand sewers putting tickets on mattresses or cushions or making samples, and some sewers of the rolled edges of mattresses by hand, a task that required strength and involved much standing and walking. A few who set OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION 27 springs had a fairly skilled job requiring attention and judgment. This consisted of attaching the springs to frames and tying them in exactly the proper place with heavy waxed cords. In one plant 3 were instructing, 2 inspecting, and 1 cutting, instructing, and super vising. In the same establishment, a position of especial importance was held by a negro woman supervisor. Of 123 negro women found in 16 clothing plants in 6 States nearly three-fifths were pressers, and in 3 establishments jn 2 States 40 operated sewing machines. A few pulled bastings, fastened on tickets, folded, and cleaned, or buttoned men’s shirts ready for final packing. In an additional clothing factory more recently reported no negro women were on machines but more than 100 were engaged in hand needlework and in drawing basting threads, wThile 1 was in a super visory position, doing all the hiring of negro women, distributing work to them, and examining their work when completed. In paper products 93 negro women were found in 5 establishments in 3 States. Of these, 74 in paper mills in 2 States were reported as sorters. The remaining women were in three paper-box plants in two States and were gluing, staying, stripping, covering boxes, or making trays. The Women’s Bureau studies include 78 negro women in metal work in 3 States in 4 establishments making vehicle parts, iron castings for agricultural implements, toys and novelties, and sewing machines. In the metal industries that would include these plants—■ the manufacture of automobiles, wagons and carriages, agricultural implements, and* “ other ” iron and steel—there were 124 negro women reported in 1910, of whom 43 were laborers. There were 3 inspectors, 7 machine hands, 1 bench hand, and 1 press operator. In 1920 the number reported in the same industries was 879, of whom 360 were laborers and 519 were semiskilled operatives. The Women’s Bureau studies include a plant producing hardware for vehicles and iron and steel forgings, and of the negro women employed in this establishment 32 operated machines, 19 others were at presses, 3 were inspecting the product rapidly turned out from the presses by pieceworkers, and 1 worked in the japanning room, where women strung the articles on wires or wire rods ready for dipping in black enamel, an occupation in which workers are subjected to odors that are disagreeable and sometimes sickening. In a toy and novelty factory a number of negro women did bench work, a general term that ordinarily includes a number of light and sometimes rather monotonous operations such as sorting, putting together parts, and soldering. In 2 States 5 negro women were found making cores, and 1 of these reported having been 5 years in the trade. Core mak ing requires a considerable degree of skill, very high skill for the more complex cores. The worker usually sits at a table and uses a core box, a mold made in halves. The mold is tightly clamped to gether, “ green ” (wet) sand mixed with some adhesive is placed in it, and nails and wire are rammed in with a mallet until the sand is of the proper density. Then the box is opened and the core is turned out onto a metal tray ready to be taken to the oven. Turning out the core is a delicate operation, because breaking the angles or otherwise spoiling the core must be avoided. 34574°—29---- 3 28 NEGRO WOMEN' IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES In 4 States 55 negro women were in 8 establishments manufactur ing drugs and chemicals, and in another State 53 were in 2 plants making toilet articles. Most of those with occupations reported in drugs and chemicals and a few of those in the toilet-goods plants were labeling, inspecting, sorting, wrapping, or packing. In the toi let-goods plants a few were putting glassine disks or mirrors into rouge compacts, stitchiflg boxes, gluing, spreading soap, or slipping dye into envelopes. In a plant- making heavy insulated wire and cable for use in the electrical industry 50 negro women were reported. Nearly two-fifths of these were machine operators, and, in addition, 4 were cotton girls, 3 were end holders, and 1 was in the nail department. In another State in which a study was made more recently, and for which figures are not included in the totals here tabulated, a firm manufacturing small motors and radio sets and appliances had solved the problem created by the labor shortage in 1919 by starting a sepa rate shop in which they engaged only negro women. About 120 were employed, but when industrial stability was restored in the main plant this additional shop was closed. In an establishment making optical goods 24 negro women were doing varnishing and a few others were inspectors. Of 13 women employed in a glue plant those with occupations reported were mak ing or were cutting glue. In a leather-trunk factory one negro woman was a seamstress who sewed linings. One of the most significant cases in the whole range of the estab lishments studied was that of a printing and publishing company, where there were IT negro women. They were in high-grade occupa tions at which comparatively few women work. The firm was that of a negro religious paper in a Southern State, and 7 women were in the bindery, 3 were in the composing room, 3 were monotype operators, 1 was a press operator, and 3 read proof. SUMMARY The types of work in which negro women were found may safely be said to represent, for them, distinct if somewhat slow industrial progress. Large numbers were still engaged in sweeping and in cleaning of various kinds and many of these have been omitted from the present study. Others worked at tasks that would properly be classified under general labor. Still others were in employments that, while scarcely unusual in themselves, were notable because they represented the carrying over of the older traditional occupations, sometimes with changes in method, into- the newer industrial system. A considerable number operated machines of different kinds, many of which involved only simple operations or movements repeated indefinitely, but some of which required dexterity or a degree of skill. A few were found in supervisory posts or in positions involving more or less responsibility. Two of these were in a pickle factory and seven were in a plant making house furnishings. In each of these cases one of the women had entire charge of engaging and super vising all negro women in the establishment, while the others super vised departments, instructed, or inspected. In a shirt factory more recently visited and not included in the general tabulations tlie duty OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION 29 of engaging and supervising negro women devolved upon a negro woman. In a nut plant 1 negro woman was in charge of 19 in the sorting department. Two timekeepers were found—one in a tobacco and one in a glass factory. Occupations that required the greatest skill were those of the spinners in textile plants and of the loopers and seamers in hosiery mills, of the operators of power sewing ma chines and of metal presses, of the riveters in bag factories, of the core makers in metal plants, of a few of those working in woodenbox making, and of those found in one printing and publishing house in which negro women were carrying on all parts of the work, however skilled, including monotype operating, composing, and proof reading. The main characteristics of the occupations of negro women in each of the chief manufacturing industries in which they were found in considerable numbers may be indicated as follows: 1. Tobacco (total 6,411). Occupations are simple, but some require manual dexterity and workers often must be subjected to heavy dust and to the strong odor of the tobacco. More than one-half of those studied were stemmers or strippers, and of these the few on machines had the most highly paid work accorded negro women in this industry. 2. Food products: Bakeries, candy, canning and preserving, nuts, and slaughtering and meat packing (total 2,302). Of the 1,017 women working on nuts, four-fifths were picking out kernels and there were no unusual occupations if exception be made of the forelady mentioned. The 880 in slaughtering and meat packing were engaged in the dirtiest, roughest, or most disagreeable operations in which any women were employed in this industry, where practically all the processes except the final packing may be considered dirty, rough, or disagreeable. One-third of those re ported worked with casings and chitterlings. In one plant a few were engaged on the killing floor. More than 100 were occupied with hand-knife processes that require dexterity, skill, and sometimes a good deal of strength. Of the 205 in candy factories most of those whose occupations were reported were wrapping, packing, labeling, and inspecting. Of the 164 in canneries nearly two-thirds were pit ting fruit or peeling, a number were helpers or laborers, and some washed cans and bottles, sorted, bottled, or labeled. Of the 36 in bakeries, one-third wrapped bread, some washed dishes or packed bread, 7 made pies, 2 prepared fillings, 2 iced cakes, and 1 topped pies. 3. Textiles (total 1,176). In most branches of the industry the majority of those with occu pations reported were engaged in general labor or were helping the operators of the machines by such work as filling frames. The work requiring most skill was that in hosiery, where, of the 327 included, more than two-fifths were looping and seaming, a few were spin ning, and 70 were boarding. 4. Wood products (total 980). The occupations found in the wood industries were the rather heavy or dirty ones of stacking wood, off-bearing, sandpapering, 30 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTBY IN 15 STATES gluing, or varnishing. A few negro women were assembling parts and a number were assisting at saws. The occupations of negro women may be summarized in a more general way as follows: 1. General labor. This would include most of the work done in tobacco rehandling, in slaughtering and meat packing, in textiles with the exception of hosiery, and in glass; the washing of cans or dishes in bakeries, can neries, and food establishments; peeling or pitting fruit; cleaning and pressing clothing, which was done by negro women in stores and by well over one-half of those reported in clothing establishments; sorting rags in rag and in paper factories; and picking out nut meats. 2. Sewing. A few made alterations to clothing in stores, and one was a seam stress sewing linings in a trunk factory. In hosiery and yard-goods factories some mended or caught broken stitches by hand. In cloth ing plants a number ran sewing machines and some pulled bastings or buttoned shirts for packing. 3. Light operations connected with final preparation for market. More than 400 of those studied were labeling, stamping, ticketing, inspecting, checking, counting, sorting, grading, weighing, wrapping, or packing. These were in plants preparing clothing; drugs and toilet goods; food products, such as bread, candy, canned goods, meat, or other food; metal products; textiles, bags; tobacco; and wood products. 4. Machine operations. Negro women were operating various types of machines, some very simple, others more complex. Nearly two-thirds of those in metal work were machine or press operators; most of the latter were on die presses, a few being on drill or punch presses. About a third of those in clothing factories used sewing machines, but it was not pos sible to tell in how many cases these were power machines. Some of the women in tobacco factories ran stemming machines, but the num ber of stemmers using machines could not be ascertained. In textiles, except hosiery, negro women were for the most part merely helpers at the machines, not operators. The most skilled of the machine processes were those in hosiery mills, the operating of power sewing machines or presses, riveting in bag factories, and some of the work in wooden-box making. A few women were found on candy enrobers, which involve very simple movements but frequently require close attention; others were on candy-cutting machines. 5. Other occupations. Timekeepers, instructors, supervisors; inspectors, core makers, and the women in printing and publishing constitute, even if taken to gether, only a very small number, but they were engaged in occupa tions of some importance that can not properly be placed under any of the foregoing heads. CHAPTER III.—HOURS The need of a working day or week of a length reasonably conform ing to the human needs of rest and recreation has been explained fre quently, but little attention has been given to this matter in respect to negro women, to whom it is of as great importance as to any other group. While a presentation of the definite schedules of hours kept by the plants studied does not take into account the overtime and lost time of employees, it does indicate the length of the day or the week regu larly expected of the workers. DAILY HOURS Scheduled daily hours were reported for 11,923 of the negro day workers studied. Of these the largest group had a schedule of 10 hours, and the group next in size a schedule of 9 hours. A few women in Illinois, Kansas, and Tennessee, 1 per cent of the total, had a schedule of less than 8 hours. All those with a day of 12 hours or over, 365, were in a tobacco factory in Virginia, and all had a schedule of exactly 13 hours. They formed 3.1 per cent of the total number of women and 7.6 per cent of all those reported in the State. The distribution by daily hours of the 11,923 women reported is as follows: Number Percent Under 8 hours 121 8 hours_,1, 496 Over 8 and under 9 hours 867 9 hours 3, 040 Over 9 and under 10 hours------------------------------ 1, 640 10 hours 3, 954 Over 10 and under 11 hours 272 11 hours 108 Over 11 and under 12 hours___________________ 48 13 hours 365 1.0 12.5 7.3 25.5 13.8 33.2 2.3 .9 .4 3.1 Scheduled hours of the largest groups in the various States. The scheduled hours of the largest group of women studied in each State were as follows: 8 hours— Illinois 783 Kansas 166 New Jersey 39 South Carolina 178 Over 8 and under 9 hours— Indiana 54 Iowa 10 9 hours— Arkansas 48 Georgia 300 Kentucky 646 Missouri_________________________ Ohio 425 Number Per cent 52.4 94.3 32. 2 66.4 84. 4 55.6 70.6 32.8 57.3 75.2 65. 2 868 31 32 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES 10 hours— Mississippi Tennessee Virginia. 11 hours— Alabama _ ._ . ___ . ___ .- _ _ __ _______ _ _ _ __ Number Per cent 110 45. 1 298 44. 8 3. 068 63.9 69 44.5 Scheduled hours of the largest groups in the various industries. Hour differences between States may be influenced by many factors connected with their individual industrial history, not the least of which are those relating to the types of industry to be found at a given time within a State. The variations in standards between dif ferent industries, therefore, are of even greater significance than are those between the States, since the standards in the chief industries have a marked influence in setting those of the State as a whole. In the glass industry 81 women, 37.7 per cent of the 215 reported, had a schedule of less than 8 hours and 75 women, or 34.9 per cent, had a schedule of 8 hours a day. Fifty-nine women had a day of over 8 and under 9 hours. None had a day as long as 9 hours. In each of the following the largest group hacf a day of 8 hours: Slaughtering and meat packing, for 870, or 98.9 per cent of the 880 reported.1 Cigars, for 224, or 36.5 per cent of the 613 reported (31.3 had a day of 9 hours). Metal products, for 54, or 69.2 per cent of the 78 reported. General mercantile, for 64, or 39.8 per cent of the 161 reported (37.9 had a day of over 8 and under 9 hours). In house furnishings 293, or 85.9 per cent of the 341 reported, had a schedule of more than 8 hours but less than 9. In several indus tries the largest group had a 9-hour day. In cordage and twine, 92.6 per cent of the 95 women reporting; in canning and preserving, 70.7 per cent of the 147 reporting; in nuts, 59.1 per cent of the 1,017 reporting; in clothing, 54.5 per cent of the 123 reporting; and in drugs and chemicals, 36.4 per cent of the 55 reporting, had a day of this length. A day of 9 but less than 10 hours was worked by from two-thirds to three-fourths of the women in candy and paper and paper products, by a little over one-half of the women in textile bags, and by nearly one-third of the women in hosiery and knit goods. In hosiery and knit goods another large group, 31.8 per cent, had a day of over 8 and under 9 hours. The 10-hour industries were cotton yard goods, tobacco, and the major wood products. In textiles as a whole one-fourth of the 1,157 included had a day of 10 hours and 23.4 per cent had a day of over 9 and under 10 hours. In cotton yard, goods, 189 women, or 68.2 per cent of the 277 reported, had a day of 10 hours, and 74 women, or 26.7 per cent, a day of 11 hours. Ten of the 11 night workers in cotton yard goods were on 11-hour shifts. Most of the women in waste factories had a schedule of over 10 and under 11 hours, and nearly all the 23 in yarn mills a schedule of 11 hours. Of the 564 women in the major wood industries, 430, or 76.2 per cent, had a 10-hour day. The 265 women in one match factory, excluded from major wood products, had a 9-hour day. No woman in any wood-products group had a day of less than 9 hours and only about one-eighth of those in the major branches had a day of less than 10 hours. 1 See footnote 3 in Summary of Pacts, p. 8. 33 HOURS In tobacco more than half (52.2 per cent) of the 5,616 women reported had a 10-hour day and 40.5 per cent had a day of less than 10 hours; 6.5 per cent had a 13-hour day. It has already been indi cated that in the cigar industry more than two-thirds of the women (67.9 per cent) had a scheduled day of 8 or 9 hours, and 84.3 per cent of the 613 women reported had a day of under 10 hours. WEEKLY HOURS The scheduled weekly hours were reported for 11,921 negro day workers. A few, mostly in Illinois, had a schedule of less than 44 hours, and a few, mostly in New Jersey, Missouri, and Mississippi, had one of 44. Of the f 10, or 6 per cent, having a week of 60 hours and over, slightly more than one-half were in Virginia, about 30 per cent were in Georgia, and the remainder were in Alabama and Mississippi. The distribution by weekly hours of the 11,921 women reported is as follows: Number Percent 44 hours and under---------------------------------------------117 Over 44 and under 48 hours 713 48 hours--------------------------------------------------------------- 1,161 Over 48 and under 50 hours---------------------------------547 50 hours 2,967 Over 50 and under 52 hours---------------------------------261 52 hours 264 Over 52 and under 54 hours----------------------------------- 1, 046 54 and under 55 hours 201 55 hours2,151 Over 55 and under 58 hours---------------------------------- 1, 380 58 and under 60hours------------------------------------------403 60 hoursand over 710 1. 0 6. 0 9- 7 4. 6 24. 9 2. 2 2.2 8.8 1. 7 18. 0 11. 6 3.4 6. 0 From the foregoing it is evident that the largest number in any hour group, practically one-fourth of the whole, had a 50-hour week, while 18 per cent had a 55-hour week and those having a schedule of over 55 hours formed 21 per cent. Scheduled hours of the largest groups in the various States. The largest numbers and proportions of those found at any one hour range in each State were as follows: 44 hours— New Jersey_____________ 48 hours— Illinois_________________ Kansas-------------------------South Carolina..------------50 hours— Georgia_________________ Indiana_________________ Kentucky----------------------Missouri________________ Ohio___________________ Over 50 and under 52 hours— Iowa___________________ 54 hours— Arkansas----------------------55 hours— Mississippi--------------------Tennessee_______________ Virginia________________ 60 hours— Alabama------------------------ Number Per cent 37 30.6 764 165 177 51.1 93.8 66.0 298 54 828 849 259 32. 6 84.4 73.5 73. 7 39.7 12 66. 7 48 70.6 77 248 1, 403 31. 6 37.3 29.2 71 45.8 34 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES Scheduled hours of the largest groups in the various industries. The day scheduled for the largest groups in glass, that of less than eight hours, and for the largest group in slaughtering and meat packing, that of eight hours, was, for the largest group in each case, in conjunction with a scheduled week shorter than that of the largest groups in other industries. In the glass industry slightly more worked for less than 48 hours than for 48, and these two groups combined formed 72.6 per cent of the 215 women who worked during the day. Furthermore, all night workers in the glass industry had a week of 48 hours or less. Of the small number of women in metal products, 53, or 67.9 per cent, worked over 44 and under 48 hours. The large proportion of workers in slaughtering and meat packing who had an 8-hour day (98.9 percent) had a 48-hour week, equivalent to the 8-hour day for six days in the week. In house furnishings the women who had a week of over 48 and under 50 hours were slightly more numerous than those who had a day of over 8 and under 9 hours. In nut factories the same number having a 9-hour day had a 50-hour week, the result of a shorter shift on one day than on the other five days in the week. Cigar making presented, on the whole, shorter weekly as well as shorter daily hours than did tobacco. The 36.5 per cent who had an 8-liour day in cigar firms had also a week of 44 and under 48 hours, while almost as many, 217, or 35.4 per cent, had a week of more than 50 hours. In tobacco factories 198 women, or only 3.5 per cent, had a schedule of less than 50 hours, and 64.2 per cent had a week of over 52 and under 60 hours. Both in cigars and in tobacco about onefourth had a week of 50 hours, but none in cigar making had a week as long as 58 hours though 6.5 per cent of those in tobacco had one of 60 hours or more. One establishment employed 179 negro women as night workers, and these had a 10-hour shift with a 50-hour week. In paper mills, while 66 women—71 per cent of all reported—had a day of over 9 and under 10 hours, the same women, all of whom were in this establishment, had a week of over 50 and under 52 hours, which provided for a half day’s work on Saturday. In the major wood industries, while a day of 10 hours was sched uled for 76.2 per cent of the women, 61.3 per cent had a week of 55 hours, indicative of a short Saturday, and 12.8 per cent had a shorter week. A 10-hour day was scheduled for one-fourth of the women reported in the textile industries, and 225, or 19.4 per cent, had a week of 60 hours or over and about one-third had a week of exactly 55 hours; in all, 55.9 per cent of the women in textiles had a scheduled week of 55 hours and over. Nearly all of the few in yarn mills and 81 per cent of the 116 in waste factories worked 60 hours and over. In cotton yard goods 192, or 69.3 per cent, and in hosiery and knit goods 156, or 47.7 per cent, had a 55-hour week, but in the latter nearly onethird had a 48-hour week. The daily and weekly hours of the largest group of women in each of the chief industries included may be seen from Table 1 in the appendix. CHAPTER IV—EXTENT OF TIMEWORK AND PIECEWORK There are two prevailing systems of payment for labor. Under the first, or timework basis, earnings depend on the time worked, with a rate for the hour, the day, the week, or a longer period. Under the second, or piecework basis, earnings are regulated entirely by the amount the worker produces. Women who are shifted from one occupation to others during any one day or week may be paid according to a combination of timework and piecework. .The data at hand give indication of the extent of timework and piecework in the different industries in which negro women were employed and of the kinds of occupations for which each method of payment was used. While comparison of the earnings of some timeworkers with those of some pieceworkers is left to the chapter on wages, it may be stated that in general pieceworkers must be highly skilled to earn more than timeworkers do in the same occupation. Reports on the extent of timework and piecework were made for 11 of the 15 States, and included 6,428 negro women. In addition to these there were 106 night workers, all of whom were on a time basis. The night workers were in the bread, glass, bag, cotton-yardgoods, and lumber industries. Of those on day shifts 3,643, or 56.7 per cent, were pieceworkers, and 2,683, or 41.7 per cent, were timeworkers. States in which more of the workers reported were on a time than on a piece basis are the following: On timework Illinois__________________ Georgia Tennessee_____ ____________ Number Per cent 948 545 316 64.4 58.5 48.3 On timework Number Per cent Mississippi.. ___________ _ 120 55.3 49 64.5 More pieceworkers than timeworkers were reported from the fol lowing States: On piecework Missouri__________ _________ Ohio............................... ........... Number Per cent 958 575 505 84.6 75.8 78.4 On piecework Number Per cent 175 77 65.3 63.6 Differences in the method of payment, like those in the number of daily or weekly hours worked, depend in a large degree upon the types of industry prevailing in a State. Frequent variations occur also among the different occupations within any one industry. 35 36 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES In the industries employing the largest numbers of negro women timework was the system for the majority of women in slaughtering and meat packing, in the major wood products, in glass, in textiles, and in general mercantile establishments. In ipbacco and cigars, in nuts, and in house furnishings the majority were pieceworkers. In slaughtering and meat packing 658, or 94.5 per cent, were timeworkers, and these were in nearly all the occupations reported. The few pieceworkers found were chiefly trimmers or canners and packers. In the making of the major wood products 323 women, or 65.8 per cent, were timeworkers, but the proportions of these in the different branches of the industry varied considerably. Of the timeworkers, 92 formed 49.2 per cent of the women in furniture factories, lf9 formed 71.3 per cent of those in box and crate making, and 52 repre sented all but one of the women reporting in lumber and veneer firms. All helpers and operators working at various kinds of saws, all bundlers, the graders and sorters reported in box and crate factories, the off-bearers in furniture plants, and the graders and stackers in lumber mills were timeworkers, as were most of the operators of different kinds of machines and the majority of those finishing furni ture. Eight of the nine women catching and off-bearing in box and crate plants and more than one-half of those stacking lumber and baskets were pieceworkers. In furniture factories, where nearly as many were on a piece as on a time basis, the majority of those as sembling and packing and a fourth of those finishing were piece workers. . . In stores, in bakeries, and in glass factories the time system was universally used, as it was also in the few miscellaneous plants, in cluding one establishment in each of the following industries: Print ing and publishing, the making of glue, and the manufacture of toilet goods. The seamstress found in one trunk factory was a timeworker. In drug and chemical establishments 45 women,, or 83.3 per cent, were timeworkers, and of the 9 pieceworkers 1 was a packer and 1 washed bottles. . In textiles slightly over one-half of the women reported were timeworkers, but the proportions varied greatly in the different branches of the industry. Those in which timeworkers formed the majority were as follows: On timework Number Per cent 172 93 59.7 68.4 On timework Number Per cent 63 22 54.3 95.7 In bag making all those handling irons and inspecting, one-lialf of the sorters, and one truck distributor were timeworkers, while most of the turners and of the sewers and menders were pieceworkers. In cotton mills the bale breakers, the waste hands, and those in draw ing departments were timeworkers, as were the majority of the clean ers of hoppers, quills, and machines and the few stitchers, sewers, 37 EXTENT OP TIMEWORK AND PIECEWORK creelers, and winders. Most of the women filling frames and bat teries, most of the roving haulers, and a few of the cleaners were pieceworkers. In waste factories all those sewing and cutting bags were on a time basis, while nearly all cop winders and the majority of the sorters were on piecework. Twine and hosiery mills are the two branches of the textile in dustry that employed the majority of their workers by piece, and in each case the proportion was nearly three-fourths. In hosiery and knit goods all the boarders and the pairers, folders, stampers, and ticketers, most of the loopers and seamers and of the winders, and about three-fourths of the inspectors* and of the knitters were piece workers ; all the spinners, the one teacher, and a few of the winders and of the loopers and seamers were timeworkers. In cordage and twine factories all labelers, most of the preparers and spinners, and more than half the machine operators were pieceworkers, while the few women who were waste hands and some of the machine operators worked on a time basis. In the cigar and tobacco industries the proportions were similar, nearly three-fourths of the women in each being pieceworkers. In tobacco 894, or 94.8 per cent, and in cigars 269, or 79.4 per cent, of the stemmers and strippers worked by the piece. Additional employees who were on a piece basis were, in tobacco, three-fourths of the tiers and hangers and of the twisters, the majority of the wrappers and packers and a few wringers; in cigars, the one bander and the ma jority of those who were bunching and pasting and folding. In cigar making some stemmers and strippers were timeworkers, as were a few of those bunching and pasting and folding. In tobacco fac tories, all those classifying and sorting, searching, picking, shaking, and spreading the leaf, and a majority of the wringers, were timeworkers, while a few stemmers and strippers were on a combined basis of time and piece. All the 794 women reported in nut establishments, and 305, or 91 per cent, of those in house furnishings were pieceworkers. In the latter were included all the inspectors, most of the machine oper ators and other sewers, a cushion maker, and a checker, while one setting springs and a few machine operators were paid by time. Of those in the one electrical firm reporting all were pieceworkers, and the prevalence of this system in several additional industries is shown by the following: On piecework Paper.................. ......................... Number Per cent 113 75 71 74.8 73.5 95.9 On piecework Number Per cent 69 26 89.6 83.9 In canneries the small proportion of timeworkers was made up of all the 10 cooks and all the 5 can washers reported and a very few of the women peeling and pitting. In clothing, all machine operators, the majority of pressers, one buttoner, and one ticketer were on a 38 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES piece basis, while the timeworkers reported consisted of a few pressers, a folder and a cleaner, and a basting puller. In paper mills the two strippers and one of the four gluers reported worked on time, while all sorters worked by the piece. In metal firms the bench workers reporting, one chain maker, and those operating presses and machines were on piecework, while core makers were either on piece or a combination of time and piece, indicating additional occu pations for the individual woman. Two of the three press inspectors were timeworkers. CHAPTER V.—EARNINGS WEEK’S EARNINGS For 5,558 women in 11 States, a week’s earnings were reported, and from these the median has been computed for each State. The median means that one-half of the women reporting in the State earned more, MEDIAN WEEK'S EARNINGS OF 5,390 NEGRO WOMEN IN 10 STATES Year State of survey 1920-21 Georgia Dollars Women Median 15 931 1 921 Kentucky 1921-22 S.Carolina 268 1922 Alabama 1 55 1922 Arkansas 1922 Missouri 1922 1,1 26 76 5.0 5 1,1 54 5.1 0 New Jersey 1 21 11.50 1922 Ohio 652 8.65 1925 Mississippi 2 43 5.7 0 1925 Tennessee 664 7.55 Note,- See rates and earnings in tables 2 and 4 of Appendix B. U.S.0«pt. of Lob of Women’s Bureau one-half earned less, than the figure given. Throughout the follow ing discussion, except in a few specified cases where individual earn ings are given, the figures quoted for States, for industries, or for occupations are the medians. On the accompanying chart the medians of week’s earnings for women in 10 States are shown. 39 40 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES It must be borne constantly in mind that the States in which earn ings were taken were surveyed in different years, and especially for this reason, since business fluctuations have a considerable influence on wages, the medians for the different States can not properly be compared one with another. Earnings of women were ascertained in Kansas in 1920 and in Georgia in 1920 and 1921—in both States during the postwar period of abnormally high prices except for a few of the establishments in Georgia that were beginning to feel the depression; in Kentucky in the autumn of 1921, and in South Caro lina at the end of 1921 and in early 1922—both States during the heavy depression; in the five States of Alabama, Arkansas, Missouri, New Jersey, and Ohio in 1922, during the first part of which depres sion still prevailed and in the latter part of which industrial recovery had become assured; and in Mississippi and Tennessee early in 1925, a period of good business conditions. The wage standards of the types of industry that prevail in a State and the great differences in economic and industrial history of different States are additional factors that make it impossible to give any accurate comparison of the earnings in one State with those in others. The earnings figures, therefore, are given only for what they are worth separately. For each State the year of study, the number of women included, and the median of the earnings may be seen from Table 2 in Appendix B. The exact occupation of every woman for whom earnings were re ported could not be ascertained. For those occupations that were of some importance in themselves and for those that employed consider able numbers in relation to the industry, earnings are given in Table 3 in Appendix B. More than 3,000 women are included, and for these it is possible to compare earnings in any one occupation with those in others in the same industry in the same year. More than 1,800 of these women were in cigar and tobacco factories. The lowest median for all the cigar makers in any State was that of $4.80 for 192 women in a State surveyed at the end of 1921 and early in 1922, during the depressed period, and the median of 148 tobacco workers in a State studied in the last quarter of 1922 was $8.85, the highest in tobacco for any State. The State having the largest num ber of negro women in tobacco factories, 1,086, was surveyed at the close of 1921, while depression still prevailed, and the median for these women was $8.30. ^ In cigar making the highest median was $10.20 for 47 women in a State in which earnings were taken in 1922, while in the same year the median for 261 tobacco workers in another State was $7.50, the lowest found in tobacco. The majority of the workers in cigars and tobacco were stemmers. In two States the stemmers in cigars re ceived a median above that for the industry as a whole, while in tobacco the median of the stemmers was in each State below that for this branch of the industry. In tobacco products, as a. whole, both the lowest and the highest medians for stemmers were in cigar estab lishments; these were, respectively, $2.65 for 114 women in a State studied in 1921—22 and $10.40 for 33 women in another State in 1922. The median for stemmers in cigar factories was in every case above that of bunchers and grinders in the same State and below that of pasters and folders. In tobacco plants stemmers had the smallest medians, except for that received by a few pickers in one State, and EARNIN' GS 41 these low payments in the occupation engaged in by the largest num bers lowered the median for all and made the amounts received in certain other occupations stand out as much superior. Five leaf shakers in a State studied in 1922 had a median of $15.25, the high est earnings in the industry. Twenty feeders in a State studied in 1921 had a median of $14, and 6 others, whose earnings were taken in 1922, a median of $13.50. In 1922, 18 wringers, 15 pickers, and 20 leaf spreaders, and in 1925, 48 twisters, had medians ranging from $12.50 to $12.65. In the five branches of textiles taken together earnings were re ported for more than 600 women. In some cases striking differences appear in earnings in the same branch of textiles surveyed in differ ent years. In bag making, in three States studied in different years, the median for 153 women in 1921 was $4.80, for 66 in 1922 it was $8.95, and for 53 in 1925 it was $5.80. In hosiery mills 106 women studied in 1920 had a median of $6.25 and 30 in 1921-22 a median of $4.90. The highest median in any branch of textiles was the $8.95 just cited in bag making; the median next to the highest was $1.75 of 21 women making yarn in 1920. The lowest was that of 94 women handling waste in 1921—$4.25. The highest medians in any occupa tion were received by 7 haulers in yarn plants in 1920 and by 7 women sorting bags in 1922, and were, respectively, $10.25 and $10.15. One bag sorter in 1925 received $10.69 and an inspector in 1922 re ceived $13.13. A median above that of the industry in the same State was received by the sorters mentioned in bags and by 65 sorters in waste factories in 1921, by 12 roving haulers in 1922, and by inspectors in whatever State or branch of the industry found. In most of the other cases in which the same occupation was found in textiles in different States its median bore no consistent relation to the median for the industry. This was the case even with loopers and seamers in hosiery mills whose work is somewhat skilled. In a State studied in 1920, 13 loopers and seamers had a median of $7.15, above the median in the industry ; in 1921-22 a median of $4.05, an amount below the median in the industry in that State, was earned by 15 women in this occupation. In yard-goods plants in 1922 cleaners of hoppers, quills, and machines had the highest median, while the lowest was for those in drawing departments, the group having the lowest median reported in yarn mills in another State in 1920. The lowest median received in any branch of textiles at any time was that of 10 cop winders and of 10 bag cutters all in the same waste factory in 1921; it was $4 for each of these groups. In three branches of the manufacture of wood products, earnings ■were reported for 405 women. This included, in 1925, box making in one State, furniture in two, lumber and veneer in one. Of these lum ber and veneer had the highest median, computed for 17 women as $8.75. The furniture median for 138 women in one State was $7.85, and for 20 in another State, $7.90; box making had the lowest, the median for 137 women being $5.55. In the same year 53 in bag mak ing had a median of $5.80, and 186 in tobacco $7.55. The highest median in the wood-manufacturing establishments was that of $11.20 computed for 38 furniture assemblers. Finishers received amounts below the median for the industry in the same State but above the median for the industry in another State. In other occupations the 42 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN. 15 STATES relation of the median to the median for the industry was not regular, but was as follows: For stackers and for off-bearers, above in one State each, below in two1 States each; for machine operators, above in one, below in one. In the glass factories, studied in 1922, the medians for night workers were above those of day workers in the same occupations and were above the median for the industry. Crackers-off had the highest median earnings. The earnings of 10 cooks in canneries1 in 1921 were above those for the industry, while medians for 8 can washers and for 8 peelers and pitters were below. In slaughtering and meat packing, in a State studied in 1920, the median of the earnings was considerably higher than in any other industry. This may be quite specifically accounted for by the opinions that had just been handed down in the packing-house cases by the arbitrator for the President’s Mediation Commission.1 In certain occupations the women canning and packing, making sausage, trim ming meat, and shaving and singeing had a median above that of the industry; those working in casings and the few picking chickens, a median below that of the industry. WEEK’S EARNINGS AND WEEKLY RATES OF PAY While the medians considered up to this point are of great value in that they show the amounts upon which the workers engaged in various occupations actually had to live at the time surveyed, they do not take account of time lost. Women who work for shorter periods earn less than those who work full time, and the inclusion of their earnings lowers the median for all, while the inclusion of overtime workers raises the median. For timeworkers it is possible to ascertain both the actual week’s earnings and the rates of pay bargained for, or the amounts that would have been earned had no undertime nor overtime been worked. Such data for 1,689 women in 154 establishments (in 19 industries in; 10 States) appear in Table 4 in Appendix B. They enable the determina tion of whether the actual week’s earnings within a State or an indus try exceeded or fell below the weekly rate of pay offered to the women working full time in such State or industry. From this the extent to which actual earnings fell below the best earnings possible within a State or an industry may be indicated, as may also the comparative degrees of time lost. Since earnings and rates within one industry in one place, or those within one State, are the subject of consideration, and since the difference between earnings and rates presents no direct variation with the degree of industrial stability of the period of study, the discussion may for the present disregard the time factor. The greatest proportion by which median earnings in any State fell below rates was 16.2 per cent for the 130 women in Ohio. Earn ings fell below rates by nearly 10 per cent in Kentucky and by more than 10 per cent in Georgia (from which the largest number of women were reported), in Missouri, and in Arkansas (from which fewer than 50 were included). The smallest degree in which earn ings fell below rates was 3.5 per cent in New Jersey, the next 6.9 per 1 The State is Kansas. See note on Alschuler award, p. 8. EARNINGS 43 cent in South Carolina. In these States the data are based upon re ports from 20 and 89 women, respectively. In tobacco and cigars, in every case, earnings were below rates. In the two States having the largest numbers in tobacco, 146 and 107, earnings fell respectively 17.2 per cent and 16.8 per cent below rates, which was in each case in a degree greater than that by which the earnings of all the women reported in the State fell below their rates. A similar statement may be made for1 the largest group in cigars. The median of the earnings was below the median of the rates offered in the industry in every branch of textiles in every State, except those of 44 women in bag making in one State and a few in the manufacture of finer materials, tabulated as “ other textiles,” in one State. In the entire range of all the industries reporting the two cases last mentioned were the only ones in which median earn ings rose above median rates. In the wood products, median earnings were in every case below median rates in the industry, except that rates and earnings were the same for 30 women making miscellaneous wood products in one State. Median rates and earnings of the women in general mercantile establishments were reported from seven States. Their situation differed from that of women in manufacturing plants in that median earnings almost consistently equaled median rates, falling below only for a few women in each of two States. The differences in the medians of earnings and of rates noted in the foregoing discussion give a fairly accurate indication of the relative extent of both time and money lost in various industries and in different States. If the earnings of women reporting both rates and earnings should, in addition, be compared with those of all women reported in a State or in an industry, the total ordinarily would be found to present a figure still lower. This indicates a still greater amount of time lost by the total number, or, since median rates can not be ascertained for pieceworkers, a lower scale of median earnings for piecework, WEEK’S EARNINGS OF TIMEWORKERS AND OF PIECEWORKERS IN THE SAME OCCUPATION A comparison of the earnings of timeworkers with those of pieceworkers is difficult, since the occupations are likely to differ. The basis for such a comparison in the present study exists in the earnings reported for 1,743 women in 10 States. Of these, 275 were timeworkers and 1,468 were pieceworkers in the same occupa tions and usually, although not always, in the same establishments. Nearly three-fourths of the total number were tobacco stemmers, and the remaining women represented occupations in four branches of textiles and in four of wood products. The numbers, medians of earnings, and ranges of actual earnings of timeworkers and of pieceworkers in the same occupations may be seen from Table 5 in Appendix B. Of the stemmers reported in tobacco factories, only 35 were timeworkers and 887 were pieceworkers; in cigar factories, 70 stem mers were on a, time basis, 269 on a piece basis. In tobacco in any one State and in any one year, stemmers on piecework had a lower 34574°—29----- 4 44 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES median than had timeworkers, and the highest piecework median at any time was below the lowest in timework. Timeworkers in tobacco earned considerably more than did those taken in the same year in cigar making, but there was no such regular relation of the earnings of pieceworkers, whose receipts showed marked fluctua tions. The highest earnings in timework were in 1922, the median for 8 women in tobacco being $12.50, for 11 in cigars $10.20. In the same year and in the same States, respectively, 137 pieceworkers in tobacco had a median of only $5.30, less than one-half as much as that of timeworkers, while 22 pieceworkers in cigars had a median oi $10.35, a figure slightly more than that of the timeworkers and the best at any time for pieceworkers in this occupation. The very low median of $1.80 for pieceworkers in one State in 1921-22 indi cates the irregularity of work. In this case, more than two-thirds ot the timeworkers in contrast to one-seventh of the pieceworkers worked full time. Of the 256 in textile mills reported, 76 were timeworkers, 180 pieceworkers. The largest group of the former was formed by the sorters in waste factories, while more than one-third of the latter were in hosiery mills. The highest median earnings computed for pieceworkers were those for 16 hand sewers in bag factories in 1922. lliese had a median of $11, while each of 4 timeworkers in the same year had less, their earnings ranging from $7 to $10.10. Six ba°turners in 1925 had the highest median for timeworkers, that of $9.16, while at the same time 25 pieceworkers in the same occupation had a median of only $5.15. This was the largest group of piece workers in an occupation in bag making, and the timeworker earn ing the smallest amount had more than the median for all piece workers. In the other cases in textiles, pieceworkers had a median above timeworkers in the same States as sewers in bags in 1921, as knitters in hosiery mills in 1925, and as roving haulers in 1922; timeworkers had the higher median as fillers of frames and as waste sorters, in 1921. Of 175 .in the wood industries, 72 were on a time basis, 103 on a piece basis. More than one-half of all reported were stackers in the box and crate or the lumber and veneer industry. Of these 22 timeworkers in 1921 had a median below that of 5 pieceworkers in the same year; in 1925, 41 pieceworkers had a median above that of 17, and below that of 6, timeworkers. The highest paid piece workers were 34 furniture assemblers, who had a median of $11.20 and 5 machine operators in box and crate factories, with a median of $9.85. In.each case this was considerably above the earnings of timeworkers in the same occupation at the same time, and it” was also above the highest earnings of any timeworker in any occupa tion in the wood industries at any time. The highest timework median was that of $8.25 for 6 lumber stackers in 1925. In another State studied in the same year, 17 stackers in box and crate factories had a median of only $5.20 while the median for 41 on piecework was $6.90. The highest amount reported for any individual timeworker m wood products was $9 paid each of 2 off-bearers in a furniture factory in 1925, and in another State in the same year another woman in the same occupation earned $8.55, the next highest payment to an individual wood worker. EARNINGS 45 Up to this point the data have included all the women for whom the bases of payment were reported, and they have generally shown the highest medians in textiles and in tobacco to be received by timeworkers, the highest in cigars and in wood products to be received by pieceworkers. This gives a fairly accurate indication of the actual situation in relation to all women, but takes no account of the variations in earnings that may have been caused by the inclusion of undertime workers. An additional comparison may be made for full time workers only, that is, of the earnings of timeworkers who had worked the full scheduled hours of the firm with those of piecework ers in the same occupations at the same time who worked for 5t/2 days or over during the week. Of these, there were 146 timeworkers and 556 pieceworkers. Of course the range of occupations is less complete than that in which all workers are included. Except in tobacco, the medians for full-time workers, where re ported, were nearly the same as those for all workers in the same occupations, whether time or piece was the basis of pavment. In tobacco and cigar factories, the women on full time include 71, or nearly one-half, of the timeworkers, and 457, or more than fourfifths, of the pieceworkers reported. For these the medians for women on full time ordinarily were above those for all women in the same occupation at the same time, but with a much greater variation for pieceworkers than for timeworkers. Ordinarily, for full-time workers the lowest earnings received by any individual timeworker were above the lowest in piecework in the same occupation at the same time, but the variations were not so wide as if the lowest individual earnings among those of all timeworkers be compared with the lowest among all pieceworkers in the same occupation. This again emphasizes the great fluctuation in the earnings of piece workers. The medians of full-time timeworkers were above those of piece workers in the following cases: Tobacco, stemmers, 17 timeworkers, with a median of $12.35; 198 piecework ers, with a median of $8.15. Bags, turners, 5 timeworkers, with a median of $9.16; 17 pieceworkers;, with a median of $5.40. The medians of full-time pieceworkers were above those of timeworkers in the fob o wing cases: Cigars, bunchers, 5 timeworkers, with a median of $5.50; 14 pieceworkers, with a median of $8. Cigars, stemmers, 16 timeworkers, with a median of $6; 13 pieceworkers, with a median of $6.75. Hosiery, knitters, 4 timeworkers, with a median of $5.80; 7 pieceworkers with a median of $6.31. Boxes, stackers, 8 timeworkers, with a median of $5.20; 31 pieceworkers, with a median of $7.35. “Other wood,” assemblers, 7 timeworkers, with a median of $5.50; 7 piece workers, with a median of $6.50. The earnings of pieceworkers presented much greater fluctuations than did those of timeworkers, and in many occupations some piece workers had earnings far below those of any timeworker in the same occupation. The industries in which timework prevailed provided the worker with an income more certain and uniform than piecework earnings but at a figure somewhat lower than that possible to a few individuals under the piecework system. 46 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES YEAR’S EARNINGS The discussion of earnings thus far has been confined to the amounts received during a representative week. Owing to holidays, slack work, illness, and various other plant or personal causes, the earnings of individual workers are likely to suffer considerable varia tion from week to week. It is the all-year-round income that is of real importance to the worker, since it is upon this that her stand ard of living finally depends. In the chief industries suryeyed in 9 States, the actual year’s earn ings were ascertained in 33 establishments for 285 women who had worked for at least 44 weeks prior to the time when week’s earnings were taken. In addition, year’s earnings are available for a few in each of several occupations scattered among other industries, mak ing a total of 326 women in 55 establishments. Those for whom year’s earnings were reported may be considered fairly representa tive of the most continuous and capable workers to be found. Their earnings indicate the amounts that the steady worker ordinarily had to live upon in a given industry at the time studied. By reference to Table 6 in Appendix B it will be seen that the highest year’s earnings in any industry were those of 105 women in the meat-packing industry in 1920,2 the lowest those of 5 candy workers in a State studied in 1925. Other high figures were in bags and in glass in 1922, while low amounts were earned in box plants in 1925, and in cotton yard goods and in tobacco in 1922. It is of interest to ascertain what the year’s receipts indicate as to the average amount per week that a steady worker could count upon for running expenses during the 52 weeks of the year and to compare this with the week’s earnings of all reported. The women for whom year’s earnings were reported form 66.9 per cent of those for whom week’s earnings were taken in meat packing; 25 per cent of those in furniture in one State; more than 15 per cent of those in candy in two States; and 14 per cent of those in cotton yard goods in one State; more than 10 per cent of those in glass and in cigars in one State; and more than 9 per cent of those in bags and in furniture in one State each. In the other cases the proportion for whom year’s earnings were reported was extremely small, although the general policy of the Women’s Bureau has been to ascertain year’s earnings for from 10 to 20 per cent of the number for whom week’s earnings were taken. That year’s earnings are available for so small a pro portion of negro women tends to show that in most of the industries there existed a rather high degree of instability, a situation that might be attributed to heavy labor turnover within the year or to great irregularity of attendance. Where the average weekly earnings of those for whom year’s earnings were given exceeded the median week’s earnings of all re ported, relatively more time was lost by all those working during a representative week than by the steadier workers who remained throughout the year. Where the differences were greatest, the pro portions for whom year’s earnings were reported ordinarily were comparatively small, which gives further indication of a somewhat 2 The high median in meat packing was influenced hy the Alschuler awards. pn p. 8. See note EARNINGS 47 higher degree of instability of the workers in those industries at the time studied than in the other industries included. Differences existed in the greatest degrees in waste factories and in bag making; in a large degree in furniture, in cigar plants, in “ other wood,” and in tobacco, in one State each; and in a less degree in glass and in cigars in other States. In industries in which the average weekly earnings of those for whom year’s earnings wTere given fell below the median week’s earnings of all reported, the steadier workers lost relatively more time during the year than did the workers studied in a representa tive week. These industries therefore appear to present a character somewhat more fluctuating that that of the other industries. Where the greatest difference occurred, year’s earnings were reported for a relatively large proportion, which gives further indication that the loss of earnings was not referable chiefly to instability of the workers but must have been caused by conditions within the industry at the time studied. The difference was greatest in slaughtering and meat packing, next in tobacco and candy, in two States; the difference was less in furniture, in tobacco, and in the making of cotton yard goods in one State each, and in box factories in two States. Naturally, in any one industry women engaged in some occupa tions received more than those in others. The largest amount earned in a year in a specific occupation was $1,139 received by a meat trimmer in 1920; a twister in a tobacco plant in 1925 received $916; a hand sewer in bag making in 1922 received $895, and in the same year a machine operator in a metal plant earned $747. While all occupations in slaughtering and meat packing were well paid, workers with casings and chitterlings, and shavers, cleaners, scrapers, and singers earned the largest amounts, while trimmers and cutters, sausage makers and stuffers, and canners and packers had medians less than that for the industry as a whole. The lowest median found for any occupation was that of $232 for 5 candy makers in 1925, and $172 and $186, respectively, were earned by 2 roving haulers in cotton yard goods in 1922. Median year’s earnings of $290 were received by 10 stackers in box and crate plants in 1925. In addition, the following women received less than $300 for their year’s work: One clothing presser and 1 puller in a box factory in 1920; 1 paster and folder and 2 stammers in cigar fac tories, and 1 inspector and mender, 1 looper and seamer, and 1 boarder of hosiery in 1921 and 2 boarders in 1925; 2 tobacco stemmers, 2 searchers, and 1 picker in 1922; in cotton-yard-goods mills, 2 fillers of frames and batteries, 2 bale breakers, and 1 waste hand in 1922; in “ other wood ” an assembler in 1925. SUMMARY Week’s earnings were ascertained for 5,558 women in 209 estab lishments in 11 States, year’s earnings for 330 women in 55 estab lishments in 9 States. Differences in time of survey, in type of industry, and in locality narrow the scope of the accurate com parisons that are possible from the data secured. In 4 States the median of the week’s earnings of all women reported was $5.70 or less, in 2 States it was $11.30 or more; earnings in the other 5 States ranged from $6.10 to $8.65. The highest of all the medians 48 NEGRO WOMEN 1ST INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES of a week’s earnings in any industry were those of women in gen eral mercantile establishments and in slaughtering and meat pack ing in a State surveyed in 1920;3 the lowest were those of women in a lumber and veneer mill in 1922 and of women in a clothinoplant in 1920. b In every State for which rates were reported the median of the week’s earnings fell below the median of the rates of pay bargained for; and the same was true in every separate manufacturing indus try, with the exception of two cases in textiles involving together only 71 women. In tobacco and in hosiery, median earnings ordinarily exceeded the medians for the States in which the industry was found, as did medians in glass and in yarn, each of which was found in only one State; in bag making, in waste factories, and in cotton yard goods medians for the largest groups fell below those for the State. Median earnings in cigar making and in the various branches of wood products bore no regular relation to the medians of the respec tive States in which they were found, being sometimes below, some times above. Median earnings of women in general mercantile establishments rose above the State median in six of the seven States in which these were reported. The earnings of pieceworkers showed much greater fluctuations than did those of timeworkers and in many occupations some piece workers had earnings far below those of any timeworker in the same occupation. The highest year’s earnings were $1,139 received by a meat trim mer in 1920. In 1922 a hand sewer in a bag factory received $895, and in the same year a machine operator in a metal plant received $747. A twister in a tobacco factory in 1925 earned $916. The lowest year’s earnings were those of a roving hauler in cotton yard goods in 1922. Other low amounts were received by another roving hauler, by a frame filler, and by a tobacco picker in 1922, and by a candy wrapper in 1925. The average weekly amounts received by those reporting year’s earnings rose above the week’s earnings of all those reporting in the bag, the cigar, the cotton yard goods, the glass, and the waste industries, and in one State each in furniture and tobacco; they fell below in the greatest degree in slaughtering and meat packing and in tobacco and in candy in two States; they fell below in a lesser degree in furniture, in tobacco, and in cotton yard goods in one State each and in box factories in two States. See footnote, p. 8. CHAPTER VL—THE WORKERS * B In addition to a knowledge of the location of negro women in industry, of their working hours, of their earnings, and of the ex tent to which a time or piece basis prevailed in payment for their labor, it is of interest and importance to know some of the personal facts about the workers themselves. What, for example, were the ages of most of the negro women studied, and did the occupations in which the very young or very old were found differ materially from those in which others were chiefly engaged? Had the women re porting, both from industries that had long been open to them and from those that were but newly giving them opportunity, been in their trades for a length of time sufficient to justify a claim for the stability of negro women workers ? What proportion of the workers were single, married, and widowed, separated, or divorced? Did single women stand better opportunity for employment in some in dustries or occupations, married women in others? AGE The ages of 3,150 women in 12 States were reported. In each of these States those between 20 and 30 formed the largest group; 1,344, or 42.7 per cent of the total number, were within this age range; and 810, or 25.7 per cent, were between 30 and 40. In each of 9 States women under 20 formed at least 10 per cent of the negro women included; in three of these they constituted more than 25 per cent. The largest numbers of those at this age range were in wood products, tobacco products, nuts, house furnishings, and bags. Few were found in textiles, and a very few of these were in the more skilled machine processes that were open to them, chiefly in hosiery and knit goods. In the industries employing the largest groups of girls under 20, the total number of negro women and the numbers and chief occupations of those under 20 were as follows: * * Of 883 in tobacco, (IT, of whom 51 were stemmers. Of 466 in nuts, 53, of whom 51 were pickers. Of 161 in house furnishings, 38, of whom 25 operated machines, 1 inspected, and a few sewed by hand. Of 99 in bags, 33, of whom 11 patched, sewed, or mended, 10 turned, 3 in spected, 1 riveted, and 1 was a machine operator. Of 51 in cigars. 23, of whom 19 were stemmers and 2 were bunchers. Of 101 in furniture, 24, of whom 10 were finishers, 8 packers, 4 assemblers, and 1 was a machine operator. Of 98 in boxes, 29, of whom 8 stacked, 5 operated or fed machines, and 4 as sisted at saws. As a general rule, the occupation in which the largest number of the younger girls in an industry were found were the same as those employing the largest numbers of the women of other ages. In slaughtering and meat packing this was not true, since only two girls under 20 were reported in the casing and chitterling departments 49 50 NEGRO WOMBS' IN' INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES where nearly one-third of the older women worked. Of the 398 in this industry who reported age, only 16 were less than 20, and of these 6 worked with hair; 1 picked chickens; 2 tied, hung, and linked sausage; and 1 trimmed meat. Additional occupations in each of which a few girls under 20 were found were looping and seaming hosiery, hauling in a yarn mill, sorting waste, machine sewing jn clothing, wrapping candy, peeling and pitting fruit, acting as maid or as stock girl in a store, carryingin and cracking-off in glass, and working in the bindery of a printing plant. A few Avomen of 60 or over were found in each of 9 States. To gether they formed a very small group, only 48, or 1.5 per cent of the whole number reporting age. Nearly one-half of these were tobacco stemmers; none were found in cigar firms. A few were han dling casings and chitterlings in meat-packing establishments or \ATere at the. following types of work: Sorting in waste and in paper factories, picking and sorting nuts, peeling and pitting fruit, picking chickens, turning bags, assembling furniture, and acting as maid in a department store. TIME IN THE TRADE By the length of the time during which workers had remained in their trades some indication may be obtained in regard to two im portant matters: The relative periods at which opportunities for employment in different industries became aA'ailable to negro women and the stability of these women in their work. Reports of time in the trade wTere given for 2,819 negro women in 12 States. More than three-fifths of these had been at their work for at least 2 years. The largest group, 17.6 per cent, had been in the industry 5 and under 10 years, and the group next in size, 16.2 per cent, 1 and under 2 years. A small proportion had worked in the same trade for 10 and under 15 years, and a few more for 15 years or longer—a total of 11.4 per cent at least 10 years in one trade. The numbers and the proportions of those who had remained for specified lengths of time are as follows: Under 6 months__________ 6 months and under 1 year 1 and under 2 years______ 2 and under 3 years______ 3 and under 4 years______ 4 and under 5 years______ 5 and under 10 years_____ 10 and under 15 years____ 15 years or over__________ Number 354 268 456 403 287 235 496 133 187 Per cent 12.6 9.5 16.2 14.3 10.2 8.3 17. 6 4.7 6.6 In each of seven States, time in the trade was reported by tvell over 100 women; in three of them more than 400 women reported. The period reported as spent in the trade by one-half or more of the Avomen is as follotvs, with the group specified that had a larger number than any other group in the State: One year or longer.—Illinois: Largest group 133, or 30.7 per cent, 1 and under 2 years. Two years or longer.—Georgia : Largest group 87, or 34.9 per cent, 1 and under 2 years. Missouri: Largest group 144, or 24.8 per cent, less than 6 months. THE WORKERS 51 Three years or longer.—Kansas: Largest group 42, or 24.1 per cent, 3 and under 4 years. Ohio : Largest group 54, or 20 per cent less than 6 months. Tennessee: Largest group 91, or 27.6 per1 cent, 5 and under 10 years. Five years or longer.—Kentucky: Largest group 123, or 24.7 per cent, 5 and under 10 years, with 18.1 per cent 15 years or longer. Between different industries marked variations occurred in relation to the time during which most of the women had been in the trade. The types of industry prevailing in a State tended to indicate the TIME IN THE TRADE 2,819 NEGRO WOMEN IN 12 STATES Per cent of women 20 Under Q months 6 months and Under 1 year 1 ond under 2 years 2 and under 3 years 3 and under 4 years A and under 5 years 5 and under I0 years 10 years and * over U.S.oepr. of Labor Women's Bureau extent of the industrial opportunity and of the stability likely to be found there. For example, reports on time in the trade came from tobacco factories in five widely separated States, and in four of these at least one-half of the women had remained for 5 years or longer. In slaughtering and meat packing in two States 45.9 and 78.3 per cent, respectively, had remained for 2 years or more; in furniture plants in each of two States practically three-fourths had been in the work for at least a year, though scarcely any for as long as 10 52 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES years; and in cigar making in each of two States the majority had worked for 3 years or over. Of the 187 women who had been in their trades for 15 years or longer, 129 were in tobacco; 26 were in food industries, chiefly in slaughtering and meat packing and in nuts; and 20 were in textiles, mostly in waste factories. All but two of the women who had been in the trade 10 and under 15 years were in tobacco, food, or textiles. The stability of negro women in these industries is indicated. Industries in which none of those reporting had worked for as long as 10 years are the following: Clothing, where only one had worked for as long as 5 years, drugs and chemicals, glass, metal products, paper and paper products, hosiery and knit goods, yarn, and wood products other than boxes and furniture. In most cases these represent the industries more recently opened to negro women. More than one-half of the women in cigar making had been at’their trade for 3 years or longer; none were reported as having remained less than 6 months. In tobacco, as stated, the period was longer, over one-half having remained for 5 years or more; the largest single group had been in the trade for 5 and under 10 years and the group second in size, for 15 years or more. Negro women have long been employed in the preparation of tobacco, and a considerable degree of stability on the part of the workers is apparent. In food products more than one-lialf had worked for less than 3 years. The majority in slaughtering and meat packing had been employed for only this length of time, although 11 had been in the industry 15 years or longer. In glass, nearly seven-tenths had been less than 3 years in the trade, almost a third having experience of less than 6 months. One woman in 9 had been 5 and under 10 years in the trade. The majority of all in hosiery and knit goods had been in their trade for 3 years or over, but none reporting had worked as long as 10 years. The development of opportunity in this industry is rela tively recent, the types of occupation are fairly skilled, and the sta bility is comparatively good. The largest number reporting in a single branch of textiles was in bag making, where the majority had worked for 2 years or longer; in the branch next in number report ing, waste, more than one-half had worked 10 years or longer. More than one-half of those reported in each of the wood-products groups except “ other ” had been in their trade for 2 years or over. In four additional industries time in the trade was reported for a very few, from 33 to 45. At least one-half of the women reporting had been in their trades for the following periods: In metal products, for more than 6 months; in clothing, for 1 year or over; in glass, for 2 years or more; and in paper and paper products, for 3 years or over, with none so long as 10 years. MARITAL STATUS Among the 3,048 women reporting marital status, workers who were married formed the largest group—1,217, or 39.9 per cent. Those who were single and those widowed, separated, or divorced formed groups similar in size, and comprised, respectively, 30.2 per cent and 29.8 per cent of the whole. In each of seven States more than THE WORKERS ♦ 53 100 women reported, and in these nearly one-third in Georgia and Kansas and a little more than one-third in Kentucky and Tennessee were married, as were almost one-half of those in Illinois and in Missouri and 44.4 per cent in Ohio. Kansas had much the largest proportion of widowed, divorced, or separated women—more than 40 per cent. In Georgia and in New Jersey more than 45 per cent of the negro women reporting were single. Most women in industry, whether single or married, have responsi bilities at home in addition to their work. The working woman who is widowed, separated, or divorced is almost certain to have to bear a large share, if not the whole, of the support of her children. While a knowledge of marital status gives no conclusive indication of the extent to which working women have home duties, it is of interest to know whether certain industries tend to offer opportunity of employ ment to single or to married women in the greater numbers. Of those reporting on marital status, the largest group in a single industry were in tobacco, 860, or 28.2 per cent of the total. The combined food industries presented a larger group, 965, or 31.7 per cent. Married women prevailed in both these cases, though very slightly in tobacco, where 312 married women formed 36.3 per cent of the total number reporting, and 306 women widowed, separated, or divorced formed 35.6 per cent; and in food, where 460 married women formed 47.7 per cent of the total. In tobacco, single women formed but 28.1 per cent; in food, only 23.1 per cent were single. In each of the separate food industries except candy, where only a small number reported, married women formed the largest group. In nuts, slightly over one-half of the 448 included, and in slaughter ing and meat packing 167, or 43.2 per cent, were married. Single women prevailed in wood products and in textiles. Of the 396 women reporting in the former, 161, or 40.7 per cent, were single and of 288 in the latter, 114, or 39.6 per cent, were single, while nearly as large a group were married—103, or 35.8 per cent. Of the 90 reporting in bag making, 49, or 54.4 per cent, were single. Of the 36 reporting in hosiery and knit goods, 16 were single; of the 70 reporting in cordage and twine, 33 were married; and of the 46 reporting in waste factories, 23 were widowed, separated, or divorced. In the occupations pursued within any one industry, the differences could not be said to be referable to marital status. In slaughtering and meat packing, in which 43.2 per cent of the women were married, only one of those picking chickens and one canning and packing were single; the majority of those wrapping and packing, weaving hair, trimming and cutting meat, of those working in casings and chitterlings, and of those tying, hanging, and linking sausage were married; the largest group of the shavers and cleaners were widowed, separated, or divorced; and most of those making and stuffing sau sage and opening hair ropes were or had been married. In bag mak ing, where 54.4 per cent were single, these included one-half of the turners, more than one-hajf of those who did hand sewing, and most of the inspectors and machine operators. In hosiery and knit goods, 9 of 11 loopers and seamers reporting were single. In waste facto ries, where 50 per cent of the women were widowed, separated, or divorced, more than one-half of the sorters were in this group. In wood products, in which 40.7 per cent were single, these included a 54 kEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES majority of those packing furniture and nearly one-half of those stacking wood and boxes in box factories and of those assembling the furniture. The women forming the largest group of those finish ing furniture were married. Of the 35 tobacco stemmers in cigar factories, more than one-half were single, while in tobacco plants 7 of every 10 of the 653 stemmers were or had been married. SUMMARY In regard to age, it may be said in summary that 42.7 per cent of the women reporting were between 20 and 30, slightly more than onefourth were from 30 to 40, more than 10 per cent were under 20, and a very few were 60 or over. Nearly one-half of the oldest group were tobacco stemmers. Of the youngest women, some were found in most of the occupations pursued by the oldest, few were on the more dexterous machine processes in hosiery and knit goods, very few worked with casings in slaughtering and meat packing, a number in house furnishings and a few in clothing were on sewing machines, and the largest groups in most industries did the same kinds of work done by the largest groups of those at other ages. Except in the case of women over 60, there was little variation in occupation that could be attributed chiefly to age. Time in the trade was reported for 2,819 in 12 States, or 39.3 per cent of all the women studied in those States. Of these, 1,741, or 61.8 per cent, had remained in their trades for 2 years or over, and 28.9 per cent, almost three-tenths, for 5 years or more. Even if the whole number studied in these States be taken, it will be found that 24.3 per cent we re known to have been in their work for 2 years or more, 11.4 per cent for 5 years or over. Undoubtedly many others of the 60.7 per cent unreported also had remained for as long or for a longer time. Some claim for the industrial stability of a good pro portion of negro women therefore seems justified. Industries in which the greatest stability existed were tobacco and waste. A con siderable degree of stability was indicated also in hosiery and knit goods, paper and paper products, glass, and wood products. The marital status of 3,048 women was reported. Of these, 39.9 per cent were married, 30.2 per cent were single, and 29.8 per cent were widowed, separated, or divorced. In tobacco and in the food industries women who were or had been married were greatly in the majority, and in tobacco nearly as many as those married were widowed, separated, or divorced. In the textile industries taken together and in wood products, on the contrary, the single women formed the largest groups. Variations in the occupations within any one industry could not be said to be due to differences in marital status. APPENDIXES APPENDIX A—LIST OF OCCUPATIONS OF NEGRO WOMEN APPENDIX B—GENERAL TABLES ! * APPENDIX A.—LIST OF OCCUPATIONS OF NEGRO WOMEN * _ * 1 * Clothing (States, 6; establishments, 16; women, 123) : Press operate 12 Machine operate 40 Other (including 1 button, 1 ticket, 1 basting pull)1------------------------Drugs and chemicals (States, 4; establishments, 8; women, 55) : Label 20 Pack and sort-----------------------------------------------------------------------------Other (including 1 bottle wash)1--------------------------------------------------Food: Bakeries (States, 3; establishments, 7; women, 36)—■ Wrap bread-------------------------------------------------------------------------Wash dishes and shine boxes------------------------------------------------Make and top pies---------Prepare fillings and ice cakes------------------------------------------------Candy (States, 6; establishments, 10; women, 205) — Wrap, pack, label, and inspect----------------------------------------- .-----Enrober________________________________________________ ____ Machine operate Floor woman Other1 Canning and preserving (States, 4 ; establishments, 6; women, 164— Peel and pit 104 Shuck oysters 17 Cook lb Sort, bottle, and label------------------------------------------------------------Wash cans and bottles Forelady------------------------------------------------------------------------------Other1 Slaughtering and meat packing (States, 3; establishments, 9; women, 880) — Casings and chitterlings 176 Trim and cut meat---------------------------------------------------------------Wrap', pack, stamp, label, Inspect--------------------------------------------Can and pack 38 Tie, hang, and link sausage 35 Open hair ropes--------------------------------------------------------------------Shave, clean, scrape, singe; remove galls, guts, brains, etc---------Weave hair 13 Make and stuff sausage---------------------------------------------------------Chicken pick 11 Grade---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Other1 Nutsi (States, 2; establishments, 6; women, 1,017)— Pick 8101 Sort!------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Cook Forelady Other1 Other food (States, 4; establishments, 7; women, 84) — Pack-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Other11--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11 20 15 14 10 8 4 108 8 5 1 83 8 8 2 15 110 60 26 24 12 8 367 19-3 1 1 3 14 10 ’ “Other’’ Is composed chiefly of women whoso occupations were not reported, but it includes some who were in occupations of little importance to women or to the industry or who were helpers or learners. 57 58 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES Glass (States, 5; establishments, 5; women, 208) : Carry-in and take-off------------------------------------------------------------------78 Crack-off________________________________ 86 Snap up------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5 Hold gob and mold 4 Sit up 1 Timekeeper 1 Other1 173 House furnishings (States, 2; establishments, 6; women, 341) : Sewing-machine operate 121 Hand sew 30 Cut and inspect-------- ------------------------------------------------------------------3 Instruct'_____________________________________________ __________ 3 Supervise 1 Other1---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------183 Metal products (States, 3; establishments, 4; women, 78) : Machine operate 32 Press__________________________________________ ____ ___________ 19 Core make 5 Press inspect_____________________________________ ______________ 3 Japan 1 Other1 18 Taper and paper products: Paper (States, 2; establishments, 2; women, 74) — Sort 74 Paper boxes (States, 2; establishments, 3; women, 19) — Strip 6 Glue 4 Cover_______________________________________________________ 4 Stay---------------------3 Tray make 2 Textiles: Bags (States, 4; establishments, 7; women, 296) — Turn_____________________________________________ 40 Patch, sew, mend 39 Inspect, check,count 11 Sort 8 Spread or cleanbags or handle in yard________________________ 5 Clip threads orrip 4 Rivet-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------3 Machine operate 3 Measure 3 Handle iron 1 Blowerl Truck distribute___________________________________________ l Other1 177 Cordage and twine (States, 3; establishments, 5; women, 95) — Spiu-----------------------------------------------19 Prepare 14 Babel 3 Waste 3 Other1----------------------------------------------------------------------- 1_____ 56 Cotton yard goods (States, 6; establishments, 25; women, 288) — Fill frames andbatteries 92 Clean hoppers,quills, machines 30 Waste 21 Draw_______________________________________________________ 21 Roving haul 15 Dress 9 Twist 7 Ship------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6 Bale break__________________________________________________ 4 1 “ Other ” is composed chiefly of women whose occupations were not reported, hut it includes some who were in occupations of little importance to women or to the industry or who were helpers or learners. APPENDIX A.-LIST OP OCCUPATIONS OF NEGRO WOMEN Textiles—Continued. Cotton yard goods—Continued. Stitch 4 Rope forming tender Finish______________________________________ _______________ Sew (in gray room) Creel Butt wind Design Other1_______________ Hosiery and knit goods (States, 6; establishments, 7; women, 327) — Seam-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Board---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Knit 49 Loop-----------------------------------Wind-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Inspect, mend,turn 14 Spin------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Pair, fold, stamp, ticket 4 Yarn layer_______________________________________ Teach Doff 1 Hand warp Bobbin clean________________________________ Draw Other 1 Waste (States, 2; establishments, 2; women, 116) — Sort 74 Cut bags-----------------------------------------------------------------------------Cop wind 10 Sew 8 Fleece______________________________ _______________________ Machine operate 2 Slubber 2 Shredding room Yarn (States, 2; establishments, 3; women, 23) — Draw---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Haul:_______________________________________________________ Waste pick 3 Sort 2 Creel Other textiles (States, 2; establishments, 3; women, 31) — Work on shoddy Clean hoppers,quills, machines Dye house---------------------------------------------------------------------------Slat filler Card room Pick Feed batteries-------- -------------------------------------------------------------Other1 Tobacco products: Cigars (States, 6; establishments, 15; women, 616) — Stem or strip 401 Paste and foldboxes 57 Bunch 54 Pick---------------------------------------------Pack,_______________________________________________________ Grind----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Spread 4 Machine operate___________________ ________________________ Band___________________________________________ Other1__ 59 4 4 4 1 1 1 64 105 70 31 24 7 4 1 1 1 1 14 13 6 1 10 7 1 9 6 4 4. 3 1 1 3 35 15 9 3 1 37 1 ‘ Other is composed chiefly of women whose occupations were not reported, but it includes some who were in occupations of little importance to women or to tile industry or who were helpers or learners. 34574°—29----- 5 60 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES Tobacco products—Continued. Tobacco (States, 6; establishments, 49; women, 5,795) — Stem or strip3, oil Tie and hang 918 Feed-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Wrap, pack, box, label 117 Pick-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Search 92 Classify and sort:___________________________________________ Twist 49 Blend 45 Cut 28 Dropper_______________________________________ Deaf spread 20 Wring 18 Lump make 12 Shake leaf 11 Sew sacks, Cook and case Leaf grease Special leaf dip_______________________ Timekeeper 1 Other1 Wood products: Boxes and crates (States, 5; establishments, 12; women, 332)— Stack lumber, baskets, hampers 85 Grade and sort 22 Cull saw and saw 17 Lay cleat, feed cleat, and cleat wire boards----------------------------Catch and off-bear 9 Machine operate 9 Staple 5 Bundle-----------------------------------Coupling machine Other1 Furniture (States, 3; establishments, 5; women, 187) — Finish 83 Assemble 38 Pack 23 Machine shop, Off-bear 10 Rip saw Veneer Other1 Lumber and veneer (States, 4; establishments, 6; women, 55) — Grade---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Off-bear Stack 0 Saw 5 Pull 5 Feed dyer or help at clipper 4 Tie or tie bundle Assemble 3 Other 1 Other wood (States, 6; establishments, 9; women, 406) — Stack________________________ Sort 22 Assemble-----------------------------------------------------------------------------Machines, including cut-off saw, nail, boring----------------------------Pack 10 Nest match boxes----------------------------------------------------------------Wire, press, or glue doors or string wire-------------------------------Off-bear 4 Cut 4 463 100 57 21 4 4 2 2 820 10 3 1 171 12 1 1 19 13 7 3 0 27 18 11 7 7 1 “ Other ” is composed chiefly of women whose occupations were not reported, hut it includes some who were in occupations of little importance to women or to the industry or who were helpers or learners. « 4 APPENDIX A.---- LIST OF OCCUPATIONS OF NEGRO WOMEN Wood products—Continued. Other wood—Continued. Lay slats Lay mold Drive spindle Other1 Miscellaneous manufacturing (States, 7; establishments, 14: women, 182) : Electrical products 50 Machine operate 19 Cotton End holder Other1 Glue----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Leather—seamstress Millinery—maid Printing and publishing 17 Bindery Proof read In composing room Monotype Press operate _ Rags-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Sort Bagger-------------------------------------------------------------------------------Rubber—pack Scientific instruments 29 Varnish 24 Inspect Toilet goods 53 Wrap, pack, and box Put disk and mirror in rouge compacts_______________________ Spread soap Smooth rouge Other1 Other miscellaneous General mercantile (States, 12; establishments, 61; women, 161) : Maid_______________ Alteration 11 Stock 10 Press: Sales (at soda fountain) Other1__________________________________________ 61 3 2 1 290 4 3 24 13 1 2 7 3 3 3 1 io 8 2 2 5 4 3 3 2 41 5 121 8 4 7 1 “ Other ” is composed chiefly of women whose occupations were not reported, but it includes some who were in occupations of little importance to women or to the industry or who were helpers or learners. APPENDIX B.—GENERAL TABLES Table 1.- Scheduled, daily and weekly hours of the largest groups of negro women in chief industries oa bo Number and per cent in chief group Industry Total number of women Daily schedule Weekly schedule Women Hours Number Per cent Clothing.................................... ............ Drugs and chemicals__________ Food: Bakeries ................. ....................... Candy______ _____ Canning and preserving____ Nuts________ _____ __________ Slaughtering and meat packing.. Glass and glass products___________ House furnishings________________ Metal products__________________ " Paper and paper products........ .. Textiles.................... ....................... Bags-------------------------------- III" Cordage and twine.___________ Cotton yard goods________ ____ Hosiery and knit goods............... Waste..___________ __________ Yarn...______ __________ I Tobacco and tobacco products........ . Cigars._____ _______ _________ Tobacco..................... I Major wood industries....................... II General mercantile_______________ 123 55 21 180 147 1,017 880 215 341 78 93 1,157 288 95 277 327 116 23 i, 229 613 1,616 564 161 9 hours... 9 hours 2_. 67 2 20 Less than 8 hours............ ....... Over 9 and under 10 hours. _ 9 hours......................... ........ ------ do....................................... 8 hours.______ ____________ Less than 8 hours 4____ ____ Over 8 and under 9 hours... 8 hours_______ ___________ Over 9 and under 10 hours.. 10 hours 5......................... ......... Over 9 and under 10 hours.. 9 hours_____________ _____ _ 10 hours___________________ Over 9 and under 10 hours Over 10 and under 11 hours.. 11 hours........................ .............. 10 hours.________________ 8 hours 8__________ _____ 10 hours________ 1_________ ___ do...__________________ 8 hours 10_______________ 12 122 104 601 870 4 81 293 54 66 5 289 153 88 189 6 106 94 21 3,026 8 224 2,930 430 10 64 54.5 50 hours 1. 2 36. 2 ----- do........ 57.1 Less than 44 hours...... ............ 67.8 Over 50 and under 52 hours. _ 70.7 50 hours................... .................... 59.1 ___ do.3....... ........................... 98.9 48 hours.................................... 4 37.7 Over 44 and under 48 hours 4. 85.9 Over 48 and under 50 hours. _ 69.2 Over 44 and under 48 hours. _ 71.0 Over 50 and under 52 hours.. 5 25.0 55 hours 5__________________ 53.1 52 hours_____ _____________ 92.6 50 hours________ ___________ 68.2 55 hours_________________ 8 32.4 ----- do............................................ 81.0 60 hours and over ............. 91.3 ___ do................ .....................__I^ 48.6 50 hours 7______ ____________ 8 36.5 Over 44 and under 48 hours 8_. 52.2 50 hours 9..................... ................ 76.2 55 hours...................... ...........H" i° 39. 8 Over 48 and under 50 hours'. " Another large group, 25. 2 per cent, had a week of over 52 and under 54 hours I Another large group, 19 women, had a day of over 8 and under 9 hours ! The group second in size, 20.9 per cent, had a week of under 48 hours. . Another large group, 34.9 per cent, had a day of 8 hours and a week of 48 hours. ; l 10 hours and 19-4 per 06111 had a weok of 60 hours large SnmP* 22.1 per cent, had a week of 55 hours. . VLlJJL.1 number of women, 31.3 per cent had a day of 9 hours and 28.1 per cent had a week of 50 hours ,1 £notber large group, 24.5 per cent, had a week of 55 hours. s‘ 10 Another large group, 61 women, had a day of over 8 and under 9 hours. Women Hours Number Per cent 136 35 12 70 104 3 601 870 4 81 296 53 66 4 375 153 88 192 156 94 21 7 1,619 8 188 9 1,447 346 40 129.3 63.6 57.1 38.9 70.7 3 59.1 98.9 4 37.7 86.8 67.9 71.0 4 32. 4 53. 1 92.6 69.3 47.7 81.0 91.3 7 26. 0 8 30. 7 9 25.8 61.3 24.8 Table 2.-—Week’s earnings, weekly rates, and year’s earnings of negro women in 11 States, by State and year of survey Week's earnings reported Week’s earnings and rates reported Year’s earnings reported Number of— Number of— Per cent by Median Median which Median Median of the of the of the earn of the Estab ings Estab earn Estab earn earn lish Women rates ings fell lish Women ings lish Women ings below ments ments ments rates Number of— Year of survey State Time of selected pay roll f 1925..... ......................... Tennessee February ___________________ _________ 12 26 18 12 26 11 17 13 16 12 46 > The period for which pay rolls were taken in most of the plants studied. * This high median is due to the Alschuler award issued shortly before the study in Kansas. 168 2 $19. 50 931 6.10 1,126 268 5 25 23 14 10 542 176 89 76 1,154 ’ 121 652 243 664 10 13 2 14 11 36 41 161 20 130 120 316 5 05 5.10 11. 30 8. 65 5. 70 7.55 See note on p. 8. $7. 05 9.90 6. 50 6. 80 6. 55 12. 45 10. 00 12. 65 5. 75 8.25 $6.10 9.00 6.05 6. 20 5.70 10. 95 9.65 10. 60 5. 35 7.65 13.5 9.1 6.9 8. 8 13.0 12.0 3.5 16.2 7.0 7.3 5 11 6 3 6 108 44 26 12 18 2 $860 414 500 303 291 4 14 541 6 5 9 48 24 32 450 288 450 APPENDIX B.--- GENERAL TABLES 1920 1920-21______ ______ 1921_ ........................... 1921-22_______ 1922............................... 05 CO 64 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES Table 3.—Week’s earnings, by industry, occupation, and, year of survey1 Median Year of Num of the ber of survey earn women ings 1 Occupation CANNING AND SERVING PRE 1921 Cook_______ Peel and pit.. Wash cans... $9.00 10 8 9.25 8.50 8 8.00 157 19. 70 SLAUGHTERING AND MEAT PACKING All occupations___ 1920 Can and pack___ Casings________ Chicken pick___ Make sausage___ Shave, singe, etc. Trim meat______ 20.20 19. 15 7. 75 22. 35 22. 25 22.15 GLASS All occupations (day)---------------- 1922 73 Carry-in, day... Carry-in, night.. Crack-off, day... Crack-off, night. Snap up_______ Timekeeper____ 5.40 7. 15 9. 25 5.25 1921-22 6. 15 6. 00 4. 05 All occupations. 1921 Cop wind. Cut bags.. Sew........... Sort......... 4.80 Handle iron.. Inspect_____ Patch, sew... Rivet.......... . *4. 50 2 5. 50 4.75 0 All occupations. 8.95 Inspect. Patch, s€ Sort____ Turn__ 0 4. 25 65 4. 00 4. 00 4. 25 4. 35 YARN All occupations__ Draw. Haul.. 7.00 10.25 CIGARS All occupations__ 1921 4. 90 TEXTILE WASTE 2 10. 45 TEXTILE BAGS 6.25 Board_________ Inspect, mend.. Loop and seam.. 10. 80 10.45 11. 75 11.40 13.90 10.60 1920 Knit__________ Loop and seam.. Spin__________ Wind................... All occupations.. All occupations___ 66 Bunch. Stem... 6.55 5.75 7.30 All occupations. Bunch........ ....... Paste and fold.. Stem................... 192 4.80 16 57 114 1. 85 7. 35 2.65 10.00 10.15 2 8.59 All occupations__ 5.80 Inspect.. Sort____ Turn___ 2 010. 69 All occupations___ 10.20 Bunch. Grind.. Pack... Stem... 0 9.15 *7. 35 10. 40 5. 45 COTTON YARD GOODS All occupations___ Median Year of Num ber of of the survey earn women ings i HOSIERY AND KNIT GOODS All occupations___ All occupations___ Occupation All occupations___ 1922 86 1921 8. 30 Classify............ 8 11. 45 Feed............ . 20 14. 00 Clean hoppers, etc. 6.15 Pick.................. 7 7. 30 Draw____________ 5.15 Search.............. 20 8.50 Fill frames.............. 5.80 Stem________ 943 8.15 Roving haul______ 5.50 Tie and hang. 11.00 14 Waste hand.............. 5. 50 Wrap, pack... 13 9.80 Medians have been computed for five or more women. Earnings for a'few occupations having smaller numbers are the actual figures. In each of the manufacturing industries only the more important occupaitself are Usted’ elther bemuse of the number so employed or because of the Importance of the occupation 1 Actual. 8 Two at $5.50, one at $7.61. 4 $8, $9, and $13.13. * $6.75 and $8.75. • $12.25, $14.05, and $14.10. 5.35 APPENDIX B.---- GENERAL TABLES 65 Table 3.—Week's earnings, fit/ industry, occupation, and year of survey—Con. Occupation Num Year of ber of survey women Median of the earn ings All occupations___ 1922 1925 261 $7.50 6 20 15 11 5 155 18 13.50 12.65 12.50 6. 90 15. 25 5. 60 12. 50 186 7. 55 22 63 6 48 13 10.60 6.00 7.35 12.60 6.90 7 8 58 $7. 50 7.00 6.00 20 7.90 15 5 7.95 7.75 73 6. 25 27 22 5.25 6.40 5. 55 FURNITURE All occupations___ 1925 1925 Finish__________________ Machine operate________ 138 7.85 38 57 12 5 23 11.20 6.70 6.75 6.90 7. 90 20 3.00 11 4.90 17 8.75 6 8.25 LUMBER AND VENEER All occupations___ 1920-21 1921 1921 Median of the earn ings Stack.................................... All occupations____ WOODEN BOXES All occupations___ Num Year of ber.of survey women WOODEN BOXES—contd. tobacco—continued All occupations___ Occupation 1925 137 8 10 7. 50 5. 00 All occupations----- All occupations___ 1922 1925 66 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES Table 4. Week's earnings and weekly rates in chief industries, by State and year of survey Number of— State Date of survey Alabama.. Arkansas.. Georgia. 1922 1920-21 Industry 1 Me dian of the Estat - TTT lish- Wom weekl y en 1 rate ment All industries 21 94 $6.80 $6. 20 -8.8 Textiles: Cotton yard goods. General mercantile 8 58 6.50 5. 75 -11.5 -7.3 9 25 7. 50 7.15 -4.7 +16. 3 All industries. 10 41 6.55 5.70 -13.0 Wood: Lumber and veneer.. Other__________ General mercantile__ 1 1 5 12 17 8 5.00 6.65 10.00 4.95 5. 80 10. 00 -1.0 -12.8 All industries. 23 542 7.05 6.10 -13.5 |..............- 1 7 7.50 2. 85 -62.0 -53. 3 1 5 101 14 35 4.80 9. 40 7. 85 4.60 8. 75 6.90 -4.2 -6.9 -12.1 -24.6 +43.4 +13.1 1 41 19 27 39 4.50 10.80 7. 90 7.95 4. 30 7. 25 8.75 7.05 -4.4 -32.9 +10.8 -11.3 -29. 5 +18.9 +43. 4 +15.6 2 1 64 140 6.60 7. 45 6.20 6.50 -6.1 -12.8 +1.6 +6.8 14 176 9.90 9.00 -9.1 2 19 9.50 9.10 -4.2 +1.1 7 146 7 11.05 9.25 9.15 9.25 -17.2 +1. 7 +2.8 11 120 5.75 5.35 -7.0 1 10 5.80 5.75 -.9 +7.5 5 1 74 20 6 8 5. 40 8.35 8.10 6.60 4.95 7. 90 7. 45 5.60 -8.3 -5.4 -8.0 -15.2 -7.5 +47.7 +39.3 +4.7 All industries . 13 161 12.45 10.95 -12.0 Textiles: Bags_____ Tobacco: Tobacco.. General mercantile.. 3 44 107 8 8.00 15.20 8.50 8. 65 12. 65 6.00 +8.1 -16.8 -29.4 Food: Canning and pre serving. Textiles: Bags. Cotton yard goods... Hosiery and knit goods. Waste......................... Yarn_______ ______ Other~ Tobacco: Cigars_____ Wood: Boxes Other___________ Kentucky.. All industries. Food: Canning and pre serving. ^Tobacco: Tobacco......... General mercantile_____ Mississippi.. 1925 All industries. Textiles: Hosiery and knit goods. Wood: Boxes.......................... Furniture” Lumber and veneer. _ Other........ ............. Missouri. Per cent Per cen by which by whic h median median earnings Me earning of indusdian fell belo w try ex of th (-) or ceeded week s exceedec (+) or earn (+) me fell below ings dian rat (—) me in indus dian earn try spe ings of all cified women in State New Jersey___ 1922 All industries—To bacco: Cigars. 2 20 10.00 9.65 —3.5 Ohio................... 1922 All industries.......... 14 130 12.65 10.60 -16.2 - 1 8 9. 35 Food: Canning and pre serving. Glass..... .................. .......... Textiles: Waste General mercantile........... 1 1 9 1 9.35 . -13.2 +1.8 +75. 4 -21.0 +15.5 -45.2 -11.8 72 13.25 L0. 80 -18.5 +1.9 22 9. 65 8. 65 -10.4 —18. 4 25 1 12.25 2.25 . +15.6 for whom both rates and earnings were reported, but details are given for only those industries women having numbers sufficient for the computation of medians. APPENDIX B.---- GENERAL TABLES 67 Table 4.—Week’s- earnings and weekly rates in chief industries, t>y State) and year of survey—Continued Number of— State Date of survey South Carolina. 1921-22 All industries. 10 89 $6.50 $6.05 5 15 6. 50 6.10 -6.2 +.8 2 2 60 10 6.00 10.25 5.25 10.25 -12.5 -13.2 +69.4 All industries. 36 316 8.25 7.65 -7.3 Clothing.......... .................... Drugs and chemicals House furnishings Printing and publishing.. Textiles: Bags Cotton yard goods... Tobacco: Tobacco Wood: Furniture Lumber and veneer.. Other........................... General mercantile 2 4 2 1 13 42 8 17 7.50 8.45 8.00 9. 40 7.40 8.20 7.00 9.10 -1.3 -3.0 -12.5 -3.2 -3.3 +7.2 -8.5 +19.0 2 3 3 20 5 69 9.45 9.50 8. 30 7.65 9.15 7. 75 -19.0 -3.7 -6.6 +19.6 +1.3 3 2 3 9 58 17 30 31 6.60 8. 80 5.90 8.00 6.10 8. 75 5.90 8.00 -7.6 -.6 Textiles: Cotton yard goods. Tobacco: Cigars General mercantile * Tennessee. % Industry Per cent Per cent by which by which median median earnings Me earnings of indus Me dian fell below try ex dian of the (-) or ceeded of the week’s Estab Wom weekly exoeeded (+) or lish (+) me fell below rate earn ments en ings dian rate (—) me in indus dian earn try spe ings of all cified women in State 1925 tf -6.9 -20.3 +14.4 -22.9 +4.6 68 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES Table 5.—Week's earnings of timeworkers and pieceworkers, and industry, occupation, Median and range of earnings of— All workers Textiles: Bags— Patch, sew, mend (States, 2; establishments, 4; women, 39)— 1920 and 1921________________________ ____ _______ 1922________ ____ Turn (States, 2; establishments, 3; women, 32)— 1922____________ ____ _________ ____ ______ 1925_____ ________ _________ ______________________ Cotton yard goods— Fill frames (States, 4; establishments, 6; women, 20)— 1920 and 1921_________ _____ ______________ ______ 1922 ............................................................. ................ ......... 1925 _ .................................................................................... Roving hauler (States, 2; establishments, 3; women, 13)— 1922......................................................................................... 1925.................... ...................................................................... Hosiery and knit goods— Knit (States, 2; establishments, 2; women, 47)— 1920 and 1921_____ _____________ ______ __________ 1925 Loop and seam (States, 3; establishments, 3; women, 34)— 1920 and 1921____________________________________ 1921-22 ___________ _____________ _____ __________ 1925................................. ........................................................ WasteSort (States, 2; establishments, 2; women, 71)— 1920 and 1921................ ..................... ................ .................. 1922 .......... ....................................... .................................. ToLacco products: Cigars— Bunch (States, 3; establishments, 3; women, 51)— 1920 and 1921____________________________ ______ 1921-22.................... ............................................................... 1922___________________________________ ____ ____ Stem (States, 5; establishments, 7; women, 339)— 1920 and 1921__________________________ __________ 1921-22. _____________________ _________ 1922. .............................................................................. ......... 1922_________ ___________________________________ 1925 ___________________ _____ ________ ____ _____ Tobacco— Stem (States, 4; establishments, 11; women, 922)— 1921. 1922. ....................................................................................... 1922.......... ................................................ ................. ............ 1925.................................................................................. ......... 1 Not reported whether pieceworkers worked full time. 2 Rate only $4. 2 Those earning highest amounts did not report time worked. Number of— to Median of the earnings 8 is Women Industry, occupation, and year of survey Establishments Timeworkers Range or actual earnings 1 2 5 4 $4.95 $4.05 to $4.95___ $7 to $10.10 1 2 1 6 $8.59 9.15 $5.50 to $9.16___ 1 ] 2 2 3 2 $6.16 to $7.92---$5 to $6 $7.02 to $7.10___ 2 1 5 1 4.50 $4.05 to $8.10___ $3.88 1 1 4 7 $0.64 to $11.25__ 5.80 $2.15 to $5.80___ 1 3 $4.75 to $5.80___ 1 1 24 9 4. 45 $2 to $4.50 6.30 $6.30 1 1 6 16 5. 50 $3.25 to $13 21.85 $1.33 to $4 1 2 2 33 23 11 7.30 $2.25 to $10 6. 55 $2.75 to $10 10.20 $9 to $15 1 3 2 1 27 8 $8 to $10 12.10 12.50 $11.504 to $17.556 69 APPENDIX B.---- GENERAL. TABLES of all -workers and full-time workers, in the same occupation hy and year of survey Median and range of earnings of—Continued Full-time workers Women earnings | Range or actual earnings Establishments Women earnings Number of— earnings Range or actual ! Median of the week's Number of— Pieceworkers Range or actual earnings [ Women Establishments Number of— Timeworkers Establishments Median of the week ’s earnings Pieceworkers Median of the week ’s All workers —Continued 1 2 14 $6.00 $2.30 to $8.90......... 16 ii. oo $4.58 to $15.96____ 1 2 4 4 1 25 5.15 $1.45 to $6.35 1 2 1 $8.59.......... ........... 5 $9.15 $5.50 to $9.16___ 1 1 8 5 1 1 $7.02 -- 5.10 $4.10 to $8.40 1 4 $4.50 to $8.10___ $7.84 to $10.50--. 5.80 $5.80.......... . 6.00 $2.81 to $7.92.. 5.00 $4.95............ . $7 to $10.10___ .. 2 7 1 1 27 9 4.90 $0.65 to $11.25____ 6.30 $1.22 to $6.66.......... 1 1 2 4 1 1 1 13 15 3 7.15 $5 to $10.75--........ 4. 05 $2 to $6.19.............. $2.10 to $6.12.......... 1 1 1 38 4.10 $0.95 to $7.15 1 20 1 26 5.75 $1.10 to $11.60____ 1 3 $12.25 to $14.10___ 1 1 5 4 $5.80 1 1 10 $6.00 7 11.00 $9.42 to $15.30. 1 17 5.40 $4.20 to $6.35. 1 3 « $6.53 to $7.92. 1 (i) '7 1 1 11 1 4.15 $2 to $6.19. $6.12. 1 14 8.00 $5 to 11.60. 1 2 6. 30 $6.63 to $6.66. 4.50 $4.50__.................. i ? 2 1 1 91 1.80 $0.72 to $13.50___ 22 10.35 $3.76 to $14.57____ 152 8.00 $0.91 to $18.10____ $5.30 to $6.55......... 4 7 2 1 1 547 137 140 63 6. 75 5.3( 8.75 6.00 $0.35 to $17.75____ $0.20 to $19.15____ $0.40 to $24______ $1.17 to $9.60.......... < Undertime. • Overtime. 1 2 2 1 2 5. 50 $5.50 to $13 $4 21 7. 50 16 6.00 $5 to $10 6 11.00 $9 to $15.......... . 2 $10................... 17 12. 35 $11 to $12.50____ 2 1 $14.05 to $14.10 13 6. 75 $5.28 to $13.50. (i) 99 10.40 $4 to $18.10. 3 3198 8.15 $2.10 to $14.75. ] 41 8. 95 $3.50 to $19.15. 1 42 12.20 1 4C 5.80 1 $4.41 to $9.60. 70 NEGBO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES Table 5.—Week’s earnings of timeworkers and pieceworkers, and industry, occupation, and Median and range of earnings of— All workers Timeworkers Wood products: Boxes— Catch and off-bear (States, 2; establishments, 3; women, 9) 1922.......................... 1925____________ Machine operate (States, 1; establishments, 2; women, 8)— 1925________________ Stack (States, 1; establishments, 4; women. 85)— 1920 and 1921_________ 1925_............ ............. Furniture— Assemble (States, 1; establishments, 1: women, 37)— 1925___________ Off-bear (States, 2; establishments. 2; women, 10)— 1925_______ _____ 1925______ ______ Burn her and veneer— Stack (States, 1; establishments, 1; women, 6)— 1925............................... Other wood— Assemble (States, 1; establishments, 1; women, 16)— Off-bear (States, 2; establishments, 2; women, 4)— 1922________ 1 Median of the m Number of— Establishments earnings £ Women Industry, occupation, and year of survey Range or actual earnings 1 $5.62 to $6.87___ 1 22 17 5.00 5.20 3 1 $1.15 to $6.88___ 7. 50 8. 25 1 1 1 2 $5________ $2.25 * to $6.88 5__ 1 Not reported whether pieceworkers worked full time. 4 Undertime. l 71 APPENDIX B.----GENEBAL TABLES of all workers and full-time workers, in the same occupation, bp pear of survey—Continued Median and range of earnings of—Continued All workers—Continued Full-time workers 2 03 H 2 8 $7.50 $4.72 to $13.84____ 1 5 1 1 Range or actual earnings a © a o is »1 3 9. 85 $4.89 to $10.31 2 2 5 ' 6.85 $1.10 to $11.30____ 41 6. 90 $2.45 to $11.40____ 1 2 4 $6.32.................... 8 $5.20 $5.20 to $6__ 1 1 34 11.20 $1.14 to $17.43____ 1 2 $6.88________ 1 2 1 1 2 3 $6.85... $7.50 to $9 1 7 5.50 $5.50 to $6.88___ 1 7 9 1 1 6.50 $3.75 to $8.15......... $5«........................ s Overtime. 61 firm did not report time. Range or actual earnings $8.10. 1 1 1 earnings 43 Median of the week ’s to d <o a Establishments Range or actual earnings Pieceworkers Number of— earnings Number of— Median of the week ’s Timeworkers Women Women Establishments Number of— earnings Median of the week ’s Pieceworkers $6 to $6.87 $9.86 to $13.84. (i) C1) 31 $7.35 $7.06 to $10.19. 6. 50 $6.40 to $8.15. 72 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES Table 6.—Week's earnings and year's earnings in chief industries, by year of survey Week’s earnings reported Industry and year Food: Candy— 1922. ______ ______ 1925______________ Slaughtering and meat packing-1920___ Glass—1922.._______ Textiles: Bags—1922 ___ ... Cotton yard goods—1922........ Waste—1921.................. . Tobacco: Cigars— 1920________ 1921............................. 1922.......................... Tobacco— 1921___________ 1922. ..................... . 1922_____________ 1925_________ Wood products: Boxes— 1920-21______ 1925. ............... Furniture— 1925________ 1925____ Other—1920_____ Number of— Number of— Medi an of the Estab Wom earn lish ings en ments Estab■ lishments Wom en 4 26 27 157 73 $7.00 5.65 19.70 10.80 3 8 66 94 8.95 5. 35 4.25 66 192 158 6.55 4.80 8.05 1,086 261 148 186 8.30 7.50 8.85 7. 55 10 Year’s earnings reported 2 Medithe year’s earn ings 105 863 12 291 1 5. 55 138 20 265 7.85 7.90 6.85 $5.92 4.46 16.60 11.94 7. 46 5 1 7.94 6.61 8.29 8 7 488 350 9.38 5.65 7. 46 6.73 310 288 5.96 5.54 0 73 137 age for 52 weeks 1 0 9.29 7. 21 8.17 % PUBLICATIONS OF THE WOMEN’S BUREAU [Any of these bulletins still available will be sent free of charge upon request] No. 1. Proposed Employment of Women During the War in the Industries of Niagara Falls, N. Y. 16 pp. 1918. No. 2. Labor Laws for Women in Industry in Indiana. 29 pp. 1919. No. 3. Standards for the Employment of Women in Industry. 8 pp. Third ed., 1921. No. 4. Wages of Candy Makers in Philadelphia in 1919. 46 pp. 1919. *No. 5. The Eight-Hour Day in Federal and State Legislation. 19 pp. 1919. No. 6. The Employment of Women in Hazardous Industries in the United States. 8 pp. 1921. No. 7. Night-Work Laws in the United States. (1919.) 4 pp. 1920. *No. 8. Women in the Government Service. 37 pp. 1920. *No. 9. Home Work in Bridgeport, Conn. 35 pp. 1920. *No. 10. Hours and Conditions of Work for Women in Industry in Virginia. 32 pp. 1920. No. 11. Women Street Car Conductors and Ticket. Agents. 90 pp. 1921. *No. 12. The New Position of Women in American Industry. 158 pp. 1920. No. 13. Industrial Opportunities and Training for Women and Girls. 48 pp. 1921. *No. 14. A Physiological Basis for the Shorter Working Day for Women. 20 pp. 1921. No. 15. Some Effects of Legislation Limiting Hours of Work for Women. 26 pp. 1921. No. 16. (See Bulletin 63.) No. 17. Women’s Wages in Kansas. 104 pp. 1921. No. 18. Health Problems of Women in Industry. 11 pp. 1921. No. 19. Iowa Women in Industry. 73 pp. 1922. *No. 20. Negro Women in Industry. 65 pp. 1922. No. 21. Women in Rhode Island Industries. 73 pp. 1922. *No. 22. Women in Georgia Industries. 89 pp. 1922. No. 23. The Family Status of Breadwinning Women. 43 pp. 1922. No. 24. Women in Maryland Industries. 96 pp. 1922. No. 25. Women in the Candy Industry in Chicago and St. Louis. 72 pp. 1923. No. 26. Women in Arkansas Industries. 86 pp. 1923. No. 27. The Occupational Progress of Women. 37 pp. 1922. No. 28. Women’s Contributions in the Field of Invention. 51 pp. 1923. No. 29. Women in Kentucky Industries. 114 pp. 1923. No. 30. The Share of Wage-Earning Women in Family Support. 170 pp. 1923. No. 31. What Industry Means to Women Workers. 10 pp. 1923. No. 32. Women in South Carolina Industries. 128 pp. 1923. No. 33. Proceedings of the Women’s Industrial Conference. 190 pp. 1923. No. 34. Women in Alabama Industries. 86 pp. 1924. No. 35. Women in Missouri Industries. 127 pp. 1924. No. 36. Radio Talks on Women in Industry. 34 pp. 1924. No. 37. Women in New Jersey Industries. 99 pp. 1924. No. 38. Married Women in Industry. 8 pp. 1924. No. 39. Domestic Workers and their Employment Relations. 87 pp. 1924. No.40. (See Bulletin 63.) No. 41. Family Status of Breadwinning Women in Four Selected Cities. 145 pp. 1925. No. 42. List of References on Minimum Wage for Women in the United States and Canada. 42 pp. 1925. No. 43. Standard and Scheduled Hours of Work for Women in Industry. 68 pp. 1925. Supply exhausted. 73 74 NEGRO WOMEN IN INDUSTRY IN 15 STATES No. 44. Women in Ohio Industries. 137 pp. 1925. No. 45. Home Environment and Employment Opportunities of Women in Coal Mine Workers’ Families. 61 pp. 1925. No. 46. Facts about Working Women—A Graphic Presentation Based on Census statistics. o4 pp. 1925. No. 47. Women in the Fruit-Growing and Canning Industries in the State of Washington. 223 pp. 1926. ♦No. 48. Women in Oklahoma Industries. 118 pp. 1926. No. 49. Women Workers and Family Support. 10' pp. 1925. No. 50. Effects of Applied Research upon the Employment Opportunities of American Women. 54 pp. 1926. ♦No. 51. Women in Illinois Industries. 108 pp. 1926. No. 52. Lost Time and Labor Turnover in Cotton Mills. 203 pp. 1926. No. 53. The Status of Women in the Government Service in 1925 103 no 1926 No. 54. Changing Jobs. 12 pp. 1926. No. 55. Women in Mississippi Industries. 89 pp. 1926. No. 56. Women in Tennessee Industries. 120 pp. 1927. No. 57. Women Workers and Industrial Poisons. 5 pp. 1926. No. 58. Women in Delaware Industries. 156 pp. 1927. No. 59. Short Talks About Working Women. 24 pp. 1927. No. 60. Industrial Accidents to Women in New Jersey, Ohio, and Wisconsin. oJ-t) PP1. 192T. No. 61. Tlie Development of Minimum-Wage Laws in the United States, 1912 to 1927. 635 pp. 1928. Price 90 cents. No. 62. W-S Employment in Vegetable Canneries in Delaware. 47 pp. No. 63. State Laws Affecting Working Women. 51 pp. 1927 (Revision of Bulletins 16 and 40.) No. 64. The Employment of Women at Night. 86 pp. 1928. No. 65. The Effects of Labor Legislation on the Employment Opportunities of Women. 498 pp. 1928. Price 75 cents. No. 66. History of Labor Legislation for Women in Three States; Chronological Development of Labor Legislation for Women in the United States (In press.) ' No. 67. Women Workers in Flint, Mich. 80 pp. 1928. No. 68. Summary: The Effects of Labor Legislation on the Employment Opporinoo^leS 0f Women- (Reprint of Chapter II of Bulletin 65.) 22 pp. 1928. No. 69. Causes of Absences for Men and for Women in Four Cotton Mills 24 pp. 1929. No. 70. Negro Women in Industry in 15 States. 74 pp. 1929. No. 71. Selected References on the Health of Women in Industry. 8 pp 1929 No. 72. Conditions of Work in Spin Rooms. (In press.) Annual Reports of the Director, 1919*, 1920*, 1921*, 1922 1993 1924* 1925, 1926, 1927*, 1928. ‘Supply exhausted. O i i
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