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HISTORY T h is h isto ric a l sectio n o f The n ational atlas o f the United States is in ten d ed to supplem ent, from the per spective o f tim e, th e m an y o th er categories o f in form ation provided in th e com plete w ork. In selecting the topics for this section, th e com pilers have m ad e no effort to achieve the kin d o f b alan ced coverage to b e expected in a detailed chronological atlas o f A m erican history. Instead, the objec tive h a s b e e n to c o n c e n tra te o n are a s in w hich new know ledge h as becom e available, o r o n topics n o t likely to b e fo u n d in o th er sections o f th e Atlas. Because o f lim itations o f space a n d scale, all the m aps in this section present generalized inform ation. T heir m ain purp o se is to indicate th e scope, n ature, an d location o f certain kin d s o f activities historically im portant to the A m erican people. It is hop ed th a t they will provide guides for th e investigations o f specialists w hile a t the same tim e alerting th e general public to som ething o f w hat has been learn ed in th e area o f historical geography since the pu b lication o f P aullin an d W right’s A tlas o f historical geography o f th e U nited States 37 years ago. T h e first series o f m aps in this history section deals prim arily w ith ethnohistory an d presents th e views o f noted anthropologists and archeologists. T h e m aps shown on this page locate archeological sites an d prehistoric cultural complexes. These cultural com plexes have tw o dim ensions: the geographic extent o f th e culture as indicated by the range over w hich its characteristic artifacts are fo und, and its duratio n an d relationship in tim e to th e oth er cultures. T hough a g reat d eal o f careful w ork has b een d one in the field o f archeology over the last hun d re d years, the best th at archeologists can do is to present an approxim ate p icture o f the tem poral sequences a n d spacial ram ifications o f early m a n from ab o u t 10,000 B.C. to the com ing o f the white m an. T he location o f Indian tribes a t the tim e o f E uropean settlem ent is show n on the m aps on pages 130-132. O n the basis o f anthropological research, it has been possible to relate the different tribes linguistically. Linguistic classi fication o f In d ian tribes and cultures dates from the m iddle o f the last century, b u t it has undergone considerable refinem ent, particularly w ith the availability o f the com pu ter to help analyze the enorm ous b acklog o f accum ulated d ata. A t best, how ever, these m a p s re p re se n t on ly a generalized and approxim ate reconstruction o f the past, subject to m odification in the years ahead. T he second series o f m aps in the historical section concentrates on the dram atic story o f the discovery and exploration o f A m erica. H ere a great deal o f new and detailed inform ation has becom e available. T his inform a tion w as sufficient to suggest a significant reinterpretation o f the A m erican experience as it relates to exploration. The m aps on page 133 depict the growing know ledge o f N o rth A m erica am ong the E uropeans in the w orldw ide Age o f Discovery. T hey are intended to em phasize the global situation o f N o rth A m erica in an age th a t w as proving w h a t m a n y h a d lo n g s u s p e c te d —th e e a r th w as ro u n d , n o t flat. T he sequence o f m aps on pages 134-139 indicates the im m ense am ount o f energy devoted to the internal explora tion o f N o rth A m erica from the early 17th century to the end o f the 19th century. T hey show the relationship o f the European explorer to the international struggle for a N ew W orld em pire a n d a passage to In d ia and the relationship o f A m erican exploring activity to expansion, overland m igration, settlem ent, and econom ic developm ent. The pattern o f exploration is an uneven one, dictated in p a rt by accident b u t in large m easure by th e varied regional geography o f the country. By placing as m any exploration routes as possible on these m aps together w ith the m ain outposts o f frontier settlem ent, it is h oped th at the relation ship o f settlem ent to exploration has been m ade clear. This inventory o f exploring expeditions w ithin the boundaries o f the present U nited States is the m ost com plete th a t has ever been com piled. T he routes o f the exploring parties, extrapolated from studies m ade on larger scale m aps, are laid dow n as accurately as possible given the lim itations o f the present m ap scales. A m erican extra-continental exploring activity is show n o n the m ap on pages 150-151. By im plication this m ap dem olishes the historical cliche th a t 19th-century A m eri cans w ere isolationists largely preoccupied w ith “ tending their ow n gardens” in the trans-M ississippi West. The exploring expeditions, som etim es following, sometimes leading A m erican traders and w halers on the high seas, created a series o f w orld frontiers across which Am ericans confronted rival nations an d alien cultures throughout the historical existence o f the nation. N ow here is this m ore evident than in the m aps o f p o lar exploration, pages 148— 149, which indicate the intense A m erican interest in the A rctic an d A ntarctic regions in the 19th an d 20th centuries. F rom these m aps two things are evident. First, A m erica has been from the beginning a global nation, reorienting its position in response to new know ledge an d strategic co n sid era tio n s. S econdly, ju d g in g fro m th e a m o u n t o f im portant 20th-century exploration, the Age o f Exploration never ended b u t has actually accelerated in m odern times. T he final group o f m aps—those locating battlefields and historical sites and landm arks, tabulating election results, and outlining the territorial grow th o f th e country presented on pages 140 th rough 147—are perh ap s rath er fam iliar to students o f history. T h e political expansion o f A m erica is, o f course, related to the patterns fo r explora tion and settlem ent, though the actual territorial grow th has been notably less global in scope. T he charting o f election results, while the best available at this tim e, m ay soon be superseded by com puterized county-level election surveys. The m aps o f battlefield sites and o th er historical sites and landm arks represent one form o f evidence o f cultural activity, both good and bad, tragic an d heroic, th a t has m ade up the experience o f the A m erican people. T aken together these m aps suggest visually the enorm ous range and variety o f A m erican cultural experience in w hat is a complex, ever-changing regional society. I f these m aps only suggest the cultural com plexity o f A m erica, they serve a useful purpose. 129 PREHISTORIC SITES AND CULTURAL COMPLEXES T hese fo u r m aps o f som e m a jo r archeological sites and culture com plexes represent an attem pt to depict the bro ad outlines o f the p rehistory o f the U nited States. T hey reflect th e interpretations an d judgm ents o f selected specialists in various regions an d the m an n er in w hich the local an d regional assem blages o f archeological m aterials are, o r once w ere, organized into m anageable systems. T h e views thus depicted are as o f 1963. As w ith m ost m ap representations, they are overgeneralized a n d in considerable pa rt already obsolescent because o f th e very ra p id accum u lation o f vast quantities o f new d a ta an d the changing interpretations placed u p o n th e d a ta as they are exam ined from different view points an d in light o f new m ethods an d inform ation. T h e lim itations o f space, w hich allow on ly fo u r sm all-scale m aps, im pose arbitrary datelines o n each such m a p an d preclude the representing o f m any o f th e prehistoric cultural complexes w hich professional archeologists recognize today. M an’s entry in to th e N ew W orld from Asia via the fo rm er Bering S trait lan d bridge is generally believed to have tak en place som e tw enty to forty thousand years ago, an d possibly even earlier. T here is as yet no generally accepted archeological evidence o f the earliest arrivals. D ated rem ains based on radio carbon assays begin ca. 10,000 B.C., by which tim e w ell-developed stone-chipping techniques a n d hunting skills ad ap ted to th e taking o f large gam e anim als are m anifested. M ost o f th e evidence comes from gam e kill sites and from deeply stratified cave depos its. In the Southwest, the Plains, and the Eastern U nited States, the large Clovis fluted points asso ciated w ith m am m oth (Clovis, Lehner, D ent, and others) a t ca. 9500 B.C., are followed by the sm aller Folsom points and extinct form s o f bison (Lindenm eier, Lubbock, etc.) a t ca. 8000-9000 B.C. In the trans-R ocky M ountain W est, the D esert culture (for exam ple, D a n g e r C ave) dev e lo p e d as a gath erin g and hunting tradition w hich lasted for thousands o f years, and the O ld C ordilleran tradition includes a series o f principally hunting cultures. By 4000 B.C., the Early Big G am e H unters in the Eastern U nited States had developed into region ally distinct groups w ho lived by sm all-gam e hunting, fishing, and w ild-plant gathering. Their variants from place to place and through tim e can often be distin guished in p a rt by variations in projectile point form s—stem m ed, notched, an d b a rbed—which are also readily distinguishable from those o f the earlier period. M illing stones app e ar in some num bers and are assum ed to indicate increased reliance on the grinding o f seeds and o ther vegetable foods. G round and polished stone artifacts such as boatstones, bann e rstones, a n d bird sto n e s, w ere also m ade. T he subsistence econom y w as presum ably a sort o f sea sonal cyclical w andering from place to place as one or another kin d o f p lant o r anim al food becam e locally available. These are the A rchaic peoples. In the West, the D esert culture persisted w ith relatively little basic change, as it did into the historic period in m any places. R educed precipitation and increased tem peratures betw een ca. 5000 a n d 2500 B.C. m ay have forced em igration o f the Early Big G am e H unters from the w estern Plains into the m ountain valleys and caused their replacem ent by people w ho foraged for a living in the G reat Basin tradition. D uring the 500 B.C .-A .D . 500 period, m aize agriculture and settled village life began to develop in the Southw estern and E astern U nited States. V ari ants o f the W oodland culture, including the Hopew ell m ounds w ith their often richly stocked burials, flour ished widely in the East, having grow n o u t o f the older A dena culture. M exican-derived crops and increasing populations in the Southw est were devel oping the distinctive Pueblo Indian culture. O n the southern C alifornia coast, the early C analino repre sents the early stages o f the m aritim e C hum ash culture. H unting, fishing, and food-collecting cultures occupied the northw est coast. In the Arctic, the O ld Bering Sea culture and the early stages o f Eskim o culture devel oped, based on the hunting o f sea m ammals. Between A .D. 500 an d 1300 cam e a great elabo ration o f village Indian life in several areas. Long experience w ith m aize and o ther dom estic crops and the leisure m ade possible by this experience led to a flow ering o f culture in the M ississippi-O hio valleys and the Southeast, clim axing in such great m iddle M ississippi cerem onial centers as Etowah, M oundville, SfJiro, and O ld Village Cahokia, w ith their w ell-developed stone carving, shellwork, textiles, pottery, and o ther arts and crafts. L ate W oodland groups occupied the G re at Lakes, the N ortheast, and the M iddle A tlantic. In the Southwest, pithouse villages were succeeded by m ultiroom ed stone and clay pueblos, som e o f the later com m unities nu m bering m any h undreds o f persons. In a n u m b er o f areas in the Southeast, the Southwest, the Plains, and elsewhere, the archeological com plexes from the 1300’s on are now seen to be directly ancestral to know n and nam ed tribal groups encountered by the E uropeans w ho arrived in the 15th an d 16th centuries. REFERENCES Jennings, Jesse D ., Prehistory of North America, New York, M cG raw -H ill Book Co., 1968. Jennings, Jesse D. and Edw ard N orbeck, eds., Prehistoric man in the New World, Rice Univ. Sem icentennial Pubs., Chicago, U niv. o f Chicago Press, 1964. W illey, G ordon R., An introduction to American archae ology, North and Middle America, Inglew ood Cliffs, N J ., Prentice-H all, 1966. W illey, G ordon R. and Philip Phillips, Method and theory in American archaeology, Chicago, Univ. o f Chicago Press, 1958. W orm ington, H. M arie, Ancient man in North America, 4th revised ed., D enver M us. o f N at. H istory Pop. Ser. 4, D enver, D enver M us. o f N at. History, 1957. NATIONAL ATLAS IND IAN TRIBES, CULTURES & LANGUAGES NATIONAL ATLAS INDIAN TRIBES, CULTURES & LANGUAGES 175" WEST M a c k e n z ie -.E S K IM O rkagnVmt Uninhabited;] 1 K jr c1 r P / 1 ^ — — 1 I Black R T — ~ S" I ' J J l/N \ A E a g l e Hoona MINO R TRIBES A L E U T EYAK MAJOR TRIBES WESTERN ARCTIC CULTURE AREAS LINGUISTIC STOCKS E skim o-A leut Na D ene 132 EARLY INDIAN TRIBES, CULTURE AREAS, AND LINGUISTIC STOCKS William C. Sturtevant Smithsonian Institution, 1967 SCALE 1:7,500,000 175° EAST EARLY INDIAN TRIBES, CULTURE AREAS, AND LINGUISTIC STOCKS TRIBAL D IS TR IB U T IO N S T ribal distributions depicted on these m aps (and on all o th er tribal m aps covering a com parable area) are arbitrary at m an y points. D etailed know ledge o f tribal areas was acquired at different times in different regions. F or example, by th e tim e know ledge was gained o f the areas occupied by P la in s trib es, m an y g ro u p s in th e E ast h a d becom e extinct o r h ad m oved from th eir aboriginal locations. Some o f these m ovem ents ultim ately affected distributions o n the Plains p rio r to reasonably d etailed knowledge o f Plains occupancy. H ence, it is n o t possible to approxim ate aborigi nal areas o f occupancy o n a single m ap o f continental scope. F urtherm ore, m ost groups d id n o t occupy sharply defined areas, so th a t the d elineation o f territories is misleading. D istributions w ere derived, w ith slight modifications, from Indian tribes o f N orth A m erica (D river and others, 1953), and b o undaries w ithin C alifornia w ere simplified after Languages, territories, and names o f California Indian tribes (H eizer, 1966). A ccording to the authors o f these publications, the boundaries shown are those o f the midnth century in the Southeast and the eastern part o f the N ortheast, the late 17th and early 18th centuries farther west in the N ortheast, the late 18th and early 19th centuries in the Plains, the late 18th century in California, and the m iddle-to-late 19th century elsewhere. Even so, m any com prom ises had to be m ade. CULTURE AREAS C ulture areas, w hich indicate groupings o f tribes o f sim ilar cultural type, are after “ Com parative studies o f N orth Am erican Indians” (D river and Massey, 1957), w ith revi sions by W illiam C. Sturtevant in consultation w ith John C. Ewers, Sm ithsonian Institution. Boundaries are arbitrary in m any places because the basis o f classification is vague and distributions o f m ost cultural traits do not coincide. The groupings show n are fairly representative o f classifica tions found useful by several generations o f anthropologists. LIN G U IS T IC STOCKS G enetic relationships betw een Indian languages are shown on these maps. Subgroupings o f m ore closely related languages and several rem ote relationships are om itted. T he linguistic stocks are based on “ Languages o f the world: N ative Am erica fascicle o ne” and “ Languages o f the world: N ative Am erica fascicle two” (Voegelin and Voegelin, 1964 and 1965), and M ap o f North American Indian languages (Voegelin and Voegelin, 1966). A few modifications and cor rections were m ade by the present au th o r (partly following suggestions by Ives G oddard, H arvard University, and D ell Hymes, University o f Pennsylvania). Research on this subject is advancing rapidly. These m aps try to give a reasonable balance betw een fact, p rob able fact, and probable future opinion and take into account some o f the unevenness o f data and o f research in different regions and different stocks. v. 47, p t 2,1 957, p. 172-174 D river, H arold E., and others, Indian tribes of North America, M em. 9, Intem at. Jour, o f Am. Ling., Baltim ore, W averly Press, 1953 H eizer, R obert F., Languages, territories and names of California Indian tribes, Berkeley and Los Angeles, Univ. o f C alifornia Press, 1966 Voegelin, C. F., and V oegelin, F. M., “L anguages o f the world: N ative America fascicle one,” Anthropo. Ling., v. 6, no. 6, 1964 ------“ L anguages o f the w orld: N ativ e A m erica fascicle tw o,” Anthropo. Ling., v. 7, no. 7, 1965 ----- Map o f North American Indian languages, Pub. 20, Am. Ethnological Soc., revised ed., M enasha, Wis., G eorge Banta Pub. Co., 1966 DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA VOYAGES BEFORE 1550 PRINCIPAL VOYAGES B. H erjulfsson 985-986 995-9% L. Ericsson T. Karlsefni 1003-1004 1492 C. C olum bus 1493 C. C olum bus 1497 ). C abot 1498 C. C olum bus 1498 ). C abot 1500 G. Corte-R eal 1501 G. Corte-R eal 1502 C. C olum bus 1502 M. C orte-R eal 1508-1509 S. C abot 1513 V. d e Balboa 1513 ). Ponce d e Le6n 1518 ). d e Grijalva 1519 A. d e Pineda 1520 J. Fagundes 1523 G. da V errazano 1524 E. G 6m ez 1526 L. d e Ayllon 1528 P. d e N arviez 1534 J. C artier 1535 J. C artier 1539 H. d e Soto 1542 L .M oscoso (after d e Soto) 1539 F. d e U lloa 1540 H. d e A larc6n 1542 ). C abrillo C om piled from inform ation provided by W illiam H. G o etzm ann, University o f Texas, 1966 ------------NORSE ---------------------------BRITISH --------- -- SPANISH ------------------------- --DUTCH ------------PORTUGUESE ------------FRENCH VOYAGES AFTER 1550 PRINCIPAL VOYAGES 1562 J. Ribaut 1565 P. d e A vilfe 1565 A. d e A rellano 1576-1577 M. Frobisher 677 F. Drake 1578 M. Frobisher 1584 A. Barlow -P. A m adas (R oanoke Voyages) 1585 J. Davis 1586 J. Davis 1587 |. Davis 1587 P. d e U nam u n o 1595 S. C e rm en h o 1602 S. V iscaino 1603 S. d e Cham plain 1604-fc07 S. d e C ham plain 1609 H. H udson 160 H. H udson 1612 T. B utton 1616 R. Bylot-W . Baffin 1631 L. Foxe 1648 S. D ezh n ev 1728 V. Bering 1741 V. Bering 1776-1780 1790 1791-1794 J. C ook M. Q u im p e r G. V ancouver -------------------------- --RUSSIAN 133 NATIONAL ATLAS EXPLORATION A N D SETTLEMENT By 1530, only a decade after Cortez had h In the persons of tl Spanish explora,ion,he Sl ,t was soon joined. Gee ^ r ^ ^ ! ^ ' Thecc Brebner, John B„ The explorers of North America, 1 s Cabeza de Vaca, de S ^ 2vob-NewYOTk- sh long hunters, who were pushing inland fro I the Carolinas. In 1673, well over a century aft juried in its lower reaches, Joliet and Marquet ^ S oofr fier tr t :ast of the Mississippi was the object is and between the Indian and the white man. T tiT 0/“ * 8 vols-’ Boston- Houghton’ EXPLORATION AN D SETTLEMENT BEFORE 1675 - Champlain, S.de, 1615(GeorgianBay-Caciaque -E. Ontario-Oneida L. andreturn) ■ 0fta- f^ c X R . ) 5<San,aFe"Ut,leCO'OR|oquM^lgl64M643 (L. Champlain—MohawkR. — - Henry- B° yacno, ,567 (Savannah R.-B,ue Ridge- E,|»jp, A. de&B. Beltran, 1582 (Mex.co-R.o ^GeorgianBay)^ ^Montr^al—° ,tawa ^— SalaConcho Itf^ (Pecos R—L'ano Estacado— Eipi ^ r e w s t craytTow^h ^ r-ow en'’67’<charies 134 a" & W PardRidge and r^m)*0*3'- ” 5' S'°Pe °' B'Ue Rodt e ^ ^ ^ i ^ s r ' Mexico 3 (C N e W ^ , 639- (Ke„„ebecR- S S F i 135 EXPLORATION A N D SETTLEMENT NATIONAL ATLAS EXPLORATION A ND Exploration in the period 1835-50 was largel the search for adequate emigration routes throu Oregon and California. At the same time, this < the opening phase of what might be called the G sance Period, during which troops of the U.S. i out by the Government to explore the West and mation about its natural resources. Much of this stimulated by the By 1835, the trail to Oregon was relative! the trail to California was not. In 1833, the mo Reddeford Walker, operating under orders frc Bonneville, first marched west from Great Salt boldt River and over the Sierra Nevada. Wi located several passes over the Sierras and prol U.S. explorers to see the wonders of pi Park. The Bartleson-Bidwell party of wed part way by the Butter:ctacular and impor int explorer of the period, John C. Frimont v Period. Frfemont, a U.S. Army topo'eral trips into the West. In 1842, he South Pass. In 1843-44, he made a grand Capt. George Warner in California; Capt. Randolph B. Marcy and Lt. James H. Simpson on the Staked Plain; and Capt. How ard Stansbury and Lt. John W. Gunnison in Utah. Lt. George Horatio Derby explored and mapped parts of California and also became its first American writer under the pen name of “John Phoenix, Esq.” All of these Army men engaged in a great recon: of the West and began the all-important geographical mapping of the region which brought it within the purview of public knowledge. EXPLORATION A ND SETTLEMENT In the 1850’s the two n in a great resource survey of the Southwest, the mapping of the country, and, as the boundary survey indicated that additional land Marcou, tant begii w . , ™ numerous other Army exploring expeditions. Lt. G. K. Warren siX dPe10wo?idthH Dak0tadStand ° Pteh ed UP tHe Bl‘aCk “ ‘ I8 t0 thC ° Ut‘ gists F. V. Hayden and F. B. Meek to construct the first inde- surveys made by U.S. Army topographical engin West in an effort to locate the best route for a ti To the south, Lt. Joseph Christmas Ives in 1857 explored the :r Lt. Isaac I. S under Capt. J. W. Gunnison and Lt. E. G . Beckwith through southern Colorado and across the Great Basin, one along the 35th parallel under Lt. Amiel W. Whipple, one across the Southwest under Lts. John Pope and John G. Parke, and one running north orth and the West during and floor of the Grand Canyon. Capt. John M. Macomb in 1859 located the junction of the Green and Grand Rivers, thereby 3 vois- Brookiy- n-y- Lesley possible 8 the explorationsi Cof that3 that river by Maj"john f Powell in 1869. All of these expeditions adde. * * * 0/ * ^ and8 out of their studies of the local inhabitants came the first the possible nature of planned settle- 6vok’San Fran- : s : s : r I* ™ * to San Fran- EXPLO RATIO N A N D SETTLEMENT: 1850-1890 EXPLORATION AN D SETTLEMENT: 1835-1850 ■ FordP ^ R, N- ^ b« (Aus,in- Elpaso- --------------- Mt S ■ ^"lia’so-FtBelknap)01 ! ' Aberts'aL?e MaT BartlHu°mboldt R.-Son™ PatUsanVra^Kol - ^ (S ■ ---------------- - B^aCana<?ianRB)50 ^3n Antonio— Wor,h— BUr1 o ^ ^ , (^ « B"as PaSS- « . » » n M 9« rny- wes,to .‘T f i ndR- ThreeForksj r o S ■ ^ ' ^ ■ ^ r ns' ,856(Ftpierre' BadChMa Trai|-(sV p= - Mer ^ ' ,855 (F,waMawaiia-FtBoise:fwlna Walla") EVanreturn)49<F “I S S f f i s e ----------------- J aw m : NATIONAL ATLAS TERRITORIAL G RO W TH NATIONAL ATLAS ELECTION RESULTS . ELECTIONS AND POLITICAL PARTIES r . r ......r r.rr.:"r..: irrrrr.rl r 144 i S - - r . r f r NATIONAL ATLAS G EO G RAPH IC EXPEDITIONS ARCTIC G EO G R A PH IC EXPEDITIONS FROM THE UNITED STATES G EO G R A PH IC EXPEDITIONS
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