Full text of Monthly Labor Review : October 1943, Vol. 57, No. 4
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O C T O B E R 1943
IUUm&£.Uu rbBLo LsttLm
NOV 2
1943
V O L 57 • N O . 4
Ill this Issue
. . . Factory wages . . Women in two wars
Labor conditions in Bulgaria . . Work
men’s compensation provisions
U N IT E D STATES D E P A R T M E N T O F LABOR • BUREAU O F LABOR STATISTICS
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
Frances Perkins, Secretary
+
B U R E A U O F L A B O R S T A T IS T IC S
I sad or L tjbin , Commissioner (on leave)
A. F . H jn r ic h s , Acting Commissioner
D onald D a v e n p o r t , C hief; E m p lo y
m ent and
B ranch
O ccupational
O utlook
H e n r y J. F itzger ald , Chief, B usiness
M anagem ent B ranch
A r y n e ss J oy , Chief, Prices a n d C ost
of L iving B ran ch
N . A rnold T ollés , Chief, W orking
C onditions a n d In d u stria l R elatio n s
B ranch
H ugh S. H a n n a , Chief, Editorial and
R esearch
S id n e y W. W ilco x , C hief S tatistician
d iv i s i o n s
C o nstruction an d P ublic E m p lo y m en t,
H erm an B. B yer
C ost of Living, F a ith M . W illiam s
E m p lo y m en t S tatistics,
S turges (acting chief)
A lexander
H istorical S tudies of W artim e P ro b
lem s, Stella S tew a rt
In d u s tria l H azard s, M ax D. K ossoris
O ccupational O utlook, C h arles S te w a rt
(acting chief)
P o st-W ar L ab o r Problem s, Jo h n H . G.
Pierson
Price A nalysis, W alter G. K eim
P ro d u c tiv ity a n d T echnological D e
velopm ent, W. D u an e E v a n s
In d u s tria l R elations, Florence P e te r
son
R etail Prices, E th e l D . H oover
L ab o r In fo rm atio n Service, B oris S tern
W age A nalysis, R o b e rt J . M yers
M achine T ab u latio n , Jo sep h D rag er
W holesale Prices, J . M . C u tts
The M onthly L abor R eview is for sale by the Superintendent of Documents,
U. S. Government Printing Offiice, Washington, D. C. Price, 30 cents a copy.
Subscription price per year in the United States, Canada, and Mexico, $3.50; other
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MONTHLY
U N IT E D STATES D E P A R T M E N T O F LABOR • BUREAU O F LABOR STATISTICS
w w w w /# /
4-
HUGH
S. H A N N A ,
CONTENTS
EDITOR
4-
OCTOBER 1943, Vol. 57, No. 4
KALAMAZOO PUBLIC LIBRARY
Special articles:
Page
T he level of facto ry wage rates in w artim e___ [ \ f _ n w o __ 1QÆ.O____
63/
W om an w orkers in tw o w a rs_____________________ _______ __________
650
L ab o r conditions in B u lg aria_________________________________________
672
W ages, hours, an d living sta n d a rd s in In d ia ____ ____________________
689
C hanging com position of th e unem ployed, April 1940-A ugust 1943__
700
Wartime policies:
R egulations relating to w ar m anpow er_______________________________
A dditional regulations for m aking wage a n d salary a d ju s tm e n ts _____
E nforcem ent of directives of N a tio n a l W ar L ab o r B o a rd ____________
704
711
712
Employment and labor conditions:
L abor in th e B ritish colonial dependencies__________________________
L abor conditions in Chile, 1942___________________________ ________
In d u strial developm ent in C h in a___________________________________
Changes in N ew Z ealand labor conditions__________________________
713
716
719
720
Women in industry:
W artim e em ploym ent of women in m a n u fa c tu rin g __________________
723
Social security:
P rincipal features of w orkm en’s com pensation laws, as of S eptem ber
1943_________ 1_________ ________________________________ _______
729
Housing conditions:
N ew dwelling u n its in nonfarm areas, first half of 1943_____________
749
Cooperation:
A ctivities of consum ers’ cooperatives in 1942_______________________
O perations of credit unions, 1942___________________________________
756
762
Industrial accidents and safety:
C auses an d preven tio n of injuries from falls in sh ip y a rd s____________
In d u stria l injuries, Ju n e 1943______________________________________
766
773
Industrial disputes:
Secretary of L ab o r au th o rized to m ake findings u n d er W ar L abor
D isputes A ct____________________________________________________
A ctivities of th e U nited S tates C onciliation Service, A ugust 1943___
775
775
Labor laws and decisions:
R ecent S tate legislation on lab o r relatio n s__________________________
R ecent decisions of in te re st to la b o r________________________________
778
781
National income:
W ages and salaries a n d o th er incom e, 1939-43______________________
788
Wage and hour regulation:
40-cent m inim um for hom e w orkers in em broidery in d u s try _________
R ecom m ended o p tim u m hours in A u stra lia _______________ _________
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791
792
Contents
II
Cost of living and retail prices:
C hanges in cost of living in large cities, A ugust 1943-----------------------Food prices in A ugust 1943------------------------------------------------------ -----E stim a te d in te rc ity differences in cost of living, M arch 15, 1943------L iving costs in P u e rto R ico ------------------------------------------------------------Food costs an d subsidies in G reat B rita in -----------------------------------------
P age
794
797
803
806
816
Wholesale prices:
W holesale prices in A ugust 1943------------------------------------------------------
818
Labor turnover:
L ab o r tu rn o v e r in m a n u factu rin g a n d m ining, Ju ly 1943-------------------
*
823
Building operations:
B uilding co nstru ctio n in u rb a n areas, A ugust 1943---------------------------
828
Trend of employment and unemployment:
S um m ary of rep o rts fo r A ugust 1943----------------------------------------------D etailed rep o rts for in d u stria l a n d business em ploym ent, Ju ly 1943__
C ivilian lab o r force, A ugust 1943---------------------- -----------------------------
831
834
847
Labor conditions in Latin America --------------------------------------- ----------Recent publications of labor interest__________________________________
716
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849
4
4
This Issue in Brief
Food costs and subsidies in Great Britain.
T he B ritish G overnm ent, in its a tte m p t to keep down living costs, h as m ade
use of subsidies for c ertain im p o rta n t item s in th e w orker’s b u d g et— bread,
flour, m eat, p otatoes, eggs, a n d m ilk. As a resu lt of these subsidies, th e cost
of food fell from 23 p ercen t above th e p re-w ar level in A pril 1941 to 20 p ercen t
above t h a t level in A pril 1943. Page 817.
Recommended optimum hours in Australia.
A fter stu d y to ascertain w h at hours w ould yield th e b est o u tp u t over a period
of 6 m o n th s or m ore, th e D e p a rtm e n t of L ab o r an d N a tio n a l Service of A u stralia
recom m ended 40-48 hours p er week for m en tal w ork, 44-45 hours for heav y
m uscular w ork, 48 for n o n au to m atic m achine w ork requiring physical exertion,
48-52 for w ork requiring c o n sta n t a tte n tio n b u t little m u scu lar exertion, and,
for w ork requiring only in te rm itte n t a tte n tio n a n d no p hysical exertion, 52 for
w om en an d 56 for m en. Page 792.
Wartime employment of women in manufacturing.
T h e to ta l n um ber of w om an wage earners in Ju n e 1943 was over 4% million.
A t th is tim e w om en com prised m ore th a n 30 p ercen t of all wage earners. Be
tw een A pril 1942 an d Ju n e 1943 m ore th a n four-fifths of th e n e t ad d itio n to th e
w orking force in m an u fa c tu rin g in d u stries were w om en. Page 723.
Level of factory wage rates in wartime.
In Ju n e 1943 over 4,000,000 facto ry w orkers, or a b o u t 31 p ercen t of th e to ta l
em ployees in factories, were earning $1 or m ore p er hour. In Ja n u a ry 1941,
th ere w ere 12 p ercen t in th is class. O nly 10 p ercen t were being p aid less th a n
50 cents an h o u r in Ju n e 1943 an d a b o u t 2 p ercen t less th a n 40 cents; 30 m o n th s
earlier, th e respective p ro p o rtio n s were 31 a n d 17 percent. T h e w ar in d u stries
were paying higher ra te s th a n th e n onw ar in d u stries; 41 p ercen t of the_ w ar
w orkers, as com pared w ith only 15 p ercen t of th e nonw ar group, were receiving
$1 or m ore p er h our in Ju n e 1943. Page 637.
Labor conditions in Bulgaria.
A lthough B ulgaria is an alm ost en tirely p a sto ra l c o u n try in w hich a b o u t 80
p ercen t of th e gainfully em ployed p o p u latio n is engaged in ag ricu ltu re, th e hold
ings are very sm all a n d only a b o u t 38 p ercen t of th e lan d is arable. In d u s try
has been developed only during a b o u t th e la st 45 years, b u t has m ade considerable
strid es in some lines; th e q u ality of th e textiles, for instance, riv als th a t of w estern
countries. L iving conditions are su b stan d ard , as wages are low, b u t th e la tte r
are supplem ented by fam ily allow ances a n d th e re are v arious social-insurance
m easures such a sick benefits, m edical care, a n d insurance ag ain st in d u strial
accidents, old age an d in v alid ity , a n d u n em ploym ent. Page 672.
Cost of living in Puerto Rico.
L iving costs of w age-earner fam ilies ad v an ced tw ice as rap id ly in P u e rto Rico
as in co n tin en tal U n ited S tates du rin g th e period, M arch 1941 to D ecem ber
1942— 39.3 p ercen t as com pared w ith 19.0 p ercen t. A fu rth e r ad v an ce of 1.7
p ercen t occurred betw een D ecem ber 1942 a n d Ju ly 1943. T h e findings of a
stu d y of cost of living in six m unicipalities in P u erto Rico, m ade by th e B ureau
of L ab o r S tatistics, are given on page 806.
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hi
IV
This Issue in Brief
Provisions of workmen s compensation laws, 1943.
W ith one exception, all of th e S tates as well as th e D istric t of C olum bia, A laska,
H aw aii, an d P u erto Rico, now have w orkm en’s com pensation laws. In ad d itio n ,
G overnm ent em ployees an d longshorem en a n d h a rb o r w orkers are p ro te c te d by
special F ederal legislation. T h e degree of p ro tectio n afforded by such laws
depends on a num ber of factors, such as coverage of th e law, security of p ay m en ts,
and am o u n t and period of benefits. T he principal provisions of th e various laws,
including th e above points, are discussed in an article on page 729.
New dwelling units, first half of 1943.
H ousing accom m odations for some 200,000 fam ilies in n onfarm areas were p u t
u n d er co nstruction in th e first 6 m o n th s of 1943. Of these, over 55 p ercen t were
p rovided for o u t of public funds; m ost of th e m were of tem p o ra ry ty p e s a n d all
were reserved for w ar w orkers or persons in m ilitary service. In addition, accom
m odations for 25,685 fam ilies were provided in trailers a n d converted q u a rte rs an d
for 31,004 persons in dorm itories. Page 749.
Labor conditions in Chile, 1942.
F rom S eptem ber 1939 to D ecem ber 1942 th e cost of living in Chile rose a b o u t 77
p ercen t; in a b o u t th e sam e period wages rose less th a n 70 p ercen t. Some a tte m p t
w as m ade by th e G o vernm ent to co ntrol th e price level, by im posing ceilings on
c e rtain articles selected as being “ articles of prim e necessity” ; am ong these were
ren ts. T he lag betw een prices a n d wages caused lab o r to be restive, b u t th ere
w ere no prolonged lab o r disp u tes an d very little u n em ploym ent. Page 716.
Injuries from falls in shipyards.
A m ajo r cause of accidents in sh ip y ard s is falls. D u rin g th e first 4 m o n th s of
1943 one of every five disabling injuries was caused by falls. A nalysis of th e
accidents indicates th a t a t least th ree-fo u rth s could have been p rev en ted — some by
m easures ta k e n by th e m an ag e m en t a n d some by th e cooperation of th e wo'rkers.
Page 766.
Woman workers in two wars.
I t appears th a t a t least tw ice as m an y w om en will be em ployed during th e
course of th e presen t w ar as in th e w ar of 1914-18. By Ju n e 1943 w om en consti
tu te d 31.3 percent of all gainfully em ployed persons in th e U n ited S tates an d th e ir
services were being utilized in rap id ly broadening n um bers a n d ty p e s of op era
tion s. T he w ays an d e x te n t to w hich w om en are being em ployed in in dividual
in d u stries— b o th w ar a n d nonw ar— are described in th e article on page 650.
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MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW
FOR OCTOBER 1943
T he L evel of Factory W age R ates in W artim e
B y R o b e rt J. M y e r s and H erm an D. B loch , U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
Summary
OVER 8 million factory wage earners, or about 60 percent of the
total, received from 50 cents to $1 per hour in June 1943. About
370,000, or 3 percent, earned $1.50 or more. Ten percent were paid
less than 50 cents and about 2 percent less than 40 cents. Thirty
months earlier, in January 1941, only 12 percent of all factory workers
were paid $1 per hour or more, while 17 percent received less than 40
cents, and 31 percent received less than 50 cents. It should be noted
that these estimates apply only to wage earners in manufacturing
industries and do not include those in nonmanufacturing pursuits.
As would be expected, workers in the war industries (which are
types of industries that normally pay better than average rates) were
concentrated at higher wage levels in the summer of 1943 than were
the workers in nonwar industries. Forty-one percent of the war
workers, but only 15 percent of the nonwar group, were paid $1 per
hour or more. Only 4 percent of the former group but 17 percent of
the latter received less than 50 cents. Workers paid $1 per hour or
more were relatively most numerous in the war transportation-equip
ment industries, rubber, machinery, and printing and publishing.
Workers receiving less than 40 cents per hour were relatively most
numerous in lumber and timber, the food industries, tobacco, and
leather.
For the most part, the highest wage rates in manufacturing industry
are paid for supervisory ability, unusual skill, or high productivity un
der an incentive-payment plan. The highest-paid workers are almost
exclusively men, and many of them are employed in establishments
with union agreements. Although most numerous in northern cities,
the highest-paid workers are represented in all parts of the United
States.
The lowest-paid workers—those receiving less than 40 cents per
hour—include many women. They are concentrated largely in the
South and few of them are union members. They are engaged
primarily in simple, routine jobs that can be mastered by an inexperi
enced worker in a few days. The wage status of the lowest paid,
however, reflects not only the unskilled nature of the operations per
formed, but other important factors, including the lack of legal or
trade-union protection, the isolation and immobility of the workers,
and, in some cases, low levels of productive efficiency.
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637
038
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
Purpose and Nature of Analysis
A review of the economic scene as of the summer of 1943 reveals
much evidence of high wages. The “help wanted” columns of
metropolitan newspapers list scores of jobs paying more than $1 per
hour. The service trades and other low-paid industries are losing
many of their workers. Factory towns that have been stagnating
since the ’twenties are suddenly prosperous. Employers and union
officials appear together before the War Labor Board to request
authority for further wage increases.
The story of high wages is well known. The earnings of workers in
the shipyards and munitions plants are discussed widely, often with
gross exaggeration. Not all American workers are in the liigh-wage
class, however. For one reason or another, millions of employees in
stores and factories receive scarcely half the pay scales of the growing
war industries. Their wages have risen since the outbreak of the war,
but are still moderate or low, even by pre-war standards.
The wide dispersion that characterizes American wage structure is
of considerable significance in the determination of public policy. In
the control of price levels, for example, it is essential to take account
of the incomes of the lowest- as well as the highest-paid workers.
Wage differences aggravate the manpower problem. They must be
considered in planning a tax program or launching a campaign of
Government borrowing. They are of enormous importance in the
field of post-war planning, because they may obstruct the necessary
transfer of millions from wartime to peacetime jobs.
The extent of the variation in the wage rates of American workers
is apparent from scores of surveys of wages in single localities and
industries.1 In the interest of valid perspective, however, it is desir
able from time to time to turn away from such limited studies and
review in broad outline the structure of wages in the economy as a
whole. Unfortunately, this goal is not wholly attainable at the
present time. Little is known regarding the nature of parts of that
structure. As a first step, however, it is possible to describe with
reasonable accuracy the distribution of wages in the important
segment comprising manufacturing industry.
The composite figures presented in later sections of this article are
based on detailed studies by the Bureau of Labor Statistics covering
58 manufacturing industries. Although many of these studies are
now out of date, they have been corrected and extended, on an esti
mated basis, by means of the Bureau’s monthly reports on average
hourly earnings.2 Voluminous current material regarding wage rates
in individual occupations has been used in checking and interpreting
the estimated distributions and in describing the jobs of the highestand lowest-paid workers.
Although believed to be dependable as a basis for general conclu
sions, the estimated distributions presented here are subject to a
considerable margin of error and should be used with caution. They
are, of course, representative only of manufacturing industries.
1 M any of the studies of the Bureau of Labor Statistics have been summarized in the pages of the M onthly
Labor Review. Others have been presented in unpublished form for the administrative use of the War
Labor Board.
2 For a brief description of the methods involved in the preparation of the estimates see “ Distribution
of Factory Workers by Hourly and Weekly Earnings,” M onthly Labor Review, June 1942. Joseph M.
Sherman of the Bureau’s Division of Wage Analysis gave special assistance in preparing the estimates for
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
639
Level of Factory Wage Rates in Wartime
Wages of nonmanufacturing workers are, with important exceptions,
lower than those of manufacturing workers, and have risen consider
ably less since the outbreak of the war. In the summer of 1943 more
than two-fifths of all nonagricultural employees were engaged in
manufacturing.
It is important to note that the wages referred to in this article are
wage rates or their equivalent, rather than average hourly earnings or
other gross measures. As far as possible, premium payments for over
time and for late-shift3 work have been excluded, together with non
production bonus payments. Production bonuses and other incentive
earnings, however, are included. The figures used for workers paid
on an incentive basis consequently represent straight-time average
hourly earnings.
Distribution of Factory W orkers by Flourly Rates
The range of factory wage rates in June 1943 is apparent from table
1, in which the nearly 14,000,000 workers employed at that time are
distributed by 10-cent wage classes. An estimated 370,000 workers,
representing the highest-paid manufacturing wage earners in the
Nation, earned $1.50 per hour of more. Even in this high-wage
period, however, approximately 220,000 workers, or about 1 out of 50,
earned less than 40 cents. The largest concentration of workers, only
1,820,000, received 80 to 90 cents per hour, while no fewer than 7 of
the 10-cent wage classes included a million or more workers each.
Wage rates of $1 or more per hour were received by about one-third
of the workers.
T a b l e 1 .—Estimated Distribution of Workers in Manufacturing Industries by Hourly
Wage Rates, January 1941 and June 1943
January 1941
June 1943
Hourly rate
Number of
workers
Under 40 cents_________________________________
40 and under 50 cents___________________________
50 and under 60 cents________ _________________
60 and under 70 cents____________________ _____
70 and under 80 cen ts.. __
_____ ________
________ .
80 and under 90 c e n t s ................ _
90 and under 100 cents_________ _____________
100 and under 110 cents________________________
...... ..........
110 and under 120 cents
120 and under 130 cents________ . ___
______
130 and under 140 cents_________________________
140 and under 150 cents______________________ . .
150 cents and over___
______ ____ _ ________
T otal____ ______________________
_______
Percent
Number of
workers
220,000
1,050,000
1, 640,000
1,530,000
1, 700,000
1, 820,000
1, 580, 000
1, 230,000
960,000
930,000
470, 000
320,000
370, 000
2
8
12
11
12
13
11
9
7
7
3
2
3
1, 580.000
1, 390,000
1, 450,000
1,460, 000
1,140, 000
870,000
620, 000
460,000
280,000
330,000
0)
0)
(0
13,820,000
100
9, 580, 000
Percent
17
14
15
15
12
9
6
5
3
4
(')
0)
(0
100
1 Included in “ 120 and under 130 cents” class; the number of workers receiving 120 cents or more was too
small to permit further subdivision.
It is apparent from these figures that the much-discussed $100
weekly wage is extremely rare among American factory workers. A
first-shift4 worker putting in a 50-hour week at $1.50 per hour, and
s Actually, adjustments to offset shift premiums have been practicable only in the war transportationequipment, machinery, and electrical-equipment industry groups. It is unlikely that the level of average
earnings in other groups is appreciably influenced by shift premiums.
4 Long hours of overtime are uncommon for second- or third-shift workers.
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640
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
with time and one-half for all hours in excess of 40, earns only $82.50.
Workers employed at $1 per hour during a 50-hour week earn only $55.
Toward the other end of the scale are .substantial numbers of workers
who put in 40 hours at 40 cents per hour and earn only $16.
Table 1 also presents striking evidence of the shift in wage rates
since January 1941, the base month for the “ Little Steel” formula.
In that month approximately one-sixth of all factory workers received
less than 40 cents per hour, many of them being paid exactly 30 cents,
the statutory minimum under the Fair Labor Standards Act. Onethird of the workers in January 1941, but only one-tenth in June 1943,
earned less than 50 cents. Only one-eighth of the workers in the
earlier period had rates of $1 or more per hour, as compared with about
one-third in the later period.
It is not the purpose of this article to discuss the wartime trend of
factory wages or the causes underlying that trend. It is appropriate,
however, to call attention to two factors that have greatly influenced
the distribution of wage rates since the outbreak of the war. One of
these is the extension of the 40-cent minimum wage by administrative
action, as authorized by the Fair Labor Standards Act. In early
1941 the 40-cent minimum applied to only a fewTindustries, but by
June 1943 this minimum had been established in the bulk of the
low-wage industries. Because of the general upward movement of
wages, to be sure, the minimum wage probably determined the rates
of fewer workers in the latter period than in the former.
The other factor is the movement of millions of workers, new and
old, into the highly paid war industries. This trend, which has been
facilitated by drastic changes in the technology of the war industries,
has permitted the wage level to move upward independently of any
actual increases in wage rates. This shift has consequently been
greater than can be accounted for by wage increases alone.
Wage Rates by Industry Group
The wide variation in wage rates revealed in table 1 does not, of
course, reflect differences in pay for the same type of work in similar
localities. Wage rates in the same industry and locality show much
greater concentration, and workers in the same occupation in a given
city often receive identical rates. It is of interest, therefore, to
segregate various groups of factory workers for further examination.
The material at hand, unfortunately, does not lend itself to segre
gation by geographic region. It is known, of course, from various
wage studies that many establishments in the South and in parts of
New England pay relatively low wages, while the highest wages are
generally found on the Pacific Coast and in the vicinity of the Great
Lakes. The detail presented in tables 2 and 3 permits a comparison
of the wage structures of broad industry groups.
In table 2 the war industries are segregated from the nonwar
industries. This segregation is made on the basis of major industry
groups and is admittedly somewhat arbitrary. Some products of the
machinery industry, classified here as a “ war industry,” are used for
purely peaceful and domestic purposes, while clothing manufacture,
a “ nonwar industry”, includes the production of uniforms. In
general, however, the war industries are those that are largely engaged
in the direct production of fighting equipment or war transportation
equipment or of their basic materials.
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641
Level of Factory Wage Rates in Wartime
T a b l e 2 . —Estimated Distribution of Workers in War and Nonwar Industries by Hourly
W age Rates, June 1943
War industries 1
Non war industries
Hourly rate
Number of
workers
Under 40 cents. _______________ _ _ . . . ___
40 and under 50 cents
_____________ ______ .
50 and under 60 cents...... ......................................... .
60 and under 70 cents.............. ..........................
. . .
70 and under 80 cents____ _ _ .
. . .
......
80 and under 90 cents.
. . ............................
90 and under 100 cents. _____ ______________ .
100 and under 110 cents__ ______
... ... ... ...
110 and under 120 c e n ts ____ __________________
120 and under 130 cents------------------- . . . . . . . . .
130 and under 140 cents__ _____ _
_ _ _ ...
140 and under 150 cents
...
. ____. . . . .
150 cents and over____ ____________________
T otal_________
______________ _________
Percent
Number of
workers
Percent
120,000
280,000
440,000
720,000
1,090,000
1, 290,000
1, 200, 000
950,000
790,000
810,000
390, 000
250,000
270,000
1
3
5
8
13
15
14
11
9
10
5
3
3
100, 000
770,000
1, 200, 000
810,000
610, 000
530,000
380, 000
280, 000
170,000
120,000
80,000
70,000
100,000
2
15
23
16
12
10
7
5
3
2
2
1
2
8, 600,000
100
5, 220, 000
100
i Includes the following major industry groups: Iron and steel, electrical equipment, machinery other than
electrical, war transportation equipment, nonferrous metals, lumber and timber, chemicals and rubber.
All other industry groups, including “miscellaneous industries,” are classified as nonwar.
It is apparent that wage earners in the war industries are con
centrated at considerably higher wage levels than those in nonwar
industries. This is not surprising, since the war industries are
primarily the heavy industries and customarily pay the higher wages
even in peacetime. Forty-one percent of the “ war workers” received
$1 or more per hour, while the largest proportion in any 10-cent wage
class, 15 percent, earned 80 to 90 cents per hour; only 1 worker out of
25 was paid less than 50 cents per hour. Among the nonwar workers
only 15 percent earned $1 or more per hour, while 17 percent earned
less than 50 cents; almost one-quarter were concentrated in the 50- to
60-cent class.
Estimates for individual industry groups are less dependable than
those for all manufactures or for the war and nonwar industries com
bined. The summary figures presented in table 3, however, although
not permitting precise comparisons, are of considerable interest. It
is notable that many of these groups, unlike manufacturing as a whole,
show a marked concentration of workers at one level or another in the
wage structure. The contrast among the individual wage patterns
is pronounced.
Table 3 brings out the great importance of the “ war transportation
equipment” group, which includes shipbuilding, airframes and engines,
the converted automobile industry, locomotives, and railway cars.
Thirty percent of the workers in this group earned $1.20 or more per
hour. In war transportation equipment alone, more than half (57
percent) of the workers received $1 or more. Among war industry
groups, only lumber and timber employed a substantial proportion of
its working force at less than 40 cents per hour. Most of these
workers were in the South, whereas much higher wages prevailed on
the Pacific Coast.
Printing and publishing, a relatively small group, paid by far the
highest wages in the nonwar category. Nearly one-third of the work
ers in this group earned $1.20 or more, as compared with only 7 per
cent in the next highest nonwar group. All of the nonwar industry
groups showed substantial concentrations below 60 cents per hour,
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but none showed as many as 1 worker out of 20 receiving less than 40
cents. The highest proportions in this low-wage class were in the
tobacco (4 percent) and food (4 percent) industries.
T able 3.—Estimated Percentage Distribution of Workers in Major Industry Groups,
by Hourly Wage Rates, June 1943
Percent of workers earning—
Industry group
Approx
imate
number of
workers 1 Total
rar industries:
War transportation equipment_____ 2,970, 000
Rubber_________________________
190,000
Machinery_______________________ 1, 250, 000
Iron and steel - _________________ 1, 720,000
Electrical equipment___ _ __ ___
700, 000
Nonferrous metals______ ______
420,000
Chemical, petroleum, and coal
products______________________
870, 000
Lumber and timber_____________
480, 000
on war industries:
Printing and publishing. __ _ _ ____
330,000
Leather__________________________
330, 000
Apparel____ . . . . .
850, 000
Paper
...
. _
...
320, 000
Food_______________________ . . .
950,000
Furniture
____ ._ . . . ____ _ .
360,000
Textiles.
. . . __________ ______ 1,230, 000
Tobacco.._ __________________
90.000
Stone, clay, and glass___________ .
360,000
100
100
100
100
100
100
40 and 60 and 80
$1.00
Under under
under cents
and
40
and
60
80
under
cents cents
cents under $1.20
$1.00
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
1
(2)
$1.20
and
over
1
17
9
5
21
7
13
21
22
29
28
28
29
22
29
35
22
36
27
14
24
15
12
16
30
26
16
16
16
13
100
100
2
18
12
40
26
10
29
15
18
9
13
8
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
2
3
2
1
4
1
1
4
1
20
33
51
34
27
45
54
55
27
15
32
21
35
33
28
30
17
22
18
16
12
20
24
16
8
13
29
13
9
7
6
8
6
4
8
19
32
7
4
4
4
3
3
2
1 Excludes approximately 400,000 workers in miscellaneous minor industries for which information is not
available by industry group.
2 Less than five-tenths of 1 percent.
The Highest-Paid Workers
The wide differences in wage rates which prevail even within the
same industry groups could be explained in large part if it were pos
sible to analyze the material at hand in terms of location and size of
factory, skill; sex, and race of worker, and certain other factors.
Unfortunately this material does not permit further analysis. It is
enlightening, however, to examine the occupational characteristics of
the highest- and lowest-paid workers. The contrast between these
groups can be expected to be relatively sharp, and their small size
facilitates analysis. As a basis for this examination, current occupa
tional wage rates are available from representative manufacturing
establishments in all parts of the United States.
For present purposes, the highest-paid factory workers are con
sidered to be represented by the nearly 700,000 wage earners esti
mated to have earned $1.40 or more per hour in June 1943. Most of
these workers, as has been seen, are in the war industries. A review
of current occupational rates from many thousands of manufacturing
plants indicates that they fall largely into four major classes: (1)
Working supervisors, (2) craftsmen of high and unusual skills, (3)
workers paid on an incentive basis, and (4) workers in dangerous or
unpleasant occupations. These classes, it will be noted, involve some
overlapping. For example, some jobs require skill and involve danger,
in addition to being paid on an incentive basis. The number of
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643
highest-paid workers who are not included in one or more of these
groups, however, is negligible.
S U P E R V ISO R Y W OR K ER S
Supervisory workers, as discussed here, include working foremen,
set-up men, leaders, lay-out men, and similar groups (but not full-time
supervising foremen, who are customarily salaried employees and not
considered as wage earners). These workers assign work, specify tools
or methods, instruct beginners, prepare machines for new tasks, and
perform similar functions. Many of them spend most of their time
setting up machines for less experienced workers and perform a mini
mum of supervisory work. Generally, however, they are experienced
workers who, in addition to mastering their own jobs, have demon
strated qualities of leadership and the ability to instruct others.
Supervisors very generally receive higher wages than the workers
they train and direct, but thousands of supervisors in low-wage in
dustries are poorly paid. A majority of the supervisors in manu
facturing industry receive considerably less than $1.40 per hour.
Highly paid supervisors are numerous in certain war industries,
however, where the accession of thousands of new workers has enor
mously enlarged the task of training and directing. Working super
visors consequently account for an appreciable proportion of the
highest-paid factory workers.
Supervisory workers in shipbuilding comprise approximately 7
percent of all wage earners, although not all of these supervisors
receive as much as $1.40 per hour. Working foremen in shipyards
are sometimes paid in excess of $2. In a recent pay-roll period,
however, the average wage for such workers in Atlantic Coast con
struction yards was only $1.64 and the averages for the other zones
were somewhat lower.
Highly paid supervisors are rather numerous in the manufacture of
airframes and engines, in rubber tires and tubes, and in most of the
metal-working industries. On the whole, however, this group of
highly paid workers probably shows less concentration by industry
than those discussed below. At least a few of these workers are to be
found among the largest establishments of the majority of industries.
H IG H L Y SK IL L E D C R A FT SM EN
A substantial majority of the highest-paid workers consists of
skilled craftsmen or “ specialists,” whose occupational preeminence has
required many years of training and experience. Practically all of
these workers are men, and a large proportion are union members.
There are hundreds of skilled jobs in each of which a few highly paid
workers may be found. Those in which rates of $1.40 or more are
typical or common are more limited in number, but still too numerous
to permit discussion in full. The nature of these jobs may be indi
cated, however, by the presentation of several examples.
The loftsman in the shipbuilding industry provides an excellent
example of a highly skilled craftsman in a war job, This workman
lays out to full scale on the floor of his “ loft” the lines of a ship
planned for construction. He develops patterns or molds—often of
paper or of wood-—to guide the efforts of other workers. He not
only must possess judgment, imagination, and a knowledge of geo
metric construction, but must also be expert in the use of many tools
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and machines. Like others of the skilled workers mentioned below,
loftsmen rank high on the War Manpower Commission’s list of criti
cal jobs. First-class loftsmen in ship-construction yards on the
Atlantic Coast, however, have recently averaged about $1.40 per
hour, and in some zones their average has been less.5
The rollers of the iron and steel industry (rolling mills) have long
been among the highest paid of all American wage earners. While
the number of rollers in the basic iron and steel industry is not large,
their earnings frequently average $3 per hour or more. There are
several varieties of rollers, but their work typically involves the oper
ation of stands of rolls, which level and reduce heavy steel stock into
rods, bars, sheets, and other products. The roller’s expert knowledge
must enable him to control the amount and speed of reduction, to
estimate the gage of the material, and to recognize defects by inspec
tion. Rollers direct their assistants and other workers, but are not
primarily supervisors. Rollers’ assistants, themselves, deserve to be
listed among the highest-paid workers. Other iron and steel workers
in this class include the melters, steel pourers, vesselmen, heaters
straighteners, and roughers.
Somewhat lower than rollers in the wage scale, but more important
numerically, are the tool and die makers, prominent in the manufacbure of aircraft and in many other of the metal-working industries.
These workers do not ordinarily engage in production but specialize
m the construction and repair of tools, jigs, and fixtures and the prepa
ration of dies for forging, forming, and stamping. Their work re
quires the utmost precision, tolerances of xtyAiro of an inch or less being
specified frequently. They must be expert in the use of many types
of machinery. The average wage rate in job shops in Detroit,
probably Jdie greatest center of tool and die work in the world, is
about $1.77 per hour. Tool and die makers in most other localities
are paid lower rates than this, but the majority undoubtedly earn
more than $1.40 per hour.
Patternmakers also rank high among the skilled workers in the
metal trades. Working either with wood or with metal, and respon
sible for adhering rigidly to the specifications of a blueprint, these
craftsmen prepare the master patterns or forms from which molds
are made for the manufacture of parts. Obviously, their work has
much m common with that of the loftsmen, mentioned above. Pat
ternmakers usually serve a long and strict apprenticeship. Their
work requires a practical knowledge of mathematics and other scien
tific fields; for example, a patternmaker must be able to make
appropriate allowance for the contraction of cooling metal. So costly
and so vital to his work are the patternmaker’s tools that the Pattern
Makers League of North America has established a mutual insurance
system to provide protection against their destruction or loss. Pat
ternmakers’ wage rates average a little less than those of tool and
die makers; substantial numbers, however, receive more than $1.40.
Among other high-wage occupations in the metal trades are those
oi lead burners, m nonferrous smelting and other industries, and vari
ous precision inspectors—for example, tool inspectors and service and
flight inspectors (aircraft).
hpranSe^ hf-hoirel?,W ,iile leveI. °f !Jle highest-paid workers under discussion, but deserving of mention
nnmWr 1
lr numher’ are the first-class skilled mechanics” of the shipyards These workers who
score^nr
qk arter ° /.a milll0n> include carpenters, electricians, machinists, riveters welders and a
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Level of Factory Wage Rates in Wartime
645
The rubber industry includes a number of skilled and highly paid
jobs, of which the most important numerically is that of tire builder.
This worker builds up tire casings by hand on a mechanically rotated
drumlike form. A considerable amount of skill and great physical
endurance are required to assure the strength and durability of the
tire and to guard against defects. Although the tire builder’s job
can be mastered more quickly than most of the other jobs discussed
in this section, his earnings are generally raised by incentive payments.
Tire builders in Akron average approximately $1.50 per hour.
Mention should also be made of the stillmen in the petroleum
refining industry. These workers operate the units in which crude or
other oils are broken down by distillation to obtain gasoline and
other products. Rates of $1.40 or more per hour are not uncommon,
even in the Southwest, where general wage levels are lower than in
the Nation as a whole.
Among the highest-skilled and highest-paid workers in nonwar
industries are the cutters in the men’s clothing industry, who cut one
or more layers of cloth to be tailored into finished garments. Most
cutters also lay out the cloth and mark it for cutting; great pains
must be taken with patterned cloth, particularly plaids, to assure
that the various pieces will match when they are assembled. The
cutters are known as the aristocrats of the industry, and in the early
years arrived at their workrooms in frock coats. The standard rate
for cutters in New York City is $1.81 per hour; somewhat lower
rates prevail in most of the other centers.
Several skilled crafts in the printing trades commonly carry earnings
of $1.40 an hour or more; these include the pressmen, compositors,
electro typers, engravers, and finishers. Cloth-printing-machine
operators in the dyeing and finishing industry are outstanding because
of their high rates among the relatively low rates paid in the industry
in general. Brushers, plushers, and machine stakers are highly paid
jobs in tanneries.
INCENTIVE WORKERS
Appreciable numbers of workers attain the liighest-wage brackets
not because of supervisory ability or extraordinary skill, but as a
result of high productivity under an incentive-payment system.
Incentive workers quite generally earn more than time workers,6 but,
because of differences in the systems of payment, the efficiency and
energy of the workers, the efficiency of management, and other factors,
the extent of the difference varies widely.
Incentive-wage payment is in itself no guaranty of high wages.
Indeed, the sweatshops of earlier years usually employed a piecepayment system, and even today many thousands of low-paid workers
in textiles, clothing, and other industries are paid piece rates or other
incentive wages.
Many skilled and a few semiskilled workers, however, who might
earn 90 cents to $1.20 per hour at straight-time rates, average $1.50
or more as a result of incentive payment. Thus, first-class molders and
first-class riveters, who in other shipyards receive the standard $1.20
rate, have recently averaged $1.56 and $1.77, respectively, in the Atlantic
Coast yards, where incentive payment is common. Large numbers of
high-wage incentive workers are found in steel works and rolling
mills. Incentive payment accounts in part for the relatively high
6 Sec “Effect of Incentive Payments on Hourly Earnings” in the M onthly Labor Review for M ay 1943.
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wages in the rubber industry, electrical equipment, machinery manu
facture, and the primary fabrication of nonferrous metals.
WORKERS IN DANGEROUS AND UNPLEASANT JOBS
As a result of union agreements or in order to attract workers,
dangerous jobs and those involving unusual fatigue or unpleasantness
sometimes carry a wage premium. Such premiums may also be paid
for outside work and irregular work. A few of the highest-paid
workers in manufacturing industry owe their wage advantage in
part to such factors.
It is doubtful whether a numerically important job can be found in
manufacturing in which wages of $1.40 or more per hour are paid for
semiskilled or unskilled work solely because of accompanying danger
or unpleasantness. A number of relatively skilled jobs, however, fall
in the highest-wage class partly as a result of such factors. One of these
is the occupation of rougher in the steel industry. The rougher guides
heated steel bars, rods, or sheets into the roughing mill. In addition to
being somewhat dangerous, this work involves strenuous exertion under
conditions of intense heat. Roughers frequently average more than
$1.50 per hour. The wet wheelers of the leather industry are highly
paid workers whose jobs are extremely unpleasant. They grind
and smooth on a wheel the flesh side of green hides. In certain nonferrous-metal foundries noxious gases, noise, and dirt undoubtedly
account in part for the relatively high wages.
Most workers in dangerous or unpleasant jobs, however, appear to
receive moderate or low rates of pay. In chemical and explosives plants
the workers handling acids and explosives typically receive lower rates
than the skilled maintenance men, whose jobs are much safer. Truck
drivers often receive a premium of only 5 to 10 cents per hour when
hauling high explosives.
The Lowest-Paid Workers
For present purposes, the lowest-paid workers are defined as those
receiving less than 40 cents per hour. It has been seen that such
workers numbered about a quarter of a million in June 1943, or included
approximately 1 manufacturing wage earner out of 50. They are
found in substantial proportions in manufacturing only in certain
branches of the lumber, food, chemical, textile, clothing, and tobacco
industry groups. Many of the lowest-paid workers are women, and
relatively few are employed in plants with union agreements. Large
proportions are employed in the South.
TYPICAL JOBS
There is little romance in the lowest-paid jobs. With few exceptions,
they are simple, repetitive, and monotonous. Typically they involve no
supervision of other workers, and can be mastered immediately or
after a few days’ experience. Many of the jobs are paid on a piece
basis—with or without a minimum guaranty. The working conditions
of some of the jobs are dangerous, or extremely unpleasant.
It is significant to note that the lowest-paid jobs usually involve
specialized operations, and by no means consist entirely of “common
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Level of Factory Wage Rates in Wartime
647
labor.” Relatively few common laborers, in fact, receive wages lower
than 40 cents per hour, and these are often found in establishments that
pay even lower wages to certain other employees. On the other hand,
the standard entrance rate for common labor in most of the steel
industry is 78 cents per hour, and entrance rates of $1 or more are not
unknown.
Many of the lowest-paid workers are found in the logging camps
and sawmills of the South, which cut and process light, second-growth
timber. These workers are exclusively men, and include large num
bers of Negroes. One of the numerous low-paid jobs is that of the
swamper, who with various hand tools clears the ground of underbrush
and other obstructions in preparation for the construction of a logging
road. Fallers and buckers cut down trees with an axe or a hand
crosscut saw (men usually working in pairs) and cut felled trees into
logs of the desired length. The lumber piler stacks lumber by hand
in a yard or shed for storing or drying. Both in logging camps and in
sawmills there is frequent shifting from one job to another.
A number of the food industries are also represented among the
lowest-paid workers—particularly the canning, drying and preserving
of fruits and vegetables and of sea foods. In these industries, wages
as low as 25 cents an hour are sometimes encountered. Thousands
of low-paid women work in these industries as washers, sorters, peelers,
boners, slicers, packers, and so forth. These women usually take
their work from a table or moving belt before them and, after perform
ing their simple operation, place the product on another table or belt
or in special receptacles. They are often paid by the piece or by the
pound. Their working conditions are sometimes unpleasant, owing
to the sloppiness of floors and tables and to the pressure of their
seasonal work. Numerous low-paid workers are also found in the
poultry industry and the manufacture of nonalcoholic beverages,
artificial ice, and cottonseed products.7
Of the various industries included in the chemical group, only the
fertilizer industry employs numerous workers at less than 40 cents
per hour. Many of these are laborers, who shovel and haul in wheel
barrows the chemicals, bone, manure, and other ingredients to be mixed.
Even lower paid than the laborers, on the average, are the den diggers,
who work in a damp and fume-laden atmosphere and whose job it is
to shovel superphosphate out of the den room to be conveyed to trucks.
The fertilizer industry employs large numbers of Negro workers.
The lowest-paid workers also include numerous girls and women in
the apparel industries—many of them classified as “learners.” Most
of these workers are stitchers, performing simple sewing-machine
operations, and paid by the piece.
Among the remaining lowest-paid workers are the brick tossers and
other unskilled workers in brickyards and the strippers (leaf stemmers)
employed in the processing of cigar tobaccos. A thin sprinkling of
errand boys and girls, sweepers, janitors and similar workers are em
ployed in many industries at less than 40 cents.
7
The 40-cent minimum became effective in the cottonseed and peanut-crushing industry on August 16,
1943. Other industries in which the 40-cent minimum was applied between June 30 and September 30,
1943, include vegetable fats and oils; metal, plastics, machinery, instruments and allied industries; embroid
eries; mattresses, bedding, and related products; and miscellaneous textile, leather, fur, straw, and related
products.
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COMMON CHARACTERISTICS
It will be apparent from the preceding discussion that the lowestpaid jobs involve, for the most part, simple, repetitive work, capable
of being performed by inexperienced workers with little or no train
ing. There is little in the nature of these jobs, however, to explain
their low level of pay. Hundreds of jobs of no greater skill pay wages
considerably higher. It is necessary, therefore, to look beyond the
nature of their jobs and to examine certain characteristics of the
industries, of the workers, and of the areas in which the workers live.
In the first place, it should be noted that nearly all of these workers
are in industries with limited or no legal protection of the wage rate.
The minimum-wage laws of many of the States give only partial pro
tection and may be inoperative. Some of the low-wage industries,
such as the preparation of seafoods, do not appear to be subject to
the minimum-wage provisions of the Federal Fair Labor Standards Act.
Others—for example, the ice industry—include large numbers of
local establishments which are exempt because they do not engage in
interstate commerce. In a few of the industries that are generally
covered by the Federal act the minimum has not yet been raised to
40 cents; prominent examples are the lumber industry, fertilizer,
brick and tile, poultry, and canning and preserving.8 “Learners”
and handicapped workers in a number of industries are permitted to
earn less than the established minimum. Learners are most numer
ous in the apparel industries in which during the first 6 months of
1943 certificates were issued covering over 12,000 learners and a small
number of handicapped workers.
It is also significant that many of these industries draw upon isolated
and immobile labor supplies that are insensitive to the bids of higherwage trades. Some of the industries are seasonal and depend on
housewives and other part-time or irregular workers who cannot
accept year-round jobs. Many are in small towns where there are
few competitors for the local labor supply and where the higher rates
outside may not be known. The lumber camps and sawmills draw
heavily on the farming population. Thus, many of the lowest-paid
workers in manufacturing industries are unfamiliar with the favorable
employment opportunities elsewhere, or are unable to take advantage
of them.
Finally, in addition to those whose low wages result from limited
opportunities, the lowest-paid group includes a substantial proportion
of the least efficient and the least productive workers. Among these
are the learners and handicapped workers, who in most industries
must be officially certified if they are to receive less than the minimum
wage. Some of the lowest-paid workers enter the labor market only
sporadically and with no intention of learning a trade or becoming
proficient at their jobs. Some are continually in the labor market
but are marginal workers—persons of limited capacity who cannot
get a job at all except in periods of great industrial activity.
The availability of labor at low wages, it should be noted, has
permitted many firms to operate with obsolete equipment in competi
tion with firms using modern equipment with higher-paid labor. For
example, the hand stemming of tobacco survived for a considerable
8
The industry committees for all of the remaining manufacturing industries with a minimum wage lower
than 40 cents have recommended establishment of the 40-cent minimum.
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period in many plants because low wages offset the advantage of ma
chine stemming. Similarly, because the level of wages was low, a
number of seamless-hosiery mills operated nonautomatic equipment
that required large amounts of labor.9
Low wages, therefore, do not necessarily imply low labor cost. The
advantage to the employer may be more than offset by low labor
productivity. This fact, together with the inefficiency of manage
ment found in many of the lowest-wage establishments, explains why
competing establishments are able to stay in business while paying
much higher wages.
9
Both of these situations have been changed in some degree by the Fair Labor Standards Act. Today
a 40-cent minimum prevails in the hosiery industry.
551712- -43-
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
2
W om an W orkers in Two Wars
By M ary R o b in s o n , U. S. Women’s Bureau
THE present war has revived an interest in the number of woman
workers and their importance in the First World War. No exact
comparison of the extent of women’s employment in the two wars
can be given, owing to lack of comprehensive data for 1917-18.
However, it is known that there were over 8% million woman workers
at the time of the January 1920 decennial census—a little more than
a year after the close of the war and after curtailment in war indus
tries, general demobilization of the troops, and some leveling off of
the emergency peak employment of women.
In view of the 18 million woman workers envisioned by authorities
as a likely total to be attained in this country by July 1944, it seems
safe to assume that the number of women in employment during
the present war will be double that in the first, when the armistice
was signed after 19 months of war with a total of over 4 million men
under arms. Against this can be set the 9.3 million men in the
armed forces in July 1943 (19 months after the present conflict began)
and the anticipated number of 11.3 million if the war continues
until July 1944.
In discussing the current employment of women, table 1, present
ing the number and proportion of woman wage earners according
to the decennial censuses from 1870 to 1940, serves as a helpful
background, indicating the tide of women’s employment in this
highly industrialized country.
T a b l e 1.— Trend in Woman Labor Force, 1870 to 1940
Women in the labor force 1
Year
Number
1870______________ _______ _______ _______________
1880______________ ____ __________
_______________
1890_______ _____ ____
._ ___
..
_______
1900_______________________ ___
.
......
1910_______________________________________________
1920__________
..
_ . . . ._
1930 2______________________________________________
1930 8___________________ _______ _
____________
1940____
1,836, 288
2, 647,167
4,005. 532
5, 319, 397
7,444, 787
8, 636, 512
10, 752,116
10,679,048
12, 845, 259
Percent of all
persons in the
labor force
14.7
15.2
17.2
18.3
19.9
20.4
22.0
22.0
24.3
Percent of all
women of
working age
13.1
14.7
17.4
18.8
21.5
21.4
22.0
24.3
25.4
1 Gainfully occupied women 1870 to 1930, women in the labor force (employed, seeking work, or on public
emergency work) in 1940. Figures before 1940 are for persons 10 years old and over; figures for 1940 are for
persons 14 years old and over; both these age groups are shown for 1930. Data for 1890 to 1930 are corrected
figures from the Census release “Age Composition of the Nation’s Labor Force: 1890 to 1930,” October 1938.
2 10 years old and over.
8 14 years old and over.
At the 1940 census—taken the last week in March, 2 months
before the United States launched the defense program—there were
not far from 13 million women in the labor force (including almost
2 million unemployed women seeking work), and these formed a
little less than a fourth of the total labor force and a little more than
a fourth of the woman population.
650
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Woman Workers in Two Wars
The data in table 2, taken from the month-by-month statistical
estimates of the labor force prepared by the Bureau of the Census,
reflect the effect on the Nation’s womanpower of the increasing
demands of war. It will be noted that whereas in June 1940 (imme
diately after the beginning of the defense program) women con
stituted only 23.5 percent of all persons employed, this proportion
had risen to 31.3 percent 3 years later.
T able 2. —Estimates of Civilian Woman Labor Force,1 June 1940—43
Employment
Civilian
woman labor
force 2
Total
Nonagricul turai
Unemploy
ment
Agricultural
Month
N um Percent N um Percent N um Percent
ber of total ber of total ber of total
(mil labor
(mil employ (mil nonagrilions) force lions) ment lions) cultural
June 1940_______ _____
June 1941_____________
June 1942_____________
June 1943 ____________
July 19433..........................
13.9
13.9
15.0
17.3
17.7
24.7
24.7
26.7
31.7
31.9
11.2
11.9
13.9
16.7
17.1
23.5
23.7
26.1
31.3
31.5
9.7
10.4
11.8
14.4
14.8
26.5
26.5
28.2
34.7
35.1
N um Percent N um Percent
ber of total ber of total
(mil unem
(mil
agri
lions) cultural lions) ployment
1.5
1.5
2.1
2.3
2.3
13.6
13.8
18.3
19.3
19.0
2.7
2.0
1.1
.6
.6
31.4
33.3
39.3
50.0
50.0
114 years of age and over.
2 Excludes persons in institutions.
8 Latest data available.
In June 1940, it was estimated, there were 11.2 million employed
women as against 2.7 million unemployed and seeking work.
During the months following, despite the speeding up of the pro
duction of defense materials, influenced to considerable degree by the
Lend-Lease program, there was no appreciable advance in women’s
employment. In 9 of the 12 months from June 1940 through May
1941 the number of woman workers dropped even below the 11-million
mark. In June 1941 the total climbed to 11.9 million. In this whole
period, as well as in the next 6 months preceding the attack on Pearl
Harbor, comparatively few women were hired by defense plants, pri
marily because of the large backlog of unemployed men on which the
expanding munitions industries could draw—a total of 5.9 million in
June 1940, which went up to 6.3 million by July, and in June 1941 had
still not fallen below the 4-million level. Moreover, there was en
countered in many quarters a definite discrimination against women
as munitions workers, based on traditional prejudice and fear that they
lacked mechanical ability despite their proved skills along such lines
in the manufacture of armament in 1917-18. In January 1942, a
month after the attack on Pearl Harbor, there were 11.9 million
employed women, the same total as in the preceding June. The
number of unemployed women, however, had dropped by 0.7 million,
indicating the more-than-seasonal absorption of a substantial pro
portion of the new June workers as well as other woman job applicants.
June totals are weighted with new young workers coming into the
labor market for the first time or for vacation jobs.
After January 1942 came the sudden and rapid rise in women’s
employment. Compared to June 1940 there were 2.7 million more by
June 1942, and 5.5 million more by June 1943 when the total number
of employed women had soared to 16.7 million. This was a net
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increase in the 3-year period, of 50 percent. Thus, with the sudden
impact of war and its simultaneous speeding up of the draft and warmaterial production, barriers to women began to fall, in some quarters
rapidly, in others only as an inevitable necessity. A few intransigents
still maintain a hold-the-line policy against woman labor.
The significance of this 5.5-million increase in employed women is
reduced considerably by two facts: (1) The women in agriculture in
June 1943 constituted a larger proportion of all agricultural workers
(19.3 percent) than in June 1940 (13.6 percent), and a large number of
these farm workers are seasonal. For example, June 1943 showed a
half million more women at work on farms than in May, and a million
and a half more than in January. In nonagricultural employment the
increase of women between the two Junes was 4.7 million. (2) The
absorption as wage earners of some 2 million unemployed women into
the ranks of the employed meant that the actual rise of women in the
“labor force” from June 1940 to June 1943 was just 3.4 million.
(In June 1940 there were 2.7 million jobless women, whereas the
corresponding number for June 1943 was 0.6 million.) For men the
3-year period showed a net gain in employment of 0.3 million, or an
increase of 0.8 percent. During these years, however, the taking up
of the unemployment slack for men was most striking; the June 1940
total of 5.9 million jobless men had fallen to 0.6 million in June 1943.
What proportion of the 3.4-million increase among women in the
labor force consists of homemakers who have sought employment
for the duration it is impossible to say. According to a War Man
power Commission estimate, during 1942 half a million housewives
joined the wage-earning ranks. All told, in June 1943, about a third
of the woman population was employed—3 in 5 of the single women,
1 in 6 of the married, and 1 in 2 of the widowed, separated, and
divorced women.
In any survey of the greater use of womanpower, as a result of the
war, and of the scaling down in their employment with the coming
of peace, account should be taken of the spectacular increase among
women in the executive branch of the Federal Government, from a
little over 186,000 at the end of June 1940 to nearly a million at the
end of June 1943. The new recruits are almost entirely at work
in the War and Navy Departments and new war agencies, and many
of them will be dropped when the emergency is over.
In addition to women in the civilian labor force in June 1943 were
the 36,121 nurses on duty with the armed forces and the 100,000
women who were WACs, WAVES, SPARS, Marines, and WAFS.
The sizable number of woman Red Cross workers, though on duty
with the military services, is included in the civilian labor force and
not with the armed forces.
Because of the many uncertainties of war, forecasting for the next
year as to further induction of women in the combined labor and
armed forces is difficult. However, if by July 1944 the personnel of
the armed forces is stepped up to the estimated 11.3 million (a 2million increase over this past July), and the work force in the muni
tions industries is increased to a prospective 11.6 million employees
(in accordance with the War Manpower Commission estimate),
obviously many more women must be recruited. It is estimated that
of the 2 million additional workers in munitions, 1.3 million will be
women. Over 200,000 more women are wanted for the armed
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forces by the Army and the Navy; and the need of the essential
civilian industries for many additional women cannot be overlooked,
as evidenced by the active recruitment campaign sponsored by the
War Manpower Commission.
All indications are that the recruitment of the required number of
women for each of these several main classifications will be much
more difficult in the coming months than in the past, and that the
patriotic motive will have to constitute the chief appeal.
Women’s Employment in Manufacture of Munitions in Two Wars
There are striking parallels between the war of 1914—18 and the
present one as regards the war industries and occupations giving
employment to women.
WORLD WAR I
In the first years following the armistice, the Women’s Bureau of
the U. S. Department of Labor published several reports analyzing
the position and achievements of women. Many of the statements
in those bulletins read like pages from today’s chronicles, though on
a much smaller scale.
Women in steadily increasing numbers, then as now, entered fields
which prior to the war had been regarded as men’s exclusive province,
while many other thousands of women carried on in the traditionally
feminine food and fabric industries. Not only were the experienced
women already in manufacturing at the outbreak of hostilities utilized
largely for munitions making, but such groups as school teachers
joined their ranks and large numbers of inexperienced women never
before in the labor force were inducted into the work.
A list of 19 “war agent and implement industries” was drawn up
to show liow; growing numbers of women were hired.1 The most
significant of these were iron and steel, lumber, transportation
equipment, chemicals, metal and metal products, automobiles,
electrical machinery and equipment, rubber goods, optical goods,
and scientific and professional instruments.
As the months passed and the second draft drew off more and more
men into combat services, the more urgent became the demand for
woman labor. This was true in the vast majority of occupations that
made definite contribution to the winning of the war—not only in
manufacturing but in railway transportation, telegraph and tele
phone operation, farm work, and service trades.
T hey op erated th e lath e, th e m iller, th e drill, th e p laner, th e grinder, an d o th e r
m achine tools; th e y becam e proficient in h an d in g th e file, th e w rench, th e ham m er,
an d o th e r h an d tools; th e y read b lu ep rin ts an d used m icrom eters, calipers, an d
gages; th ey used rules a n d com passes to lay o u t w ork for m achine c u tters. T h eir
em plo y m en t in these capacities extended in to every b ran ch of m achine-shop
m an u factu re.2
The list in table 3 (page 656) reveals the similarity of the occupa
tional performances of women in the two wars.
Other parallels are shown by the following excerpts from a Women’s
Bureau publication;2
1 W omen’s Bureau Bulletin No. 12: The New Position of Women in American Industry, W ashington,
192°Women’s Bureau Bulletin No. 13: Industrial Opportunities and Training for Women and Girls, Wash
ington, 1922 (p. 11).
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N a tu ra lly th e larg est n u m b er w ent in to factories m a n u fa c tu rin g shells, pistols,
guns, an d cannon, b u t in th ese factories w om en o p erated a n d han d led th e sam e
kinds of m achines an d tools as did th e sm aller, b u t y e t ap p reciab ly large, group
of w om en who m ade p a rts fo r engines a n d pu m p s; for m achines a n d m ach in ery ;
for autom obiles, m otorcycles, a n d airp lan es; for ag ric u ltu ra l im p lem en ts; or
who w orked on tools, saws, h ard w are, electrical a p p a ra tu s, in stru m e n ts, an d
clocks.
T he k ind an d e x te n t of experience secured b y w om en in these shops differed
greatly. In a few it was sufficiently v aried to have in tim e m ade th e m “ m ach in
ists.” * * * In th e larg er n u m b er of shops it was th e policy to m ak e “ spe
cialists” of w om en as it is of m en. Such shops ta u g h t a w om an th e u nderlying
principles and. m etho d s of se ttin g up a n d o p eratin g ju s t one m achine, to g e th e r
w ith th e vary in g ch aracteristics of different m etals an d tools used in th e shop in
order to enable her to cu t each piece of m etal a n d grind each tool w ith o u t w aste
of m etal or tool. In o th e r shops w here th e w ork w as of a rep e titiv e c h a racter—
w hich w as especially tru e in m u n itio n factories— tim e w as n o t ta k e n usually to
give th e w om en em ployees general in stru ctio n in m achine-shop fu n d am en tals.
T he w om an was ta u g h t ju s t enough to enable h er to tu r n ou t, assem ble, or inspect
d u p licated p a rts a t g re a t speed. * * *
* * * th e ir em ploym ent was extended du rin g th is period in th e old occu
p atio n s an d to new occupations on sheet iron, tin , alum inum , brass, a n d copper
sheets. * * * th e y o p erated blanking, shearing, a n d draw ing presses to cu t
or shape these sheets, th e y soldered an d riv eted , welded, a n d assem bled; dipped,
buffed, a n d finished. T hey w orked on oil a n d gas stoves, hoods, radiators!
tan k s, an d fenders of autom obiles, on a g ricu ltu ral im plem ents, on tin an d alu m i
num containers an d utensils, on brass a n d bronze fabrications, on cartridges, an d
on airplanes. T he m achines o p erated were largely a u to m a tic or req u ired little
skill to m an ip u late. Some w om en learned how to set up p u n ch presses, b u t few
set up a u to m atic m achines. * * *
A sm aller nu m b er of w om en * * * w ent in to th e foundries * * *
W hile a few were em ployed a t m olding * * * sorting, grinding, a n d filing
castings, and laboring, th e larg er n u m b er w orked in th e core-m aking b ran ch of th e
in d u stry , a b ran ch in w hich w om en h a d been used for som e y ears before th e
w ar. * * *
In th e in stru m e n t a n d o p tical in d u stries w om en were em ployed n o t only on th e
m etal p a rts of th e in stru m e n ts b u t in grinding a n d polishing lenses, m o u n tin g a n d
inspecting, a n d in assem bling th e en tire in stru m e n t. W om en were peculiarly
ad a p te d to th is w ork because of th e sm allness of th e p a rts a n d th e delicate fashion
ing required. * * *
T u rn in g to th e w oodw orking industries, th e largest group of w omen su b
s titu te d for m en durin g 1917 an d 1918 w ent in to fu rn itu re an d veneer factories,
th ere to w ork on peacetim e p ro d u cts or to m ake airplan e p a rts or m u n itio n a n d
tool boxes or wheels for artille ry tru ck s. * * *
In th e chem ical industries, exclusive of explosive m an u factu re, th e ta sk s tu rn e d
over to w om en were largely of a laboring ch a ra c te r o r involved th e feeding or
ten d in g of au to m a tic m achines.
That women were highly satisfactory as workers in the 1917-18
war industries is evidenced by the following statement by the President
of an Ohio metal-goods plant;
In reference to th e occupations in w hich w om en have replaced m en th e following
m ay give you some idea of th e d iv ersity of th e w ork. In th e m achine d e p a rtm e n t
w om en becam e ex p ert an d g o t o u t m uch g re a te r p ro d u ctio n in ru n n in g tu r re t
lathes, pun ch presses, bench lathes, m illing m achines, drill presses, grinding
m achines, a n d engraving m achines, a n d in ad d itio n to th e o p eratio n of these
m achines we ta u g h t th e m to g rind th e ir tools, to a c t as job setters, a n d to su p er
in ten d some of th e d e p artm en ts. In th e inspection d e p a rtm e n t p ractically every
inspector w as a w om an. In th e assem bly d e p a rtm e n ts * * * all were
women, an d th e y did b e tte r w ork an d got o u t m ore p ro d u ctio n th a n m en w hom
we trie d on th e job a t various tim es w ith o u t success. We found, too, t h a t we
could place t s m uch, if n o t m ore, dependence in w om en in com ing to th e ir w ork
an d rem aining on th e job, w hich acco u n ts for o u r h av in g th e low est tu rn o v e r in
help in a n y facto ry ever h e ard of, w hich w as less th a n 4 p ercen t p er year. We
ta u g h t w om en to insp ect tools a n d check th e m over according to th e draw ings
a fte r th e y cam e from th e tool shop, in w hich d e p a rtm e n t w om en becam e expert.
In th e optical d e p a rtm e n t m o st of th e em ployees grinding lenses were women,
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who were rem ark ab ly successful in th e w ork. In th e assem bling of lenses we h ad
none b u t w om en on th e job, a n d you will find by inq u irin g a t th e O rdnance
D e p a rtm e n t th a t our lenses a n d prism s w ere as fine as an y in th e w orld.3
The Assistant Secretary of War, acting as the Director of Munitions
at that time, gave the following report:
F o r th e successful carry in g o u t of our pro g ram for th e p ro d u ctio n of v ast
q u an tities of explosives a n d propellants, as well as shell loading, th e w om en of
A m erica m u st be given cred it on acco u n t of th e highly im p o rta n t p a rt th e y took
in th is phase of helping to w in th e w ar. F ully 50 p ercen t of th e n u m b er of em
ployees in our explosive p la n ts were wom en, who b rav ed th e dangers connected
w ith th is line of w ork, to w hich th e y h a d been, of course, en tirely unaccustom ed,
b u t w hose perils w ere n o t unknow n to th e m .4
WORLD WAR II
If space permitted, similar successful achievements of women as
war workers in other lines of endeavor could be cited. Yet as already
noted and as definitely revealed by surveys of the Women’s Bureau,
carried on in the latter half of 1940 and the whole of 1941, employers
in defense plants either were ignorant of, or disregarded, the convinc
ing facts concerning women as war workers a quarter of a century ago.
Now the tide has definitely turned and women form a vital and
growing force m many of the key war industries. The trends in
specific industries indicate that womanpower is even more indispens
able in winning the present war than in winning the first one. In
general women are being utilized extensively in three broad categories
of jobs: Those that women have always done, now multiplied by the
demands of war; those where they have been used as substitutes for
men, either as replacements or in expanding industries; and those
that are new processes never performed by either sex (some of these
are the result of subdivision of skilled operations to facilitate mass pro
duction, while others are the result of the manufacture of new kinds
of equipment).
To assist employers confronted with the need to hire women for
the first time or to utilize them on a much more extensive scale, the
Women’s Bureau has made occupational analyses of a number of key
war industries, indicating in which occupations women can be most
readily adjusted and in which they can be substituted for men.
As women in the various war industries are performing in general
more or less similar jobs, the accompanying list (table 3) cuts across
the industries and classifies the occupations according to whether they
are using women extensively, to some extent, or to only a slight ex
tent. It should be noted, in this connection, that although woman
machine operators frequently do repetitive work, to an increasing
degree they are setting up their own machines and performing skilled
operations.
Though men are still found in most of the top and highly skilled
industrial jobs, women to increasing degree are doing the more skilled,
difficult, and disagreeable jobs as well as certain dangerous and some
times inappropriate types of work. At many processes women are as
good as men, while at others they surpass men, especially in jobs
requiring patience and painstaking finger sensitivity and dexterity.
They soon learn to work to tolerances as fine as ten-thousandths of
an inch.
3 U. S. Women’s Bureau, Bulletin No. 12: The N ew Position of Women in American Industry, Wash
ington, 1920 (pp. 18,19).
4 Idem p. 19.
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Monthly Lahor Review—October 1943
T a b l e 3 . — Typical Operations on Which Women Were Employed in War Production
in June 1943
[Code: A—Women now used extensively; B—Women now used to some extent; C—Women now used to
only a slight extent]
Occupation
Manipulative skills:
Operation of machines:
Drill presses, single and multiple spindle-_____________________________________
M illing machines, light and medium, and micro machines____________________
Light turret lathes and hand screw machines_______ _______________
Bench and watchmakers’ lathes___________________________
Grinding machines (surface, cylindrical, and internal)____________ ’
"
Gear shaping, cutting and hobbing machines________________________
Light punch and forming presses_________ __________________________
Miscellaneous machines: Profilers, shavers, nibblers, shapers, routers_______________
Automatic screw m achines.__________________________________________
Woodworking machines: Saws, sanders, shapers, profilers..
”
""
“
Nailing machines______________________________________
Power sewing machines____________________________ ________
Optical and opthalmic glass grinding and polishing__________________
Burring, polishing, lapping, buffing, etc., on lathes, drill presses, polishing jacks, and other
machines__________________________________________________
Hand finishing machined parts by filing, burring, la p p in g k k k k k k
’
Hand gluing (for example, of plywood parts)___________________ ____
Sheet-metal forming and riveting_________________________
Welding:
Acetylene and torch welding________________________________________
Electric arc welding_________________________________________
Spot welding________________________________________ IIIIII .II” ! ”
VS...""
Soldering_________________________________________________ '--” 11111111"
Electrical work—wiring and assembling parts, winding coils and armatures, soidering
taping, etc____ _____________ ___________________ j ______________
Assembly—all types of light sub-assembly and final assembly (often requiring the "use of
hand tools as pliers, mallets, screw drivers, files, electric drills, bench assembly machines,
and riveting presses)__________________________________________________________
Artillery ammunition, loading (bag and shell loading, fuzes, primers, etc.)__________ ,__
Operations on bullets, cartridge cases, and primers in small arms ammunition
Servicing and repairing of planes at air depots (ground mechanics)
Painting:
Spray-painting small parts and products____________________
Touch-up work and hand fin ish ing..._____________
Radium_________________ ______________________________ """"
Stenciling, masking before painting, racking and unracking-. __
__
~
Shipfitters and loftsmen_____________________________
Helpers___________________________________________ ~~~~ ""
*
inspection:
Visual_________________________________________________
Gage, micrometer or caliper (sometimes with blueprint reading)
Calibrating_________________________________________________
Checking and testing raw materials, stock, and salvage"parts
_ ’ _ ~" "_~ "’ ’ _ ' ”
Packing, labeling, etc___________________________________________
Factory service:
Production planning, routing, and control______________________
Draftsmen and tracers_______________________ ________________
Factory clerks (timekeepers, stock-record clerks, etc.). ” - ---""
Tool-crib and stockroom attendants and dispatchers____ _
.
_
Crane operators______________, _____________________________
Guards______________________ ____________________
Electric-truck drivers, intraplant loading and hauling. ” ”
Supervising (forewomen, leadwomen, group leaders)________
Training (in plant)_______________________________________ _
.
” """
Personnel relations:
"
Personnel administration (director, assistant director, assistant)___
Employment—interviewing and hiring..^____________________
Nursing______________________________________________
Welfare________________________________
Code
A
A
B
A
B
B
A
B
B
B
C
A
B
A
A
B
A
B
A
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
C
A
A
A
B
B
A
B
A
A
A
B
B
B
B
C
B
B
A
A
Women’s successful performance in the manufacture of most kinds
of war material in the present w*ar is common knowledge and is attested
by many statements of industrial authorities. Managements in war
plants today which not so many months ago scoffed at the idea of
woman employees are now equally articulate in their praise of women’s
ability and dependability in the matter of technical skills.
The Undersecretary of War, in a congratulatory message sent
recently to Army’s woman employees, said:
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T he w om en of A m erica h av e responded a b ly an d gallan tly to th e call to service
th e w ar has m ade upon th em . N ow here is th is m ore evid en t th a n in th e p la n ts
o perated by th e W ar D e p a rtm e n t. T hey have su p p lan ted m en a t th e bench an d
th e lath e; th ey are doing civilian w ork in th e nine Service C om m ands efficiently
an d in increasing num bers.
In th e arsenals, in th e p o rts of em b ark atio n , in th e m o to r centers, in all th e W ar
D e p a rtm e n t installation s, th e ir skills are in valuable a n d th e ir devotion to d u ty
is proven. T hey are te stin g guns, m aking am m u n itio n , fixing m otors, sewing
uniform s, inspecting ordnance, driving tru ck s, doing m an y of th e th o u sa n d an d
one jobs th a t are necessary to keep th e m achinery of w ar m oving.
I salu te th em for th e ir faithfulness, th e ir cheerful courage, a n d th e ir p atrio tism .
Employment of W omen in Various Industries in Present W ar
AMMUNITION MANUFACTURE
Of the key industries in the present war, the one which opened its
doors most readily to women, prior to the United States’ entrance into
the war, was the manufacture of ammunition for small arms and
artillery. One reason for this was that such employment did not
run wholly counter to tradition, in view of the peacetime use of about
2,000 women on production in the United States Government arsenals.
Thus, with the expansion of such establishments for war purposes,
increased hiring of women was a logical procedure. Moreover, as
many of the steps that go into the making of bullets, cartridges, and
shells are simple, requiring training of not more than a week (de
signed primarily to instill in the worker the proper precautionary
habits for handling explosives), women could be easily utilized.
As the Government during the defense period undertook to build
many ammunition plants (particularly for bag and shell loading)
to be operated by private management, countless numbers of new
jobs were created which had no sex traditions and which could be
done by women, often as well as, and sometimes better than, by men.
In fact, these plants were erected in many rural areas—chiefly in
the Southern, Middlewestern, and Mountain States—with the expec
tation of recruiting thousands of women.
Within the span of the defense and war activities both the number
and proportion of women in these loading plants have mounted
steadily until the total runs into many thousands, and constituted in
March 1943 over two-fifths of all the factory employees. In the bag
loading plants some processes are given over entirely to women, who
are handling not only the smokeless powder but the more hazardous
black powder. Though women were not at first employed in the
manufacture of explosives, reports show that, in the months since the
war started, this field also has opened up to them.
It is impossible to gage fully the amount of womanpower utilized
at present for ammunition manufacture, as data are not available for
many of the contracting and subcontracting plants.
The types of work done by women in shell-loading plants vary from
plant to plant. There is possibility for increased use of women for
loading the larger shells, even those of 105 mm. or more, if men are
provided to do the heavy lifting. According to the War Manpower
Commission, recruiting for replacement needs will become a real prob
lem by the end of 1943 in bag-, shell-, and bomb-loading establish
ments, and it seems likely that women will be called on more exten
sively, especially if discrimination against Negro women is eliminated.
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Monthly Labor Beview—October 1943
In 34 ammunition plants surveyed by the Women’s Bureau in
1942-43 the beginning minimum hourly rates for women ranged from
less than 40 cents in 2 plants to 70 or 78 cents in 3. The beginning
rate in 15 plants was less than 50 cents, 3 paid 50 cents, and the rest
55 to 78 cents. Earnings of factory women in a large representative
ammunition plant in the Middle West averaged about $35 for a
48-hour week.
AIRCRAFT MANUFACTURE
The aircraft industry has expanded into a stupendous mass produc
tion in an incredibly short time. The spectacular development of
aircraft production would have been impossible without the aid of
women.
The Women’s Bureau survey (in the spring of 1941) of 7 typical
aircraft-assembly plants disclosed that only a fraction of 1 percent
of the force were women. Among some 100,000 workers on the
production lines there was only an occasional woman. Three plants
had none. Those employed were engaged chiefly in such work as
sewing covers for ailerons, rudders, wing tabs; others were on minor
jobs connected with electrical assemblies. The Bureau’s occupational
analysis revealed that though women were able to perform many of
the jobs in the aircraft plants, they definitely were not wanted there.
This was true even as late as the fall of 1941, when the War Depart
ment was urging the employment of women in airplane manufacture.
In fact, only a little over 4,000 women were so engaged a week before
the attack on Pearl Harbor.
* Then, as the industry realized the task ahead in meeting the Presi
dent’s blueprints for aerial warfare, and the prospective male labor
shortage resulting from the draft, the barriers to women were dropped.
In June 1943 more than 310,000 women were reported as factory
workers in the industry, including airframe, engine, and propeller
plants. More than another 100,000 were reported in office and other
nonfactory jobs. This industry too has an additional woman force
of undetermined number, similar to that in ammunition manufacture,
helping to make airplane parts in plants working on a contract or sub
contract basis.
The total number of women in this whole field of plane manufacture
probably exceeds that in any other war industry, with the possible
exception of the electrical industry. The ratio of women in the fac
tory labor force has been steadily increasing, but for military reasons
cannot be given in conjunction with the number of women. The
proportion varies from factory to factory, the highest in any one
plant being almost three-fifths.
Women are helping to make all kinds of planes, from Lightnings
and Thunderbolts to Flying Fortresses and Liberators. They are
employed on production of autogyros, helicopters, gliders, and the
sky “locomotives” for transporting freight. Women are performing
with intelligence and dexterity not only all the jobs the Women’s
Bureau pointed out as readily within their capabilities, but others
besides.
The minimum entrance-pay rates for women are very generally the
same as for men, 60 cents an hour being the most usual for the day
shift, and throughout the industry the policy of equal pay prevails
also for the more skilled occupations.
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As to typical weekly earnings for women in aircraft, a survey by the
National Industrial Conference Board revealed for May 1943 average
earnings of a little over $39. The expert woman welder in one plant,
reported as receiving a journeyman’s rate of $1.32 an hour, and al
most $70 in 48 hours, is phenomenal and not usual.
ELECTRICAL-PRODUCTS INDUSTRY
Of all industries that have converted largely to war production, the
manufacture of electrical products probably employed the largest
proportion of women before the war. The industry has grown con
siderably, but the relative importance of women has increased even
more rapidly. In March 1943 there were nearly 300,000 woman wage
earners. In the employment of women this industry probably equals
aircraft manufacture, and rises conspicuously above aircraft in the
ratio of women to men. For example, it is estimated that in April
1943 women comprised three-fifths of the force in the manufacture of
radio and communications equipment. Much of the great growth
in women’s employment in peacetime, as well as in the war period, is
attributed to the development and use of radios.
A special study by the Women’s Bureau of war-industry plants in
New Jersey, made in the summer of 1942, gives some detail as to
women’s work on various electrical products. Data for 37 plants
employing over 25,000 factory women indicate that substitution of
women for men was not extensive. A little over nine-tenths of the
women were on the same occupations as before the war, and not
quite 7 percent were on jobs formerly done only by men, the rest
being on operations new to the particular plants. Of all workers
then on processes formerly done only by men, almost a fourth were
women. The type of such jobs varied from plant to plant.
Beginning hourly rates reported for women in this study ranged
from 40 to 50 cents in more than two-thirds of the plants. As to
weekly earnings, if the data of the National Industrial Conference
Board are taken as a criterion, the average for May was a little above
$34.50; figures compiled by the Illinois Department of Labor for the
same date show an average of about $31.00.
WAR-INSTRUMENTS MANUFACTURE
A type of production highly essential to meet many war needs and
eminently suitable for large-scale employment of women is the manu
facture of sighting, fire-control, scientific, and professional instru
ments. A striking example is the air pilot’s instrument board.
The survey of the war-instruments industry by the Women’s
Bureau was in the fall of 1941, when the highly skilled processes in
instrument making were still regarded in some plants as predomi
nantly male, and before the industry was expanded to its present largescale production to supply the essential instruments for the wartime
Army and Navy, particularly in connection with the airplane and
shipbuilding program.
The expansion of the industry and the decrease in the male force
available for the instrument field, as for others, have opened up
opportunities for thousands of women; almost two-fifths of the factory
workers in the soring of 1943 were women. The subdivision of some
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of the old, more highly skilled jobs into new and simpler processes
has led to more rapid absorption of women.
In the 17 plants included in the Bureau’s survey in the fall of 1941,
the proportions of women varied greatly, ranging from 3 to 50 percent.
It was clear that women constituted a great potential labor force for
this type of manufacture, with its small, light, intricate products.
Statistics issued by the War Manpower Commission, which included
other than factory employees, showed the woman labor force in the
industry to have increased from 26 percent of the total in May 1942
to 43 percent in May 1943.
No recent data on rates in this industry are available. In the fall
of 1941, women’s minimum hourly rates ranged from 35 to 55 cents,
40 cents being the most frequently reported ; for men the range was
from 40 to 61 cents, and 55 cents was the most common rate. In the
2-year period since then there has probably been some increase,
particularly in view of the rising cost of living.
CANNON AND SMALL-ARMS MANUFACTURE
In the manufacture of cannon and small arms, almost no women
were employed prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor, but their number
has been mounting conspicuously since then. An investigation made
in the summer of 1942 of four Government arsenals and four private
enterprises disclosed 11,000 women among the 75,000 employees, or
15 percent of the total.
The small-arms branch was employing women to a much greater
extent and on a wide variety of machines—in fact, on more different
types of machine tools than were reported in any other of the war
industries studied by the Women’s Bureau. More women were oper
ating milling machines than any other one kind. An April 1943
estimate placed the proportion of women in this branch of industry
at about 31 percent.
In cannon manufacture, characterized by much heavy work, women
were found on many different kinds of operations but none were then
running heavy-duty machines in the big-gun shops. In April 1943
almost 16 percent of the employees on cannon were women.
The Bureau’s study revealed not only striking variations from
plant to plant in the utilization of women but many jobs where they
could replace men and release them to fields having more acute need
of male labor. Men and women interchanged on the same job or
carried on comparable work on the same shift; or women performed,
on the day shift, operations done by men at night. Again, a certain
type of work performed extensively by women in one plant might be
done entirely by men in another; for example, one arsenal had no
women on even the simplest or lightest machine operations in making
small-arms components, but had them driving electric trucks, making
large wooden packing boxes, operating band saws, and so on. Other
firms had no women on such jobs as these but in certain machining
departments 60 percent were women. Many men, whom women could
easily replace, were also found in clerical jobs; in fact, 40 to 82
percent of the office workers in the small-arms plants were men.
Women could have been utilized to a much fuller extent in this field
than they were, since much “worrying away of the metal” was neces
sary and women are particularly good at this. An indication of the
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amount of metal that must be removed by gradual machining is
gained from the fact that for one type of machine gun the raw stock
and forgings weigh 101 pounds and the finished steel parts 18 pounds.
With the influx of women to these industrial establishments after
the United States, entrance into the war, the basing of rates on occu
pation rather than on sex became a pressing issue, because there had
previously been an almost entirely male force and the hiring of women
brought few or no changes in the physical characteristics of the jobs.
Three of the eight plants visited in the Women’s Bureau survey had
adopted the equal-pay principle. Where wage differentials existed,
the problem had become increasingly acute both for the women hired
and for the men inducted into the armed forces, whose wage levels
thus were lowered on the jobs to which they hoped to return. That
this problem still needs solution in some cases is indicated by the fact
that, even in 1943, of three plants making guns, howitzers, and
mortars, none paid women the same minimum entrance rates as men.
In four of the gun plants reporting in 1942-43 on women’s beginning
minimum hourly rates, the range was from 50 to 60 or 65 cents, while
in eight small-arms establishments such rates ran from less than 40
cents to 60 cents.
PRODUCTION OF MACHINE TOOLS
In the highly skilled machine-tool manufacture some women
gained a slight foothold after the country’s involvement in hostilities,
their first opportunity since World War I. The rapidity with which
women have recently been hired, however, may be judged from the
fact that by April 1943 there were nearly four times as many wage
earning women in the industry as in August 1942. It is not at all
uncommon today to find that in plants with 2,500 or more workers,
from 12 to 20 percent are women.
A special study of 15 well-known machine-tool shops, made by the
Women’s Bureau in the summer of 1942, revealed that about 4 of
every 5 women in factory work were in productive occupations such
as machining, assembling, and inspecting. The others were primarily
in various shop clerical jobs, such as timekeeping, stock chasing, pro
duction control, and the like, in service work, in the toolroom and tool
crib. The data showed, furthermore, that in spite of the great size
and complexity of the average machine tool and many of its parts,
substantial numbers of women could be employed without extensive
training in plants making only the machine tools proper as well as in
those where smaller and less-complicated accessories and other prod
ucts are also made.
Curiously enough, the amount of experience the management has
had with women in factory work shows no discernible correlation
with the degree to which the scope of women’s employment has broad
ened as a result of the war emergency. Three of the firms that were
most progressive in their employment policies in regard to women,
opening to them a variety of productive jobs under liberal conditions
for the gaining of skills, had no women on production prior to the
spring of 1942.
At the time of the study one firm was planning eventually to place
women on almost every type of work, except where heavy lifting was
required. This included the operation of a variety of machine tools.
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Women were to be hired in this firm as replacements for men and not
to expand the labor force.
Data on minimum entrance rates for women in 11 firms visited in
1942-43 show a range of from 40 cents an hour in 2 plants to 60 cents
an hour in 1; 7 of the plants paid from 45 to 55 cents. Four of 10
firms reporting paid the same minimum entrance rates to women as
to men. In May 1943 the average weekly earnings, as reported by
the National Industrial Conference Board, were a little over $36.
SHIPBUILDING INDUSTRY
The necessity to produce in record-breaking time the ship tonnage
needed for war, has led to a tremendously expanded work force and
to the revolutionary procedure of active recruitment and widespread
utilization of women in this former stronghold of male labor. In
1917-18, few women were employed in shipyards and most of these
were in the yards which attempted substitution of women for men.
Further, women had no place in the industry in peacetime; the 1939
Census of Manufactures revealed only 36 women so employed.
It was not until the summer of 1942 that the need to draft women’s
services became acute, simultaneously with the growing scarcity in
male labor for this vital industry. As many inexperienced men had
been quickly trained and adapted to shipyard jobs and as women were
successfully performing more or less similar operations elsewhere, it
was decided that womanpower must be the answer to enable the ship
building program to be carried out on schedule time.
In June 1942, only 0.4 percent of the wage earners in commercial
yards were women, but by June 1943, the proportion had risen to
about 7 percent. The extent of women’s employment varies from
yard to yard.
In a number of yards the prejudice against women on the part of
both management and labor, though still lingering in some sections, is
rapidly disappearing under the stress of necessity. The attitude of
one official is typical. When questioned over a year ago in the
Women’s Bureau survey of shipbuilding as to what jobs would be
most suitable for women if and when needed, he replied “None.”
Today that yard employs several thousand women who are proving
themselves satisfactory at numerous occupations.
At present, thousands of women are at work in shipyards on all
coasts. They are helping to build and repair all types of vessels—
Liberty ships, destroyers, cruisers, and submarines—and everywhere
are proving their ability to do the job whether difficult, disagreeable,
or dangerous. They are found in the shops, and outside in the yards
or in the ways in summer heat or below-zero temperatures. In some
cases they can be seen walking on the narrow planks high up on the
scaffolding, going up and down ladders, or crawling with their welding
equipment through small openings within the hull of the ship. They
may even be seen cleaning out the bilge, or doing sandblasting on
the outside of a ship in drydock.
Although there are various shipbuilding jobs beyond women’s
strength or endurance which they should not be called on to do, the
end of their possible utilization is not yet in sight.
This industry deserves honorable mention for having employed
women on the equal-pay basis with men, in regard to both minimum
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entrance rates and wages for the various occupations and degrees of
skill. However, to some extent women’s advance in the industry is
blocked, when in the course of progression are found heavy jobs they
can neither perform nor bypass under union or plant regulations.
Shipbuilding in general leads all the other war industries in regard
to average wages for woman employees. The National Industrial
Conference Board figures for May 1943, show an average weekly wage
somewhat in excess of $44.
STEEL MILLS
The iron and steel industry is another which, under the exigencies
of war, is capitulating to woman labor. Vital as the steel mills are for
the Nation’s war effort, they have not been exempt from the comb-out
for servicemen, and reports from various sources disclose a steady
infiltration of women to an increasing number of operations in manu
facture of this critical material.
To be sure, for many years some girls and women have been em
ployed in the industry. In recent months, however, virtually all the
large steel companies have substituted women for men on a sub
stantial and increasing number of jobs. This is particularly true in
the Middle West, where acute shortages of male workers have
developed.
In general, women are employed at work that is not too heavy or
on which sheer muscle is not essential. They are doing jobs in the
unskilled-labor class as well as a number calling for a considerable
degree of skill. They may be “ hot chain men,” crane operators, core
makers, chemists, or factory clerks, or they may be engaged in nail
and wire drawing, or running various kinds of machines in the main
tenance shops. Women are even employed in some mills to finish
heavy plate for tanks, landing mats, deck plates, and steel for cartridge
cases. At one of the Gary (Ind.) mills, women are working in many
departments. They have been admitted to the open-hearth and blast
furnace works for the first time in history, operating cars for transfer
of materials, serving as test carriers, delay clerks, and ingot shippers.
At the Gary armor plant operated for the Army, some time ago
women comprised a third of the force and it was believed that even
tually the proportion might be increased to a half.
OTHER ESSENTIAL WAR INDUSTRIES
Women’s share in war production is too extensive and varied a story
to treat in satisfactory detail in this resume. Bare mention must
suffice of the introduction of women into certain fields, their increased
employment in others, and their useful services in various kinds of
enterprises, not usually identified with their labors, that are concerned
with both war and civilian needs.
Combat vehicles.—Even plants producing heavy items of combat
material, such as tanks or large artillery pieces, are not only employing
more and more women but placing them on types of work usually
done by men. By March 1943, women formed 7 percent of the
workers in tank and combat-vehicle factories.
Rubber.—In the rubber industry, which employs large numbers of
women in peacetime, many women have for months been doing such
jobs on military equipment as machine-sewing on barrage balloons,
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making flotation bags, applying rubber cement where fixtures are
attached to assault boats, finishing rubber rafts, testing inflation of gas
bags, and storing and inspecting life belts. This industry is now train
ing women for the previously masculine operation of tire building. An
Ohio plant, using 100 women on tire building, reports the experiment as
eminently successful, with the women doing even the heavier part of
removing the tire from the drum and tossing it on the hook of the
conveyor system that carries it away for curing and vulcanization.
Women in the rubber industry are a growing part of the force, com
prising 27 percent in May 1942, and 39 percent in May 1943 (includ
ing all women in this field, office as well as factory workers).
Lumber.—A few illustrations will help to depict the new position
of women where only men have been employed. A West Coast lumber
company last year charted no fewer than 135 jobs that women might
do in its factory work. Other lumber mills in the Northwest have
hired so many women that they now constitute a fifth of the work
force. Even the logging camps have been invaded by a woman con
tingent, on such outdoor jobs as running logs on the river or inspecting
floating logs for loose timbers. Women are even reported as re
sponsible for the felling of trees. Nearer theunills they are employed
in sorting, stacking, painting ends of lumber, or loading box cars with
the smaller material.
Mining.—A decided innovation is the employment of women in
certain above-ground jobs in the mining industry—for mines pro
ducing coal, copper, iron, silver, and gold. For example, the coal
mines have begun to employ women in the mine shops and for picking
slate on mine tipples. In connection with iron ore, women are found
as laboratory technicians testing samples. In the nonferrous-metal
mining industry some women are being hired to tend conveyors from
the mill crushers, or to operate trippers (the small ore cars which
shuttle back and forth distributing ore to the bins). Other women are
being used to regrade ore and some are serving in mine-lamp houses,
repairing and maintaining miners’ electric lamps.
Pulp.—In the pulp mills women have stepped into men’s jobs
sliding slabs of paraffin into vats of coating solutions, operating the
special presses that roll off tons of waxed paper every hour, or acting
as testers in the bleach plant.
Oil refining.— O i l re fin e rie s o n b o t h th e E a s t a n d th e W e s t C o a s t s ,
h a v e t a k e n o n w o m e n f o r v a r io u s processes f o r m e r l y d o n e e x c lu s iv e ly
b y m e n , s u c h as o p e r a tin g c o n tr o l v a lv e s o n t u r b in e s w h ic h c le a n c a r
b o n f r o m p ip e s o r d o in g v a r io u s k in d s o f l a b o r a t o r y w o r k .
Beet-sugar refining.— W o m e n h a v e g o n e in t o b e e t-s u g a r re fin e rie s
to o p e ra te m a c h in e s s u c h as ju ic e e v a p o r a t o r s , to r u n fir s t a n d se c o n d
c a r b o n a t io n , t h i r d s a t u r a t io n , c e n tr ifu g a ls , g r a n u la to r s , a n d m e lt e r s ;
a n d s o m e h a v e le a r n e d to b o il s u g a r , a jo b t h a t is e x a c tin g a n d s o m e
w h a t of an a rt.
Flour milling.—To some extent, with possibilities for increased
numbers, women have entered the flour-milling industry to take over
some of the jobs formerly done by men. These range from packaging
and loading sacks up to 24 pounds in weight to laboratory testing.
Women are also operating sewing closure machines.
Consumer goods.— A n y r o ll c a ll o f e sse n tia l w a r in d u s tr ie s m u s t i n
c lu d e th o s e p r o d u c in g s u c h i m p o r t a n t c o n s u m e r-g o o d s m a n u fa c tu r e s
as fa b r i c , f o o d , g lo v e s , sh o e s , a n d m a n y o th e r a rtic le s o f e q u ip m e n t
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for troops and cantonments—industries which normally are large em
ployers of women and which during the present emergency are relying
on them even more extensively. In May 1943, women constituted
about 49 percent of the textile workers and 77 percent of the clothing
workers. The food industry is one of vital importance to the armed
forces and civilian population as well as to our allies through the
Lend-Lease program. The extent to which it relies on women’s labor
is indicated by the fact that in May 1943, women formed 34 percent
of the force. However, in some branches, notably canneries, women
constitute a conspicuously large part of the workers.
Earnings in the textile, food, and apparel branches fall materially
below those in the key war industries. Recent Illinois data show that
in all three the average weekly pay for women ranged from $24 to $26.
New York figures tell a similar story except that for apparel factories,
a $30 average was reported. The National Industrial Conference
Board reveals averages in the several fabric branches ranging from $24
to just below $31.
Occupations requiring scientific training.—One field in which women
have forged farther ahead in this war than in the last, and which cuts
across practically all the industries discussed to this point, is that of
laboratory work or operations requiring scientific training. In 1917-18
women had few if any opportunities along these lines, but today
women as technicians, draftsmen, cartographers, chemists, physicists,
radio operators, metallurgists, meteorologists, geologists, engineering
aides, and even as full-fledged engineers, have been in great demand.
Along lines of industrial relations, personnel administration, and
supervisory work, women in considerable numbers are rendering valua
ble service in many of the war plants with a large woman force.
Clerical work— No roster of women’s war occupations is complete
without the clerical field. Many additional opportunities for office
work have opened up to women not only in the Government service,
but more spectacularly in unusual positions in industrial establish
ments. Various types of war plants have hired women for clerical
work in place of the men they once employed, and have put women on
factory clerical jobs quite different from the usual more or less routine
office work. In the opinion of an official in a large company, there
will be a continuing utilization of women for some of these assignments
after the war, for which they would not have had an opportunity ex
cept for the war.
Transportation and communication.—Unique in their widespread
involvement with both military and civilian requirements are the
highly complicated and important fields of transportation and com
munication. The railroad, local transit, and airway branches of the
transportation industry not only have been admitting women to men’s
jobs, but in many instances have been actively recruiting them. In
May 1943, about 195,000 women were engaged in the various branches
of transportation, and many additional women are needed.
The commercial airlines, the youngest branch of the industry, have
readily accepted women on the same terms as men and given them the
same training, the same wage rates, the same advancement oppor
tunities, and the same seniority rights. This branch was said to be
able to absorb one woman for every two men, using women, for
example, in ticket offices, shops and hangars, on the airfields, and on
the planes as hostesses.
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Although the railroads actually are employing a larger number of
women than any other transportation branch, women constituted in
May 1943, only 6 percent of all employees. It was expected that
during 1943 the total of 100,000 women employed in 'World War I
would be reached and passed. Despite some opposition on the part
of male labor, women already are doing jobs regarded definitely as
men’s in a peacetime economy, in the offices and shops, even in the
roundhouses, at ticket windows and information desks, in station and
baggage-room work, as cleaners and oilers of engines, as turntable
operators, and even on “dressing” the tracks—to mention only a few
of the many occupations on which women have been found to be
satisfactory.
In local transit service throughout the country a total of 15,854
woman workers was reported for May 1943, and the intercity bus
services had 8,510 women in May. As conductors and mo tormén on
trolley cars, as conductors and drivers on busses, as ticket agents,
loaders, traffic clerks, and accountants, women have become familiar
sights. They also are at work behind the scenes, in the shops, car
barns, and garages.
Trucking companies (with over 54,500 women in May 1943) and
taxicab firms also are finding women efficient substitutes for men.
T h e e n tir e c o m m u n ic a tio n fie ld , w h ic h h a s a lw a y s d e p e n d e d to
c o n s id e ra b le e x t e n t o n w o m a n w o r k e r s , is n o w e m p lo y in g e v e n la r g e r
n u m b e r s , a n d is c o n t in u a lly c a llin g fo r m o r e , in th e lin e s w h ic h h a v e
d e v e lo p e d th e m o s t c o n s p ic u o u s b re a c h e s t h r o u g h th e w i t h d r a w a l o f
m e n — th e w a r - b u r d e n e d te le p h o n e a n d te le g r a p h s e rvic e s a n d c o m
m e r c ia l b r o a d c a s tin g s tu d io s .
ESSENTIAL CIVILIAN SERVICES
Reference has been made to the acute need for workers to carry on
such essential civilian services as work in laundries, dry-cleaning plants,
canneries, hotels, restaurants, stores (department, specialty, grocery,
drug), and beauty shops; to engage in office work, teaching, home
nursing, child care, office cleaning, domestic service, and other pursuits.
U n t i l re c e n t m o n t h s to o n a r r o w a c o n c e p t w a s h e ld as to w h a t c o n
s t i t u t e d w a r w o r k , to o l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n p a id to th e in d is p e n s a b le ro le
o f s u c h c i v ilia n jo b s in t h e N a t i o n ’ s w a r t i m e e c o n o m y . H o w e v e r ,
S e p te m b e r 1943 w a s c h o s e n i n w h ic h t o h o ld a s p e c ia l c a m p a ig n to
s a lu te a n d r e c r u it w o m e n as w o r k e r s in m o r e t h a n 10 0 o f th e s e “ n n g la m o r o u s ” e v e r y d a y jo b s lis te d b y th e W a r M a n p o w e r C o m m is s io n
(w h ic h is s p o n s o rin g th e c a m p a ig n ) as “ w a r j o b s .”
T o d r a m a t iz e
th e s e jo b s as c o m p a r a b le i n im p o r t a n c e t o th e p r o d u c t i o n o f m u n it i o n s ,
a N a t i o n - w i d e e ffo r t , in w h ic h m a n y fo rc e s a re c o o p e r a tin g , is b e in g
m ade.
As the war effort lightens, these essential civilian jobs will require
two in every three of the woman workers. It is hoped that the recruit
ment campaign will induce many from the still large reserve of nonemploy ed housewives without small children to respond, including
women who would not under ordinary circumstances go into such
pursuits for remuneration but who as volunteers may be rendering
more or less similar services, for example, in hospitals, churches,
or canteens.
Unfortunately, from the viewpoint of woman wage earners accus
tomed to employment in these essential services, the war period has
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witnessed no sufficient effort to increase the wages for such jobs, which
too often are found in the low-paying class. Kecent data for laundries
in Illinois, New York, and New Jersey show, for example, average
weekly earnings of woman wage earners ranging from $17.50 to $21.
Such wages, as compared with those in almost all other fields competing
for labor, are convincing evidence of the reason for the forced closing
(reported by the Office of War Information) of 600 laundries in various
localities during the past year.
The National War Labor Board has recently, in a number of cases,
approved a raise in pay rates for workers in laundries as well as for
telephone workers and certain hotel employees, on the basis of
substandard wages.
An opinion in connection with an increase of 15 cents an hour granted
to workers in 12 Portland (Oreg.) laundries, despite a previous
advance commensurate with the “Little Steel” formula, declared:
R easonable price ad ju stm e n ts w ould seem to be justifiable in such cases as th e
in s ta n t one so th a t th e operators will n o t be com pelled to p a y such low wages in
order to sta y in business. A m erican lab o r should n o t be asked to subsidize A m eri
can in d u stry by w orking for wages below th e level of h e a lth a n d decency. In cases
such as th is one, th a t is exactly w h a t a w age denial w ould a m o u n t to. T h e b u rd en
of subsidizing th e lau n d ry in d u stry of th e co u n try should be lifted off th e backs of
its low -paid w orkers a n d placed upon th e consum ers of la u n d ry service.
Canneries, too, which are having a struggle in many areas to get
enough workers for their emergency peaks, suffer from the custom of
paying wages below the levels in most other industries. An indication
of their difficulty in securing woman labor in a community, in compe
tition with the better-paying war industries, is found in the New
York and Illinois averages for the food industry in the spring of 1943—
$23 and $25, respectively.
For the same reason, stores in many places have been unable to
hold their employees. A Bureau of Labor Statistics study of Phila
delphia department stores disclosed a $24 average for women in the
selling division in September 1942, while a more recent Illinois report
gave $21.54 as the average in that State. Earnings of woman clerical
workers in manufacturing establishments in October 1942, averaged
$27.50 in Illinois and $30 in New York.
It is true that these various enterprises have suffered seriously from
the induction of men into military service, but concurrently both
male and female workers have been migrating to better-paying occu
pations or to those more closely identified with the war. As a result,
the public in many areas is experiencing some difficulty in obtaining
food, clothing, and various services—especially when employment in
war work and the more complicated mechanics of ordinary living
reduce individuals’ opportunity to take care of such matters
themselves.
The labor shortages and the needs of these civilian services are
reflected in the newspaper advertisements for workers. A cross
section of these columns throughout the country tells a story that is
strikingly similar and reveals near-desperation on the part of many
employers and an effort to “glamorize” the more humble jobs by offer
ing special inducements. Among these inducements are a chance to
work for a superior company, with good or ideal working conditions;
a 48- or 40-hour week, with Saturday afternoons off and no Sunday
work; unusually good pay, with bonuses or commission: paid vaca
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tions; pay while learning; rapid promotion; permanent employment;
in short, a real career. In some areas there is a definite appeal to the
patriotic motive. Kecruitment of all types of workers—men and
women, white and Negro, any age from 16 to 65, for part-time or full
time work—seems to be the aim of many of the “ads.”
Post-War Problems and Possibilities
Even while war is being waged, and before the end is in sight, a
common question is, What will become of all the woman workers in
the post-war period? The frequency and implication of this query
are cause for concern. The approach to this question indicates little
differentiation between the approximately 13 million women in the
labor force prior to the war and the several million added since. As
a matter of fact, however, it will not be possible to keep two separate
accounts, one for the regular and one for the emergency workers, in a
transitional period of demobilization of troops, curtailment of war
manufactures, retooling of plants to peacetime production, and
development of new industries and services. Therefore, careful
planning for woman workers in general and in relation to the whole
labor force and the national economy is imperative.
The necessity for such planning in advance of the cessation of
hostilities is indicated by the attitudes and the events following the
armistice of November 1918. The situation was discussed by the
Director of the Woman in Industry Service of the U. S. Department
of Labor at the conference of the American Association of Govern
mental Labor Officials on December 28, 1918.5 Briefly, her report
called attention to the fact that despite the national importance of
women’s work, their willingness to respond to the call of industries
and services, their efficiency along all lines, reaction had set in and its
forces were affecting the status of woman workers. Certain labor
organizations (upheld in one case by the National War Labor Board
of that period) as well as various public speakers took the view that
women who entered industry during the war should relinquish their
jobs in the post-war periods. The attitude was due to men’s fear of
unemployment and fear that wage cuts might result for them because
of the availability for jobs of lower-paid women who might be kept
on while returning soldiers would search in vain for work.
The Director of the Woman in Industry Service stressed the fact
that the way out of the dilemma was a united attack on the cause of
the fears, and made the following suggestions and comments:
T he stren g th en in g of lab o r exchanges * * * a wise extension of agencies
of a d ju s tm e n t a n d th ese can be successful only insofar as th e y derive th e ir stre n g th
from real collective bargaining. * * * I t is th e absence of th ese agencies of
a d ju s tm e n t w hich m akes th e p resen t situ a tio n so strain ed . * * * L ab o r
legislation m u st m eet th e te s t of th e new sp irit while it busies itself w ith specific
gains very necessary for w orkers in in d u stry . * * * I t is n o t difficult to
prophesy th a t th e problem of lab o r legislation ju s t ah ead is n o t th e fo rm u latio n
of concrete aim s b u t th e d ev elopm ent of a new sp irit a n d m eth o d in a d m in istra
tion. Tw o aim s for lab o r legislation for w om en w orkers m ay be em phasized as
of im m ediate im p o rtan ce. T h ey are th e e n a c tm e n t in to law of th e 8-hour day
a n d th e fuller rep rese n ta tio n of w om en in im p o rta n t positions in ad m in istra tio n
of lab o r laws.
Tliis official had also pointed out that “the problem is not one of
withdrawal of any group of workers voluntarily but rather the organ5 Data are from material in the files of the Women’s Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor.
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z a t i o n o f i n d u s t r y in s u c h a w a y as to u t i l i z e to th e fu l l a ll o f th e
a v a ila b le w o r k in g fo rc e s o f t h e c o u n t r y ,” a n d “ f o r w o m e n in i n d u s t r y
t h e c h ie f d a n g e r is t h a t t h e y w ill r e m a in in c e r ta in in d u s tr ie s o r b e
i n tr o d u c e d in t o n e w o ne s a t a lo w e r w a g e scale t h a n is p a id to th e m e n .
*
*
*
T h e w a r h a s d e m o n s tr a te d t h a t th e ra n g e o f p o s s ib ilitie s
f o r e ffic ie n c y b y w o m e n in i n d u s t r y is m u c h la r g e r t h a n h a s b e e n
a s s u m e d in th e p a s t . T h i s is n o t a b l y illu s t r a t e d in th e w o r k o f w o m e n
i n m a c h in e p ro c e s s e s .” 6
Many of the above recommendations have become definite fac
tors in the present situation and influential in shaping the future
situation for women. In the field of labor legislation, progress has
been made in recent years, on both the State and Federal levels, to
place a floor under wages and a ceiling on hours, with quite extensive
provision for the 8-liour day in spite of temporary relaxation of
this standard in some quarters to meet war emergencies. These
better legal standards, so generally lacking 25 years ago—and still
not Nation-wide in application—will help to bolster women’s status
in the post-war transition period. A larger share also is now taken
by women in the administration of both Federal and State legisla
tion to promote the welfare of workers. A network of public employ
ment offices serves both men and women, and the social security
system offers protection against the hazards of unemployment and
old age—bulwarks that will be strengthened in the near future if
plans now formulated are carried out. Likewise, collective bar
gaining is now an effective instrument in the hands of a substantial
and growing number of woman wage earners; today over 3 million
women are found in the ranks of organized labor.
USE OF NEW SKILLS
Another factor that will prove of decisive importance in the adjust
ment of women as well as men, in the reconstruction period, is the
special training received by many persons as a result of the war. It is
true that during World War I there was a training program to meet
both industrial and military needs, in fact, the Federal Board for
Vocational Education was created in 1917; but the kinds and extent
of training at that time have been far outstripped by the present
program. Though the vocational-training opportunities open to
women during the two decades before World War II gave them prac
tically no preparation for their work in the present war effort, and
though from the special vocational-training system created as part
of the defense program women derived only slight benefit, since then
statistics tell an impressive story for women. By June 1943, almost
480,000 women had had preemployment courses and over 300,000
had taken supplementary courses given by the Vocational Training
for War Production system. By May 1943, another 140,000 women
had taken advantage of the short Engineering, Science, and Manage
ment War Training courses, now given free in some 200 colleges and
universities. Many hundreds of women have been given technical
training by the Signal Corps, Army Air Service, Army Ordnance,
the navy yards, and other Government agencies. Countless women
have participated in the training-within-industry program for up
grading workers and preparing them to become job instructors, and
6 Life and Labor (National Women’s Trade Union League), December 1918 (p. 272).
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also in the extensive training programs of plant managements which
have given specialized but simpler in-plant training. More unusual
are the arrangements, made with certain educational institutions
by some industrial establishments, to give training at company
expense to promising young college women, for positions as drafts
men, technicians, engineering aides, aeronautical engineers, etc.
Altogether, as a result of such training programs a goodly propor
tion of women have acquired skills that will be needed by many
enterprises in the coming years. In this connection must be con
sidered the excellent and truly amazing training that some millions
of service men have received in this mechanized and highly technical
warfare of land, water, and air forces. The men’s new skills will
serve as valuable qualifications in their post-war reemployment.
Despite the_ Selective Service Act guaranty to demobilized service
men of their pre-war jobs when circumstances permit, many will
prefer other fields more closely allied with their war training. Al
ready, new developments—radar, electronics, plastics, global air
lines, world plans for rehabilitation, superhighways—are discernible,
which seem to present alluring opportunities for thousands of spe
cially trained men and women. Many workers, especially women,
will be absorbed by a rapid and probably phenomenal expansion in
consumer-goods manufacture to help replenish depleted stocks the
world over.
EQUAL PAY FOR EQUAL WORK
One other vital factor calls for a brief discussion—the principle
of equal pay for women. In fact, whenever men and women may
be in competition for jobs the essential factor for preventing injus
tice to either sex in wartime or peacetime is that women be paid the
same wage rates as men for comparable work. From its beginning
in World War I the U. S. Women’s Bureau has urged consistently that
wages be based on occupation and not on sex.
The question of equal pay became a very definite issue 25 years ago
when, as now, women were taking over jobs left by men called to the
front. Recognition of the principle was given by the National War
Labor Board of that time through its application in 50 of the cases
that came before it, but there were numerous instances of inequality
in pay.
Greater gains, and it is to be hoped more lasting ones, seem to have
been achieved in the present emergency. Though the beginning of
World War II found the double wage standard largely prevailing, con
siderable impetus has been given by industry, Government, and labor
to the extension of the equal-pay principle with the large-scale replace
ment of men by women. As noted, two of the key war industries
(aircraft and shipbuilding) employing large numbers of Women, and
to great extent in place of men, generally pay women the same rates as
men, when on identical or comparable jobs, and also the same entrance
rates for new and inexperienced workers. In the other war industries
surveyed by the Women’s Bureau, four-fifths of the plants paid for
the job regardless of sex and four-fifths started inexperienced men and
women at the same rate.
The present National War Labor Board has taken several important
steps to promote a widespread adoption of the equal-pay principle.
In a number of important cases the Board has ordered employers to
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put the equal-pay principle into effect in their plants. The Board
also issued its Order No. 16, which permits employers voluntarily to
make adjustments to equalize the wage or salary rates of women with
rates paid men for comparable work, without prior approval by the
Board.
Thus, labor unions are given full opportunity by the Government
to have an equal-pay clause written into their contracts. The gen
eral attitude of organized labor is manifested in the endorsements of
the policy by both the American Federation of Labor and the Congress
of Industrial Organizations after the United States entered the war.
Some unions forged ahead immediately in this matter. The stand of
the War Labor Board, plus efforts made by the Women’s Bureau, has
stimulated other union activities in this direction. Current and com
prehensive data are not available, but several months ago it was re
vealed that the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers had
entered into some 150 signed agreements having an equal-pay clause
and covering at least 800 factories. The United Rubber Workers had
negotiated about 142 contracts, and the United Automobile, Aircraft,
and Agricultural Implements Workers probably 50, with a similar
clause. Definite progress in the requirement of the same wage rates
for women as for men also has been made by some of the American
Federation of Labor unions.
Other aspects that must be considered in the post-war program for
women were pointed out recently by the Director of the U. S. Women’s
Bureau:
T here are tw o realistic approaches to th e problem (as to fu tu re d evelopm ents
for th e 18 m illion w om en, or so, em ployed in th e w ar period). F irst, a large
n u m b er of these w om en do n o t expect to con tin u e in p aid w ork. Like th e ir m en
in th e arm ed forces m an y w om en consider th e ir p resen t em ploym ent a p a trio tic
d u ty . T h ey know w ith th e com ing of peace th e ir special w ork will be over.
A utom atically th ey will re tu rn to th e ir regular business of hom em aking.
B u t th ere is a n o th e r inescapable side to th e sto ry . F o r decades in th is c o u n try
m illions of w om en have h ad to earn th e ir own living, a n d m an y also h av e h a d to
be th e to ta l or p a rtia l su p p o rt of d ependents. As a resu lt of th e w ar w om en’s
w age-earning responsibilities will be g reatly increased. A large n u m b er of women
in all ty p es of positions will have to co ntinue to ta k e th e place of m en— to ta k e
th e place as breadw inners of m en who fail to re tu rn or who come back incapac
ita te d from th e b a ttle fronts.
The Women’s Bureau is giving attention to post-war plans and
possible developments for woman workers, realizing that their em
ployment is complicated by issues distinct in a number of respects
from those pertaining to men. Special consideration is imperative
not only to guarantee full employment opportunities to women in the
transitional period and to prevent undue unemployment difficulties
and unfair discrimination against them, but also to dovetail all such
questions with the post-war program that will be evolved for men.
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Labor C ond itions in B u lg a r ia 1
BULGARIA is almost entirely an agricultural and pastoral country
with about 80 percent of the gainfully occupied population engaged in
agriculture and related pursuits. Under Turkish rule which lasted
for five centuries (1393-1878) practically all social distinctions were
obliterated and the country became a nation of peasants. In 1878,
by the Treaty of Berlin, the territory lying north of the Balkan range
became an autonomous principality under the suzerainty of Turkey,
the part of the territory lying south of the range—eastern Rumelia—
becoming a Turkish Province. By a coup d’état in 1885, which
Turkey was too weak to oppose, Bulgaria effected the fusion of the
principality and eastern Rumelia, under one prince, although the
territory remained under Turkish overlordship. It was not until
1908, at the time of the Young Turk Revolution, that Bulgaria finally
declared her independence and was transformed from a tributary
principality into an independent kingdom.
The boundaries of the country have been subject to frequent
change. By the Treaty of Bucharest (1913) which terminated the
second Balkan war, the Province of Southern Dobrudja with a terri
tory of 7,696 square kilometers was lost to Rumania, but 23,187
square kilometers in Macedonia and Thrace were acquired from
Turkey. In 1915, Turkey ceded to Bulgaria an additional strip of
territory of 2,588 square ldlometers for the purpose of rectifying the
Bulgaro-Turkish frontier in Thrace. By the Peace Treaty of Neuilly
(Paris, November 27, 1919) Bulgaria ceded 2,566 square kilometers
to Yugoslavia and placed 8,712 square kilometers of Thrace at the
disposal of the Allied Powers, which subsequently gaye this territory
to Greece by the Treaty of Lausanne, 1923. The 1919 treaty deprived
Bulgaria of her Aegean Sea front. As a result of this rearrangement
of territory, hundreds of thousands of Bulgarians residing in the
ceded territories moved across the borders of the rearranged State.
In 1940, Rumania ceded to Bulgaria the 7,696 square kilometers
acquired in 1913 with a population of 294,348, and after the conquest
of Greece by the Axis, Bulgaria annexed eastern Macedonia and
Thrace with an area of 16,682 square kilometers and a population
of 590,000.
The total population of the country in 1934, the date of the last
census, was 6,077,939 and the estimated population, calculated on
the basis of the natural increase in population and immigration, in
1940 was 6,550,000. Including the populations added through the
territories acquired in 1940 and 1941, therefore, the present popula
tion of the country would be somewhat in excess of 7 million.
Boris III, King of Bulgaria, reigned from the abdication of his
father in October 1918 till his own death in August 1943. A Fascist
government was formed in May 1934 by a military coup d’état,
and there have been frequent changes of government since that time.
Since the death of Boris III, the control of the country has been
vested in a regency, acting for the young king, Simeon II.
1 Prepared in the Bureau’s Editorial and Research Division, by Anice L. Whitney.
672
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673
In March 1941, Bulgaria signed the Three-Power (Axis) pact as
German forces moved into the country, occupying the airfields, the
port of Varna on the Black Sea, and Sofia, the capital. On June 5,
1942, the United States declared war against Bulgaria.
Economic Resources
Although the soil is the principal economic resource of Bulgaria,
the portion of the country suitable for cultivation is relatively small,
because of the mountainous character of many sections. Two
mountain ranges cross the country from east to west and it is in the
valleys, some of which are very fertile, and the lower slopes of the
hills that agricultural production is centered. Climatic and soil
conditions are varied and permit a wide variety of agricultural prod
ucts to be grown. The principal grain crop is wheat, but corn, barley,
rye, and oats are also produced in considerable quantities and some
rice is grown. Tobacco is the most important crop from the stand
point of export value. Other agricultural crops include some cotton,
a variety of vegetables and fruits, and oil seeds. Roses are culti
vated for the production of attar of roses.
Approximately 38 percent of the total area of the country is arable
land, 14 percent is in meadows and pastures, and 29 percent in woods
and forests, much of the remainder being waste land. The area
annexed from Greece after the Axis occupation of that country in
cluded the richest tobacco lands of Greece. The abundant supplies
of timber represent the second most important economic resource
and coal, with which the country is very well supplied, represents the
third. Small amounts of metals, principally copper, and a limited
amount of water power exhaust the list of Bulgaria’s known natural
resourc g s .
Land holdings are generally small, the density of the agricultural
population having been estimated at the time of the last official
census at 116 per square kilometer of arable land; this would be about
2.1 acres per holding. Of the total number of agricultural holdings
in 1934, 30.0 percent were under 12.35 acres, 66.9 percent were under
24.71 acres, and only 1.6 percent were 124 acres or over. In 1934,
it was reported that agricultural pursuits contributed about 60 per
cent of the income and sustained about 80 percent of the population.
Industrial Development
A policy of encouraging industry was adopted by Bulgarian leaders
toward the end of the last century, when the import duty was raised,
and in 1906, when a tariff system based on specific duties, made high
enough to afford protection to the rising industries, was introduced.
In addition to tariff protection, legislation was enacted granting to
‘‘protected” industries such privileges as exemption from certain
taxes and from customs duties for imported machinery, reduction in
railway rates, preference in placing Government orders, and the
granting of production concessions for limited areas. Industries
entitled to protection had to have stated minimums of capital, of
workers, and of mechanical force, and were required to be active at
least 6 months in the year. Under the influence of this protection,
factory production developed in a number of branches of industrial
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a c tiv ity .
T h e s e sp e c ia l m e a s u re s f o r th e e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f i n d u s t r y
w e re m o d ifie d s u b s e q u e n t to th e e n a c tm e n t o f t h e I n d u s t r i a l E n c o u r
a g e m e n t L a w o f 1928; in 1936, th e p riv ile g e s f o r m e r l y g r a n te d to
lo c a l i n d u s t r y w e re w i t h d r a w n a n d a ll in d u s tr ia l e s ta b lis h m e n ts ,
in s te a d o f o n l y th o s e r e c e iv in g S t a t e e n c o u r a g m e n t, w e re p la c e d u n d e r
u n i fo r m S t a t e c o n tr o l.
According to a report in 1943, the country suffers from a lack of
locally produced fuel. In spite of the use of Bulgarian coal and the
increasing use of electricity generated by water power, the country is
obliged to import large quantities of petroleum, which represent about
25 percent of the total fuel used in industry.
The most highly developed industry is the textile industry, which
accounts for one-fourth of the present total industrial production of
the country. The textile mills developed from small establishments
built in Turkish times, generally in the mountains, where they used
water power which is still used to a considerable extent. The extent
of development in recent years has been such that the quality of
product now rivals that of textile establishments of western countries.
Next in importance after the textile industry are industries manu
facturing foods and drinks, and tobacco products. Measured by value
of production, the other principal industries in order of importance are
mining, chemicals, installations for the generation of electricity,
paper products, leather, rubber and asbestos products, woodworking
and furniture, and ceramics and glass. Approximately 80 percent
of the raw materials used in industry are Bulgarian products. At
the present time, it is said, Bulgarian industrial establishments carry
on their work under very great difficulties; nevertheless, their produc
tion is greater than at any time in the past.
Occupations of the Labor Force
The latest data regarding the industrial distribution of the popu
lation are contained in the 1934 General Census. Of the total popu
lation of 6,077,939 in that year, 3,433,103 or 56.5 percent, were gain
fully occupied. Agriculture, forestry, and fishing accounted for
2,744,927 persons, and industry for only 266,405. The prepon
derance of small-scale enterprise in both these fields is shown by the
fact that 754,078 persons engaged in agriculture and 75,140 in indus
try were employers or independent workers, amounting in each case
to approximately 28 percent of the total. There were 1,849,575
assistants in agriculture and 18,275 in industry, while employees
and wage earners numbered 141,274 and 172,990 in agriculture and
industry, respectively.
T a b le
1 s h o w s th e g a in f u l l y o c c u p ie d p o p u la t io n in B u l g a r ia in
1934 b y b r a n c h o f a c t i v i t y a n d b y s e x .
Figures issued by the Bulgarian Statistical Office in 1936 showed
that, inclusive of workshops where a single person worked for himself,
there were at that time 69,232 workshops and industrial enterprises.
In May 1943, there were 3,525 registered industrial enterprises. This
figure does not include small private workshops in which only one or
two men work. Of the enterprises in operation, 1,100 employed 50
or more workmen and used machines of 100 horsepower or over. In
the 3,525 registered enterprises, approximately 107,575 persons were
employed, of whom 96,125 were wage earners and 11,450 salaried
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employees. It was estimated that these workmen and their families
together numbered about 600,000 persons. Thus, it is seen that
only some 10 percent of the total population within the borders of old
Bulgaria gain their living from industry—a percentage which is
regarded as very low even for an agricultural country. The value of
industrial products, however, is disproportionately high, because in
1940 the total value of the products of Bulgarian industry was more
than half the total value of agricultural production.
T able
1.— Gainfully Occupied Population in Bulgaria in 1934, by Branch of Activity
and by Sex
Personnel of establishments
Industry or profession
Total
gain
fully em
ployed
Employers
Male
All industries---------- ------------------
Fe
male
Assistants
Male
Fe
male
Salaried
employees
Fe
Male male
Wage
earners
Male
Fe
male
13,433,103 882,612 93,034 560,311 1,317,930 82,913 20,866 373,146 101,572
Agriculture, forestry, and hunting
and fishing___________________ 2,744,927 700,289 53,789 543,948 1,305, 627 1,092
2
190
15
13
268
8,356
M ines and quarries_____________
8,286 3,796
266,405 68,645 6,495 9,989
M anufacturing_________________
Transportation and communica
6,125
528
20
43,389 11,517
tions__________________ ______
2,356 16, 573
80,904 40,382 1,480 3,696
Commerce, banks, and insurance,,
Domestic and personal service,
recreation, sports, and hygiene
1,658 3,968
85,777 22,001 2,111 2,133
and medical services__________
1 22,093
2
279
40, 943 2,761
Education, religion, and art--------29,076
75,460 3,184
Public services________________
i 86,942 33; 565 28,847
13 102, 573 37, 596
7,842
26
66 137,819 31,309
1,246 23,816
1,459 13,986
137
972
1,318 22, 295 30,293
79
637
15,091
1, 673 40,367 1,160
23,811
1 Includes 719 persons whose situation in the occupation was not reported.
Unemployment
Unemployment in Bulgaria has not been so serious a social problem
as in more industrialized countries as there has been a tendency for
the peasant to work for a time in industrial enterprises and then return
to his farm or village. However, rather unusual measures were
taken to deal with such unemployment as the country experienced.
A decree of May 14, 1935, relative to the engagement of unemployed
persons, provided that every Bulgarian subject who is unemployed
is entitled to be placed in employment, although it was provided
that the financial and family circumstances of unemployed persons
should be taken into account in placing them. The law provided
that first preference should be given to skilled wage-earning and
salaried employees who are heads of families and have no other
means of support. Unemployed persons who have no family and
live alone should be placed in employment after the heads of families,
and the second and other members of families should be placed after
these two groups.
It was further provided that every salaried or wage-earning_ em
ployee with a family of not more than 3 persons should be dismissed
from his post if, in addition to his wages and salary, he or any member
of his family was in receipt of a supplementary income derived from
wages or any other form of renumeration, a pension, or interest on
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Monthly Labor Bevieiv—October 1943
the return yielded by real property or rents, if the additional income
amounted to 2,500 leva per month for a person who had not had a
secondary education, 3,500 leva for a person who had had a secondary
education, and 4,500 leva for a person who had had a university
education. These amounts were increased by 250 leva, 400 leva,
and 500 leva, respectively, for each additional member of the family.
Such persons might not be placed in employment as wage-earning or
salaried employees. These provisions did not apply to persons in
managerial and administrative positions. All persons to whom these
provisions applied were required to resign their positions within 1
month from the date of publication of the decree.
According to an amendment of May 14, 1935, persons whom an es
tablishment wished to retain could continue in employment if the en
terprise paid a sum, for the duration of employment, equal to 40
percent of the salary or wages paid such a person, into the account of
the Labor Directorate of the Bulgarian National Bank.
A later decree, May 4, 1936, relative to the placement -of unem
ployed persons with a secondary or university education, provided
that no alien might be taken into any paid employment without the
consent of the Labor Directorate. The Directorate could require
the establishment or undertaking to engage an unemployed Bul
garian subject as a condition of its consent to the engagement of an
alien or, if the establishment did not wish to engage an unemployed
person, to pay monthly into the account of the Labor Directorate
in the National Bank a sum equal to the remuneration of an unem
ployed person with a university education, or dismiss an alien who
would thus lose the right to employment in Bulgaria.
A decree of August 27, 1936, limited the proportion of alien workers
in industrial enterprises to 20 percent of the skilled workers during
the first 5 years of the company’s existence and none thereafter,
and to 40 and 20 percent, respectively, for technical staff. No
aliens were allowed employment in the case of managerial staff and
unskilled workers.
Employment Agencies
Employment offices under the control of the Minister of Commerce,
Industry, and Labor were established as early as 1925. At the same
time private fee-charging offices were abolished, although the special
offices maintained by labor organizations were allowed to continue
their operations if their services were gratuitous. The administration
of the employment offices and that of the unemployment-insurance
system were closely associated, the offices having three sections—
employment-exchange and unemployment section, social-insurance
section, and vocational-education section. The law affected all
industrial enterprises as well as agricultural undertakings which are
recognized as being conducted on modern lines. All Bulgarian
citizen^ of both sexes over the age of 14 were entitled to the services
of the employment offices.
Requisitioning of Labor
Civilian mobilization during the war was organized in Bulgaria by
an act of May 4, 1940, supplemented by a large number of regulations
and orders. The law applies to all nationals of both sexes between
the ages of 16 and 70 years, who are exempt from or ineligible for
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677
military service, and covers all public and private administrations,
establishments, and enterprises. By way of exception it could also
be extended to foreign nationals and enterprises established in Bulgaria.
For the purpose of civilian mobilization workers were divided into
two groups—agricultural labor and nonagricultural labor. Regis
tration of workers in both these fields was required by the law and
lists were to be prepared which would give a general view of the supply
of both types of labor, classified by occupations. Agricultural labor
was to be allocated, in accordance with special regulations, to the
rural areas which were short of or without labor and equipment in
consequence of military mobilization. The Labor Directorate and
its inspection authorities are responsible for allocating nonagricul
tural labor. Public and private administrations were supplied with
lists of the civilians who were eligible for mobilization and who could
replace persons called to the colors.
T h e C o u n c i l o f M i n i s t e r s , a c tin g t h r o u g h th e C i v i l i a n M o b i l i z a t i o n
D i r e c t o r a t e a tt a c h e d to th e M i n i s t r y o f W a r , h a s g e n e ra l c h a rg e o f
c iv ilia n m o b i l i z a t i o n .
A H i g h e r A d v i s o r y C o u n c il a tt a c h e d to th e
D i r e c t o r a t e in c lu d e s re p re s e n ta tiv e s o f th e v a r io u s M i n i s t r i e s , th e
S ta t is t ic a l O ffic e , th e m i l i t a r y a u t h o r itie s , a n d o f b u s in e s s in te re s ts
a n d w o r k p e o p le .
,
,
Wages Hours and Working Conditions
T h e w a g e s p a id in B u l g a r ia a re v e r y lo w as c o m p a r e d w i t h c o u n
trie s o f w e s te r n E u r o p e , a n d as a r e s u lt s u b s t a n d a r d l i v in g c o n d itio n s
p r e v a il.
T h e f a c t t h a t th e n a t i o n is o n e o f p e a s a n t p r o p r ie t o r s , w h o
a re a b le to liv e in tim e s o f e c o n o m ic d e p re s s io n o n th e p r o d u c t o f t h e ir
la b o r s , is th e s a v in g fa c t o r in th e s it u a t io n .
Hourly wages in industry fell from an average of 7.81 leva 2 in 1929
to 6.03 leva in 1936 and rose, thereafter, to an average of 9.23 leva in
1941. Although money wages declined between 1929 and 1936, the
cost of living also fell and the index of real wages based on 1929 as
100 was 135 in the later year. Both wages and living costs increased
up to 1941, the index of real wages being 110 in that year. There was
a general 10-percent increase in wages, made effective by a decision
of the Council of Ministers, on August 1, 1941.
The average hourly wages of men and women and the index numbers
of real wages for the years 1929 to 1941 are shown in table 2; table 3
shows average earnings in various industries in 1938 and 1941.
T h e w a g e s p a id in S t a t e c o n s tr u c tio n w o r k d u r in g th e b u ild in g
se a so n o f 1943 a re s h o w n in ta b le 4. T h e h o u r s w e re in c re a s e d to 10
p e r d a y w i t h th e r e g u la r r a t e p a y a b le fo r o v e rtim e '.
2 The lev which had a par value in United States currency of 19.3 cents during the first World War fell to
less than 1 cent in 1922. The currency was placed on a full gold exchange standard in 1928, making 92 leva
the equivalent of 1 gram of fine gold. The exchange value of the lev during the 1930’s reached the highest
point—1.2958 cents—in 1936, from which point it declined to 1.2111 cents in 1939, the last year for which
quotations are available.
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Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
T a b l e 2 . —Average Hourly Wages of Men and Women, and Index Numbers of Real
Wages, 1929-411
Hourly wages
Indexes (1929=100) of real wages
Year
1929__________________________________
1930__________________________________
1931__________________________________
1932__________________________________
1933__________________________________
1934__________________________________
1935__________________________________
1936__________________________________
1937___________________________________
1938__________________________________
1939__________________________________
1940__________________________________
1941___________________________________
Male
Female
Total
L eva
Leva
Leva
10.01
9.76
9. 25
7. 75
7. 76
7. 29
7.04
7.09
7. 78
8.15
8. 27
8.82
10.27
5.98
6.16
5. 58
4. 90
4.69
4.59
5.13
5. 22
5. 88
6.33
6. 58
7.47
7.72
7.81
7. 33
7.12
6. 20
6.53
6.09
6.11
6.03
6. 61
7.02
7. 32
8.32
9.23
Male
Total
Female
100
107
116
105
114
114
118
124
134
136
132
130
122
100
113
117
112
115
121
144
153
169
176
176
184
154
100
103
114
108
123
122
131
135
146
150
150
157
110
1 Data are from Yearbook of Labor Statistics, 1942 (International Labor Office, Montreal).
T a b l e 3 . —Average Hourly Earnings in Bulgaria, 1938 and 1941, by Industries and
Occupations
Industry and occupation
Coal mining:
Underground workers, male—
Skilled___________________
Unskilled______ ___ _____
Surface workers—
Skilled___________________
Unskilled________________
All occupations______ _____
Metal industries:
Founders, male______________
Turners, male
._ ........ ..........._
Locksmiths, m ale. __________
Blacksmiths, male_________ . .
Laborers, male. .........................
All occupations, male L . __ .
Ceramics, tile, and brick menufacture:
Male workers..______________
Female workers______________
Cement manufacture: Male workers_________________ _____ _____
Sawmilling: Male workers________
Wool spinning and weaving:
Wool sorters, m ale.. _ ________
Spinners, male............ ................ .
Spinners, fem a le_____________
Weavers, male ___ _____ _
Weaversi female______________
Warpers, female____. . . ______
Dyers and finishers, m a le _____
Dyers and finishers, female........
Ail occupations—
M ale____________________
Female____ _______ ____
Cotton spinning and weaving:
Cotton operatives, male_______
Spinners^ m ale. ..........................
Spinners, female..................
Weavers, male_______________
Average
hourly
earnings
1938
1941
Leva
Leva
7. 75
6. 59
10.95
8.86
5.90
7.03
8. 62
9.56
7. 71
8.84
8.17
10.01
11.09
9.54
6.57
7.43
8.06
9.19
5 03
3.21
7.19
4.71
6.67
7.03
8.40
10. 27
5.88
7.86
4.36
6.33
5.17
4.11
6.68
4. 32
7. 78
10.08
5.81
7. 84
6. 57
5.38
8.83
5.65
6.37
4. 54
8.17
5. 92
5.87
7.04
5.14
7.71
7.71
9.52
5.97
10.86
Industry and occupation
Cotton spinning and weaving—
Continued.
Weavers, female_________ ____
Warpers, female______ ___ .
Dyers and finishers, m ale.. ...
Dyers and finishers, female___
All occupations—
M ale________ _ ____ . .
Female. _ . ______ . . .
Other textiles and silk:
Male workers ____
Female workers___ _ . _ ____
Average, all textiles:
Male workers .
Female workers. ___ _____
Soap manufacture:
Male workers_______ _____ ___
Female workers. _ .... ................
Hides and skins: Male workers _
Rubber goods:
Male workers
Female workers. ______
Flour mills and rice grinding:
Male workers
Preserved food and meat:
Male workers . . . ____________
Female workers
Confectionery:
Male w orkers_____ ________
Female workers.. ____
. .
Tobacco factories:
Tobacco products, male. ____
Tobacco products, female
Packers, male________ ____ __
Packers^ female . . . . . ............
Laborers, m a le ______________
Laborers, female_______ . . .
Vegetable oil production: Male
workers_____ ______ _______
i Including certain occupations not given in the table.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Average
hourly
earnings
1938
1941
Leva
L eva
4.89
5.32
7. 37
5.35
6. 31
5.69
9. 09
5.92
6. 79
5.14
8. 51
6.02
8.12
4.42
9. 91
5.92
6.77
4. 73-
8.82
5.99
6.82
7.49
8. 29
11.28
7.44
6 25
10.68
7.35
7.00
9.38
6.04
3.02
8. 28
' 4.66
8.47
3.61
10.96
5.65
7. 22
4.74
8.64
8.99
6.01
11.83
8.09
5. 74
11.38
8.12
5.90
8.14
Bulgaria—Labor Conditions
679
T a b l e 4 . —D aily Wages of Workmen in State Construction Work, for Building Season
of 1943
Rate per
8-hour
day 1
Occupation
Occupation
Leva
Laborers__________ ______ __________
Drivers,- ................................ ... ......... _ .
Excavation workers______________ - .
Skilled workers (gravel, rough stone,
tiles, etc.)__________________________
Foundation workers .
_ _ ___
_
Supervisors_________ ____ ___________
Carpenters, tinsmiths, pipe layers, etc—
Machinists (motors and compressors) - __
Master masons, carpenters, cement
workers, painters.-__________ .
P lu m b ers__________ . . . ___________
Rate per
8-hour
day i
L eva
100-120
110
120-140
100-180
120-180
150
160-200
200
200
200
Miners and support builders, tunnel
work _ _ __
. . . . . . . ____ ____ __
Master masons, carpenters and others,
tunnel work___________ . . . ...............
Master workmen, tunnel foundations___
Master stonecutters and pavers_____
Master m ach in ists_____ ___ ________
Technical workers with secondary education________________ ____ ________
Teamster with horse and wagon_______
Teamster with 2 horses and wagon.. . .
Engineers and architects______________
200
230-300
250-320
230-300
230-300
250
300-400
500-700
400
1 10-hour day worked, with regular hourly rate of pay for hours in excess of 8.
WARTIME WAGE REGULATION
Administrative regulations issued January 27, 1941, under the
Civilian Mobilization Act of May 4, 1940, provided that the wages
and other remuneration of civilians, who are mobilized for work under
this law, should not be governed by individual or collective agreements
but should be determined solely by the decision of the Council of
Ministers. A decision of the Council of July 25, 1941, taken under this
act, provided that wages and salaries of workers and minor employees
working permanently for the same employer, whose wages had not
been increased under earlier regulations, should be increased 10 per
cent. The increase was to be effective August 1, 1941, and calculations
were to be made on the basis of pay rolls for March 31, 1941. Workers
on a piece-work basis were to receive a 10-percent increase per piece.
Compensation paid in kind was not subject to an increase. Workers
who had received an increase of less than 10 percent during the period
March 1 to August 1, 1941, would receive the difference as from
August 1. Similar rates were to be effective for workers beginning
work after the date on which the increases became effective.
The increases were made applicable also to minimum wages and
salaries fixed by collective agreements, decisions of arbitration com
mittees, and orders of the Minister of Commerce, Industry, and Labor
which were still in force at the time of the July 1941 decision.
FACTORS AFFECTING WAGES
Since Bulgaria is an agricultural country and also one of small-scale
enterprise, a smaller proportion of the workers are benefited by
supplementary advantages, such as family allowances and vacations
with pay, than in more industrialized countries.
F a m ily allowances .— T h e r e w a s a s y s te m o f f a m i l y a llo w a n c e s fo r
w o r k e r s in S t a t e s e rvic e s p r i o r to 1930, b u t n o g e n e ra l s y s te m w a s
in tr o d u c e d u n t i l A u g u s t 4, 1942, w h e n r e g u la tio n s w e re is s u e d b y th e
C o u n c i l o f M i n i s t e r s . T h e s e r e g u la tio n s p r o v i d e d fo r a llo w a n c e s t o a ll
w o r k e r s o f B u l g a r ia n n a t i o n a l i t y o r o r ig in , w h o a re c o v e re d b y so c ia l
in s u r a n c e a n d a re e m p lo y e d in p r i v a t e in d u s tr ia l e n te rp r is e s , to b a c c o
fa c to r ie s , m in e s , a n d e le c tr ic -p o w e r s t a tio n s , a n d t o w o r k e r s i n p u b lic
c o m m u n a l o r a u t o n o m o u s i n s t it u t i o n s , e s ta b lis h m e n ts , a n d e s ta te s .
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Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
T h e a llo w a n c e s w e re r e t r o a c tiv e to J u l y 1, 1942. A llo w a n c e s a re
p a y a b le fo r c h ild re n u p to th e ag e o f 2 1 y e a r s , p r o v id e d th e c h ild -d o e s
n o t w o r k . T h e s y s te m is a d m in is te r e d b y th e D i r e c t o r a t e o f L a b o r to
w h ic h a sp e c ia l s e c tio n a n d s e lf-g o v e r n in g f u n d h a v e b e e n a tt a c h e d .
T h e c o st o f th e s c h e m e is b o r n e b y e m p lo y e r s , w h o p a y 10 p e rc e n t o f
sa la rie s a n d w a g e s i n t o th e f u n d . T h e a llo w a n c e is 10 0 le v a a m o n t h
fo r th e fir s t c h ild a n d 20 0 le v a a m o n t h fo r th e o th e rs .
V acations w ith p a y .— Seven days’ annual leave with pay for em
ployees working for the same employer for 2 full years, with or without
interruption, was granted by the law on contracts of employment
passed September 5, 1936. The law covered any institution, estab
lishment, business, or household in which persons are employed. An
amendment of December 21, 1940, reduced the period which entitled
a worker to a paid vacation to 1 year and increased the vacation to 14
working days. If a worker is dismissed less than 3 months before
completion of the period which entitles him to a vacation, he is en
titled to 1 day’s wages for each completed month’s work. Employees
of cooperative associations and their central organizations, who were
paid by the month, were granted a vacation of 15 days after 1 year’s
service with the same society or organization, by an agreement con
cluded May 1, 1939.
Social-insurance contributions .— C o n t r i b u t i o n s a re p a id b y w a g e
e a rn e rs , s a la rie d e m p lo y e e s , a n d h a n d i c r a f t w o r k e r s to th e so c ia lin s u r a n c e s y s te m s m a in t a in e d fo r th o s e classes o f w o r k e r s . A l t h o u g h
th ese c o n tr ib u t io n s f o r m a t a x u p o n w a g e s , th e r e t u r n in th e f o r m o f
b e n e fits m o r e t h a n c o m p e n s a te s fo r th ese p a y m e n t s .
HOURS OF LABOR
The maximum daily hours of work were fixed at 8 per day and 48
per week for adult workers by a law of June 24, 1919, and'at 6 per
day for dangerous and unhealthy employments. For children under
the age of 16, hours of work were fixed at 6 per day, and night work
was prohibited for women and minors. Overtime was prohibited.
Prior to that time the hours of work for men had been 11 per day, for
women 10, and for children under the age of 16 years, 8 hours. Every
wage-earning employee was entitled to an uninterrupted weekly rest
period of 36 hours and from 1 to 3 rest periods during the day’s work,
1 h o u r o f w h ic h w a s f o r th e m i d - d a y m e a l. S im ila r h o u r s w e re fix e d
f o r c o m m e r c ia l e m p lo y e e s in 1933. I n th e c o n s tr u c tio n i n d u s t r y ,
h o u rs w e re fix e d a t 8 f o r d a y w o r k a n d 6 f o r n i g h t w o r k b y a n o r d e r
issu e d in 1935. H o u r s w e re le n g th e n e d to 9 h o u r s o n e v e r y w o r k in g
d a y , e x c e p t S a t u r d a y , in S t a t e d e p a r t m e n t s a n d e s ta b lis h m e n ts in
1939. A de cre e o f D e c e m b e r 2, 1940, p r o v id e d t h a t in c e rta in e n te r
p ris e s , e s ta b lis h m e n ts , a n d processes to b e sp e c ifie d b y th e M i n i s t e r
o f C o m m e r c e , I n d u s t r y , a n d L a b o r , th e h o u r s o f w o r k c o u ld b e in
cre a se d to 10 p e r d a y fo r a d u l t w o r k e r s o f b o t h se xe s, a n d to 8 p e r d a y
in d a n g e ro u s a n d u n h e a lt h fu l w o r k , w h ile w o m e n o v e r 2 1 y e a rs o f age
c o u ld b e e m p lo y e d in n i g h t w o r k . T h e o v e r t im e r a te fo r s u c h w o r k
c o u ld n o t b e less t h a n tim e a n d o n e - q u a r t e r .
LABOR AND EMPLOYER ORGANIZATIONS
T h e G o v e r n m e n t h a s e xe rc is e d close s u p e r v is io n o v e r b o t h w o r k e r
a n d e m p lo y e r o r g a n iz a t io n s . I n d u s t r i a l a s s o c ia tio n s o f e m p lo y e e s
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Bulgaria—Labor Conditions
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were first authorized by a decree of September 13, 1934, which pro
vided that every farmer, craftsman, wage-earning employee, person
engaged in commerce or industry, member of a liberal profession, and
salaried employee in a bank or insurance company was entitled to
become a member of the appropriate industrial association. Only one
association was permitted for each occupational group. Employers
and employees could not be members of the same association. Al
though membership was not compulsory, every person engaged in
the branches covered was required to pay the annual contribution.
Employees of the State were also authorized to become members of
existing industrial associations.
All members of associations in the Kingdom were united in the
General Federation of Bulgarian Employees by a decree of January
11, 1935, which also established the organizational framework of the
associations by occupation and area. A decree of March 6, 1935,
authorized the industrial organization of employers in large-scale
industry.
The system of occupational organization was reorganized on fresh
bases by a decree of July 1, 1941, which repealed the earlier legislation
on trade-unions. By this law, occupations are grouped under the
six main headings of agriculture, intellectual or manual employment,
handicrafts, industry, commerce, and credit and insurance. The
principal duties of an occupational organization are to educate its
members in a national spirit, to submit to the Government proposals
for educational and social reform, to designate representatives of the
occupation for public institutions, and to act as a Government agency
for the carrying out of State economic and social policy.
In each occupational group only one national confederation may be
formed. Similarly there may be only one association for the group
in each district, and one in each locality. Provision was made for
six national confederations: Agricultural workers, handicraft workers,
wage earners, persons engaged in commerce, employers in large-scale
industry, and credit and insurance establishments. Each occupa
tional organization is governed by a committee elected by the members
and is financed by compulsory contributions by all persons belonging
to the occupation concerned and by voluntary contributions by the
members. The rate of the compulsory contribution was to be from
1 to 3 days’ pay.
The system is under the direct supervision of the Government, ex
ercised through a Directorate of Occupations, which is subordinate to
the President of the Council of Ministers. An advisory council is also
attached to the Directorate.
The law follows the German pattern by providing for the establish
ment of a recreation organization, known as the Work and Joy Council,
in the Directorate of- Occupations, and for the organization of local
work and joy committees.
The latest information on trade-union membership is for 1939,
when the number of members was 162,000.
Industrial Relations
COMPULSORY LABOR SERVICE
Bulgaria has a system of compulsory labor service, established by
an act of June 5, 1920, which has been amended a number of times.
551712— 43—
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682
Mojithly Labor Review—October 1943
The original act provided that all men upon reaching the age of 20,
and girls (with the exception of Mohammedans) at the age of 16, were
liable to compulsory community labor. The labor service could be
utilized in all branches of economic activity and public welfare, par
ticularly in the construction of public works. The period of service
was fixed at 12 months for men and 6 months for girls, but with only
half of this service required when the person concerned was the sole
support of the family. The service period could be deferred when the
young person was attending school. A Central Office for Compulsory
Labor Service was established within the Ministry of Public Works,
Communications, and Welfare. In principle, temporary labor service
was to be rendered personally, but a law passed in 1922 provided that
exemption could be purchased if authorized by a resolution of the
communal council.
COLLECTIVE AGREEMENTS
The scope of collective agreements was defined by a law of Septem
ber 5, 1936. The law provided that collective agreements must be in
writing and must be registered with the competent labor inspection
office. Agreements may be concluded for a specified period (not ex
ceeding 3 years), for an indefinite period, or for the duration of a speci
fied enterprise (not exceeding 2 years), and are binding upon all
employers and employees in the industry whether or not they are
members of the organizations concluding the agreements. A decree
of June 13, 1940, provided that in case of war the Minister of Com
merce, Industry, and Labor may submit to the Council of Ministers a
proposal that minimum rates be fixed for employees without consult
ing the organizations concerned.
INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES
Strikes and lockouts were prohibited by a decree of September 22,
1936. An employee taking part in a strike may be deprived of some
or all of the advantages to which he is entitled under the labor pro
tection laws, by a decision of the arbitration court, on the application
of the labor inspectorate or the employer. Employers taking part in
a lockout are subject to a fine, while persons inciting employees to
strike or employers to declare a lockout are liable to imprisonment.
This law was enacted after the most serious strike the country had
experienced, which took place in the spring of 1936 in the tobacco
processing industry. No strikes were reported by the Bureau of
Labor and Social Insurance thereafter.
CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION
A law of April 12, 1925, provided that the Minister of Commerce,
Industry, and Labor should appoint an arbitration court in connection
with every local employment exchange. The court was to consist of
one justice of the peace for the locality in question, as chairman, and
one representative each of employers and employees, proposed by
their respective local organizations. The term of office of members of
the court was fixed at 3 years. Complaints were to be made in writing
and the court was required to render a decision within 7 days. The
decisions of arbitration courts could be appealed to the competent
court of first instance; but, under an amendment of May 2, 1941, the
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decisions of the arbitration courts and of the Central Arbitration
Board are final. This law also provided that unanimous awards of
the communal arbitration boards, of the Central Arbitration Board,
decisions of the Council of Ministers, and orders of the Minister of
Commerce, Industry, and Labor should be deemed to be collective
contracts of employment and should not be subject to appeal.
Cooperative Movement
One of the outstanding characteristics of the Bulgarian cooperatives
is their great diversity. All of the various branches of cooperation—
consumers’, credit, insurance, agricultural, and workers’ productive—
are found in Bulgaria. In addition, these branches include not only
the usual types "found where the cooperative movement is well de
veloped, but also some rather novel forms of cooperation. Thus, the
consumers’ cooperatives include not only the supply associations
providing food, household supplies, etc., but also school (students’)
cooperatives and medical-care associations. The credit cooperatives
include both urban peoples’ banks and agricultural credit associations.
The agricultural cooperatives include not only the joint buying,
processing, and marketing associations, but also associations of cocoon
growers, forestry associations, collective-farming associations, and asso
ciations distilling attar of roses. The workers’ productive associations
include water-supply and electricity cooperatives, as well as handicraftmen’s associations buying the raw materials and marketing the products.
The Bulgarian movement is also well integrated, each branch having
one or more central unions which are in turn members of nation-wide
federations.
By the end of 1939—the latest year for which data are available—
the cooperative membership in all types of associations numbered
950,571, representing 15.6 percent of the population. Although
Bulgaria is primarily an agiicultural country, about 62 percent of the
cooperative membership was in urban areas and only 38 percent in
rural districts. The 3,502 associations had total assets in 1939 amount
ing to 13,647,460,000 leva.
The whole cooperative movement in Bulgaria is headed up in the
National Committee of Bulgarian Cooperation, to which 10 of the 12
federations in the various branches of cooperation belong. Its
functions include defense of the interests of the cooperative move
ment, coordination of its activities, and organization of publicity and
educational work regarding the movement.
The Government has been interested in the cooperative movement
and has from time to time intervened to assist or regulate it or to as
sume complete control; it has also made regular statistical surveys
of the extent of the cooperative movement.
In 1924, the Government opened a Higher School of Cooperation
with the purpose of training employees and managers for cooperative
associations. A legislative order was issued in October 1934, merging
the Agricultural Bank (a State organization) with the Central Co
operative Bank (making loans largely to urban associations). This
measure, it was felt, would tend toward greater cohesion among the
various branches of the cooperative movement and make for a more
even distribution of funds. Although designed to promote the de
velopment of various kinds of cooperatives, this order also resulted
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in permitting the Government to exercise some measure of super
vision over the work of all the cooperative societies in the country.
A decree-law, issued in October 1934, gave the Government authori
ties the right to remove any officers or administrators in the coopera
tive movement not acceptable to them and to replace them by their
own appointees.
Only meager information is available as to the effect of the war
on the cooperatives in Bulgaria. It is known that the agricultural
cooperatives and the credit associations are acting as agents of the
Government in the collection of agricultural produce. Even as early
as 1940, it was reported that over two-thiids of the associations’
marketing business consisted of the handling of Government-con
trolled produce. In 1942, over a third of all the agricultural products
marketed in Bulgaria were handled by the cooperatives.
One outcome of war conditions has been the entrance of cooperatives
into the canning and preserving industry. Since the beginning of the
war, the country has been exporting considerable quantities of fruit
and vegetables. Because of the necessity of utilizing to the utmost
the available transportation facilities, it seemed desirable to ship
these commodities in the least bulky form. Hence, the drying, can
ning, and preserving of these goods became an important industry
in which, by the end of 1941, from 22 to 37 percent of the product
was the output of cooperatives.
Social Insurance
General system.—-Unlike the systems in the principal European
countries which originated as a result of the strong organization of
labor, with only a partial governmental contiol, the Bulgarian general
social-insurance system was created directly by the Government in
1924, the part played by the workers’ and employers’ representatives
being simply consultative. The system was apparently adopted in
this manner because of the unpreparedness of workers and employers
alike for such a task. The law, which has been frequently amended,
covers both wage earners and salaried employees in public and pri
vate establishments, without distinction as to the nature of employ
ment, nationality, sex, or rate of wage or salary. Workers having no
permanent employer, such as porters, cabmen“ carters, etc. (but not
agricultural workers), were added in 1937. Voluntary insurance
was allowed to independent handicraft workers, small employers,
farmers, members of the liberal professions, and officials of institutions
belonging to the State or local authorities, if their annual income did
not exceed 50,000 leva. Alien wage earners and salaried employees
are required to insure in respect of accidents, sickness, and maternity,
but not for invalidity and old age unless their respective countries also
insure Bulgarian nationals employed within their territory. In 1939,
the number of insured persons in the system was 238,000.
The costs of the accident insurance are borne by employers. Sick
ness insurance is financed by equal contributions by the insured per
sons, employers, and the State. Insured persons are divided into
five wage classes on which the contributions and benefits are paid.
The employees’ contributions range from 1.5 to 4 leva a week, accord
ing to their earnings, an equal amount being paid by the employer and
the State. Voluntarily insured persons pay from 3 to 8 leva a week,
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the State paying half this amount. For workers who do not have a
permanent employer, contributions from the employer are 5 percent
of the remuneration paid such employees and from the workers, 5
percent of their wages. The threefold contribution for invalidity
and old-age insurance is the same as for sickness insurance.
Sickness benefits include cash benefits and medical treatment,
including medicines, surgical and hospital treatment, orthopedic
appliances, etc. Cash benefits vary according to the earnings of the
insured person and a daily allowance is made for each dependent child.
Formerly there was free choice of physician, but in 1934 a system of
attendance by appointed medical officers in conjunction with the
dispensaries of the insurance fund and the works medical officers was
instituted.
. .
,
Maternity benefits include the services of a midwife, medical treat
ment, and cash benefit which is payable for a maximum period of 12
weeks (6 weeks before and 6 weeks after childbirth). The benefit is
payable if the insured woman has paid at least 16 weekly contributions.
An invalidity pension is available to incapacitated persons up to the
age of 60, if the working capacity is reduced more than 50 percent as
a result of some cause other than an accident and if at least 156 weekly
contributions have been paid. The invalidity pension is based on the
wage class of the insured person. The average annual benefit ranges
from 1,500 leva for class 1 to 6,000 leva for class 5, and is increased
by 2 leva per week for each week of contributions in excess of the
minimum of 156 weeks.
Old-age pensions are payable at age 60 to insured persons who have
paid at least 1,040 weekly contributions, if they have no other means
of support and the working capacity is reduced by not less than onethird. The old-age annuity consists of the same basic amount as for
invalidity pension, increased by 1 lev per week for each week of contri
bution in excess of 156. Survivors’ pensions were provided by a 1935
decree for the widow, or widower in certain cases, and dependent
children or other relatives. The total amount of survivors’ pensions
may not exceed the individual pension of the deceased.
Accident benefits are payable for injury or death resulting liom
industrial accident or from one of the listed occupational diseases.
The benefits include free medical treatment and a pension varying
according to the degree of incapacity produced by the accident or
sickness
The Minister of Commerce, Industry, and Labor administers the act
through a Social Insurance Office attached to the Labor Department.
INVALIDITY, OLD AGE, AND DEATH
Salaried and professional workers.'—A compulsory disability, old-age,
and life-insurance system for white-collar and professional workeis
was established by a law of January 17, 1941, which was to become
effective 4 months later. The law, in general, relates to ail persons
over 16 years of age engaged in professional work requiring more than
a high-school education, if they earn at least 800 leva pei month,
covers administrative, technical, and managerial personnel; office
employees; commercial employees and salesmen whose work requires
special training; teachers, artists, and musicians; physicians, dentists,
and pharmacists and their assistants; and secretaries and clerks m the
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professional unions. Persons privately practising a free profession
may be included, if their respective general professional organizations
ask to be covered. Men who are over 55 years of age and women over
the age of 50 when first insured are not eligible for disability insurance,
but are insurable against old age and death. Voluntary insurance may
be taken out in certain cases.
The system is financed by joint contributions by employers and
insured persons, no contribution being paid by the State. The total
contribution, divided equally between the employer and the insured
person, amounts to 12 percent of the salary of the insured person,
including cash salary and payments in kind up to a maximum salary
of 10,000 leva per month.
Old-age pensions are payable at age 60 for men and 55 for women,
if they have been insured at least 60 months. Invalidity benefits are
payable for permanent disability amounting to over 50 percent of the
capacity of a healthy individual having the same general qualifications
in the same or a connected profession, and temporary-disability bene
fits may be granted for sickness that has lasted for at least 9 months.
Death benefits are payable to the husband or wife (until remarriage)
of an insured person, to dependent children (until age 18 or marriage),
and to the parents of the insured persons if their annual income does not
exceed 12,000 leva.
The amount of the old-age pension is determined by the personal
account in the insurance fund of each insured person. The total
amount of survivors’ pensions, based on the old-age or the disability
pension (whichever is larger) to which the insured person was entitled,
may not exceed the amount of the pension.
The administration of the pension system is in the hands of a pension
council of seven persons, appointed by the Minister of Commerce,
Industry, arid Labor, which includes one representative each of
employers, employees, and pensioners.
Agricultural workers.—A special pension system for male agricul
tural workers was established by an act of February 18, 1941, and an
amendment of July 19, 1941. The law covers all male Bulgarian
subjects who are engaged in agriculture as their principal source of
livelihood and are members of the peasants’ unions (zadrugi). The
pensions, which are payable to an insured person on the first day of
January of the year next following the one in which he attains the
age of 60 years, amount to 3,600 leva a year paid in quarterly install
ments.
A special pensions (agricultural) fund is attached to the Old Age
Pensions Fund. The fund is formed from half of the contributions
of the members of the peasants’ unions, which were doubled (from 60
to 120 leva a year) as from the year 1941; 5 percent of the value of
the produce exported abroad, beginning with the harvest of 1941; and
a State subsidy fixed in the budget. The payment of pensions was
scheduled to begin January 1, 1942.
Handicraft workers.—A compulsory insurance system, providingold-age and invalidity pensions, was provided for handicraft workers
by a law of February 27, 1941. The law covers all handicraft workers
who work for their own account and whose handicraft occupation
forms their principal means of livelihood, if they are under the age of
55 years, are not covered by other statutory pension systems, and are
not in receipt of a pension on their own account or a widow’s pension,
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under an act or a decision of the National Assembly, if the said pen
sion exceeds 12,000 leva a year. Persons who have been insured for
more than 3 years and who cease to be liable for insurance may con
tinue it on a voluntary basis.
The right to pension is acquired after 5 years of insurance member
ship which may not be interrupted, except for specified causes, by
more than 2 years in the 5 years immediately preceding the date on
which the insured person attains the age limit. Pensions are payable
at age 60 but may be deferred on the application of the insured person.
UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE
Compulsory unemployment insurance dates from a law passed
April 12, 1925, which also established a system of employment offices.
The unemployment-insurance system is supported by equal contri
butions of employers, employees, and the State. The labor inspectors
and the employment exchanges are responsible for supervision of ob
servance of the law.
All workers or employees compulsorily insured in any type of social
insurance are covered, with the exception of domestic servants. Agri
cultural workers are not covered unless they are employed in enter
prises which are deemed by the act to be conducted on modern lines.
The contributions under the 1925 law amounted to 1 lev per week
each, paid by the employer, the employee, and the State. In addi
tion, the fund had certain additional receipts, such as fines, donations,
etc. The law was amended June 28, 1933, to provide for the payment
to the unemployment-insurance fund of sums collected from foreign
workers for permits to remain in the country. These payments were
allocated to the account of the fund for homes and gardens for the
children of the unemployed who are members of the social-insurance
fund.
Benefits under the 1925 law were payable after the payment of o-«
contributions during a period of 2 years, but by an amendment of
November 12, 1940, the number of required contributions was reduced
to 32, and by an act of April 30, 1941, to 16 weeks in cases where un
employment is due to closing the enterprise on account of a shortage
of raw materials. The waiting period for the payment of benefits,
formerlv 16 days, was reduced by the 1940 law to 8 days. The benefit
amounts to 16 leva a day for the head of a family and to 10 leva for
all other unemployed persons, but is not payable for Sundays. Iiefusal of employment offered or to take a course of training carried
with it, under the 1941 act, liability of removal of a worker s name from
the unemployment register and therefore loss of the claim to benefit
and to any other relief. In 1938, the latest date for 'which figures are
available, 208,000 persons were covered by unemployment insurance.
SOCIAL INSURANCE INSTITUTION
The administration of Government measures in connection with
the general insurance system, the salaried, employees’ system, and that
for handicraftsmen, was placed in a Social Insurance Institution, es
tablished by an act of March 6, 1941. The Institution also has charge
of the collection of the unemployment-insurance contributions.
Other branches of insurance may be attached to the central orgamza
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tion by special laws. The different systems operate under the con
ditions prescribed by the relevant acts, regulations, and orders. The
various insurance carriers administered by the Institution are finan
cially independent and the property and accounts of each are kept
separate, but the Institution has general charge of the investments of
the different funds. General regulations are laid down to insure safe
investments. The Institution takes the place of the former Directo
rate of Labor and Social Insurance, in the Ministry of Commerce,
Industry, and Labor.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
FCffiYICTORY
BUY
UNITED
STATES
„ W AR
AND
,STAMPS
W ages, H ours, and L ivin g Standards in I n d ia 1
By R aj a n i K an ta D a s , formerly of the International Labor Office
Summary
WORKING hours in India have been regulated by law in many
industries and in these cases the maximum workweek usually is 54
or 60 hours. Actual working hours, however, are considerably
shorter than the maximum.
B o t h tim e a n d p ie ce ra te s a re p a i d . U n d e r th e l a w , w a g e s m u s t b e
p a id a t le a s t o n c e a m o n t h ; m a n y in d u s tr ie s p a y t h e ir w o r k e r s tw ic e a
m o n t h a n d s o m e p a y b y th e w e e k o r e v e n b y th e d a y . T h e ca sh w a g e s
a re s u p p le m e n te d b y v a r io u s b o n u s e s a n d p a y m e n t s in k i n d as w e ll
as b y c o s t -o f-liv in g a llo w a n c e s , b u t e a rn in g s a re n e v e rth e le s s v e r y
lo w in m o s t o f th e in d u s tr ie s .
T h e s t a n d a r d o f l i v in g is a lso v e r y lo w . T h e w o r k e r s ’ d ie t is
d e fic ie n t in b o t h q u a n t i t y a n d q u a l i t y ; h o u s in g o ft e n la c k s e v e n th e
m i n i m u m fa c ilitie s fo r s a n it a t io n a n d h e a lt h . In d e b te d n e s s is c o m
m o n a n d th e h ig h ra te s o f in te r e s t f o r m a s e rio u s d r a in o n th e f a m i l y
in c o m e . T h e h ig h c o s t o f l i v i n g a n d th e s h o rta g e o f fo o d u n d e r w a r
c o n d itio n s h a v e s e rio u s ly a ffe c te d w o r k e r s ’ re a l w a g e s a n d th e G o v
e r n m e n t a n d e m p lo y e r s h a v e b e e n o b lig e d to o p e n c o s t-p ric e fo o d
s to re s o n th e p re m is e s o f fa c to rie s a n d in in d u s tr ia l c e n te rs .
Although India has made considerable progress in improving labor
standards, several urgent steps remain to be taken, among them the
following: (1) Measures to raise the level of education and training
of the workers, most of whom are illiterate and unskilled (the present
Government schemes of training workers for war industries are com
mendable but very limited in scope); (2) the creation of minimumwage-fixing machinery for increasing wages as well as improving the
standard of living; (3) the enlargement of the scope of social security,
to cover unemployment, sickness, and old age; and (4) the establish
ment of collective bargaining and the recognition of workers’ organi
zations by employers.
Hours of Work
T h e w o r k in g d a y in o r g a n iz e d i n d u s t r y in I n d i a o r ig in a lly la s te d
f r o m s u n ris e to s u n s e t. B y a series o f le g is la tiv e m e a s u re s b e g in n in g
in 1881, th is lo n g d a y h a s b e e n re d u c e d in fa c to rie s a n d m in e s , a n d
l i m i t e d o n r a ilw a y s a n d , t o a c e r ta in e x t e n t , o n b o a r d s h ip s , in m o t o r
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d in w o r k s h o p s , s to re s , a n d c o m m e r c ia l e n te rp ris e s .
M o r e o v e r , re s t i n t e r v a l s , w e e k ly h o lid a y s , a n d r e g u la t io n o f s p r e a d o v e r s a n d o v e r t im e h a v e also b e e n p r o v i d e d f o r . T h e H o u r s o f E m
p l o y m e n t R e g u la t io n s fo r th e r a ilw a y s h a v e b e e n g r a d u a l l y a p p lie d
t o th e d iffé r e n t s y s te m s a n d b y J a n u a r y 1 , 1941, a ll e m p lo y e e s o f
th e S t a t e -o w n e d r a ilw a y s c a m e w i t h i n th e sco p e o f th e s e r e g u la tio n s .
Hours of work have been established in the following industries:
In factories the hours of work for men may not exceed 10 per day and
1 Second of two articles on wartime labor conditions in India. The first appeared in the M onthly Labor
Review for September 1943.
Errors in the first article should be corrected as follows: On page 453, line 8 of second paragraph, 43, 200
should read 4,800; 150 should read 882; and (in the following line) 41, 400 should read 4,600.
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54 per week in year-round factories, and 11 per day and 60 per week
in seasonal factories; in both types of factories, women’s hours are 10
per day and 54 per week and those of children, 5 hours a day. Work
ing hours m mines are limited to 10 a day and 54 a week for both men
and women for surface work; for men in undergroundwork (prohib
ited for women), the hours are 9 per day and 54 per week. The law
regulating hours of work on railways specifies that they should not
exceed 60 a week on the average for a month for all employees except
those whose work is essentially intermittent or involves long periods
of inactivity; the hours of the latter should not exceed 84 hours a week.
Working hours on docks have been fixed at 9 a day, but overtime is
permitted up to a maximum of 3 hours on any one day and is paid
for at the rate of time and a third. In motor transportation, no driver
should be compelled to work for any continuous periods of more than
5% hours, or for periods aggregating more than 11 hours in any period
of 24 hours. In unregulated factories, (i. e., factories or workshops
working without mechanical power, or employing fewer than 20
persons) some of the Provinces have certain limitations on working
hours; thus, the Central Provinces Unregulated Factories Act of 1937
permits women and children to work only 9 hours and 7 hours a day,
respectively.
Actual hours of work are much shorter than the maximums estab
lished by the various acts. For instance, in 1938, in the Jharia coal
fields which employ the largest number of mine workers, the maxi
mum actual weekly hours were 47 in underground work, 48 in open
workings, and 52 for surface work. Similarly, 29 percent of the yearround factories employing men and 30 percent of those employing
women worked 48 hours or less; 36 percent of the seasonal factories
employing men and 43 percent of those employing women worked 54
hours a week or less.
Industrial Remuneration
WAGE FIXATION AND PAYMENT
The methods of fixing wages are different in different industries.
On plantations, wages are generally fixed by the piece or task, but for
certain operations time rates are also paid. In mines, piece rates are
generally paid for underground work, the unit for coal cutters and
loaders being the tub. Railway employees are paid time rates, by the
day or by the month. In most other industries time rates are paid,
but in building and construction work, as well as in the loading and
unloading of ships, work is often done on a contract basis. Both piece
and time work are found in the textile industries; of 211,359 men,
44,949 women, and 1,024 children employed in the cotton-mill in
dustry in 1934, 45.6 percent of the men, 70.3 percent of the women, and
2.3 percent of the children were employed on piece work and the
remainder on time work.
Until recently there were various methods of wage payment, but
some of these have been substantially changed by the Payment of
Wages Act, 1936. In practically all industries wages are now paid in
cash and directly to the workers who earn them, and the employer or
his responsible agent is charged with responsibility for this. There is
no uniformity in the length of the pay period in India. Under the
Payment of Wages Act, no wage period may exceed 1 month, but in a
large number of industries wages are also paid semimonthlv, weekly,
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or even daily. In the jute mills of Bengal, for instance, almost all
process workers are paid by the week. In the cotton mills, wages are
generally paid each month in Bombay, Cawnpore and Nagpur, and
each fortnight in Ahmedabad. In coal mines the pay period may
be either 1 week or half a month. Wages on railways, whether rated
monthly or daily, are paid by the month. Throughout India unskilled
laborers are generally paid by the day.
Formerly, one of the defects of the wage system in Indian industries
was the delay in payment. The majority of employers held up pay
ment for varying lengths of time after the period during which they
were earned. This long delay in payment necessitated the granting of
advances against wages earned, and sometimes interest was even
charged on these sums. The Payment of Wages Act, however, specifies
that wages must be paid within 7 days after the period for which they
are due in enterprises employing fewer than 1,000 workers, and within
10 days in other cases. Fines and other deductions from wages have
also been brought under control. Moreover, the central Government
and some of the Provinces have issued regulations governing attach
ment of wages for debt, imprisonment for debt, and intimidation and
molestation for the recovery of debt.
RATES AND TRENDS OF CASH WAGES
There is a great variation in rates of wages, both by industry and
by locality.
The rates and movements of wages on plantations are well illus
trated by those of the Assam tea gardens from 1928-29, when rates
were very high. These wages have gradually declined both because of
the industrial depression and the lower cost of living. The trends of
wages in the Assam Valley and Surma Valley are shown in table 1.
Since the beginning of the war, in 1939, the rates must have increased
but no data have yet become available.
T able
1.—Average Monthly Wages in Tea Gardens in Two Divisions of Assam in
Specified Years, 1923-24 to 1937-38 1
Assam Valley
Surma Valley
Year
Men
2
11.32
14.09
11.79
7.47
6.82
7.11
R u pees
1923-24_____________________
1928-29________________________________
1932-33________________________________
1933-34_______________________________
1935-36________________________________
1937-38________________________________
Women
2
9. 55
11.26
8. 94
5.88
5. 65
5.81
R u pees
Children
2
5. 30
7. 38
6.42
4.23
4.01
4. 21
R u pees
Men
R u pees2
8.80
10.81
7. 42
5.39
5.81
6.15
Women
2
6.96
8. 70
5.30
3. 74
4.01
4. 26
R u pees
Children
R u pees2
4.71
5.49
4.16
2. 64
2. 85
2.95
1 Data are from Industrial Labor in India (International Labor Office, 1938) and Annual Report on the
Working of the Tea Districts, Emigrant Labor Act (1932), 1937-38.
2 Exchange rate of rupee varies; in 1938 it averaged 36,59 cents; present rate, about 30 cents.
The average monthly rates of wages of all workers in mines are
obtained by dividing the total amount paid in wages during the
month by the average daily attendance. Earnings vary considerably.
In the Jharia coal fields, employing the largest number of mine
workers, daily earnings of miners dropped from Rs. 0.89 in 1927 to
Rs. 0.59 in 1938. unskilled workers’ earnings from Rs. 0.61 to 0.47
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and women’s from Rs. 0.55 to 0.32 (table 2). Daily earnings of
loaders and skilled workers varied from Rs. 0.67 to 0.52 and Rs. 0.73
to 0.67 during the same years.
T a b l e 2 .—Average D aily Earnings of Underground Workers in Jliaria Coal Fields in
December of Specified Years 1
Year
1927________
1931
....
1932_____________
1935_________
1938_____________
Miners
Loaders
Skilled
workers
R u pees
R u pees
R u pee s
0.89
.72
.61
.48
.59
0. 67
.72
.53
.39
.52
Unskilled Women
workers
R u pees
0.73
U. DI
.67
.38
42
.47
. 67
R u pees
0.55
.47
.41
1 Data are from Industrial Labor in India (International Labor Office, 1938), p. 258.
Average earnings of different grades and occupations of railway
employees are shown in table 3. As it indicates, about four-fifths of
the employees receive an average of Rs. 23 a month.
T a b l e 3. — Earnings of Railway Employees in India, 1940-41 1
Per capita
earnings
Number Percent Total annual
of total
pay roll
Class of employees
A nnual M onth
ly
R u pees
R u pees
Ooz
R u pees
All c l a s s e s . _____
666,365
Gazetted officers___ .
Subordinates, with monthly salaries of—
Rs. 250 or over_____ _
Rs. 30 to 250___
Under Rs. 30. . .
Daily rated labor stall of lower ranks
1,670
.3
30, 247, 371
18,112
1,509
7,618
124, 503
10,007
522,567
1.1
18.7
1.5
78.4
39,415, 726
137,919,009
2,877, 649
144,438,454
5,174
431
100.0
1, l u o
¿oi
23
276
! p a t a are from Report by the Railway Board on Indian Railways, 1940-41, Vol. II pp 250-56
eludes Jodhpur, Mysore, and Nizam State Railways.)
11
2 N ot the exact sum of the items, but as given in source.
(Ex-
A v e r a g e e a rn in g s o f f a c t o r y w o r k e r s in th e B o m b a y P r e s id e n c y in
T h e a v e r a g e m o n t h l y e a rn in g s ra n g e d fr o m
p r o d u c in g o ils , p a i n t s , a n d so a p s to R s . 39.24
in e n g in e e rin g w o r k s h o p s .
1934 a re s h o w n in ta b le 4.
R s . 21.59 in e s ta b lis h m e n ts
T a b l e 4 .—Average Monthly Earnings in Manufacturing Establishments in the Bombay
Presidency, M ay 1934 1
Industry
Engineering_____
Printing____
Textiles_____
M atches___
Oils, paints, and soaps..
Number of Average
persons
percent of
employed attendance
46,039
8,604
256,308
5,468
2 3,103
Average
daily
earnings
Average
monthly
earnings
R u pees
R u pees
Od. O
Q1 Q
yi.
y
89 y
Q
oz.
1.10
.87
.83
39.24
34.34
28.70
22. 60
21.59
1Qq P atOo^reifri)Ii i P eilei a l1WaRie Census, Bombay Government Labor Office, 1937, Parts I and III 1936
1937. Calculated from daily rates,on basis of 26 days to a month.
2 Adults only.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
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India— Wages and Living Standards
The trend of earnings (including cost-of-living allowances) in the
cotton mills of Bombay during the 28 years from 1914 to 1942 is shown
in the following tabular statement. On the basis of earnings of
May 1914 as 100, average monthly earnings had increased by 111 per
cent by 1926, from which point they declined considerably during the
depression years. By the end of 1939, however, earnings had reached
and passed the 1926 level, and from that point through July 1942
they continued to rise, reaching a level nearly 3 times that of 1914.
A t e r a g e m o n th l y
e a r n in g s ( in
ru p ees)
M ay 1914________
M ay 1921________
A ugust 1923______
July 1926_________
D ecem ber 1933___
O ctober 1934_____
Ju ly 1937_________
F eb ru a ry 1938____
D ecem ber 1939___
A ugust 1941______
J a n u a ry -J u n e 1942
Ju ly 1942_________
16.
30.
32.
34.
27.
29.
28.
32.
35.
38.
40.
47.
38
63
75
56
88
00
44
13
38
19
25
13
I n d e x (M a y
1914=100)
100
187
199
211
170
177
173
196
216
233
246
288
BONUSES AND PAYMENTS IN KIND
Besides the regular wages, the earnings of Indian workers are sup
plemented by special bonuses and various indirect payments which
must be taken into consideration in calculating workers’ total earnings
or incomes. Special bonuses are not paid in mining (except to the
supervisory staff) nor in engineering, in the Bombay Presidency.
They are, however, paid on the plantations of the south, as in Nilgiris
and Coorg. Profit-sharing bonuses, or bonuses for attendance or for
quality of work have long been paid in some industries. This has
been very common in the cotton mills of Bombay and Ahmedabad.
Another important form of bonus is the allowance to compensate for
increases in the cost of living, discussed in the following section.
The practice of paying part of the worker’s remuneration “in kind”
is very widespread in India. Payment in kind generally includes such
items as land for cultivation on plantations, free or cheap housing,
supply of grain and other necessaries at wholesale or reduced prices,
free fuel, and medicines. Miners are allowed a certain quantity of
coal for domestic use and railway workers receive free quarters, uni
forms, and other clothing. The payments in kind are greatest on the
plantations. In the Assam tea gardens they used to form a part of
the legal requirements for the protection of the workers under the
contract system, and consisted of free housing, medical treatment and
firewood, interest-free advances on wages, free grazing for cattle, and
land for cultivation either free or at an economic rent. In 1938, the
total area of land held by the Assam tea-garden workers amounted to
185,897 acres.
WARTIME WAGE ADJUSTMENTS
As war conditions have led to increased prices, employers have in
many cases either increased wages or have granted special cost-ofliving allowances. Most of the mills, especially in the Bombay
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Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
Presidency, continue to reckon earnings on “ basic” rates prevailing in
August 1917, to which they add cost-of-living allowances. Some of
the industries, including the coal mines, have granted increases in
wages, averaging about 10 percent.
On the demand of the G. I. P. Railway employees, an investigation
was made by a court of inquiry, which found that the cost of living
had increased from 11 to 15 percent for different classes of general
consumers and wage workers. As a result of its study, the court es
tablished three different “subsistence levels”—Rs. 35 per month for
the city of Bombay, Rs. 30 per month for the other towns, and Rs. 25
for the rural districts. It recommended certain rates of allowance
which have been granted in most cases.
Some of the measures taken in the various industries to meet
advances in the cost of living are noted below:
Some 70,000 m ill w orkers in C aw npore received a n increase v ary in g from 9.38
p ercen t to 12.5 p ercen t of th e ir m o n th ly wages in Ju ly 1941, a n d a fu rth e r increase
of 6.23 p ercen t u n d er ce rta in conditions in Ju ly 1942.
A n increase of am e n ity allow ances from 1 ru p ee p er m o n th to 0.75 ru p ee p er
week was agreed upon by th e J u te M ill A ssociation w hen it recom m ended a
reduction of hours of w ork from 60 to 54.
M em bers of th e B om bay M illow ners’ A ssociation gave increases in th e ra te s of
wages by from R s.4.5 to Rs.9, for a period of 26 w orking days.
T he A hm edabad M illow ners’ A ssociation g ra n te d a n increase of 45 p e rc e n t as
from Ju ly 1941 to 100,000 w orkers.
T he S holapur an d B om bay co tto n -te x tile mills g ra n te d a w ar bonus of 12.5
p ercen t of th e to ta l wages for 1941 to all w orkers, in ad d itio n to th e cost-of-living
bonus.
A cash bonus of 16.6 p erc e n t of th e to ta l basic earnings for 1942 was au th o rized
b y th e com panies w hich are m em bers of th e B om bay C o tto n M illow ners’ Asso
ciation to all th e ir w orkers.
Em ployees of th e S tate-m an ag ed railw ays were given increases v ary in g (ac
cording to th e m o n th ly earnings) from R s.2 to R s.4.5 a m o n th . A g ra n t of 1
m o n th ’s e x tra p ay was m ad e by th e C a lc u tta C o rp o ratio n to all w'orkers receiving
u p to Rs.200 a m o n th on A ugust 12, 1942; th is was th e second such g ra n t m ade
by this organization.
D ockers in B om bay received a 10-percent increase in wages from A ugust 3,
1942, b u t th e p resen t ra te is only R s.2 p er day.
Em ployees of several B ritish P ro v in cial governm ents (M adras, B om bay, Orissa,
th e P u n jab , Sind, an d th e N o rth w est Provinces) were g ra n te d a bonus a n d th is
exam ple w as followed by several of th e In d ia n S ta te s.2
Cost, and Standard of Living
Accurate information on living standards in India is rather rare.
Data are available for some industrial cities (Bombay, Ahmedabad,
and Sholapur) in the Bombay Presidency, and a few studies have
been made for certain other cities, such as Calcutta, Madras, Jamshed
pur, and Cawnpore. Owing to differences in method and date, how
ever, the figures given in these studies are not comparable. Moreover,
most of the studies were undertaken about a decade or so ago and
no reliable data of recent years are available.
INCOME AND EXPENDITURES
Studies of size of family indicate that the average family ranges
in size from 4 (Ahmedabad) to 5.78 (southern railway) persons. The
2 International Labor Review (Montreal), December 1942 (p. 727).
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
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India— Wages and Living Standards
Indian family, however, includes, in addition to the natural family
father, mother and children-—other relatives who, even though not
living under the same roof, are dependent for their livelihood upon
the earnings of their relatives in industrial centers. The majority
of the families have one earner, but a study of budgets in different
centers revealed that the number of families having one earner varied
from 36 to 78 percent, the number having two earners from 18 to 53
percent, and the number having three earners from 7 to 46 percent.
The average family income and expenditure in several important
industrial centers are shown in the accompanying statement. On the
basis of certain limited studies3 it appears that both income and
expenditure are twice as high in Bombay as in Cawnpore:
A v e r a g e m o n th l y
in c o m e ( r u p e e s )
B om bay (1930), 85 b u d g e ts------------------------A hm edabad (1926), 872 b u d g e ts------------------C a lc u tta (1930), 125 b u d g e ts----------------------M adras (1930), 79 b u d g e ts--------------------------C aw npore (1930), 729 b u d g e ts---------------------
55.
44.
34.
33.
25.
A v e r a g e m o n th l y
e x p e n d it u r e ( r u p e e s )
05
44
43
80
53
55.56
39.35
32.09
32.59
24.90
The percentage distribution of the family expenditures for the
various budgetary items in the different localities is presented in
table 5.
T a b l e 5.- —Percent of Expenditure of Workers’ larnilicsfn Specified ^Localitiesf n India,
by Consumption Groups
Locality
Bombay (1930)- ____ ____ --Ahmedabad (1926)-- . . . Calcutta (1930)-------------------Madras (1930)_______________
Cawnpore (1930) - -------------1
Food
57.1
57.9
64.9
60.7
48.1
Cloth
ing
7.3
9.5
7.5
3.8
7.4
Rent
10.6.
11.7
4.7
8.3
8.8
Fuel
and
light
House
hold
requi
sites
Miscel
laneous
3.1
1.2
1.7
.3
1.8
14.7
12. 7
14.0
19. 3
27.9
7.1
7.0
7.1
7.5
6.0
Total
100.0
ICO. 0
100.0
100.0
100. 0
Data are from Industrial Labor in India (International Labor Office, Geneva, 1938).
Except at Cawnpore, more than half of the total expenditure of
the fam ily budget was for food alone. By far the largest amount of
money was spent for cereals, including rice, wheat, jowar and bajra
(two of the Indian millets), or a combination of any two of these
products. Considerable numbers of Indian workers, especially the
Hindus, are vegetarians and live mostly on cereals, pulses, ghee
(clarified butter), and sweetmeats. Mohammedans eat both mutton
and beef; beef is a prohibited food for the Hindus, although some
of them take mutton. Fish is the chief protein food in Bengal and
Madras. Milk is used by all classes of workers wherever it can be
had, but it is costly, and pure milk is rarely available in the cities.
Next to food, the most important items are clothing and housing.
The monthly rent amounted to less than Rs. 3 for 65 percent of the
families in Sliolapur (1925), to less than Rs. 6 for 66 percent of the
families in Ahmedabad (1926) and to less than Rs. 7 for 62 percent
of the families in Bombay (1930). Because of the climate, expendi
tures on dress is not a heavy item as in European countries. Men,
¡Industrial Labor in India (International Labor Office, Geneva, 1938), p. 280.
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Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
as a rule, do not clothe the upper part of their body, and most of the
men and women go barefooted. Fuel and light form the next largest
item in the budget. The fuel required is mostly firewood for cooking,
while, for lighting, kerosene or some vegetable oil is generally used!
Household requisites are few in number, consisting of cots, mats,
mattresses, blankets, pillows, cooking pots, and a few pieces of simple
furniture.
Miscellaneous expenditure covers a wide range of items such as hair
oil, washing soap, tobacco, betel (a kind of leaf for chewing), liquor,
medicine, school, travel, amusements, remittances to absentee mem
bers of the family, and interest on debts. The item, “traveling ex
penses,” usually refers to the cost of the worker’s travel between his
native place and his place of work. Most workers (and their family
members, in some centers) receive free medical care from their em
ployers; there is also a certain amount of personal expenditure for
this purpose. Expenditure on schooling for the children is rather a
small item m the family budget, and the same holds true for recrea
tion, owing both to the lack of facilities and the low income level. A
considerable part of income, amounting to 10 or 12 percent, is spent
on drink, especially by the families in the lower strata of Hindu society.
“The consumption of drink, or particularly of spirituous liquor,”
observed the Royal Commission on Labor, “may be said to be a feature
of the majority of industrial areas and has created considerable havoc
in some of them.” The Mohammedans are, however, prohibited by
their religion from drinking alcohol. Remittances to relatives are aii
important item of expenditure, since by far the largest number of
Indian workers are migrants and leave some members of their families
in their native places.
Payment of interest on debts is a heavy expenditure among almost
all classes of industrial workers in India. According to the inquiries
of the Bombay Labor Office, in 1921-22, about 47 percent of the families
m Bombay City and 61 percent of the families in Sholapur were in
debt. In many cases the son inherits the indebtedness of his father,
but the most important cause of indebtedness is expenditure for mairiages, funerals, festivals, and anniversaries. The burden of debt is
aggravated by the excessive interest rates which most workers have to
pay, ranging from 9 to 15 percent on money loaned against jewelry,
from 15 to 24 percent in the case of promissory notes and mortgages,
and from 37.5 to 150 percent in the case of short-term “hand loans”
(without documents). Interest payments are, therefore, a heavy
burden on the family; they ranged from 2.77 percent of the total
family expenditure m Bombay (1921-22) to 6.65 percent in Sholapur
a Z ju ) •
H O U S IN G^C O N DITIO N S
Organized industries have usually developed in large towns, al
though in some cases they have formed the nucleus of new cities.
Limitation of space, high land prices, and the lack of any plan or
conti ol are responsible for much of the congestion and overcrowding
in large cities. Subletting, a common practice among workers^
families, is another cause of overcrowding.
.The housing accommodations of workers in large organized industries are chiefly supplied by employers, by public or semipublic bodies,
and by puvnte landlords. Almost all the plantation and mine workers
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India— Wages and Living Standards
697
are housed by their employers. The general policy adopted by the
Government, the railways, and the municipal factories is to provide
quarters when funds permit or wherever the housing provided by
private enterprise is not adequate. Thus, the S. I. Railway workshops
have provided 3,426 dwellings for their workers, at rents not exceeding
10 percent of their wages, and the Bombay Port Trusts have set aside
136 tenements for their workshop staff. Numerous factory workers
are housed by their employers. The cotton-mill employers in Bombay
have provided 3,887 tenements for their workers. The public chawls4
of Bombay, now under the control of the Public Works Department,
accommodate 63,000 workers. By far the largest number of industrial
workers live, however, in dwellings rented from private landlords.
Most of the dwellings available for the workers in industrial towns,
especially those rented from private landlords, lack even such sanitary
arrangements as drinking water, latrine, light, and ventilation. Over
crowding is common in the tenements, most of which have only one
room. Of 13,189 tenements provided by the cotton-mill industry of
the Bombay Presidency, 11,332 (about 86 percent) had one room and
only 1,866 (14 percent) had two or three rooms. An inquiry covering
5,363 families in Bombay City in 1930 showed that nearly 60.0 percent
of the buildings surveyed had only one window per tenement, 26.0
percent had two windows, and 4.5 percent had no window. In 89.3
percent of the buildings, one toilet was provided for the use of from
1 to 8 tenements, in 8.4 percent one for 9 to 15 tenements, and in 1.6
percent one for. 16 tenements or more; 0.7 percent lacked any toilet
facilities whatever. Similarly, one water tap supplied 1 to 8 tenements
in 25.7 percent of the buildings, 9 to 15 tenements in 40.4 percent, and
16 or mors tenements in 33.0 percent; 0.9 percent of the buildings were
without even one water tap.
As would be expected, in view of the insanitary and overcrowded
housing conditions, the rate of infant mortality is high.
With a view to improving housing conditions of industrial workers,
the Royal Commission on Labor in 1931 made a large number of
recommendations on such matters as the survey, lay-out, and
development of urban and industrial areas, the establishment of mini
mum standards for floor space and cubic space, ventilation and light
ing, water supply, drainage and latrines, architectural plans for work
ing-class houses, Government subsidies to employers for undertaking
housing schemes, and the encouragement of cooperative building
societies. Thus far, the principal measure taken by the Government
of India to implement these recommendations was an amendment to
the Land Acquisition Act of 1894, to provide facilities for employers to
acquire land for housing projects.
W A R T IM E COST OF L IV IN G
The standard of living of industrial workers in India is not only
extremely low, but lias been very adversely affected by the rise in
prices since the outbreak of the war. In the first few months of the
war, prices increased by one-third and the wage level was stabilized in
March 1940 at a level about 19 percent higher than that of March
1939. Since then the cost of living has increased considerably, as
4
In Hindu, “ehawl” means literally house; but, in Bombay, chawls are 2- or 3-story tenement houses.
551712—43-- 5
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Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
indicated from the movement of wholesale prices of certain com
modities in Calcutta (table 6), although retail prices fluctuate more
widely than the wholesale prices. There has been a great increase in
the prices of all commodities.
T a b l e 6 . — Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices of Selected Articles in Calcutta1
Period
1914 (end of Ju ly). _
1938: Annual average__________
1939: Annual average - _ . . . _
1940: Annual average___
1941: Annual average.
1942: Annual average____ ______
1943:
. . _
January. _____
February. ________________
March___________
April_______ .
-
Average,
all com Cereals Pulses
modities
Sugar
Tea
100
106
120
129
154
212
100
72
86
99
112
158
100
88
99
101
105
162
100
132
164
157
145
209
100
130
142
149
202
240
298
311
319
331
260
266
334
375
238
280
309
307
25«
260
298
280
299
246
199
189
Other
food
articles
Cotton
manufac
tures
100
109
125
146
178
298
100
106
106
122
179
2 180
444
457
505
1 Data are from The Indian Trade Journal, M ay 13, 1943, and previous issues.
2 For 3 months only.
The importance of price control was realized by the Government of
India from the very beginning of the war, but no effective measures
were undertaken. After a long delay, the Government called a Food
Production Conference in April 1942, issued a food-control order on
May 21, and appointed a Central Food Advisory Council, which had
its first meeting at New Delhi on August 24 and 25, 1942. The
Council recommended the following: (1) The extension of price
control to cover all the staple grains which are competitive; (2) the
creation of a single agency for the purchase of the requirements for the
army and the “deficit” areas, and the delegation to this agency of a
monopoly of available rolling stock for the movement of foodstuffs;
and (3) the extension of food control to cover retail prices and the
fixation of permissible margins.
The fundamental cause of the rise in the prices of foodstuffs and
other commodities is the lack of supply to meet the increasing demand
of such goods, especially under war conditions. Among the measures
undertaken to meet this situation the following should be mentioned:
(1) Increased production of food, especially rice. In 1938-39,5
1,281,000 tons of rice were imported from Burma; the blocking of
these imports has caused a great food shortage in India.
(2) Better distribution of foodstuffs by increasing transport
facilities. The Government of India decided early in August 1942
to grant a fortnight’s priority in railway transportation for the move
ment of food grains. This facilitated the transport of several ship
ments of wheat from the Punjab and of substantial quantities of rice
from the Madras Presidency to Bombay.
(3) The establishment by the Government of food stores in different
industrial areas, where the workers may buy food at very moderate
prices. Foodstuffs have been stored at munitions plants and other
industrial establishments in the Calcutta area and also at the Jam
shedpur and Burnpur steel mills. Nearly all the industrial establish
ments in India maintain stores where grain may be bought at cost.
In 1942 there were 61 such shops in the Bombay mill area.
1 Review of the Trade of India in 1938-39, p. 20.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
India— Wages and Living Standards
699
Industrial Welfare
The economic and social backwardness of the working classes in
India has made welfare work very desirable. Welfare work measures
have already been introduced by large enterprises such as the Tata
Iron & Steel Co. at Jamshedpur, the British India Corporation in
Cawnpore, and the Buckingham and Carnatic Mills in Madras.
Most of these measures relate to improvement of sanitation, comfort
and Safety, provision of nurseries, construction of suitable dwellings
and even model villages, the creation of clinics and maternity and
child welfare centers, the opening of day and night schools for boys
and girls, and the provision of playgrounds, athletic and dramatic
clubs, libraries, and reading rooms.
Excellent medical and first-aid facilities are provided by most of the
larger engineering establishments owned by the Government, munici
palities, railways, public bodies, and public-utility companies. The
majority of the textile mills are also provided with well-equipped
dispensaries and part-time doctors. Mining industries have estab
lished health organizations at Asansol and Ranigunj for the benefit
of their workers; these bodies are also charged with provision of
measures for maternity and infant welfare. The plantations, espe
cially in the Surma Valley in Assam, have greatly improved the health
conditions of their workers. Several semipublic organizations, such
as the Port Trusts and municipalities in Bombay, have undertaken
welfare work for their employees. Private organizations for social
welfare work are comparatively few in number. The only organiza
tion worth mentioning is the Social Service League, organized by the
Servants of India Society, which is devoted to elevating the moral
and material conditions of the workers.
The most important steps for increasing recreational facilities have
been those of the Government of Bombay. In pursuance of its
policy for the amelioration of conditions of industrial labor, the
Government of Bombay is expanding the activities of its Labor
Welfare Department. Several large and small recreation centers
have been started in Bombay City, Ahmedabad, Sholapur, and Hubli.
Among the facilities provided are indoor and outdoor games, gymna
siums, libraries, lectures, plays, motion pictures, art exhibitions,
music, classes in literacy, etc. Woman teachers have been engaged
to give lessons to woman workers in sewing, knitting, and similar
subjects. The Government has introduced other schemes of labor
welfare. In 1941-42 the sum of Rs. 65,000 was earmarked for build
ing gymnasiums in Bombay and Ahmedabad and for installing shower
baths and circulating libraries in various industrial centers.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
C hanging C om position o f th e U n em p loyed ,
A p ril 1 9 4 0 -A u g u st 1 9 4 3 1
THE expansion in industrial activity occasioned by the war has
brought the number of unemployed persons in the United States
down from 8,800,000 in April 1940 to 1,000,000 in August 1943—a
drop of almost 90 percent in a little over 3 years. This decline has
been accompanied by an almost complete change in the composition
of the unemployed group. Previously, the long-time unemployed
(persons out of a job for 1, 2, and even 3 years) and persons on emer
gency work relief (WPA, CCC, NY A, etc.) accounted for a large pro
portion of the unemployed. Currently, the group of unemployed is
made up largely of persons who either are between jobs or are tem
porarily ill.
Information on the changing composition of the unemployed has
been made available from a special tabulation prepared by the Special
Surveys Division, Bureau of the Census, on the basis of its sample
monthly report on the labor force. This tabulation provides a break
down of the various classes of unemployed since April 1940. While
such a fine analysis of a small sample cannot be expected to provide
completely accurate estimates (which are therefore presented on the
responsibility of the Bureau of Labor Statistics), the general trend
shown by the Census data is clearly significant.
Unemployed persons as enumerated by the Census Bureau fall into
the following three major categories:
1. Actively seeking work.
2. On emergency work relief (WPA, CCC, NYA, etc.).
3. Inactive workers.
The last category (inactive workers) includes all persons without a
job, who are not actively seeking work because (a) they believe there is
no work available for them in the community, (b) they are on tem
porary lay-off (owing to bad weather, seasonal slack, etc.), or (c) thev
are “ temporarily” ill.
One of the most significant changes in the composition of the unem
ployed has been brought about by the discontinuance of the WPA, the
CCC, the NYA, and other emergency work-relief programs. For a
long time persons on emergency relief accounted for as much as onethird of the unemployed, and as late as December 1942 made up onefifth of the total unemployed. The current fiscal year, however, has
witnessed the disappearance of this class of unemployed.
Another depression phenomenon—the inactive worker who does not
look for work, because he believes that none is available—also virtually
has disappeared. This group was always found in depressed oneindustry areas, where it accounted for as much as one-third of the
unemployed.2 In the spring of 1940 almost as many people were not
seeking work because they believed no work was available as were im
mediately available for work in the spring of 1943.
1 Prepared in the Bureau’s Occupational Outlook D ivision by Seymour L. Wolfbein.
2 See Webb, LJohn N „ and Bevis, J. C.: Facts About Unemployment (W PA, Social Problems No. 4,
700
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
702
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
Since unemployed persons on temporary lay-off now are also not a
numerically significant group, the only two remaining groups are those
actively seeking work and persons temporarily ill. With unemploy
ment down to about one million persons, the 200,000-300,000 persons
temporarily ill form a very large proportion of the total; in July they
accounted for one-fourth and in August almost one-third of the total
number of unemployed persons.
Number of Unemployed Workers of Each Class, A pril 1940-August 1943 1
Number of unemployed (in minions)
Month
Total
1940:
April.........
M a y _____
June_____
July_____
August___
September.
October__
November.
December.
1941:
Janu ary...
February..
M arch... .
April_____
M a y _____
June_____
July_____
August___
September.
O ctober...
November.
December.
1942:
January__
February.
March____
April_____
M ay_____
Ju n e...........
July______
August___
September.
October___
November.
December..
1943:
January___
February...
March____
April. ..........
M a y______
June______
July______
August____
Seeking
work
and on
work
relief
Inac
tive
Believ
On
ing no
Tem
tem porarily
work porary
avail lay-off
ill
able
Other
8.8
8.4
8.6
9.3
8.9
7.0
7.4
7.4
7.1
(2)
7.1
7.3
7.9
7.5
6.2
6.4
6.4
6.2
(2)
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.4
.8
1.0
1.0
.9
(2)
0.4
.4
.5
.5
.2
.3
.3
.2
(2)
0.3
.4
.4
.4
.2
.2
.2
.3
(2)
0.4
.4
.3
.3
.3
.4
.4
.3
(2)
0. 2
.1
.2
.2
.1
.1
.1
.1
7.7
7.2
6.9
6.7
5.7
6.0
5.7
5.4
4.5
3.9
3.9
3.8
6.4
6.1
5.9
5.4
5.0
5.4
5.1
4.8
3.9
3.4
3.4
3.3
1.3
1.1
1.0
1.3
.7
.6
.6
.6
.6
.5
.5
.5
.2
.2
.2
.2
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
.5
.3
.3
.5
.2
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
.2
.5
.5
.4
.5
.4
.4
.4
.4
.4
.3
.3
.2
.1
.1
.1
.1
4.3
4.0
3.8
3.0
2. 6
3.7
3.5
3.2
2.6
2.3
2.5
2.4
1.9
1.4
1.3
1.4
1.1
.6
.5
.4
.4
.3
3
.3
.3
.3
.3
.3
.4
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(8)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
.2
.2
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
.3
.3
.3
.2
.2
.2
.2
.2
.2
.2
.2
.3
.3
.3
.2
.2
.2
.3
.3
.3
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
2.8
2.8
2.2
1. 7
1.6
1.7
1.5
1.4
1.4
1.0
.9
.9
1. 2
1. 2
1.0
1.1
1.1
.8
.7
.6
.9
.9
•
(3)
(3)
(3)
.1
.1
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
.2
.2
.2
.2
.2
.2
.3
.3
1 From a special tabulation prepared by the Special Surveys Division, Bureau of the Census, on the
basis of its sample monthly report on the labor force. The sample upon which the monthly report on the
labor force operates is designed to provide national totals on employment, unemployment; and the labor
force. It should be noted, therefore, that the break-down presented in the above table, which is based
on a sample of a comparatively very small number of persons, specially tabulated for the Bureau of Labor
Statistics, cannot claim to be completely accurate. The general trend in the composition of the unem
ployed group, however, is clearly shown.
2 N ot available.
3 Less than 50,000.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
703
Changing Composition of Unemployed
The temporary nature of current unemployment also can be judged
from the following tabulation, which shows the percent of all persons
actively seeking work who were looking for a job for only 3 months
or less:
1942
J a n u a r y _______________________________ 79. 0
A pril__________________________________ 67. 3
J u ly ___________________________________ 86. 3
1943
82. 1
83. 7
92. 7
For the great majority of work seekers, the number of months which
elapsed since their last search for a job began was only 3 months or
less. In fact, in January, April, and July 1943, one-third of all
the unemployed actively seeking work had been doing so for a period
of only 1 month or less.
\
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
W artime Policies
R egu lation s R elatin g to War M a n p o w er1
ON AUGUST 16, 1943, the War Manpower Commission put into
effect changes in rules for inducting men into the Selective Service
System. In addition, further regulations were issued by the Com
mission to control the transfer of workers to war industry and to
hold necessary workers in war production.
The new program is for the purpose of increasing war production
and at the same time giving the armed forces the men they need.
Essential points in that program deal with (a) critical occupations
covering skills urgently needed in the war effort, (b) occupational
deferment, (c) transfer of civilian workers from job to job, and (d)
nondeferable activities and occupations.
Critical Occupations
The new list of critical occupations contains skills urgently needed
in the war industry and war-supporting civilian activity. Workers
possessing such skills must get into war industry or supporting
civilian activities by October 1 , 1943, or lose further claim to Selec
tive Service occupational deferment. In order to insure accurate
channeling of workers with these critical skills to the most urgent
war jobs, provision is made for their hiring only on referral by or
with the consent of the United States Employment Service. Selec
tive Service local boards have been advised to give men with such
skills special consideration with reference to deferment if they are
in war-useful jobs.
L IS T O F C R ITIC AL O C C U PA T IO N S
Part I.—Production and Services Occupations
A ircraft-engine m echanic, all-round
A ircraft-engine te ste r, all-round
A ircraft-in stru m en t m echanic, all-round
A ircraft m echanic, all-round
A irplane n av ig ato r
A irplane p ilo t, com m ercial
A irplane m echanic, all-round
B allistician
B essem er converter blow er
B lacksm ith, all-round
B last-furnace blow er
B laster, m ining
B oatbuilder, steel or w ood, all-round
B oilerm aker, all-round
B oring-m ill op erato r, all-ro u n d
i
War Manpower Commission, press release, August 14, 1943; Federal Register, August 17, 1943.
704
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Wartime Policies
705
B ricklayer, refracto ry brick
C ab in etm ak er, all-round
C able splicer— telephone, telegraph, or su b m arin e cable
C able tra n s m itte r an d receiver
C am -lay-out m an
C ar inspector, railro ad tra n sp o rta tio n
C ataly tic-co n v erter engineer, sy n th e tic ru b b er
C em enter, oil well
C hainm aker, all-round
C ham berm an, acid
Coke b u rn er
C om p uter, electric, g ra v ity or seismic
C onductor, railro ad tra n sp o rta tio n
C o ntinuous-still engineer, sy n th e tic ru b b e r
C onverter o perator, nonferrous sm elting a n d refining
C oppersm ith, m arine, all-round
C orem aker, all-round
C utting-m achine ru n n e r,'m in in g
D iam ond driller, m ining
D ie m aker, all-round
D ie s e tte r
D ie sinker
D iesel m echanic, all-round
D isp atch er— radio com m unications, telegraph, or su b m arin e cable
D iver
D riller, fine diam ond dies
D riller, oil well, cable or ro ta ry
E lectrical te ste r, pow er equ ip m en t
E lectrician, aircraft, m arine, pow er house, or su b m arin e cable, all-round
E lectrician, in stallatio n a n d m aintenance, all-round
E ngineer, chief, first, second, or th ird a ssista n t, ship j
E ngineer, locom otive, railro a d tra n sp o rta tio n
E ngineer, tu rb in e or diesel
E ngineering d raftsm an , design
F inisher, fine diam ond dies
F irst helper, open h e a rth or electric furnace
F o rem an :^ In clu d ed u n d e r th is designation are only those in d iv id u als who are
(1)
utilizing in th e ir supervisory jobs th e know ledge a n d skills of one or m ore oi
th e occupations included in th e L ist of C ritical O ccupations, a n d (2) th o se who
supervise d irectly o r th ro u g h su b o rd in ate forem en a n d supervisors p ro d u ctio n
technical, or scientific w ork in essential activ ities, a lth o u g h th e o ccupations ot
th e w orkers supervised m ay n o t be listed. T h e second category includes only
in dividuals who m u st be in jobs req u irin g a n extensive know ledge of th e p ro
d u ction, technical, or scientific w ork th e y are supervising, th e exercise ol m ded ep en d en t ju d g m en t a n d responsibility for th e p ro d u c ts m ad e or services
rendered, a n d a tra in in g period of 2 or m ore years. In som e p la n ts, th e su p er
visory personnel m ay be d esignated b y o th e r th a n su pervisory title s, a n d w here
th e y m eet th e req u irem en ts o u tlin ed above th e y are included
F orm builder, a irc ra ft
G lass blow er, scientific la b o ra to ry a p p a ra tu s
H e a t tr e a te r, all-roun d
H eater, steel m ill, all-round
H oisting engineer, m ining
..
In s p e c to r: In clu d ed u n d e r th is d esignation are only th o se w orkers who are quali
fied to perform in one or m ore of th e critical occupations ap p earin g in th is list,
an d who utilize th e know ledge a n d skill of such o ccupations in inspecting w ork
in ord er to insure u n ifo rm ity a n d accuracy of p ro d u c ts or services
In staller, telephone o r teleg rap h e q u ip m en t
In s tru c to r: In clu d ed u n d e r th is designation are only th o se w orkers who are
aualified to perform in one or m ore of th e critical o ccupations listed an d because
of th e ir a p titu d e a n d experience h a v e been assigned as in stru c to rs m tra in in g
program s eith er in -p la n t or vocatio n al
.
. , .„
In s tru m e n t m ak er an d repairer, electrical, m echanical, o r scientific
Jew el bearing m aker, all-round
Jo in ter, subm arine cable
L ay -o u t m an, boilerm aking, foundry, m achinery, or shipbuilding
L ead b u rn er, all-roun d
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Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
L inem an— pow er, telephone, or telegraph, all-round
L oad d ispatcher, pow er or gas
L ocom otive engine rep airm an
L oftsm an, aircraft o r shipbuilding
Loom fixer
M achine driller, m ining
M achine tool-set-up m an
M achinist, all-round
M achinist, m arine, all-round
M ate, first, second, or th ird
M echanician, com m unications e q u ip m en t: T his title includes individuals who
m a in ta in an d rep air telephone a n d teleg rap h e q u ip m en t a n d circuits; tech n ical
b ro ad cast eq u ip m en t; rad iotelephone a n d rad io teleg rap h e q u ip m en t; or su b
m arine cable a p p a ra tu s
M iller, grain pro d u cts, all-round
M illw right
M iner, underground, all-ro u n d : In clu d ed u n d er th is title are only those in d iv id
uals whose job assignm ent requires th e m to p erform th e du ties involved in
driving u ndergrou n d openings including drilling, blasting, tim bering. D ue to
stan d ard iz atio n s of m ining m ethods, these fu n ctio n s m ay be p erform ed by
sep arate individuals whose occup atio n al title s also a p p e a r in th is list because
th e jobs m eet th e criterio n of critical occupations. Since th e te rm ‘'m in er” is
generally used in th e in d u stry to id en tify u n d erg ro u n d w orkers it should be
clearly u n derstood th a t it does n o t cover such w orkers as m uckers, tram m ers,
an d helpers
M older, bench or floor, all-round
M odel m aker, all-round
O bserver, seismic
Oil-well gun p e rfo ra to r
Oil-well tre a te r, acidising
O ptical m echanic, all-round
Paper-m aking-m ach in e engineer
P a tte rn m a k e r, m etal or wood
P ipe fitter, m arine
Pow ershovel engineer, m ining
Precision-lens grinder, all-round
P u lp it operator, steel m ill
P um per, refinery, in charge
Purification engineer, sy n th e tic ru b b er
R adio com m unications tech n ician
R adio teleg rap h er
R adiophoto technician
R eacto r engineer, sy n th e tic ru b b e r
R eceiver tester, radio or ra d a r
R efrig erato r eq u ip m e n t rep airm an , gas or electric, all-round
R efrig erato r engineer
S h eetm etal w orker, m arine, all-round
S hipfitter, all-round
S hipw right, all-round
Ship rigger, all-round
Ship cap ta in
Ship pilot
Signal m ain tain er
Still operator, chem ical, all-round
Stillm an, p etroleum processing
S upervisor (see F orem an)
S w itchboard o perato r, pow er
T an n er, all-round
T esting an d regulatin g technician, telephone or teleg rap h
T im berm an, m ining, all-round
Tool designer
Tool m aker
T rain d isp atch er
T ransm ission engineer
T u g b o a t cap tain
T u g b o a t engineer
W ood seasoner, kiln
X -ray eq u ip m en t servicem an
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Wianime Policies
P a rt I I .-—Professional
and Scientific Occupations 2
A cco u n tan t: In clu d ed u n d er th is title are certified public acco u n ta n ts an d those
who have com parable train in g , experience, or responsibilities
A gronom ist
A natom ist
A rchitect, naval
A stronom er
B acteriologist
C hem ist
E ngineer, professional or technical: T his title covers persons who are actu a lly
engaged as engineers in th e operating, research, or teac h in g phases of these
professions, who are qualified eith er by h aving m e t th e ed u catio n al req u ire
m en ts or because of long experience. In ad d itio n , th is title is in ten d ed to in
clude those individuals who m ay specialize in certain phases of th e professions
listed below, such as m echanical engineers who specialize in th e autom otive,
h eating, or refrigeratin g engineering field b u t whose special designations have
n o t been m entioned:
A eronautical
A gricultural
Ceram ic
C hem ical
Civil
C om m unications
E lectrical
E ntom ologist
F o rester
G eologist
G eophysicist
H o rtic u ltu rist
M ath em atician (including cry p ta n a ly st)
M etallurgist
M eteorologist
N em atologist
O ceanographer
P arasito lo g ist
P athologist, m edical
Pharm acologist
P hysicist
Physiologist, m edical
P la n t physiologist or path o lo g ist
Seism ologist
M arine
M echanical
M etallurgical
M in in g
P etroleum
R adio
Safety
\
Occupational Deferments
Selective Service local boards are instructed to give the greatest
consideration to occupational deferment. Such deferment for neces
sary men has always been, and is to continue to be, based on the
judgment of the local Selective Service boards, but an additional
yardstick is set up for measuring the “replaceability” of men in vital
industry. The boards are instructed to consider (a) the shortage of
the registrant’s skill in the total labor force; (b) the shortage of work
ers to replace the man even though he is an unskilled worker; and (c) a
shortage in the place of employment even when no national shortage
exists.
Transfers in Civilian Jobs
Uniform standards governing all transfers are to be incorporated
in local employment-stabilization plans. At the same time, broad
2
The titles appearing in this critical list of professional, technical, and scientific occupations are also
intended to cover those persons who are engaged in full-time teaching of these professions. In addition,
these titles are also intended to cover persons engaged in full-time inspecting duties which require the utiliza
tion of the knowledge of the critical occupations.
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708
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
powers to determine when a transfer is in the interest of the war
effort are given to local and regional War Manpower Commission
offices.
Standards under which transfer will be allowed and statements of
availability issued by employers are as follows:
An in dividual w hose la s t em ploym ent is or was in an essential or locally needed
a c tiv ity shall receive a sta te m e n t of a v ailab ility from his em ployer if—
(1) H e has been discharged, or his em plo y m en t h as been otherw ise te rm in a te d
by his em ployer, or
(2) H e has been laid off for an indefinite period, or for a period of 7 or m ore
days, or
(3) C ontinuance of his em plo y m en t w ould involve u n d u e personal h ard sh ip , or
(4) Such em ploym en t is or w as a t a wage or salary o r u n d er w orking conditions '
below sta n d a rd s established by S ta te or F ed eral law o r regulation, or
(5) Such em ploym en t is or was a t a w age or salary below a level established or
ap p ro v ed b y th e N a tio n a l W ar L ab o r B oard (or o th e r agency a u th o rized to
a d ju s t w ages or appro v e a d ju stm e n ts thereof) as w arra n tin g a d ju stm e n t, a n d th e
em ployer has failed to a d ju s t th e w age in accordance w ith such level o r to a p p ly
to th e ap p ro p ria te agency fo r such a d ju s tm e n t or a p p ro v al thereof.
To insure the accurate channeling of critical skills to the most urgent
jobs, workers in critical occupations may not be hired merely on the
presentation of a statement of availability. Referral by or with the
consent of the United States Employment Service is required to
employ them.
In order to control migration the Employment Service referral is
necessary also in the case of workers who have not lived or worked in
the locality during the preceding 30-day period.
To permit maximum adjustment to the needs of particular labor
market areas, a series of optional controls is outlined, permitting the
extension of USES referral to new groups of occupations and activities.
These are designed to afford an opportunity for flexibility and for
meeting needs which may develop locally.
Extension of Nondeferable Occupations
The War Manpower Commission has expanded the list of non
deferable occupations and activities that the Bureau of Selective
Service announced as effective April 1, 1943.3 This extension is
intended (a) to encourage the transfer of fathers into jobs which will
aid the war effort and (b) to insure that when fathers are drafted, the
fathers who contribute least to the war effort will be inducted first.
L IS T O F N O N D E F E R A B L E A C T IV IT IE S A N D O C C U PA T IO N S
All occupations in the following activities are nondeferable:
M an u factu rin g of th e following p ro d u c ts:
Alcoholic beverages
A m usem ent m achines a n d eq u ip m en t, such as ju k e boxes, slot m achines,
gam es of chance, a n d pin-b all m achines (does n o t include a th le tic an d
sp o rt equipm en t)
A rt goods— stam p e d a n d otherw ise; a rtis ts ’ m aterials; deco rativ e m aterials
B ook gilding, bronzing, a n d edging
C ostum e jew elry
C ostum es: Lodge, m asq u erad e, th e a tric a l, academ ic caps a n d gowns
C u rtain s, draperies, a n d bedspreads
C u t, beveled, an d etch ed glass
C utw are
3 See M onthly Labor Review, March 1943 (p. 468).
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Wartime Policies
709
D ecorative feath ers, plum es, a n d artificial flowers
F an cy fabrics such as brocades, chiffons, dam asks, laces a n d lace goods,
velvet, etc.
F ram es, m irro r an d p ictu re
F u rn itu re — garden, beach, porch, to y
G am es a n d to y s
G reeting, souvenir, visiting, an d p ic tu re p o st cards
Jew elers’ fixings an d m aterials
Jew elry
Jew elry cases
L ap id ary w ork (nonindustrial)
.
,
M erchandising display eq u ip m en t such as cab in ets a n d show cases (excluding
refrig erated display equipm ent)
M osaic glass
M usical in stru m en ts, except for th e arm ed forces
N ovelties, m a n u fa c tu re d from m aterials of a n y kind, such as fan cy boxes an d
containers, souvenirs, figures, m odels, carvings, o rn a m e n ta l shoe buckles,
album s, costum e novelties, etc.
O rn am en tal gold a n d silver leaf a n d foil (nonindustrial)
P leatin g , stitch in g , tu ck in g , a n d em broidery
Signs an d ad v ertisin g displays
Silverw are a n d p la te d w are (nonindustrial) _
.. , ,
Sm oking accessories, such as cig arette a n d cigar holders, boxes, cases, lighters;
sm oking sta n d s a n d tobacco jars
Soft d rinks
.
Stained, leaded, o rn am en ted , a n d d ecorative glass
T rim m ing a n d a r t needlew ork
Services:
A m usem ent arcad es
A m usem ent tic k e t agencies
A utom obile-rental service
C lubs— social, fra te rn a l, business, a n d political
D ance, m usic, th e a tric a l, an d a r t studios a n d schools
G am bling
In te rio r decorating
N ig h t clubs
P ark in g lots
P ho to g rap h ic studios
Pool an d b illard halls
R ace tra c k s an d courses
T rav el agencies
.
, ,
,
.
,
. ,
T u rk ish b a th s, m assage parlors, clothing ren ta l, p o rte r service, a n d socialescort services
W holesale a n d re ta il tra d e :
A ntiques
A rtists’ supplies
B eer, wines, a n d liquors
C andy, confectionery, a n d n u ts
C ustom furriers
F lo rists
G am es a n d to y s
Jew elry
M usical in stru m e n ts
N ovelties
P e t shops
Soft drinks
T obacco
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
710
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
All tlie following occupations are nondeferable regardless of the
activity in which they may be found:
A dvance-advertising ag en t
A m usem ent-device o p e ra to r
B ar boy
B ar cashier
B ark er
B arten d e r
B ath-house a tte n d a n t
B eau ty o p erato r
Bellboy
B illposter
Book a n d periodical ag en t
Booking ag en t
B ootblack
Bus boy
B u tler
C aller, sta tio n
C anvasser
C arhop, curb services
C ar polisher
C ar w asher
C aterer, social
C h arm an and cleaner
C osm etician
C ustom furrier
D ancing teach er
D esk clerk-—hotel, a p a rtm e n t, club, etc.
D ishw asher
D oorm an an d s ta rte r
E lev ato r o p erato r
(passenger an d
freight— excluding in d u strial freight
elevators used in co nnection w ith
w arehousing an d production)
E lev ato r s ta rte r (passenger a n d freight)
E rra n d boy (including m essenger an d
office boy)
F loorw alker
F o rtu n e te lle r
(including
astrologer,
clairv o y an t, m edium , m in d reader,
p alm ist, etc.)
G ardener
G reenskeeper
G round keeper
Guide, sightseeing
G uide, h u n tin g an d fishing
H aird resser
H ousem an
L av a to ry a tte n d a n t
L ite ra ry a n d a c to r ag en t
M anaging a g en t (th e a tric a l a n d film)
M ark er (in wholesale an d re ta il trad e)
M odel
N ew sboy
N ig h t club m an ag e r a n d em ployees
P o rte r (o th er th a n in railro a d -tra in
service)
P riv a te chauffeur
R eceptionist
Sales clerk
Sign p a in te r
Sign w riter
Soda dispenser
T ax id erm ist
T ick et ta k e r
U sher
V alet
W aiter (o th er th a n in railro a d -tra in
service)
W indow trim m e r a n d display m an
In addition to the activities and occupations set forth above, the
status of idleness is to be treated as a nondeferable activity.
Deferral of Registrants Qualified for Critical Occupations4
Instructions supplementing the rules of August 16, 1943, relating to
critical occupations and job transfers were issued by the Selective
Service Bureau of the War Manpower Commission on September 7.
These instructions call for the referral to the United States Employ
ment Service of cases involving Selective Service registrants engaged
in or qualified for critical occupations in war production or a warsupporting activity. Under this procedure, the Employment Service
may recommend that a registrant be deferred in his present employ
ment or place him hi more essential production.
Registrants engaged in nondeferable activities or occupations are
reclassified without regard to their dependency status unless they
submit evidence to their local boards that they have registered with
the United States Employment Service for transfer. If they submit
such evidence prior to September 15, they are given a 30-day grace
period. However, after October 1, when fathers with children born
before September 15, 1942, become liable for induction, any 30-day
grace period which may be running for a “nondeferable” registrant
4 War Manpower Commission, press release, September 7, 1943.
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W artime Policies
711
will be canceled if bis order number is reached in the course of normal
local board reclassification procedures.
Regarding registrants who are employed in the 149 occupations
listed by the War Manpower Commission on August 16, Selective
Service pointed out that there are not more than 400,000 such regis
trants of military age throughout this country. Because of this
relatively small number, Selective Service advised its local boards:
I t is of th e u tm o st im portance th a t reg istran ts (1) who have th e necessary
qualifications, (2) who are utilizing th e m to th e fullest e x ten t in a critical occu
p atio n * * *, an d (3) whose rem oval from th e ir p resen t em ploym ent w ould
have an adverse effect upon th e m ain ten an ce of req u ired p ro d u ctio n schedules, be
given th e m ost serious consideration for extended o ccu p atio n al d eferm en t before
being reclassified o u t of a deferred classification into a class av ailab le for service.
A d d itio n a l R egu lation s for M aking In d iv id u a l Wage
and Salary A d ju stm e n ts1
THE National War Labor Board, on August 18, 1943, issued General
Order No. 31, giving additional regulations regarding individual wage
and salary adjustments. These regulations divided all employers into
2 classes—those with 30 or fewer employees and those with 31 or more.
Employers of 30 or fewer employees may, without approval of the
Board, make individual wage or salary increases for particular jobs,
provided that the total of such increases to any employee (subject to
National War Labor Board jurisdiction) shall not exceed 10 cents per
straight-time hour during any year (beginning July 1, 1943), nor shall
the yearly total of such increases exceed an average of 5 cents per
straight-time hour for all employees in the establishment. Other
requirements are that such increases may not be used to gain the
Board’s approval of increases to eliminate intraplant inequalities; shall
not result in a rate higher than that paid by the employer between
July 1, 1942, and June 30, 1943, for like employment; shall not in
crease production costs appreciably or increase prices; and shall not
run counter to any existing collective agreements.
Employers of 31 or more employees may make individual wage or
salary increases, without the approval of the Board, under a schedule
which contains (a) job-classification wage or salary rates or rate ranges
and (b) a plan for making individual adjustments within and between
such wage or salary rates or rate ranges. To satisfy these conditions,
the job classifications must involve more than a mere descriptive title:
they must be clearly defined and described. The required “plan” is
an orderly, definite procedure or group of procedures for making
adjustments, within specified limits, in the wage or salary rates of
individual employees.
The regulations outlined a plan for those employers who have none
properly in existence. Such a plan provides for increases because of
merit, promotion, reclassification, and apprentice or trainee programs.
Employers who had not satisfied the requirements that would
permit them to make wage and salary increases without the approval of
the National War Labor Board were informed how they might obtain
such approval. They were to submit all wage or salary rate schedules
‘ Data are from Federal Register, August 26 and 27, 1943.
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and “plans” for approval to the appropriate Regional War Labor
Board. In those schedules all proposed rate changes, single rates,
and job classifications were to be set forth fully, and described and
defined. The plan, in addition to providing for increases, is also to
indicate the approximate percentage increase in pay-roll costs and in
total production costs.
Separate schedules are to be submitted for separate establishments
or for each group of similar establishments.
On August 23, 1943, the National War Labor Board amended
General Order No. 30 relating to increases in wage or salary rates.
By that amendment, increases in wage or salary rates which do not
bring such rates above 40 cents per hour, may be made without the
approval of the National War Labor Board. Prior to the amend
ment, such increases were allowed without the approval of the Board,
provided that these increases did not furnish a basis either to increase
price ceilings of the commodity or service involved, or to resist other
wise justified reductions in such price ceilings.
E n forcem en t o f D irectives o f N ation al War
Labor B oard 1
UNDER Executive Order No. 9370 of August 16, 1943, when the
National War Labor Board reports to the Director of Economic
otabilization cases in which the Board’s orders have not been complied
with, the Director is to issue such directives as he may deem necessary
to effectuate the necessary compliance. Those directives were to be
issued—
(a) To other departments or agencies of the Government, directing
the taking of appropriate action relating to withholding or with
drawing from a noncomplying employer any priorities, benefits, or
privileges extended, or contracts entered into, by executive action of
the Government, until the National War Labor Board has reported
that compliance has been effectuated;
(b) To any Government agency operating a plant, mine, or facility
possession of which has been taken by the President under the War
Labor Disputes Act, directing such agency to apply to the Board, under
that act, for an order withholding or withdrawing from a noncomplymg labor union any benefits, privileges, or rights accruing to it under
the terms or conditions of employment in effect when possession was
taken, until the noncomplying labor union has demonstrated to the
satisfaction of the National War Labor Board its willingness and
capacity to comply; but, when the check-off is denied, dues received
from the check-off shall be held in escrow for the benefit of the union
to be delivered to it upon compliance by it.
(c) To the War Manpower Commission, in the case of noncomplymg individuals, directing the entry of appropriate orders relating to
the modification or cancelation of draft deferments or employment
privileges, or both.
1 Federal Register, August 19, 1943 (p. 11463).
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Employment and Labor Conditions
Labor in th e B ritish C olonial D ep en d en cies
G R O W I N G a t t e n t i o n is b e in g g iv e n to th e p r o t e c t io n o f la b o r in th e
c o lo n ia l d e p e n d e n c ie s o f th e B r i t i s h E m p i r e . A r e p o r t issu e d b y th e
C o l o n i a l O ffic e 1 r e v ie w s s o m e o f th e c h a n g e s m a d e b y th e G o v e r n
m e n t in th e 6 -y e a r p e r io d fr o m 1937 to 1943, t h r o u g h a c tio n o f t w o
k in d s — th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f la b o r d e p a r t m e n t s o r f u l l - t i m e in d u s tr ia l
a d v is e rs a n d th e e n a c tm e n t o f la b o r le g is la tio n .
Adoption of a program to benefit the workers was suggested to the
colonial governors in 1937 by the Secretary of State. The Secretary
expressed the opinion that workers should be given a fair share of the
returns accruing from improvement in the financial position following
the period of world economic depression. As a first step he advocated
the formation of adequate machinery and the creation of a staff for
proper inspection and supervision of the conditions under which labor
was employed. During the following 2 years, further communications
were sent to the colonial officials in regard to different phases of the
labor problem, such as conciliation and arbitration machinery and the
preparation of statistical series to show the cost of living.
In May 1938 the post of Labor Adviser to the Secretary of State
was created. Visiting the various parts of the Colonial Empire to
obtain first-hand information on labor conditions is one of the chief
functions of the Adviser. A Social Services Department was also
provided for in 1938, to be attached to the Colonial Office and to deal
with labor questions affecting the Colonial Empire in general. In
1942, a Colonial Labor Advisory Committee was substituted for the
Colonial Office Labor Committee which had been established in 1930.
The body formed in 1930 was a domestic committee; the new advisory
committee includes outside experts with first-hand knowledge of
industrial problems in Great Britain which have their counterpart
in the colonies. The committee has very broad terms of reference,
its functions being to consider and advise upon any questions concern
ing the employment of labor in the colonies which the Secretary of
State may decide to refer to it.
Labor Supervision
In 1937 there were 11 colonial dependencies having special depart
ments or staffs with full-time officers to supervise the conditions under
which labor is employed. By 1941 the total had increased to 33,
including all four West African Colonies; all the West Indian Colonies;
British Guiana and British Honduras; Palestine; Tanganyika Terrii Labor Supervision in the Colonial Empire, 1937-43.
(Colonial No. 185.)
Great Britain, Colonial Office. London, 1943.
713
551712— 43-
-6
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Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
tory, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland; Mauritius; Cyprus; Fiji;
and Hong Kong. Although the number of full-time officers employed
was only approximately 150 in 1941, that total was over four times
the total number employed in 1937. The outbreak of war caused a
slowing down in the staffing of the new labor departments, as a great
many of the younger men were called to the colors.
Some of the colonies established employment agencies under the
supervision of the labor departments. The territories include Barba
dos, British Guiana, Ceylon, the Gold Coast, Jamaica, Mauritius, St.
Christopher and Nevis, St. Vincent, Sierre Leone, and Trinidad.
In Palestine the establishment of municipal labor exchanges has been
authorized. Provision of these facilities is largely for the purpose of
helping workers to obtain employment after hostilities cease.
The attention of colonial governments has been directed to the
importance of establishing labor advisory boards, having as nearly
balanced representation of employers and employees as possible, and
an independent chairman, in each case. Formation of such bodies
was among the important recommendations in a report by the Labor
Adviser,2 who suggested that, in addition to the regular membership,
labor advisory boards should be permitted to take into membership
persons with specialized knowledge of medicine, law, etc., when
required.
At the present time the interchange of information between colonial
governments in the same area is especially important. Regional
conferences are held for the labor officers; visits are made by the Labor
Adviser; and the annual and other reports of the various colonial
labor departments are circulated to all other colonial labor depart
ments. Exemplifying the advantages of the interchange of informa
tion, the report under review states that the cost-of-living survey
made in Jamaica in 1939 serves as a model for other colonial govern
ments in making’similar studies, notably in West Africa.
Labor Legislation
During the period under review, several hundred laws and regula
tions affecting labor conditions were passed in the colonies. The
legislation concerned various important questions, such as the recogni
tion and regulation of trade-unions, conciliation and arbitration
machinery, minimum-wage machinery, workmen’s compensation,
industrial-accident prevention, and giving effect to International
Labor Conventions which the British Government had ratified as
far as they were applicable to local conditions.
Following the outbreak of war some 500 protective labor laws were
adopted. A great deal of the legislation is of a wartime character,
and most of it is based on that of Britain. Sometimes the terms
duplicate those in the original legislation, but more often the pro
visions have been simplified to meet local circumstances. Laws of
another part of the Empire have been adopted as a model in only a
few instances, notably in some of the laws of Mauritius.
Trade-unions.'—A circular issued by the Secretary of State in 1930
stressed the desirability of colonial laws, legalizing and requiring com
pulsory registration of trade-unions and providing for the sympathetic supervision and guidance of such organizations. In almost
* Labor Conditions in the West Indies, by Major Orde Browne.
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Employment and Labor Conditions
715
e v e r y case th e p r o v is io n s o f th e le g is la tio n a d o p te d in c o m p lia n c e w i t h
th is s u g g e s tio n h a v e b e e n c o p ie d f r o m th o s e in la w s o f th e U n i t e d
K in g d o m .
Substantial headway in trade-union acts has been made only in the
period beginning with 1937. Laws are in effect in 33 territories. Of
the 300 unions registered, the large majority are in British Guiana,
Cyprus, Ceylon, Jamaica, Nigeria, and Trinidad.
M in im u m wages.— T h e m a j o r i t y o f c o lo n ia l g o v e r n o r s e x p re s s e d th e
v i e w t h a t th e I n t e r n a t io n a l L a b o r C o n v e n t i o n o n M i n i m u m W a g e s ,
t h o u g h s u ita b le f o r h i g h l y in d u s tr ia liz e d c o u n tr ie s , w a s im p r a c t ic a l
in th e c o lo n ie s . T h e S e c r e ta r y o f S ta t e th e r e fo r e s u g g e s te d t h a t
s im p le r le g is la tio n s h o u ld b e a d o p t e d ; f o r e x a m p le , a l a w m i g h t
p r o v id e t h a t m i n i m u m w a g e s c o u ld be fix e d in a n o c c u p a tio n i n w h ic h
th e o ffic ia ls w e re s a tis fie d t h a t th e r a te o f p a y w a s u n d u l y l o w . M o s t
o f th e la w s p a sse d a re o f th e s u g g e s te d t y p e .
I n ,g e n e r a l , h o w e v e r , c o lo n ia l p o lic y h a s b e e n t o e n c o u ra g e w a g e
a d j u s t m e n t b y m e a n s o f c o lle c tiv e b a r g a in in g . U s e o f th e m i n i m u m w a g e m a c h in e r y h a s b e e n e n c o u ra g e d o n l y w h e n n e g o t ia t io n b e tw e e n
e m p lo y e r s a n d e m p lo y e e s h a s fa ile d .
Cost o f living. —Living costs have risen substantially in practically
every colonial territory since 1939. In two theaters of war—Malta
and Cyprus—the advance has been very great. It has been least
marked in Central Africa. Excluding Malta and Cyprus, the rise
has been, roughly, 50 to 60 percent above the 1939 figure. The rate
of increase is showing signs of slowing down, according to the Colonial
Office, because of measures taken locally to ration essential commodi
ties and to control prices, and in some cases because of subsidy.
In certain territories the more rapid rise in cost of living than in
wages has been compensated for by bonus payments of different kinds.
In d u s tr ia l d isputes and their settlem ent. —At the beginning of the
period reviewed, Ceylon was the only territory that had a conciliation
law. In 1938 it was suggested that colonial governors should establish
some form of conciliation and arbitration machinery. Trinidad had
in the same year passed an ordinance based on the United Kingdom
Industrial Courts Act. Provision was made for the settlement of
disputes in Fiji by ordinance in 1941, and in British Guiana by
ordinance in 1942; and the Straits Settlements and the Federated
Malay States enacted legislation in 1940, both laws being based on
those of Britain.
W artim e legislation.- — N u m e r o u s co lo n ie s h a v e issu e d o rd e rs to
s a fe g u a rd th e m a in te n a n c e o f p e rs o n n e l i n in d u s tr ie s re g a r d e d as
e s s e n tia l t o th e p r o s e c u tio n o f th e w a r , th e d e fe n se o f th e t e r r i t o r y ,
o r th e life o f th e c o m m u n i t y .
Many colonies have found it desirable to take measures, under their
defense legislation, to avoid slow-downs in the war effort owing to
industrial disputes. Before the war started, a large number of
industrial disputes took place in various parts of the Colonial Empire.
The settlement of industrial differences is one of the major tasks of
the colonial labor departments, and during the war period special
attention has been directed toward avoidance of losses entailed in
serious strikes.
W o rkm en ’s com pensation. —Workmen’s compensation laws, differing
somewhat in design and scope, have been passed in 30 territories,
mainly in West Africa, the West Indies, and Malaya. Other im
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Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
portant colonies which have given their workers such protection are
Ceylon and Mauritius. Most of this legislation has been passed
during the period beginning with 1937, and in some important cases
the laws have been passed since the war began.
Factories and shops legislation.—A small number of colonies had
full-time factory inspectors prior to the war. Provision for inspection
of factories, and for their cleansing, ventilation, and lighting had
been made in the public-health ordinances of most colonies. Nearly
every colony had protective legislation for women and children; and
some had regulations dealing with employment in dangerous, offen
sive, or unhealthful occupations.
In November 1939 the British Government called attention to the
need for accident prevention and suggested that the colonies pass
protective laws in the light of the provisions of the Factories Act of
1937. Although the war makes the introduction of improvements
difficult, such laws have been passed in Aden (1941), British Honduras
(1942), Ceylon (1942), Dominica (1941), the Gambia (1941), Jamaica
(1940), Malta (1940), Mauritius (1942), Northern Rhodesia (1942),
St. Vincent (1940), and Sierra Leone (1941).
Conditions of employment in stores are regulated by law in the
majority of the colonies. During the war period legislation has been
enacted to provide shorter hours, especially in the West Indies.
Labor C ond itions in C h ile, 1 9 4 2 1
WORLD conditions and a continuous rise in cost of living caused
labor in Chile to be somewhat restive during the year 1942. However,
prolonged labor disputes were avoided, and through enactment of
labor and social-security legislation certain gains were attained. Low
productivity was a matter of concern to the Government, and on
several occasions the President and Cabinet members appealed to the
workers to increase their output. Incomplete figures for 1942 indicate
that as compared with 1941 average daily wages increased by from
8 to 9 pesos 2 in the key industries (exclusive of mining and agricul
ture) .
Cost of Living and Price Controls
The general cost-of-living index in Santiago in 1942, based on
March 1928=100, rose from an average of 242.3 in 1941 to an average
of 304.3 in 1942, an increase of about 25.6 percent. Compared with
1940, the 1942 index was about 15 percent greater, but compared with
1939 the index of 1942 showed a gain of about 63 percent. From
September 1939, the date of opening of European hostilities, to
December 1942 the index of the cost of living as a whole rose 77.3
percent.
The index of food prices showed the largest increase, while the
rise in rents was less marked. From 1941 to 1942 clothing prices
increased less than those of food, but from 1939 to 1942 increased
slightly more than food. The index of fuel and power costs leveled off
somewhat during 1942.
The accompanying table shows the trend in cost of living in the
capital, Santiago, since 1937.
1 Data are from report of Joel C. Hudson, first secretary, United States Embassy, Santiago, Chile; and
from International Labor Review (Montreal), April and July 1943
2 Average exchange rate of peso in 1942=5 cents.
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Employment and Labor Conditions
Indexes of Cost of Living in Santiago, Chile 1
Indexes (March 1928=100) of —
Period
1937!
1938:
1939:
1940:
1941:
1942:
General
index
Annual average._ _
__
_ __
Annual average - _ _____ _ - ____
Annual average. . . . ___
Annual average__
__ ___
Annual average___ - - - ____
__
Annual average
__
1941* December
_
m
....
Food
Rent
Fuel and Clothing
light
Various
176.4
184.1
186.6
210.3
242.3
304.3
204.8
214.4
210.4
244.8
280.6
366.7
135. 5
144.6
. 157.7
171.3
184.1
224.8
162.4
168.9
162.6
181.9
218.1
252.3
190.9
190.9
199.9
218.3
277.5
350.4
131.0
140.1
146.1
155.8
170.0
182.6
264.4
313.6
187.9
222.3
311.5
177.2
267.2
272.6
285.8
296.6
301.1
301.0
302.0
313.3
318.7
329.7
329.2
332.4
316.3
322.4
335.9
347.1
359.8
355.0
357.2
381.3
394.6
414.7
404.9
411.6
187.9
187.9
211.2
235.5
234.5
234.5
234.5
234.5
234.5
234.5
234.5
234.5
227.3
229.2
240.8
244.7
256.5
251.5
251.9
252.3
244.1
267.8
280.4
281.3
318.4
335.3
346.8
351.4
351.4
351.4
351.5
351.5
351.5
351.5
371.9
371.9
179.4
179.4
179.1
179.1
179.1
181.8
181.7
185.5
185.8
187.4
186.0
187.1
2
January _
________ -- ___
February
___ _ _____ ____ - ____
March
______
- ___
April
_____________ - - _________
M ay ________ - _______ - - -- _____
June
-- - - - - _____
July
___________________________
August
___
___
______ __
September
_______ _
_.
__
October
__
- - __
November _
. . . ___________ ___
December
. .
______ ____
i Data supplied by Dirección General de Estadística of Chile.
Although the rise in the cost of living was partly influenced bv
external factors, it has been attributed by the Banco Central de Chile
largely to internal inflationary influences, “especially the alleged lack
of equilibrium that has existed during 1942 between the production
and supply of goods on the one hand, and the supply of money on
the other.’’
The Commissariat of Subsistence and Prices attempted to apply
some checks to the rising cost of living during the year. There was
no general price ceiling, but prices of selected articles, declared to be
“articles of prime necessity and habitual use and consumption,”
were set so as to limit profits to a reasonable percentage. Bents of
dwellings and of commercial premises used for the manufacture of
articles of prime necessity or habitual use and consumption were held
to come within this category and were subjected to control by the
Commissariat. As compared with the levels of 1941, rents rose in
1942 by 22 percent. Though rents were more strictly controlled
than other items, the controls did not apply effectively to dwellings
renting for more than 1,000 pesos per month.
Trend of Wages
The following indexes, published by the National Statistical Office,
show the movement of wages during the past 7 years, on the basis of
1927-29 = 100.
1936.
1937.
1938.
1939.
147.
177.
200.
237.
3 1940.
9 1941.
5 1942.
5
287. 9
341. 6
400. 8
Unemployment
Unemployment did not constitute a serious problem in 1942.
World conditions, lack of shipping space to the United States, and the
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tightening of export restrictions from the United States caused fears
of considerable unemployment, but there has been so far little indica
tion that these fears have been realized to any appreciable extent.
Unemployment did occur among chauffeurs and garagemen, owing
to the rationing of gasoline and the elimination of many motor
vehicles, and also occurred to a minor extent among metal workers.
Figures of number of applicants to the Government employment
bureaus do not indicate the actual number of laborers out of work,
but they can be used as a, measure of the relative unimportance of
unemployment in the year 1942. The monthly average number of
applicants was 1,011; in January—-the peak month—there were
1,245, and in June—the lowest month—there were 827.
Settlement of Labor Disputes
Figures covering the number of strikes that took place in 1942
have not been released, but labor unrest in Chile during the year
extended over the entire country. The most extensive strikes were
those in the different mining enterprises—nitrate, copper, coal—-and
the general strike in Punta Arenas, which affected commerce and
industry in that region. There were other disputes of less magnitude
in various industries, and in addition there were numerous small
controversies which never came to the point of arbitration or strike.
A new High Labor Council (Consejo Superior de Trabajo), to act as
intermediary between the employer and labor groups and the Govern
ment, was reestablished by a Ministry of Labor decree (No. 18-880)
of October 2, 1942. The council is composed of 25 members, experts
in various fields. The council will have the following permanent
committees, designed to handle labor problems more effectively:
Arbitration Committee, Board of Classification of Salaried Employees
and Laborers, Mining Committee, Committee of Commerce and
Industry, and Agricultural Committee.
Labor Legislation
r The single-shift or continuous working day in the cities of Santiago,
Valparaiso, Viña del Mar, and Concepción, was provided for by a
law of May 16, 1942. The law came into effect on June 1, 1942,
with factories scheduled to work from 8 a. m. to 4 p. m., and private
and public offices from 9 a. m. to 5 p. m., with a rest period of 30
minutes for the noon meal. This change, intended to bring relief
from growing transportation and other difficulties, proved to be a
hardship to most workers owing to the difficulty of obtaining a quick
lunch, the sudden rise in the price of all lunch foodstuffs, and the
refusal of some offices to allow their personnel to leave the premises
during the 30-minute rest period. Before the end of the year many
Government offices as well as private organizations had succeeded
in obtaining permission to return to the old schedule of hours.
Previous legislation governing automatic salary increases and
tenure of office of private employees was modified and extended by
law No. 7280 of September 11, 1942. This law provided for annual
adjustment of salaries of these employees by the joint salary com
mission and the payment of a special indemnity at the termination
of employment.
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Employment and Labor Conditions
719
Another decree (No. 5724 of October 21, 1942) specifically pro
vided that mining companies having camps or towns could not
limit, prohibit, or impose conditions upon the right of assembly
in such places.
New organic regulations to govern the labor offices were issued
late in 1942, on the recommendation of the Minister of Labor.
Social Security
In order to help cover increases in salaries granted to certain
Government employees, the employers’ pay-roll tax was increased
by law No. 7236 of August 14, 1942.
The preventive and curative medical services of the different
social-insurance funds were consolidated in a single institution, the
National Medical Service for Nonmanual Workers, by decree No.
32/1552 of November 14, 1942.
Essential functions of the Department of Social Welfare, which
supervises and controls social-insurance institutions, were set forth
in decree No. 56/1790 of December 31, 1942. In general the De
partment will establish standards concerning accounting, manage
ment of funds, compilation of statistics, etc.
The General Directorate for Social Assistance, created by decree
of August 26, 1942, is responsible for assisting unemployed workers,
persons voluntarily unemployed (defined as those socially mal
adjusted), needy persons, and victims of disasters. A decree of
September 21, 1942, contains detailed provisions for the organiza
tion of this agency.
In d u strial D evelop m en t in C h in a 1
THE Ministry of Economic Affairs of Free China, which undertook
a registration of factories, reported that there were 1,915 privately
owned factories using power-driven machinery and employing over
30 workers each, at the close of 1942. Of these, 28.6 percent were
making equipment; 27.2 percent, chemical products; 22.7 percent,
textiles and clothing; 7.1 percent, metallurgical products; 5.2 percent,
food products; and 3.2 percent, electricity; 2.8 percent were printing
works; and there was a miscellaneous group comprising 3.2 percent
of the total. These establishments were distributed over 12 Prov
inces, as follows: 936 in Szechwan, 368 in Hunan, 173 in Kwangsi,
170 in Shensi, 63 in Kansu, 55 in Kiangsi, and the remaining 150 in
the Provinces of Kweichow, Yunnan, Fukien, Kwangtung, Hupei,
and Sikiang.
These private enterprises are under the supervision of the Min
istry of Economic Affairs, from which they have received financial
and technical aid. At the close of 1942 the aggregate loan to all
the industries was divided as follows: Chemical products, 21.3 per
cent; electricity, 20.7 percent; equipment, 19.9 percent; metallurgy,
19.4 percent; textiles, 14 percent; and other industries, 4.7 percent.
The industrialization of Free China dates back to the time when
the factories were transferred to the interior of the Republic, early
in the war. Recent statistics indicate that 639 factories have been
1 Data are from International Labor Review (Montreal), August 1943.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
720
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
so transferred, 472 having again started operations after arrange
ments for their adjustment or amalgamation. The construction of
new plants in the interior has also been stimulated, with the aid
of the Ministry of Economic Affairs. New establishments received
approximately 50 percent of all the loans extended.
An outcome of the measures taken by the Minister of Economic
Affairs to reorganize and develop these industries was the notable
expansion in production in 1941 and 1942, which is shown by the
following index numbers:
I n d e x o f p r o d u c ti o n
(1 9 4 0 = 1 0 0 )
1942
1941
I r o n ----------------------------------------------------------- 555
S teel_______________________________________ 136
C o al----------------------------------------------------------- 123
P ow er--------------------------------------------------------- 214
M achine to o ls______________________________ 133
A cids---------------------------------------------------------- 237
C austic so d a _______________________________ 324
C hloride of lim e____________________________ 458
A lcohol____________________________________ 111
C o tto n y a rn (m achine m a d e )_______________ 261
W heat flo u r________________________________ 145
259
122
113
200
127
105
300
348
104
253
139
Changes in N ew Zealand Labor C on d ition s
INCREASING labor shortage is stressed as a problem in the report
of the New Zealand Department of Labor for the year ended March
31, 1943. Production is hampered also by the shortage in supplies,
owing in part to priorities and the freezing of stocks to fill anticipated
emergency demands. To meet the continuing labor shortage, more
women were being employed in factory work. In primary industries,
where seasonal activities cause temporary labor shortages, experienced
workers were released from the armed forces to assist. Men in bivouac
camps were employed for harvesting and similar purposes, and even
though they were unskilled in some cases, it is stated, they formed a
pool of willing labor.
The report under review treats a number of important wartime
labor questions, which are discussed briefly below.
Overtime Work
Labor inspectors did not believe that the extended overtime hours
being worked in factories to fill defense requirements were a detriment
to the health of women and boys. Extension of the working hours of
male workers over age 16 is not subject to official limitation, except
in respect to “meal breaks.” For women and boys under 16 the in
spectors must give approval for overtime and it may not exceed 90
hours in a year, with the provision that in cases arising from excep
tional circumstances an additional 30 hours may be authorized. With
the approval of the Industrial Emergency Council, overtime beyond
the 120-hour limit was permitted in 3,936 cases (3,902 women and
34 boys) to a total of 235,212 hours in the fiscal year 1943. For ear
lier war years the extended hours were greater—1,549,635 in 1942,
1,413,157 in 1941, 1,241,807 in 1940, and 950,140 in 1939. These
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Employment and Labor Conditions
721
figures are exclusive of time worked by women on night shifts, as
provided under suspension orders. In spite of shift arrangements,
overtime has increased in many industries. For example, overtime
hours increased in woolen milling from 98,444 hours in 1939 to 174,053
in 1940 (shift employment became practicable on June 20, 1940),
to 235,374 in 1941, and 310,843 in 1942.
Canteens in Industry
Overtime and shift work and the employment of women who for
merly performed tasks in their homes raised the question as to whether
the workers had reasonable opportunity to obtain meals. Although
the need for canteens was not so great as it was in Great Britain, where
aerial bombardment and the transfer of plants to outlying areas raised
special problems, investigation showed that difficulties with regard
to catering did exist in New Zealand.
Although no provision of law required New Zealand employers to
provide canteen facilities, a number of employers had provided very
creditable canteens. After public investigation it was determined
that the problem of canteens was, for the time at least, capable of
solution without legal authority.
Women in Employment
From 1931-32 to 1942-43 the number of women employed in
factories increased by over 100 percent, that is from 18,545 to 38,092.
The trend toward an increasing proportion of woman workers was in
progress even before the war. In 1913-14 women (numbering 17,322)
formed 30 percent of the force, and in 1939-40 the total (31,332) had
increased to 38.5 percent.
New Zealand factory legislation contains special restrictions con
cerning female workers—for example, limiting their hours of work—
but no statutory differentiation is made in wage rates. Nevertheless,
lower wage scales for women than for men were established in awards
of the Court of Arbitration and in other orders. In many industries,
however, no separate rate has been prescribed for women employed
in the war program, and when women have entered employments in
which no special rate was established for female workers, they have
received the rate for the job. On the several occasions when appli
cations were made to fix rates for women, the Industrial Emergency
Council has adhered to the principle of equal pay for equal work, ex
cept when it was shown that the woman worker’s labor was less
productive than that of a man. In cases of the latter kind, lower
rates were fixed for female labor.
Because of the emergency, legal prohibitions on the employment of
female workers in factories between the hours of 6 p. m. and 8 a. m.
have been lifted in a number of industries, such as ammunition manu
facture, bread baking, biscuit manufacture, brushware manufacture
(two employers), laundry (one hospital board), and woolen milling.
Workshop Committees
Workshop committees have been established in some towns, but they
are not general. In several cases good work has been done by the
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722
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
committees; in other instances they have served merely as a channel
for expressing dissatisfaction. It is not within their jurisdiction to
deal with matters arising out of an award. Matters regarded by
the Department of Labor as suitable for discussion by workshop
committees are health and safety, greater efficiency, increased
production, prevention of waste, and cleanliness of the factory.
Absenteeism
A complete survey of absenteeism throughout the Dominion was
not possible, owing to the lack of staff. It was also found that few
employers had recorded the reasons for absences of their employees.
Certain conclusions were drawn from a number of cases which were
reviewed in considerable detail.
Some workers who had been recorded as absent without reason were
found _in fact to have been sick. Since they were employed in an
essential industry, but had neglected to obtain a formal release from
the manpower authorities, their names were retained on the employ
ment record although under normal conditions they would have been
removed. In other cases, workers had made unauthorized changes
of jobs and were recorded as absent by the original employer, owing
to his ignorance of the change; in reality, the employees were at work
elsewhere.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Women in Industry
W artim e E m p loym en t of W om en in M anufacturing 1
WARTIME industrial expansion has resulted in almost doubling
the number of women in manufacturing industries since October 1939,
bringing the total number of women employed in June 1943 to more
than 4% million. Women now comprise about 30 percent of all
manufacturing wage earners. Field studies conducted by the Women’s
Bureau of the U. S. Department of Labor indicate that although many
of the women hired have had no previous factory experience, they are
well suited to many kinds of industrial work and are superior to men
at certain tasks, particularly those which require dexterity and atten
tion to details. The metal, industrial chemicals, and rubber industries
have been especially active in recruiting women. These industries
which produce the ships, planes, and implements of war employed
nearly 2 million woman wage earners in June 1943, while the textile,
leather, and apparel industries which have always utilized women in
great numbers employed almost 1% million.
T a b l e 1.—Estimated
Employment of Woman Wage Earners in Manufacturing, by
Economic Division,1 January and June 1943
Woman wage earners
Economic division
Number
(thousands)
January
June
Percent of total2
January
June
All wage earners
(thousands)
January
June
All manufacturing..____ ___________________
3, 766
4,276
27.9
30.9
13, 503
13,821
M etal, industrial chemicals, and rubber indus
t r i e s ______ _____________________________
________ ____ _____
Basic metals. _ . _
M etal fabricating____ __________________
Industrial chemicals_____________________
R ubb er... _________ . ________ _________
Food industries_________
_
_ ______ _
Textile, apparel, and leather industries__ __ _
Other manufacturing industries______ ______
1,438
59
1,292
21
66
248
1, 473
607
1, 859
94
1, 668
26
71
262
1,455
700
19.4
5.6
21.7
9.4
36.1
25.7
58.5
23.4
23.7
8.9
26.1
11.1
37.8
27.5
60.2
27.0
7,422
1, 048
5,965
226
183
965
2,518
2,598
7,858
1, 049
6,391
229
189
953
2,416
2,594
1 These divisions were devised to distinguish groups of industries of special significance in wartime.
They represent combinations of complete industries classified by pre-war product and cannot be considered
clear-cut categories.
2 Percentages computed on unrounded figures.
During the initial stages of war expansion the manufacturing
industries hired men preponderantly. Between October 1939 and
April 1942, 5 million wage earners were added to manufacturing indus
tries; less than 10 percent of these were women. As long as a supply
of men was still available many industries were reluctant to hire
women. ' Traditionally women had been utilized only in lower1 Prepared in the Bureau’s Employment Statistics Division.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
723
724
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
paying jobs. The industries which had large proportions of women
were, for the most part, highly seasonal and therefore offered very
irregular employment. An entirely new concept of the jobs which
women could fill was necessary before they could be used to their
fullest capabilities. The growing depletion of the male labor supply
and the rapidly expanding war industries literally forced employers
to try out women in all industries and almost all jobs, between
April 1942 and June 1943. Thus, women represented more than
four-fifths of the net total of 1,833,000 wage earners added to the
manufacturing industries between April 1942 and June 1943.
T a b l e 2 . —Estimated fEmployment of Woman Wage Earners in Manufacturing, in
Specified Months, October 1939-June 1943
/
Woman wage earners
Year and month
Number
(thousands)
1939: O ctober...
. __________________ _________
1940: October_____ _ . . . ________ __
... ...
1941: April. .
_ ______ _ ________ _ . ___ - _
October_____ ___________ _________ ______ _
1942: April
„
__
_________ . . October. . . ___________ __________________ __
1943: January______________ _________ _ _________
February____
______ ______ _ __ . _ _ ____
March____________ . . ____________ _ _ _ _ _ _
April_____________________ __________ _______
M a y .. _________ _____ _ ___________ _ ____
June_________ _______ . . ______ . _. ___
2,268
2,270
2,425
2, 743
2, 751
3, 336
3,766
3, 915
4,015
4,112
4,172
4,276
Percent
of total
1 25.6
24.1
23.5
23.6
22.9
25.3
27.9
28.7
29.2
29.9
30.5
30.9
All wage
M an wage
earners
earners
(thousands) (thousands)
6,586
7,134
7,885
8,873
9, 237
9, 830
9, 737
9, 718
9, 712
9,623
9, 524
9,545
8, 854
9,404
10, 310
11,616
11, 988
13,166
13, 503
13, 633
13, 727
13, 735
13, 696
13, 821
i Derived from data of the 1939 Census of Manufactures: “ Persons Employed in Manufacturing E stab
lishments, by Sex,” August 1941.
Before the war 85 percent of all woman wage earners in manufac
turing were in the nondurable-goods industries. However, the rapid
wartime growth of the durable-goods industries relative to the non
durable resulted in more nearly equalizing the distribution of women
in these two groups. By June 1943, 58 percent of all woman wage
earners were in the nondurable-goods industries, while 42 percent
were in those making durable goods.
The number of men in the durable-goods industries continued to
increase until March 1943, even though male employment in non
durable-goods industries began to decline in October 1942. Undoubt
edly the drop in male employment in the nondurable-goods industries
was in large part due to the shifting of workers to jobs in essential war
industries. However, the increase in male employment in the manu
facture of durable goods in this period (October 1942 to March 1943)
was greater than the decrease in their employment in nondurablegoods industries, indicating that some men came from the farms,
older men came out of retirement, and youths left schools.
Since March 1943 the number of men in both the durable- and non
durable-goods industries has been declining. Fortunately the number
of women entering manufacturing industries was more than sufficient
to replace the men leaving for the armed forces. For this reason total
manufacturing employment has continued to increase to a level of
almost 14 million.
Each of the major durable-goods groups showed substantial in
creases in the number of women hired. Most spectacular of these was
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
725
Women in Industry
T a b l e 3 . —Estimated
Employment of Woman Wage Earners in Durable and Nondurable
Goods Manufacturing, in Specified Months, October 1939-June 1943
Woman w age earners
Number
(thousands)
Year and month
Man wage earners All wage earners
(thousands)
(thousands)
Percent of total
N on D urable N on D urable N on D urable N on
D urable durable
durable goods
durable goods durable
goods
goods
goods
goods
goods
goods
1939: October___________ ..
1940: October___ ________
1941: A p r il... ____________
October_____________
1942: April_____________ .
October_____________
1943: January_____ ________
February_______ ____
M arch.. . . . ____ __ _
April_______________
M ay___ ____________
J u n e ..._____________
340
381
445
517
577
982
1,382
1,494
1, 573
1,656
1,727
1,814
1,928
1,889
1,980
2, 226
2,174
2,354
2,384
2,421
2,442
2,456
2,445
2,462
1 39.5
38.7
39.1
39.9
39.6
41.3
42.4
43.0
43.4
43.9
44.2
44.2
18.6
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.9
13.2
17.6
18.7
19.4
20.3
21.2
22.0
3, 627
4,144
4,798
5, 518
5,923
6,482
6,493
6,504
6, 526
6,489
6, 432
6,436
2, 959
2, 990
3,087
3,355
3,314
3, 348
3, 244
3, 214
3,186
3,134
3,092
3,109
3, 967
4, 525
5,243
6,035
6, 500
7, 464
7,875
7,998
8, 099
8,145
8,159
8, 250
4,887
4,879
5,067
5,581
5,488
5,702
5,628
5,635
5, 628
5,590
5, 537
5,571
1
Derived from data of the 1939^Census~of Manufactures: “Persons Employed in Manufacturing E stab
lishments, by Sex,” August 1941.
the transportation-equipment group, which employed only 1,800
women in October 1939 and employed more than 466,800 in June 1943.
In the latter month women accounted for more than 20 percent of the
total number of wage earners in this group, as compared with only
1 percent in October 1939.
T a b l e 4 . —Estimated
Number of Woman Wage Earners, by Major Industry Groups,
in Specified Months, October 1939—June 1943
Number (in thousands)
Industry group
Durable goods:
Iron and steel___________________ . . . _ _
Electrical machinery_________________________
Machinery, except electrical____________ ______
Transportation equipm ent____________________
Automobiles______ _________ _____ _ _
Nonferrous m etals..
_____________________ _
Lumber and tim ber____ _____________________
Furniture____ ___ __________________________
Stone, clay, and glass_______________ ___ _.
Nondurable goods:
Textile-mill products_________________________
Apparel_______ _______ ____________ . . . . .
Leather______________________ _____________
Food________ _______________________________
Tobacco______ ______________________________
Paper____________________ _________ _ . . .
Printing and publishing.. .
. . ____ .
Chemicals______ ____________ _____ ._ __
Petroleum and coal____. . . _ _ ______ . . . ____
Rubber_________________ ______ _____________
M iscellaneous.. _______________________ _____
1939
1941
1942
October
April
April
1943
April
June
68.8
100.3
28.4
1.8
29.5
34.9
4.1
36.9
35.3
93.2
131.2
43.0
4.3
31.6
55.4
8.0
31.6
46.6
124.3
174.2
62.0
33.1
20.5
56.6
11.6
39.9
55.2
293.9
313.4
218.9
410.9
118.2
83.4
49.9
82.8
84.7
317.8
323.6
240.2
466.8
142.0
91.7
53.0
89.9
89.3
527.7
626.0
139.6
263.8
64.9
69.4
59.3
46.0
.3
33.0
98.1
554.9
687.9
149.9
177.4
61.2
71.4
69.6
59.3
.5
42.0
105.5
587. 7
729.6
161.1
211.6
62.1
78.1
71.4
102.4
.8
39.9
129.1
627.0
696.1
169.2
245.7
63.0
96.1
88.1
219.5
5.9
68.3
176.9
620.2
669.8
164. 5
262.1
60.3
100.2
92.2
231.2
6.9
71.4
182.7
The extent to which certain industries employed women is best
illustrated by the fact that 8 industries employed more than 100,000
women each in June 1943. These are aircraft, automobiles, boots and
shoes, cotton goods, electrical equipment, machine-shop products,
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
726
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
men’s clothing, and women’s clothing. An additional 10 industries
employed more than 50,000 women. Further proof of the wide
spread utilization of women in manufacturing may be seen in the
fact that in 30 industries women represent more than half of the total
employment, while in only 6 do they account for less than 5 percent.
In October 1939 women constituted less than 5 percent of the employ
ment in 42 industries.
T a b l e 5.— Number of Women per 100 Wage Earners in Manufacturing Industries
and Groups in Specified Months, October 1939 to June 1943
Industry group or industry
1939
October
1941
April
1943
1942
April
April
June
All manufacturing___________________________________
Durable goods_____________________________ A A
Nondurable goods_______________________________
25.6
«.0
39.5
23.5
8.5
39.1
22.9
8.9
39.6
Iron and steel and their products_____________________
Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling mills________
Gray-iron and semisteel castings__________________
Malleable-iron castings_______________
Steel castings___________________________________
Cast-iron pipe and fittings.-______________________
T in cans and other tinware______________________
Wire drawn from purchased rods__________
Wirework________________ _______________ _______
Cutlery and edge tools______________ *_________ A
Tools (except edge tools, machine tools, files, and saws)
Hardware_________________________
Plumbers’ supplies___________________________
Stoves, oil burners, and heating equipment, not else
where classified________________________________
Steam and hot-water heating apparatus and steam
fittings________________________________________
Stamped and enameled ware and galvanizing..
Fabricated structural and ornamental metalwork
Bolts, nuts, washers, and rivets_________________
Forgings, iron and steel_________________________
Screw-machine products and wood screws_______"A
Steel barrels, kegs, and drums_____. ________
Firearms___________________________
6.2
1
1
4
6.8
1
(3)
(3)
(2)
(2)
30
9
21
21
10
27
5
7.9
1
(*)
(3)
(2)
(2)
31
9
20
26
10
28
6
3
4
5
25
25
6
23
(2)
14
(2)
12
11
5
7
21
(2)
13
1
14
0
3
8
22
1
15
(2)
24
(*)
8
22
34
7
26
11
32
23
24
25
36
29
12
35
28
27
Electrical machinery__ ____ ___________________
Electrical equipment______ :______ A A A A
Communication equipment_____________________
33.9
17
58
31.9
24
55
33.5
26
56
45.1
39
59
46.1
40
59
Machinery, except electrical______________________
Machinery and machine-shop products________
Engines and turbines____________________
Tractors_______________________________
Agricultural machinery, excluding tractors
Machine tools_______________________________
Machine-tool accessories________________
Textile machinery___________________________ A
Pumps and pumping equipment________
Typewriters_______________________________
Cash registers, adding and calculating machines A
Washing machines, wringers, and driers, domestic.
Sewing machines, domestic and industrial_______
Refrigerators and refrigeration equipment________
5.2
4
2
1
1
(2)
3
4
6
4 32
4 16
4
12
9
5. 2
5
1
(2)
1
1
5
4
3
35
20
6
13
10
5.9
6
1
(2)
1
2
6
5
4
35
21
9
16
10
17.7
19
12
8
7
12
20
17
12
39
32
31
29
26
19. 2
21
14
12
12
13
20
18
13
39
34
36
30
20
2. 7
(2)
1
6
4
(2)
17
18.5
2
6
37
27
6
25
20.4
3
9
39
28
8
27
Transportation equipment, except automobiles.
Locomotives_______ ______________________
Car building, electric and steam railroad____
Aircraft and parts, excluding aircraft engines
Aircraft engines____ _______ ___________
Shipbuilding__________________________ A
Motorcycles, bicycles, and parts_____ AAA
Automobiles_________________
Nonferrous metals and their products............
Smelting and refining, primary, of nonferrous metals7
Alloying and rolling and drawing of nonferrous
metals, except alum inum_________________
Clocks and watches____________________
Silverware and plated ware__________
'
Lighting equipment_______________
Alum inum ____________
See fo o tn o te s a t end o f tab le.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
«
(2)
28
11
22
28
11
23
5
1.0
1
1
41
41
(2)
10
[T\
.9
(2)
l
l
(2)
16
29.9
20.3
43.9
30.0
22.0
44.2
17.0 I
5
6
8
6
2
39
19
28
31
20
35
IS
18.5
6
7
9
7
2
41
23
31
39
20
36
19
6.6
5.4
4.8
18.1
21.0
13.7
(2)
16.6
(2)
15.3
(2)
20.3
2
9
47
25
26
7
10
48
23
23
4
17
51
33
29
12
22.1
2
H
18
53
32
32
15
l
48
22
26
10
|
727
W omen in Industry
T a b l e 5 . —Number of Women per 100 Wage Earners in Manufacturing Industries
and Groups in Specified Months, October 1939 to June 1943—Continued
1943
Industry group or industry
1939
October
1941
April
1942
April
April
June
0.9
1
1
1.6
1
2
2.1
2
3
10.4
9
15
11.0
9
17
Furniture and finished lumber products.
Mattresses and bedsprings-------------Furniture-------------------- ---------------Wooden boxes, other than cigar------Caskets and other morticians’ goods.
Wood preserving........ ...........................
10.3
18
6
8
20
(2)
8.4
16
7
7
17
(2)
10.3
17
8
9
17
(2)
23.0
33
22
23
22
3
25.1
35
25
26
23
3
Stone, clay, and glass products--------------- ------------------Glass and glassware................- ------ ------------------ -----Cement--------- ------------------------------------------- ------ --Brick, tile, and terra cotta-----------------------------------Pottery and related products--------------------------------Gypsum________________________________________
Wallboard, plaster (except gypsum), and mineral wool.
Lime---------------------------- ------------------------------------Abrasive wheels_________________________________
11.1
18
(2)
3
32
(2)
1
(2)
16
13.1
18
(2)
5
32
(2)
1
(2)
14
14.6
20
(2)
5
37
(2)
1
(2)
14
23.6
30
2
7
43
11
16
1
37
24.8
31
3
9
43
11
21
2
38
Textile-mill products and other fiber manufactures--------Cotton manufactures, except smallwares---------------Cotton smallwares_______________________________
Silk and rayon goods----------------------------------.---------Woolen and worsted manufactures, except dyeing and
finishing_______________________________________
Hosiery---------------- ------ ---------- ----------------- --------Knitted cloth_______________________ ____________
Knitted outerwear and knitted gloves----------------- A.
Knitted underwear______________--------- ------ -------Dyeing and finishing textiles, including woolen and
worsted_______________________ _______________
Carpets and rugs, wool----------------- ----------------------Cordage and tw in e.--------------------------------------------
43.4
38
53
50
43.9
39
52
52
45.1
40
57
52
50.0
45
62
58
50.3
45
63
58
41
61
38
76
76
42
60
46
74
74
42
62
45
78
74
47
67
51
80
78
47
68
51
79
78
17
31
33
18
30
31
21
30
32
28
37
43
29
38
44
Apparel and other finished textile products----M en’s clothing, not elsewhere classified----Shirts, collars, and nightwear-----------------Underwear and neckwear, men’s ------------Work shirts_______________________ r----Women’s clothing, not elsewhere classified
Corsets and allied garments---------------. . . .
M illinery______________________________
Handkerchiefs_____________ ____________
Housefurnishings, other than curtains, etc.
Textile bags___________________________
74.0
66
88
87
91
78
90
69
94
64
66
76.1
68
86
85
89
81
87
70
90
62
63
76.6
69
88
86
89
80
88
68
92
61
68
78.3
72
89
89
92
80
89
71
94
74
73
78.8
73
89
89
91
80
89
68
94
75
70
Leather and leather products----------------Leather___________________________
Boot and shoe cut stock and findings.
Boots and shoes___________________
Leather gloves and mittens-------------Trunks and suitcases----------------------
40.0
9
30
45
61
30
40.2
9
30
47
64
31
41.7
9
33
49
65
39
48.9
16
35
56
72
51
49.4
17
36
57
72
52
Food----------------- ------ -------------------Slaughtering and meat packing..
Condensed and evaporated milk.
Ice cream_____________________
Flour________________________
Cereal preparations-----------------Baking_______________________
Sugar refining, cane___________
Sugar, beet___________________
Confectionery_________________
Malt liquors__________________
Canning and preserving_______
28.4
15
3
17
2
29
15
7
1
67
1
56
21.3
15
7
12
3
31
20
8
(2)
61
1
40
23.7
16
7
17
3
30
22
10
(2)
60
1
42
27.0
21
13
21
7
34
29
18
3
63
7
43
27.5
22
14
24
7
36
29
19
6
62
9
42
Tobacco manufactures_________________ ____ Cigarettes______________ _____________
Cigars_______________________ _____ _____
Tobacco (chewing and smoking) and snuff _
66.9
48
80
50
66.5
49
79
47
66.8
49
80
46
67.7
55
80
50
67.8
54
81
52
Paper and allied products.
Paper and pulp______
Paper goods, other___
Envelopes___________
Paper bags--------------Paper boxes--------------
24.0
8
35
56
51
41
23.8
9
36
55
48
38
24.0
9
39
56
41
39
30.8
14
46
58
48
46
31.6
16
47
58
47
47
Lumber and timber basic products .
Sawmills and logging camps---Planing and plywood m ills------
See fo o tn o te s a t end o f tab le.
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Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
T a b l e 5 . — Number of Women p er 100 Wage Earners in Manufacturing Industries
and Groups in Specified Months, October 1939 to June 1943— Continued
Industry group or industry
1939
October
1941
April
li 43
1942
April
i
April
June
Printing, publishing, and allied products...... ............ ........
Newspapers and periodicals______________________
Printing, book and job___________________________
Lithographing__________ ______ __________________
Bookbinding____________________________________
17.8
8
23
22
42
20.7
0
26
24
42
21.6
0
27
24
43
26.7
9
35
35
51
27.6
10
36
38
51
Chemicals and allied products. _______________________
Paints, varnishes, and colors_____________________
Drugs, medicines, and insecticides________ _______
Perfumes and cosmetics__________________________
Soap______________ ______ ______________________
Rayon and allied products_______________________
Chemicals, not elsewhere classified________________
Compressed and liquefiedfeases___________________
Ammunition, small-arms_________________________
Cottonseed oil-________ _______________ _____ _____
Fertilizers___ ___________________________________
14. 7
5
42
69
17
26
3
1
32
1
0
15.0
5
46
62
17
24
4
0
0
0
1
17.8
6
47
66
16
24
4
0
36
2
2
29.5
12
56
69
23
32
10
5
48
3
6
31.2
13
56
67
23
34
10
5
49
5
6
Products of petroleum and coal_______________________
Petroleum refining. _______ _______________________
Roofing materials___ _____ _______________________
.4
0
1
.6
1
1
4.8
4
8
5.5
5
13
Rubber products____________________________________
Rubber tires and inner tubes______________________
Rubber goods, other________________...____________
24.6
14
28
27.8
16
31
28.1
18
30
36.7
29
40
37.8
30
42
Miscellaneous industries______________________________
Professional and scientific instruments and fire-control
equipment________ ____________________________
Photographic apparatus__________________________
Optical instruments and ophthalmic g o o d s .......... ......
Pianos, organs, and parts_____________ ____ ________
Games, toys, andjdolls___________________________
36.6
34.7
35.7
43.9
44.9
15
26
33
10
51
14
22
30
13
45
16
22
32
11
48
41
35
42
23
52
42
35
42
24
53
.3
1
0
1 Derived from data of the 1939 Census of Manufactures: “Persons Employed in Manufacturing E stab
lishments, by Sex,” August 1941.
2 Less than 1.
3 N ot available.
4 Derived from Census data by estimation.
In the preceding tables sex-ratio data are shown for 132 industries
from October 1939 to June 1943. Ratios for October 1939 are derived
from the 1939 Census of Manufactures release, “Persons Employed
in Manufacturing Establishments, by Sex.” Data from October 1940
through June 1943 are based upon reports to the Bureau of Labor
Statistics from manufacturing establishments. For June 1943, re
ports were received from approximately 23,000 establishments, em
ploying more than 8 million wage earners. This number represents about
three-fourths of the establishments which report employment each
month and constitutes more than four-fifths of the wage earners in
the complete sample.
Each series published is based on a sample covering at least one-fifth
of the estimated wage-earner employment for the entire industry.
Half the series are based on samples covering 60 percent or more of
the estimated wage-earner employment; 10 percent on samples greater
than 90 percent.
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P rin cip al Features of W orkm en's C om pensation Laws,
as o f Septem ber 1 9 4 3 1
EVERY State, except Mississippi, has a workmen’s compensation
law. In addition, such legislation exists in Alaska, Hawaii, and
Puerto Rico. Federal workmen’s compensation laws cover Govern
ment employees, longshoremen and harbor workers, and private
employees in the District of Columbia.
The main objective of workmen’s compensation legislation is the
payment of benefits to injured employees or to the dependents of those
killed in industry, regardless of who was at fault in the accident.
All of the States agree as to this principle, but under the different
laws workers do not have equal protection, because the laws vary so
widely. In some States, for example, employers are required to
operate under the compensation act, while in others they may refuse
to do so if they prefer to risk an injured worker’s suit for damages.
Again, some occupations or industries covered in one State are not
covered in another, and more than a third of the States do not provide
coverage for occupational diseases. Some laws provide a more liberal
amount and period of benefits than others. The degree of protection
a worker receives is also affected by the various administrative
provisions of the different laws.
The employers bear the cost of compensation, although a few laws
require the workers to make small contributions.
The following comparative analysis covers only the major features
of the laws relating to compensation and does not include provisions
on industrial safety. It is based on a study of the laws, some corre
spondence with administrative agencies, and in a few instances on
administrative rulings which have clarified or modified the legislation.
Scope of Legislation
To workers, the vital questions concerning workmen’s compensation
are: What industries are covered? What persons are entitled to
compensation? What exemptions are made? If an injured work
man is excluded from the benefits of the act, it is of no particular
importance to him that his State has an efficient system of administra
tion, or that the compensation scale is high, or that payments are
well secured by adequate supervision of insurance carriers.
None of the State laws applies to all employees. The principal
exemptions in most of the laws are agricultural workers and domestic
service, nonhazardous employments, numerical exceptions (employers
1 Prepared in the D ivision of Labor Standards of the U . S. Department of Labor by Alfred Acee.
551712- 43-
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729
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Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
having less than a specified number of employees), public employees,
and casual workers.
COMPULSORY AND ELECTIVE LAWS
Compensation laws may be classified as compulsory or elective. A
compulsory law is one which requires every employer within the
scope of the compensation law to accept the act and pay the com
pensation specified. An elective act is one in which the employer has
the option of either accepting or rejecting the act, but in case he
rejects it he loses the customary common-law defenses (assumed risk
of the employee, negligence of fellow servants, and contributory
negligence).
Although no compensation law covers all employments and all
wage earners, in a number of States the exempted employments may
be brought under the provisions of the laws through voluntary
acceptance by the employer or joint election by employer and employee,
but the employer loses no rights or defenses if he does not accept.
Such action on the part of an employer is called voluntary and to this
extent the compensation law is a voluntary one. Thus, a law may be
either compulsory or elective as to employments covered, and
voluntary as to employments exempted.
Table 2 on page 734 indicates that 23 of the workmen’s compen
sation acts are compulsory2 and 30 are elective. Some of the
elective acts, however, are compulsory as to public employees. In
22 of the elective laws, coverage is presumed unless the employer or
worker makes a statement of rejection. This is true in the following
laws: Alabama, Alaska, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia,
Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey,
New Mexico, North Carolina, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina,
South Dakota, Tennessee, Vermont, and Virginia.
In the other elective laws the employer must take positive action
to prove acceptance; if he does so, the worker’s acceptance is presumed,
except in Kentucky, where the worker also must sign an acceptance.
In 6 States the acceptances are filed with designated State authorities
(Kentucky, Maine, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire and Rhode
Island), while the act of obtaining insurance signifies election in
Texas and West Virginia. In Arizona the law is compulsory as to
the employer, but the employee may elect not to be covered.
SUITS FOR DAMAGES
Employers accepting the compensation act are generally exempt
from damage suits; those rejecting the act are relieved of the duty of
paying compensation, but are subject to suit with the usual defenses
abrogated. In cases where an employee rejects the compensation
act and sues an employer who has accepted it, the employer usually
retains his three defenses.
In about two-thirds of the jurisdictions, the employee may bring an
action for damages, with the common-law defenses removed, when the
employer has failed to secure payment of compensation, to provide
insurance, or to pay the premiums.
2 Including Massachusetts, where the act becomes compulsory on November 15,1943.
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NUMERICAL EXEMPTIONS
In 30 jurisdictions employers of less than a stipulated number of
employees are exempt. However, most of the acts permit voluntary
acceptance in such cases. In some of the laws the numerical exemption
does not apply to certain employments, such as in mines, building
construction, sawmills, logging operations, and other hazardous
employments. In other States the numerical exemptions apply only
to nonhazardous employment.
T able
1.— States Making Numerical Exemptions in Workmen’s Compensation Laws 1
Employers are exempt who have fewer than—
2 employees
Oklahoma
3 employees
4 employees
5 employees
6 employees
7 employees
8 em10 employees ployees
11 employees
Arizona
Delaware
Florida
Kentucky
Ohio
Texas
Utah
Wisconsin
Colorado
N ew Mexico
N ew York
(nonhazardous
only)
Puerto Rico
Rhode Island
Alaska
Arkansas
Connecticut
Kansas
N ew
Hampshire
North
Carolina
Tennessee
VirMaine
Massaginia
Michichugan
setts 2
Vermont
AlaGeorgia
bam a
Missouri South
Carolina
15 employees
1 In some States there are deviations for certain industries and occupations.
2 Effective N ov. 15,1943.
HAZARDOUS EMPLOYMENTS
In 9 States (Kansas, Louisiana, Maryland, Montana, New Mexico,
Oklahoma, Oregon, Washington, and Wyoming) the compensation
laws apply only to hazardous employments, but in all of these, except
Oklahoma and Wyoming, employers and employees in other occupa
tions are permitted to come under the act. The laws of Kansas,
Louisiana, and New Mexico are elective, while those of the other
States are compulsory. In Illinois and New York the workmen’s
compensation acts are compulsory as to hazardous industries and
elective as to other employments. In New York, particularly, the
list of hazardous industries is so comprehensive that most employments
are compulsorily covered. The New Hampshire act applies only to
employers having a specified number of employees, but in hazardous
employments numerical exemptions do not apply. In Missouri the
commission may require coverage of hazardous industries without
regard to numerical exemption. In most of the States the covered
industries are enumerated, but the list is not complete in several States,
and in some a “blanket clause” is used, while in others additions have
been made by administrative agencies and the courts.
PURLIC EMPLOYMENTS
Employees of the State and its subdivisions and of municipalities
are covered in 33 jurisdictions. In several States compensation for
public employees is compulsory, although it is elective as to private
employments. Public employees are partially included in 12 addi
tional States. In 4 jurisdictions (Alaska, Arkansas, Missouri, and
New Hampshire) public employees are excluded, although in Missouri
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Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
t h e l a w a u t h o r iz e s a n a ffir m a t iv e a c c e p ta n c e o f its p r o v is io n s b y
th e S t a t e o r t h e c o u n t y , a n d in N e w H a m p s h i r e t h e G o v e r n o r a n d
C o u n c i l , u p o n p e t it i o n a n d h e a r in g , m a y a w a r d c o m p e n s a tio n t o
S t a t e e m p lo y e e s . I n A l a b a m a , A r k a n s a s , a n d T e n n e s s e e p u b lic
e m p lo y e e s m a y b e c o v e re d b y v o l u n t a r y a c t io n .
EMPLOYMENTS SPECIFICALLY EXCLUDED
Agricultural employments are usually excluded from the operation
of workmen’s compensation laws. However, in most States volun
tary coverage is permitted. Domestic servants are excluded also,
for the most part, but usually employers may elect to come within
the coverage. Casual employees are likewise generally excluded, and
in a few cases employees receiving more than a designated wage are
not covered. In California, however, domestic servants working over
52 hours a week are covered. In New York, private or domestic
chauffeurs are subject to the act in cities of over 2,000,000 population.
Employees engaged in threshing grain are specifically covered in
Kentucky, and the Minnesota act applies to commercial threshermen
and balers. In South Dakota the operation of certain farm machinery
is covered, and the Arizona law covers employees engaged in the
operation of mechanical agricultural implements.
Some laws specifically exclude certain industries; in others, indus
tries are excluded by omission from listed employments requiring
coverage. Thus, the Florida act specifically excludes independent
contractors and various types of turpentine industries, and the Maine
law excludes employees engaged in logging operations. In North
Carolina the law exempts sawmill and logging operators having
fewer than 15 employees, and the South Carolina law excludes a
number of industries such as logging operations and the production
of turpentine.
OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES
As originally enacted, none of the workmen’s compensation laws
provided benefits for occupational diseases. As late as in 1936 there
were only 16 States which compensated for occupational diseases.
This protection was also given to employees of the District of Co
lumbia, Hawaii, Puerto Kico, and to employees covered by the
Federal Employees Compensation Act and the Longshoremen’s and
Harbor Workers’ Act. It is now generally recognized, however, that
a worker should be protected from illness arising from his job as well
as from injuries caused by industrial accidents. There are now 32
jurisdictions which by one method or another compensate for all or
specified occupational diseases.
The laws covering occupational diseases provide benefits for any
disability resulting from an occupational disease, either by listing
specific diseases covered or by using (instead of the word “accident”)
the word “injury,” which the courts in some States have construed
to cover occupational-disease disability. A few laws specifically de
fine the word “injury” to include occupational diseases. An en
couraging development in this field in recent years has been the in
creasing use of the general-coverage system in place of the schedule
system. During 1943 three States (Michigan, Minnesota, and Ne
braska) provided for general coverage. There are now 19 acts
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Social Security
which provide general or blanket coverage; 13 others cover only dis
eases listed specifically in schedules which are sometimes quite limited
in extent.
In Missouri, occupational diseases are compensable only when both
employer and employee elect to be covered. Under the laws of
Illinois and Indiana, the employer is required to make a special elec
tion whenever coverage is desired under the occupational-disease
law. A separate act in Montana provides for the payment of $30
a month out of public funds to persons totally disabled from silicosis,
if they have been residents of the State for 10 years.
In some of the States special provisions limit payments for silicosis
by reducing benefits and by imposing certain residence requirements.
The West Virginia law covers silicosis only and requires the employer
to make a special election. The Kentucky law, which is of the schedule
type, covers only a few specified diseases.
The jurisdictions with full or limited coverage of occupational
diseases are as follows:
Full coverage
C alifornia
C onnecticut
D istric t of C olum
bia
H aw aii
Illinois
In d ia n a
M assachusetts
M ichigan
M innesota
M issouri
Schedule coverage
N eb rask a
N ew Y ork
N o rth D a k o ta
Ohio
Oregon
W ashington
W isconsin
U n ited S tates:
Civil E m ployees
L ongshorem en’s
A ct.
A rizona
A rkansas
D elaw are
Id ah o
K en tu ck y
M ary lan d
New Jersey
N o rth C arolina
P en n sy lv an ia
P u e rto Rico
R hode Isla n d
U ta h
W est V irginia
Security for Payment
To make certain that benefit payments will be made when due,
the States require that the covered employer shall obtain insurance
or give proof of his qualifications to carry his own risk, which is known
as self-insurance. In most of the States the employer is permitted to
insure in private insurance companies. State insurance systems exist
in 19 jurisdictions. Eight of these are called “exclusive” because
employers are required to insure their risks in the State fund. Com
petitive State funds exist in 11 States, where employers may choose
whether they will insure their risks in the State fund, or with private
insurance companies, or will qualify as “self-insurers” with the
privilege of carrying their own risks.
Table 2 indicates the insurance requirements in the different acts
and shows the States having elective and compulsory acts. It will
be noted that 23 of the acts are compulsory and 30 are elective.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
734
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
T a b l e 2 . — Insurance Requirements of Workmen’s Compensation Acts
Insurance provided in—
Jurisdictions
Compensation
compulsory or
elective
Alabama___ _____ ______ _____________ _
Alaska_____ _______ ________
Arizona___________ _____ . . .
Arkansas___ __________ ______
California_____ ____ ____
Colorado__________ ______ . . . _ .
Connecticut____________________ ______________ _
Delaware. _ . _____________ ____ _ _
District of Colum bia_________ __________ . . . .
Florida__________
_ .
_________ . . .
. ...
Georgia___________________
Hawaii____________________ _______
Idaho_____ ______ ____________
Illinois..______ _____ __________ . _
Indiana.. . _____________ _____ .
Iowa_____________ ___________
Kansas___________
______
Kentucky_________ __________ _
Louisiana___________
.
.....
M aine___________________ . . . . .
M aryland..................... _. _ ____ . .
Massachusetts............................... .
M ichigan____________________
M innesota.. ___________________________________
Missouri.................. ..............
M ontana____ _ _________ _____ _ . . . .
Nebraska............................ . . . . . . .
N e v a d a ............... .
. .................
N ew Hampshire . . ._ ___________ ____________
N ew Jersey_________ ______ . . . . . ___________
N ew Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . .
N ew Y ork .. _____________ . . . . .
North Carolina.. ...... ... .............. .
N orth D akota_____ ______ . . .
Ohio.. . . ________ . . . . . . . .
Oklahoma____________ _____ ______ . . . . . .
Oregon________________________ . . .
Pennsylvania . . . . . .
_____ . . .
Puerto R ic o .. . .
. _____
Rhode Island.. ______ . . . ___ ______
South Carolina_____ ________________ . . . ______
South Dakota. ______ ____ ______ ______ ______
Tennessee_______________ ________ _. . . . . . . .
Texas___________________________ .
E lective..
do
Compulsory
___do-__
do
Elective .
_ __do____
Compulsory .
_ __d o __ "E lective...
_ . do__
Compulsory..
do _
. . do ...
E lective...
__do_
___do____
___do __
___do
_ do
Compulsory ..
. . do.2
Compulsory .
__ _ do___ r____
Elective
____do____ _
____do____
___do____
____do_________
____do_____
_ _ do__
Compulsory
Elective .
Compulsory
Utah. . . .
. . . . ___
Vermont_______________________ _______________
Virginia____ _______________ _____________
W ashington______ ___________________ . . . ______
W est Virginia_____ __________ _____ . . . . . . .
W isco n sin ... _______ ________ .
W yoming_________ .
United States:
Longshoremen’s A ct________________ . . . . . .
Civil em ployees__________ ____ ________ . . .
Compulsory..
Elective
_ do
Compulsory
Elective .
Compulsory
do
do—
. . d o ...
E lective..
__ do__
Compulsory
Elective .
___ do_____ __
___d o ________
____do______ _
___do
_
____do_______
____do_________
State fund: Ex
clusive or com
petitive
Competitive___
Competitive___
do
Competitive___
Competitive___
Com petitive___
Competitive___
Exclusive
Competitive___
Exclusive
do
Competitive___
Exclusive
Competitive___
Exclusive
Competitive___
Exclusive
_ do__
Private com
panies or by
self-insurance
Either.
(*).
Either.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Self-insurance.
Either.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Self-insurance.
Either.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Private com
panies.
Either.
Do.
Do.
Self-insurance.
Either.
Exclusive
Do.
(3).
1 No security is required, but in case beneficiary files notice of death claim, employer may deposit $9,000
with clerk of district court or give bond for that amount. In other cases claimant may have writ of attach
ment issued unless employer files an undertaking in an amount double that sued for.
2 Effective N ov. 15, 1943.
2 B y direct appropriation of Congress.
Amount and Period of Benefits
The amount of ,'money that injured workers actually receive under
the different compensation acts is determined by three factors: The
rate, usually a percentage of the wages; the term or period of payment;
and, in most States, a fixed maximum or weekly total payment. The
amount and method of payment also differ according to the type of
the injury. The acts prescribe payments in case of death and in case
of permanent total disability, and also have specific provisions cover
ing permanent partial disability and temporary total disability.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Social Security
735
PERCENTAGE OF WAGES
In all but 4 jurisdictions (Alaska, Oregon, Washington, and Wyo
ming) the amount of compensation is based upon the wage received
by the injured worker. A few acts provide fixed lump sums or
pensions for certain injuries, but apply the percentage system to all
others. In most of the acts there are varying proportions of wages
ranging from 42% to 70 percent for different types of injury. How
ever, workers do not necessarily receive the amount which would be
indicated by these percentages, as in most States there is a limita
tion on the maximum amount of weekly benefits which an employee
may receive. In addition, in some States the percentage varies
with the worker’s conjugal condition and the number of his children;
MAXIMUM LIMITATION
Maximum periods during which compensation may be paid vary
widely in the different acts. Maximum weekly payments range from
$12 to $30. Especially when earnings are relatively high, as at
present, the maximum weekly benefits may be only a fraction of
wages, making it difficult for the injured worker to meet living costs.
As a result of this difficulty, a number of States increased the maxi
mum weekly benefits in 1943.
Arizona is the only State which does not limit the maximum weekly
benefits.
DEATH BENEFITS
Methods for determining compensation for death vary considerably
and do not in all cases depend upon the fact that the deceased was a
source of support to legal beneficiaries. In Arizona, Nevada, New
York, Oregon, Washington, West Virginia, and the United States
(civil employees’ act), the law provides for the payment of benefits
to a widow for life or until remarriage and in the case of children
until a specified age is reached. The majority of the other acts have
a similar provision, but limit the total amount payable. The Okla
homa law does not cover fatal accidents.
DISABILITY BENEFITS
Compensation is paid in four designated classes of disability:
Permanent total, permanent partial, temporary total, and temporary
partial. The term “disability” has been defined in varying ways by
the courts in interpreting compensation laws. Some have held that
it means inability to earn wages, or full wages, at the work in which
the employee was engaged at the time of the injury, while others
have held that it means inability to perform any kind of work which
might be obtained. A few courts have interpreted the term to mean
inability to obtain work.
Table 3 shows for the various jurisdictions the percentage of wages
paid, the maximum number of weeks during which benefits are paid,
and the limitation of payments as to weekly and total amounts. This
information is given in tabular form for injuries causing death, per
manent total disability, permanent partial disability, and temporary
total disability. In the case of permanent partial disability compen
sation is frequently based on a percentage of the wage loss.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
736
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
T a b l e 3 . —Minimum and Maximum Benefits under Workmen’s Compensation Laws,
by Extent of Disability and by State, September 1943 1
DEATH
State
Alabama__ _____
Limit of payments
per week
Maximum
percentage
of wages
Maximum period
300 weeks_____ ________
65.
Alaska______ _
Arizona_________ 66% ................ Widowhood, or specified minority
age of children.
A rkansas-______ 65___ . . . 450 weeks____
. . .
_____ _
C alifornia__ . . .
65
C olorado... _ _. 50__________ 312w eek s.. ______ ____ _. _
C onnecticut._ . . . 50______
.. 312 weeks; thereafter reduced pay
ments to children to age 18.
Delaware __ _
65 .
312 weeks; thereafter to children un
til specified age.
District of Co 66%________ Widowhood, or specified minority
lumbia.
age of children.
Florida ._
____ 6 0 . . ............... 350 weeks .
___
Georgia_____ . . .
Hawaii_________
42V6________
66%________
Idaho__________
55____
____
300 w e e k s __ . .
__ .
Widowhood, or specified minority
age of children.
400 weeks__
Illinois____ _____
4 times aver
age annual
earnings.
Indiana_________ 55
300 weeks _______
Iowa................. . .
Kansas_________
____do_____ ___
60
3 times aver
age annual
earnings.
K entu ck y.. ____ 65___
. . . 400 weeks_________
Louisiana_______ 65 .
300 weeks_________
Maine__________ 66% .
M aryland.. ____ 66%
___ do__________ . . .
416 weeks____ _____
Massachusetts___
Michigan_______
Minnesota______
66%________
66% _______
Missouri________ 66% _______
M ontan a... ____ 66%________
Nebraska_______ 66% ____
.
400 weeks; thereafter to children un
til specified age.
400 weeks___
400 weeks____________
325 weeks__________
N evada.............. .
70
Widowhood, or specified minority
age of children.
New Hampshire.. (3)__________
N ew Jersey...
60
300 weeks; thereafter to children
until specified age.
N ew Mexico____
New York______
60
66%
60__________
North Carolina.
North Dakota___ 66% .
Ohio___________
Oregon_______
66%_____
Pennsylvania . .
66%
..
Puerto Rico_____
Rhode Island___ 60__________
See footnotes at end of table.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
300 weeks______
Widowhood, or specified minority
age of children unless blind or
crippled.
350 weeks_________ .
Widowhood, or specified minority
age of children.
416 weeks______
Widowhood, or specified minority
age of children.
300 weeks; thereafter reduced pay
ments to children to age 16.
600 weeks
______ . .
. _
. _.
Minimum
Maxi
mum
$5 (actual
wage if
less).
$18. 00
$7
$6.50
$5
$7
Total
maximum
stated in
law
$6,000
9, 000
20.00
25.00
14. 00
30. 00
7.000
6.000
4,375
$7
19. 50
$8
25. 00
7,500
$6 (actual
wage if
less).
18.00
5,000
$8
25.00
7,500
$6 (actual
wage if
less).
$7 50
12.00
20.00
6,462
$10.01 (ac
tual wage
if less).
$6
18. 70
5,500
15. 00
18. 00
4,000
$5
$3 (actual
wage if
less).
$7
$8 (actual
wage if
less).
$4
12.00
20.00
4,800
21.00
18. 00
5.000
5.000
$8 ,
$8 (actual
wage if
less).
$6
$8
$6 (actual
wage if
less).
27.00
20.00
12.00
(2)
7,500
20.00
21.00
15.00
19. 38
5,400
$10 (actual
wage if
less).
$10
$11 fi4
20. 00
$7
12
21.00
20. 00
6,000
21. 00
20. 31
7,000
$4 62
$10
18. 00
$12______
20. 00
18.00
25.00
3,000
737
Social Security
T a b l e 3 . — Minimum and Maximum Benefits under Workmen’s Compensation Laws,
by Extent of Disability and by State, September 1943 1— Continued
DEATH—Continued
State
Limit of payments
per week
Maximum
percentage
of wages
Maximum period
South C arolina... 60__________ 350 weeks_______
South Dakota___ (i)__________
60_____ . . .
Tennessee___ . . .
400 weeks
Texas_____ _____
U ta h .. . . . .
Vermont________
Virginia________
W ashington. . __
60__________
60__________
50__________
5 5 .............
West V irginia.. .
Wisconsin______ (*)__________
W yoming_____
United States:
Civil employees. 66%________
.
36 0 w eek s... . . . . . .
312 w eek s5___
260 weeks_____
300 weeks . _
Widowhood, or specified minority
age of children.
____do. . .
Widowhood, or specified minority
age of children.
Longshoremen.. 66%________ . . .do. . . . _
Minimum
M axi
mum
$5.
. .
$25. 00
$7 (actual
wage if
less).
$7
18. 00
$7
$6
$5.77
20.00
24. 00
18.00
6 11. 54
Total
maximum
stated in
law
$6, 000
5.000
5.000
7.500
3.500
6,000
$10
?6. 92
15.00
(»)
$13.46
26.92
$8
25.00
7,500
$18.00
$6,000
9,500
PERM ANENT TOTAL DISABILITY
Alabama________ 65__________
550 weeks I0. .
Alaska__________
Arizona.................. 65__________
Arkansas. _____
65__________
California_______ 65__________
L ife..
450 weeks___
240 weeks; thereafter 40 percent of
wages for life.
Colorado.. _____ 50__________ Life. ___
C o n n e c tic u t.___ 50..................... 520 weeks__
D elaw are... _
60__________ 450 weeks___
$5 (actual
wage if
less).
fi, 0 0 0
$7
$fi so
$5
$7
$8 (actual
wage if
less).
66%— ........ . Period of disability....... ....................... __do
District of Columhia.
Florida_________
Georgia___ ____
60__________ 350 weeks__
5 0 . .. . ........... ____do_________
Haw aii_________
Idaho____ ______
66%________
60__________
Illinois_________ 65__________
Indiana_________ 55._________
Life_______ ______
400 weeks; thereafter $6 per week
($8 if dependent children).
417 weeks__
500 weeks__
Iow a______ ____
60__________
400 weeks__
K ansas.. ______
K entucky______
Louisiana_______
6 0 - .............
6 5 . .. . .........
6 5 . .. . ........ .
416 weeks__ .
520 weeks_____ . . .
400 weeks__
M aine_______ . .
M aryland___ . . .
66%________
66%________
500 weeks.
Period of disability
Massachusetts__
66% ............... 500 weeks 14__________
Michigan_______
Minnesota___ .
66%......... .
66%________
M issou ri............ . 66%...............
See footnotes at end of table.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
750 weeks__
Period of disability
300 weeks; thereafter 25 percent of
wages for life.
(»)
20.00
25.00
7,000
14.00
30.00
18.00
12 25.00
7, 500
22.00
20.00
5, 000
7,000
25.00
« 16.00
7,500
$7 50
$10.01 (act u a 1
wage if
23.50
18.70
» 6, 462
5,500
$6 (actual
wage if
less).
$6
$5
$3 (actual
wage if
less).
$7
$10 (actual
wage if
less).
$11 (actual
wage if
less) 18
$10
$8 (actual
wage if
less).
$6
15.00
do
$4 (actual
wage if
less).
$8
$6
18.00
15.00
20.00
7,500
21.00
23.00
7.500
7.500
20.00
21.00
20.00
20.00
10,000
738
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
T a b l e 3 . —Minimum and Maximum Benefits under Workmen’s Compensation Laws,
by Extent of Disability and by State, September 1943 1— Continued
PERM ANENT TOTAL DISABILITY—Continued
Limit of payments
per week
Maximum
percentage
of wages
State
Montana_______
Nebraska _ . . .
Maximum period
6 6 % .............. 500 weeks____ . . . . . . _______
66%________ 300 weeks 18______________________
N evada . _ ___ 60
N ew Hampshire _ 50
N ew Jersey_____ 66%________
Life............................. ............................
300 weeks_____
_____ ________
400 weeks; thereafter at reduced rate
during rehabilitation.
N ew M ex ico ___ 60 _______
N ew York__ __ 66%____. . . . .
550 weeks____ ________ ___________
Life_____________________________
North Carolina _ 60
North Dakota___ 66%___ _ . . .
400 weeks. ._
Period of disability______________
Ohio................... - 66%
Oklahoma ____
Oregon _ ___
Pennsylvania . ..
66%
__
Puerto Rico
Rhode I sla n d ___
South Carolina__
South Dakota___
50
6 0 ...
60
55
___ Life_____
. . _______ __________
500 weeks . .
Period of disability___ __________
500 weeks__
. . . . ____
66%
340 weeks___________
____ 1,000 weeks___ . . . ______ _____
500 weeks____ _
Period of d is a b ility ______ __ . .
Tennessee_____ _ 60
550 w eek s17. . ................. ......................
Texas__________ 60
U ta h ..
______ 60
V erm ont............... 50
401 weeks______ . ______
._ . .
260 weeks 18_____ _______ . . . . . . . .
____do___ __ _________ ____ ______
V irginia..
__
Washington_____
W est Virginia___
Wisconsin ______
W yoming___ . . .
United States:
Civil employees.
Longshoremen..
500 weeks________________ ______
Life_____________________________
___ do__ _________________________
.do.12 . ...........................
55
66%
70
66%.. ...........
66%
Minimum
M axi
mum
$8_______
$6 (actual
wage if
less).
$6.92..........
$8_______
$10 (actual
wage if
less).
. ..d o _____
$15 (actual
wage if
less).
$7_______
$9 (actual
wage if
less).
$8 (actual
wage if
less),
do_____
$9.23_____
$9 (actual
wage if
not un
der $5).
$3 . ____
$12______
$5. .
$7.50 (act u a 1
wage if
less).
$7 (actual
wage if
less).
$7 - ___
$7.
$7 (actual
wage if
less).
$6
$5.77..........
$8 ............
$14
$11.54____
$21.00
15.00
Period of disability_______________ $13.46____
do_____________________ _____ _ $8 (actual
wage if
less).
Total
maximum
stated in
law
1113.85
21.00
20.00
18.00
12 25.00
21. 00
20.00
$6,000
21.00
18.00
20.31
18.00
7,500
10.00
20. 00
25. 00
15. 00
3.000
12,000
6.000
5, 000
18.00
5,000
20.00
16. 00
15.00
4.000
16.00
1213.85
16. 00
28 24. 50
16.15
21 6, 000
12 26. 92
12 25.00
7, 500
7.000
PERM ANENT PARTIAL DISABILITY
[Maximum period for specific injuries is given, followed by maximum period (if greater) for disabilities
not listed in schedule of specific injuries (here referred to as nonlisted disabilities).]
Alabama
___
Alaska____
Arizona .
__
__
65__________
400w eek s..
..
.......................
260 weeks; during disability for non
listed disability.
65___ . .
. 200 weeks; 450 weeks for nonlisted
Arkansas. _
disability.
C alifornia______ 65__________ 240 weeks 24. _______ . . . . ____
C olorado____ _ 50 . . . ............ 208 weeks___
... .
_____ _ .
Connecticut_____ 50__________ 275 weeks; 520 weeks for nonlisted
disability.
Delaware _____ 60__________ 220 weeks; 300 weeks for nonlisted
disability.
$5 (actual
wage if
less).
$18. 00
$7, 200
(22)
55__________
See footnotes at end of table.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
$7_______
20.00
28 7, 000
$6. 50____
$5_______
$7_______
25.00
14.00
25.00
(23)
(23)
$8 (actual
wage if
less).
18.00
(25)
739
Social Security
T a b l e 3 . — Minimum and Maximum Benefits under Workmen’s Compensation Laws,
by Extent of Disability and by State, September 1943 1— Continued
PERM ANENT PARTIAL DISABILITY—Continued
Limit of payments
per week
Maximum
percentage
of wages
Maximum period
District of Co
lumbia.
66% _______
288 weeks; during disability for nonlisted disability.
Florida
60__________
Georgia
50__________
Hawaii
66%. _............- 280 weeks; during disability for nonlisted disability.
State
Minimum
Maxi
mum
$8 (actual
wage if
less).
200 weeks; 350 weeks for nonlisted . ..d o _____
disability.
$25. 00
26 $7, 500
22. 00
23 5, 000
$4 (actual
wage if
less).
$8 (actual
wage if
less).
20.00
25 5, 000
25. 00
23 7, 500
16. 00
23. 50
(25)
(23)
200 weeks; 300 weeks for nonlisted
disability.
238 weeks
............... ... . ______ .
225 weeks; 417 weeks for nonlisted
disability.
250 weeks; 500 weeks for nonlisted
disability.
Illinois
55
65
Indiana
55__________
Iowa
60
225 weeks______ ____ ____ _____ ___
210 weeks; 415 weeks for nonlisted
disability,
200 weeks; 335 weeks for nonlisted
disability.
_________ _____ ___
400 weeks
TCansa.s
60
Ren picky
65
Tnnisiana
65
_____
$7. 50_____
$10.01 (actualwage
if less).
$6 (actual
wage if
less).
66%
See footnotes at end of table,
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
18.70
5, 500
15.00
(25)
18.00
$5_______
12.00
$3 (actual
wage if
less).
$7_______
20.00
150 weeks; 300 weeks for nonlisted
disability.
...........
. ...
___ $8 (actual
212 weeks
M aryl and
66%
wage if
less).
M a^aeli ]i cjet.t.s
175 weeks
6fi2/£
200 weeks; 500 weeks for nonlisted $7_______
Michigan
disability.
66%
450 weeks (including 25 weeks each $8 (actual
M"inne^ota
wage- if
for healing and rehabilitation).
less).
232 weeks; 400 weeks for nonlisted $6_______
Missouri
66%
disability.
200 weeks; 500 weeks for nonlisted $8_______
disability.
66%________ 225 weeks; 300 weeks for nonlisted $6 (actual
Nebraska
wage if
disability.
less).
260 weeks___ ______ . __________ $6. 92_____
Nevada
50
$8_______
300 weeks
New Hampshire.. 50
New Jersey _
66%________ 230 weeks; cumulative for 2 or more $10 (actual
wage if
specified injuries, to maximum of
less).
500 weeks.
60
__ ...d o _____
180 weeks
N ew Me vim
66%________ 312 weeks; during disability for non- $8 (actual
New York
wage if
listed disability.
less).
200 weeks; 300 weeks for nonlisted $7_______
North Carolina... 60
disability.
234 weeks; 450 weeks for nonlisted
North Dakota___ 66ï/>
disability.
Ohio
215 weeks . . ______________ ___ $14............
66%
66%................. 250 weeks; 300 weeks for nonlisted $8 (actual
Oklahoma
wage if
disability.
less).
$8.08_____
Oregon
208 weeks..................... .............. ........
215 weeks; 300 weeks for nonlisted $9 (or full
Pennsylvania___ 662/£
wage,
disability,
weekly maximum
but not
$15.
under
$5).
$3_______
P u e r to R ic o
300 weeks
_______ ___________
50
255 weeks; 800 weeks for nonlisted $ 8 ____
Rhode Island
60 ________
disability, weekly
maximum
$18,
Maine
Total
maximum
stated in
law
4, 000
21.00
23 3,816
18.00
22 4, 500
18.00
20.00
(25)
20. 00
21.00
15.00
(25)
13.85
21.00
20.00
(23)
25.00
(25)
21.00
23 6, 000
(25)
(23)
20.00
21.00
18. 00
22 6,000
11.54
18.00
(25)
10.00
20.00
23 2, 000
(25)
(28)
I
740
M o n th ly
T able 3.
M in im u m
and
L a b o r R e v ie w —
M a x im u m
B e n e fits
O c to b e r
under
1 9 4 3
W o r h m e n 's
b y E x te n t o f D is a b ility a n d b y S ta te , S e p te m b e r 1 9 4 3
C o m p e n s a tio n
L a w s,
1— C o n tin u e d
PER M A NEN T PARTIAL DISABILITY—Continued
f
State
Maximum
percentage
of wages
South Carolina. __ 6 0 . .. . ........ .
South D akota___ 55__________
Tennessee______
60__________
Texas _ ___ . . .
60
U tah___________
60__________
Vermont___ ____
5 0 ....
Virginia________
55__________
W ashington_____
West Virginia___ 66%________
Wisconsin______
Limit of payments
per week
70 .
W yoming_____ _
U n ited States:
Civil employees. 66%________
Longshoremen.. 66%________
Maximum period
200 weeks; 300 weeks for nonlisted
disability.
200 weeks; 312 weeks for nonlisted
disability, at rate of 50 percent
of wages.
400 w eek s........... ._ _____
200 weeks; 300 weeks for nonlisted
disability.
200 weeks; 312 weeks for nonlisted
disability.
170 weeks; 260 weeks for nonlisted
disability.
200 weeks; 300 weeks for nonlisted
disability.
240 weeks; 340 weeks for nonlisted
disability.
500 weeks; 1,000 weeks for nonlisted
disability.
Whole period of disability. ____
288 weeks; during disability for non
listed disability.
Minimum
Maxi
mum
$5
$25.00
$7.50 (actual
wage if
less).
$7 (actual
wage if
less).
$7_______
$7 (actual
wage if
less).
$0
Total
maximum
stated in
law
15.00
28 $6, 000
(23)
18.00
20.00
16. 00
28 6, 250
15.00
(25)
18. 00
28 7, 000
$8____
16. 00
21.00
(31)
$11.54
16.15
28 2, 500
26. 92
25.00
25 7, 500
TEMPORARY TOTAL DISABILITY
[Only those States are listed in which the law's specifically provide for temporary total disability.
other States the same benefits are paid as for permanent total disability.]
In the
Alabama_______
65__________
$5, 400
Alaska__ ______
Arizona... . . . . . .
Arkansas_______
California......... .
Colorado_______
District of Co
lumbia.
65__________
65__________
6 5 .................
65................... .
50...... ............
66%.............
Florida______ ..
Hawaii_________
Illinois_________
Indiana. _______
60..................... 350 weeks
66%................. Period of disability
65................
.. do
55__________ 500 weeks .
I o w a . . ...............
60................... . 300 weeks________
Kansas_________
Louisiana_______
60.................
65.....................
415 weeks___________
300 weeks_____
M aryland____..
66%________
312 weeks______
Massachusetts__
66%.................
500 weeks______ ____
300 weeks
Period of disability_______________
433 weeks_________ .
450 weeks_____
240 weeks. ___
Period of disability___
____do_____________ ____
Michigan_______ 66%.................
. do
Minnesota............. 66%........ ......... 300 weeks___ . . . .
Missouri________
66%________
400 weeks____
M o n ta n a ____
N e v a d a ............
66%------ -----6 6 % ..............
300 weeks
433 weeks _
See fo o tn o te s a t end o f tab le.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
______
*
$5 (actual
wage if
less).
$18. 00
$7
86.50
$5
$8 (actual
wage if
less),
do
20.00
30. 00
14.00
25.00
12 7, 500
22.00
25. 00
23.50
18.70
5,000
7, 500
6, 462
5, 500
$7 50
$10.01 (ac
tual wage
if less).
$6 (actual
wage if
less).
$6
$3 (actual
wage if
less).
$10 (actual
wage if
less).
$11 (actual
wage if
less).15
$10
$8 (actual
wage if
less).
$6 (actual
wage if
less).
$8
SR 09
*
8(1 3, 600
$14_____
$8 (actual
wage if
less).
y
(32)
7.000
6.000
W
.
15.00
4
18.00
20.00
23.00
3, 750
20.00
4, 500
21.00
20.00
10,500
20.00
21.00
IS 4fi
32
« nnn
„
741
Social Security
T a b l e 3 . — Minimum and Maximum Benefits under W orkmen’s Compensation Laws,
by Extent of Disability and by State, September 19431 Continued
TEMPORARY TOTAL DISABILITY—Continued
State
'JU/ 3 ----------- -------
York
60
North Dakota___
Ohio
66%
South Dakota ____
55
T en n essee
60
T T tflh
60
"Wfl in gtori
West Virginia___
u662^
u / 3 -------------------
SO
W is e o n s in
Limit of payments
per week
Maximum
percentage
of wages
70
’^TynTrn'pg
United
States:
Longshoremen-
Maximum period
Minimum
M axi
mum
$10 (actual $20.00
wage if
less) .
18.00
550 weeks
_______ - ______ . .d o_____
25.00
Period of disability ------ ---------------------------- $8 (actual
wage if
less).
$9 (actual 33 20. 00
___________ ______
do
wage if
less) .
21.00
$8
(actual
312 weeks__ _______________ _________
wage if
less).
18.00
300 weeks
_________ - ____ ...d o ________
22. 38
Period of disability __________ _______ - $6.92_______
10.00
$2.50_______
104 weeks
________ _______
15.00
312 weeks _________ - .......................
............ $7.50 (actualwage
if less).
18. 00
300weeks _______________ ____ — . — $7 (actual
wage if
less).
16. 00
312 weeks
— ____ ___________ . . . d o ________
11.54
$5.19_____
Period of disability. ____ ___
16. 00
$
8
___________
78 weeks
_ ______ ______
24. 50
Period of disability ________ _______ _ . $8.75_____
25.38
$11.54
______
do
_______________ ___ __
--
300 weeks
_
Total
maximum
stated in
law
_________ ________
___do________________________________ _________ $8 (actual
wage if
1 less).
25.00
$5, 000
4, 200
4,680
5,000
34 6. 250
(35)
(31)
12 7, 500
1 Only the most important provisions of the laws are given.
2 For widow, plus $3 for each child under 18, or over 18 and incapacitated.
s Total compensation is 150 times average weekly earnings subject to total maximum.
4 Compensation is based on four times average annual earnings payable in installments equal .to, 5U, per
cent of average earnings. Total minimum $2,400.
, .
« Benefits may be extended indefinitely in meritorious cases. Total minimum $2,000.
6 Plus additional amounts for dependent children.
? For widow, plus $5 monthly for each child under 16.
8 Compensation equals four times average annual wage, but not to exceed 70 percent of weekly wage lor
rom 280 to 1,000 weeks depending on age.
, ,
» $50 per month for widow or invalid widower, total $4,500 (plus $180 per year per child, total $5,000).
10 $5 (or actual wage if less) after 400 weeks.
» Additional allowance for constant attendant if necessary.
12 Additional compensation for vocational rehabilitation,
is Thereafter reduced payments depending on type of disability.
11 After $4,500 is paid 50 percent of wages during disability.
1« M inimum of $7 must be paid for normal weekly hours of 15 or over.
is Thereafter for life 45 percent of wages (but not under $4.50 (or actual wage if less) or over $10).
ii After 400 weeks $7 (or actual wage if less).
.
is Thereafter 45 percent of average weekly wages for life. Award is increased 5 percent for each dependent
child (not to exceed 5) under 18 years.
is Plus additional compensation for dependent children and constant attendant if necessary.
2» After 78 weeks maximum is $21.
,
,
,
.. „
21 Plus $180 per year for each child under 18, total $5,500, additional amount for disfigurement.
22 In addition to compensation for temporary total disability.
Additional amount allowed for disfigure
ment and for constant attendant if necessary.
.
, . .
,
, I,
. ,
23 In addition to compensation for temporary total disability. Additional amount allowed for dishgure^"T hereafter if the disability is over 70 percent, life pension of from 10 to 40 percent.
25 In addition to compensation for temporary total disability.
. . .. 26 In addition to compensation for temporary total disability. Additional benefit allowed for disfigurement and vocational rehabilitation.
27 $io per week for schedule injuries in addition to all other compensation. For nonlisted disability
percent of weekly wages during disability, maximum $20, total maximum $4,500.
23 Additional benefit for disfigurement.
......
,
*
29 In addition to compensation for temporary total disability. Additional amount allowed for disfigure
ment. Benefits increased 5 percent for each dependent child (not to exceed 5) under 18 years.
so Where there are two or more injuries an employee may receive compensation m excess of maximum
given.
31 In addition, employee receiving rehabilitation is paid cost of maintenance.
32 Plus $10 per month for total dependents residing in United States.
33 Plus $1 per week for each dependent child under 18, maximum $25 per week.
34 Plus 5 percent for each dependent child (not to exceed 5) under 18 years.
35 Plus additional compensation for dependent children and for constant attendant if necessary, lhere
is a special schedule of m onthly payments for first 6 months of disability for married or widowed employees _
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
742
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
PERIOD OF BENEFITS FOR PERMANENT PARTIAL DISABILITY
Compensation laws include two methods of computing benefits for
permanent partial disability—payment of a percentage of the wage
loss, and payment during fixed periods for specified injuries. These
two methods exist side by side in the laws which have schedules
covering certain specified injuries. Injuries not included in the
schedule are compensated on a percentage basis, as shown in table 3.
In Alabama, Washington, and Wyoming the payments are fixed sums’
but in all other jurisdictions the schedule payments are based on wages.
In California the amount of the benefit varies depending upon the
age and the occupation of the employee.
The worker who has a permanent partial disability is usually totally
disabled for a temporary period immediately after the accident.
About half of the laws provide for payment of temporary total benefits
m addition to the full amount for permanent partial disability. The
remaining laws require that these temporary total benefit payments
be subtracted from the amount due for permanent partial disability.
The number of weeks provided by law during which compensation
is payable for a specified injury under the compensation laws is shown
in table 4.
T a b l e 4.
Number of Weeks for Which Compensation is Payable for Specified Injuries,
by States
Loss or loss of use of—
State
Arm
(at
shoul Hand Thum b
der)
In Mid
Lit
Hear Hear
dex die Ring tle Leg
Great Other Sight
an ing» ing,
fin fin fin fin (at Foot toe
toe of
ger
hip)
eye 1 ear both
ger ger
ger
ears
Alabama
200
150
60
45
f3260 3 217
Arizona 2___
39
65
fi 217 4 173 }
Arkansas 2____
200
150
60
35
/s
240
3
180
3
40
3
32
California 6____
fi 220 4 160
4 36 4 28
Colorado2
208
104
50
26
Connecticut 2__. 275
208
75
48
D elaw are2 _
220
200
60
35
District of Columbia 2
280
212
51
28
Florida 2 _ .
200
150
60
35
Georgia2____
200
150
30
35
H aw aii2. . . .
280
212
51
28
Idaho L
240
200
70
40
Illinois 2__
225
170
70
40
Indiana 1 ____
250
200
60
40
Iowa L .
225
150
40
30
Kansas 2_____
210
150
60
37
Kentucky 1
200
150
«60 « 45
Louisiana 1____ 200
150
50
30
Maine
150
125
50
30
M aryland2____ 212
166
50
30
75 3 75
Massachusetts11 i1 43 50
3 40 3 20
4 50
Michigan L . . .
250
200
60
35
Minnesota 2___ 200
1/5
60
35
232 3 1 7 5
3 60 3 4 5
M issouri1.......... /s
fi 212 4 160
4 55 4 40
Montana 1____
200
150
60
30
N ebraska2___
225
175
60
35
N e v a d a 2 ___ _ f3260 3 217
65
39
fi 217 4 173
N ew H am pshire 12______
170
140
40
25
N ew Jersey2___ 230
175
65
40
N ew Mexico 2. _ 180
110
50
25
N ew York is___ 312
244
75
46
North Carolina’ 220
170
65
40
North Dakota 2_ 234 1’4 195
» 60 » 35
See footnotes at end of table.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
30
30
30
3 24
4 20
18
38
30
20
15 175
22
17 217
20
15 175
3 24 3 16
4 20 4 1 2 J240
11
13 208
25
20 208
20
15 220
18
17
7
30
20
15
30
20
15
18
17
7
40
30
20
35
25
20
35
30
20
25
20
15
30
20
15
» 30 « 20 « 15
20
20
20
25
18
15
25
20
15
12
12
12
30
20
15
30
20
15
3 35 3 35 3 22
4 30 4 30 4 16
30
12
20
30
20
15
30
22
17
20
30
20
30
35
« 25
15
20
15
25
22
» 18
10
15
12
15
16
« 16
125
173
125
160
104
156
150
30
30
30
32
26
38
30
10
100
11 3 130
10
100
8
80
11 5 139
13
208
10
125
248
175
175
248
180
190
200
200
200
200
175
150
212
50
200
200
j-207
200
215
217
173
125
125
173
125
135
150
125
125
125
125
125
150
50
150
150
150
125
150
173
26
30
30
26
30
35
60
25
30
30
20
25
25
12
30
30
40
30
30
30
8
10
10
170
175
180
288
120
125
100
205
144
136J
20
30
30
38
35
25
2 00
234
87
40
40
35
52
52
12
12
(8)
15
10
10
10
10
10
12
10
10
14
12
10
11
140
100
ion
140
8 140
120
150
100
110
100
100
100
160
50
150
100
8 118
6 120
125
8 130
8
10
12
16
100
100
5 125
160
42
40
35
60
10
10
120
100
8
52
40
52
35
50
150
260
150
160
139
156
104
200
150
150
200
150
125
75
200
50
25
100
50
ISO
52
44
20
50
87
156
168
120
70
29*
150
100
260
170
100
135
150
150
156
743
Social Security
T a b l e 4 . —Number of Weeks for Which Compensation is Payable for Specified Injuries,
by States— Continued
Loss or loss of use of—
State
Arm
(at
Thum b
shoul Hand
der)
215
165
200
250
165
208
175
215
3 200
j
300 j\ 4180
255
199
150
South Carolina 1 2 0 0
200
150
150
200
Tennessee 1___
Texas 1
150
200
Utah 2
150
200
140
V erm ont2 ___ 170
Virginia l
150
200
240
200
333J
500
Wisconsin 2___
United States:
L o n g sh o r e212
m e n 2-.- ___ 280
Oklahoma1 ___
Oregon16.
Pennsylvania L
Puerto Rico 2___
9 60
60
52
60
50
60
60
50
60
8 60
60
40
60
80
125
51
In Mid
dex dle Ring
fin fin fin
ger ger ger
Lit Leg
Hear Hear
Other Sight
ing,
tle
an ing, both
(at Foot Great
toe
toe of
fin hip)
1 ear ears
eye
ger
30 8 20 8 15
15
30
20
17
13
20
30
20
15
25
25
15
35
18
36
26
20
20
15
35
30
35
30
20
15
20
15
35
30
« 4 5 8 30 8 21 8 15
12
30
20
30
10
25
20
15
15
35
30
20
20
40
28
20
40
30
30
50
190
175
191
215
250
255
175
160
175
200
180
170
175
240
500
140
150
139
150
160
150
125
125
125
125
125
120
125
140
250
125
100
87
125
25
15 6 160
30
10
120
100
30
10
100
30
10
10
100
30
100
30
10
12 6 120
30
100
20
8
10
100
30
132
16
40
83 g 18 25 « 275
7
248
173
26
9
35
9
35
35
35
28
18
17
30
30
22
10
10
9
8
140
25
(15)
208
150
200
70
150
78
150
150
17 42J
50
170
50
333|
52
200
1 Paym ents under this schedule are exclusive of or in lieu of all other payments.
2 Paym ents under this schedule are in addition to payments for temporary total disability during the
healing period.
3 For major member.
4 For minor member.
! By enucleation.
6 Paym ents under this schedule are exclusive of or in lieu of all other payments. Amounts depend on age
and occupation of employee. Figures given are for unskilled workman 39 years old.
7 Payments under this schedule are in addition to payments for temporary total disability during healing
period; 99 percent of specific schedule to be paid employee. Employer must pay 2 percent additional to
special indem nity fund.
8 For loss of second toe, 30 weeks; third toe, 20 weeks; fourth toe, 15 weeks; and fifth toe, 10 weeks.
8 For loss of a metacarpal bone for corresponding thumb, finger, or fingers, 10 weeks is added.
10 Payments cover total disability for period specified. Partial disability based upon wage loss m ay be
compensated at end of period given for not over 300 weeks in all.
11 Payments under this schedule are in addition to all other compensation.
12 Plus compensation for actual healing period not in excess of specified number of weeks, except in case of
loss of hearing.
13 In lieu of other payments unless period of temporary total disability exceeds fixed periods for each class
m j ui y .
u For loss of master hand 25 percent additional.
is For loss of hearing special compensation; maximum $3,000.
1« For additional loss of 1 or more toes other than the great toe, an additional period of 10 weeks.
17 In lieu of all other benefits except medical and hospital.
18 For loss of second toe, 30 weeks.
MEDICAL BENEFITS
In all the compensation acts medical aid, including hospitalization
if needed, is required to be furnished to injured workers, in addition
to compensation! payments. In early legislation the provision for
medical aid was narrowly restricted as to the monetary cost, the
period of treatment, or both. In the later development of the acts
such absolute restrictions have in some cases been changed to initial
maximum benefits, after which additional medical aid is furnished
upon the approval of the administrative authority. In 13 States
medical aid is required to be furnished without limit as to time or
amount. In a number of States the acts require that artificial limbs
and other appliances be furnished to injured workmen.2
2 Artificial appliances are required to be furnished in the following laws: Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas,
California, Colorado, Connecticut (by court decision), District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii,
Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Montana,
Nevada, N ew Jersey, N ew Mexico, N ew York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon,
Rhode Island, South Carolina. South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Washington, West Virginia,
Wisconsin, Wyoming, and United States (civil employees qnd longshoremen’s acts).
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
744
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
T a b l e 5 . — Statutory Provisions Relating to Medical Benefits in Workmen’s Compen
sation Laws
Full benefits
State
B y statute
Alabama____________
Alaska______________
Arizona.- ___________
Arkansas 2_________
California________
C o lo r a d o .._____
Connecticut...
Delaware . . . .
District of Columbia
Florida______ ___
Georgia__________
Hawaii_________
Idaho 2_ . . .
Illinois 2___ _
Indiana 2______
Iowa__________
Kansas___ ____
Kentucky_______
Louisiana______ .
M aine________
Maryland _ . . . . .
Massachusetts___
Michigan________
M innesota____
Missouri________
Montana_______
Nebraska________
Nevada _______
N ew Hampshire
N ew Jersey . .
N ew Mexico_____
N ew York 2. .
North Carolina 2. . . .
North D akota..
Ohio________
O klahom a___
Oregon______
Pennsylvania________
Puerto Rico____
Rhode Island___
South Carolina..
South D akota...
Tennessee___
Texas______
Utah 2______
Vermont______
V irginia...
Washington _
West Virginia___ . . .
Wisconsin____
W yoming______
United States:
Civil employees
Longshoremen
Limited benefits
B y adminis
trative
authority 1
Period
Amount
90 days
1 year
100 month«;
$200.
Unlimited.
Do.
4 monf.hs
$500.4
90 days
Unlimited
00 days
90 days
Tin limited
Unlimited.
$600.
$100.7
$200.«
$250.
Yes 3
No limit
No limit
No lim it.. . . . .
No limit
____do _
____do ___
Yes 5
Yes 6
Yes 2
Yes 2
Yes 3
Unlimited
$750.9
0 months
Unlimited.
10
No limit
Yes 2
9 months
$500.
0 m o n th s ll
60 d a y s
Unlimited.
Do.
No limit
Yes 6
U n l i m i te d
$4-00
10 w e e k s
Unlimited.
60 d a y s
$150.9
20 w e e k s
90 d a y s
4 \v e e k s 13
$400.
$100.12
Unlimited.
60 d a y s
60 d a y s 15
(16)
U n l i m i te d
$75.i4
Unlimited.
Do.
$800.
U n l i m i te d 17
$150.17
No limit
No limit
Yes 8
Yes 3
Yes 2
.
No limit
Yes 6
Yes 3
Yes 6
No limit
No lim it.
____do____
__
—
1 After an initial period or amount stated in the law (as indicated by notes) the administrative agency
may extend the time or amount indefinitely.
2 Special limitations in occupational diseases.
! After period specified, as follows: Arkansas, 60 days; Oklahoma, 60 days; and South Carolina, 10 weeks.
4 Additional benefits if insured in State Fund.
s After specified time and amount as follows: Delaware, 30 days and $200; Georgia, 10 weeks and $500;
Maine, 30 days and $100; Missouri, 90 days and $750.
’
®After expenditure of specified amount as follows: Florida, $1,000; New Jersey, $100; Ohio, $200; Oregon,
$250; Rhode Island, $500; Utah, $500.
7 Commissioner may extend to $500.
8 Additional services may be authorized and maximum amount increased to $400.
9 Additional amounts for hospital services.
Commission may extend additional 6 months.
11 M ay be extended additional year.
12 M ay be extended to $300 for medical expenses and $200 for hospital expenses.
13 M ay be extended to 91 days.
14 Also hospital charges 60 days, maximum $200.
12 Additional services not to exceed 180 days.
'6 In temporary disability, continues not longer than period of compensation, and in permanent disa
bility, not beyond the date of award.
17 Additional $200 for medical treatment and $300 for hospital treatment. Hospital services may be
further extended for 6-month periods.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
745
Social Security
WAITING PERIOD
All of the States except Oregon provide that during a specified
period of time immediately following the injury, compensation shall
not be paid. This “waiting time” ranges from a minimum of 1 day
to a maximum of 14 days, with the majority of the States requiring
a 7-day waiting period.
T a b l e 6 . — Waiting Time Required under Workmen’s Compensation Laws
1 to 6 days
Alaska (1)
Delaware (3)
Florida (4)
Illinois (6 )9
Maryland (3)
Missouri (3)
Oklahoma (5)
Rhode Island (3)
South Carolina (3)
Utah (3)
Washington (3)
Wisconsin (3)
U n ite d Sta tes: Civil
employees (3)
7 days
Alabam a1
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Connecticut
District of Columbia
Georgia
H aw aii5
Idaho
Indiana
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Massachusetts
M ichigan3
M innesota1
M ontana8
Nebraska
Nevada
N ew Hampshire
N ew Jersey
N ew Mexico
N ew York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio9
Pennsylvania
Puerto Rico 1
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Vermont
Virginia
West Virginia
W yom ing8
United States: Long
shoremen
10 or 14 days
Colorado (10)
Iowa (14)3
Compensation paid for waiting
period if disability lasts speci
fied time
Arizona (2 weeks)
Arkansas (4 weeks)
Connecticut (3 weeks)
District of Columbia (7 weeks)
Hawaii (7 weeks)
Idaho (4 w eeks)4
Illinois (28 d ays)6
Iow a3
Kentucky (4 weeks)
Louisiana (6 weeks)
Maine (6 weeks)
Massachusetts (2 weeks)
Michigan (4 weeks)
Minnesota (4 weeks)
Missouri (4 weeks)
Montana (3 w eek s)8
Nebraska (6 weeks)
Nevada (1 week)
N ew Hampshire (1 week)
N ew Jersey (7 weeks)
N ew York (35 days)
North Carolina (28 days)
North Dakota (7 days)
Rhode Island (2 weeks)
South Carolina (14 days)
South Dakota (6 weeks)
Tennessee (4 weeks)
Texas (4 weeks)
Virginia (6 weeks)
West Virginia (21 days)
Wisconsin (10 days)
Wyoming (15 days)
United States: Longshoremen
(7 weeks)
1 Applies only to temporary disability.
3 In case of death, compensation is payable from date of injury.
3 No waiting period in case of permanent partial disability.
4 If disability period exceeds 4 weeks, waiting period is to be reduced by 4 days, and by 1 additional day
for each week the total disability exceeds 4 weeks.
1 Total disability, but compensation payable from first day of disability in case of partial disability.
« Applies only to temporary total disability.
7 If compensation extends beyond fifth, sixth, or seventh week after injury, such compensation is increased
by two-thirds.
8 Period doubled if injured has no beneficiary residing in the United States.
9 Also, no compensation allowed for the first week of total disability, whenever it may occur.
The waiting period relates only to compensation. Medical and
hospital care is provided immediately, regardless of the fact that
compensation is not paid for specified periods.
Most of the laws provide that if the disability continues for a
certain number of weeks, the payment of compensation is retroactive
to the date of injury. The number of waiting days required by each
law is presented in table 6; the last column shows the number of
weeks of disability required for the payment of compensation from
the time of injury.
551712— 43---------- 8
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
746
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
Claim Administration
There are two general methods of administering workmen’s compen
sation laws: (1) By an administrative commission or board created by
the laws, or (2) by the courts. The desirability of administration by
an agency specifically created for that purpose is recognized in all but
seven laws those of Alabama, Alaska, Louisiana, New Hampshire,
New Mexico, Tennessee, and ^Vyoming. The Alabama law provides
for limited supervision by the Department of Industrial Relations,
and m Wyoming the workmen’s compensation fund is under the super
vision of the State treasurer. In these seven States the responsibility
for approving the settlement of claims is in the courts.
If a worker is to receive promptly the full compensation to which
he is entitled under the law, an administrative board or commission
is generally deemed essential. Experience has shown that courts are
not properly equipped to render the type of service needed for work
men’s compensation administration, which involves not only the
question of benefits but also medical care, accident prevention and
vocational rehabilitation. The National Conferences on Labor
Legislation have repeatedly recommended administration by a com
mission or board rather than by the courts.
In States where the law is administered by a commission or board,
the State agency usually has exclusive jurisdiction over the determina
tion of facts, with appeals to the courts limited to questions of law.
However, m some States the court is also permitted to consider the
whole case again, thus taking it entirely out of the commission’s
jurisdiction.
Second Injuries
When an employee has sustained an injury involving a loss of a
member of the body and afterwards loses another in a second injury, in
the sarne or another occupation, he may become permanently and
totally disabled, thus increasing the amount to be paid in the form of
W/>Tiirlen,S comPensati°n. All the compensation laws, except those
of Alabama, Louisiana, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Puerto'Rico
Vermont, and the United States (civil employees), contain provisions
regarding payment of compensation in such cases.
Some of the laws limit the amount to be paid to the worker to the
usual award that would be paid for an injury of the type that he
received, regardless of his actual disability resulting from the combined
injuries. Under more advanced legislation, however, payment is
made for the actual disability resulting from the combined injuries
If the cost of such compensation is to be imposed upon the latest
employer, handicapped persons may be refused employment. To meet
such problems, “second injury funds” have been created so that when
a second injury occurs, the employer will have to pay only for the last
injury yet the employee is compensated for the disability resulting
from the combined injuries, the remainder of the award being paid
from the fund.
Second-injury funds have been established in Arkansas, the District
of Columbia, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan,
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Social Security
747
Minnesota, Missouri, New Jersey, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Rhode
Island, South Carolina, Utah, Washington, Wisconsin, and the United
States (longshoremen’s act). The method of financing the secondinjury fund differs in the various laws. One method which appears
popular and satisfactory is to place in the fund the amounts awarded
in fatal cases where there are no dependents. The North Dakota,
Ohio, Washington, and West Virginia laws provide for the payment of
compensation in the case of second injuries, although they do not
have second-injury funds. Instead, in North Dakota and Ohio, the
excess cost of second injuries is paid from the State fund surplus, and
in Washington from the funds of industrial classification. In West
Virginia, payment is made from any money in the State fund at the
commissioner’s disposal.
The advantage of second-injury funds is that they facilitate the
employment of physically handicapped workers without curtailing
their compensation rights. A few State laws attempt to meet the
problem of second injuries by permitting the employee to “waive”
his compensation for a subsequent injury—a method held to be unde
sirable by National Conferences on Labor Legislation.
Provisions in Special Cases
WORKERS INJURED OUTSIDE THE STATE
About two-thirds of the compensation laws cover injuries occurring
outside of the State. Generally these laws require that the contract
of employment must have been made within the State and either that
the employee is a resident of the State or that the employer’s place of
business is within the State. In the other jurisdictions the law con
tains no statement as to whether it applies to injuries sustained out
side the State, but some courts have interpreted the law as being
applicable to such injuries.
ILLEGALLY EMPLOYED MINORS
All of the compensation laws cover minors, and 16 of the acts
(Alabama, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, Massachusetts,
Michigan, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Penn
sylvania, Puerto Rico, Rhode Island, Utah, and Wisconsin) provide
extra compensation in the case of injury to minors who are illegally
employed. Twenty-eight of the laws provide compensation for minors
illegally employed on the same basis as if thej?' were employed legally.
Nine of the laws fail to cover minors illegally employed.
NONRESIDENT ALIEN DEPENDENTS
None of the workmen’s compensation acts makes any distinction
between resident aliens and resident citizens, but a large number have
discriminatory provisions affecting nonresident alien dependents.
Some of these laws exclude such dependents, and others reduce the
benefits or permit benefits to be paid in a lump sum in reduced
amounts. A number of the laws permit such benefits to be paid only
to persons of a designated relationship.
Several of the laws exempt residents of Canada from discriminatory
provisions; others declare such provisions subject to the terms of any
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Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
treaty. A few laws deny all benefits to aliens whose national laws
would exclude citizens of the United States in like circumstances.
Table 7 analyzes the provisions regarding nonresident alien dependents.
T a b l e 7. —Provisions of Workman’s Compensation Laws Regarding Nonresident Alien
Dependents 1
Exclusion
Alabama
Hawaii
N ew Mexico
Pennsylvania
South Dakota
West Virginia
Reduced benefits
Alaska
Arizona
Colorado
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Idaho 2
Illinois
Iowa 2
Kansas
Kentucky
Maine
Michigan
Montana 2
Nevada
Oregon
Utah
Virginia
Washington
Wyoming
Presumption of depend
ency destroyed
Excluding payments to
dependents in coun
tries not maintaining
diplomatic relations
with United States
California
Washington
Permitting commuta
tions to lump sums
in reduced amounts
Arkansas
District of Columbia
Kentucky
Maryland
Nebraska
N ew York 3
North Carolina
Oklahoma
South Carolina
United States:
Civil employees
Longshoremen
Placed on same footing
as resident dependents
C onnecticut4
Minnesota
Ohio
Tennessee
Texas
Restricting possible
beneficiaries
Arkansas
Delaware
D istrict of Columbia
Florida
Illinois
Kentucky
Maryland
Montana
Nebraska
N ew York
North Carolina
Oregon
South Carolina
Washington
Wisconsin
Wyoming
United States:
Longshoremen
N o provision
Indiana
Louisiana
Massachusetts
Missouri
N ew Hampshire
N ew Jersey
North Dakota
Puerto Rico
Rhode Island
Vermont
1 The provisions are subject to change by treaties between the United States and foreign countries.
2 If foreign government excludes payment to United States citizens, then payments are excluded under
State law.
3 If nonresident would not have full control of compensation, employer or insurer may be required to
pay it to State comptroller.
, 4II dependents as defined under the law are nonresidents and there are residents who are dependents
in fact, compensation may be apportioned between them.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Housing Conditions
N ew D w ellin g U n its in N onfarm A reas,
First H a lf o f 1 9 4 3 1
Summary
CONSTRUCTION was started on 200,000 new nonfarm family
dwelling units during the first 6 months of 1943. Of this total, 85,700,
or less than 45 percent, were privately financed, mainly under the
private war-housing program of the National Housing Agency. For
the same period of 1942 the privately financed dwellings constituted
almost two-thirds (192,000) of the 304,000 units started.
Publicly financed housing projects for which construction contracts
were let during the first half of 1943 will provide 114,053 family
dwelling units,2 most of which are of temporary hypes. All are
reserved for families of war workers or military personnel. In addi
tion, Federal construction contracts were awarded for dormitories to
accommodate 31,004 persons and trailer projects to contain 16,736
units, as well as for the conversion of 2,117 structures to provide 8,949
additional family units.
During the first half of 1943 the number of units in 1-family houses
declined 36 percent from the corresponding totals for the first 6
months of 1942; 2-family units declined 39 percent; and multifamily
units, 22 percent.
One-family dwellings comprised about 82 percent of all units
started during the first 6 months of 1943, 2-family dwellings accounted
for 4 percent, and multifamily units for 14 percent. During the same
period in 1942, 84 percent of the new units were of the 1-family type,
4 percent were of the 2-family type, and 12 percent in multifamily
buildings.
Scope of Report
The above estimates cover the construction of all new family
dwelling units in the nonfarm area of the United Stages. The “non
farm area” of the United States consists of all urban and rural non
farm places. The urban designation is applied to all incorporated
places with a population of 2,500 or more in 1940, and by special rule,
to a small number of unincorporated civil divisions. Rural nonfarm
construction includes all construction for nonagriculti Lral use in unin
corporated areas and incorporated places of less than 2,500 population.
Hence, urban construction is classified by location, whereas rural
1 Prepared in the Bureau’s Division of Construction and Public Employment I y George Schumm.
2 In addition to the 114,053 new family-dwelling units, 1,359 slum-clearance units were designated as war
housing and contracts were awarded for 290 converted family-dwelling units for a total of 115,702 Federally
financed family-dwelling units provided for war workers during the first 6 months of 1943, exclusive of the
Home Owners’ Loan Corporation conversion program.
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Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
n o n f a r m c o n s t r u c tio n is cla ssifie d a c c o rd in g t o th e in te n d e d use o f
i n d iv i d u a l b u ild in g s .
B u i l d i n g - p e r m i t re p o r ts c o lle c te d b y th e B u r e a u o f L a b o r S ta tis tic s
h a v e p r o v id e d th e b a s ic i n fo r m a t io n fo r c u r r e n t e s tim a te s o f r e s id e n tia l
c o n s tr u c tio n .
T h e B u r e a u b e g a n th e r e g u la r c o lle c tio n o f th e s e d a t a
m 1920, a t fir s t in c lu d in g o n l y th e la r g e r c itie s . S in c e t h a t tim e
c o v e ra g e h a s b e e n s te a d ily e x p a n d e d u n t il i t n o w in c lu d e s m o r e t h a n
2,400 citie s a n d 1,000 r u r a l in c o r p o r a te d p la c e s . I n a d d i t i o n , sin ce
1939 a s m a ll n u m b e r o f c o u n tie s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t i n g b u ild in g p e r m its
issu e d fo r t h e ir u n in c o r p o r a te d a re a s . V a l u a b le s u p p le m e n t a r y d a t a ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h re s p e c t to r u r a l c o n s t r u c tio n , w e re m a d e a v a ila b le
fo r th e p e r io d J a n u a r y 1940 t h r o u g h A u g u s t 1942 b y th e D e fe n s e
H o u s i n g S u r v e y , a j o i n t e n te rp ris e o f th e B u r e a u o f L a b o r S ta t is t ic s ,
t h e N a t i o n a l H o u s i n g A g e n c y , a n d th e W o r k P r o je c t s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
Since building permits are issued when construction work is about
to start, estimates derived from permits represent the future dwellingunit capacity of buildings upon which construction was started in the
period specified. No attempt is made here to estimate the number of
family accommodations gained by alterations and conversions or those
lost by demolitions.
Volume of New Residential Construction
Construction was started on an estimated 199,800 new nonfarm
family dwelling units during the first 6 months of 1943, a third less
than during the first half of 1942. Of these new units, less than 45
percent were privately financed, and over 55 percent were in public
housing projects.
T h e 85,747 p r i v a t e l y fin a n c e d f a m i l y d w e llin g u n it s b e g u n d u r in g
th e fir s t h a l f o f 1943 s h o w e d a decrease o f 55 p e rc e n t as c o m p a re d
w i t h th e n u m b e r o f s u c h u n it s s ta r te d d u r in g th e s a m e p e rio d o f 1942.
S in c e m id s u m m e r , 1941, p r i v a t e re s id e n tia l c o n s tr u c tio n a c t i v i t y h a s
b e e n r a p i d l y d e c lin in g , th e n u m b e r o f n e w d w e llin g u n it s s ta r te d
d u r in g each. q u a r t e r b e in g lo w e r t h a n d u r in g th e p re c e d in g q u a r t e r
w i t h th e e x c e p tio n o f th e s e c o n d q u a r t e r o f 1943. D u r i n g 1941 a n d
^he fir s t q u a r t e r o f 1942 th is d e c lin e w a s d u e m a i n l y to th e re lu c ta n c e
o l b u ild e r s t o s t a r t c o n s t r u c tio n , b e ca u s e o f g r o w in g m a t e r ia l s t r i n
g e n c ie s . B y A p r i l 1942 th e s e s h o rta g e s h a d re a c h e d s u c h a p o i n t t h a t
i t b e c a m e n e c e s s a ry f o r th e W a r P r o d u c t i o n B o a r d to issue C o n s e r
v a t i o n O r d e r L-41, h a l t i n g a ll n o n e s s e n tia l c o n s t r u c tio n . S in c e t h a t
tim e p r i v a t e r e s id e n tia l c o n s tr u c tio n h a s b e e n lim it e d to t h a t f o r w h ic h
thCT-e w ill b e a c o n tin u in g n e e d , in a re as o f in te n s e w a r a c t i v i t y .3
The 50-percent increase in the number of new privately financed
dwelling units started in the second quarter of 1943, over the first
quarter, represented the normal seasonal rise. On the basis of current
information it seems probable that, except for seasonal factors, private
builders’ activities will remain at substantially that level for the rest
of 1943. As a result, the total number of privatelv financed units
begun during 1943 is not expected to exceed 175,000, the smallest
annual total since 1934.
Between September 1941 and June 1943 applications for priorities
for the construction of 438,598 new privately financed family-dwelling
tember W4 3 f° p. ^ f pIete discusskm of the private war housing program, see M onthly Labor Review, Sep,
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Housing Conditions
751
units were approved by WPB field offices, including 40,000 units
started before September 1941, which required priorities assistance for
completion. By the end of June 1943 a total of 242,580 of these units
had been completed and 80,495 more were under construction. In
addition, priorities for the privately financed conversion of existing
structures, to provide accommodations for 47,570 families, had been
approved.
According to the Federal Housing Administration, 73,458 privately
financed units were started with priorities assistance, d iring the first
half of 1943. This figure is based on builders’ reports of construction
progress and hence is not strictly comparable with an estimate based
on building permits issued.
Although private residential construction has declined to depression
levels, the 114,053 publicly financed new family-dwel ing units for
which construction contracts were let during the first half of 1943
exceeds the number of publicly financed units started during either
half of 1942 or in any preceding year. The Federally financed war
housing program has, however, passed its peak, and practically all of
the larger projects are either completed or nearing completion. By
June 30, 1943, there had been made available for occupancy or had
been started under the Federally financed war-bou dug program
446,734 family-dwelling units, 134,479 dormitory units, and trailer
parks to accommodate 35,166 trailers. In addition to this program,
during the first half of 1943, the Home Owners’ Loan Corporation
awarded contracts for the conversion of 2,117 structuies to provide
8,949 additional family units.
Comparison by Population Groups
Fewer units were started in each city-size group and the rural
nonfarm area during the first half of 1943 than were started during
the same months of 1942. The urban and rural nonfarm totals de
clined 34 and 35 percent, respectively. The sharpest reduction, 50
percent, was in cities with populations of 500,000 and over, while
cities of 5,000 to 10,000 declined the least, 13 percent.
Declines in privately financed units started during the first half of
1943, as compared with the first half of 1942, ranged from 43 percent
for cities of from 100,000 to 500,000 population to 62 percent for cities
with populations of 500,000 and over. The number of publicly
financed units put under construction contract declined from the
total for the first half of 1942 in the two largest city-size classes and
in the rural nonfarm area. Small increases occurred, in all other
city-size groups except the 5,000-10,000 population group, where
almost 4 times as many units were started from January through
June 1943 as during the first half of 1942. The increased proportion
of publicly financed units in urban areas results principally from the
decreased number of units in extremely large projects which are
generally situated in rural nonfarm areas because of th i lack of suit
able sites within corporate limits. Further details are shown in
table 1.
,
.
One-family dwellings comprised about 82 percent of all units
started during the first 6 months of 1943, 2-family dwellings accounted
for 4 percent, and multifamily units for 14 percent. During the
same period in 1942, 84 percent of the new units were of the 1-family
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
752
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
type, 4 percent were of the 2-family type, and 12 percent were in
multifamily buildings. The number of 1-family units started by
private builders during the first half of 1943 was 60 percent less than in
the same period last year. Privately financed units in 2-family houses
declined 24 percent and in multifamily units, 36 percent. Wartime
restrictions on building materials were largely responsible for this shift
from single-family to 2-family and multifamily units in privately
financed structures.
T a b l e 1.—New Divelling Units in Nonfarm Areas, by Population Group and Source
of Funds, First 6 Months of 1942 and 1943
Total
Private funds
Area and population group
(1940 census)
Public funds
First 6 months of—
1943
1942
All nonfarm areas___
Percent of change.
199,800
-3 4 .2
303,600
Total urban..................
Cities of—
500.000 population and over100.000 to 500,000 population.
50.000 to 100,000 population25.000 to 50,000 population,.
10.000 to 25,000 population..
5.000 to 10,000 population.. .
2,500 to 5,000 population___
Rural nonfarm........... .................. .
112,800
20,800
26, 500
13, 500
10,600
22,900
12,10 0
6,400
87, 000
1943
1942
1943
85, 747
-5 5 .3
191,853
114,053
111, 747
170, 300
54,954
117,179
57,846
53,121
41, 600
39, 400
19,400
16.900
29,600
13.900
9,500
133,300
10, 785
14, 742
5,480
4,978
8,587
6,282
4,100
30, 793
28,413
25, 595
12,489
11,827
19,085
12,307
7,463
74,674
10,015
11, 758
13,187
13,805
6,911
5, 073
10,515
1,593
2, 037
58,626
1942
+ 2.0
8,020
5,622
14, 313
5,818
2, 300
56,207
Details of the distribution of the new dwelling units by type and
population group are shown in table 2.
T a b l e 2 . —New Dwelling Units in Nonfarm Areas, by Population Group and Type of
Dwelling, First 6 Months of 1942 and 1943
All types
Area and population group
(1940 census)
1-family units
2-family
units 1
Multifamily
units 2
First 6 months of—
1943
1942
1943
1942
1943
1942
1943
1942
All nonfarm areas_________________ . 199,800 303,600 163, 600 254, 300 7,700 12, 700 28, 500
Percent of change____ ________ ___ -3 4 .2
-3 5 .7
-3 9 .4
-2 2 .1
36,600
Total urban______ ____ __________
Cities of—
500.000 population and over____
100.000 to 500,000 population. . . .
50.000 to 100,000 population____
25.000 to 50,000 population_____
10.000 to 25,000 population_____
5.000 to 10,000 population______
2,500 to 5,000 population_______
Rural nonfarm___ ___________ . . .
112,800 170, 300
87.800 126,800
7,300 11, 800 17, 700
31, 700
20,800 41.600
26, 500 39,400
13, 500 19, 400
10,600 16.900
22,900 29.600
12,100 13.900
6,400
9,500
87,000 133, 300
16,000 20.400
19, 700 30, 700
9, 300 13, 500
7, 700 13,900
19, 300 26,800
10, 300 12.400
5,500
9,100
75.800 127, 500
1,900
2,200
700
800
800
800
100
400
4,200 2, 900
3, 000 4,600
1,600 3, 500
1,100 2,100
900 2,800
800 1,000
200
800
900 10,800
17,000
5, 700
4, 300
1.900
1.900
700
200
4.900
1 Includes 1- and 2-family dwellings with stores.
2 Includes multifamily dwellings with stores.
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Housing Conditions
753
Comparison by Geographic Division
The areas of expanding war activities have been of increasing
importance in determining the geographic distribution of new dwell
ing units. During 1940, 28 percent of all new nonfarm family dwell
ing units were in the West South Central, Mountain, and Pacific
States. During the first half of 1943, however, 44 percent of all new
units were in these areas. On the other hand, the New England and
Middle Atlantic States, highly industrialized before the war, contained
only 13 percent of the new units started during the first half of 1943,
as compared to 23 percent during 1940. Only in the West South
Central States were more units started during the second quarter of
1943 than during the comparable 1942 months, whereas declines of
from 36 to 71 percent were registered in all other geographic divisions.
The housing begun by private builders during the second quarter
of 1943 was concentrated largely in the East North Cení ral and South
Atlantic States; 4 of every 9 privately financed family dwellings
started during this period were in these 13 States and bhe District of
Columbia. The decline in the number of privately financed units
begun during the second quarter of 1943 affected all regi )ns in varying
degree. The decreases ranged from 13 percent for the Mountain
States to 66 percent for the West North Central States.
Over 40 percent of the publicly financed family-dwt lling units on
which construction was begun in the second quarter of 1943 were in
the Pacific States. During the second quarter of 1942 and the first
quarter of 1943, these States accounted for 37 and 29 percent, respec
tively, of the publicly financed units (table 3). This concentration
was due in part to the extremely large amount of war housing needed
there and in part to the fact that, for a substantial part o i this housing,
the need was temporary only.
T a b l e 3 .—-N ew Dwelling Units in Nonfarm Areas, by Geographic Div sion and Source of
Funds, Second Quarter of 1942 and First and Second Quarters of 1943
Private funds
Total
Public funds
Geographic division
Second
quarter
1943
First
quarter
1943
Second Second First Second Set ond First Second
quarter quarter quarter quarter quarter quarter quarter
1942
1943
1942
1943
1943
1943
1942
All divisions___________
81,300
118, 500
166,400
51, 591
34,156
80,921
29 709
84, 344
85,479
N ew England__________
Middle Atlantic» ............
East N orth Central____
West North Central____
South Atlantic_________
East South Central-.
W est South Central
M ountain_____________
Pacific_____________ - -
2,900
7,900
15, 200
3,000
14,100
3,100
11, 800
2,800
20,500
4,000
11,900
17, 500
4, 200
24,300
4,000
11,200
10, 400
31,000
6, 200
19,000
28,200
10, 500
36, 300
7,000
9,700
4,400
45,100
2,188
6,200
11,604
1,717
11,402
2,158
6,319
1,640
8,363
1,170
3, 778
6,077
1,917
8,033
1,758
4,074
1,102
6, 247
3,969
13, 592
17,888
5,100
13,779
2, 960
8, 016
1,893
13, 724
712
700
596
283
698
942
481
160
137
2,830
8,122
11,423
2,283
16,267
2,242
7,126
9, 298
24,753
2,231
5,408
10,312
5,400
22, 521
4, 040
1,684
2, 507
31, 376
1
3
1
2
5
1
12
Although the number of multifamily units started cluiing the second
quarter of 1943 was but 44 percent of the number started during the
second quarter of 1942, only 4 geographic divisions shared in this
decline. The largest numerical decrease shown in table 4, from 10,600
to 1,600 units, occurred in the Pacific States and resulted chiefly from
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754
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
a shift in public housing from multifamily structures to 1-family
row-type units. The number of 2-family units begun during the
second quarter of 1943 showed a decline from the comparable 1942
totals in 3 regions. However, only the decline from 2,400 to 900 units
in the Middle Atlantic States was of significant proportions.
T a b l e 4 . —New Dwelling Units in Nonfarm Areas, by Geographic Division arid Type
of Dwelling, Second Quarter of 1942 and First and Second Quarters of 1943
1-family units
All types
Geographic division
Sec First
ond
quar quar
ter
ter
1943
1943
2-family units 1
Sec Sec First Sec
Sec First
ond
ond
ond
ond quar
quar quar quar
quar
quar
ter
ter
ter
ter
ter
ter
1943
1942 1943 19 3
1942 1943
Sec
ond
quar
ter
1942
Multifamily u n its2
Sec First Sec
ond
ond
quar quar
ter quar
ter
ter
1943
1942
1943
All divisions_________ 81,300 118,500 166,400 68,100 95, 500 142,400 5,000 2,700 5,500 8,200 20,300 18, 500
N ew England______
Middle Atlantic______
East North Central___
West North C entral,-.
South Atlantic_____ .
East South Central___
W est South Central__
M ountain_______ . __
Pacific____________
2.900
7.900
15,200
3,000
14,100
3,100
11,800
2,800
20, 500
4.000
11,900
17, 500
4,200
24,300
4.000
11, 200
10,400
31,000
6, 200
19,000
28,200
10, 500
36, 300
7,000
9,700
4,400
45,100
2,200
6,500
12,900
2,300
9,700
2,900
11,000
2, 500
18,100
3,000
10, 300
14,900
3,100
17,400
3.400
9.400
7.400
26,600
100
5,600
15,300
900
26,600 1,200
9,900
300
31, 700 1,200
5,700
100
9,300
400
4,200
0
34,100
800
100
100
600
900
500
700 2,400
500
900 1,300
600
800 1,100 2,000
800
400
200
400
700
400
400 1,000 3,200 6,500 3,600
100
200
100
500 1,100
100
100
300
400 1,700
100
100
100
300 2,900
200
400 1,600 4,200 10,600
1 Includes 1- and 2-family dwellings with stores.
2 Includes multifamily dwellings with stores.
Estimated Permit Valuations
The permit valuation of the 199,800 new nonfarm family dwelling
units started during the first half of 1943 was estimated to aggregate
$485,698,000, or about half of the $975,086,000 estimated for the first
half of 1942 (table 5). Of the 1943 total, the 85,747 new privately
financed dwelling units accounted for slightly over half, $249,631,000,
and the 114,053 publicly financed units for the remainder,
$236,067,000. The construction-cost limitations imposed on private
builders during the spring of 1942, in order to conserve critical building
materials, resulted in the trend from 1-family houses to 2-family and
multifamily units mentioned previously, and was reflected in the
9-percent decline in the average permit valuation from the first half
of 1943 to the first half of 1942. The average construction cost of
publicly financed family dwelling units declined even more—36 per
cent—as a result of successive shifts in emphasis from permanent to
demountable units early in 1942 and from demountable to temporary
units somewhat later in 1942.
When comparing the private and public valuations shown in table 5,
allowances must be made for the general understatement of construc
tion costs by private builders when applying for building permits.
This understatement is estimated to average about 15.5 percent of the
permit valuation.4 After making this allowance, it is estimated that
construction of the 199,800 units started during the first half of 1943
will aggregate approximately $525,000,000.
4 This relationship, under wartime conditions, may be somewhat different, but there are no data on which
to base a more current estimate.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
755
Housing Conditions
T a b l e 5 . —Estimated Permit Valuation of New Dwellings in Nonform Areas, by Geo
graphic Division and Source of Funds, First 6 Months of 1942 and 1943
[In thousands of dollars]
Private funds
Total
Public funds 1
First 6 months of—
Geographic division
1942
1943
1942
1943
1942
1943
All divisions______________ ___________
485,698
975,086
249,631
615,840
236,067
359, 246
N ew England________ ______ ____ ____ _
Middle Atlantic________ ________ ______
East North Central____________________
West North Central___ ________________
South Atlantic________________ ____. .
East South Central_____________ ______
West South C en tra l.......... . . . . ______
M ountain. ____ ______ ____ _________ ..
Pacific________ . . __
.
__ ____
19,973
57, 111
105,940
16,182
90,308
12,044
41,178
30,269
112, 693
45,354
151,228
194,316
52,461
185, 209
44,386
64,476
28,072
209,584
12,658
32,069
70,517
9,106
49,199
6, 720
19,731
7,191
42,440
31,385
110,179
149,939
37,254
90,081
23,212
56,173
14, 206
103,411
7,315
25,042
35,423
7,076
41,109
5,324
21,447
23,078
70,253
13,969
41,049
44,377
15,207
95,128
21,174
8,303
13,866
106,173
1 Contract values.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Cooperation
A c tiv itie s o f C onsum ers’ C ooperatives in 1 9 4 2
Summary
IN SPITE of the beginning of wartime restriction of commodities and
the regulation of sales, the year 1942 was marked by substantial in
creases in cooperative business and earnings. As in 1941, many
associations reported that 1942 was the most successful year in their
history. Cooperative wholesaling was particularly successful and for
most of the wholesales the 1942 sales represented an all-time high;
foi the whole group, business increased 23.3 percent and earnings 35.6
percent. Production more than doubled. The total cooperative
wholesale business (including services as well as wholesale distribu
tion) amounted to over $125,000,000.
T able
1.—Estimated Membership and Business of Consumers' Cooperatives, 1942
Estimated
number of
associations
Type of association
Estimated
business
Estimated
membership
L o c a l a s s o c ia tio n s
1
Retail distributive:
Stores and buying clubs_________________________
Petroleum associations . . . _______________ ______
Other distributive---- ----------------------------------Retail distributive departments of marketing asso
ciations---------------- ---------------------------- - -----Service:
Associations providing rooms and/or meals____ ____
Housing______ - . . . --------- ------- -----------------Medical care—
On contract_________________________________
Own facilities______________________ ______
Burial:
Own facilities---------------------------------------------Caskets____________________________________
Cold storage------------------------ - ........ — ------ —
W ater_______ - --------- ---------------------- -- ------Printing and publishing------------- --------------------------------- ----------Recreation------ ----------------Miscellaneous--------- ---------------------- -- -----E lectricity _________________________ _____ —- - -----Telephone_____
--------------------------- ---------- —- Credit unions___________________ - - --- ...-----------Insurance--------------- ------------------------------ --------------
I n d iv id u a ls
2, 500
1.400
50
540,000
650,000
IS, 000
$195,000,000
197, 000,000
7, 500,000
525
175,000
165,000,000
275
59
23,000
2,100
4,000,000
1, 575,000
30
11
100,000
15,000
1, 600,000
1.150,000
35
6
50
33
16
25
45
850
5,000
10, 601
2,000
25,000
2,500
25, 500
2,000
75,000
3,500
1,400
1,210,000
330,000
3,139, 457
10,000,000
260,000
10,000
925,000
375. 000
475,000
72, 500
188,000
35,000,000
5,485,000
251,439,862
185,000,000
W h o le s a le a s s o c ia tio n s
Interregional------------ ---------------------------------------------Regional:
Wholesale distribution__________ ________________
Services^----------- --------- ------ -- ------- ----------------- l
Production----------------------- ------------------------------Retail distribution_______________________ ____ —
District:
Wholesale distributive------------------------- --------- ----Services.................... .................. .........-...............................
J
>
1Impossible to estimate.
including production of separate subsidiary organizations.
2 N ot
756
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
2
A f f il ia t e d
a s s o c ia tio n s
24
(>)
(
27
3, 203 11
{
(
150 \
116,250,000
1,607,000
2 12, 503,000
11,541,550
2,625,000
98,720
Cooperation
757
The local consumers’ cooperatives—with retail sales amounting to
about $564,000,000, plus services (meals, housing, b irial, medical
care, etc.) estimated at about $10,630,500—are believed to have done
a total business of well over $575,000,000, serving about 1% million
members and their families. Although this is still an insignificant
proportion of the population and of the retail trade of this country,
the figures are steadily increasing and the 1942 figures represent
an all-time peak in both respects.
In addition to the consumers’ cooperatives proper, there were some
18,500 electricity, telephone, insurance and credit associations with an
estimated membership of over 14% million. This figuie represents a
slight decline from 1941 for this group of associations, as a result of a
165,000 drop in membership among the credit unions in 1942.
Local Associations in 1942
The local associations, like other retail businesses, wore affected by
rationing, wartime shortages of goods, and problems of transportation
and delivery. The rationing of gasoline had not begun to be felt very
severely in 1942, except among the urban associations in the East.
Very optimistic reports on condition of local cooperatives were made
in various sections of the country. In the State of Washington it was
stated that in 1942 the Grange cooperatives “almost without exception
enjoyed the best year in their history.” 1 From Ohio it was reported
that “from the standpoint of all-round progress the year 1942 has been
our greatest,” and similarly encouraging statements were made con
cerning the associations in Eastern Cooperative Wholesale territory
(New England and Middle Atlantic States). The iarm ers Union
State Exchange, in Nebraska, reported that 1942 was on the whole
a very good year for the member associations. The Nsbraska Union
Farmer, in its issue of April 14, 1943, gave the following estimates of
1942 business and net earnings of the Farmers’ Union cooperatives in
the State.
Business
110 petroleum associations___________ $4, 400, 000
75 store associations________________ 6, 000, 000
240 grain elevators_________________ 43, 200, 000
Total______________________
53, 600, 000
Earnings
$255,000
225,000
720,000
1, 200, 000
Reports received by the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics for 1,385
local associations indicated a volume of business of nearly $202,000,000
for 1942 for these organizations. The more than 1,100 associations
for which data for both 1941 and 1942 were availatle made note
worthy gains in business and net earnings. Membership also in
creased. For the whole group of associations business was nearly a
fourth larger in 1942 than in 1941. The greatest progress was made
by the store associations, but the petroleum associations also showed
a volume nearly 14 percent above that of the previous year, even
though over a fifth of their number sustained a falling off in business
as compared with the preceding year, as against less than 10 percent
of the stores (table 2). To some extent the amount of business was
raised by the advance in price levels, and to some extent undoubtedly
Grange News (Seattle), June 19, 1943.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
758
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
by enlarged memberships and patronage. Membership of identical
associations reporting for both years increased by about 9 percent, in
spite of the fact that over a fourth of the associations had a smaller
membership in 1942 than in 1941.
Five percent of the total reporting associations operated at a loss
in 1942; only 1.7 percent had a loss in both years and 3.3 percent had
a gain in 1941 but a loss in 1942. Further, 2.9 percent went from a
loss in 1941 to a gain in 1942 and 68.5 percent increased their earnings
in 1942 over those in 1941. A larger proportion of the petroleum
associations than of other types had a smaller amount of earnings in
1942 than in 1941.
T a b l e 2 . —Membership, Business and Net Earnings of Local Cooperatives in 1942 as
Compared with 1941
Membership
Percent
reporting—
Type of association
Per
cent
of in
crease In D e
in
crease
total crease
in
in
1942 1942
Amount of
business
Percent
reporting—
N et earnings
Percent
which
went from—
Percent
reporting—
Per
cent
of in
Gain Loss
In D e
in
in
crease In D e
crease crease
in
1941 1941 Loss
in
in
in
crease
crease
total
to
to
in
both gain gain
in
1942 1942 loss gain years in
in
in
in
1942 1942
1942 1942
All types___________ ___ ______
9.1
73.9
26.1
24.1
84.2
15.8
3.3
2.9
1.7
68.5
23.6
Stores and buying clubs_______
Petroleum associations________
Other consumers’ cooperatives- -Distributive departments of
farmers’ marketing associations______ _
_ ........ .
8.3
9.5
5.8
75.5
73.8
50.0
24.5
26.2
50.0
30.8
13.6
41.8
90.8
78.9
81.8
9.2
21.1
18. 2
5.4
2.0
4.9
1.2
2.2
.4
50.0
69.5
64.7
50.0
17.9
31.7
1 6 .8
53.3
46.7
48.1
87.5
12.5
---------
3.7
90.9
7.4
—
As the first full year of war, 1942 brought serious problems of pro
curement of supplies, of transportation, and of distribution. Many
commodities became scarce and some practically disappeared from
the market altogether. Rationing of certain items, such as tires and
petroleum products, cut down the volume of business particularly in
urban areas; the associations serving farmers maintained their volume
fairly well. To some extent, the procurement problem was met by
the substitution of new lines for those in falling supply.
Diversification of business has been urged by the cooperative whole
sales for some years and the associations which heeded the advice
have begun to reap the benefits since the war began. Petroleum asso
ciations have added groceries, hardware, seeds, fertilizer, etc., the
sales of which compensate for the decreases in or disappearance of
such items as electrical appliances, refrigerators, tires, and metal goods.
Also, numbers of cases have occurred in which two or even three local
cooperatives have consolidated into a single association, in the inter
ests of efficiency and economical operation. In some cases, store and
gasoline associations operating in the same town have merged.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
759
Cooperation
Cooperative Wholesales in 1942
OPERATIONS OF WHOLESALES
The business, earnings, and patronage refunds of individual whole
sales are shown for 1941 and 1942 in table 3.
One association shown—Farmers Union Cooperative Brokerage—
was placed in liquidation at the end of its fiscal year. As noted, its
territory and members will hereafter be served by the F turners Union
Central Exchange. The Cooperative Wholesale for southern Cali
fornia, a small association that had been having increasing difficulty
in obtaining supplies, suspended operations late in the year. No
data on volume of business, etc., are available for it, or lor the North
west Cooperative Society whose business was taken over by Farmers
Union Central Exchange.
T a b l e 3.- —Business, N et Earn inns, and Patronage Refunds of Coope ative Wholesales,
1941 and 1942
Amount of business1
N et earnings
Patronage refunds
Association and State
1942
All associations:
Interregional, distributive... __
Regional:
Distributive, wholesale.
Service. _____ . . . .
District:
D istributive_____________
Service. . . . . .
1941
1942
$9, 905, 611 $4, 204,059
$11, 702
1941
1942
1941
$277,011 $105,343 $238,093
111, 606,247 90, 562, 69 j-5, 411, 897 3,812, 6 12 4, 325, 712 3,106, 925
1,595,257
759,170
2,178,180 2, 352,522 } 125,829
98,720
101, 340
128,791
107, 734
115, 906
11, 702
(3)
38,9 ¡8
238,093
11,117
94,226
(3)
238,093
7, 230 1
> 6,645
(3)
}
1,264
(3)
J
8,359, 583 1,055, 499 1,094, 498 902, 813
883, 753
I n t e r r e g io n a l
Illinois: National Cooperatives .
Ohio: United Cooperatives ._
(2)
(2)
9, 905, 611 4, 204,059
R e g io n a l
Illinois:
Central States Cooperatives:
Distributive, w holesale..
264,025
Services:
Educational___
2,402
Auditing______ _ ____
204
Illinois Farm Supply Co . _
15,083,781
Indiana: Farm Bureau Cooperative Assn
Distributive, wholesale___
9, 255, 394
Services:.
A u d itin g .................... .
11, 637
Trucking____________ .
225; 104
Auto repair______ ..
15, 333
Insurance bonds, etc.
25, 384
Finance (credit)____ _ _ .
21, 381
Other_____ . . .
297,441
Productive departments_______
<4, 233,097
Iowa:
Iowa Farm Service C o ... .
« 63, 488
Cooperative Service Co
(3)
M a s s a c h u s e t t s : U n i t e d Cooperative
Farmers_____ ._
2, 631, 424
Michigan: Farm Bureau Services:
Distributive, wholesale. .
4,343, 815
Productive departments. ______ ..
416, 214
Services: M anagement.. . . . .
(3)
Distributive, retail ,
1, 244, 298
Minnesota:
Midland Cooperative Wholesale........
6,949, 509
Farmers Union Central Exchange . . .
8, 949, 756
Minnesota Farm Bureau Service Co._
1,181,000
Missouri: Consumers Cooperative Assn.:
Distributive, wholesale_____ _
9,885,198
Services:
_
Auditing__________
10,401
Trucking _ _________
23,966
Productive departm en ts__________
4 878,016
Distributive, retail__ ____ __________
(3)
See footnotes at end of table.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
229,394
6,119
5,784
9, 498, 598
10,075
169, 717
8,605 • 793,428
22, 568
(3)
169, 774
43,200,005
397, 3 n
496, 897
588, 852
« 54,359
83,763
45, 549
30, 814
35, 518
10' 888
39, 690
20, 815
30,050
9.155
1, 842, 445
69, 058
(3)
(6)
(3)
3, 523,985 ]
11,413 f 247,052
206, 376 !
6, 228, 796
8,098,812
836,828
6,851,056
149,503
347,663
72, 700
88, 4 20
232,773
45, 268
124, 731
321,0 55
33,112
122, 646
200, 950
72,600
102,051
174,257
33,112
161, 316 7545,356
109,644
1
7, 541 > 190,101
34,421
4 655, 753
383, 450
12,396
3.547
760
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
T a b l e 3 . —Business, N et Earnings, and Patronage Refunds of Cooperative Wholesales,
1941 and 1942—Continued
Amount of business1
N et earnings
Patronage refunds
Association and State
1942
1941
1942
1941
1942
1941
R e g i o n a l — Continued
Nebraska: Farmers Union State Exchange:
Distributive, wholesale--------------------Services: Trucking ___________ ____
Productive departments_____________
Distributive, retail,
--------- - --- -N ew York: Eastern Cooperative Wholesale,
Ohio: Farm Bureau Cooperative Assn.:
Distributive, wholesale------------ ------Services: Trucking -------------- ------Productive departments_______ ____
Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Farm Bureau
Cooperative Association----------------------South Dakota: Farmers Union Cooperative
Brokerage:
Distributive, wholesale--------------------Services:
A uditing---------------- 1 ----------------Trucking_____ ______ ______ -,
Texas: Consumers Cooperatives AssociatedUtah: Utah Cooperative Association,
Virginia: Southern States Cooperative:
Distributive, w holesale,, - , ---- -------Services:
Accounting and m anagem ent.., .
O ther.,-------------- -- -----------------Distributive, retail, ---- ------------- Washington: Pacific Supply Cooperative:
Distributive, wholesale............ .............. Services:
Trucking______________________ Auto repair------- ------ - ------ --------Finance, ________ _____ ______
Wisconsin: Central Cooperative Wholesale:
Distributive, wholesale___________ -,
Services: A uditing---------------------------Productive departments------------------
$2,407,020 $2,398 898
99,470
90,024
4 336,225
(3)
748,742
879,970
2, 765,155 2,107,827
$110,757 | $QQ 741 ($50,117
13, 750
l (8)
2,940
(3)
(8)
22,262
2,276
(3)
56, 544
40,645
63,634
$45,041
(»)
(3)
(3)
12,850, 586 9,929,399 I
50,185 } 359,607
101, 017
44,587,613 4 877,006 1
248,370
168,735
105,932
227, 715
129,903
144, 253
76,502
5,192,905 2, 604,327
174,040
171
176
1,420, 601
216,568
595, 762 |
1, 563 > 3,834
1,437
59, 300
969, 762
285,082
(3)
(3)
(3)
3,268,562 3,191,045
}
109, 723
45,408
125,351
25, 340
5,002,840 4,792,257
21,710
26,262
<1, 652,772 4 319, 764
(U)
25,133
18, 490
24, 856
(3)
7,860
17, 565
f 535,064
603, 709 1
860, 886
1 (3)
(3)
1
46,073
(3)
(3)
19, 700,580 18,080,714 1,186,938
61,258
527,965 }
9,017,282
io 236
io 78,419
149,459
275,652 Ì
228,645
255, 918
200,000
147,801 ]
999 } 144,113
1
m
123,219
125, 757
27,687
952
\
J
D is tr ic t
California:
Associated
Cooperatives of
Michigan:
Cooperative Services
- ------ Northland Cooperative Federation----Minnesota:
Trico Cooperative Oil Association.
Range Cooperative Federation:
Distributive, w holesale., ----------Services:
Trucking, --------- -------------Auto repair---- -------------Insurance, _--------------------------Mortuary______________ ___
Recreation__________________
Wisconsin:
Fox River Valley Cooperative Wholes a le ...
—
-------------------------A & B Cooperative Association:
Distributive, wholesale . . . -----Distributive, reta il.. ------ ------Cooperative Services-------------------------
1,437
217,849
190,431
80
2,197
155,925
105, 842
149, 581
» 96, 750
6,258
4,073
10,368
6,257
5,922
(3)
7,041
(3)
260, 436
254,980
23,517
31,139
23,517
30,551
571,240
900, 746
17, 772
36,440
15,031
25,208
4, 269
4 398, 879
16,868
40,243
16,396
24, 513
3, 320
4 261,180
24,600
30,931
22, 236
27,931
549,019
466, 416
40,843
24, 755
39,684
24,210
8,588
14,556
7,271
9,104
7,728
3,903
7,492 |
108,974 | 121 473 /
11,228
1
12
15,954
172,145
197, 666
1 Wholesale distributive business unless otherwise stated.
Business is that of pooling orders and making master contracts,
s No data.
4 Included in wholesale distributive business also.
5 Total brokerage and trading income.
6 2.9 percent; amount not reported.
7 Includes refunds from earnings of productive subsidiary associations,
s Included with retail.
» Included with wholesale.
io Loss.
n All earnings w ill eventually be returned to members; association in liquidation; functions taken over
by Farmers Union Central Exchange.
12 Name formerly H-O-B Cooperative Oil Association,
u Includes business done by recreational facilities.
2
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Cooperation
701
Altogether, the reporting regional associations had a wholesale
distributive and service business amounting to over 113 million
dollars. Of this, services accounted for only 15 percent; the rest was
distributive. The district associations reported sales of over 2}i
millions, of which 4.5 percent was for services.
Net earnings amounted to $5,411,897 for the regional associations
and $125,829 for the district associations—a total of $5,537,726. For
regional associations reporting for both 1941 and 1942, the distribu
tive business increased by 23.3 percent and the service business by
31.3 percent. Earnings increased 35.6 percent.
Patronage refunds.—Member associations received in patronage
refunds from the wholesales, on the 1942 business, a total of $4,538,789—
$105,343 from the interregional associations, $4,325,712 from the
regional organizations, and $107,734 from the district wholesales.
A considerable proportion of the refunds on patronage was paid, not
in cash, but in the form of shares credited to the member associations.
This was done in order to improve the capitalization of the central
associations, many of which have always been inadequately financed.
The annual meetings of the associations have been recognizing more
and more the necessity for stronger financing and, on the recommenda
tions of the boards of directors, have been voting increasingly to pay
at least part of the patronage refunds in the form of shares or to put
them into revolving funds payable 3 to 5 years hence. This latter
practice has been in vogue for only about 5 years and the deferred
refunds of those earlier years are now being paid, in cash.
In order to strengthen the organization for the post-war period,
several of the wholesales have also set aside special reserves. The
Pennsylvania Farm Bureau Cooperative Association set aside $13,896,
approximately 12 percent of the wholesale inventory, as a special reserve
to cover the probable post-war decline in inventory values. The
Ohio Farm Bureau Cooperative Association set aside $75,000 for a
similar purpose. At the end of its 1942 fiscal year, Southern States
Cooperative had an inventory reserve of $325,758, of which $200,000
was added from the 1941-42 earnings.
Productive operations.—Profitable as the wholesale distributive op
erations have been, those associations that have gone into production
have found that in the latter lie even greater possibilities of savings for
their members. For this reason, as well as because of the factors of
safety in supplies and of future development, that the cooperative
wholesales have been intensifying their drive into production. In
Ohio, at least 70 percent of the 1942 savings were made on the produc
tive activities. Consumers Cooperative Association (the wholesale
which was the pioneer and had made the greatest strides in production)
reported combined earnings of $668,062 in 1942, of which $477,961
(or nearly 72 percent) came from its oil wells, pipe line, refinery, and
other productive activities, and only 28 percent from wholesale distri
bution.
551712-
43-
9
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
762
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
O perations o f C redit U n io n s, 1 9 4 2
Sum m ary
IN 1942, for the first time since the Bureau of Labor Statistics has
been compiling annual data on the operations of credit unions, the
credit branch of the cooperative movement showed a downward trend.
The total number of associations that had received charters by the
end of 1942 had increased 1.4 percent over the preceding year, but
membership, number and amount of loans made during the year, and
amount of loans outstanding at the end of the year all showed de
creases. The membership declined only 5.0 percent, but the amount
of loans granted fell by 31.1 percent and loans outstanding by 32.0
percent.
The above situation was not peculiar to credit unions, but has been
shared by all other types of lending agencies though not all have
shown such sharp declines as have the credit unions. There are
numerous reasons for the decrease, among which may be cited the
limitations on installment buying and the sharp contraction of the
activities and purposes for which, previously, credit union loans were
made. Loans for such purposes as house repairs, educational courses,
the financing of purchases of furniture, refrigerators, automobiles,
etc., are today drastically reduced not only by shortages of civilian
goods and by shrinking college enrollments, but also by Regulation
W limiting the size of individual loans to amounts that can be repaid
within 12 months. Because of the generally higher level of earnings,
the need to borrow is neither so general among workers nor so acute.
Credit union members still borrow from their associations but the
loans are smaller and are contracted for a much narrower range of
purposes—largely for family emergencies, such as expenses of illness
or death, or for consolidations of debts, etc.
Indicative of the greater earnings and lessened need is the fact that
the paid-in share capital and total assets of credit unions continued
to grow in 1942. A considerable part of these surplus funds has been
invested in Government bonds. No data on reserves are available
for the Federal credit unions; those of associations under State char
ter showed an increase of 18.3 percent as compared with 1941.
Altogether, the 9,469 associations for which data were available
(about 90 percent of the total chartered) had a combined membership
of 3,139,457 at the end of 1942 and made loans aggregating $249,660,061. Assets totaled $340,188,694.
Net earnings on the year’s business amounted to $10,675,147.
Data on amounts returned in dividends are not available for the Fed
eral credit unions. Those paid by associations under State charter
totaled $5,176,376.
At the end of 1942, a total of 10,601 associations had received char
ters. This number was 145 greater than that at the end of the pre
ceding year, but included a number of associations in dissolution.
The Credit Union National Association reported that “hundreds of
liquidations” of credit unions took place in 1942, many of which were
the result of “panic, war jitters, and inability to fight the war the right
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Cooperation
763
way.” This trend was halted before the end of the year. The
Federal Credit Union Division states that among the Federal credit
unions, those liquidating were only the very small associations.
Considering credit unions of all types combined, at Ihe end of 1942
six States (Illinois, Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania,
and Wisconsin) had over 500 associations each, and in two of these
(Illinois and New York) credit union membership exceeded 300,000.
Illinois was the leading State as regards loans made curing the year
(nearly $28,000,000), but loans totaling over $10,000,000 were made
in each of the five States of California, Massachusetts, New York,
Ohio, and Pennsylvania.
The data on which the above findings are based were furnished to
the Bureau of Labor Statistics for the State-chartered associations in
most cases by the State officials—usually the Superintendent of
Banks—charged with the supervision of these associations. For
Alabama, Georgia, Idaho, and North Dakota, the data were supplied
by the State Credit Union League. For Virginia, the data were fur
nished by the State official and the Credit Union League. No report
was received for Mississippi; for this State estimates were made, based
upon the trend in other States and in this State in previous years.
The same was done also for certain items concerning which some
States do not require reports. The figures for all of the Federal asso
ciations were furnished by the Federal Credit Union Division, now in
the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation.
The data shown for individual States include both the Federal and
State credit unions, except in Delaware, Hawaii, Nevada, New
Mexico, South Dakota, and Wyoming, where there is no State credit
union act. In Connecticut where credit union legislation was passed
in 1939, no associations had been chartered by the State at the end of
1942. For all of these States the figures therefore cover Federal
credit unions only.
Operations in 1941 and 1942
The membership and business operations of credit unions are shown,
by States, for 1941 and 1942, in the table following Data are for
the calendar year in all States, except for the State-ch artered associa
tions in Arizona, Kentucky, New Hampshire, and North Carolina,
where they are for years ending June 30.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
764
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
Operations of Credit Unions in 1941 1 and 1942, by States
Number of
associations2
State, and type of
charter
Year
All States.. __________
State associations
Federal associations____
1942
1941
1942
1941
1942
1941
1942
1941
1942
1941
Arkansas______________
1942
1941
California______________ 1942
1941
Colorado______________
1942
1941
Connecticut4__________
1942
1941
Delaware4.
.
1942
1941
District of Columbia.- - 1942
1941
Florida________________
1942
1941
Georgia________________ 31942
1941
H aw aii4- . _ . -_ 1942
1941
Idaho____________ 31942
1941
Illinois________________
1942
1941
In d ia n a ..._____ ___ . . .
1942
1941
Iowa.............................. .. __ 1942
1941
Kansas________________
1942
1941
Kentucky____
____
1924
1941
•
Louisiana______________ 1942
1941
M a in e____ _________
1942
1941
Maryland. __________
1942
1941
M assachusetts______
1942
1941
M ichigan. _______ .
1942
1941
M innesota____ _
1942
1941
M ississippi______
3 1942
31941
M issouri-. . .
1942
1941
Montana _
1942
1941
Nebraska______________
1942
1941
Nevada 4___
1942
1941
N ew Hampshire
1942
1941
N ew J ersey ..- ________
1942
1941
N ew Mexico 4
1942
1941
N ew York
1942
1941
North Carolina
1942
1941
North Dakota
1942
1941
See fo o tn o te s a t end o f table.
Alabama_______________
Arizona.
__ _ ---- ----
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1
Number
Number
of loans
made
during
-year
Amount of loans—
Char Report
tered
ing
members
10,601
10,456
5,621
5, 663
4, 980
4,793
9,469
9, 650
5,399
5,506
4,070
4,144
3,139,457
3,304,390
1,791,938
1,907, 694
1, 347, 519
1, 396,696
1, 943,991
2, 409,464
1,128,480
1, 393,529
815,511
1,015, 935
$249,660,061
362, 291,005
158,123,094
227,959,046
91,536,967
134, 331,959
$148,762,961
218,867,882
105,876| 211
149,618,395
42,886; 750
69,249,487
95
89
25
23
37
40
508
498
118
113
214
212
13
13
129
126
204
201
146
156
100
100
46
41
849
841
337
332
243
261
145
138
125
129
166
139
54
47
76
75
568
565
282
283
394
400
87
87
22
22
29
35
457
457
109
106
179
190
11
11
109
115
171
178
112
145
93
93
34
39
836
831
299
310
214
217
133
132
115
124
138
122
44
37
68
72
544
547
249
261
362
373
23
22
382
386
►
39
r 37
208
208
5
6
17
18
245
250
14
10
799
805
173
164
65
88
23, 658
22, 550
2 3, 802
2 3,920
3,682
5,498
199,172
211,423
24,879
27,626
96, 931
95, 356
2,811
3, 200
70,803
78, 632
36,066
39,142
30,939
2 45,047
37, 499
37, 353
4, 324
4,630
349,936
3 366,491
3 101,673
3105,144
44, 037
47,413
28,889
26,749
3 27,461
33,824
3 32,922
3 35,110
9,817
9,997
29,353
3 32,768
255,836
3 260,293
101,136
106, 208
73,092
79,828
21,864
2, 575,065
22, 508
3, 416,654
3 2,608
3 348,878
3 2,819
3 484,561
3,869
254,407
6, 240
537,831
3 130, 237 3 18,037,253
2 147, 282 3 26,866, 712
3 2,571,389
317,056
3 20, 966
3 3, 348,893
46, 729
5,884,490
66, 780
8, 461,724
1,889
176,638
2, 724
263, 705
3 43, 507
4, 740; 720
3 57,864
8, 213,770
25, 875
3, 012,198
46, 560
5, 558,363
25,102
2, 779,071
3 35, 637
3 5,136, 700
13, 670
2,359,964
21, 547
4, 918, 591
2,103
259,110
3, 240
407,462
3 231, 730
27, 765,716
272,118
43, 495, 547
3 64,453
3 8,531,891
3 79, 572 3 10, 538,820
3 25,465
3,173, 641
39, 249
5,088,344
318,003
2,134,745
319,070
3 2,663.027
3 18,455
3 3,379, 342
3 26, 293
3 3,894,881
3 30,381
3 3,130,165
3 26,844
3 3,897,804
5,267
558,045
939,425
9,280
3 18,758
3 1,894,590
3 25,389
2,708,068
3 158,057
3 24,629,075
180,764
33,098,818
3 59,415
3 10,564,345
79,012
13, 504, 348
46, 308
4,876,474
64,877
8,144,246
1,272,249
1,814, 307
180,107
298,828
132; 043
260,072
10,233; 838
17,425,644
1,120, 222
1,870,415
2,472; 209
3, 981, 202
89; 739
148, 763
2,880, 680
4,916, 584
1,732; 640
2,749,794
1, 622,294
3, 266,827
1, 513, 557
2,777,388
133,085
216,481
17,038,979
26,132,514
3,423,880
5,292,534
2,498,219
3,548, 308
1,319,197
1,832,090
2,201, 233
2,692,844
1,196, 904
2,101,101
356,755
567,886
945,858
1,470,670
16,132; 974
20,305,406
6,155,480
8,623,108
6; 273', 488
8,113,066
4, 662
3 64,492
3 78, 981
3 2, 581
3 2, 960
26, 296
33, 470
185
381
3 3,470
3 4, 898
79, 370
79, 733
798
1,171
3 193,080
3 231,211
3 27,763
36,977
3 5,178
5, 523
328,662
2 4,810; 631
7, 720,939
' 155; 209
207,722
1,834, 326
2,445,199
12; 299
26,369
662; 337
698, 518
3, 267; 671
5, 267,197
45; 751
81, 254
17,196; 206
21,015,536
1, 556, 658
1, 564,677
' 239; 481
313,336
25
3951
396
•45 :
r42^1
212
212
6
6
17
18
280
276
19
13
928
908
187
178
114
115
6,151
98, 343
104, 262
5,862
5,383
35,803
35, 540
675
777
5,923
6,170
113,361
112,797
1,485
1,522
300,050
308,711
32, 232
40,120
8, 602
8,578
Made during Outstanding,
year
end of year
499,457
3 6, 686, 808
3 11, 748, 393
3 269, 673
3 332, 776
3,885,935
4, 901,728
21, 687
50,978
3 908,052
3 1,005,141
6, 905, 554
9, 817,258
88,636
151,867
3 31, 538, 905
3 37,076,869
3 2,695,972
3,194, 217
3 458, 744
633, 721
765
Cooperation
Operations of Credit Unions in 1941 1 and 1942, by States— Continued
Number of
associations2
State, and type of
charter
Year
Char Report
ing
tered
/
Ohio__________________
Oklahoma
__________
Oregon________________
Pennsylvania__________
Rhode Island__________
South Carolina.
South Dakota 4
Tennessee______
______
___
____
Texas__________________
U tah_________
V erm ont.. _____ ______
Virginia_______________
W ashington____________
West Virginia__________
Wisconsin____ _______
Wyoming 4. _ __________
1942
1941
1942
1941
1942
1941
1942
1941
1942
1941
1942
3 1941
1942
1941
1942
1941
1942
3 1941
1942
1941
1942
1941
3 1942
1941
1942
1941
1942
1941
1942
1941
1942
1941
718
709
87
95
92
85
694
674
40
39
61
60
37
35
160
156
456
439
72
68
10
7
127
122
248
247
75
81
597
607
22
22
642
654
77
89
81
77
598
604
34
33
36
44
32
34
132
136
391
388
66
62
8
5
97
101
220
236
56
71
596
600
18
18
Number
of
members
224, 545
232, 967
3 19,447
3 17,672
16, 382
18, 639
241,814
263,338
23,814
23, 520
7, 825
6,734
5,191
5,440
39,065
43,049
89,496
98,394
12,007
12, 299
1,108
265
28,854
29,035
44,614
51, 527
17,151
19.499
168,614
171, 452
2, 601
2, 347
Number
of loans
made
during
year
114,374
154,709
11, 720
3 12,873
9, 210
16,476
134,965
163, 254
7,980
10,693
3 9, 624
4, 700
3,655
4,117
3 31, 778
3 38,003
3 64, 545
97, 522
3 6,862
3 8,716
1,059
495
19, 241
3 29,535
22, 585
38,547
11,808
3 14, 282
75,034
3 78,000
1,557
1,002
Amount of loans—
Made during Outstanding,
year
end of year
$13,902,793
23,035,873
1,397,850
3 2,070,347
1,096,449
1,9i 4,661
15,435, 936
22,813, 354
1,416,372
2,109,086
3 623,099
458,314
3 '8, 327
502, 274
3 4,115, 787
3 5,061,609
3 7, 232, 265
13,152,428
3 936, 272
3 1,418,856
60,483
29,466
2, (61,500
3 3,: :80, 036
2,' 65,767
5, 943, 541
1, (160,274
3 1, >78,172
9, 128,179
13, 645,437
162, 622
186, 852
$7,850,789
12,990,877
744, 911
1, 250, 711
772,255
1,361,249
8,164,499
11,872,196
3,343,196
3, 579,689
3 293,487
247,693
176, 704
249, 502
1,680,836
2, 676,693
4,307,161
8,171,474
593,058
944,188
22,180
15.693
1,081, 232
1, 733,723
1,870,228
3, 527,655
605,213
938,435
6, 221, 555
9,133, 782
75,005
100,081
1 Some revisions made in 1941 figures.
2 M ost of the difference between the total number of associations and the number reporting is accounted
for by associations chartered but not in operation by the end of the year and associations in liquidation which
had not relinquished their charters.
3 D ata partly estimated.
4 Federal credit unions only; no State-chartered associations in this State.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Industrial Accidents and Safety
Causes and P reven tion o f In ju ries From F a lls in
Shipyards 1
Sum m ary
ONE in every five disabling injuries experienced by shipyard workers
during the first 4 months of 1943 resulted from falls. During this
period 13,512 injuries were reported under the U. S. Navy Department-U. S. Maritime Commission program of safety and industrial
health in contract shipyards. The proportion of falls to a lower level
(53 percent) slightly exceeded that of falls on a level surface (47
percent).
Broken bones resulted from 563 of the reported falls, and 28 of
these were skull fractures. Forty-three falls resulted in severe brain
concussions, and 26 produced hernias. Two workers were drowned
as the result of falls into water.
In absolute numbers, falls were most common in the daylight hours
between 7 a. m. and 5 p. m. In proportion to the number of em
ployees working at various hours, however, falls occurred relatively
more frequently in the period from 5 p. m. to midnight, and most
frequently in the hours from midnight to 7 a. m.
Analysis of the causes of the reported falls indicates 10 corrective
measures, which, if successfully applied, would have prevented at
least three-fourths of the accidents. These preventive measures are
divided into two groups. The first consists of steps which manage
ment can carry out on its own initiative. The second consists of
measures which cannot be put into operation by directive, but can be
initiated by management and made effective through full cooperation
between the workers and their supervisors. Management’s part in
promoting these measures would consist of the promulgation of positive
rules of safe conduct and the establishment of continuous programs
of safety education designed to instill safety consciousness into the
minds of all employees.
The measures which management can undertake, and the propor
tion of disabling falls which each may be expected to eliminate are
as follows:
Possible percent o f
injuries eliminated
(1) P rovide for b e tte r housekeeping on w orking surfaces, such as scaffolds,
stagings, decks, floors, a n d docks_________________________________
(2) See t h a t g u ard rails are p ro v id ed on all stagings, scaffolds, catw alks,
an d ram ps, a ro u n d all open decks, a n d a ro u n d all h a tch w ay s a n d
m an h o les________________________________________________________
26
13
1 Prepared in the D ivision of Industrial Injury Statistics by Frank S. M cElroy and Arthur L. Svenson.
766
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
767
Industrial Accidents and Safety
P o s s ib le p e r c e n t o f
i n j u r i e s e li m in a t e d
(3) See th a t stagings a n d o th e r elev ated w orking surfaces are properlyc o n stru cte d by special crews a n d th a t stagings a n d scaffolds are fre
q u en tly a n d thoro u g h ly inspected fo r unsafe conditions w hich m ay
h av e developed in u se ____________________________________________
(4) P rovide sufficient lights, do n o t require m en to w ork in dark a re a s ___
(5) P ro v id e for p ro p er inspection to insure th a t beam s, girders, lifting
p a rts, saddles, strongbacks, jack-clam ps, etc., are safely braced,
b o lted , or w elded ______________________________________________ _
7
2
2
The following are measures in which management must win coopera
tion from all employees, and the proportion of disabling falls which
each may be expected to eliminate:
P o s s ib l e p e r c e n t o f
i n j u r i e s e li m in a t e d
(1) S top s h o rtc u ttin g w hen going from one p a rt of th e b o a t, or y a rd , to
a n o th e r__________________________________________________________
(2) H av e each w orker th in k of his footing a t all tim e s___________________
(3) S top th e im proper use of ladders, such as a tte m p tin g to c a n y excessive
am o u n ts of m a te ria l w hile clim bing, or descending while facing o u t
w a rd ____________________________________________________________
(4) Stop th e p ractice of w alking or w orking on beam s o r gi 'ders w hen
unnecessary, a n d avo id approaching th e edge of decks or openings
unless necessary to th e w o rk _____________________________________
(5) See th a t guards, dem o u n tab le railings, etc., are in use w here neces
sary a n d th a t th e y are properly set or a d ju s te d ________ ___________
9
7
6
3
2
Causes of Shipyard Falls
UNSAFE WORKING CONDITIONS
More than a fourth of all the reported falls were directly associated
with poor housekeeping. The problem of the safe placement of elec
tric cables, air lines, and welding lines, which must frequently extend
through or across working surfaces and passageways, is admittedly
difficult in shipbuilding. The fact remains, however, that if this had
been accomplished, it would have avoided 177 of the disabling falls
reported during the 4-month period. Less excusable, because the
remedies should be comparatively easily applied, were the 169 cases
in which workers tripped over materials, tools, and scrap which had
been allowed to accumulate on working surfaces, [n one reported
instance, a porter suffered a broken leg when he fed over material
placed at the bottom of the steps which he was cleaning. Another
example of this type of fall was that in which a loose plank lying in a
poorly lighted shaft alley tripped a pipe fitter, wao was walking
through the passageway, and deprived the war eflort of a skilled
mechanic for several days.
The period covered by this study included a pa.’t of the winter
season when ice and snow add greatly to the hazards of working in
outdoor areas. Unsanded surfaces of decks, docks, scaffolds, and
other work places made dangerous because of ice or snow, produced
nearly 5 percent of all the reported falls. Slippery conditions result
ing from rain, water, fresh paint, and spilled oil or grease, however,
accounted for a slightly greater proportion of the fails (5.4 percent).
In many instances, these unsafe conditions develop* d gradually and
were apparently unnoticed by the safety inspectors until an injury
resulted. A case in point was that involving an operating engineer
who slipped on the deck of his crane, which was subsequently found
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
768
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
to be covered with an imperceptible film of oil. This discovery led
to a general clean-up in that particular yard. A somewhat similar
case occurred in another yard where a worker slipped on a ramp.
Investigation there indicated that grease and oil, carried on the shoes
of many workers, had made the so-called “safety” cleats so slippery as
to constitute a positive slipping hazard.
The lack of adequate guardrailings around openings or at the edge
of elevated working surfaces, and the use of ladders without safety
shoes or proper lashings, produced 355 falls, or 13 percent of all the
falls reported. The necessity of such guards seems to be generally
recognized within the various yards, and many practicable corrective
measures have been worked out. The very substantial number of
falls resulting from unguarded conditions, however, indicates that
much must yet be done to extend the use of adequate guards. In at
least one yard the problem has been met through the creation of a
crew; of specialists, within the safety department, which is given the
specific responsibility of seeing that adequate guards and railings are
installed throughout the yard.
Nearly 7 percent of all the reported falls were caused by defective
scaffolds or staging. In the majority of cases this condition resulted
from faulty original construction. Lack of frequent and thorough
inspection and of careful maintenance was indicated, however, by a
number of accidents resulting from weakened standards and spawls
Loose and overlapping floor boards and gaps between the hulls and
scaffolds were outstanding among the defects of original construction.
A detailed record of the unsafe conditions, which caused the 2 722
disabling falls, appears in table 1.
T a b l e 1.— Unsafe Working Conditions Indicated by Accidents From Falls in Shipyards
Total falls
Falls on same
level
Falls to differ
ent levels
N um
ber
N um
ber
Unsafe working condition
N um
ber
Total___________
Per
cent
Per
cent
Per
cent
2,722
100
1,266
100
1,456
100
Unguarded or inadequately guarded
Hatchways, manholes, openings
Staging, scaffolds without railings
.Ladders not lashed or without safety shoes
Decks, floors, docks___
Ramps, runways, catw alks..
Assembly tables, plattens..
Stairs, steps__________
355
234
66
35
7
6
6
1
13
18
12
1
337
222
66
34
7
4
3
1
23
Poor housekeeping___
Materials, objects, 071 work surfaces
Decks, floors not cleared of
Cables, air or pressure lines, hose.
M etal parts, saddles, strong-backs, bolts..
Lumber, blocks, wood scraps
Tools___
Scaffolds, staging not cleared of.
Cables, air or pressure lines, hose
Lumber, blocks, wood scraps
M etal parts, saddles, strong-backs, b o lts..
Yards not cleared of. .
Metal parts, saddles, strongbacks, bolts__
Lumber, wood, scraps..
Other material, equipment, etc
695
397
346
177
116
47
6
28
10
10
8
23
13
6
4
26
15
46
28
117
43
26
8
9
9
8
3
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1
2
3
578
354
320
169
107
38
6
12
4
4
4
22
12
6
4
16
6
6
4
1
1
769
Industrial Accidents and Safety
T a b l e l .— Unsafe Working Conditions Indicated by Accidents From Fai s in Shipyards—
Continued
Total falls
Falls on sane
level
Falls to differ
ent levels
N um
ber
N um
ber
Unsafe working condition
N um
ber
Poor housekeeping—Continued.
Slippery work surfaces__________________ _____
Ice and snow on_____ ________ ___ _______ __
Decks, floors, docks____________________
Y a r d s___ ’ _ _____ _____ ________ __
Staging, scaffolds .
_ _______________
Track (crane and railway)______________
Ramps, catwalks, platforms____ ________
Ladders...........
................... ......................
Stairs, steps, plattens, etc. . . .
Rain and moisture on _ ____ . . .
Decks, floors, docks
........ .......................
Assembly tables, plattefis.. ________ _ .
M etal plates, beams, girders. . . . .
Staging, scaffold___ . . . ____
....
L a d d ers__ . . .
... ........................... . . .
Runways, catwalks, platforms.. . . .
...
Stairs, s te p s ___ _
... . . . .
. ..
Presh paint, oil or grease o n ___ _____
Decks, floors, docks _.
. _______ ____
Metal plates, beams, girders___
_____
Stairs, steps
... _ ...
. .. . . ...
Plattens, ladders, staging, etc
_____
Unsafe piling or storage of__ _______________
Metal plates, girders, beams, parts______
Lumber, scrap wood
.
...
____
Cables, air or pressure lines_____ _ ____
Per
cent
278
132
61
40
10
5
4
4
8
117
56
27
11
8
6
2
29
10
5
4
10
20
15
4
1
10
Per
cent
216
111
53
40
5
5
3
1
4
90
48
23
9
2
5
3
17
4
5
15
8
2
1
62
21
8
Per
cent
5
8
5
2
1
1
1
3
4
27
8
4
2
6
2
3
2
14
2
3
4
5
12
10
2
1
Defective construction of . . ____. . . . . . . . . .
.
Scaffolds, staging.. .........................................
Ramps, catwalks___ _
. _____
._
Decks, flo o r s ..._______ ____ _ _________ . . . .
195
186
6
3
7
12
11
1
1
183
175
5
3
13
Improper illumination of--------------- ---------------------Hatchways, manholes, openings . . . . . .
Floors, decks, docks _________ ___ __________
Assembly tables, p la tte n s.........................................
Yard. _ ___. . .
. . . . . . . . . . . ________
Staging, scaffolds. . _ . . _______ . . . ___ .
Stairs, steps, ramps___
______. . . . . . .
Cranes ._ ___________ __________ _ . . _____
62
21
15
8
7
6
4
1
2
22
1
8
5
7
2
40
20
7
3
3
Poorly braced, welded, bolted . . .
...
... .. .
M etal beams, girders, plates, other parts...............
Ladders. . _ _ _ _ _ . . . . ._ . ____ . . . _.
Decks, floors, gangways____ _____ _ . . ____
Stairs, shoring^ saddles, strongbacks, etc .
. _
41
19
7
6
9
2
7
5
Old, worn......... .
. .. .. ... .
. .. ____ .. .
Ladders__
__
. . ___ .
_____ . ..
Staging, scaffolds. . . _ ________ ____ _ ____
Other hand tools. ____________ .
. .
. ..
_________
W renches _ _________________
Floors, runways, ramps, roadways, etc . . .
___
33
14
4
4
3
8
1
10
Poorly designed_________________ ____ ____ ______
Scaffolds
_____ _____
. ___ ______ . .
Racks, shelves, ramps, gangplanks . . . . . . . . . .
Stairs, ladders, benches, p la tte n s________ . . _.
22
8
6
8
1
4
2
2
Unsafe working conditions, not elsewhere classified. _.
No unsafe working conditions______________________
Unclassified—insufficient data____ ____ ____ . . . . ___
216
785
318
8
28
12
126
297
192
6
4
1
1
34
14
7
6
7
2
1
23
14
2
3
1
3
2
18
6
4
8
1
90
488
126
6
33
9
2
2
1
2
5
0
10
23
15
1 Less than half of 1 percent.
Unsafe Practices
Eighty-four percent of the 2,722 falls studied definitely can be related
to the failure of someone to act safely, but the majorily of these unsafe
acts resulted in injury to persons other than those who committed the
unsafe acts.
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Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
The most outstanding unsafe act resulting in falls was that of leaving
material, tools, equipment, and scrap in unsafe positions. Supervisors
who permitted these poor housekeeping conditions to exist must share
the blame for such tripping hazards with the workmen who created
them.
Stage builders who failed to construct adequate staging, scaffolds,
and ladders properly or failed to place hand and guard railings on
otherwise completed construction were responsible for nearly 15 per
cent of all the reported falls. The inspectors who failed to recognize
the deficiencies of such inadequate construction must share in this
responsibility. In most instances of falls resulting from the use of
unsafe scaffolds the persons injured had nothing to do with the unsafe
construction. There were, however, 48 reported cases in which the
injured persons had been using makeshift scaffolds which they had
constructed themselves from boxes, sawhorses, and planks. Although
it was not always so stated in the reports, the use of such makeshift
scaffolds may generally be considered not only an unsafe act but also
a positive violation of the yard safety rules.
Short-cutting, and thereby taking unnecessary chances, when mov
ing from place to place in the yards led to 247 disabling falls. Chiefly
responsible was the failure to use provided walkways, ramps, and catwalks. balls resulting from attempts to jump over open spaces were
particularly numerous among workers on plattens, skids, and assembly
tables. Jumping from scaffolds and sliding down ropes instead of using
ladders or stairs caused numerous falls, as did also the act of walking
on beams or girders when not necessary to the work. The most fre
quently recommended preventive measure for the elimination of acci
dents of this type was the installation of additional stairs, walkways,
ramps, etc., at more convenient points.
Failure to observe the time-worn maxim “Watch your step”
resulted in disabling injuries to 50 workers who tripped when they
walked backwards while pulling cables or lines. Forty-three others
fell over objects which they probably would have avoided if they had
not been running; it is pertinent to note that accidents of this type
generally occurred at quitting time.
The most unusual accident reported, however, was that involving a
burner’s helper who stood on the end of a plate and watched his
leaderman burn off the part on which he was standing.
Of a total of 193 reported falls from ladders, only 33 resulted from
defects in the ladders. In 122 instances no cause other than failure to
maintain a good grip could be assigned. In 33 cases, however, the
climbers were definitely attempting to carry excessive quantities of
materials. A painter, for example, undertook to carry “six paint
buckets” as he climbed, and a shipfitter tried to carry “a 20-ton jack,
a lunch box, and a pair of coveralls.” The use of hand lines to raise
or lower material would probably have prevented all 33 of these
accidents. To descend a ladder while facing outward is practically
inviting accident; nevertheless, five falls resulting from this procedure
were reported. In one of these cases the worker attempted his descent
with his hands in his pockets.
The unsafe acts which led to the reported falls are given in table 2.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Industrial Accidents and Safety
771
T a b l e 2 . — Unsafe Personal Actions Causing Accidents From Falls in Shipyards
Total falls
Falls on same
level
Falls to different
levels
N um
ber
N um
ber
Unsafe act
N um
ber
T otal____________________ ____ ___________________
Per
cent
Per
cent
Per
cent
2,722
100
1,266
100
1.456
100
Leaving materials unsafely, such as_____ _______
Cables, air lines, hose, e tc ,.. ___________ ._ .
Metal stock and members, ______ _ _
Lumber________________________ ____ _ _____
Miscellaneous, scraps, debris,, _______________
Ladders, boxes, etc _____________________
467
194
161
66
41
5
18
393
177
141
43
32
31
74
17
20
23
9
5
5
Short-cutting__________ _______ _______________
Failure to use provided walkways, ramps, eatw alks,, ___________ _____ ____ __
Failure to use provided ladders and stairs to
ascend or descend, , _______ _____
Walking on beams, girders, etc., when unnecessary
Jumping from vehicles, platforms, etc_________
247
9
88
7
159
11
Failure to place hand or guard railing___________
A t open hatchways, manholes, openings,______
On steps, ramps, etc_________________
At edge of decks, floors_____________ ____
216
199
10
7
8
11
8
3
1
205
191
7
7
14
Failure to take secure footing or proper position_____
Walking backwards_____ _______ _ _
Running__________ ______ ____ ______________
On piled materials__________________
On floors, d e c k s_____ . . . _ __ _ . . .
On stairs, steps___________ . . . . .
On assembly tables and p la tte n s .______
On scaffolds, staging____ __________
On trucks ____________ _________ . .
200
60
43
27
20
19
18
18
5
7
127
18
37
23
15
15
13
6
10
73
32
6
4
5
4
5
12
5
5
Failure to construct safely___ . . _ _______ _
Scaffolds, staging. _____ ._ . . . _____
Using box, horse, etc., instead of ladder or scaffold..
Ladders____ ________ ____ _ __________
Gangways, runways, steps________ ___________
198
107
48
33
10
7
9
6
3
1
189
101
45
33
10
13
Unsafe use of ladders_________ . . . . .
. __
Failure to have secure grip while ascending or descending________ . ________ ____ _____ ____
Carrying tools, equipment__________ _______
Ascending or descending frontwards____________
160
6
12
1
148
10
Working or walking too near edge of_____ __________
Staging or scaffold. . __________________
Assembly tables, plattens____________________
Decks, floors, docks___________________ ____ _
Flatcars, trucks, barges______________ . . . . .
Catwalks, platforms_____ ____ _____________ _
91
58
11
9
7
6
3
Nonuse of guards, demountable railings, etc_________
Failure to tighten, set or adjust properly_____ ._
Removing from machines, etc________ ________
53
38
15
2
4
4
Having insecure grip while working w ith ___________
Cables, airlines, ropes, etc___________ ____
Wrenches____________________ _______ . . . .
Lumber, metal parts___ ______________________
Bars_______________________________________
37
13
11
7
6
1
13
1
6
3
3
Unsafe act, not elsewhere classified_________________
N o unsafe act__________________________________ _
Unclassified—Insufficient data________ _______ _____
322
428
303
12
16
11
161
258
190
92
64
28
74
62
19
4
13
7
70
49
12
11
1
122
33
5
111
32
5
91
58
11
9
7
6
6
49
34
15
3
1
24
12
5
4
3
2
13
20
15
161
170
113
11
12
8
«
» Less than half of 1 percent.
Tim e of Falls
Sixty percent of all the falls for which the time of occurrence was
reported occurred in the daylight hours between 7 a. m. and 5. p. m.
Twenty-two percent occurred between 5 p. m. and midnight, and the
remaining 18 percent between midnight and 7 a. m. Reduced to an
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
772
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
hourly basis these proportionate numbers of injuries indicate that for
every 6 disabling falls in the daylight hours there were 3.1 disabling
falls in the evening hours and 2.6 in the early morning hours.
Data relating to the proportionate exposure at various hours, in
terms either of man-hours or of total employment, were not available
for the particular yards which furnished accident information. The
relative volume of falls during different periods of the day, therefore,
could not be expressed in terms of the standard frequency rate. It is
possible, however, to make a reasonably accurate frequency com
parison from such general employment figures as are available.
Recent employment figures for the entire shipbuilding industry have
indicated that the total employment in shipyards is distributed 63
percent on the day shift, 26 percent on the evening shift, and 11 percent
on the midnight shift. Assuming that these proportions hold for the
reporting shipyards it is possible to express the comparable hourly
exposure for the three shift periods as approximating the ratio of 6 3
2.6, and 1.1.
’
Correlation of this exposure ratio with the hourly ratio of injury
occurrence indicates that, in relation to exposure, falls occur 25 percent
more frequently in the hours from 5 p. m. to midnight than in the
daylight hours between 7 a. m. and 5 p. m. In the period between
midnight and 7 a. m., falls occur nearly 2% times as frequently as in
the daylight hours. From these differences it is reasonable to con
clude that inadequate lighting played a major part in the occurrence
of many of the nighttime falls.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Industrial Accidents and Safety
773
Indu strial In ju ries, June 1 9 4 3
JUNE reports from 12,329 manufacturing plants listed 29,677 dis
abling work injuries experienced by employees during the month.
The reporting plants employed 7,050,700 workers, or nearly 44 percent
of the Bureau of Labor Statistics estimate of total manufacturing
employment during the month. Assuming that the reporting estab
lishments constitute a representative sample, the total number of
disabling injuries experienced by workers in all manufacturing plants
of the United States during June, therefore, may be estimated as about
68,000. Added to the estimates for previous months, this brings the
estimated number of disabling injuries in manufacturing during the
first half of 1943 to a total of 387,000. This exceeds by 70,000 the
estimate of disabling injuries in manufacturing for the entire year of
1940.
Many of these injured workers had not recovered at the time the
June reports were prepared. The actual record of days lost from
work because of these occupational injuries, therefore, is not available.
Twenty days, however, is a conservative average time loss for each
disabling injury. On this basis the June injuries represent the direct
loss of 1,360,000 man-days of production, without any allowance for
the continuing economic loss resulting from the many deaths included
in the totals or from the reduced productivity of those workers who
suffered permanent physical impairments. This direct loss alone is
equivalent to a month of full-time employment for 52,000 workers.
At the end of June, 0.3 percent of the reported injuries were known
to have been fatal and 3.5 percent had definitely developed into
permanent physical impairments. It is reasonably certain, however,
that these proportions will be increased when the final outcome of
injuries presumed to be only temporary at the end of June becomes
known.
The general trend of injury-frequency rates in June was upward.
Thirty-six industries had slightly higher frequency rates in June than
in May and 12 industries had significant increases of 5 or more points
in their rates. For 26 industries the June averages represented the
highest frequency rate reported in any of the first 6 months of 1943.
On the other hand, the June averages were the lowest monthly rates
so far reported for 11 industries. The lowest industry average for
June was that of the cement group, which had only 5.1 disabling
injuries for each million employee-hours worked during the month.
In sharp contrast, the dairy-products group reported an average of
79.3 disabling injuries per million employee-hours worked in June.
Because of the longer period covered, the cumulative frequency
rates presented in the accompanying table offer a more stable basis of
comparison between industries than do the rates for a single month.
Three industries, dairy products, planing mills, and sawmills, had
cumulative averages of over 60 disabling injuries for every million
employee-hours worked. The wooden-container industry had a
cumulative rate of 52.4, and the concrete, gypsum and plaster products,
corrugated boxes, enameling and galvanizing, forgings, foundry, and
the plate-fabricating and boiler-shop products industries each had
cumulative rates of over 40.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
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Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
On the other hand, there were eight industries with cumulative
injury-frequency rates of less than 10. These industries were
women’s clothing, 5.3; sighting and fire-control equipment, 6.9; radios
and phonographs, 7.8; rayon and allied products (chemical), 8.3;
cement, 8.4; men’s clothing, 8.6; soap and glycerin, 9.0; and iron
and steel, 9.9.
Industrial Injury-Frequency Rates1 for Selected Manufacturing Industries, June 1943,
with Cumulative Rates for 1943
June
Industry 2
Agricultural machinery and
tractors________________
Aircrafts _____ ___
Aircraft parts______ _
Ammunition—20 mm. and
over___________________
Ammunition—small arms..
Baking___________________
Book and job printing_____
Boots and shoes, not rubber.
Canning and preserving___
Carpets and rugs__________
Cement________ ______
Chemicals, industrial. ___
Clothing, m en’s . ___
Clothing, women’s_____
Coke ovens___ . . . . . .
Concrete, gypsum, and plas
ter products__________ __
Confectionery.. _ . .
Construction and mining
machinery_____________
Corrugated b o x e s . _ ____
Cotton goods_______ .
Cutlery and edge tools____
Dairy products____ _______
Drugs, toiletries, and insec
ticides____ ______ _______
Dyeing and finishing_____
Electrical equipment and
supplies_______________
Enameling, galvanizing, etc
Engines and turbines______
Explosives________________
Fabricated structural steel..
Fiber boxes______ .
Folding boxes_____ _____
Food-products machinery..
Forgings, iron and steel___
Foundries, iron and steel
Furniture, except metal ..
Furniture, m etal_______
General industrial machin
ery______ ______ ________
Glass______ _______
Guns and related equip
m ent_______ _
Hardware____________
N um
ber of
estab
lish
ments
1943:
Cumu
lative
Fre
fre
quen quen
cy
cy
rate 3 rate
48
42
188
25.1
9.0
16.7
17.2
10.2
18.2
384
19
17
42
298
51
8
91
346
514
326
23
24.7
16.2
17.3
17.8
12.7
21.3
7.3
5.1
20.4
8.3
9.0
11.7
27.8
18.9
17.7
14.3
13.8
19.5
13.3
8.4
18.2
8.6
5.3
19.1
125
10
53.3
13.3
49.8
16.8
114
86
108
30
24
34.1
50.0
16.2
28.3
79.3
32.4
43.6
15.6
22.6
66.5
47
50
21.7
26.1
22.1
22.3
650
18
62
35
131
36
97
28
156
609
71
24
12.0
42.8
19.7
13.1
28.8
41.8
21.5
34.9
46.0
47.9
29.8
26.8
11.2
46.2
(«)
11.2
31.9
30.0
22.6
31.9
40.7
40.9
29.6
28.7
683
31
26.0
20.6
24.6
18.3
164
40
17.0
23.2
17.5
24.0
June
Industry2
Iron and steel____ _______
Knit goods__ _______
Leather.
Machine shops, general____
Metalworking m achinery.-.
Motor vehicles____________
Motor-vehicle parts........... .
Nonferrous-metal products.
Paints and varnishes______
P a p e r ..._______ _____
Paper and pulp (integrated)
Petroleum refining_______
Planing m ills_____ ______
Plate fabrication and boilershop products________ _.
Plumbers’ supplies_______
Potterv .
. . .
Radios and phonographs__
Railroad equipment______
Rayon and allied products
(chemical). _ _____
Rubber boots and shoes
Rubber tires_____________
Sawmills. . . . . _____
Set-up boxes______________
Shipbuilding_________ . .
Sighting and fire-control
equipment______________
Slaughtering and meat pack
ing—
Small arms________
.
Smelting and refining (nonferrous) ______ _____
Soap and glycerin.._ . . .
Stamped and pressed metal
products_____ ____
Steam fittings and apparat u s . . . _____ ____ _____
Stoves and furnaces, not
electric ________ . . .
Tanks, m ilita r y __________
Tank parts, military______
Textile machinery____ ____
Tin cans and other tinware
Tools, except edge tools___
Wire and wire products___
Wooden containers______
Woolen goods............. ............
1943:
Cumu
N um Fre lative
fre
ber of
estab quen quen
cy
cy
lish
ments rate3 rate
230
52
27
146
900
150
61
396
69
165
71
172
27
9.8
10.1
20.6
36.1
20.5
13.6
25.3
27.5
22.1
35.3
27.5
13.0
47.6
9.9
11.1
23.9
34.2
20.1
14.6
24.4
25.3
21.1
32.4
25.2
12. 5
63. 2
71
18
9
205
38
51.9
19.6
27.0
7.6
25.2
45.2
18.1
22.8
7.8
20.8
15
13
33
18
235
161
13.1
14.1
14.0
73.0
15.2
31.0
8.3
11.7
13.9
67.1
16.0
30.2
37
6.0
6.9
208
56
35.2
11.2
36.0
10.7
183
17
36.1
11.8
29.5
9.0
306
33.0
32.4
59
33.6
33.4
58
23
64
11
42
60
164
39
157
45.5
16.1
22.6
25.0
19.9
31.1
22.1
41.7
20.6
37.1
11.8
22.1
15.4
19.4
23.2
22.5
52.4
19.3
1 The frequency rate represents the average number of disabling industrial injuries for each million
employee-hours worked.
2 A few industries have been omitted from this table because the coverage for the month did not amount
to 1,000,000 or more employee-hours worked.
3 Computed from all reports received for the month. N ot based on identical plants in successive months.
* N ot available.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Industrial Disputes
Secretary o f Labor A u th orized to M ake F in d in gs U nder
War Labor D isp u tes A c t 1
THE War Labor Disputes Act gives the President power to take
possession of and operate any industrial facilities carrying on war
contracts, in which a labor disturbance threatens to impede the
progress of the war.
The President, on August 10, 1943, authorized and directed the
Secretary of Labor to exercise the power vested in the President to
make findings under section 2 (b) (3) of the War Labor Disputes Act.
Under this directive the Secretary is given authority to determine
whether the activities of a plant are required and have been contracted
for in the prosecution of the war. Among the plant activities which
may thus be contracted for are reconstruction, maintenance, storage,
repair, or transportation.
The Secretary of Labor was further authorized to obtain from all
departments and agencies of the Government such information as
may be necessary in the exercise of this power.
A c tiv itie s o f th e U n ited States C on cilia tio n Service,
A ugust 1 9 4 3
THE United States Conciliation Service during August disposed of
2,066 situations involving 809,998 workers (table 1). The services
of this agency were requested by the employers, employees, and other
interested parties. Of these situations, 217 were strikes and lockouts
involving 81,853 workers; 1,137 were threatened strikes and
controversies involving 379,359 workers. During the month
384 disputes were certified to the National War Labor Board, and in
64 cases other agencies assumed jurisdiction. The remaining 264
situations included investigations, arbitrations, requests for informa
tion, consultations, etc.
The facilities of the Service were used in 28 major industrial fields,
such as building trades and transportation, and the manufacture of
iron and steel, transportation equipment, textiles, food, etc. (table 2),
and were utilized by employees and employers in 47 States, the Dis
trict of Columbia, Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico (table 3).
i Data are from Public Law N o. 89,78th Congress, 1st Session; Federal Register, August 14,1943 (p. 11281).
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
775
776
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
T a b l e 1. —Situations
Disposed of by United States Conciliation Service, August 1943, by
•
Type of Situation
Type of situation
Workers in
volved
Number
All situations h a n d le d ..._______ ___________ ____ _
i 2,066
809,998
D isputes..................................... ......................... .
Strikes___ ______ ______ _______________________
Threatened strikes_______________ _____________
Lockouts_______ _____ _____________ _______ ___
C ontroversies.._______________________________
1,354
214
146
3
991
461,212
81, 638
77,141
215
302, 218
Other situations................... ................................ ..............
Arbitrations___________________________________
Technical services______________________ ______ _
Investigations______ __________ ______________
Requests to conduct consent elections___________
Requests for information_______ ________________
Consultations_____ ____ ________ ______ _________
Special services of Commissioners_______________
Complaints.................... .............. ..................... ..........
264
91
13
63
2
9
50
22
14
32,907
18, 399
4, 530
3,939
3,089
26
155
2, 755
14
Disputes referred to other agencies during negotiations
To National War Labor Board__________ _______
To National Labor Relations Board_____________
To other Federal agencies___________________ _
To Wage Adjustment B o a r d ...................................
To non-governmental agencies___ ______________
To State agencies........................................... ..............
448
384
43
2
0
5
8
315,879
305,986
8, 670
350
221
305
347
. 1 During the month 188 cases involving 53,764 workers were adjusted subject to hearings officer or arbitra
tion procedure with the hearings officer or arbiter to be selected by the National War Labor Board.
T a b l e 2 . —Situations
Disposed of by United States Conciliation Service, August 1943, by
Industries
Disputes
Other situations
Total
Industry
N um
ber
Workers
involved
N um
ber
Workers
involved
N um
ber
Workers
involved
All industries______ ___________ ____ _
1,802
777,091
264
32, 907
2,066
809,998
Agriculture____________ .
Building tr a d e s______
Chemicals_______ _____
Communications. . .
Electrical equipm ent_______
Food_________ ____
Furniture and finished lumber_____ . . .
3
75
63
11
40
188
63
111
33,991
15, 773
24,790
25,155
43, 916
11,246
1
8
9
3
7
26
2
5
812
354
101
417
6, 531
104
4
83
72
14
47
214
65
116
34,803
16 127
24,891
2 5 , 572
50. 447
11,350
Iron and steel_____________
Leather_____ _________
Lumber...........................
Machinery_____________
Maritime_____________
M ining_______ _____
M otion pictures________..
298
38
48
101
6
26
122, 567
6, 766
5, 736
80, 588
7,265
2,246
30
23
5
15
3
2
1
3,263
2,851
36
1,022
46
150
x
328
61
53
116
9
28
125,830
9,617
5, 772
81' 610
7, 311
2, 396
58
28
76
21
40
8
16
16, 489
6, 473
5,978
8,818
5,817
2,346
29,114
11
4
6
3
4
1
1
1,823
15
690
57
13
8
23
69
32
82
24
44
9
17
18,312
6,488
6, 668
8| 875
5 . 830
2,354
29; 137
56
83
8
105
108
128
20
87
6, 641
40,178
9,186
26,550
19, 974
196, 652
4,594
18,131
12
25
1
12
11
15
2
21
273
1,877
12
7,381
383
3,400
11
1,248
68
108
9
117
119
143
22
108
6, 914
42,055
9,198
33, 931
20; 357
200', 052
4, 605
19,379
Nonferrous m etals______________ . .
Paper_____ _____ ____
Personal service____________ .
Petroleum________________
P r in tin g ..._____
______
Professional________ . . .
R ubb er......................................
Stone, clay, and glass________
T extile___________ ________
Tobacco..............................
.
T rade.......... .................. .......... .
Transportation________________ .
Transportation eq u ip m en t_____
U tilities_____________
Miscellaneous__ ____ _________________
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Industrial Disputes
T able 3. —Situations Disposed of by United States Conciliation Service, August 1943, by
States
Disputes
Other situations
Total
States
Number
All States_________ __________________
Workers
involved
Number
Workers
involved
Number
Workers
involved
1,802
777,091
264
32,907
2, 066
809,998
Alabama________ __________ ________
Arizona_______ __ _ __
______. . .
Arkansas______________________________
California_____________________________
Colorado. _____ ____________________
Connecticut_____ _____ _ _____________
Delaware_________________ . . . . . ___
District of C olum bia... _________ _____ .
Florida_________ _____ ______ ____ _____
Georgia_____ _____________________ .
19
14
9
107
16
23
5
12
13
7
7,134
1,228
1,077
80, 618
2, 674
27,085
6,185
9,227
8, 719
2,604
4
1
1
11
2
5
1
6
2
4
44
844
100
665
5
932
70
1,969
314
26
23
15
10
118
18
28
6
18
15
11
7,178
2,072
1,177
81,283
2,679
28,017
6,255
11,196
9,033
2,630
Idaho_____ .
Illinois_____ __________________________
Indiana_____ _________
Iowa __________ _
Kansas_________ _ _ _____
Kentucky_____ _______ . .
Louisiana_____ _________
M aine_________ . .
M aryland_____________________________
M assachusetts_________ ______ . ____
9
174
68
42
15
18
9
2
15
57
355
45,424
13,166
6,000
14, 768
4, 703
1,693
46
21,652
21,196
21
4
447
109
19
11
17
1,875
355
45,871
13,275
6 000
14 768
4 703
6
5
4
27
9
195
72
42
15
18
15
7
19
84
Michigan___. . . . . . . .
M innesota_______ ____ . . . .
M ississippi__________ _____ ___________
Missouri____ ______ _____
M o n ta n a ____ ____ . . . _
Nebraska__________
____
Nevada______ ____ ______
N ew Hampshire____ _______ .
. .
N ew J e r s e y ........................ . .
N ew Mexico_________________ .
113
33
3
117
1
8
1
8
66
4
76,293
13,990
585
27, 680
250
4,297
1
4,105
42, 791
121
29
2
2
12
2
4, 232
240
4
1,102
403
9
2
1,143
2
N ew York_______ ._ . . .
North Carolina.. . _______ . .
Puerto R ico_______________ .
Virgin Islan ds.. ____________ ____
North Dakota________ _
Ohio___________________
Oklahoma___ _ _____
Oregon_____ ________
Pennsylvania_____. . . _ . . .
Rhode Island____ . . . . .
171
27
17
2
4
156
25
38
168
10
93,524
6,028
23,516
2, 576
' 109
77,862
1,039
2,808
71,028
3,418
16
3
5
900
71
3,082
187
30
22
2
28
1
4
16
1
3,119
3
148
1,420
700
184
26
42
184
■11
94,424
6,099
26,598
2 576
' 109
80,981
1,042
2,956
72,448
4,118
8
1,976
10
1
34
24
7 154
2 500
5,651
Q 750
5
4
6
5
108
6, 514
269
24
26
32
22
68
South Carolina . . . .
South D akota____ _ .
Tennessee______ _____ _ _____ _
Texas____ ______________ . .
U tah____________________
Vermont___________ .
Virginia_____________ .
W ashington. _____________
West Virginia_______________ . . .
Wisconsin__________________ _ .
551712—43----- 10
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
10
1
26
24
4
3
21
28
16
63
4
7,154
2 , 500
3i 675
9, 750
566
506
3,569
8,542
2,823
10,431
142
35
5
129
3
8
1
8
75
6
1 ,7 1 2
57
21, 669
23,071
80, 525
14, 230
589
28, 782
653
4 297
1
4 105
4 3 ,9 3 4
' 123
’ 566
3
506
3, 677
15,056
3; 092
10,455
Labor Laws and Decisions
R ecen t State L egislation on Labor R e la tio n s 1
DURING the last half of the 1943 sessions of State legislatures the
trend of legislative action toward regulation of the activities of tradeunions continued. Five more States—Alabama, Florida, Massa
chusetts, Michigan, and Minnesota—enacted restrictive industrial
relations measures. This brought to 11 the total number of States
that have adopted such legislation this year.2
Regulation of Labor Unions
Among the most stringent of the laws enacted since April are
those of Alabama and Florida. In Florida, paid agents of unions
must now be licensed annually by the secretary of state.3 Licenses
are limited to persons who have been citizens for 10 years and have
resided in the United States for 10 years prior to applying for a license.
Applicants must never have been convicted of a felony and must be
of good moral character. The decision as to whether agents meet
these qualifications rests with the Governor, the secretary of state,
and the superintendent of education. Unfair labor practices of
employees, enumerated in the act, follow closely those of the recently
enacted Kansas law. They include striking because of an inter
union dispute, or without authorization by a secret ballot of a major
ity of the employees involved; picketing beyond the area of the
industry within which the labor dispute arises; picketing by force
or violence or in a manner to prevent ingress and egress; picketing
which interferes with an employee’s right to work; the prevention
of any union elections or interference with right of franchise of any
union member. The act fixes $15 as the maximum amount which
labor unions may charge as initiation fees, but allows those in effect
on January 1, 1940, to be continued. Annual reports must be made
to the secretary of state on the organization and officers of the unions.
An accounting to members on financial matters is required.
The Florida Legislature also passed a proposed constitutional
amendment to bar closed-shop agreements in the State.4 The
amendment, which will be submitted to the voters in the general
election of 1944, states as part of the declaration of rights: “The
right of persons to work shall not be denied or abridged on account
of membership or nonmembership in any labor union or labor organ
ization, provided that this clause shall not be construed to deny or
abridge the right of employees by and through a labor organization
or labor union to bargain collectively with their employer.”
1 Prepared in the Division of Labor Standards of the IT. S, Department of Labor.
s For a summary of 1943 legislation affecting labor relations adopted before mid-April in Arkansas, Col
orado, Kansas, Idaho, South Dakota, and Texas, see M onthly Labor Review, M ay 1943 (pp. 941-944).
3 H. 142; approved June 10, 1943.
* H . J. R . 13; became law without Governor’s approval, M ay 8, 1943.
778
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779
The new Alabama law incorporates several provisions of unionregulation laws adopted by other States during the recent sessions.5
An “antiviolence” clause, identical with the one adopted in Arkansas,
makes it unlawful to use force or violence or threats of force or vio
lence to prevent any person from engaging in a lawful vocation, or
for any person acting in concert with others to assemble at or near
a labor dispute to use or threaten to use force or violence. As pro
vided in the Kansas and Florida laws, striking is forbidden unless
approved by a majority of the employees to be governed thereby.
Secondary boycotts are illegal. Other sections relating to super
vision of union affairs appear to be patterned upon the new Texas
registration statute. Unions are required to file detailed reports
with the State, and these must be made available to all persons who
wish to examine them. Fees for work permits are declared illegal,
as are also political contributions by unions. A new development
prohibits acceptance of executive or professional employees into
membership in any union open to other employees. Under the statute
a department of labor is created to enforce this act and to promote
voluntary settlement of disputes. This new department is to be
separate from the existing department of industrial relations, which
is responsible for the administration of all the State’s labor laws.
Unions in agriculture.—In Minnesota, an amendment to the Labor
Relations Act is aimed primarily at unions in agriculture.6 Labor
organizations are prohibited from hindering, by threats, force, or
intimidation, the transportation, production, processing, or marketing
of farm products by producers, processors, or marketing organizations.
Conspiring to injure any processor or marketing organization by
secondary boycotts or other means in order to coerce or damage
farmers is also forbidden. The scope of the act goes beyond agri
culture, however. Interference with free and uninterrupted use of
streets and highways is made an unlawful act. A strike may not be
called unless it has been voted by a majority of the voting employees
in a collective-bargaining unit composed of employees of an employer
or association of employers against whom the strike is directed.
Jurisdictional disputes are subjected to State supervision. Whenever
an interunion controversy becomes grounds for picketing, boycotting,
or striking, the Governor is empowered to appoint a labor referee to
resolve the conflict. Pending the referee’s determination, it is illegal
to picket, strike, or boycott the employer’s industry or place of
business.
Financial provisions—A. separate Minnesota enactment requires
elections of officers for terms not to exceed 4 years and charges the
responsible officer of every labor organization with the duty of making
financial statements to members.7 Noncompliance disqualifies unions
from representing employees in collective bargaining.
Massachusetts became the third State in 1943 to ban the exaction
of fees by labor unions for work permits.8 Alabama and Texas are
the other States which prohibited this practice.
Obstruction of goods.—In Michigan, restrictions were imposed on all
types of activities obstructing transportation of goods within the
6 S. 341; approved June 29, 1943.
6 Ch. 624; approved April 24, 1943.
7 Ch. 625; approved April 24,1943.
8 Ch. 385; approved June 2, 1943.
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Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
State.9 Under the law it is now a criminal offense, punishable by fine
and imprisonment, to stop or hinder the operation of any vehicle
transporting farm or commercial products in order to delay the trans
portation or loading or unloading of such products.
Amendments of Previous Acts
In addition to these laws imposing limitations on union activities,
a few minor changes were made in existing acts governing industrial
relations. The Minnesota anti-injunction act was strengthened by
reducing to 7 days the period of time during which a temporary in
junction in a labor dispute may remain in effect.10 Previously the
court could hold up decisions in injunction cases for as long as 60 days.
The Wisconsin Legislature modified the section of the Employment
Peace Act which forbade entering into a closed-shop agreement
unless three-fourths of the employees affected approve.11 The
amendment requires the approval of three-fourths of the voting
employees, provided such three-fourths constitute a majority of the
employees in the unit.
Pennsylvania extended the application of its Labor Relations Act
to firms also covered by the Wagner Act.12 The definition of em
ployer formerly excluded those to whom the Federal law applied.
This State also amended a provision which gave the court discretion
to determine whether the certification of a bargaining agent remained
in force during the court’s review of a challenge of the certification’s
validity.13 The amendment declares the certification void during the
process of review.
Still other Pennsylvania amendments permit members of the labor
relations board to engage in business, be officers in a labor union,
or participate in political activities.14 Labor organizations are for
bidden to deny membership on account of political affiliation, upon
penalty of losing their privileges under the law.
8 Public Act 24; approved March 23, 1943.
10 Ch. 658; approved April 24,1943.
11 Ch. 465; approved July 7, 1943.
12 Act 315; approved M ay 27, 1943.
13 Act 287; approved M ay 26, 1943.
14 S. 202; approved M ay 3, 1943.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
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781
R ecen t D ecision s of Interest to L a b o r1
Wage and Hour Decisions
R E S T I T U T I O N o f wages included in consent decree— Adopting
a posi
tion contrary to that of the Federal District Court in Minnesota in
W allin g v. M ille r (47 F Supp. 1004),2the Federal District Court in Con
necticut in W alling v. A ld e r m a n 3 held that a consent decree, enjoining
violations of the Fair Labor Standards Act, .may include a provision
for restitution of wages.
Sections 11 (a) and 17 of the Fair Labor Standards Act provide for
the issuance of court orders, on the application of the Administrator,
restraining violations of the wage and hour provisions of the act.
Section 16 of the act permits employees to sue for the recovery of
underpayments, an equal amount of liquidated damages, and attor
ney’s fees. The company, in each case, had consented to a decree
which forbade future violations of the act and directed the payment of
back wages. In the Miller case the eourt had held that inasmuch as
the employees had a direct remedy to collect unpaid wages, the court
lacked jurisdiction to order restitution as part of the restraining order,
since there is no provision in the act permitting the Administrator to
seek restitution. The court, however, in the instant case, declined to
follow the Miller decision and held that it had power to enforce pay
ment of back wages as a part of a consent decree enjoining violations.
Accordingly it was decided that the employer’s failure to make
restitution constituted contempt of court.
W age claim under statute held arbitrable disp ute. —Employees insti
tuted an action to recover unpaid overtime compensation claimed to
be due to them under the Fair Labor Standards Act (29 LF. S. C., sec.
201 et seq.). The employment contract contained a provision for
arbitration of “any difficulty or disagreement * * * growing
out of the relations of employers and employed.” The defendant
asked the court to halt trial until arbitration proceedings could be
conducted. The United States District Court for the Middle District
of Pennsylvania denied the request, and the defendant appealed to
the Circuit Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit in D onahue v.
Susqu eh a n n a Collieries . “
Section 3 of the Federal Arbitration Act (9 U. S. C. 3) authorizes a
court to stay a trial of an action pending in a Federal court when
there is “any issue referrable to arbitration under an agreement in
writing for such arbitration.” The appellate court held that a claim
for unpaid wages was within the scope of the arbitration clause of the
contract and the Federal statute. It took the view that the judicial
enforcement remedies of the Fair Labor Standards Act were not
1 Prepared in the Office of the Solicitor, Department of Labor. The eases covered in this article represent
a selection of significant decisions believed to be of special interest. No attempt has been made to reflect
all recent judicial and administrative developments in the field of labor law nor to indicate the effect of
particular decisions in jurisdictions in which contrary results may be reached based upon local statutory
provisions, the existence of local precedents, or a different approach by the courts to the issue presented.
2 Presently on appeal in the Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals.
3 ----- P. S u p p .------ (Aug. 13, 1943).
4 ----- Fed. (2 d )------ (Sept. 1, 1943).
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
782
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
exclusive, and decided that the statutory wage claim presented an
arbitrable dispute.5
The court seems not to have considered the effect of section 1 of
the Federal Arbitration Act which provides that “ nothing herein
contained shall apply to contracts of employment of seamen, rail
road employees, or any other class of workers engaged in foreign or
interstate commerce.” This language evidences a legislative inten
tion that disputes under employment contracts involving employees
in interstate commerce are not arbitrable under the act.
Furthermore, there remains unanswered the question whether an
arbitrator who decides in favor of the employees, in addition to the
underpayments, is bound to award the employees an equal amount
as liquidated damages which the employees would recover if they were
successful in the action brought under section 16 (b) of the Fair Labor
Standards Act.
Decisions Relative to Labor Disputes
V a lid ity o f a n tistrike law challenged. —The Federal Government
brought a criminal indictment against members of a mine workers’
union, charging them with encouraging a strike in a Governmentoperated mine in violation of the War Labor Disputes Act (SmithConnally Act). The War Labor Disputes Act declares it to be a
criminal offense, punishable by a fine of not more than $5,000 or
imprisonment for not more than 1 year, or both, to encourage any
person to strike or to aid in the strike of a plant, mine, or facility in the
possession of the United States. In denying a motion to dismiss the
case, the Federal District Court pointed out that the war powers of
the Government were very broad, and that the act was a valid exer
cise of those powers. In addition, it held that the act was not an
invasion of freedom of speech guaranteed by the Federal Constitution.6
The miners subsequently entered a plea of no defense, were given
6-month suspended sentences, and were placed on probation for 3
years.
E m ployee election not w arranted by m in o rity u n io n ’s w in n in g o f
strike vote.—A union requested the National Labor Relations Board
to reconsider its petition for an election to determine the bargaining
representative for employees in a plant. The Attorney General of
the United States had previously issued an opinion upholding the
right of a minority union in a plant to file a notice of a labor dispute
and to have the National Labor Relations Board conduct a strike
ballot.7 This ruling was based on the wording of section 8 (a) of the
War Labor Disputes Act (Pub. L. No. 89, 78th Cong.), which provides
that “the representative of the employees of a war contractor” must
file a strike vote 30 days before any interruption in production. The
term “representative” was held to refer not only to the union repre
senting the majority group but to the minority union as well. In
accordance with this opinion a strike referendum was conducted and
a majority vote favored a strike. On the basis of this poll, the min5
Compare I n r e B e n e d ic t a n d L i m i t e d E d i t i o n s C l u b , I n c ., 12 Lab. Rel. Rept. 127, where the court held that
the reinstatement under the National Labor Relations Act of discharged employees did not present an arbi
trable dispute under Section 1448 of the N ew York Civil Practice Act. Discussed in M onthly Labor Re
view. M ay 1943 (p. 948).
» U n it e d S t a te s o f A m e r i c a v . C o n g e lio e t a l . (August 30, 1943), U nited States District Court for the
Western District of Pennsylvania.
» Op. A tty. Gen., Vol. 40, N o. 69 (July 29,1943).
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Labor Laws and Decisions
783
ority union contended that the Board should invoke the representation
procedure provided by the National Labor Relations Act.8
The Board, however, reiterated its general rule that where a com
pany holds an unexpired contract with another union, a petition
for the determination of representatives of employees is appropriate
only when filed a reasonable time before expiration of the existing
contract. The Board reasoned that the strike vote was not indicative
of employee dissatisfaction with the existing bargaining unit, since
the question of representation was not put in issue by the strike refer
endum.
C onflict o f State a n d Federal authority. —The National War Labor
Board granted a maintenance-of-membership clause to a union despite
the employer’s objection that this award would violate a State law.9
The company’s objection to the provision was that it would violate
the Wisconsin Employment Peace Act (sec. 111.06) which makes it
an unfair labor practice for an employer “to encourage or discourage
membership in any labor organization, * * *; provided that an
employer shall not be prohibited from entering into an all-union
agreement * * * where three-quarters or more of the em
ployees * * * shall have voted affirmatively by secret ballot in
favor of such all-union agreement in a referendum conducted by the
[State Employment Relations! board * *
The War Labor
Board, however, ruled that although the required referendum had
not been held, the Board’s authority, derived from the war powers of
the President under Executive Order 9017, and Congressional enact
ment of the War Labor Disputes Act, was superior to State regulation
of employment relations. In its opinion the Board stated, “The War
Labor Board’s ruling upon maintenance of membership does not
invade the province of the sovereignty of the State of Wisconsin.
Rather, its ruling constitutes an exercise of war power over private
contracts, which power supplants that of the State in time of war.
In cases of this type, the safety of the Nation demands that the war
powers of the United States be regarded as supreme. * * *”
The Board added that compliance with its directive would not
constitute a violation of the State law, as the right to demand a
maintenance-of-membership clause was granted by the National
Labor Relations Act and, further, that the Wisconsin law was directed
against voluntary, and not involuntary, union assistance or discrimi
nation by an employer.
U nion-shop contract declared inviolate by N a tio n a l W ar Labor
B oard. —-In the case of I n re Trailer C om pany o f A m erica 10 a union
had a union-shop contract with a company, effective for 1 year or
for the duration of the war, whichever was longer. During this
period several union members engaged in organizational activities on
behalf of another union which was seeking to gain membership among
the employees. The union holding the contract with the employer
expelled these members, and the company discharged them. In the
interim the rival union petitioned the National Labor Relations Board
for an election to determine which union should represent the em
ployees. Several more members of the union holding the contract
were expelled from its membership for shifting their affiliation to
the rival union, and their discharge was demanded on threat of
s I n r e A l l i s - C h a l m e r s M f g . C o ., 52
« I n r e J . G r e e n b a u m T a n n i n g C o .,
National Labor Relations Board N o. 18.
10 War Labor Reports 527.
i° 9 War Labor Reports 809 (June 25, 1943).
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Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
strike. The rival union also threatened to strike if this second group
of workers was discharged.
After certification of the case to the Cleveland Regional War
Labor Board, that Board, although conceding the validity of the
contract, in effect suspended the union-shop provisions by declaring
that the issue of discharge of the employees should await the deter
mination of the employee election.
The National War Labor Board, however, canceled [the orders
of the regional board, and directed it to review the merits of the
case. It stated that as long as a union had been certified by the
National Labor Relations Board as the bargaining agent, its contract
would be enforced by the War Labor Board.11
Charitable institutions subject to jurisdiction of War Labor Board.—
The Brooklyn, N. Y., Central Young Men’s Christian Association was
requested by the National War Labor Board to conform to its wagestabilization policies.12 The organization had contended that it
was not required to recognize and bargain with a union because the
New York Labor Relations Act exempts charitable organizations from
collective bargaining and, furthermore, its activities were intrastate
exclusively.
In rejecting this argument, the Board pointed out that it had
taken jurisdiction of intrastate activities. It also stated that the
New York State constitution recognized the right of all employees
to bargain collectively, and that charitable organizations were subject
to the wage-stabilization policies of the Board.13
Court restrains proceedings of Regional War Labor Board Panel.—A
panel of the Regional War Labor Board at Atlanta was prevented
by court order from conducting proceedings to settle a labor dispute.14
The temporary restraining order was issued on the petition of seven
laundries.
Under section 7 of the War Labor Disputes Act the Board may not
assume jurisdiction of a labor dispute unless it threatens “ substantial
interference with the war effort.” The companies claimed that this
condition was not satisfied. In addition, the companies contended
that the Board is bound to accede to decisions of the National Labor
Relations Board. Since the latter Board has ruled that the companies
are engaged in intrastate commerce and not subj ect to the j urisdiction
of the National Labor Relations Act, it was argued that the War
Labor Board is also prohibited from proceeding in the case. Whether
a permanent injunction will issue will be determined after a further
court hearing of the parties.
Railway Labor Act
The National Mediation Board is given the authority by the Rail
way Labor Act to investigate railway disputes and designate the bar
gaining agent for employees involved. The act also guarantees to
11 I n r e T r a i le r C o m p a n y o f A m e r i c a , 10 War Labor Reports 374 (August 11, 1943). In the meantime,
the National Labor Relations Board ordered an election to be held, since the contract had been in effect
more than a year.
12 I n r e B r o o k l y n C e n tr a l Y o u n g M e n ’s C h r is tia n A s s o c ia t io n , 10 War Labor Reports 379.
12 Although section 715 of the N ew York Labor Relations Act exempts employees of “charitable, educa
tional, or religious associations or corporations,” the New York State Labor Relations Board in I n re T r u s te e s
o f C o l u m b ia U n iv e r s i t y (12 Labor Relations Rept. 914) held that a university was subject to the act as regards
its building-service employees in a commercial building operated and owned by it.
u J . I t . D e k le e t a l. v . I t o b i. M . H itc h et a l. Temporary restraining order issued by the Superior Court of
Chatham County, Georgia (Aug. 18, 1943); reported in 12 Labor Relations Reporter 937.
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Labor Laws and Decisions
785
crafts or classes of railway employees the right to organize and bargain
collectively (45 U. S. C. A. sec. 152).
A union of station “redcaps” had been refused recognition by a
railroad employer. The National Mediation Board dismissed an
application for investigation of the dispute on the ground that the
station porters were not a separate “class or craft” within the meaning
of the Railway Labor Act, and therefore not entitled to representation
separate from that accorded to a recognized union representing the
clerical, office, station, and warehouse employees. The district court
reversed the ruling of the Board, and the decision was affirmed by the
Circuit Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia in Brotherhood o f
R a ilw a y and S tea m sh ip C lerks , Freight H andlers, E xpress and S ta tio n
E m ployees et al. v. U nited Transport Service E m ployees o f A m erica .15
The appellate court found that the Negro “redcaps” were ineligible
for membership in the presently recognized bargaining group, and
that they had not been given an opportunity to participate in an
employee election. In view of these facts, the court concluded that
the action of the Board was unjustified and that the porters were a
separate “class or craft” entitled to apply for certification of a sepa
rate union as their bargaining agent.
Chief Justice Groner, in a concurring opinion, observed that a
technical definition of “class or craft” need not be discussed. He
stated that the question was whether the Railway Labor Act would
sanction a procedure providing for designation of an organization as
bargaining agent for Negro employees who were prohibited from
becoming members of the group. He further stated that to uphold
such a rule would be to violate one of the purposes of that act which
was to insure freedom in choosing bargaining representatives.
Social Security Laws
Restrictive construction o f 11available fo r w o r k —An employee work
ing on a third shift was forced to quit her job in order to take care of
her four children. For this reason she refused an offer by her employer
to work on the same shift, stating that she could work only on the first
or second shifts. The South Carolina Unemployment Commission
ruled that the claimant “is able to work and is available for work”
within the meaning of the State Unemployment Compensation Act
(Laws of S. C. 1942, as amended, sec. 7035-84 (c)) and entitled to
unemployment benefits. It held that the statutory conditions had
been met, inasmuch as the claimant had quit her job for good cause
and was ready and willing to work on the first and second shifts.
The Court of Common Pleas of Greenville County, South Carolina,
however, in J u d so n M ills v. S o u th C arolina U nem ploym ent C om pensa
tion C om m ission 16 reversed this holding and stated that it was not
the purpose of the law to provide benefits for one who gave up his job
“solely because of a change in his personal circumstances” and decided
that to be eligible for benefits the “unemployed individual must be
able to do and be available for the work which he or she has been
doing.”
In d iv id u a l stoppage o f work precludes receipt o f unem ploym ent
benefits.—A strike occurred in a plant, but little or no curtailment in
---Fed. (2 d )------ (Ausr. 2,1943).
16 Presently on appeal to the Sunreme Court of South Carolina.
15
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
786
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
p r o d u c t io n r e s u lte d . O n e o f th e s tr ik e r s a p p lie d f o r w o r k b u t re c e iv e d
a l e t t e r o f d is m is s a l. H e t h e n file d a c la im w i t h t h e S t a t e c o m m is s io n
f o r u n e m p l o y m e n t b e n e fits , w h ic h w a s g r a n t e d . T h e e m p lo y e r
a p p e a le d f r o m th e a w a r d , c o n te n d in g t h a t th e S t a t e u n e m p l o y m e n t c o m p e n s a tio n l a w p r o h ib it s p a y m e n t in th e s e c irc u m s ta n c e s .
T h e O k l a h o m a E m p l o y m e n t S e c u r it y A c t (c . 52, S . L. 1936, sec. 5)
p r o v id e s t h a t a n i n d iv i d u a l s h a ll b e d is q u a lifie d f o r b e n e fits “ f o r a n y
w eek
*
*
*
in w h ic h h is t o t a l o r p a r t i a l u n e m p l o y m e n t is d u e to
a s to p p a g e o f w o r k w h ic h e xis ts b e c a u s e o f a la b o r d is p u te a t th e fa c
t o r y , e s t a b lis h m e n t , o r o t h e r p re m is e s a t w h ic h h e is o r w a s la s t
e m p lo y e d
*
*
* .”
I n a ffir m in g a d e c is io n o f th e D i s t r i c t C o u r t
o f T u l s a C o u n t y , t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t o f O k l a h o m a in Board of Review
v . Mid-Continent Petroleum Co}1 d e n ie d t h e e m p lo y e e ’ s c la im . A l
t h o u g h th e c o u r t c o n c e d e d t h a t th e p l a n t w a s o p e r a tin g a t n o r m a l
c a p a c it y , i t in te r p r e t e d th e s t a t u t o r y d is q u a lific a tio n “ d u e to s to p p a g e
o f w o r k ” as r e fe r r in g “ to t h e i n d iv i d u a l w o r k o f t h e e m p lo y e e ” a n d
n o t t o a c e s s a tio n o f w o r k a t th e p l a n t .
Free-lance jockeys held to be independent contractors.— A n o w n e r a n d
t r a in e r o f ra c e h o rs e s b r o u g h t s u it to r e c o v e r s o c ia l-s e c u r ity ta x e s
c la im e d t o h a v e b e e n e r r o n e o u s ly assessed u p o n w a g e s p a id b y h i m to
c e r ta in fr e e -la n c e jo c k e y s .
The jockeys were not regularly employed by the plaintiff, but each
was engaged for a particular race. The Federal Social Security Act
(U. S. C. 1940 Ed., Title 42, sec. 1107) levies a tax upon the wages of
“ employees.” Article 205 of Treasury Regulation 90, promulgated
under Title IX of the Social Security Act uses a “ degree of control”
test in determining if an employer-employee relationship exists. The
Federal District Court for the Northern District of Illinois, Eastern
Division, in Whalen v. Harrison 18held that the free-lance jockeys were
independent contractors and not “ employees.”
T h e C o u r t p o in t e d o u t t h a t t h e o w n e r h a d n o r i g h t to p re s c rib e t h e
m a n n e r in w h ic h a j o c k e y s h o u ld p e r fo r m h is d u tie s , as th o s e d u tie s
w e re o u t lin e d b y r e g u la tio n s o f th e S t a t e r a c in g c o m m is s io n . I t
s t a te d t h a t th e o w n e r d id n o t h a v e th e r i g h t o f d is c h a rg e a ft e r th e
j o c k e y w a s o n c e o n th e h o r s e , a n d o b s e r v e d t h a t th e r i g h t o f d is c h a rg e
is a n e c e s s a ry e le m e n t o f c o n tr o l w i t h o u t w h ic h th e m a s t e r - s e r v a n t
r e la tio n s h ip c o u ld n o t b e d e e m e d t o e x is t.
Miscellaneous State Decisions
State Anti-Kick-back Law limited in application.— T h e A n t i - K i c k - b a c k
L a w o f th e S t a t e o f W a s h i n g t o n m a k e s i t a n o ffe n s e f o r a n e m p lo y e r ,
“ w h e th e r
*
*
*
in p r i v a t e b u s in e s s o r a n e le c te d p u b lic o ffic ia l”
t o re c e iv e “ f r o m a n y e m p lo y e e a r e b a te o f a n y p a r t o f w a g e s t h e r e t o
fo r e p a id b y s u c h e m p lo y e r t o s u c h e m p lo y e e .”
(W a s h . R e m . R e v .
S t a t . S u p p ., 1941, secs. 7612-21). U n d e r th is s t a t u t e a c o u n t y
tr e a s u r e r w a s c h a rg e d w i t h c o lle c tin g o r r e c e iv in g a r e b a te o f w a g e s
p a id t o a n e m p lo y e e in t h e c o u n t y t r e a s u r e r ’ s o ffic e . U p o n a p p e a l,
t h e S t a t e S u p r e m e C o u r t in State oj Washington v . Carter 19 h e ld t h a t
t h e m o n e y w a s n o t a r e b a te w i t h i n t h e s t a t u t o r y d e fin itio n .
>7
P ac. (2d)'
.
19
P ac. (2 d )
.
is _ _ _ pea. S u p p .----- .
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Labor Laws and Decisions
787
The court relied on United States v. Laudani (134 Fed. (2d) 84720).
in which it was held that a foreman having authority to hire and
discharge workers engaged in public construction work was not guilty
of receiving a rebate under the Federal Anti-Kick-back Statute (40
U. S. C. A., Sec. 276b), since he did not pay any part of the wages
under the contract of employment.21 In a similar manner, the court
reasoned that since the wages of the employee working in the treas
urer’s office were paid by the county, the amounts received by the
treasurer were collected by him as an individual and not as an
employer.
Responsibility for employment of child labor.-—-A 12-year old girl
brought an action for damages for personal injury against a school
board of education. In return for her daily services in the school
cafeteria owned and operated by the board, she was given a 15-cent
lunch. She suffered an injury as a result of falling from a defective
stool. It was claimed that the board had illegally employed a minor
(New York Labor Law, Consol. Laws, c. 31, section 130) and failed to
keep the school furniture repaired, in violation of the Education Law
(section 275, subdivision 14). No claim of common-law negligence
was made. The appellate court reversed a judgment of the trial court
for the plaintiff, and an appeal was taken to the highest State court in
Warney v. Board of Education of School Dist. No. 5 of Town of Lrondequoit et alP
The school board contended that the cafeteria was not a“ restaurant”
within the purview of the child-labor law, which prohibits the employ
ment of children under 16 years of age in restaurants. The court
rejected the argument that the statute was directed to more commer
cial employments. It also stated that whether the cafeteria was a
restaurant need not be determined, since the Education Law (section
629) makes unlawful the employment of a child under 16 years of age
in any business or service, and that the cafeteria was such a “ service.”
The court further held that the violation of the State child-labor law
was itself evidence of negligence, reversed the judgment of the appellate
court, and ordered a new trial.
so Discussed in M onthly Labor Review, M ay 1943 (p. 946).
Contra, U n it e d S t a te s v. M c G r a w , 47 Fed. Supp. 927.
290 N . Y . 329, 49 N . E . (2d) 466, reversing 264 App. D iv. 813, 34 N . Y . S. (2d) 787.
21
22
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
National Income
Wages and Salaries and O ther In com e, 1 9 3 9 - 4 3
A STUDY of the national product and income from 1939 to the
second quarter of 1943,1 made by the Department of Commerce
contains comparisons of the aggregate income of employed persons and
other groups, data on consumer expenditures and savings, and other
information of labor interest. It is stated that a new stage in the
development of the war economy has been reached. After an un
precedented expansion, the national economy is approaching a ceiling
on total output, as a result of shortages of manpower and other
resources. Even without correction for price increases, the rate of
growth of the gross national product fell off in the first half of 1943.
War expenditures, although continuing to increase as a percentage of
the total gross national product, also exhibited a leveling-off trend.
Consumer expenditures remained high but, when deflated to take
account of price increases, they indicated no considerable change in
volume of consumption.
The changes in national income by distributive shares from 1939
to the second quarter of 1943 are indicated in table 1.
T a b l e 1.-—National Income, by Distributive Shares, 1939—
43 1
National income
Item
Amount (billions)
Index numbers (1939=100)
Second
quarter,
19432
1939
1941
Total national income____________ . . . ______
$70.8
$95.6
$146.1
Total compensation of employees______ . . . .
Salaries and wages. .
_____ ___________
Supplements______ __________________ .
N et income of proprietors. ________ _ ______
A gricultural... . .
______ ___________
Nonagricultural____ _ _________________
Interest and net rents__________________ _____
N et corporate profit _________________ .
D ividends ________ ____ ___________ _
Savings________ ____
. _ . ________
48.1
44.2
3.8
64.6
60.9
3.7
15.5
103.2
100.0
9.3
7.9
7.7
4.4
3.3
11.0
11.2
4.3
6.9
7.4
4.2
3.8
.4
6.2
3.2
24.6
13.6
9.5
8.7
Second
quarter,
19432
1939
1941
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100. 0
135.0
206.4
134.3
137.8
97.4
138.4
144.2
134.8
106.8
183.3
115. 8
825.0
214.6
226.2
84.2
219.6
316.3
159.4
128.4
207.1
1 Compiled from tables 2 and 6, National Product and Income in the First Half of 1943 (Survey of Current
Business, August 1943, pp. 9-14). Items do not necessarily add to totals given, because of rounding of
figures.
2 Seasonally adjusted figures for the second quarter multiplied by 4.
Total national income increased from $70,800,000,000 in 1939 to
$95,600,000,000 in 1941; the seasonally adjusted annual rate in the
1 Survey of Current Business, August 1943 (pp. 9-14); National Product and Income in the First Half of
1943, by George Jaszi. Earlier studies giving additional details and definitions of terms include an article by
M ilton Gilbert and George Jaszi, entitled “National Income and National Product in 1942,” in Survey of
Current Business, March 1943 (pp. 10 - 26).
788
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
789
National Income
second quarter of 1943 was $146,100,000,000, or over twice the income
of 1939. The compensation of employees totaled $48,100,000,000 in
1939 and the seasonally adjusted annual rate during the second
quarter of 1943 was $103,200,000,000, also more than twice the 1939
total. The largest increase in the major shares of the national income
was in the share going to agricultural proprietors, the amount at the
seasonally adjusted annual rate in the second quarter of 1943 being
more than 3 times the amount in 1939. Net corporate profits increased
by a slightly smaller percentage than did compensation of employees.
The figures given in table 1 are aggregates, and the analysis of the
comparative changes in the distributive shares of the national income
going to different groups calls for consideration of changes in the num
bers in the different groups and of changes in the hours of work. The
changes in the numbers of persons receiving the different forms of
income were mainly in the employed group. The total income going
to this group was vastly increased by the abnormal growth in the
number of employed persons. The estimated average was 32,721,000
in 1939 and 49,181,000 in the second quarter of 1943. This increase
of 50 percent was accounted for almost equally by the expansion of
civilian employment and by additions to the armed forces. The rise
in hours of work, accompanied by premium payments for overtime,
also added substantially to wage payments. In May 1943 the hours
of factory workers were about 20 percent longer than in 1939. The
increases in most of the nonmanufacturing industries were not so
large but were nevertheless considerable.
Gross national product or gross national expenditure is defined as
the aggregate value of currently produced goods and services flowing
to government, to consumers, and, for the purpose of gross capital
formation, to business. The gross national product in 1939 totaled
$88,600,000,000 and the seasonally adjusted annual rate in the second
quarter of 1943 was $184,900,000,000 (table 2).
T a b l e 2 . — Gross National Product or Expenditure, 1939-43 1
A mount (in billion s)
Item
Second quarter
19432
1941
1939
Gross national product or expenditure. ______________
$88.6
$119. 2
$184.9
Government expenditures for goods and services
_ _
Federal G o v e r n m e n t . __ . . . . . -----------------War________________________________________
Nonwar______________ ____ _____________
State and local government__________ . . . ___
Output available for private use____ ________ _____
Private gross capital formation. . . _____ . . . . . .
Construction______ ______ . . . ____________ __
Residential.
Other
Producers’ durable equipment_______________
N et change in business inventories
N et exports of goods and services___ _ .
..
N et exports and monetary use of gold and silver
Consumers’ goods and services___________________
Durable goods. _______ ____ ____ _ ______
Nondurable goods___________ ______ ____ _ __
Services______ _____________ ________________
16.0
7.9
1.4
6.5
8.1
72.6
10.9
3.6
2.0
1.6
5.5
.9
.8
.2
61.7
6.4
32.6
22.7
25.7
17.8
12.5
5.3
7.8
93.5
19. 0
5.4
2.9
2.5
8.9
3.5
.9
2
74.6
9.1
40.1
25.4
96.7
89.9
87.1
2.8
6.8
88.1
- 1 .1
1.5
2.0
- 3 .4
- 1 .1
(3)
89.2
6.3
53.8
29.1
1 Compiled from tables 1 and 5, National Product and Income in the First Half of 1943 (Survey of Current
Business, August 1943, pp. 9-14). Items do not necessarily add to totals given, because of rounding of
figures.
2 Seasonally adjusted figures for the second quarter multiplied by 4.
3 Less than $50,000,000.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
790
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
It will be noted from table 2 that an outstanding change was the rise
in expenditures for war from $1,400,000,000 in 1939 to $87,100,000,000 (at the seasonally adjusted annual rate) in the second quarter of
1943. The latter figure is 47 percent of the gross national product.
The remarkable productivity of the American economy is apparent
from the fact that in spite of this tremendous increase in expenditures
for war, the expenditures for consumer goods and services also increased,
the rise being from $61,700,000,000 in 1939 to $89,200,000,000 (at
the seasonally adjusted annual rate) in the second quarter of 1943.
There was a significant net increase even after deflation of expenditures
to take account of price changes. Consumer expenditures, in terms of
1939 dollars, rose to about $70,000,000,000 in 1941 and by the second
quarter of 1943 there was a slight additional increase. It is stated,
however, that private capital formation was reduced and that con
sumer expenditures were partly fed by heavy drains on business
inventories.
Consumer expenditures increased materially, but taxes and savings
increased to a much greater extent (table 3). Personal taxes and
nontax payments to Federal, State, and local governments increased
from $3,100,000,000 in 1939 to $4,000,000,000 in 1941, and by the
second quarter of 1943 the seasonally adjusted annual rate had risen
to $14,700,000,000. The net savings of individuals rose from
$6,000,000,000 in 1939 to $13,700,000,000 in 1941, and, on the basis of
the seasonally adjusted annual rate, to $36,600,000,000 in the second
quarter of 1943.
T a b l e 3 . —Disposition of National Income, 1939-43 1
Amount (in billions)
Item
Second quarter
19432
1941
1939
Income payments to individuals ______________ _____
$70.8
$92.2
$140.5
Personal taxes and nontax paym ents___________ ______
Federal_____________ . ___ ____________________
State and local...
_ ..
______ _____ _ _
Disposable income of individuals__ . . . . .
Consumer expenditures________ ______ . . . ____
N et savings of individuals_______________________
3.1
1.3
1.9
67.7
61.7
6.0
4.0
2.0
1.9
88.2
74.6
13.7
14.7
12.8
1.9
125.8
89.2
36.6
1 Compiled from tables 3 and 7, National Product and Income in the Pirst Half of 1943 (Survey of Current
Business, August 1943, pp. 9-14). Items do not necessarily add to totals given, because of rounding of
figures.
2 Seasonally adjusted figures for the second quarter multiplied by 4.
The author of the article here reviewed concludes with the following
comment:
T h e m ore th a n doubling of gross n a tio n a l p ro d u c t since 1939, tw o -th ird s of
w hich has been due to a n increase in physical volum e ra th e r th a n to a rise in
prices, in d icates th a t th e econom y h as responded to th e p ro d u ctio n req u irem en ts
of th e w ar program . In in te rp re tin g th e significance of th e surging level of
savings, one should rem em b er t h a t th ese savings include w indfalls th a t a re th e
re su lt of th e price rise, a n d th a t th e y exceed th e am o u n t of v o lu n ta ry saving
w hich c o n stitu tes a n offset ag ain st inflation a t th e c u rre n t level of incom e. A large
p ro p o rtio n of savings, m oreover, continues to be m ad e in highly liquid form , a n d
w ill c o n stitu te a la te n t in flatio n ary th re a t, unless it is abso rb ed by tax es or
im m obilized by o th e r m eans.
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Wage and Hour Regulations
40-C ent M inim um for H om e W orkers in E m broidery
Industry
TO BE effective November 15, 1943, the minimum hourly rate for
industrial home workers in the embroideries industry has been fixed
at 40 cents under the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. “This rate
shall be paid by every employer to each of his home-work employees,
except as subminimum employment of specific handicapped workers
has been provided for by special certificates issued by the Wage and
Hour Division.” Overtime is to be compensated for at one and onehalf times the regular rate.1
The wage order for the embroideries industry provides that no work
m this industry shall be carried on in or about a home, apartment,
tenement, or room in a residential establishment, after November 15,
1943, except by persons who have secured special home-work certifi
cates issued in accordance with the regulations of the Wage and Hour
Division authorizing such work by a worker who—
(a) (1) Is unable to a d ju s t to facto ry w ork because of age or physical or m en tal
d isab ility ; or
(2) Is un ab le to leave hom e because his presence is req u ired to care fo r a n in
valid in th e hom e; an d
(b) (1) W as engaged in in d u stria l hom e w ork in th e in d u stry , as defined, p rio r
to N ovem ber 2, 1942 (except th a t if th is req u irem en t shall re su lt in u n u su al
h ard sh ip to th e in dividu al hom e w orker it shall n o t be a p p lie d ); or
(2) Is a t an y tim e engaged in such in d u stria l hom e w ork u n d er th e supervision
of a S ta te v ocational re h a b ilita tio n agency o r of a sh eltered w orkshop.
The embroideries industry is defined as—T he p ro d u ctio n of all kinds of han d - a n d m achine-m ade em broideries and o rn a
m en tal stitchings, including, b u t n o t b y w ay of lim itatio n , tucking, shirring,
sm ocking, hem stitching , h a n d rolling, fagoting, B onnaz em broidery, appliqueing,
crochet beading, h an d draw ing, m achine draw ing, rh in esto n e trim m in g , sequin
trim m ing, spangle trim m ing, eyelets, passem enterie, p leating, th e a p p licatio n of
rhinestones an d nailheads, stam p in g a n d p erfo ratin g of designs, Schiffli em broidery
a n d laces, b u rn t-o u t laces a n d velvets, Swiss han d -m ach in e em broidery, th re a d
splittin g, em broidery th re a d cuttin g , scallop c u ttin g , lace c u ttin g , lace m aking-up
of em broidered y ard goods, stra ig h t c u ttin g of em broidery a n d c u ttin g o u t of
em broidery, em broidery trim m ings, bindings (not m ade in tex tile estab lish m en ts),
pipings an d em blem s: P ro v id ed , how ever, th a t (a) th e foregoing w hen produced
or perform ed by a m a n u fa c tu re r of a g arm en t, fabric or o th e r article fo r use on
such garm ent, fabric or o th e r article, a n d (b) th e m an u fa c tu re of covered b u tto n s
a n d buckles, shall n o t be included.
i D ata are from Federal Register for September 3, 1943, (pp. 12,127-12,128).
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
791
792
Monthly Labor Review October 1943
R ecom m en ded O ptim um H ours in A ustralia 1
WEEKLY hours ranging from 40 to 56, according to type of work,
were recently recommended by the Industrial Welfare Division of the
Australian Department of Labor and National Service, as the optimum
for regular and continuous employment.2 These hours were arrived
at after study to determine what hours would give the greatest output
continuously, that is, for 6 months or longer, in work requiring differ
ent degrees of physical or mental effort. The recommended scale
was as follows:
W e e k ly h o u rs
L aboring or m uscu lar w ork (done en tirely by p hysical exertion of th e
w o rk e r)__________________________________________;---------------------------- 1 44-45
N o n au to m atic m achine w ork requiring p hysical ex ertio n -----------------------48
W ork requiring c o n sta n t a tte n tio n b u t little m uscular exertion, i. e., sem i
a u to m atic (and som e au to m atic) m achine w ork, m ost process w o rk ------ 2 48-52
W ork requiring only in te rm itte n t a tte n tio n a n d n o t physical exertion,
i. e., some a u to m a tic m achine work:
M en _______________________________________________________________
56
W om en___________________________
52
M en tal w ork— clerical a n d in s p e c tio n .------------------------------------------------- 2 40-48
1 Shorter hours should be worked under specially arduous conditions, e. g., in high temperatures.
2 The maximum depends on the degree of concentration required.
Hours oj juveniles.-—Juveniles, that is, boys and girls under the age
of 18 years, should not be asked to work over 44 hours a week regu
larly. If they are employed with men and women whose workweek is
longer, that circumstance does not constitute a sufficient reason for
permitting juveniles to work in excess of 44 hours. If necessary,
part-time labor should be employed to man the machinery after the
juveniles have completed 44 hours of work weekly.
Hours oj men and women.—The report states that there is no reason
for hours of men and women to differ, except that women should not
be employed regularly for over 52 hours a week.
Shifts, averaging oj hours, etc— It is concluded that averaging of
weekly hours will not reduce output seriously. Within reasonable
limits, and to meet technical requirements, hours may be lengthened
for a few weeks and correspondingly reduced for an equivalent period.
On the 3-shift system, unless required by technically continuous
production, hours should not exceed 52 weekly.
On broken shifts, half of the break should be added to actual working
time in computing the maximum length of the broken shift. By this
means, allowance can be made for the loss of rest and free time
caused by the longer spread of hours.
Hours on specific kinds oj work— In the opinion of the Department,
labor engaged on heavy manual work in construction, navvying, or
industry probably could not work over 44 or 46 hours weekly without
an actual decline in production. Under particularly arduous condi1 Data are from a report (No. 524) by Nelson Trusler Johnson, United States Minister, Canberra.
2 Under the National Security (Hours of Work) Regulations, effective on November 30, 1942, total weekly
hours are limited to 56 for males over 18 years of age and to 48 for males under that age, with the exception
of 3 weeks in any 3 months, when longer hours are permitted in cases of emergency. The regulations are
concerned with overtime, however, and were not intended to imply that 56 hours would be the most efficient
for regular and continuous working.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Wage and Hour Regulations
793
t.ions, such as in high temperatures, less than 40 hours a week might
produce the maximum output.
Muscular work includes many types, and on some assembly work
(frequently done by women) there is little obvious physical exertion,
but frequent movements of the arms and hands are required. Con
siderable dexterity is necessary and “it is probable that maximum
output in this class of work will not be attained if hours are increased
beyond 46 per week.”
Nonautomatic machine work requiring physical exertion—for which
a maximum of 48 hours per week is suggested—is common in machine
shops. Work on the capstan lathe is typical. On such a lathe the
operator must pay close attention to the machine throughout working
hours, and must make a series of rhythmic muscular movements, some
of which may require a good deal of exertion.
On semiautomatic machines in machine shops, the operator removes
finished articles and inserts new ones. If this work consumes only
part of the worker’s time, 52 hours are deemed to give the best output.
Where the worker has charge of several machines of this type, so that
continuous concentration is required to tend the machines in turn, the
working week should not exceed 48 hours. Also, when raw material
is fed into a moving dial or belt, the speed of which usually demands a
high degree of mental and visual concentration on the part of the
operator, 48 hours should be the maximum.
The tasks described in the preceding paragraph, as well as most
assembly work, fall in the classification “requiring constant attention
but little muscular effort.” For assembly work, recommended maxi
mum hours are 48 to 52 weekly, according to the amount of concentra
tion required. Other work that should be limited to such hours is
done in the metal trades and in transport.
On automatic machinery that requires intermittent attention, the
chief function of the operative is to see that the machine is fed with
raw material. If the machine is of the hopper-fed type in which large
quantities of materials are fed in at infrequent intervals, output should
be constant per hour. In practice, when hours are excessive, more
spoilage occurs, and, as work of this kind is uninteresting, the ab
senteeism rate rises if hours are increased beyond an average of 56.
All types of visual inspection and office work are classified as work
that is predominantly mental, on which a maximum working week of
from 40 to 48 hours is recommended. The Department believes that
no good result is attained by requiring hours in excess of 48 on this
kind of work unless it is of a most routine type. For work requiring
close concentration the working week should be much shorter—not
over 40 hours. The explanation is that the fatigue resulting from such
work is produced by mental exertion and monotony. A clerk who
concentrates on the same task all day cannot retain his efficiency as
long as a person who does a variety of things.
551712— 43--------- -11
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Cost o f Living and Retail Prices
Changes in Cost of L ivin g in Large C ities, A ugu st 1 9 4 3
FRESH vegetable prices continued seasonally lower from mid-July
to mid-August and resulted in the third consecutive monthly decline
in the cost of living for city workers—a drop of one-half of 1 percent.
Food prices as a group were down 1.3 percent, and more than balanced
smaller increases during the month for other goods and services.
Since the decline in food prices began, in May, the average family
food bill for staples has fallen 4.1 percent and the entire cost of living
by 1.5 percent. On August 15 the index computed by the Bureau of
Labor Statistics stood at 123.2 percent of its 1935-39 average.
Food prices were high in August notwithstanding the summer
declines. They averaged about 9 percent above August 1942, and
nearly 47 percent above the low levels prevailing just before the out
break of war in Europe in August 1939. This August the sharp
price declines for fresh fruits and vegetables averaged 7 percent, but
they were considerably greater in some cities than in others. The
price of cabbage fell nearly 25 percent during the month, sweetpotatoes
and apples 17 percent, green beans 15 percent, onions and white
potatoes 10 percent, and spinach 8 percent; there were smaller reduc
tions for carrots and lettuce. However, fresh vegetables remained
at comparatively high levels, about 33 percent above August 1942
and more than 90 percent above August 1939.
Aside from fresh produce, the most important declines in August
were for fresh fish, the prices of which have been rising steadily to
more than double pre-war levels. Under a new OPA ceiling regula
tion, there was a decline during the month of 3.5 percent. There
were also declines for meats, amounting to 0.8 percent for beef and
veal, 0.9 percent for pork and 1.1 percent for lamb, representing
continued adjustments to an OPA “ cut-back” which reduced prices
in the previous month. The only other important food price move
ments were a seasonal increase of 9 percent for eggs, an advance of
4.6 percent for tea, and a decline of about 2 percent for canned peas.
Differences from city to city in food price changes were unusually
great from July to August. In northern areas price reductions were
especially large, amounting on the average to 2.3 percent in New
York, 2.9 percent in Detroit, and 2.8 percent in Bridgeport and Denver.
In many southern cities, because of the earlier growing season, prices
had already begun to increase seasonally.
Living costs other than food were on the whole moderately higher
from July to August. Clothing prices rose 0.2 percent, the disappear
ance of lower price lines more than balancing clearance sales for certain
summer goods. Housefurnishings and fuels and utility rates were
higher by 0.1 percent. Miscellaneous goods and services rose 0.3
percent, because of higher charges by hospitals, motion-picture
houses, and beauty and barber shops in 7 of the 21 cities surveyed.
794
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Cost of Living and Retail Prices
795
T a b l e 1. —Indexes of Cost of Living in Large Cities on August 15,1943, and Previous Dates
Indexes i (1935-39=100) of cost of—
Date
All
items
1939: August 15 _________ _
1941: January 15.
..............
1942: M ay 1 5 ____ __________
August 15 .
__
September 15 _ . _ __ .
1943: July 15 _________ August 15
_
- ___
98.6
100.8
116.0
117.5
117.8
123.8
123.2
Food
93.5
97.8
121.6
126.1
126.6
139.0
137.2
Clothing
100.3
100.7
126.2
125.2
125.8
128.6
128.9
R ent
104.3
105.0
109.9
108.0
108.0
(2)
(2)
HouseFuel,
electric furnish
ings
ity, and ice
97.5
100.8
104.9
106.2
106.2
107. 7
107.8
100.6
100.1
122.2
123.0
123.6
125.4
125.5
Miscel
laneous
100.4
101.9
110.9
111.1
111.4
115.9
116.2
1 Based on changes in cost of goods purchased by wage earners and lower-salaried workers in large cities.
Rents not surveyed in July or August.
2
T a b l e 2 . —Percent of Change 1 in Cost of Living in Large Cities, in Specified Periods
All items
D ate
July 15, 1943, to
Sept. 15, 1942, to
Aug. 15, 1942, to
M ay 15, 1942, to
Jan. 15, 1941. to
Aue. 15, 1939, to
Aug. 15, 1943__
Aug. 15, 1943_.
Aug. 15, 1943..
Aug. 15, 1943..
Aug. 15, 1943..
Aug. 15, 1943..
- 0 .5
+ 4 .6
+ 4 .9
+ 6 .2
+22.2
+24.9
Food
-1 .3
+ 8 .4
+ 8 .8
+12.8
+40.3
+46.7
Clothing
R e n t2
Fuel,
electric
ity, and
ice
Housefurnishings
+ 0 .2
+ 2 .5
+ 3 .0
+ 2 .1
+28.0
+28.5
(3)
0
0
- 1 .7
+ 2 .9
+ 3 .5
+ 0.1
+ 1 .5
+ 1 .5
+ 2 .8
+ 6 .9
+10.6
+ 0.1
+ 1 .5
+ 2 .0
+ 2.7
+25.4
+24.8
M iscel
laneous
+ 0 .3
+ 4.3
+ 4 .6
+ 4 .8
+14.0
+15.7
1 Based on changes in cost of goods purchased by wage earners and lower-salaried workers in large cities.
2 Changes through June 15, 1943.
3 Rents surveyed at quarterly dates, March 15, June 15, September 15, December 15.
T a b l e 3 . —Percent of Change 1 in Cost of Living in Specified Periods, by Cities
Percent of change from—
Average: Large cities _
___
________
____
N ew England: B oston-. _ _ ______ _______
M iddle Atlantic:
___- _______
Buffalo
New York
___ _________
P h ilad elp h ia__ ________ ____________ _____
Pittsburgh
______ _ ________
East North Central:
Chicago
__
- ___- ____
Cincinnati____
___ _______ ________
ClevelandDetroit .
„ - ........................
--West North Central:
Kansas City
____ _ _______
__ ______
Minneapolis
_ __ ___ - ...............................
St. Louis
South Atlantic:
Baltimore
_
Savannah
_
_ _
Washington, D . C
_
___ . ___ ___
East South Central: Birmingham .
W est South Central: H o u sto n _______ _____ TVionntain: Denver
_
____
Pacific:
Los Angeles
____ ____________
San Francisco_______ - ____________
Seattle __ ___________________
Sept. 15,
1942, to
Aug. 15,
1943
Aug. 15,
1939, to
Aug. 15,
1943
Jan. 1,
1941, to
Aug. 15,
1943
M ay 15,
1942, to
Aug. 15,
1943
+ 4 .9
+24.9
+22.2
+ 6 .2
+ 4 .6
+ 4 .0
+23.5
+21.0
+ 5 .7
+ 3 .2
+ 4 .0
+ 5 .5
+ 5 .0
+ 5 .9
+27.2
+23.8
+25.3
+25.6
+23.0
+21.4
+23.5
+22.1
+ 4.0
+ 8 .2
+ 6 .8
+ 6 .7
+ 4 .0
+ 5 .4
+ 4 .8
+ 5 .2
+ 4 .5
+ 5 .5
+ 7 .5
+ 5 .6
+24.3
+27.2
+27.8
+26.5
+21.2
+24.3
+25.3
+23.4
+ 5 .3
+ 6 .8
+ 7.6
+ 4.9
+ 4 .6
+ 4 .9
+ 6 .9
+ 5 .2
+ 5 .0
+ 3 .8
-i-4.4
+22.4
+21.2
+ 25.0
+22.7
+18.7
+21.4
+ 5 .8
+ 4 .2
+ 6 .1
+ 5 .2
+ 3 .4
+ 5.1
+ 5 .3
+ 8 .5
+ 5 .0
+ 6 .4
+ 3 .8
+ 4 .0
+27.1
+32.8
+24.4
+28.3
+21.3
+22.7
+24.5
+30.1
+22.8
+24.3
+19.7
+21.0
+ 6.1
+9. 1
+ 7 .0
+ 6 .5
+5.1
+ 4 .7
+ 4 .7
+ 8 .0
+ 4.8
+ 6 .4
+ 3 .5
+ 3 .2
+ 2.7
+ 3 .9
+ 3 .4
+23.9
+25.2
+25.4
+21.5
+22.1
+23.2
+ 5 .4
+ 5 .7
+ 3 .8
+ 2 .3
+ 2.8
+ 2 .5
Aug. 15,
1942, to
Aug. 15,
1943
City
i Based on indexes of cost of goods purchased by wage earners and lower-salaried workers in large cities.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
796
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
T a b l e 4. — Indexes of Cost of Living, by Cities, August 15, 1943
Indexes 1 (1935-39=100) of cost of—
City
All
items
Average: Large cities____
------
_
New England: B oston .._________ _____
Middle Atlantic:
Buffalo. __ _ _
_ . ___ _ . ___
N ew York___ . _ _______________
Philadelphia.
. . . .
Pittsburgh________________________
East North Central:
Chicago__________________________
C in cin n ati________________________
Cleveland . ______________ ________
Detroit . . .
_ ._ _ _
West North Central:
Kansas C ity_______________________
Minneapolis. _
_____
St. Louis. ________ _ . .
. ..
South Atlantic:
Baltimore .
. . . . . . . _______
Savannah.
. . _. . _____________
Washington, D. C . .. .. _______
East South Central: Birmingham ____
West South Central: Houston. . . .
..
Mountain: Denver ___
Pacific:
Los Angeles. _______ ____ ____ _
San Francisco. _____ ____________
Seattle . .
. ___ .
. . . . .
2
Food
Clothing
Fuel,
elec
tricity,
and ice
Housefurnish
ings
Miscel
laneous
123. 2
3 137. 2
4 128. 9
5 107. 8
4 125. 5
4 116. 2
119.9
131.1
124.4
118.4
119.7
113.3
125. 3
122.6
122. 5
123.6
138. 1
137. 2
135.3
137.8
128.5
129.6
129. 3
132.0
104.8
110. 7
105.8
110.3
126.6
119. 1
123.8
124.7
121.6
115.9
114. 8
115.5
122.7
123.8
127. 8
124. 6
136.4
137.6
145. 2
134.8
124.3
133.6
131.6
129.9
103.2
103.8
113. 5
108.8
120.4
129. 8
125. 1
123.3
113.9
116.8
115.3
122. 7
120. 7
120.8
122.6
131. 7
130.4
140.2
127.7
128.0
129.3
107.9
102. 5
106.2
120.4
125.8
117.6
116.9
118.6
112.4
125.4
131.9
122. 7
126. 4
122.1
121.0
145.2
152.4
138. 5
141.3
136.2
134. 5
128.2
132.3
136.3
130.0
130.7
124.3
106.7
113.0
106.5
102.4
92.8
100.9
129.0
121.5
131.5
121.8
123.2
121.9
114.3
122.6
120.7
116.5
118.3
116.2
124.5
124.3
125. 8
141.1
137. 3
139.8
129.6
127.3
130.9
94.2
92.1
102.4
119. 2
118.7
121.2
118. 4
124. 3
123.5
1 Based on changes in cost of goods purchased by wage earners and lower-salaried workers in large cities
2 Rents surveyed at quarterly dates—March 15, June 15, Sept. 15, Dec. 15.
3 Based on prices for 56 cities collected on the Tuesday nearest the 15th of the month.
4 Based on data for 21 cities.
8 Based on data for 34 cities.
T a b l e 5 . —Indexes of Cost of Living in Large Cities, 1935 to August 1943
Indexes 1 (1935-39=100) of cost of—
Year
All items
1935_______________________
1936_______________________
1937_______________________
1938_______________________
1939_______________________
1940_______ _
1941__________________ .
1942_______________________
1943:
Jan. 15________________
Feb. 15____ ___________
Mar. 15
_______
Apr. 15________________
M ay 15 ______________
June 15- _____________
July 15-________ _
Aug. 15 ______ ________
Food
Clothing
Rent
Fuel, elec
tricity,
and ice
Housefurnish
ings
Miscel
laneous
98.1
99.1
102.7
100. 8
99.4
100.2
105.2
116.5
100.4
101.3
105. 3
97.8
95.2
96.6
105. 5
123.9
96.8
97.6
102. 8
102. 2
100. 5
101. 7
106. 3
124.2
94.2
96.4
100.9
104.1
104. 3
104.6
106.2
108.5
100.7
100.2
100.2
99.9
99.0
99. 7
102.2
105.4
94.8
96.3
104.3
103.3
101.3
100.5
107. 3
122.2
98. 1
98. 7
101.0
101.5
100.7
101.1
104.0
110.9
120.7
121.0
122.8
124.1
125. 1
124.8
123.8
123. 2
133.0
133.6
137.4
140.6
143.0
141.9
139.0
137.2
126.0
126.2
127.6
127.9
127. 9
127.9
128.6
128.9
108.0
108.0
108.0
108.0
108.0
108. 0
107.3
107.2
107.4
107.5
107.6
107. 7
107.7
107.8
123.8
124.1
124.5
124.8
125. 1
125.4
125.4
125.5
113. 2
113.6
114. 5
114. 9
115.3
115. 7
115. 9
116.2
0
0
4 Based on changes in cost of goods purchased by wage earners and lower-salaried workers in large cities
Rents collected at quarterly dates—Mar. 15, June 15, Sept. 15, and Dec. 15.
2
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Cost of Living and Retail Prices
791
F ood Prices in A ugu st 1 9 4 3
PERCENTAGE increases in retail food costs on August 17, 1943,
compared with August and September 1942, January 1941, and
August 1939, are presented in table 1.
T a b l e 1.— Percent of Change in Retail Prices of Food in 56 Large Cities Combined,1 in
Specified Periods, by Commodity Croups
Percent of change from—
Commodity group
July 13,
1943, to
Aug. 17,
1943
Sept. 15,
1942, to
Aug. 17,
1943
Aug. 18,
1942,to
Aug. 17,
1943
Jan. 14,
1941, to
Aug. 17,
1943
Aug. 15,
1939, to
Aug. 17,
1943
- 1 .3
+ 8 .4
+ 8 .8
+40.3
+46.7
+ .2
- 4 .9
- 7 .3
+ 1 .5
+11.7
+22.8
+ 6.0
+14.9
+27.6
+32.7
+ 6.0
+15.2
+ 1.5
+5.1
-. 1
+13.9
+28.3
+ 9.0
+32.8
+36.8
+51.4
+70.3
+26.9
+71. 9
+82.1
+92.1
+42.5
+60.5
+37.8
+57.5
+32.8
+15.7
+35.5
+19.7
+29.9
+36.6
+55.6
+103.0
+43.3
+84. 6
+83.9
+93.3
+42.1
+77.1
+32.0
+49.7
+32.4
All foods_____ _____________________ ____________
+ .3
-.9
-.8
-.9
-1 .1
+. 1
- 2 .9
0
+ 9.0
- 5 .9
- 7 .0
-.2
+ .6
+ .6
0
+.2
Cereals and bakery products
__ _
___
Mcats
_ _ _
__
Beef and veal
Pork
_
- ___
Lamb
__
_ _
.
—
Chickens
_
Fish fresh and canned
._
_
Dairy products
____ _
__ _ ___
E ggs
- _
Fruits and vegetables
_ _ __ _ _ _ _ _
Fresh
Canned
- __Dried
--------Beverages
_ __
Fats and oils
___
_ - ___
Sugar and sweets
_
_____
+ 2 .6
-.7
-5 .4
- 7 .8
+ 1 .0
+10.1
+20. 2
+ 4 .5
+ 7 .9
+31.0
+37.7
+ 5 .2
+11.5
+ 1 .2
+ 4.8
-.3
1 The number of cities included in the index was changed from 51 to 56 in March 1943,with the necessary
adjustments for maintaining comparability. At the same time the number of foods in the index was
increased from 54 to 61.
T ab le 2 . — Indexes of Retail Costs of Food in 56 1 Large Cities Combined,2 by Com
modity Croups, in Specified Months
[1935-39 = 100]
1941
1943
1942
Aug. 17: July 13
Sept. 15 Aug. 18
Commodity group
All foods---------------------------Cereals and bakery products.
M eats____________________
Beef and veal__________
Pork__________________
Lamb_________________
Chickens______ _______
Pish, fresh and canned—.
Dairy products------ ----------Eggs--------------------------------Fruits and vegetables---------Fresh_________________
Canned----------------------Dried_________________
Beverages------------------------Fats and oils______________
Sugar and sweets__________
108.1
129.7
119.2
114.3
135.0
147.2
202.2
133.4
167.4
169.9
179.4
130.2
159.9
125.3
126.5
126.6
* 107.8
« 130.9
120.2
115.3
136.5
* 147.1
208.3
4 133. 4
153.6
« 180. 5
4192. 9
130.5
159.0
124.5
126.5
* 126. 4
105.4
130.6
126.0
124.0
133.7
133.7
168.2
127.7
155.2
129. 7
130. 3
123.8
143.4
123.8
120.7
127.0
105. 3
129.5
125.3
123.3
133.0
131.8
164.7
125. 8
145.7
133.1
135.2
122.8
138.8
123.5
120.4
126.7
Aug. 15
97.8
93.5
94.9
101.1
109.4
93.4
95.7
99.0
86.1
88.0
98.7
97.2
118.7
105.1
97.4
93.3
93.4
91.4
99.6
90.9
80.3
95.3
98.8
94.6
99.6
93.1
90.7
92.4
92.8
91.6
90.3
94.9
84.5
95.6
1 Indexes based on 51 cities combined prior to March 1943.
. ,, , ,
, ^ , ,
2 Aggregate costs of 61 foods (54 foods prior to March 1943) in each city, weighted to represent total pur
chases of families of wage earners and lower-salaried workers, have been combined with the use of popu
lation weights.
3 Preliminary.
< Revised.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
RETAIL COST OF ALL FOODS
AVERAGE
FOR
51
LARGE
•^O
4
vCO
CITIES
Monthly Lahor Review—October 1943
BUREAU OF LAB OR S TA TISTIC S
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
U N IT E D
STA TE S
DEP AR TM EN T OF
LABOR
799
Cost of Living and Retail Prices
R E T A IL CO ST OF FOOD
1935-39=100
IN D E X
NDEX
220
FF UIT S A ND VEC E T / ^BL ES
200
200
180
180
160
160
ft
140
140
120
120
\
100
100
80
80
‘'ALL FOODS
_L
60
____
160
CE REA L S AND BA KER Y P ROC) U C
160
rs
140
140
120
120
V^-AL . FOODS
/
100
100
80
80
60
160
160
ME; ^TS
140
140
y
120
\
ALL -OOD 5
120
—
100
100
p / \
80
80
160
D AIR'If
160
PfROD UCT s
140
140
\LL FOODS
120
120
5G?>
100
^5C
100
80
80
1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
BUREAU OF LABOR S TA TIS T IC S
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
800
T a b l e 3 . —Average Retail Prices of Focds in Large Cities Combined,1 August 1943, and
Percent of Change in Specified Periods
Percent of change from—
Commodity
Cereals and bakery products:
Cereals:
Flour, w heat____ _____ ,_10 pounds..
Macaroni_______ _
_
pound,.
Wheat cereal 2__ _ ___
...2 8 ounces..
Cornflakes____
. __ ...8 ounces..
Corn meal______
_____pound..
Rice 2____ _____
______ do___
Rolled oats_.. _ ............ ______ do___
Flour, pancake 2__ . . .
_ 20 ounces __
Bakery products:
Bread, w hite______
. .pound .
Bread, whole-wheat, ___ ______ do___
Bread, rve, .. . . .
_ _____do___
Vanilla cookies.
_ _____do___
Soda crackers___________ ______ do
Meats:
Beef:
Round steak____ _ _ _ ______ do___
Rib roast,,
______ do___
Chuck roast______ ____ ______ do___
Stew m e a t2 ___________ ______ do___
Liver______ ____ _
______ do___
Hamburger_____ _______ ______ do_ __
Veal:
Cutlets___ ______ ____ ______ do___
Roast, boned and rolled 2_______ do___
Pork:
Chops,.
.... .
______ do___
Bacon, sliced___________ ______ do___
Ham, sliced_______ _ . ______ do___
Ham, w hole,. _____
__ __ _do_ _
Salt pork___ ____ _ ______ do___
Liver 2_____ _ . . .
. . . ______ do___
Sausage 2_ ______
______ do___
Bologna, big 2. . . ______ ______ do___
Lamb:
Leg------------------------------ ______ do___
Rib chops_ ____________ ______ do___
Poultry: Roasting chickens 5________d o ....
FishFish (fresh, frozen)5_____ ______ do___
Salmon, p in k ._____
16-ounce can ..
Salmon, red 2________ .. ______ do___
Dairy products:
B utter__________________ _______pou nd._
Cheese_________ ____ _____ ______ do___
Milk, fresh (delivered)______ ___..q u a rt..
M ilk, fresh (store)________ ______ do___
Milk, fresh (delivered and sto re)2___do___
Milk, evaporated_________ 14J4-ounce can,.
Eggs: Eggs, fresh 5_ _ _________ ______dozen
Fruits and vegetables:
Fresh fruits and vegetables:
Fruits:
A p p les...
_ ._ ____ pound
B ananas,., ._ ___ __ ______ d o ....
Oranges . .
______ _____ dozen.
Grapefruit2________ . . . . . each
Vegetables:
Beans, green________
pound
C a b b a g e___ _ _
______ do___
Carrots__ _ . . . . ___ . bunch __
Lettuce. ____
______ head..
Onions . . . .
. . . . .pound.
Potatoes, __
_____
15 pounds _
Spinach_________
_____ pound __
Sweetpotatoes_____ - _____ do___
Beets 2 ____________ _____bunch..
Canned fruits and vegetables:
Canned fruits:
Peaches _. . . . _ .N o. 2 \ (i can..
Pineapple... _____ ______ d o ___
Grapefruit j u ic e ____ .N o . 2 c a n ...
See footnotes at end of table.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
A verage July 13,
Sept. 15, Aug. 18, Jan. 14, Aug. 15,
price
1943, to 1942, to 1942, to 1941, to 1939, to
Aug. 17, Aug. 17, Aug. 17, Aug. 17, Aug. 17,
1943
1943
1943
1943
1943
C e n ts
61.7
15.6
23.4
6.7
5.8
12.8
8.6
10.5
+ 0 .5
0
0
+ 1 .5
+ 1 .8
+ 1 .6
0
0
+13.6
+10.6
- 2 .5
- 4 .3
+16.0
+2. 4
-i. i
. (b
+18.2
+10. 6
- 2 .5
- 5 .6
+18.4
+ 3 .2
- 1 .1
8.9
9.8
10.1
28.1
18.4
o.
0
0
- 1 .4
+ 2 .2
+ 2.3
+ 3 .2
+4.1
+4.1
+10.8
41.6
33.7
29.0
30.8
36.1
28.3
- 1 .7
-1 .2
- .3
- 1 .3
- 1 .9
- 1 .4
45.5
34.6
(?)
+49.0
+13.0
- .4
- 5 .6
+38.1
+62.0
+21.1
(b
+72.3
+11.4
- 3 .3
- 4 .3
+45.0
+70.7
+21.1
ob
+ 2.3
+ 3 .2
+4.1
+ 1.8
+11.5
+14.1
+12.6
+12.2
+12.0
+22.7
+14.1
+11.4
+ 9 .8
0)
+24.3
- 5 .9
- 2 .9
- 3 .3
(3)
(3)
00
-5 . 5
- 2 .0
- 2 .4
00
00
00
+ 7.8
+ 7.0
+15.1
(b
00
(b
+14.3
+16.6
+28.9
- 1 .7
- .6
-1 7 .1
00
-1 6 .7
38.0
42.2
52.6
36.1
23.0
22.2
38.4
34.4
- .8
-1 . 2
- 1 .1
- .6
- .4
—1.3
- .3
- .6
-1 1 .8
+ 3 .2
-1 1 .7
-5 .7
- 3 .4
-1 1 .4
+ 5 .5
-1 1 .1
- 5 .0
- 3 .0
00
00
40.0
46.0
44.3
- 1 .2
—1.1
+ .1
00
23.7
41.4
ob
00
00
(b
(?)
(b
00
+ 7.1
(b
+30.6
+40. 2
+16. 6
+37.8
+37.7
(b
00
(b
+23.0
+38.8
+13.4
+31.8
+49.4
00
00
(b
(b
+ 5 .5
- 2 .3
+10.1
+ 6.1
- 1 .7
+11.7
+43.9
+31.4
+51.4
+44.9
+25.3
+55.6
-3 . 5
- .8
+ 1 .2
+22.4
+ 8 .7
+ 2 .0
+25. 8
+ 9 .2
+ 2.5
+74. 5
+51. 0
+56.8
+106. 0
+85.2
+79.2
50.5
37.4
15.5
14.4
15.1
10.1
59.2
7+. 2
- 1 .8
0
0
0
0
+ 9.0
-.2
+ 9.0
+ 3.3
+ 6.7
+4.1
+13. 5
+ 7 .9
+4. 3
+10.0
+3.3
+ 6 .7
+4.1
+16.1
+14.9
+32.9
+38.5
+19. 2
+21.0
+18.9
+42.3
+71.9
+64.5
+51.4
+29.2
+30.9
+29.1
+50.7
+84.6
11.3
12.0
50.3
9.6
-1 0 .9
+ .8
+ 4 .8
- 5 .9
+82.3
+16.5
+28.6
+ 2.1
+71. 2
+20.0
+27.7
+14.3
+ 117.3
+81.8
+84.2
(b
+156.8
+96.7
+59.7
(b
13.7
4.9
8.1
12.6
7.9
64.5
13.4
14.2
8.2
-1 4 .9
-2 4 .6
- 2 .4
-6 .7
-1 0 .2
- 9 .8
-7 .6
-1 7 .4
- 3 .5
+18.1
+25.6
+17.4
+ .8
+75.6
+33.5
+25. 2
+121.9
(0
+13.2
+16.7
+19.1
-1 4 .3
+75.6
+30.6
+26.4
+71. 1
00
-2 . 1
+44.1
+35. 0
+50. 0
+119.4
+ 120.9
+83.6
+184.0
(b
+90. 3
+25.6
+76.1
+50.0
+119.4
+87.5
+71.8
+158. 2
(b
26.8
28.0
14.3
-.4
0
0
+11.7
- 1 .1
+15.3
+13.6
+ 1.4
+22. 2
+62.4
+34. 0
+56. 7
+33.3
(b
(b
(b
80 J
Cost of Living and Retail Prices
T a b l e 3 . —Average Retail Prices of Foods in Large Cities Combinedf August 1943, and
Percent of Change in Specified Periods
Percent of change from—
A verage July 13, Sept. 15, Aug. 18, Jan. 14, Aug. 15,
price
1943, to 1942, to 1942, to 1941, to 1939,to
Aug. 17, Aug. 17, Aug. 17, Aug. 17, Aug. 17,
1943
1943
1943
1943
1943
Commodity
Fruits and vegetables—Continued.
Cannedjfruits and vegetables—Continued.
Canned vegetables:
Beans, green__________ No. 2 can__
Corn______________________ d o ...
Peas_______________________d o ...
Tomatoes__________________ d o ...
Soup, vegetable 2------11-ounce can_
Dried fruits and vegetables:
C e n ts
0
0
- 2 .0
-.8
- 2 .3
+6. 6
+ 5.3
0
+ 7 .8
0
+ 5.8
+ 6.9
-2 .7
+ 7.8
0
+46.0
+30.8
+10.6
+48.8
0
+46.0
+34.6
+ 7.4
+45. 3
(2)
1G. 7
0
+12.8
+21.9
+74.0
+89.8
10.3
+ 3 .0
+13. 2
+14.4
+58.5
+77.6
3.7
0
30.0
22.9
8.9
0
+ 4 .6
0
18.9
-.5
19.9
24.9
25.1
24.0
33.3
30.5
6. S
15.7
15. 7
13.2
14.6
14.0
14.6
12. 5
12.8
Vegetables:
N avy beans........... ....................do___
Soup, dehydrated, chicken noodle 2
ounce _
Beverages:
Tea
__________________
Cocoa 2______ - ____ _________
Fats and oils:
H
Yi
pound..
pound..
Shortening other than lard:
In cartons_____________________ do—
In other containers__________ . ..d o —
Salad dressing______________ _____ ..p in t .
Oleomargarine.-......................- ..........pound.
Peanut butter-------------------------------- d o ...
Oil, cooking or salad 2---------------------- pin t.
Sugar and sweets:
pound.
Sugar-------------Corn sirup____________________24 ounces.
Apple b u tter2-------------- --------- -16 ounces.
0
0
0
0
-1 2 .7
+ 3.8
+ 1.3
-1 2 .7
+44.9
+30.1
- 2 .2
+34. 5
+33.1
+ 3.5
+9. 2
+11.2
+103. 2
+90.9
0
+ .4
- .4
+ 1 .3
+ .6
+ .3
+ 2.1
+ 2 .0
-.4
+7. 1
+19.8
0
+ 1.5
+ .4
- .4
+7.1
+23.8
0
+76.1
+36.1
+24.9
+53.8
+86.0
0
+70.1
+23. 3
0
+45.5
+86.0
0
0
0
0
+ .8
- 1 .4
+ 4.0
+ 5.4
0
0
+4. 7
+ 6.8
0
+33.3
+15.4
+17. 2
0
+30.8
+14.6
+15.4
0
+4. 5
1 Based on 51 cities combined prior to 1943 and on 56 cities combined from January 1943 to date.
2 N ot included in the index.
2 Priced for the first time in February 1943.
4 N ot available.
i
Percentage change computed on the index.
6 Composite price not computed.
7 July price revised from 51.1 to 50.4 cents per pound,
s Priced for the first time in October 1941.
T a b l e 4 . — Indexes of Average Retail Cost of all loods, by Citiesf on Specified Dates
Indexes (1935-39=100)
Indexes (1935-39=100)
City
Aug.
17,
1943 2
July
13,
1943
Aug.
18,
1942
United S ta te s.........
137.2
139.0
126.1
N ew England:
B o sto n ...... ......... 131.1 132. 5 122.5
Bridgeport------- 135.2 139.1 126.4
Fall River-------- 134.0 135.6 125.4
Manchester____ 133.7 136.6 125.2
N ew H aven____ 136.7 138.2 125.2
Portland, Maine 133.6 136.1 125.8
Providence____ 135.0 135.8 126.1
Middle Atlantic:
Buffalo________ 138.1 140.5 127.6
N e w a r k .._____ 139.0 141.2 127.0
N ew York ____ 137.2 2140.5 125.1
.
Philadelphia----- 135.3 135.8 124.0
Pittsburgh------- 137.8 3138.9 125.0
Rochester........ . 133.1 134.8 125.2
Scranton.............. 1 137.5 139.6 125.5
See footnotes at end of table.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Jan.
14,
1941
97.8
95.2
96.5
97.5
96.6
95.7
95.3
96.3
100.2
98.8
99.5
95.0
98.0
99.9
97.5
City
East North Central:
Chicago____. . .
C in cin n a ti____
Cleveland. . .
Columbus, Ohio.
Detroit___ ____
Indianapolis----Milwaukee____
Peoria__ . . . . .
Springfield, 111-.
West North Central:
Cedar R apids4. .
Kansas C ity. . .
Minneapolis----Omaha________
St. Louis______
St. Paul_______
W ichita4 ____
Aug.
17,
1943 2
July
13,
1943
Aug.
18,
1942
Jan.
14,
1941
136.4 3 137.1
137.6 a137.9
145.2 145.0
131.6 130.8
134.8 138.8
135.1 137.0
134.4 136.2
141.2 143.2
142.1 144. 2'
125.5
125.8
125.8
119.2
123.7
126.9
121.7
130.2
130.9
98.2
96.5
99.2
93.4
97.0
98.2
95.9
99.0
96 2
139.6
132.0
131.3
133.3
141.6
131.2
146. 7
120.0
121.2
122.9
121.4
129.0
119.7
131.3
95.9
92.4
99.0
97.9
99.2
98.6
97.2
138.0
131.7
130.4
130.8
140.2
128.9
146.2
802
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
T a b l e 4 .— Indexes of Average Retail Cost of all Foods, by Cities,1 on Specified Dates—
Continued
Indexes (1935-39=100)
City
Aug.
17,
1943 2
South Atlantic:
A tlanta_____ .
Baltimore____
Charleston, S. C.
Jacksonville____
Norfolk 5. _ _ ___
R ichm ond.........
Savannah _ _
Washington, D.C.
Winston-Salem 4
East South Central:
Birmingham___
Jackson4. . _
Knoxville 4____
Louisville____
M e m p h is ___
Mobile...... ..........
July
13,
1943
Aug.
18,
1942
Jan.
14,
1941
139.2 141.5
145.2 146.3
136. 5 136.4
150.9 152.5
151.1 150.4
137.0 136.9
152.4 153.0
138.5 140.1
138.3 3136. 5
124.9
129.6
125.2
134.9
131.6
125.6
132.3
127.5
121.1
94.3
97.9
95.9
98.8
95.8
93.7
100.5
97.7
93.7
141.3 140.9
151.5 148.1
156.2 3155. 8
134.7 134.9
148.0 147.7
149.7 148.6
126.1
134.0
132.9
124.3
132.1
131.4
96.0
105.3
97.1
95.5
94.2
97.9
Indexes (1935-39=100)
City
West South Central:
Dallas______
Houston..........
Little Rock. . .
New Orleans___
Mountain:
B u t t e . ______
Denver.
Salt Lake City__
Pacific:
Los Angeles___
Portland, Oreg_.
San Francisco...
Seattle________
Aug.
17.
1943 2
July
13,
1943
Aug.
18,
1942
Jan.
14,
1941
135.4
136.2
137.6
153.3
135.5
137.4
135.2
153.8
122.7
130.0
127.6
135.6
92.6
102.6
95.6
301 9
137.2 3138.6
134. 5 138.4
139.5 142.2
123.6
126.0
128.8
98 7
94.8
97.5
141.1 142.4
144.7 145.7
137.3 3 140.0
139.8 140.9
136.8
137.8
130.2
136.1
101.8
101.7
99.6
101.0
' Aggregate costs of 61 foods 054 foods prior to March 1943) in each city, weighted to represent total purc f a m l Jles of wage earners and lower-salaried workers, have been combined for the United States
comparisons ° f populatlon welghts- Primary use is for time-to-time comparisons rather than place-to-place
2 Preliminary.
3 Revised.
4 Indexes based on June 1940=100.
5 Includes Portsmouth and Newport News.
Annual Average Indexes, 1913 to August 1943
Annual average indexes of food costs for the years 1913-42 and
monthly indexes for January 1942 through August 1943 are presented
in table 5.
T a b l e 5.
-Indexes of Retail Food Costs in 56 Large Cities Combined,11913 to August 1943
[1935-39=100]
Year
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918.
1919
1920.
1921.
1922.
1923.
1924.
1925.
1926.
All-foods
index
79.9
81.8
80.9
90.8
116.9
134.4
149.8
168.8
128.3
119.9
124.0
122.8
132.9
137.4
Year
1927_______
1928________
1929________
1930________
1931_______
1932________
1933______
1934______
1935____
1936____
1937________
1938_____
1939__
1940_____
All-foods
index
Year and
month
All-foods
index
132.3
130.8
132.5
126.0
103.9
86.5
84.1
93.7
100.4
101.3
105.3
97.8
95.2
96.6
1 9 4 1 ......
1942______
105.5
123.9
1912
Janu ary...
February..
March___
April_____
M ay_____
June_____
July______
August___
September.
1 Indexes based on 51 cities combined prior to March 1943.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
116.2
116.8
118.6
119.6
121.6
123.2
124.6
126.1
126.6
Year and
month
All-foods
index
October___
November..
D ecem ber..
129.6
131.1
132.7
January..
February.
March__
April___
M ay____
June____
July____
A u gu st...
133.0
133.6
137.4
140.6
143.0
141.9
139.0
137.2
803
Cost of Living and Retail Prices
E stim ated In tercity D ifferences in Cost o f L ivin g,
March 1 5 , 1 9 4 3
TO COMPARE the cost of living in different cities, a standard
budget was established by the Works Progress Administration. The
budget measures the cost of approximately the same level of living
and avoids differences caused by variations in income, habits, and
customs. The figures here presented give a comparison based upon
this standard budget at “ maintenance” level for 33 cities.
This is not an official budget of the Department of Labor, nor
does it represent a recommended standard of living. It was pre
pared by the WPA Division of Social Research, and its cost in 59
cities in March 1935 was computed by that Division.
Since 1939 the figures have been kept up to date by the Bureau of
Labor Statistics. The Bureau has used its regularly reported changes
in retail prices in the cities covered by the Bureau of Labor Statistics
cost-of-living indexes to estimate changes in the cost of this standard
budget each quarter, but such data can yield only approximate
figures on differences in living costs between cities.
WPA " Maintenance” Budget and Later Revisions
The family budget devised by the Works Progress Administration
in 1935 is made up of goods and services which they estimated were
needed by a 4-person family of an unskilled manual worker living at
the “maintenance” level. The “maintenance” level is described as
above the “minimum of subsistence” level or “emergency” level of
relief budgets, but below the standard of the skilled worker. It is
stated that this budget does not “approach the content of what may
be considered a satisfactory American standard of living”.
The hypothetical family for which the budget was prepared is made
up, according to the Works Progress Administration, of a moderately
active man who wears overalls at work, his wife, a boy age 13, and a
girl age 8. No household help is employed. The family lives in a
four- or five-room house or apartment with an indoor bath and
toilet; has gas, electricity, and a small radio; uses ice for refrigeration;
and has no automobile. They read a daily newspaper and go to the
movies once a week. Their food is an “adequate diet at minimum
cost.” They pay for their own medical care. No savings other than
life insurance are provided.
An identical list of goods and services was priced in each of 59
cities in 1935, with certain adjustments in fuel, ice, and transportation
to take account of climatic and other local conditions. The Bureau
of Labor Statistics o f the United States Department of Labor co
operated with the Division of Social Research of the Works Progress
Administration in obtaining prices necessary to compute the original
cost of the budget in 1935. Details of this study and a description
of the goods and services included in the budget1 can be found in
the report “ Intercity Differences in Costs of Living in March 1939, 59
Cities.” (WPA Research Monograph XII.)
i The report also includes details of a more restricted budget at an “emergency” level.
has not been kept up to date by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
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That budget
804
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
The budget has never been completely repriced since 1935. In
December 1938,2 the budget was in part priced again in almost all
of the cities and the food-cost budget was entirely recomputed in
terms of the “ adequate diet at minimum cost” of the United States
Bureau of Home Economics. This diet provides greater variety than
that originally used in the “ maintenance” budget. In subsequent
quarters, food costs have been recomputed, using current price data.
For other parts of the budget, the current cost is estimated by using
the changes recorded in the Bureau’s regular indexes of changes in
living costs from time to time.3 These indexes are based on a budget
composed of different qualities of goods and having different relative
importance than the Works Progress Administration “ maintenance”
budget. Because of these differences, the cost figures resulting from
application of the cost-of-living indexes to the “ maintenance” budget
are merely approximations of the actual current cost of that budget.
In view of the changes in buying habits, particularly during the
last 2 years, the “maintenance” budget as defined in 1935 is not
entirely applicable to present situations. The figures are presented,
however, in the absence of any better measure of comparison of
living costs between cities.
Intercity Differences in M arch 1943
Table 1 shows the estimated dollar cost of the “ maintenance”
budget in 33 large cities as of March 15, 1943. Table 2 presents
these data as relatives on the basis of the cost in Washington, D. C.,
at that date as 100.
T a b l e 1.—Estimated Cost of Living of 4-Person Manual Worker's Family at Mainte
nance Level in 33 Cities, March 15, 1943
City
Furniture,
Fuel
furnishings, Miscel
and light household laneous
equipment
Total
Food
Clothing
Housing
Atlanta,
Baltimore,,
Birmingham ..............
Boston___________
Buffalo______
Chicago________ ____ _
$1,628. 56
1, 622. 37
1, 568.17
1, 706.92
1, 626.49
1,765.46
$662.46
662.84
649. 31
645.18
649. 56
675.85
$200. 22
209.37
214.60
207. 75
213. 77
198.05
$291. 25
255.17
245.19
271. 79
259. 74
306.52
$98.18
109.48
74.94
154.06
115.14
132. 64
$36. 74
45.03
38.44
39. 68
40. 62
38. 55
$339. 71
340,48
345' 69
388.46
347.66
413.85
Cincinnati________
Cleveland
Denver____ _........
D etroit____________
Houston, _____ ,
Indianapolis____________
1,645.15
1, 731. 31
1, 578. 81
1, 772.80
1,592.14
1, 594. 09
652. 69
660.43
633.45
661.06
639. 90
627.96
226.34
226.94
203.99
214.40
201. 83
200. 43
276. 02
304. 51
243. 27
324. 66
250. 00
253. 91
99. 51
117. 27
115. 32
125. 33
84. 75
102.34
43. 71
40. 75
39.19
38.61
40.79
41.23
346.88
381.41
343. 59
408. 74
374.87
368. 22
Jacksonville______________
Kansas City,
Los A ngeles,, .
M anchester., __ _ .
M em phis___________
M ilwaukee_______
Minneapolis ______ .
1, 620.18
1, 535. 60
1, 617.02
1, 660. 73
1, 633. 66
1, 672.04
1, 699. 37
674. 64
626.89
627. 65
680. 44
648. 44
625. 06
652.98
185.81
210.41
213.12
199.02
228.52
177.86
205.66
237.46
220.41
250.10
200. 57
287.12
304.15
310. 70
116.12
113. 69
71.07
184. 22
89.97
128.34
141.95
40.92
39.13
41. 28
39. 22
42. 79
38.17
39.06
365. 23
325.07
413. 80
357. 26
336.82
39$. 46
349.02
3
A study of “Differences in Living Costs in Northern and Southern Cities” was made at the request of
the w age and Hour Division. The July 1939 M onthly Labor Review carries an article describing the
survey.
3
The Bureau’s indexes of changes in living costs from time to time measure changes in the cost of a budget
representing actual family expenditures of a cross section of employed wage earners and clerical workers
in each of 34 cities. Since these expenditures differ in each city, depending on incomes, local habits, etc.,
indexes based on them cannot be used to compare living costs between cities. Further information about
these indexes may be found in Bulletin 699, “ Changes in Cost of Living in Large Cities in the United
States, 1913-41,” available from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washing
ton, D . C., and monthly mimeographed reports issued by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U. S. Department
of Labor, Washington, D . C.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Cost of Living and Retail Prices
805
T a b l e 1.— Estimated Cost of Living of 4-Person Manual Worker's Family at Mainte
nance Level in 33 Cities, March 13, 1943—Continued
Furniture,
Fuel
furnishings, Miscel
Housing and
light household laneous
equipment
Food
Clothing
M o b ile _______
. . ___ __ $1,479.09
New Orleans______ ______ _ 1, 600. 72
New York. _ _ _______ . . . 1,800. 38
Norfolk.__________________
1, 691. 48
Philadelphia_______________ 1, 624. 66
Pittsburgh________________ 1,678.09
Portland, M aine_____ . _ 1, 674. 03
$654. 78
693. 44
714. 71
680.98
657. 28
670. 92
681.03
$197.82
211.84
208. 26
219.08
212.76
212. 56
204. 92
$192.80
215.06
311.04
262.41
265.09
291. 58
212. 59
$83. 65
70. 73
129.99
113. 72
108. 47
96. 34
171. 72
$40.16
45. 27
41. 22
43.44
40.06
40. 62
39. 94
$309.88
364. 38
395.16
371.85
341.00
366.07
363.83
Portland, Oreg_____ _____
Richmond............ ........ ......
St. Louis___ . . . . . _____
San Francisco_______ ____
Scranton__________________
Seattle_____ . . . . . _ _ ____
W ashington..
. _____
678.17
627. 31
677. 20
695.20
675.98
.687.11
657.32
200. 98
214.46
204.09
214.55
202. 95
217. 08
225. 21
205.86
254. 90
296. 38
292.04
263.89
201.98
351.75
161. 32
110.49
114.13
83.71
102. 60
129.13
122. 60
41.13
42.23
43.10
43.48
39. 62
42. 72
45.08
378.41
362.58
354. 39
460. 63
364.64
418.95
387. 37
City
T
Total
1, 665.87
1,611.97
1, 689. 29
1, 789. 61
1, 649.68
1, 696. 97
1, 789.33
2 . —Estimated Cost of Living of 4-Person Manual Worker's Family at Mainte
nance Level in 33 Cities as Percent of Cost in Washington, D. C., March 15, 1943
able
City
Total
Food
Clothing Housing
Furniture,
Fuel and furnishings, Miscel
light
household laneous
equipment
A tlanta___ __________
Baltimore_________________
Birmingham. . . .
. ..
Boston. . . ____________ .
Buffalo_____ ____ . ____ .
Chicago___ . . .
. ______
91.0
90.7
87.6
95.4
90.9
98.7
100.8
100.8
98.8
98.2
98.8
102.8
88.9
93. 0
95.3
92.2
94.9
87.9
82.8
72.5
69.7
77.3
73.8
87.1
80.1
89.3
61.1
125.7
93. 9
108.2
81.5
99.9
85.3
88.0
90. 1
85.5
87.7
87.9
89.2
100. 3
89. 7
106.8
Cincinnati________________
Cleveland__ . . . .
Denver
D etroit________ _______
________
____
Houston
Indianapolis.. . __________
91.9
96.8
88.2
99.1
89.0
89.1
99.3
100.5
96.4
100.6
97.3
95.5
100.5
100.8
| 90.6
95.2
89.6
89.0
78.5
86.6
69.2
92.3
71.1
72.2
81.2
95.7
94.1
102.2
69.1
83.5
97.0
90.4
86.9
85.6
90.5
91.5
89.5
98.5
88.7
105. 5
96.8
95.1
Jacksonville . . . . _ .
Kansas C ity .___ __________
Los Angeles_____________ ..
Manchester ...... ................
M emphis. ________________
Milwaukee. . . . __________
M inneapolis____ _____ . . .
90.5
85.8
90.4
92.8
91.3
93.4
95.0
102.6
95.4
95.5
103.5
98.6
95.1
99.3
82.5
93.4
94.6
88.4
101.5
79.0
91.3
67.5
62.7
71.1
57.0
81.6
86.5
88.3
94.7
92.7
58.0
150.3
73.4
104.7
115.8
90.8
86.8
91.6
87.0
94.9
84.7
86.6
94.3
83.9
106.8
92.2
87.0
102.9
90.1
M o b ile ______ ________ ._
N ew Orleans_____ . . .
...
N ew York_________________
Norfolk. ____ . ___
Philadelphia______________
Pittsburgh . . . . . _________
Portland, M aine_______ . . .
82.7
89.5
100.6
94.5
90.8
93.8
93.6
99.6
105.5
108.7
103.6
100.0
102.1
103.6
87.8
94.1
92.5
97.3
94.5
94.4
91.0
54.8
61.1
88.4
74.6
75.4
82.9
60.4
68.2
57.7
106.0
92.8
88.5
78.6
140.1
89.1
100.4
91.4
96.4
88.9
90. 1
88.6
80.0
94.1
102.0
96.0
88.0
94.5
93.9
Portland, Oreg_____________
Richmond_________________
St. Louis____ _____ _ _ ._ . .
San Francisco______________
Scranton . . ............. _ ___
Seattle.. _____ _______ . .
Washington. ______ ________
93.1
90.1
94.4
100.0
92.2
94.8
100.0
103.2
95.4
130.0
105.8
102.8
104.5
100.0
89.2
95.2
90.6
95.3
90.1
96.4
100.0
58.5
72.5
84.3
83.0
75.0
57.4
100.0
131.6
90.1
93.1
68.3
83.7
105. 3
91.2
93.7
95.6
96.5
87.9
94.8
100.0
97.7
93.6
91.5
118.9
94.1
108.2
100.0
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
100.0
806
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
L iving Costs in P u erto Rico*
Summary
FROM March 1941 to December 1942 living costs to wage-earner
families in Puerto Rico advanced twice as rapidly as in continental
United States—39.3 percent as compared with 19.0 percent. Partial
resumption of regular imports in the early months of 1943 resulted in
some declines from the December 1942 peak for foodstuffs, but con
tinuing increases in the costs of other elements in the budget raised
July 1943 living costs to 1.7 percent above their December peak and
41.7 percent above their level in March 1941. Each of the six Puerto
Rican communities for which separate cost-of-living indexes are
available reported much the same variations in living costs. In San
Juan, a city of 169,000 in 1940, living costs had risen 37 percent by
December 1942, but in July 1943 were only 0.7 percent above the
December peak. The other five municipalities all showed larger
increases than San Juan until December 1942, and three of the five
showed larger increases from that date to July 1943.
From June to July 1943 living costs in the Island dropped 0.4 per
cent, marking the first decline since January 1943 (table 1). Reduc
tions in food costs, which now represent approximately 55 percent of
wage earners’ living costs, were chiefly responsible for the decline.
Average prices of locally produced foods decreased 1.7 percent and
those of imported foods 0.2 percent. Total living costs declined during
the month in four of the six municipalities; small increases were shown
m Comerio and Salinas.
4
able
1.
Indexes of Living Costs, March 1941 to July 1943, in 6 Municipalities in
Puerto Rico
Date
March 1941
December 1941
June 1942
December 1942
January 1943
February 1943
March 1943
April 1943^
M ay 1943___
June 1943„_
July 1943. __
Puerto
Rico
100.0
114 3
130.2
139.3
136.6
136.8
137.2
139.3
141.4
142. 2
141.7
San
Juan
100.0
114.4
126.7
136.9
132.6
133.3
133.2
135.2
137.5
138. 3
137.2
Adjun
tas
Come
rio
100.0
116.8
133.1
143.1
138.2
138.4
139.2
141.1
mn n
144.5
142.4
113.4
i 99 a
144.7
140.5
138.1
138 7
140 6
142 7
1AO A
1J9 1
Salinas
i mU. a
1U
u
114.9
191 O
lo l . z
190 O
xoil
Z
139 4
139. 8
1AC\ 1
14U.
I
115 1
i ak a
140. 0
i ak o
140. y
Cabo
Rojo
100.0
lie 7
110.
1
128. 6
138.1
19FC A
100. u
136. 6
138. 2
139.4
142. 2
144. 2
143.4
Manatí
100.0
117.1
133.4
140.0
138.9
138. 6
143.6
142.8
1Prepared in the Bureau’s Cost of Living Division, by Jerome Cornfield. The Bureau wishes to acknowl
edge advice and assistance from the following persons: S. L. Descartes, chief of the Office of Statistics in the
o vernor s Office, who collaborated m the development of the methods used in constructing the cost-of-living
index and who has acted as adviser since the initiation of the indexes; Jaime Vila, supervisor of the
Bureau of Labor Statistics staff in Puerto Rico; Manuel A. Perez, Commissioner of Labor, and first
supervisor oi the Survey of Wage Earners’ Income and Expenditures, upon which the weights for the
present imtox are based; I. W. Jacobs, supervisor of the expenditure survey after Mr. Perez’ departure;
and Felix Mejias of the University of Puerto Rico and the Insular Minimum Wage Board.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Cost of Living and Retail Prices
807
Municipalities Covered
A municipality in Puerto Rico is roughly equivalent to a county in
the continental United States, though much smaller in size. It is a
small local government unit comprising both a city or town and the
surrounding rural areas. In some cases there are villages in the munic
ipality in addition to the central town.
The six municipalities covered in the Bureau’s survey of living costs
were San Juan, the largest city on the Island; Adjuntas, a highland
town in the midst of coffee plantations, with a population of about
3,900 but with some 19,000 persons in the surrounding rural areas;
Comerio, a town in the tobacco-growing highlands, with a population
of about 2,800 and about 15,800 persons in the adjacent rural area;
and Salinas, Cabo Rojo, and Manati, all in the lowlands, where the
chief crop is sugar. Salinas, on the southeastern shore of the Island,
is a town of 3,200 with about 13,700 people on the neighboring
plantations; Cabo Rojo, on the southwestern shore, has a population
of 5,300, with 23,300 in the area of which it is the center; and Manati,
approximately in the middle of the northern coast, has a population
of about 6,800 and 22,600 persons in the nearby rural territory. San
Juan is the only municipality covered in the cost-of-living survey
which is almost entirely urban. Most wage earners outside the three
largest cities in Puerto Rico (San Juan, Ponce, and Mayagiiez) work
on sugar, coffee, and tobacco plantations and live in very small rural
communities. They buy a very large proportion of their foods in
small rural stores, but most of their other purchases are made in
towns like the five covered in this survey. In order to provide as
complete an account as possible of the changes which have occurred
in the living costs of the wage earners in the Island, food prices were
collected by the Bureau’s representatives in the rural areas of the
municipalities as well as in the city of San Juan and in Adjuntas,
Comerio, Salinas, Cabo Rojo, and Manati.
Economic Background
The survey on which these figures are based was undertaken by the
Bureau of Labor Statistics at the request of Region IX of the Office of
Price Administration, the Division of Territories and Insular Posses
sions of the Department of the Interior, and Territorial Governor
Rexford G. Tugwell. The requests were occasioned by the need for
an accurate measure of the effect of the war situation on the prices
being paid by low-income families in the Island.
The dependence of Puerto Rico on shipping to supply a large share
of its consumer goods arises from the nature of its economy. Since
the early nineteenth century a large section of the working popula
tion of Puerto Rico has been engaged in the production of a few
staple export crops, the most important of which is now sugar, in
exchange for which the Island receives in imports not only the bulk
of the manufactured products which it consumes but also about half
(by value) of its food. Thus, rice and bread, the two most important
sources of calories in the Puerto Rican diet, are almost entirely
imported (the latter as wheat flour), while one of the most important
sources of animal protein, dried salted codfish, is entirely imported.
The Island also normally imports two-thirds of the beans consumed
there.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
808
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
The shortage of shipping space which developed after the outbreak
of war materially reduced the volume of imports into Puerto Rico.
Imports of foodstuffs steadily declined, and by September 1942 were
seriously reduced. In October, the Federal Government, through the
Food Distribution Administration, took over the purchasing, shipping,
and distribution of foodstuffs for Puerto Rico. The Federal Govern
ment continued to control both basic and nonessential foodstuffs
until July 1, 1943, at which time the shipping situation had improved
to the point where it was possible to turn back the importation of
nonbasic items to commercial importers. Since the assumption of
Federal control, food shipments have increased, and a stock pile has
been built up to supply basic needs should a shipping shortage recur.
Official statistics on the volume of imports into Puerto Rico are
prepared by the Office of Statistics, Office of the Governor, Puerto
Rico, and by Federal agencies concerned with importation problems;
but during the war these data are not available for general publication.
In 1941 and to a less extent in 1942, relatively large numbers of
wage earners were employed on defense projects in types of work for
which wages are considerably higher than the average for the Island.
The consequent rise in money income resulted in an increase of pur
chasing power and contributed to an advance in prices at that time.
Price control in Puerto Rico was initiated bv insular legislation
in November 1941, establishing the Food and General Supplies Ad
ministration. The OPA General Maximum Price Regulation of
March 1942 also applied to the Island, although the base date was
later changed to the period from April 10 to May 10. Dollar-andcent ceilings were first imposed on October 30, 1942, and have now
been extended to cover all the important imported foodstuffs. At
present, all imported basic foods are purchased by the Food Dis
tribution Administration on the mainland and sold directly to Island
wholesalers.
Prices Prior to March 1941
In the Bureau’s study, prices were collected beginning with March
1941. Since the study was not undertaken until early in 1943, how
ever, it was not possible to obtain from Island retailers accurate state
ments of prices charged in earlier months. Independent estimates of
price increases, at least for food, indicate that there was a substantial
price rise before March 1941. Thus, an estimate based on reports
of the Agricultural Experiment Station at Rio Piedras indicates that
retail food prices in March 1941 were 24 percent above their level
in July 1939.2 Similarly, wholesale prices of foodstuffs in Puerto
Rico in March 1941 were 23 percent above their level in August
1939.3 It, therefore, seems reasonable to conclude that the total
increase in living costs since the outbreak of the war in Europe has
been considerably more than twice as great in Puerto Rico as in conti
nental United States, as the greater part of the price rise in the States
occurred after March 1941.
2 University of Puerto Rico, Agricultural Experiment Station, Report No. 20: The Rise of Retail Food
Prices in Puerto Rico, hy S. L. Descartes, Rio Piedras, December 1941.
3 Department of Agriculture and Commerce of Puerto Rico, Index numbers of the Wholesale Prices of
I oodstuffs m Puerto Rico, San Juan, 1942.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Cost of Living and Retail Prices
809
Changes in Costs, March 1941 to July 1943
COST OF FOOD
The total increase in living costs in Puerto Rico summarizes very
different rates of change for the various commodities and services
which are important in the expenditures of wage-earner families in
the Island. The prices of many articles have increased considerably
more than the average; others, such as certain drugs, have remained
unchanged during the entire period; and a few, such as electricity
rates, have actually decreased. The increase in the cost of food,
which constituted almost 60 percent of total wage-earner expenditures
in Puerto Rico in 1941 (as compared with approximately 35 percent
in the States), has had the most pronounced effect on the movement
of all living costs.
In July 1943, food costs were 49.5 percent above their level in March
1941; up to December 1942 they had increased by 53.3 percent (table
2), in addition to the substantial rise prior to March 1941. This
compares with increases of 41.3 and 34.9 percent respectively for the
same periods in continental United States. The increase in food
costs reflects increases in the prices of most, though not all, of the
principal foodstuffs consumed by wage-earner families in Puerto
Rico.
By December 1941, rice had increased 66 percent over its March
1941 level, lard 103 percent, codfish 51 percent, and eggs 138 percent.
Imported foods, as a group, showed an increase of 70 percent, as
compared with 38 percent for domestically produced foods. The
diversion of demand from the restricted supply of imported foodstuffs
to the relatively fixed supply of domestically grown foods was in large
part responsible for the latter increase. That all of the rise in food
prices cannot be attributed, even indirectly, to the shipping crisis,
however, is indicated by the rise in the price of sugar (22 percent to
December 1942).
Some of the principal foodstuffs for which less-than-average
increases occurred were fresh milk, coffee, and bread. Fresh milk
which, in the Puerto Rican wage-earner diet, is second in importance
only to rice 4 increased 30 percent, coffee increased 8 percent, and
bread increased 9 percent.
July food costs were 2.5 percent below their peak levels in Decem
ber 1942. Imports of large quantities of basic foods diminished
the pressure of demand on locally produced foodstuffs, resulting in
price declines for virtually all foods from December to March and
a drop in total food costs of 4 percent. After March, food prices
advanced again, and by June 1943 they had risen 2.6 percent above
March 1943, and 51.0 percent above March 1941. Some of the
locally produced foods experienced extremely rapid price increases
from March 1943 to June 1943, among them domestic beans, which
rose 27.2 percent. Substantially higher prices were also reported
4
It should not be assumed from the importance of milk in the Puerto Rican wage-earner diet, that the
quantity consumed is sufficient to meet modern nutritive standards. Thus, the National Resources
Planning Board has estimated that consumption of milk in Puerto Rico is one-third of the amount actually
required. To some extent this is an arbitrary calculation, since the calcium supplied by milk can be sup
plied by other foods as well ("red kidney beans, for example, are at prices now prevailing in Puerto Rico,
cheaper sources of calories, protein, calcium, phosphorous, iron, and vitamin B). It is, nevertheless, a rough
measure of the general level at which Puerto Rican wage earners are living to find that the second most
important food in their diet is two-thirds below its recommended consumption. See National Resources
Planning Board, Minimum Decent Living Standards for Puerto Rico (p. 17), San Juan, December 1942
551712— 43---------- 12
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
\
810
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
for eggs, tomatoes, and green bananas—all local products. Onions
and evaporated milk were the chief imported commodities for which
increases were pronounced.
T able 2.
Indexes of Cost of Specified Foods Purchased by Wage-Earner Families in
Puerto Rico, March 15, 1941 to July 15, 1943
Article
Mar. Dec. June Dec.
Jan.
Feb. Mar. June July
15,1941 15,1941 15,1942 15,1942 15,1943 15,1943 15,1943 15,1943 15,1943
All foods_____________
Loeally produced foods
Imported foods_______
100. 0
100.0
100.0
124.2
109. 5
140.9
142.1
121.3
165.7
153.3
138. 2
170.3
147.5
131.2
166.0
147. 3
131.8
164.8
147.2
131.5
164.8
151.0
138. 0
165.7
149.5
135. 7
165.4
Bread— ______ ___________
Corn meal, locally produced
Corn meal, imported______
Rice, imported____________
Chick-peas_______________
Beans, imported__________
Beans, white Idaho____
Beans, pink___________
Beans, red. N ew York
Beans, dom estic.____ _____
Beans, w hite__________
Beans, red____________
Onions___________________
Tomatoes________________
Plantains_________________
Yautia, yellow____________
Yautia, white___ ____ ____
Potatoes, sw eet___________
Green bananas____
M ilk______________ ;;;
M ilk, at stores-__
Milk, delivered..
Evaporated m ilk___
Eggs---------------------Chickens.................
Table oil___________
Lard______________
Salt pork__________
Tomato sauce______
Sugar______________
Sugar, refined___
Sugar, unrefined.
Coffee_____________
Coffee, roasted..
Coffee, green___
Beef_______________
Pork__________
Ham and ham substitutes
C odfish.._______________
100.0 107.8
100.0 116.8
100.0 118.3
100. 0 145.9
100.0 104.0
100.0 128.6
100.0 135.2
100.0 139.5
100.0 109.9
100.0 115.4
100.0 118.3
100.0 107.1
100. 0 144.5
100.0 145.8
100.0
92.2
100.0 133.7
100.0 130.3
100.0 104. 0
100.0 118.6
100.0 102.1
100.0 100.1
100.0 106.0
100. 0 128.6
100.0 144.7
100. 0 100.0
100.0 164.2
100.0 163.0
100.0 161.6
100.0 123.5
100.0 121.1
100.0 120.0
100.0 124.2
100.0 106.6
100.0 106.5
1C0.0 106.9
100.0 103.4
100.0 100.0
100.0 151. 2
100.0 134.6
105.0
168.0
149.4
177.5
113.8
137.4
130.5
154.6
119.3
139.5
138.4
142.6
121.1
233.2
113.6
146.8
151.9
156.4
138.0
121.8
124.8
115.8
132.3
164.6
134. 4
177.1
175.6
171. 6
142.8
121.8
120.8
124. 7
104.8
104. 9
104.7
88.7
132.0
183.6
160.8
109.1
183.5
149.9
166.3
144. 1
116.7
110. 2
139.6
88.3
165.4
158.1
186.5
145.2
325.4
169.4
274.8
286.9
298. 8
174.6
130.0
133.3
123.4
132.3
238.4
159.8
204.9
203.5
187.8
154.8
122.3
121. 6
124.2
108.1
107. 3
111. 1
88.7
161.1
185.6
150.9
108.8
176.1
148.3
166.3
134.4
114.9
110.2
136.2
86.5
156.7
148.3
180.7
126.4
233.8
134.0
209.0
198.8
163.4
144.7
130.4
135.3
120.5
132. 3
188.5
176.9
209.6
208.0
201.0
147.8
122.3
121.3
125.3
108.8
108.4
110.3
88.7
178.4
185.8
151.0
109.6
180. 2
148.3
166.3
134.2
114.7
108.5
136.2
86.5
167.7
158.0
195.6
127.9
213.2
131.6
195.3
176.1
143.1
150.5
130.6
135. 3
121.3
132. 3
176.6
188.8
219.6
208.0
201. 0
147.5
123. 2
122.4
125.5
108.9
108.4
111.0
88.7
184.1
185. 6
151.0
109.4
179. 8
148.4
166.3
133.9
114.6
108.5
136.4
86.5
178.1
167.0
209.8
128.3
188.7
130.0
185.1
166.8
139.9
152.5
128.7
132.4
121.3
132.4
162.3
205.1
216.5
208.0
201.0
148.1
123.4
122.8
125.3
109.9
109.2
112.3
88.6
178.4
191.8
151.7
110.5
179.8
148.8
165.9
89.7
115.0
109.6
136.8
86.6
226.6
207.4
282.1
197.2
241.1
123.6
194.5
164.8
120.1
170.5
127.6
131. 7
119.3
145.3
220. 7
208.9
221.8
215.8
198.7
150.5
123.1
122.6
124.7
115. 6
115.6
115. 5
88.6
178.7
192.0
151.1
110.5
183.6
149.8
165. 7
89.4
114.8
108.3
136.8
86.5
211.4
190.8
270. 5
197. 2
230.0
119.2
193.5
164.1
111.3
158.7
127.1
131. 2
118.8
145. 6
213.0
213.3
220.2
216.0
198.7
150.5
122.2
121.5
124.5
115.9
115.8
116. 0
88.6
171. 2
191.1
151.1
From June to July 1943 the average cost of all foods declined 1.0
percent, chiefly as a result of the 1.7-percent drop in locally produced
foods. The most prominent price reductions were for domestic
beans, sweetpotatoes, and green bananas, each of which fell 6 per
cent or more from June to July. A smaller decline (0.2 percent)
was reported in the average price of imported foods.
There was some difference in the price movements among the
various municipalities (table 3). In December 1942 food costs for
the entire Island were 53.3 percent above their March 1941 level.
They were 58 percent above this level in San Juan and 49 percent in
Salinas. Similarly, although all Island food costs in July were 2.5
percent below their December peak, they were 1.3 percent above it
in Salinas and 6.0 percent below it in Comerio. The chief reasons
for these variations in changes in food costs are the varying price
movements of locally produced foodstuffs and differences in the
amounts of each kind of fpod consumed in the various municipalities,
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
811
Cost oj Living and Retail Prices
T able
3.— Indexes of Food Costs in 6 Municipalities in Puerto Rico, March 1941 to
July 1943
Month
March 1941
_ _ _
_
December 1941
....
.. ..
June 1942._______
. . _____
December 1942................... .
___
January 1943___ . . . .
. .
.
February 1943 ..
... _ ... . ...
._
...
March 1943____ .
April 1943 ____ ____ . . . . . .
M ay 1943
___
Juno 1943
_ .
July 1943 _________________________
Puerto
Rico
100.0
124.2
142.1
153.3
147.5
147.3
147.2
148.5
150.6
151.0
149.5
San
Juan
100.0
121.6
143.5
158.0
147.2
147.5
146.8
149.4
152.3
153.6
151.1
Adjun Comerio Salinas
tas
100.0
128.6
142.3
157.8
150.8
151.2
152.4
152.1
154.2
154.0
150.6
100.0
122.3
140.4
151.1
142.3
138.6
138.3
141. 1
143.4
142.6
142.5
100.0
125.0
140.1
148.8
149.0
148.6
148.1
149.4
150.7
151.6
150.8
Cabo
Rojo
100.0
123.2
140.2
149.2
143.2
145.2
146.6
146.9
149.6
149.3
147.5
Manatí
100.0
127.7
145.8
155.9
153.8
153.3
152.4
153.0
154.0
154.5
153.5
C LOTH ING COSTS
Up to December 1942 clothing costs, which constituted 8 percent
of wage-earner expenditures, had increased by 43 percent, or almost
as much as food. The Island is dependent almost entirely on im
ports for its clothing. Although there is some clothing manufactured
on the Island, particularly lower-quality work clothing, men’s suits,
and women’s and girls’ dresses, all fabrics are imported. Almost
the entire supply of certain other important articles of clothing, such
as shoes, socks, and hosiery, is imported in finished form. The
decline in clothing imports has been much more pronounced than
for foodstuffs; from July 1942 to March 1943 virtually no shoes were
imported. During this period much of the Island demand for cloth
ing was met from retailers’ stocks, supplemented by some clothing
brought in small sailing vessels. These vessels are not subject to
the jurisdiction of the War Shipping Administration, and conse
quently are able to bring in commodities which the Administration
would not approve for larger vessels. Such a method of transpor
tation is, of course, costly and the goods thus imported command
higher prices. As a result of this situation, clothing costs have
continued to rise and in July 1943 were almost 8 percent higher than
their December level. This compares with an increase of 2 percent
over the same period in large cities in the United States. Shipping
conditions have greatly improved since April and larger quantities
of clothing have been imported. From June to July 1943, clothingcosts rose less than one-half of 1 percent.
Every article of clothing included in the index showed some in
crease during the period covered (table 4). Khaki drill work trousers
and work shirts had increased 45 percent and 65 percent respectively
by March 1943, cotton dresses by 70 percent, and men’s work shoes
by 54 percent.
There has been considerable variation in the movement of clothing
costs in different parts of the Island (table 5). The small municipali
ties are supplied by only a limited number of stores; hence, accidental
variations in pricing policy and ability to replace stocks are reflected
in wide differences in price movements. San Juan, the only muni
cipality covered in which any systematic replacement of stocks has
been possible, has shown the largest increase in clothing costs of any
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
812
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
of the cities covered, 65.3 percent from March 1941 to July 1943.
Adjuntas and Salinas show only half that increase.
T able 4.
Indexes of Cost of Specified Clothing Purchased by Wage-Earner Families in
Puerto Rico, March 15, 1941 to March 15, 1943
Mar. 15 Dec. 15 June 15 Dec. 15 J a n .15 Feb. 15 Mar. 15
1941
1942
1941
1942
1943
1943
1943
Article
Shoes, men’s work___
Shoes, men’s dress.. _
Shoes, women’s street... .
Shoes, children’s _________
M en’s clothing:
Trousers, work:
Khaki drill_______
Blue denim_______
Trousers, dress, inexpensive... . .
Shirts, work, inexpensive:
Khaki drill______
Chambray____ ._
Shirts, dress:
Broadcloth............. ..............
Percale___________
Suits, inexpensive_____
Shorts, imported .............
Shorts, locally produced_____ . . .
Undershirts:
Athletic style____________
M ilitary style______
Socks, inexpensive
Straw h a ts.............. .
Women’s clothing:
Dresses, cotton_______
Dresses, rayon......... .
Slips, cotton_______
Slips, rayon ________
Panties, cotton___
Panties, rayon.. ____ .
Stockings, cotton___ _
Stockings, rayon_________ .
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
110.9
103.4
105.2
106.8
134.8
119.0
126.3
125.8
147.4
126.1
127.2
131.8
152.5
128.7
128.0
137.5
153.4
128.9
128.0
138.7
154.1
128.9
126. 7
140.4
100.0
100.0
100.0
111.2
110.3
106.1
129.4
135.4
126.8
136.4
147.5
145.4
142.8
155.9
148.7
143.8
161.4
148.7
144.6
161.5
150.5
100.0
100.0
110.5
116.1
131.3
144.7
155.0
166. 2
162.4
176.0
165.1
176.0
165.1
176.5
100.0
100.0
100. 0
100.0
100.0
108.8
113.4
104.9
106.8
107.3
134.9
139.5
108.1
141.8
138.2
145.1
156.9
115.9
165.3
151.7
153.0
158. 5
118.1
170.4
162.0
154.2
158.5
118.1
170.4
162.0
154.5
158.5
118 1
171.5
164.5
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
108.2
116.2
106.8
106.8
149.9
146.3
134.4
123.3
169.4
161.0
143.8
139.6
169.4
163.1
150.1
142.1
171.3
165.0
152.1
142.1
174.7
170.3
149.9
143.8
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
112.2
107.4
107.2
103.8
106. 1
107.6
104.8
114.2
131.1
124.0
137.1
130.7
132.4
131.2
136.6
130.2
158.8
137.4
155.2
149.8
163.7
149.5
148.8
146.5
160.8
140.2
156.3
154.4
166.3
156.0
153.3
150.4
162.8
140.2
156.3
154.4
166.9
158.1
153.3
150.4
169.9
144.0
159.1
159.2
169.3
159.9
158.1
152.3
T a b l e 5. —Indexes of Clothing Costs in 6 Municipalities in Puerto Rico, March 1941 to
July 1943
Month
March 1941__
December 1941____
June 1942_______
December 1942 .
January 1943____
February 1943___
March 1943___
April 1943______
May 1945_______
June 1943 __
July 1943____
Puerto
Rico
100.0
108.4
128. 5
142.7
146.6
147. 5
149.4
151.7
152.5
153.5
153.9
San
Juan
100.0
113.3
135.6
154.2
159.5
159.9
162.6
164.1
164.5
165. 5
165.3
Adjun Comerio
Salinas
tas
100.0
100.2
117.2
125.4
127.9
127.9
128.8
132.9
132.0
132.1
132.5
100.0
104.8
133.4
151.0
154.0
154.0
155.3
156.1
156.1
155.3
156.6
100.0
101.2
107.4
123.9
126.9
129.0
133.8
134.8
134. 5
134.7
134.8
Cabo
Rojo
100.0
108.0
124.1
142.8
148.0
149.8
150.4
150.8
151.7
156.0
156.8
Manatí
100 0
113.9
139.9
141 6
144 3
145 4
145.5
152.7
156. 2
156.4
156.6
COST OF HOUSEFURNISHINGS
For housefurnishings, which constitute 2 percent of wage-earner
expenditures in Puerto Rico, price changes have in general been much
the same as for clothing. In March 1943 housefurnishings costs stood
at 141.2 percent of their March 1941 level, a rise caused by increases
in every article investigated (table 6). Both inexpensive articles like
drinking glasses and mosquito netting, and the more expensive
articles, such as parlor suites and beds, shared in the increase.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Cost of Living and Retail Prices
813
T a b l e 6. —Indexes
of Cost of Specified Housefurnishings Purchased by Wage-Earner
Families in Puerto Rico, March 15, 1941 to March 15, 1943
Mar. 15 Dec. 15 June 15 Dec. 15
1941
1941
1942
1942
Article
Cupboards__________________ ______
C hifforobes_______________________
Parlor suites__ . . . . . . . .
. . . ___
Breakfast suites_____________ ____
Beds, wooden_____________ _______ _
B e d s ,ir o n ..___
_ ...
. . ______
Sheets, cotton_______ _____
___
Towels, cotton_____ ____ _ __ _ . _
P ad s.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ____ . _
Bedspreads, cotton. . . . _ ............. .
Mosquito netting_______ _ _ _____
Blankets, cotton .........................
Glasses, d rin k in g ______________ . .
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
103.2
100.5
102.2
131.8
100.5
100.3
110.1
109.9
104.4
112.3
113.1
109.4
106.1
116.7
114.3
119.2
131.8
123.5
132.8
132.0
136. 9
127.0
135.0
138.0
129. 6
119.5
120.7
118.2
121.8
135.1
126.2
137.3
146.8
158.1
142.6
152.5
153.9
143.0
136.9
J a n .15
1943
122.3
118.2
123.5
135.1
126.2
143.6
150.8
165.2
148.2
160.0
163.6
152.7
148.4
Feb. 15 Mar. 15
1943
1943
122.3
118.2
124.6
135.1
126.2
143.6
154.8
166.3
149.4
160.3
163.6
152.7
148.4
122.2
118.2
124.6
135.1
127.4
143.6
158.1
169.3
148.2
164.8
164.9
157.6
155.1
There were differences in price movements of furnishings in the
various municipalities, although these were not so large as for clothing
(table 7).
T a b l e 7. —Indexes
of Cost of Housefurnishings in 6 Municipalities in Puerto Rico,
March 1941 to July 1943
Month
March 1941________________________
December 1941_____________________
June 1942. _ _____ _______ ______
December 1942____________ . . . ____
_ _____
January 1943____ ______
February 1943... ____ . . . . . . . . . . .
March 1943____ _________ ________
April 1943__________________________
M ay 1943_____ _____ __________ .
June 1943. ________________________
July 1943__________________________
Puerto
Rico
100.0
104.2
126.0
134.7
139.4
140.0
141.2
143.7
144.2
144.5
145.2
San
Juan
100.0
104.9
126.1
137.5
141.3
142.5
142.8
144.9
145.1
145.3
145.5
Adjuntas Comerio
Salinas
100.0
103.6
125.4
136.8
144.4
144.6
148.2
148.6
149.9
149.9
149.9
100.0
100.7
128.9
134.1
134.7
134.7
135.1
137.7
136.8
137.2
137.7
100.0
101.8
129.3
132.5
133.9
133.9
135.9
143.0
148.7
150.4
152.6
Cabo
Rojo
100.0
103.9
116.3
129.1
138.5
138.6
139.4
138.8
138.6
139.9
143.2
M anati
100.0
106.8
130.2
131.0
137.2
137.9
141.0
147.4
148.8
148.8
149.0
COST OF RENT AND MISCELLANEOUS GOODS AND SERVICES
Compared to food, clothing, and housefurnishings, increases in
rentals and the cost of miscellaneous goods and services have been
moderate. Kents of low and medium-priced dwellings increased by
4.5 percent from March 1941 to July 1943; miscellaneous costs, a
group which includes such items as bus fare, charcoal, kerosene, rum,
and cigarettes, rose by 30.8 percent. Miscellaneous items account
for 27 percent of the total expenditures of wage-earner families in
Puerto Rico.
A few of the commodities in the miscellaneous group have increased
as much as some of the principal foodstuffs. By March 1943, laundry
soap had increased 74 percent, charcoal 25 percent, local transporta
tion 42 percent. Drugs and medicines showed only a slight increase,
newspaper prices remained virtually unchanged, and electricity rates
declined 10 percent (table 8).
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
814
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
T a b l e 8 . —Indexes
of Cost of Miscellaneous Goods and Services Purchased by WageEarner Families in Puerto Rico, March 15, 1941 to March 15, 1943
Mar.
Dec.
June
Jan.
Dec.
Feb.
Mar.
15,1941 15,1941 15,1942 15,1942 15,1943 15,1943 15,1943
Article or service
Kerosene___________
Charcoal____________
Laundry soap_______
Starch______________
Bluing_____________
Chicken feed________
Rum, in bottles_____
Rum, in glasses_____
Soft drinks__________
Cigars______________
Cigarettes, domestic .
Cigarettes, im ported..
M atches____________
Prescription, cold____
Prescription, diarrhea
Prescription, fever___
M ilk of magnesia____
Iodine______________
Aspirin tablets______
Salts, laxative_______
Vitamin B, complex..
Tonic______________
Toilet soap__________
Tooth paste_________
M ovies_____________
Haircuts........
Electricity (15 KWH)
Transportation______
Lottery tickets______
Newspapers_________
Tomato seeds_______
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100. 0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
105.0
100.0
130.5
102.9
101.2
106.3
105.7
100.0
100.0
100.0
108.3
103.1
102.9
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100. 0
100.0
100.0
101.7
100.0
103.0
101. 8
90. 2
100.4
100.2
100.0
100.0
111.9
129.3
165.0
109.6
101.8
131.2
120.9
100.4
102.1
100.0
116.7
110.5
111.1
103. 0
100.0
101.2
100.5
100.0
100.0
103.4
99.2
102.6
110.9
100.0
107.2
106.7
90.2
136.4
100.5
100.0
100.0
120.5
141.4
176.6
112.1
111.0
136.9
132.8
118.9
103.9
100.0
124.8
114.6
114.3
106.2
102.3
101.2
101.4
100.0
100.0
107.2
98.0
105.3
124.9
100.5
106.3
109.8
90.2
144.9
100.5
100.0
182.0
119.0
126.2
176.6
113.2
117. 7
136. 5
143.4
120.8
104.4
100.0
126.2
116.1
114.3
106.2
102.3
102.9
102.9
102.5
100.0
107.6
98.0
105.7
126.1
101.0
113.6
112.8
90.2
142.3
100.5
100.0
187.4
119.6
126.2
176.9
113.1
121.9
135.0
156. 5
133. 4
105.0
100.0
126.7
116.8
114.3
108.4
103.5
102.9
102.9
102.5
100.0
107.6
98.0
106.0
126.1
104.5
118.1
114.4
90.2
141.1
100.5
100.0
192.8
116.8
124.5
173.8
117.0
124.3
141.1
159.9
133.8
105.8
100.4
131.4
118.1
113.6
108.4
101.4
102.9
103.4
102.5
100.0
107.6
93.8
106.0
126.1
104.5
127.6
117.4
90.2
142.4
100. 5
100.0
192.8
kHiice March 1943. miscellaneous costs have increased more rapidlv
than those of any other group, 7.4 percent as compared with 3 percent
oi less lor jood, clothing, and housefurnishings. These recent increases
are a result of a general upward movement among most of the com
modities included in the miscellaneous group, the increases in laundry
effectClgarettes’ and local transportation having the most pronounced
Theie have been substantial variations in the movement of miscel
laneous costs among the various municipalities, from the 20-percentincrease m ban Juan to the 45-percent increase in Salinas (table 9).
T a b l e 9.
Indexes of Cost of Miscellaneous Items in 6 Municipalities in Puerto Rico,
March 1941 to July 1943
Month
March 1941
December 1941
June 1942..
December 1942
January 1943___
February 1943.
March 1943...
April 1943____
M ay 1943___
June 1943
July 1943_____
Puerto
Rico
102.5
115.6
121.2
120.4
121.0
121.8
128.4
128.6
San
Juan
innU. U
n
1U
K
Jim
LU-L. u
1 nc O
a
JUo.
Q
fi
lio. o
11Ló.
y o*.
1À fi
llrt.
O
K
*1. O
fi. O
fi
11IO
1 in y
n
îiy.
i on n
l/U.
U
Jion
./ÜU. n
u
11
11
11/1
1
Adjun
Comerio Salinas
tas
100.0
100.0
98.2
101.8
119.4
124.1
118.9
134.6
115.9
134.8
lio. O
133.8
115. 7
135.5
121. 2
136.4
123. 4 . 139.4
128. 7
139.9
128. 6
142.1
100.0
103.0
124. 7
130.3
129.7
130.8
131.6
139.0
142.8
142.8
145.1
Cabo
Rojo
100.0
106.2
111.0
118.6
117.2
118.1
120.8
123.9
128.1
133.9
133.9
Menati
100.0
102.4
112.7
116.0
115.1
114.9
115.3
119.2
121.4
123.2
122.2
Of the houses for which rents were reported, less than one-fifth
were renting for more m May 1943 than they were in March 1941.
Considering only those for which rents had been raised, the average
increase was about 25 percent. Considering all dwellings, however,
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BIS
Cost of Living and Retail Prices
both those with increased and those with unchanged rents, the
increase in the total rental bill was 4.5 percent from March 1941 to
July 1943 (table 10). Most of the increases in rent occurred when
there was a change in occupancy, although there were some cases
of increases to established tenants. The greatest part of the rise
occurred between December 1941 and June 1942. Since that date
rents have gone up by 1.3 percent. Rent is an important part of the
wage earner’s budget only in urban areas; the rural laborer is usually
housed in a hut of his own, on land belonging to someone else but for
which he pays no rent.
T able
10.— Indexes of Rental Costs in 6 Municipalities in Puerto Rico, March 1941
to July 1943
Month
March 1941
_ _
__
December 1941 _ . _
.....
June 1942
_____ ___________ . _ __
December 1942
...
...
January 1943 _
.
_______
February 1943
......
M arch 1943
__
___
April 1943 .... ............................. ............
M ay 1943 _ _______________________
June 1943 ____ _ ___
_ _____
July 1943_________________________
Puerto
Rico
100.0
100.2
103.2
103.8
104.0
104.0
104.1
104.1
104.2
104.2
104.5
San
Juan
100.0
100.2
103.6
104.2
104.4
104.4
104.4
104.4
104.5
104. 5
105.0
Adjun Comerio Salinas
tas
100.0
99.8
99.6
100.0
100.0
99.6
99.6
99.7
99.8
99.4
99.4
100.0
100.1
103.4
105.0
105.1
105.3
105.3
105.2
105.1
105.1
105.6
100.0
100.6
101.0
101.5
101.5
101.7
101.7
101.7
101.7
101.7
101.8
Cabo
Rojo
100.0
99.2
99.4
£9.5
99.6
99.6
99.6
99.7
99.8
99.8
99.8
Menati
100.0
100.1
101.9
103.5
103.7
103.7
103.7
104.1
104.0
104.1
103.8
Black-Market Prices
The present indexes are based upon prices supplied to the Bureau’s
agents by established retailers. In some cases, these prices were
above the officially determined ceiling of the OPA. It is unlikely,
however, that the full effect of sales above the ceiling on the cost of
living has been measured. No statistics on the importance of
black-market sales in Puerto Rico are, of course, available, but
general observation indicates that they have been of some importance.
At any one time the number of commodities available on the black
market is limited. In February 1943 the goods most commonly
sold on the black market were lard, onions, matches, laundry soap,
American cigarettes, and (for higher-income families) the choicer
cuts of meat. By that time, rice was relatively abundant, but in
October and November 1942 black-market quotations for this com
modity were reported to be frequent. By August 1943 black-market
sales were less frequent than at any time since the fall of 1942. It
seems unlikely that the inclusion of all sales at above-ceiling prices
would have materially changed the present indexes.
Differences Between Puerto Rico and Continental United States
The present indexes do not measure, and do not provide the basis
for measuring, differences in the level of living costs between Puerto
Rico and continental United States. The fact that the July index for
Puerto Rico indicates an increase from March 1941 of 41.7 percent, as
compared with 22.3 percent for continental United States, merely
means that living costs have increased more rapidly in Puerto Rico
than in the States in this same period. Differences in the level of
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
816
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
living costs could be inferred from these indexes only if something
were known about the comparative levels of costs in March 1941.
Such a comparison has not been undertaken, and, considering the vast
difference in the ways Puerto Rican and continental wage earners
live, would be extremely difficult to make.
Methods Used in Study
For all commodities but food, the prices upon which the indexes
are based were collected by agents of the Bureau of Labor Statistics
for all of the dates reported. For food the prices are based upon a
collection by Bureau agents for all dates subsequent to December
1942. Food prices for that and previous dates are based upon prices
collected by the Insular Department of Agriculture and Commerce.
The stores from which prices are collected are those at which wage
earners purchase. Thus, the prices of most locally produced food
stuffs are obtained from open-air market places and peddlers, the two
chief sources of such foods.5
The weights used to combine the various price changes into a single
cost-of-living index were derived from a study of the expenditures
of wage-earner families in 1940-41 conducted by the WPA under the
sponsorship of the Insular Department of Labor and the technical
supervision of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. The
weight for each municipality is based upon the expenditures of wageearner families in the region in which the municipality is situated.
WWW
F ood Costs and Su b sid ies in Great B ritain
FROM September 1939 to April 1941 the British cost-of-living index
lose 28 percent,- food costs rose 23 percent. According to a summary
by the British Information Services,6 the Government at the latter
time adopted a policy of stabilizing consumer prices and wages at not
more than 30 percent above the pre-war level; this policy has been
successful, since in April 1943 the cost-of-living index was 30 percent
above that of September 1939, and wage rates had increased 32 per
cent in the same period.7
This cost-of-living stabilization was achieved by applying subsidies
to the most important articles in the workingman’s budget—principally food. Individual food prices have risen very little, some even
having dropped since April 1941, with the food index as a whole hav
ing fallen from 23 percent to 20 percent above the pre-war level. The
Pi«SPiJk<k' 0 es.car.t es» ^■J)laz Pacheco, and J. R. Noguera, Food Consumption Studies in Puerto Rico,
ß io P ied fa s, Agricultural Experiment Station, June 1941 (p. 74).
July Rtfsar<3 fr0m Labor and lrldustr-v in Britain (British Information Services, Now York), June 1943,
for W H M gef f i nereaSC for industry alone was from 20 to 27 percent (see M onthly Labor Review
tor August 1943). The above percentage represents a wider coverage.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Cost of Living and Retail Prices
817
subsidies have reduced consumer prices from what they would have
been as follows:
B read: a reduction of 2d. p er 4-pound loaf.8
F lo u r: a reduction of 3 bid. p er 7 pounds.
M eat: a reduction of l'/id. p er pound.
P o tato es: a reduction of 3%d. p e r 7 pounds.
Eggs: a reduction of Is. 9d. p er dozen.
M ilk: a reduction of Yd- p er q u a rt.
Thus, without the subsidies the consumer would have paid approxi
mately 20 percent more for 'flour and bread, 54 percent more for
potatoes, and 87% percent more for eggs.
Based on the returns for one quarter, the cost of food subsidies was
$600,000,000 for the year ending March 31, 1943, over one-fourth
of which went to flour, bread, oatmeal, and animal feeding stuffs.
Meat, potatoes, and the National Milk Scheme had the next largest
subsidies, amounting to $92,000,000, $92,000,000, and $68,000,000,
respectively. Food subsidies for the preceding year, ending March
31, 1942, totaled $548,000,000; for all commodities, the subsidies
were $780,000,000 yearly.
Various methods of applying subsidies are used. The Ministry of
Foods is the sole purchaser of many foods produced in Britain and the
sole importer of food products. For these foods, which the Ministry
buys directly from producers, the subsidy is the difference between
the price paid by the Ministry and the lower price at which it sells to
wholesalers and retailers.
In certain cases, subsidies are paid directly to producers or dealers
to encourage production or to cover special costs. For example, flour
millers receive a rebate on wheat bought, to compensate for the low
fixed price of flour; and subsidies covering special transportation costs
have been paid on potatoes and fish. Subsidies also make possible
the National Milk Scheme, permitting distribution of milk to certain
groups at less than retail cost.
8 The approximate exchange rate was £1=$4, Is.=20 cents, ld .= l% cents.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Wholesale Prices
W h olesale P rices in A ugu st 1 9 4 3
LED by continued declines in prices for farm products and foods,
particularly fresh fruits and vegetables, the Bureau of Labor Statis
tics index of prices in primary markets 1 dropped 0.1 percent during
August. The decrease brought the all-commodity index to 103.1
percent of the 1926 average, the lowest level reached since February.
Average prices for foods dropped 1.3 percent during the month,
largely as a result of a decrease of 9 percent in prices for fruits and
vegetables. Farm products declined 1.2 percent. There was a slight
upward tendency in industrial commodity markets, as the Office of
Price Administration permitted higher prices for certain types of
lumber and for cottonseed meal. The index for building materials
rose 1.4 percent; miscellaneous commodities, 0.3 percent; and chem
icals and allied products, 0.1 percent. Lower realized prices for gas
and electricity caused the index for fuel and lighting materials to
fall 0.1 percent. Average prices for raw materials fell 0.8 percent,
as a result of weakening markets for agricultural commodities. Quo
tations for manufactured commodities and semimanufactured articles,
on the other hand, advanced fractionally. The indexes for “all
commodities other than farm products” and “all commodities other
than farm products and foods” rose 0.2 percent.
Continued declines in primary market prices for onions, potatoes,
and lemons, for corn, rye, cotton, and wool, and for cows and sheep
accounted for a decrease of 1.2 percent in average prices for farm
products during August. Substantially higher prices were reported
for barley, oats, wheat, and alfalfa seed, for hogs and calves, and for
eggs.
With a 9-percent decline for fresh fruits and vegetables, the average
price for foods dropped 1.3 percent to the lowest point since Febru
ary. In addition, quotations were also lower for flour and mutton.
Higher prices were reported for oatmeal, pretzels, dried fruits, and
fresh beef at New York.
Except for slightly higher prices for broadcloth shirting and weak
ening prices for percale, the textile markets were steady. No changes
were reported in prices for shoes and other leather products.
Lower sales realizations for gas and electricity brought the fuel and
lighting materials group index down 0.1 percent. Prices were higher
for gasoline at most refineries.
The metal markets remained firm.
Office of Price Administration action in allowing higher ceiling prices
for certain types of lumber, together with increased prices for paint
1 The Bureau of Labor Statistics wholesale price data for the most part represent prices prevailing in the
“ first commercial transaction.” They are prices quoted in primary markets, at principal distribution
points.
818
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Wholesale Prices
819
materials and coarse aggregates, brought average prices for building
materials up 1.4 percent to the highest level since the spring of 1923.
An increase of 0.1 percent in the index for chemicals and allied
products was the result of a sharp increase in cottonseed meal and
higher quotations for nicotine sulphate.
A minor decline was reported in prices for office furniture in August.
Prices for household furniture were unchanged.
Wholesale prices for cattle feed averaged 4 percent higher in August
than in July because of marked increases in quotations for cottonseed
meal and linseed meal.
From August 1942 to August 1943, prices for farm products in
creased over 16 percent and foods rose 5 percent. During the^ame
period, chemicals and allied products, and miscellaneous commodities
advanced more than 4 percent; fuel and lighting materials, over 2
percent; and building materials, approximately 2 percent. A frac
tional advance, 0.1 percent, was recorded in textile products prices.
Housefurnishing goods, metals and metal products, and hides and
leather products declined from 0.1 percent to 0.3 percent during the
12-month period. Reflecting the increase in prices for agricultural
commodities, the raw materials group index rose more than 11 per
cent over August of last year, while semimanufactured articles and
finished products increased less than 1 percent.
During the 4 years of war, August 1939 to August 1943, broad
gains have occurred in prices for many commodities. Outstanding
among the increases was 151 percent for fats and oils, 128 percent for
cattle feed, 127 percent for grains, 115 percent for fruits and vegetables,
114 percent for drugs and pharmaceuticals, over 95 percent for live
stock and poultry, more than 70 percent for cotton goods, and from
50 to 60 percent for hides and skins, lumber, and dairy products.
Percentage comparisons of the August 1943 level of wholesale prices
with July 1943, August 1942, and August 1939, with corresponding
index numbers are given in table 1.
T a b l e 1 .— Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices by Groups and Subgroups of Commodities,
August 1943, with Comparisons for July 1943, August 1942 and August 1939
[1926 = 100]
Group and subgroup
August
1943
July
1943
Percent
of
change
August
1942
Percent
of
change
August
1939
Percent
of
increase
All commodities_____ _______
103.1
103.2
- 0 .1
99.2
+ 3 .9
75.0
37.5
Farm products______ __ . . . _
Grains_______________
Livestock and poultry____
Other farm products___ ._
123.5
116.8
129.5
120.8
125.0
116.0
127.6
124.8
-1 .2
+ .7
+ 1 .5
-3.2
106.1
89.8
122.6
99.9
+16.4
+30.1
+ 5 .6
+20.9
61.0
51.5
66.0
60.1
102.5
126.8
96.2
101.0
Foods____ ____ _________
Hairy products__________
Cereal products__________
Fruits and vegetables_____
M eats______ __________
Other foods____ __________
105.8
108.9
93.8
125.6
106.0
98.0
107.2
108.9
93.8
138.0
105.9
97.1
- 1 .3
0
0
- 9 .0
+ .1
+ .9
100.8
100.2
87.8
98.0
115.2
93.1
+ 5 .0
+ 8 .7
+ 6.8
+28.2
-8 .0
+ 5 .3
67.2
67.9
71.9
58.5
73.7
60.3
57.4
60.4
30.5
114.7
43.8
62.5
Hides and leather products..
Shoes.. ___ . .
Hides and skins__________
Leather__________________
Other leather p ro d u cts___
117.8
126.4
116.0
101.3
115.2
117.8
126. 4
116.0
101. 3
115. 2
0
0
0
0
0
118.2
126.4
118.8
101.3
115.2
- .3
0
-2 .4
0
0
92.7
100.8
77.2
84.0
97.1
27.1
25.4
50.3
20.6
18.6
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
820
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
I — Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices by Groups and Subgroups of Commodities,
August 1943, with Comparisons for July 1943, August 1942 and August 1939— Con.
T able
[1926 = 100]
Group and subgroup
August
1943
July
194.3
Percent
of
change
August
1942
Percent
of
change
97.3
107.2
112.9
69.7
30.3
(i)
111.7
97.9
+ 0.1
-.2
-.2
+ 1.1
0
+ 2 .4
+ 4 .6
+ 5.9
+ .2
Textile products_____________
Clothing_________________
Cotton goods_____________
Hosiery and underwear___
R ayon______
s ilk _________________ ;;;;
Woolen and worsted goods..
Other textile products____
97.4
107.0
112.7
70.5
30.3
0)
112. 5
98. 7
97.4
107.0
112.6
70.5
30.3
(')
112.5
98.7
0
0
+ 0.1
0
0
Fuel and lighting materials___
Anthracite_______________
Bituminous coal_________
Coke____________________
E l e c t r i c i t y .____________
Gas_____________________
Petroleum and products...
80.9
89. 6
116. 5
122. 4
(')
(0
63.0
81.0
89.6
116. 5
122. 4
(>)
77.6
62.8
-. 1
0
0
0
+ .3
79. 0
85. 7
110.0
122. 1
62.2
80.4
60.7
Metals and metal products___
Agricultural im plem ents..
Farm machinery_____
Iron and steel____________
Motor vehicles___________
Nonferrous metals________
Plumbing and heating____
103.7
96.9
98.0
97.1
112.8
86.0
90. 4
103. 7
96.9
98. 0
97.1
112.8
86.0
90. 4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
103.8
96.9
98. 0
97.2
112.8
85. 6
94. 1
Building materials___________
Brick and tile_______ ____
Cement______ __________
Lumber_________________
Paint and paint materials. _
Plumbing and heating...... .
Structural steel___________
Other building m aterials...
112. 2
99. 0
93.6
142. 0
102.8
90. 4
107.3
101.4
110.7
99.0
93.6
137.1
102.0
90. 4
107. 3
101.3
+ 1.4
0
0
+ 3 .6
+ .8
0
0
+ .1
110.3
98.7
94.2
133.0
100.1
94. 1
107.3
103.8
Chemicals and allied products._
Chemicals_______________
Drugs and pharmaceuticals.
Fertilizer materials____ . . .
Mixed fertilizers__________
Oils and fats_____________
100.2
96. 5
165. 2
80.1
85. 8
102. 0
100. 1
96.4
165.2
79.3
85.8
102. 0
+ .1
+ .1
0
+1. 0
0
0
Housefurnishing goods_______
Furnishings______________
Furniture________________
102.6
107.1
98.1
102.6
107.1
98. 1
Miscellaneous__________ _____
Automobile tires and tubes.
Cattle feed________________
Paper and pulp__________
Rubber, crude___________
Other miscellaneous______
92.6
73.0
155. 7
104. 3
46. 2
96. 3
Raw materials_______________
Semimanufactured articles____
Manufactured products______
All commodities other than
farm products______________
All commodities other than
farm products and foods____
112.7
92. 9
99. 7
0
0
+ .7
+ .8
August
1939
Percent
of
increase
67.8
81. 5
65.5
61.5
28.5
44 3
75.5
63.7
43. 7
31. 3
72 1
14. 6
6. 3
49.0
54.9
72.6
72.1
96.0
104.2
75 8
86.7
51.7
21.9
-3.9
93.2
93.5
94. 7
95.1
92. 5
74.6
79.3
11. 3
3 6
3.5
2.1
21.9
15. 3
14.0
+ 1.7
+ .3
-.6
+ 6.8
+ 2.7
- 3 .9
0
- 2 .3
89.6
90.5
91.3
90.1
82.1
79.3
107. 3
89.5
25. 2
9. 4
25
57. 6
25. 2
14. 0
0
13.3
96.2
96. 3
129.0
78.3
82.8
101.6
+ 4 .2
+ .2
+28. 1
+ 2.3
+ 3.6
+ .4
74.2
83.8
77.1
65.5
73. 1
40.6
35. 0
15. 2
114.3
22. 3
17. 4
151. 2
0
0
0
102.7
107.9
97.4
-. 1
-.7
+ .7
85.6
90.0
81.1
19.9
19. 0
21.0
92.3
73.0
149. 7
104. 3
46.2
96. 3
+ .3
0
+ 4 .0
0
0
0
88.9
73. 0
125.4
98.9
46.3
93.0
+ 4 .2
0
+24.2
+ 5 .5
-.2
+ 3 .5
73.3
60.5
68.4
80.0
34.9
81.3
26. 3
20. 7.
127. 6
30.4
32. 4
18.5
113.6
92.8
99.6
-.8
+• 1
+ .1
101.2
92.7
98.9
+11.4
+ .2
+ .8
66.5
74.5
79.1
69.5
24. 7
26.0
+ 3 .8
-. 1
0
0
-. 1
0
11. 4
24. 3
21. 4
17.5
98.5
98.3
+ .2
97.5
+ 1 .0
77.9
264
97.1
96.9
+ .2
95.6
+ 1 .6
80.1
21.2
1 Data not available.
Index Numbers by Commodity Groups, 1926 to August 1943
Index numbers of wholesale prices by commodity groups for selected
years Irom 1926 to 1942, and by months from August 1942 to August
1943, are shown in table 2.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
821
Wholesale
T a b l e 2 . — Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices by Groups of Commodities
[1926 = 100]
Hides
and
Farm
leath
prod Foods
er
ucts
prod
ucts
Year and month
Chem House
Fuel Metals
Build icals
and
Tex
fur
and
and
ing
light metal
tile
nish
mate allied
prod ing
ing
prod
rials prod goods
ucts mate ucts
ucts
rials
Miscellaneous
All
com
modi
ties
1926________________
1929________________
1932________________
1933________________
1936________________
100.0
104.9
48.2
51.4
80.9
100.0
99.9
61.0
60.5
82.1
100.0
109.1
72.9
80.9
95.4
100.0
90.4
54.9
64.8
71.5
100.0
83.0
70.3
66.3
76.2
100.0
100.5
80.2
79.8
87.0
100.0
95.4
71.4
77.0
86.7
100.0
94.0
73.9
72.1
78.7
100.0
94.3
75.1
75.8
81.7
100.0
82.6
64.4
62.5
70.5
100.0
95.3
64.8
65.9
80.8
1937________________
1938________________
1939________________
1940_______________
1941________________
1942________________
86.4
68.5
65.3
67.7
82.4
105.9
85.5
73.6
70.4
71.3
82.7
99.6
104.6
92.8
95.6
100.8
108.3
117.7
76.3
66.7
69.7
73.8
84.8
96.9
77.6
76.5
73.1
71.7
76.2
78.5
95.7
95.7
94.4
95.8
99.4
103.8
95.2
90.3
90.5
94.8
103.2
110.2
82.6
77.0
76.0
77.0
84.6
97.1
89.7
86.8
86.3
88.5
94.3
102.4
77.8
73.3
74.8
77.3
82.0
89.7
86.3
78.6
77.1
78.6
87.3
98.8
106.1
107.8
109.0
110.5
113.8
100.8
102.4
103.4
103.5
104.3
118.2
118.1
117.8
117.8
117.8
97.3
97.1
97.1
97.1
97.2
79.0
79.0
79.0
79.1
79.2
103.8
103.8
103.8
103.8
103.8
110.3
110.4
110.4
110.1
110.0
96.2
96.2
96.2
99.5
99.5
102.7
102.5
102.5
102. 5
102.5
88.9
88.8
88.6
90.1
90.5
99.2
99.6
100.0
100.3
101.0
117.0
119.0
122.8
123.9
125.7
126.2
125.0
123. 5
105.2
105.8
107.4
108.4
110.5
109.6
107.2
105.8
117.8
117.8
117.8
117.8
117.8
117.8
117.8
117.8
97.3
97.3
97.3
97.4
97.4
97.4
97.4
97.4
79.3
79.8
80.3
80.6
80.8
81.0
81.0
80.9
103.8
103.8
103.8
103.8
103.8
103.8
103.7
103.7
109.8
110.2
110.4
110.3
110.5
110.6
110.7
112.2
100.2
100.3
100.0
100.1
100.2
100.0
100.1
100.2
102.5
102.6
102.6
102.6
102.7
102.8
102.6
102.6
90.7
90.9
91.4
91.6
91.9
91.8
92.3
92.6
101.9
102.5
103.4
103.7
104.1
103.8
103.2
103.1
1942:
August_________
September -----October__ . . . .
November
December_______
1943:
January________
February---------March . . _____
April___________
M ay - -June
July____________
August______
Index Numbers by Commodity Groups, 1926 to August 1943
The price trend for specified years and months since 1926 is shown
in table 3 for the following groups of commodities: Raw materials,
semimanufactured articles, manufactured products, commodities
other than farm products, and commodities other than farm products
and foods. The list of commodities included under the classifications
“Raw materials,” “Semimanufactured articles,” and “Manufactured
products” was shown on pages 10 to 12 of Wholesale Prices, Decem
ber and Year 1941 (Serial No. R. 1434).
T a b le 3 . — Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices by Special Groups of Commodities
[1926= 100]
Year
SemiRaw manufacmate tured
rials arti
cles
All
com
M an modi
ties
ufac
tured other
prod than
farm
ucts
prod
ucts
All com
modities
other
than
farm
products
and
foods
1926 _____
1929
1932
1933
___
1936_______
100.0 100.0 100.0
97.5 93.9 94. 5
55.1 59.3 70.3
56.5 65.4 70.5
79.9 75.9 82.0
100.0
93.3
68.3
69.0
80.7
100.0
91.6
70.2
71.2
79.6
1937 _____
1938
1939
1940 _____
1941_______
1942_______
84.8
72.0
70.2
71.9
83.5
100.6
87.2
82.2
80.4
81.6
89.1
98.6
86.2
80.6
79.5
80.8
88.3
97.0
85.3
81.7
81.3
83.0
89.0
95. 5
85.3
75.4
77.0
79.1
86.9
92.6
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Year and
month
SemiRaw manufacmate tured
rials arti
cles
All
com
Man modi
ties
ufac
tured other
prod than
ucts farm
prod
ucts
All com
modities
other
than
farm
products
and
foods
1943
January___
February....
March-----April_____
M ay ____
J u n e ...........
July______
August____
108.2
109.6
112.0
112.8
114.0
114.3
113.6
112.7
92.8
92.9
93.0
93.1
93.0
92.8
92.8
92.9
100.1
100.3
100.5
100.6
100.7
100.1
99.6
99.7
98.5
98.7
99.0
99.1
99.2
98.7
98.3
98.5
96.0
96.2
96.5
96.6
96.7
96.8
96.9
97. 1
822
Monthly Labor Beview—October 1943
Weekly Fluctuations
Weekly changes in wholesale prices by groups of commodities
during July and August 1943 are shown by the index numbers in
table 4. These indexes are not averaged to obtain an index for the
month but are computed only to indicate the fluctuations from
week to week.
T a b le 4 . — Weekly Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices by Commodity Groups, July and
August 1943
11926=100]
Commodity group
Aug.
28
Aug.
21
Aug.
14
Aug.
7
July
31
July
24
July
17
July
10
July
3
All commodities___ _____
102.9
102.8
102.7
103.0
102.8
102.9
102.9
103.0
103.0
Farm products___________
F o o d s.. . __________
Hides and leather products. .
Textile products______________
Fuel and lighting m a te r ia ls .___
124.0
105.5
118.4
97.0
81.8
123.8
105.8
118.4
96.9
81.7
122.9
105.1
118.4
96.9
81.7
125.0
106. 6
118.4
96.9
81.6
124.3
106.4
118.4
96.9
81.6
124.8
107.0
118.4
96.9
81.8
125.0
106.5
118.4
96. 9
81.6
126.0
107. 3
118.4
96.9
81.5
125.9
107. 6
118. 4
96 9
81 5
M etals and metal products. __
Building materials.. . . . . .
Chemicals and allied products
Housefurnishing goods______
M iscellaneous_________
103.8
112.1
100.2
104.2
92.4
103.8
112.1
100.2
104.2
92.4
103.8
112.1
100.2
104.2
92.4
103.8
111.9
100.1
104.2
92.2
103.8
110.8
100.1
104.2
92.1
103.8
110.6
100.1
104.4
92.1
103.8
110.6
100.1
104.4
91.6
103.8
110.5
100.1
104. 3
91.6
103. 9
110 4
100. 2
104. 3
91.6
Raw m aterials... _____
Semimanufactured articles.
Manufactured products .
All commodities other than farm
products . ______
All commodities other than farm
products and foods______
112.8
92.8
100.0
112.7
92.8
100.0
112.3
92.8
100.0
113.5
92.7
99.9
113.0
92.7
99.8
113.3
92.7
99.8
113.4
92. 7
99.6
114.0
92. 7
99.6
114 0
92 7
99.7
98.4
98.4
98.4
98.3
98.2
98.3
98.1
98.1
98.1
97.3
97.3
97.3
97.2
97.1
97.1
97.0
96.9
96.9
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Labor Turnover
Labor T urnover in M anufacturing and M ining,
July 1 9 4 3
THE total separation rate for all manufacturing industries in July
1943 was 7.43 per 100 employees, as compared with 7.07 in June 1943
and 0.73 in July 1942. The quit rate rose to 5.52 per 100 employees,
the highest point since the war began. Primarily responsible for the
increase in the number of quits was the shifting to other jobs, inade
quate transportation and housing facilities, general restlessness, and,
for women, home duties.
, ,
Absenteeism was the predominant reason advanced by firms for the
abnormally high discharge rate of 0.66 per 100 employees. Otliei
recurring reasons were incompetence and infraction of the rules.
In each of the selected industries for which turnover data for women
are compared with those for men, quit rates are considerably higher
for women than for men. However, the industry which reported the
highest quit rate for men, aluminum and magnesium smelting and
refining, was also at the top of the list for women, while the com
munication-equipment industry, which had the lowest quit rate for
men, also reported most favorably on the quit rate for women.
T a b l e 1.— .M onthly Labor Turnover Rates in Manufacturing Industries 1
Class of turnover and
year
Separation:
1943___________
1943___________
Quit:
1942
____
1943
____
Discharge:
1942
____
1943
____
Lay-off:3
1942
____
1943
____
Military and miscel
laneous:
1942
___
1943
___
Accession:
1942
___
1943
___
Jan Feb March April M ay June
uary ruary
July
Au
gust
Sep Octo No D e
tem ber vem cem
ber
ber
ber
6.73
7.06
8.10
7.91
7.09
6.37
4.31
5.19
4.65
4. 21
3.71
.42
.44
. 45
.43
.46
5.10
7.11
4. 82
7. 04
5.36
7.69
6.12
7. 54
6. 54
6. 57
6.46
7.07
2 7 .43
2.36
4. 45
2.41
4. 65
3.02
5. 36
3. 59
5. 41
3.77
4.81
3. 85
5.20
2 5 . 52
.30
.52
.29
.50
.33
.57
.35
.53
.38
. 55
.38
61
2.6 6
1.61
.74
1.39
.54
1.19
.52
1.31
.64
1.43
.45
1.21
.50
1.05
.49
.87
.68
.78
.65
.70
2
.83
1.40
.73
1.35
.82
1.24
.87
.96
.96
.76
1.02
.76
1.23
2.76
1.46
1.79
2.03
1.80
1.50
6.87
8. 28
6.02
7. 87
6.99
8. 32
7.12
7.43
7.29
7.18
8. 25
8.40
8. 28
7.90
9.15
8.69
8.14
6. 92
27.68
4. 02
.43
1 Turnover rates are not comparable to the employment and
Bureau of Labor Statistics, as the former are based on datai for the entire•month,
the latte ele ^y
to nnv npriods ending nearest the middle of the month. In addition, labor turnover data reier ro au em
ployees1whereas the Imployment and pay-roll reports relate only to wage*earners.
is
dnd r i e s such as canning and preserving, are not covered by the labor turnover survey and tne sample is
not as extensive as that of the employment survey which includes a larger number of small plants.
Preliminary.
.
,
, . „~
3 Including temporary, indeterminate, and permanent lay-ons.
2
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
823
824
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
In both anthracite and bituminous-coal mining the total separation
rates were considerably below the rate for all manufacturing. The
separation rate for metalliferous mining was much above the coal
mining rates and only slightly lower than that for all manufacturing.
In each of the mining groups the accession rates were even lower than
the separation rates and were, therefore, insufficient to maintain the
level of employment.
T a b l e 2 . —Monthly Labor Turnover Rates by Major Industry Group, July 1943
Separation
Industry group
Total
Quit
Discharge
Lay-off
Military ,
and miscellaneous
Total accession
July June July June July June July June July June July
1943 i 1943 1943 1 1943 1943 i 1943 1943 i 1943 1943 i 1943 1943
i
1943
D u r a b l e g oods
Iron and steel and their
products______________
Machinery, except electrical_________________
Automobiles____________
Nonferrous metals and
their p ro d u cts__ _
Lumber and timber products__________________
Furniture and finished
lumber products______
Stone, clay, and glass
products . . .
______
Electrical machinery ___
Ordnance________ I_____
Transportation
equipment, except automo
biles__________________
5. 41
5.43
3. 87
3. 84
0. 38
0.38
0. 24
0. 25
0. 92
0.96
5.33
6.03
6. 08
5. 93
5. 58
5. 58
4.12
3. 96
3.83
3. 70
.74
.71
.69
.77
.40
.42
.30
.26
.82
.84
.76
.85
5.50
9. 68
6.31
8. 33
7. 59
6. 20
5. 54
.78
.68
.50
.41
.85
. */v/
9.51
9.92
8. 70
8.17
6. 66
6. 06
.48
.51
.78
.86
.78
.74
8. 73
8. 67
10.31 10.54
8. 26
8. 47
.69
.73
.76
.65
.60
.69
9. 62
11.37
6. 57
5.15
8.06
6. 64
5.39
7.78
4. 82
3.88
4. 97
4.73
4. 05
4. 58
.41
.51
.75
.37
.53
.79
61
.13
1.57
.84
.17
1.69
.73
.63
.77
.70
.64
.72
6.33
6. 74
8.03
7.98
7. 24
8.67
7.97
7.18
5. 58
4. 97
1.09
.97
.40
.35
.90
.89
8. 94
9.71
N o n d u r a b le g oods
Textile-mill products____ 7. 75 7. 77
Apparel and other finished textile products. __ 7. 46 7.30
Leather and leather products__ _____
7.28 7. 62
Food and kindred products___________
1 1 . 39 10. 73
Paper and allied products. 7. 21 8. 07
Chemicals and allied
products______________ 6.63 5.82
Petroleum and coal products________
3. 45 2. 94
Rubber products
6. 42 6. 61
Tobacco manufactures
9. 70 8.12
Miscellaneous industries.. 4. 47 4.19
1 Preliminary.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
6. 35
6.35
.48
.41
.40
.43
.52
.58
6. 78
7.55
6.27
6.13
.31
.25
.72
.73
.16
.19
6. 72
7.05
.42
.66
.52
.52
5. 68
6. 85
.44
1.06
.80
1.12 12. 06
.85 7.30
13. 06
9. 26
5. 97
6. 04
.37
8. 75
5.59
8.05
6.24
.81
.55
.68
.54
.77
.27
4. 84
4. 29
.62
.54
.47
.36
.70
.63
7.02
8.04
2.38
5. 36
8. 74
3. 21
2. 06
5. 41
6. 75
2. 96
.35
.32
.38
.40
. 11
.33
.14
.15
. 12
.76
.10
.59
.63
.25
.72
.54 3. 78
.67 8.15
.31 10. 20
.70 5. 52
4.95
8.20
8.18
5. 45
.41
.30
.43
825
Labor Turnover
T a b l e 3.- —Monthly Turnover Rates in Selected Manufacturing Industries, July 1943
Total separation
Industry
July
19431
Iron and steel and their products:
3. 96
Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling m ills------9. 20
Gray-iron castings-.---------------------------------------8.87
Steel castings_______________________ __________
7.74
Cast-iron pipe and fittings_____________________
15.17
Tin cans and other tinware________________ ____
4. 35
Wire products____________________ ____ _______
5.91
Cutlery and edge tools_________________________
Tools (except edge tools, machine tools, files, and
6.03
s a w s )..------------------ ------------------------------------7.06
Hardware____________________________________
5.62
Plumbers’ supplies____________________________
Stoves, oil burners, and heating equipment______ 10.13
Steam and hot-water heating apparatus and steam
8.11
fittings______________ __________T----------------9.41
Stamped and enameled ware and galvanizing-----8.14
Fabricated structural metal products___________
6.51
Bolts, nuts, washers, and rivets________________
5.19
Forgings, iron and steel________________________
5. 76
Firearms (60 caliber and under) 2__________ ____
Machinery, except electrical:
6. 89
Engines and turbines 2_________________________
4. 54
Agricultural machinery and tractors-----------------6. 35
Machine tools 2_______________________________
6 59
Machine-tool accessories 2______________________
Metalworking machinery and equipment, not
5 09
elsewhere classified 2------ ------------------------------4. 63
Textile machinery------------------------------------------6. 67
General industrial machinery, except pumps------6. 03
Pumps and pumping equipment_______________
Automobiles:
5.88
Motor vehicles, bodies, and trailers_____________
5.96
Motor-vehicle parts and accessories_____________
Nonferrous metals and their products:
8.41
Aluminum and magnesium products 2---------------Aluminum and magnesium smelting and refining 2_ 13.48
Primary smelting and refining, except aluminum
.5 11
and magnesium 2______________________ _____
Primary smelting and refining, including alumi
10.18
num and magnesium_____________ __________
fi 10
Rolling and drawing of copper and copper alloys 2._
7.07
Lighting equipment___________________________
Lumber and timber basic products:
8. 65
Sawmills---- --------- --------------------------- -------------8.21
Planing and plywood m ills____________________
Furniture and finished lumber products:
Furniture, including mattresses and bedsprings..- 10. 04
Stone, clay, and glass products:
6.87
Glass and glass products.----------------------------4.05
Cement______________________________________
8.37
Brick, tile, and terra cotta------ ------------------------6.88
Pottery and related products___________________
Electrical machinery:
Electrical equipment for industrial use 2------------Radios, radio equipment, and phonographs 2------3. 79
Communication equipment, except radios 2--------Ordnance:
6. 36
Guns, howitzers, mortars, and related equipment 2_
9.48
Ammunition, except for small arms 2____________
8.58
Tanks 2______________________________________
Transportation equipment, except automobiles:
6. 64
Aircraft 2-------------------- ----------------------------------5. 72
Aircraft parts 2________________________________
10. 25
Shipbuilding and repairs 2_____________________
Textile-mill products:
8.79
C otto n ...____________________________________
7.81
Silk and rayon goods__________________________
5. 50
W oolen and worsted, except dyeing and finishing.
5. 65
Hosiery, full-fashioned------------------------------------7.08
Hosiery, seamless_____________________________
8.76
Knitted underwear____________________________
Dyeing and finishing textiles, including woolen
7. 67
and worsted___________________ ____________
Apparel and other finished textile products:
5.71
M en’s and boys’ suits, coats, and overcoats-------M en’s and boys’ furnishings, work clothing, and
8.19
allied garments____ _________________________
6. 99
Women’s clothing, except corsets________ ____ _
See fo o tn o te a t end o f tab le.
661712—43----- 13
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
June
1943
Total accession
Quit
July
19431
June
1943
July
1943 i
Jun«
1943
4.04
8.41
7.96
7. 06
11.83
4. 62
5.77
2. 65
7.10
7. 04
5.23
11.99
2. 98
5.04
2. 68
6. 30
6.20
3. 95
9. 63
3. 21
4. 90
3.70
8.15
9.41
7.29
15.13
3.01
6.97
4. 00
7.76
8.13
5. 75
18.13
3. 75
7. 23
6.79
5.83
5.15
9. 31
4.68
5.92
4.04
6. 32
5. 26
4. 43
3. 71
6.47
5. 64
6.41
4. 36
11. 52
7. 33
7.73
5.12
10. 93
5. 57
8.95
8. 35
6.19
5. 50
5.27
7. 39
5.52
4.69
3. 73
4. 28
6. 40
5.58
4.64
4.03
5.18
7.28
10. 72
8.91
7.58
6. 59
6.11
12. 48
12. 26
8. 05
7. 54
4. 29
3.21
3 84
3.08
2.94
3 72
8. 22
7. 20
3. 59
6.77
5. 67
3. 78
4.72
4. 22
3 61
2. 83
4. 94
4. 04
2. 60
7.10
5. 08
7.22
8.48
6. 26
5. 27
5. 83
4. 09
3.87
3.63
3. 76
10. 75
8.86
10. 05
8.40
fi 91
10
5. 72
9.27
3 49
6.67
4. 07
4.40
12. 36
11.90
6.89
7.70
4 QR
4.80
12.01
6. 86
8. 21
7.66
6.72
6.02
6. 09
5. 57
8. 60
8. 85
8. 37
8. 77
10. 35
7.86
8.30
9.41
10. 71
5.00
3.25
5.70
4.90
4.62
3.00
5.95
5.17
7.20
3.71
5.79
6.77
9.40
3.78
7. IS
7. 56
£ 9R
8.11
8. 77
5. 25
5.70
8.09
7.82
8. 97
6. 71
4.84
7. 66
7.64
4.88
2.89
3. 22
5 67
3.84
5. 33
9. 66
8.01
4. 29
5. 99
4. 57
3. 52
5.42
4. 69
5.91
4. 84
9. 36
5. 23
3.87
6.80
4. 55
3. 23
6.20
8. 57
8.57
6. 32
4. 98
8.02
7. 71
7.23
6. 57
4. 18
4. 81
6.01
7. 86'
7.07
7. 30
4. 52
4.20
6.91
6.80
7.64
6. 76
4.65
4.89
6. 65
7.36
6. 69
5. 75
5.28
5.63
7.05
5.86
4.63
4. 52
5.06
5. 60
7.88
7.39
6.81
6.03
6.94
5.76
7.10
7.47
7. 52
7.04
826
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
T a b l e 3. —Monthly Turnover Bates in Selected Manufacturing Industries, July 1943—
Continued
Total separation
Quit
Total accession
Industry
July
1943 1
Leather and leather products:
Leather________________________ _____________
Boots and shoes_______________________________
Food and kindred products:
M eat products... _________________________ . . .
Grain-mill products __________ _ . . . _______
Paper and allied products:
Paper and p u lp .._ ____ _ _ _______ ______ . .
Paper boxes. ________ ._ .
________
.
Chemicals and allied products:
Paints, varnishes, and colors_______ _ ______ .
Rayon and allied products. _ _ ______
..Industrial chemicals, except explosives___
.
Explosives 2______________ _______ _______
Small-arms ammunition 2________ _____ _
Products of petroleum and coal:
Petroleum refining_______ _ . . . _______ _ _
Rubber products:
Rubber tires and inner tubes ____________
Rubber footwear and related products__________
Miscellaneous rubber industries_________ _____
1 Preliminary.
June
1943
July
1943 '
July
1943 1
June
1943
June
1943
5. 77
55
5. 48
8.01
4.22
6.29
4.22
6. 37
2. 65
6. 25
4.13
7.33
11.36
10. 41
10.59
9. 24
8.12
8. 31
7.31
7. 72
11.80
11.79
12.26
11.12
5. 68
11.66
6.65
11.53
4.25
9. 58
5. 06
8. 99
5.74
11.60
7.42
13. 81
5. 62
5.31
4. 74
4. 51
8. 50
6. 55
4. 26
4. 48
4.16
6. 79
3. 83
3. 34
3. 37
2.97
6. 36
4. 75
3.13
3.05
3. 26
5. 20
6. 45
5. 66
5. 44
8.15
5.54
6. 45
7.
3. 22
2.82
2. 23
1.97
3.47
4.67
4. 55
7. 04
7. 26
4. 46
9. 59
6.98
3. 52
6. 21
6.12
3.39
8. 48
5. 72
8. 92
10.07
7. 39
8. 00
11. 06
7.62
3 Publication of accession data restricted.
T a b l e 4 . — Monthly Labor Turnover Rates in Nonmanufacturing Industries, July 1943
Total separa
tion
Industry
July
1943 1
Bituminous-coal mining. __
Anthracite mining _____
Metalliferous mining_______
Telephone2 _____ _____
1 Preliminary.
Quit
June
1943
4.56
3. 18
7. 28
3.64
July
19431
3. 30
2.20
6. 45
3. 46
Total accession
June
1943
3. 51
2.37
5. 40
3.12
July
1943 1
2. 46
1.50
4. 55
2.92
3.76
2.49
5.12
4. 70
June
1943
2.98
1.97
6.17
6.15
3 Included this month for the first time.
T a b l e 5 . —Monthly Total Separation and Quit Rates for Men and Women in Selected
Groups and Industries Engaged in War Production, July 1943
Total separation
Industry
Men
July
19431
Iron and steel and their products
Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling
m ills___________
Gray-iron castings___________
Steel ca stin g s____
v
Cast-iron pipe and fittings .
I irearms (60 caliber and under)
Machinery, except electrical___
Engines and turbines.. . . . .
Machine tools
Machine-tool accessories.
? Preliminary.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
June
1943
Quit
Women
Men
W omen
July June
1943 1 1943
July June
1943 1 1943
July June
1943 1 1943
5.01
5.12
8.59
8. 23
3.45
3.48
7.08
7.07
3.70
9.12
8.80
7. 71
4.98
3.83
8.36
8.01
6. 96
6.38
7.08
10.47
9.78
8.13
9.36
7.38
9. 27
7.34
8. 71
8,02
2.38
7.01
6.93
5.06
3.49
2.45
6.25
6.16
3.75
4.80
5.92
8.55
8.84
7.71
7.10
6.37
7.12
6. 71
6.99
6.71
5. 58
6.67
5.81
6.13
5.07
4.99
4.30
6. 47
8.19
7.67
9. 56
8.18
7.95
6. 80
6. 75
8.83
3.56
4.36
3. 55
3,41
3.30
3.49
2.52
2,78
6. 45
6. 54
6.08
6. 22
6.31
6.01
5.38
6.99
827
Labor Turnover
T a b l e 5. —Monthly Total Separation and Quit Rates for Men and Women in Selected
Groups and Industries Engaged in War Production, July 1943— Continued
Quit
Total separation
Industry
Machinery, except electrical—Continued.
Metalworking machinery and equip
ment, not elsewhere classified. ______
General industrial machinery, except
pum ps____________________________
Pumps and pumping equipment_______
Nonferrous metals and their products...........
Aluminum and magnesium products___
Aluminum and magnesium smelting and
refining____________________________
Primary smelting and refining,, except
aluminum and magnesium. . ______
Rolling and drawing of copper and
copper a lloys.--------------------- ----------
Women
Men
4.67
4.59
7.78
6.90
2.96
3.19
6.32
6.15
6.00
6.07
8.06
7.86
5.96
5.45
7.44
7.82
9.05
5.86
9. 58
13. 24
9.76
7.09
8.40
11.58
3.96
4.03
5.96
6.00
4.25
3. 77
5. 32
5.47
7. 41
5.42
7. 33
8.05
7.49
5.70
6.83
0.50
13.46
12.30
13.87
13.10
10.39
9.18
11.20
10.42
3.28
3.37
8. 28
6.03
4.07
3.62
7.66
5. 71
5.35
4.83
6.47
5.40
4.03
9. 91
8.17
6.84
6.06
July
19431
June
1943
June
1943
June
1943
4.74
June
1943
July
1943 i
July
1943 i
4.89
July
19431
Women
Men
Electrical machinery_______ _____________
Electrical equipment for industrial u s e ...
Radios, radio equipment, and phono
graphs..___ _______________________
Communication equipment, except
radios_________ ____________ _____
3.92
3. 56
4.44
3.65
6.69
6.04
6.81
6.10
2.51
2.22
3.19
2.41
5.61
5.18
4.49
6.42
8.68
8. 27
2.77
4.86
7. 25
2.85
3.68
4.65
5.95
1.90
3.07
3.78
4. 54
O rdnance_________________ ___________
Guns, howitzers, mortars, and related
equipment_________ ____. . . ---------Ammunition, except for small arms------Tanks___________________ ___________
7.37
7.23
9.95
9.42
4.09
3.76
7.38
6.95
5.77
8. 26
8.67
4.70
9.24
7.81
8.58
11.42
7.25
7.44
10. 34
11.10
3.72
4.52
4.47
2.91
4.23
4.39
6.42
8.33
5.99
5.60
7.47
9.40
Transportation equipment, except automobiles
Aircraft ______ ___________ _
____
Aircraft parts___ _________ _________Shipbuilding and repairs._____ ________
7. 69
5. 59
5.04
9.98
6.99
5.03
4. 24
9.08
8.92
8. 27
7.70
12.89
7.90
7.15
6. 75
12. 33
5.11
3.94
3.14
6.62
4.51
3.33
2.60
5.92
7.16
7.26
6.00
8.49
6.56
6.30
5.29
9.29
Chemicals and allied products____________
Industrial chemicals, except explosives...
Explosives___ ______ . ______________
Small-arms am m unition_____ ______
5.46
4.42
3.65
7. 23
5. 25
4.26
2.80
6. 23
8. 96
6.58
6.06
10.01
7.09
5.79
6.52
7.48
3.72
3.04
2.06
5.07
3.56
2.80
1.64
4.41
7.08
5.28
4. 61
7.89
5.90
4.61
6.09
6.18
1 Preliminary.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Building Operations
B u ild in g C onstruction in U rban A reas, A ugust 1 9 4 3
THE dollar volume of building construction work started in urban
areas in August 1943 showed a decrease of only 1 percent, when com
pared with July 1943. The increase of 12 percent in the volume of
private work started practically offset the 24-percent decline in the
value of Federal construction awards. While the value of all new nonresidential building started during August decreased 25 percent, new
residential building and additions, alterations, and repairs showed
increases of 14 and 4 percent, respectively.
When compared with the same month a year ago, the total August
dollar volume of building construction started reflects a decrease of 32
percent. Private construction alone was 2 percent more than in
August 1942, while the value of Federally financed construction con
tracts was reduced by almost one-third. New residential building
showed a gain of 5 percent over the August 1942 total, new nonresidential construction a decline of 66 percent, and additions, alterations,
and repairs decreased 2 percent.
Comparison of August 1943 with July 1943 and August 1942
The volume of Federally financed and other building construction in
urban areas of the United States in July and August 1943 and August
1942 is summarized in table 1.
T
a ble
1.—Summary of Building Construction in A ll Urban Areas, August 1943
Number of buildings
Class of construction
Valuation
Percent of change
Percent of change
from—
from—
August 1943
August 1943
(in thou
sands)
July
August
July
August
1942
1943
1943
1942
All building construction_______________
63,208
+ 7 .3
+ 2 .5
$100, 262
- 1 .0
-3 1 .5
N ew residential____ _____________ ___
New nonresidential______ _____ __ .
Additions, alterations, and repairs---........
12,867
7,609
42,732
+ 4 .7
+ 7 .7
+ 8 .1
-.9
-2 1 .5
+ 9 .7
51,480
25,399
23,383
-+14.2
-2 4 .6
+ 3 .9
+ 5 .4
-6 5 .5
- 2 .1
The number of new dwelling units in urban areas for which permits
were issued or contracts awarded during August 1943 and the esti
mated valuation of such new housekeeping residential construction
are presented in table 2.
828
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
829
Building Construction
T a b le 2 . —Number and Valuation of New Dwelling Jjnits in A ll Urban Areas, by
Type of Dwelling, August 1943
Valuation
Number of dwelling units
T ype of financing and dwelling
All dwellings______________________ ___
Privately financed____________________
1fa m ily .________________
2family i _______ - .............--M ultifam ily2 . _ -------- -------------Federally financed_____________________
Percent of change
from—
August
1943
August
1942
July
1943
August
1943 (in
thousands)
Percent of change
from—
July
1943
August
1942
17,142
+15.8
+ 1.0
$51,125
+18.1
+ 5.0
13,088
7, 251
1,934
3,903
4,054
+18.1
- 3 .3
+37.4
+79.0
+ 9 .2
- 2 .3
-2 8 .1
+143.9
+55.1
+13.3
42,792
24,398
5,995
12, 399
8, 333
+20.3
- 6 .2
+51.7
+121.1
+8.1
+ 9.4
-1 9 .3
+165.4
+87.0
+ 16.3
1 Includes 1- and 2-family dwellings with stores.
Includes multifamily dwellings with stores.
2
Comparison of First 8 Months of 1942 and 1943
Permit valuations and contract values reported in the first 8 months
of 1942 and 1943 are compared in table 3.
T a b l e 3 . — Valuation of Building Construction in A ll Urban Areas, by Class of Con~
struction, First 8 Months of 1942 and 1943
Valuation (in thousands of dollars) of—
Class of construction
All construction: First 8
months
1943
1942
Percent
of
change
Federal construction: First 8
months
1943
1942
Percent
of
change
All construction____________ _________
845,816
2,120,638
-6 0 .1
414,164
1, 261, 358
-6 7 .2
New residential______________________
New nonresidential.. ------ --------------Additions, alterations, and repairs-------
388,155
314. 740
142, 921
677,741
1, 229, 726
213,171
-4 2 .7
-7 4 .4
-3 3 .0
142,989
260,525
10,650
207,914
1,025,439
28,005
-3 1 .2
-7 4 .6
-6 2 .0
The number and valuation of new dwelling units for which permits
were issued and contracts awarded during the first 8 months of 1943
are compared with similar data for 1942 in table 4.
T a b l e 4 . —Number and Valuation of New Dwelling Units in A ll Uiban Areas, by
Source of Funds and Type of Dwelling, First 8 Months of 1942 and 1943
Number of dwelling units
Type of financing and dwelling
All dwellings.
. ____________________
Privately financed----------------------------1family___________ ____
2family 1__________ ____
Multifamily 2------------------------------Federal.................................................. .........
First 8 months of—
First 8 months of—
Percent
of change
1943
Percent
of change
1942
1943'
1942
144,392
203, 944
-2 9 .2
$381,114
$669,066
-4 3 .0
79,094
51,900
10,595
16, 599
65,298
142,925
108,142
11, 272
23, 511
61,019
-4 4 .7
-5 2 .0
-6 .0
-2 9 .4
+ 7 .0
244,516
169,920
29,364
45,232
136, 598
475, 280
374,072
30,292
70,916
193,786
-4 8 .6
-5 4 .6
- 3 .1
-3 6 .2
-2 9 .5
i Includes 1- and 2-family dwellings with stores.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Valuation (in thousands)
2 Includes multifamily dwellings with stores.
830
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
Construction from Public Funds, August 1943
The value of contracts awarded and force-account work started
during July and August 1943 and August 1942 on all construction
projects, and shipbuilding financed wholly or partially from Federal
funds and reported to the Bureau, is shown in table 5. This table
includes all other types of construction as well as building construc
tion, both inside and outside urban areas of the United States.
J a b l e 5.
Value of Contracts Aivarded and Force-Account Work Started on Construction
Projects and Shipbuilding Financed from Federal Funds, August 1943
Source of funds
Contracts awarded and force-account work
started (in thousands)
August 1943 1
T otal______ _
War public works
Regular Federal appropriations
Federal Public Housing Authority
July 1943 2
August 1942 2
$110,332
$584,136
$3,879,307
2, 630
89,161
18, 541
5,668
557, 560
20,908
1,740
3,864, 329
13,238
1 Preliminary; subject to revision.
* Revised.
Coverage and Method
The Bureau of Labor Statistics recently revised its methods of sum
marizing reports on building permits. Through January 1943, the
figures covered a specified number of reporting cities which varied
lrom month to month. Beginning with the February comparisons,
the data cover all building construction in the urban area of the
United States which, by Census definition, includes all incorporated
places with 1940 populations of 2,500 or more and, by special rule, a
small number of unincorporated minor civil divisions. The principal
advantage of the change is that figures for every month are comparable,
since estimates are made for any cities in the urban area which fail to
report in a particular month. As in the past, the value of building
construction contracts awarded by the Federal Government is com
bined with information obtained from building-permit reports. The
contract value of this Federally financed building construction in
urban areas as reported to the Bureau was $26,982,000 in August 1943,
$35,601,000 in July 1943, and $74,078,000 in August 1942.
The valuation figures represent estimates of construction costs made
by prospective private builders when applying for permits to build,
and the value of contracts awarded by Federal and State governments.
No land costs are included. Unless otherwise indicated, only building
construction within the corporate limits of cities in the urban area is
included in the tabulations.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Trend o f Employment and Unemployment
Sum m ary of R eports For A ugu st 1 9 4 3
THE total number of employees in nonagricultural establishments
was 38,295,000 in August and, although war production employment
increased, total employment was 88,000 less than in July. In spite
of the decline, employment was almost 500,000 above August 1942.
With the exception of manufacturing, all the industry divisions con
tributed to the decline over the month.
Industrial and Business Em ploym ent
The increase of 29,000 wage earners in the durable-goods group of
manufacturing industries and the decline of 9,000 in the nondurablegoods group resulted in a net increase of 20,000 wage earners in all
manufacturing industries.
Employment in seven of the nine durable-goods groups was prac
tically the same as in July. The only sizable changes were in the
transportation and automobile groups. Considerable expansion in
the aircraft industry, which was only partially offset by declines
in shipbuilding employment, resulted in an increase of 9,000 wage
earners in the transportation group. The increase of 24,000 wage
earners in the automobile group also reflects the further expansion of
the aircraft industry, as well as increased employment in the produc
tion of other war material. (The automobile industry converted
to the production of war goods in 1941 and 1942 and is now on a com
plete wartime footing.)
Among the nondurable-goods groups, only the food group showed a
sizable increase in employment. A seasonal increase in the canning
industry and a contraseasonal increase in slaughtering and meat
packing raised employment in the food group to 1,033,000 wage
earners, 17,000 above July. The leather, chemicals, and textiles groups,
with employment declines of 5,000, 8,000 and 13,000, respectively,
were responsible for the decline in nondurable-goods employment.
Employment in bituminous-coal mining and in metal mining were
each 13 percent below the level in August 1942. The bituminouscoal-mining industry employed only 378,000 wage earners in August
1943 as compared with 435,000 in August 1942. Although each oi the
components of the metal-mining group employed fewer wage earners
in August 1943 than a year ago, the decline of 10,600 wage earners
in gold and silver mining was primarily responsible for reducing em
ployment in this group by 13,800.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
831
832
T a b l e 1.—
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
Estimated Number of Wage Earners and Indexes of Wage-Earner Employ
ment in Manufacturing Industries, by Major Industry Group 1
[Subject to revision]
Estimated number of wage
earners (thousands)
Wage-earner
indexes
(1939=100)
Industry group
A u g u st
1943
July
1943
June
1943
All manufacturing_____________________ _________
Durable goods________________________________
Nondurable goods____________ ____ _________
13,915
8,315
5,600
13,895
8,286
5,609
13,826
8, 251
5,575
12,869
7,192
5, 677
169.9
230.3
122.2
169.6
229.5
122.4
Iron and steel and their products . . . . . . . . . . . . ___ .
*l«etrical m achinery.._ __________ . . . . . ______
Machinery, except electrical__________________ . . .
Transportation equipment, except automobiles______
A utom obiles_____
. . . . . _______ ______
Nonferrous metals and their products. . . . _ _ _ _ _ _
Lumber and timber basic products____________
Furniture and finished lumber products_________ .
Stone, clay, and glass products_____________________
Textile-mill products and other fiber manufactures._ _
_
Apparel and other finished textile products......... .
Leather and leather p r o d u cts_________ ________
Food_____________________ _____________________
Tobacco manufactures.__________ ________________
Paper and allied produ cts____ ___________________
Printing, publishing, and allied industries____ _ __
Chemicals and allied products.. .
_______________
Products of petroleum and coal____ ______ __________
Rubber products_____ ______ _____ _____________
Miscellaneous industries___________________________
1,709
707
1,247
2,319
718
414
481
360
360
1,206
834
325
1,033
87
316
337
734
126
193
409
1,711
709
1,246
2, 310
694
414
484
360
358
1,219
833
330
1,016
89
316
339
742
126
192
407
1,718
703
1,251
2,288
676
415
482
358
360
1, 233
853
333
953
89
316
334
743
125
189
407
1,620
564
1,114
1,673
534
387
561
369
370
1,283
915
367
1,125
97
298
325
623
129
158
357
172.4
272.9
236.0
1461. 2
178.5
180.4
114.5
109.8
122.6
105.5
105. 6
93.7
120.9
93.5
119.0
102.8
254.5
119.4
159.5
167.3
172.6
273.5
235.9
1455.3
172.6
180.6
115.1
109.8
122.1
106.5
105.6
95.0
118.9
95.1
118.9
103.4
257.4
119. 1
158.9
166.4
A u gu st A u gu st
1942
1943
July
1943
} The estimates and indexes presented in this table have been adjusted to final data for 1941 and prelim
inary data for the second quarter of 1942 made available by the Bureau of Employment Security of the
Federal Security Agency and are not comparable with December 1942 data shown in the monthly Labor
Review for February 1943 and earlier months. Estimates and indexes for the period January 1939 to N o
vember 1942 comparable with the data in the above table are available upon request.
Public Em ploym ent
The personnel reduction of 91,000 during Augustl943 in the regular
Federal services—executive, legislative, and judicial—brought total
Federal employment to 3,017,000. The largest reduction took place
in the War Department, but small reductions of staff occurred in the
War Manpower Commission, Office of Price Administration, and
Veterans’ Administration. The Post Office Department added 3,800
employees during the month, while employment in all other agencies
remained practically the same. Continuing the trend started in
March, employment in the Washington metropolitan area declined
1,800.
The number of wage earners on building construction and ship
building and repair projects, financed wholly or partially from Federal
funds, declined 65,000 during the month ending August 15, 1943.
The types of projects mainly affected were nonresidential building,
war production facilities, and airport construction; smaller declines
occurred on housing and war public-works construction projects.
The increase (over August 1942) in monthly pay rolls on these con
struction programs of $36,349,000, as contrasted with a decrease in
employment of 275,000, is accounted for by shifts in the importance
of the various types of projects and the need on the expanding projects
for more highly skilled workers.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
833
Trend of Employment and Unemployment
Although the work-relief program on the continent was brought to
a close at the end of June, projects are still in operation in Puerto
Rico and the Virgin Islands. In June 1943, there were 42,000 project
workers there but reports have not yet been received for subsequent
months.
.
...
For the regular Federal services, data for the legislative and judicial
services and for force-account employees in the executive service are
reported to the Bureau of Labor Statistics; data for other executire
service employees are reported through the Civil Service Commission.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics receives monthly reports on employ
ment and pay rolls for the various construction projects financed
wholly or partially by Federal funds directly from the contractors and
subcontractors, and for the WPA program, from its Washington
office.
„
.
A summary of employment and pay-roll data for the regular I ederai
services, for construction projects financed wholly or partially from
Federal funds, and for the Work Projects Administration program is
given in table 2.
T a b i .e 2 . —Employment and P ay Rolls in Regular Federal Services and on Projects
Financed Wholly or Partially From Federal Funds
[Subject to revision]
Pay rolls
Employment
Service or program
R e g u la r F e d e r a l
services:
Executive 1__ _____
War agencies 2_.
Other agencies..
Judicial
___
_____
Legislative
Construction projects:
Financed from regu
lar Federal ap
propriations 3-----W a r _________
Other __ _
Public housing------War public works. _
Financed by R F C ..
War ________
Other.
Work Projects Administration projects______
W ar
_______
Other
. . . ____
August
1943
July
1943
August
1942
August
1943
July
1943
August
1942
3,007, 795
2, 211,972
795,823
2,651
6,221
3,098, 582
2,306, 273
792,309
2,651
6,091
2, 510, 364
1,676,931
833,433
2, 578
6, 517
$555, 244,000
396, 665,000
158, 579,000
777, 200
1, 520, 300
$571,304,000
413, 423,000
157,881,000
767,800
1, 510, 700
$398,180,000
258,964,000
139, 216,000
641,300
1, 390,800
2,040,160
1,990, 560
49,600
89,800
12,750
166,688
166, 500
188
2,083,162
2,027,862
55, 300
91, 900
13,200
186,141
186,000
141
2, 336, 600
2, 232,300
104, 300
87,000
13,200
147,600
145,400
2,200
484, 956,087
475,165,087
9, 791,000
16.850.000
1,872,200
36,360, 300
36.329.000
31,300
489.335.440
478.419.440
10, 916,000
17.253.000
2,031, 700
41,158, 500
41.138.000
20, 500
463, S97,000
445,472,000
17.925.000
13, 372,000
1, 562,300
25.358.000
24.96.6.000
392,000
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
(4)
31,604,000
12, 218,000
19, 386,000
447, 267
167, 746
279, 521
1 Includes employees in United States navy yards and on force-account construction wno are aiso muuueu
under construction projects. Data for August 1942 are not strictly comparable with the series starting
June 1943 because of the inclusion of employees on terminal leave m the earlier figure and the inclusion
beginning June 1943 of approximately 7,000 employees of the War Shipping Administration who were
Prf Covers War and N avy Departments, Maritime Commission, National Advisory Committtee for Aero
nautics, The Panama Canal, Office for Emergency Management, Office of Censorship, Office of Price Ad
ministration, Office of Strategic Services, Office of Economic Warfare, and the Petroleum Coordinator
3 Includes ship construction and repair in United States navy yards and the Federally financed part
Projects are in operation under the work-relief program for Puerto Rico and the Virgin Island«, but
data for them are not yet available.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
834
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
D etailed R eports for In d u strial and B u sin ess E m p lo y
m ent, July 1 9 4 3
Estim ates of Nonagricultural Em ploym ent
E S T I M A T E S o f c iv il e m p lo y e e s in n o n a g r ic u lt u r a l e s ta b lis h m e n ts b y
m a j o r g ro u p s a re g iv e n in t a b le 1 . W i t h th e e x c e p tio n o f th e tr a d e
a n d fin a n c e -s e rv ic e -m is c e lla n e o u s g r o u p s , t h e y a re n o t c o m p a r a b le
w i t h e s tim a te s p u b lis h e d i n th e S e p te m b e r 1942 o r e a rlie r issues o f th e
M o n th ly L a b o r R e v ie w .
C o m p a r a b l e fig u re s fo r t h e m o n t h s f r o m
J a n u a r y 1939 to J u l y 1942 a re g iv e n in th e O c t o b e r 1942 issu e o f
th e M o n t h l y L a b o r R e v i e w .
T h e e s tim a te s a re b a s e d o n r e p o r ts o f e m p lo y e r s t o th e U n i t e d
S ta te s B u r e a u o f L a b o r S ta t is t ic s , o n d a t a m a d e a v a ila b le b y th e B u r e a u
o f E m p l o y m e n t S e c u r it y a n d th e B u r e a u o f O l d - A g e a n d S u r v i v o r s
In s u r a n c e o f th e F e d e r a l S e c u r it y A g e n c y , a n d o n i n f o r m a t io n s u p p lie d
b y o t h e r G o v e r n m e n t a g e n c ie s , s u c h as th e I n t e r s t a t e C o m m e r c e C o m
m is s io n , C i v i l S e rv ic e C o m m is s io n , a n d th e B u r e a u o f th e C e n s u s .
T h e y d o n o t in c lu d e m i l i t a r y p e rs o n n e l, e m e rg e n c y e m p lo y m e n t
(s u c h as W P A , N Y A , a n d C C C ) , p r o p r ie t o r s o r s e lf-e m p lo y e d p e rs o n s ,
u n p a i d f a m i l y w o r k e r s , a n d d o m e s tic s .
E s t i m a t e s o f e m p lo y e e s in n o n a g r ic u lt u r a l e s ta b lis h m e n ts , b y S ta t e s ,
a re g iv e n e a c h m o n t h in th e B u r e a u o f L a b o r S ta tis tic s m im e o g r a p h e d
re lease o n e m p l o y m e n t a n d p a y r o lls .
Industrial and Business Em ploym ent
M o n t h l y r e p o r ts o n e m p l o y m e n t a n d p a y ro lls a re a v a ila b le fo r 152
m a n u f a c t u r i n g in d u s tr ie s a n d fo r 16 n o n m a n u f a c t u r i n g in d u s tr ie s ,
in c lu d in g p r i v a t e b u i ld in g c o n s t r u c tio n , w a t e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , a n d
class I s te a m r a ilr o a d s . T h e r e p o r ts fo r th e fir s t 2 o f th e s e g ro u p s —
m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d n o n m a n u f a c t u r i n g — a re b a s e d o n s a m p le s u r v e y s
b y t h e B u r e a u o f L a b o r S ta t is t ic s . T h e fig u re s o n w a t e r t r a n s p o r ta t io n
a re b a s e d o n e s tim a te s p r e p a r e d b y th e M a r i t i m e C o m m is s io n , a n d
th o s e o n class I s te a m r a ilr o a d s a re c o m p ile d b y th e I n t e r s t a t e
C o m m e r c e C o m m is s io n .
The employment, pay-roll, hours, and earnings figures for manufac
turing, mining, laundries, and dyeing and cleaning cover wage earners
only; but the figures for public utilities, brokerage, insurance, and
hotels relate to all employees except corporation officers and executives;
while for trade they relate to all employees except corporation officers,
executives, and other employees whose duties are mainly supervisory.
For crude-petroleum production they cover wage earners and clerical
field force. The coverage of the reporting samples for the various
nonmanufacturing industries ranges from approximately 25 percent
for wholesale and retail trade, dyeing and cleaning, and insurance, to
approximately 80 percent for public utilities and 90 percent for mining.
The general manufacturing indexes are computed from reports
supplied by representative establishments in the 152 manufacturing
industries surveyed. These reports cover more than 65 percent of the
total wage earners in all manufacturing industries of the country and
about 80 percent of the wage earners in the 152 industries covered.
Data for both manufacturing and nonmanufacturing industries are
based on reports of the number of employees and the amount of pay
rolls for the pay period ending nearest the 15th of the month.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Trend of Employment and Unemployment
835
The average weekly earnings for individual industries shown in
table 6 are computed by dividing the weekly pay rolls in the reporting
establishments by the total number of full- and part-time employees
reported. As not all reporting establishments supply information on
man-hours, the average hours worked per week and average hourly
earnings shown in that table are necessarily based on data furnished
by a slightly smaller number of reporting firms. Because of variation
in the size and composition of the reporting sample, the average hours
per week, average hourly earnings, and average weekly earnings shown
may not be strictly comparable from month to month. The sample,
however, is believed to be sufficiently adequate in virtually all instances
to indicate the general movement of earnings and hours over the period
shown. The average weekly hours and hourly earnings for the manu
facturing groups are weighted arithmetic means of the averages for
the individual industries, estimated employment being used as weights
for weekly hours and estimated aggregate hours as weights for hourly
earnings. The average weekly earnings for these groups are now com
puted by multiplying the average weekly hours by the corresponding
average hourly earnings, and are not comparable with figures published
in the November 1942 or earlier issues of the Monthly Labor Review.
Formerly, weekly earnings for the groups were computed by dividing
the total weekly pay roll by total employment, without any formal
weighting of figures for the component industries.
EMPLOYMENT AND PAY-ROLL INDEXES, AVERAGE HOURS, AND EARNINGS
Employment and pay-roll indexes, as well as average hours worked
per week, average hourly earnings, and average weekly earnings for
May, June, and July 1943, are presented in tables 3, 5, and 6.
The revised manufacturing indexes and aggregates in tables 2 and 3
are not comparable with the indexes published in the November 1942
or earlier issues of the Monthly Labor Review, as a result of changes
in definitions, a change in the index base period, and adjustments
in levels. Revised figures for the major manufacturing groups are
available in mimeographed form by months from January 1939
through October 1942 and for individual manufacturing industries
from January 1939 through August 1942.
The figures relating to all manufacturing industries combined, to
the durable- and nondurable-goods divisions, and to the major
industry groups, have been adjusted to conform to levels indicated
by final data for 1941 and preliminary data for the second quarter of
1942 released by the Bureau of Employment Security of the Federal
Security Agency. The Bureau of Employment Security data referred
to are (a) employment totals reported by employers under State
unemployment-compensation programs, and (b) estimates of the
number of employees not reported under the programs of some of
these States, which do not cover small establishments. The latter
estimates were obtained from tabulations prepared by the Bureau of
Old-Age and Survivors Insurance, which obtains reports from all
employers regardless of size of establishment.
Not all industries in each major industry group are represented in
the tables, since minor industries are not canvassed by the Bureau,
and others cannot be shown because of their close relationship to the
war program. Furthermore, no attempt has been made to allocate
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
00
co
ON
EMPLOYMENT AND PAY ROLLS
A L L M A N U FACTUR IN G IN D U S T R IE S
INDEX
1939s 100
INDEX
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
U N IT E D S TA TE S DEPARTM ENT OF LABOR
BUREAU OF LABOR S T A T IS T IC S _________
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
WAGE EAR NERS AND WAGE EA R N ER PAY R O L L
837
Trend of Employment and Unemployment
among the separate industries the adjustment to unemploymentcompensation data. Hence, the estimates for individual industries
within a group may not add to the total estimate for that group.
T able
1. — Estimated Number of Employees in Nonagricultural Establishments, by
Industry Division
Estimated number of employees fin
thousands)
Industry division
July 1943 June 1943 M ay 1943 July 1942
Total estimated employment
----------------- ------------------------
Manufacturing_______________________ . . ________________
M ining.
____ -- -- __ - - _____ - _______
Contract construction and Federal force-account construction. _
Transportation and public utilities--------------------------------------Trade
__ __ _ ____________________ _____________
Finance, service, and miscellaneous--------- ------------- . . . . .
Federal, State, and local government, excluding Federal forcenfwrnnt, eonstruetion
________________________________
2 38,383
38,484
38,262
37, 234
16,136
830
1,218
3,683
6,290
4, 359
16,056
835
1, 277
3,653
6,371
4,355
15,911
837
1,299
3,587
6, 331
4,349
14,641
923
2,108
3,519
6, 504
4,355
2 5,867
5,937
5,948
5,184
1 Estimates exclude proprietors of unincorporated businesses, self-employed persons, domestics employed
in private homes, public emergency employees, and personnel in the armed forces.
2 Preliminary.
T a b l e 2 . —Estimated Number of Wage Earners in Manufacturing Industries 1
Estimated number of wage earners
(in thousands)
Industry2
July 1943 June 1943 M ay 1943 July 1942
13,895
8,286
5,609
All manufacturing___
Durable goods___
Nondurable goods.
13,826
8,251
5,575
13,700
8,159
5, 541
12, 564
7, 003
5, 561
D u r a b l e g oods
Iron and steel and their products__________________ ________Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling mills----------- --------Gray-iron and semisteel c a stin g s ..............................................
Malleable-iron castings..------- ----------------- --------- -----------Steel castings......... ................................................................ ...........
Cast-iron pipe and fittin g s.------ ---------- ------ ------------------Tin cans and other tinware______________ ____ __________
Wire drawn from purchased ro d s...................... .......................
Wirework2_______________ __________ _____ ___________
Cutlery and edge tools_________________________________
Tools (except edge tools, machine tools, flies, and saw s)----Hardware----------- ------------------------------- --------- ------ ------Plumbers’ supplies---------------- -------------------------------------Stoves, oil burners, and heating equipment, not elsewhere
classified------------------ ------------------------------------ ----------Steam and hot-water heating apparatus and steam fittings.
Stamped and enameled ware and galvanizing------------------Eabricated structural and ornamental metalwork------------Metal doors, sash, frames, molding, and trim------------------Bolts, nuts, washers, and rivets..................................................
Forgings, iron and steel-------------- --------- ------ -----------------Wrought pipe, welded and heavy riv eted .----------------------Screw-machine products and wood screws-------------- --------Steel barrels, kegs and drums___________________________
Electrical machinery.
Machinery, except electrical-----------------------------------Machinery and machine-shop products__________
T ra c to r s...____________________ _______ _______
Agricultural machinery, excluding tra cto rs...........
Textile machinery____________ _____ __________
Pumps and pumping equipm ent------------------------
Typewriters-........... ............................-.................
Cash registers, adding and calculating m achines...
Washing machines, wringers, and driers, domestic.
Sewing machines, domestic and industrial........... .
Refrigerators and refrigeration equipment................
See footnotes at end of table.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1,711
517.9
80.9
26.2
84.1
15.6
35.2
35.7
32.9
21.5
27.6
45.7
23.8
1,718
521.3
81.9
26.8
84.0
16.6
32.6
36.6
32.8
21.3
28.1
45.7
23.5
1,718
522.4
82.2
26.9
84.1
17.3
30.6
36.9
32.3
1, 612
545.6
21.6
20.6
28.0
44.6
23.5
26.9
43.9
53.8
59.2
91.2
69.7
13.2
29.2
40.2
26.7
49.1
8.5
53.2
59.9
89.8
69.4
53.1
59.4
88.9
69.4
47.3
48.1
73.5
62.4
12.6
29.2
40.4
26.9
49.6
8.1
12.2
28.9
40.3
26.6
49.1
7.3
88.8
27.8
75.2
21.0
35.4
31.4
31.9
20.6
10.8
24.7
35.2
16.3
45.9
7.6
709
703
695
542
1,246
492.3
52.3
38.9
28.4
76.6
11.9
34.9
14.1
10.7
54.2
1,251
492.5
50.6
37.8
28.1
77.2
11.9
34.8
13.5
10.5
53.8
1,243
490.9
49.5
36.0
28.2
76.2
1,094
424.7
45.7
34.7
30.6
12.1
12.7
28.7
8.2
34.6
12.5
10.5
52.9
66.6
9 .8
33.1
838
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
T able 2. —Estimated Number of Wage Earners in Manufacturing Industries1— Continued
Estimated number of wage earners
(in thousands)
Industry 3
July 1943 June 1943 M ay 1943 July 1942
D u r a b l e go o d s —Continued
Transportation equipment, except automobiles__________
Motorcycles, bicycles, and parts__________________
2,310
9.6
2,288
9.5
2,241
9.8
Automobiles . ______________________ __________________
694
676
660
513
Nonferrous metals and their products.......... .............—- ..........
Smelting and refining, primary, of nonferrous m etals...
Clocks and watches____________ ____ ______ ____ ____
Jewelry (precious metals) and jewelers’ findings______
Silverware and plated ware--------- ---------- ----------------Lighting equipment__ ____ ________________________
Sheet-metal work, not elsewhere classified____________
414
46.8
24.8
15.7
11.7
24.0
30.4
415
46.2
25.1
16.3
11.9
23.8
30.4
410
45.0
24.5
16.3
381
37.0
26.4
16.7
23.5
29.8
21.9
28.0
Lumber and timber basic products______________________
Sawmills and logging camps________________ _______
Planing and plywood mills_________ ____ _____ ______
484
264.5
82.7
482
264.1
81.9
479
262.5
81.1
559
312.9
Furniture and finished lumber products_________ _______
Mattresses and bedsprings.------------------------------------Furniture_____________________ _______ ____________
Wooden boxes, other than cigar________ ____________
Caskets and other morticians’ goods_________________
Wood preserving__________ ____ ___________________
Wood, turned and shaped______ _______ ____________
360
18.2
168.6
29.4
358
18.2
167.4
29.5
356
17.9
166.9
29.5
10.6
10.4
22.7
22.0
10.7
21.7
374
18.1
171.7
32.4
11.4
13.1
24.5
Stone, clay, and glass products------- --------- ---------------------Glass and glassware________________________________
Glass products made from purchased glass___________
Cement______________________ ____ _____ __________
Brick, tile, and terra cotta__________________________
Pottery and related products...... ........................................
Gypsum 3____________ ____________________________
Wallboard, plaster (except gypsum), and mineral wool.
L im e .._______ ___________________________________
Marble, granite, slate, and other products____________
Abrasives_____________ j _______________ ____________
Asbestos products 3____________________ ______ _____
358
88.4
11.4
24.1
51.2
42.2
4.6
360
88.5
357
86.9
11.0
11.6
11.8
12.2
11.2
24.4
51.5
42.9
4.6
9.5
12.3
24.6
22.3
9.6
12.3
23.8
Textile-mill products and other fiber manufactures__________
Cotton manufactures, except small wares_________________
Cotton small wares_____________________________________
Silk and rayon goods____________ ____ __________________
Woolen and worsted manufactures, except dyeing and
finishing____________ _______ ____ ____ _____ ____ _____
Hosiery_______ ______ ___________________ ________ _____
Knitted cloth.______________________________ ____ _____
Knitted outerwear and knitted gloves__________ ______ _
Knitted underwear____________________________________
Dyeing and finishing textiles, including woolen and worsted.
Carpets and rugs, wool_________________________________
Hats, fur-felt__________________________________________
Jute goods, except felts_________________________________
Cordage and tw ine_____________________________________
1,219
484.2
16.6
95.0
11.8
11.8
11.1
24.5
51.2
43.7
4.5
11.3
9.5
1,559
9.9
11.2
88.0
369
80.5
11.9
30.1
65.9
43.8
4.9
11.1
21.8
10.7
13.8
16.4
21.5
1,233
487.8
17.0
95.8
1,239
489.9
17.2
96.0
1,293
508.8
18.0
105.2
164.8
115.6
11.7
32.7
41.7
67.4
22.4
9.8
3.7
17.2
168.0
117.0
11.9
33.2
42.4
169.8
117.6
11.9
32.4
42.6
68.7
23.4
182.8
124.5
4.0
17.2
4.0
17.2
Apparel and other finished textile products_________ _________
M en’s clothing, not elsewhere classified______ ____ ______ _
Shirts, collars, and nightwear____________ :.............................
Underwear and neckwear, men’s . . ______________________
Work shirts 3____________________ _____________________
Women’s clothing, not elsewhere classified ...____________
Corsets and allied garments____________________________
M illinery_________ _________________________ _____ ____
Handkerchiefs_________________________________________
Curtains, draperies, and bedspreads__________ _________
Housefurnishings, other than curtains, etc_______________
Textile bags___________ ____ ________________ ____ ______
833
227.7
59.3
12.9
18.3
229.2
16.0
18.4
3.7
16.5
14.0
14.4
853
231.0
60.5
12.9
18.7
238.6
16.4
17.0
3.7
17.0
14.5
14.5
865
233.7
60.9
12.9
18.8
240.9
16.5
19.5
3.7
17.7
15.0
14.8
866
Leather and leather products___________________ ___________
Leather________________________________ ______________
Boot and shoe cut stock and findings________ ___________
Boots and shoes________ _____ _______ _____ ____________
Leather gloves and m ittens_____________________________
Trunks and suitcases___ ____ ____________________ ______
See footnotes at end of table.
330
45.1
17.1
184.2
14.5
13.1
333
46.3
17.3
185.2
14.5
13.6
337
46.9
17.6
187.3
14.6
13.5
374
49.6
18.2
212.9
14.9
15.4
22.1
12.1
23.2
N o n d u r a b le g o o d s
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
68.2
23.2
10.0
10 .2
12.1
30.5
45.3
67.9
23.0
10.3
3.9
16.5
240.8
68.1
13.7
19.0
230.9
16.4
16.2
4.5
15.9
15.2
15.0
Trend of Employment and Unemployment
839
T a b l e 2 . —Estimated Number of Wage Earners in Manufacturing Industries1— Continued
Industry2
Estimated number of wage earners
(in thousands)
July 1943 June 1943 M ay 1943 July 1942
N o n d u r a b le g o o d s —Continued
________ ____ _______ _____ ____ _______________ 1,016
Food
160.7
Slaughtering and meat p a c k in g ----------- ----------------------23.9
B u tter3___________ __________________________________
14.6
Condensed and evaporated m ilk^.. . . . _ _____________
17.8
Ice cream __________________ ___________________ ______
28.3
Flour_______ -- ___________
- ___________ - -21.7
Feeds, prepared------------- ----------- --------------- --------------10.0
Cereal preparations__________ ________________________
253.0
Baking________ _____ _ ----------- --------- ----------------14.9
Sugar refining, cane______ . __________
_____________
5.0
Sugar, beet____ ______________________________________
51.9
Confectionery. ________________ ______________________
30.2
Beverages, nonalcoholic_______ __________ _ ___________
48.1
M alt liquors__________ ________________ ______________
159.4
Canning and preserving------- --------------- ------------- --------89
Tobacco manufactures____________ ________________________
33.2
Cigarettes_______ ___ .
. _________________________
41.8
Cigars_________ ______________________ . . . ____ _____
8.1
Tobacco (chewing and smoking) and snuff_______ ____ _
316
Paper and allied p r o d u cts.____________ __________________
149.9
Paper and pulp_______ ______________________________
48.5
Paper goods, other____________________________________
10.4
Envelopes____________________________ _______________
12.3
Paper bags. ____________________________________ _____
84.8
Paper boxes_________ _ ________ ____ _________________
Printing, publishing;, and allied products____ _____ . . . ______
339
112.0
Newspapers and periodicals__________________________ .
134.7
Printing, book and job___________ . . . _________ . . .
Lithographing 3______ ____ ____________________ _____
25.8
30.4
B ookbinding............. . _______________________________
Chemicals and allied produ cts___ __________ . . . _ _ __ . .
742
Paints, varnishes, and colors__ ________ _______________
30.0
Drugs, medicines, and in secticid es____
____ _____ ____
46.6
Perfumes and cosmetics_____ ______ _________ ______ _
11.5
12.8
Soap_______ .
. . . .
.
. . ___
. _ ____
52.6
Rayon and allied products_____________________________
Chemicals, not elsewhere classified._ _________________
117.0
Compressed and liquefied gases_________________________
6.4
12.0
Cottonseed oil__ . . . _ ___________ _________ ______
17.9
Fertilizers 3_____________________________ ____________
Products of petroleum and coal________ . . . __ ____________
126
Petroleum refining. . . . . . _ . _______ _ . . . . . . . . .
81.8
Coke and byproducts_____. . . . . . _ _ . . .
24.6
Paving m aterials...______ ____ . . . . . . . . .
. ... ...
1.6
Roofing materials_____________________________________
9.8
Rubber products__________________________________________
192
Rubber tires and inner tubes______________ ______ ______
87.5
Rubber boots and sh oes... __________________ . .
22.1
Rubber goods, other __________________________________
73.1
Miscellaneous industries_______________
. . ...... ... ............ .
407
30.8
Photographic apparatus_________________ ______________
Pianos, organs, and parts__________________________ ____
10.3
Games, toys and dolls_______________________________ ._
15.7
B u tton s.._______ ____________________ _______________
10.8
953
159.1
23.7
14.6
17.2
28.0
22.1
10.1
251. 2
14.3
4.7
52.3
28.4
46.8
107.5
89
32.2
43.3
8.1
316
150.4
,8.9
10.5
12.1
84.3
334
113.6
130.4
25.2
29.5
743
29.8
45.8
11.0
12.9
52.4
115.6
6.3
12.7
19.2
125
80.8
25.2
1.7
9.5
189
85.0
22.2
72.7
407
29.7
10.0
15.8
10.8
914
154.0
23.1
13.5
15.5
27.6
22.3
9.9
247.2
13.2
4.4
53.2
26.6
44.6
91.7
90
32.3
43.9
8.0
312
149. 0
48.2
10.4
12.1
83.4
329
113.5
127.1
24.8
29.1
739
29.0
44.2
11.0
13.0
51.9
113.5
6.4
14.1
24.9
124
79.9
25.0
1.6
9.4
186
83.3
21.7
72.1
406
28.2
9.9
15.6
10.7
1,052
179.7
23.3
14.6
19.3
25.3
18.8
8.8
253.8
12.9
5.7
50.7
25.9
43.3
191.4
94
29.6
50.4
7.6
302
154.6
44.3
9.6
12.1
71.8
325
114.2
125.7
22.5
28.3
613
29.1
37.2
10.6
13.4
51.3
111.5
6.5
10.0
16.6
129
80. 4
27.1
2.1
10.6
153
65.6
18.4
61.2
360
23.8
7.0
17.8
12.6
* Estimates for the major industry groups have been adjusted to Anal data for 1941 and preliminary data
for the second quarter of 1942 made available by the Bureau of Employment Security of the Federal Security
Agency, and are not comparable with data in issues of the M onthly Labor Review prior to March 1943.
Comparable series for earlier months are available upon request. Estimates for individual industries have
been adjusted to levels indicated by the 1939 Census of Manufactures, but not to Federal Security Agency
data. For this reason, together with the fact that this Bureau has not prepared estimates for certain indus
tries, and does not publish wage earners in war industries, the sum of the individual industry estimates will
not agree with totals shown for the major industry groups.
2
Unpublished information concerning the following war industries may be obtained by authorized
agencies upon request: Aircraft engines; aircraft and parts, excluding engines; alloying; aluminum manu
factures; ammunition; cars, electric- and steam-railroad; communication equipment; electrical equipment;
engines and turbines; explosives and safety fuses; fire extinguishers; firearms; fireworks; locomotives; ma
chine-tool accessories; machine tools; optical instruments and ophthalmic goods; professional and scientific
instruments and fire-control equipment; radios and phonographs; and shipbuilding.
2 Revisions have been made as follows in the data for earlier months:
W ir e w o r k —-January 1943 to April 1943 wage earners to 31.8, 31.8, 32.5, and 32.2.
G y p s u m .—March and April 1943 wage earners to 4.3 and 4.4.
A s b e s to s p r o d u c t s .—December 1942 to April 1943 wage earners to 22.0, 21.9, 21.8, 22.0, and 21.8.
W o r k s h i r t s .—January 1943 to April 1943 wage earners to 17.9, 18.7, 18.8, and 19.0.
B u t t e r .—January 1943 to April 1943 wage earners to 19.7, 19.8, 20.9, and 21.9.
L i th o g r a p h i n g .—October 1942 to April 1943 wage earners to 24.4, 24.9, 25.6, 25.3. 25.3, 24.8, and 25.0.
F e r t il iz e r s .— February, March, and April 1943 wage earners to 26.5, 30.4, and 29.7.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
840
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
T a b l e 3 . —Indexes of W'age-Earner Employment and of Wage-Earner Pay Roll in
Manufacturing Industries 1
[1939 average=100]
Wage-earner employ
ment
Wage-earner pay roll
Industry 3
July June M ay July
1943 1943 1943 1942
All manufacturing_______________________________- 169.
168.
Durable goods_____________________ ________ - 229.. 228.
Nondurable goods___________________________ - 122. - 121.
July
1943
June M ay July
1943 1943 1942
167.i
225.
121.
153. 315. 317.: . 313. 242.7
193.! 439. 441.! 437. 323. 9
194. a 195.
121.
192. f 163.3
173.
134.,
140.''
148.!
279.'
104.
96.'
168.:
106.
140.2
162.5
140.4
152.
154.
249.9
126.9
111.
142.7
104.9
133.9
D u ra b le goods
Iron and steel and their products______ ____ ______
Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling'mills___
Gray-iron and semisteel castings_____ *._______
Malleable-iron castings_______________________
¡Steel castings___________________ ____ _______
Cast-iron pipe and fittings____________________
T in cans and other tinware 3__________________
Wire drawn from purchased rods______________
W ¡rework 3________ _____ ___________________
Cutlery and edge tools_______________________
Tools (except’edge tools, machine tools, files, and
saws______________________________________
Hardware____________ ______________________
Plumbers’ supplies__________________________
Stoves, oil burners, and heating equipment, not
elsewhere classified____________________ ____
Steam and hot-water heating apparatus and
steam fittings_____________________________
Stamped and enameled ware and galvanizing___
Fabricated structural and ornamental metal
work______________________________________
M etal doors, sash, frames, molding, and trim ___
Bolts, nuts, washers, and rivets 3___ ___ _______
Forgings, iron and steel__________________ ____
Wrought pipe, welded and heavy riveted______
Screw-machine products and wood screws______
Steel barrels, kegs, and drums_________________
196.2
170. C
204.2
261. 4
319.4
290. 1
140.1
Electrical machinery___ _____ _________________ ___
273.5 271.1 268.3 209.1 459.1 463.9 458.9 325. 7
Machinery, except electrica l...____ _______________
Machinery and machine-shop products._______
Tractors_________ ___________________ ____ ___
Agricultural machinery, excluding tractors_____
Textile machinery________ _________________
Pumps and pumping equipment______________
Typewriters____________ ____________________
Cash registers, adding and calculating machines.
Washing machines, wringers, and driers, domes
tic______ _______________ _____ ____________
Sewing machines, domestic and industrial______
Refrigerators and refrigeration equipment______
2S5.9
243.3
167. 1
140. 1
129.6
316.0
73.4
177.4
172.
133.
138. i
145. f
279.
94. '
110.7
162.6
108. :
139.7
173. a
134.2
140. :
148. '
279.1
100.'
102.6
166. 3
107.!
138.2
299.7
225.
246.2
257.2
480.:
161.8
172.1
247.6
204.:
272.0
305. f
225.
261.'
273.7
498
173.
162.:
253. S
202.'
274.5
303.5
222.
264.
274.1
495 :
180.
151.7
254.9
199.'
270.5
245.7
197.2
236.8
228.7
383. 7
202.4
145.8
197.4
163.1
215.6
180.1 183.7 182.9 175. 5 319.3 338.0 337.2 288.9
128.1 128. 1 125.2 123. 2 241.5 249.! 242. 1 199. 7
96.7 95.3 95.2 83.4 164.8 165.9 161.8 114.5
116.6 115.3 115.1 102.6 192.7 195.6 194.1 146.6
195.3 197.7 196.0 158.6 360.9 362. 6 358.9 260.9
164.2 161.6 160.0 132.4 297.0 298.5 299.0 202.7
195.3
162.8
203.8
263. 1
321. 6
293. 3
133.8
236.7
243.4
161.8
135. 9
128.3
318. 5
73.1
177.0
195.5
157.!
201.7
262.2
317.5
290.2
120.6
235. 2
242.6
158.2
129.4
128.5
314.6
74.4
175.6
175.7
139. 1
173. 0
229.3
195.3
271.2
125. 0
207.0
209.9
146.0
124.8
139.6
274.7
78.3
146.0
356. 4
297.2
359.4
454.1
583.2
535. 5
242.8
417.4
423.9
254.0
269.3
223.2
629.9
142.8
337.8
362.0
287.1
377.1
493.6
603.3
547.1
254.4
428.0
435. 1
247.6
264.5
229.2
647.4
143.8
342.3
356.1
277.3
376.7
501.1
597.2
553.2
222.2
427.2
432. 5
244.9
246.5
225.2
645.3
144.7
338.1
264.2
210.6
267.3
372.2
320.9
455.5
168.9
339.1
337. 1
199. 1
179.0
218.2
521.3
120.6
240.0
188.4 181.3 366.8 109.9 298.9 298.8 289.1 185.2
136.7 134. 3 134.4 125.5 283.7 280.6 278.1 223. 6
154.1 152.9 150.5 94.0 259.1 254.5 250.3 136.0
Transportation equipment, except automobiles_____ 1455. 3 1441.6 1412. 0 982. 5 2798. 3 2768.0 2736. 7 1753. 2
Motorcycles, bicycles, and parts______________ 137.8 136.9 139.9 141.5 238.9 250.4 255.0 224.8
Automobiles_____ _____ _______ _____ ____ ____ ___
172.6 167.9 164.0 127.4 314.3 305.8 297.1 202.5
Nonferrous metals and their products_____________
Smelting and refining, primary, of nonferrous
metals____________________________________
Clocks and watches__________________________
Jewelry (precious metals) and jewelers’ findings .
Silverware and plated ware_____ _____ ________
Lighting equipment__________________________
Sheet-metal work, not elsewhere classified.. . . . .
180.6 180.9 178.8 166.3 321.1 325.0 322.0 260.0
169.3
122.2
108.6
96.7
117.3
162.4
167.2
123.9
112.6
98.1
116.2
162.3
162.9
120.7
113.2
96.9
114.7
159.0
134.0
130. 0
115.7
92.2
107.0
149.3
294.5
229.4
151.4
164.6
200.2
266.4
285.5
236.4
170.9
171.4
203.5
284.1
276.5
233.9
170. 6
167.1
204.6
288.4
189.9
227.8
143.1
130.0
168.1
213.9
Lumber and timber basic products________________ 115.1 114.8 114.0 133.0 193.3 200.8 196.1 189.4
Sawmills and logging camps__________________
91.8 91.7 91.2 108.7 156. 2 163.8 160.4 157.4
Planing and plywood mills................... ................... 113.8 112.8 111.7 121.2 179.3 181.1 175.5 161.7
Furniture and finished lumber products__________
Mattresses and bedsprings____________________
Furniture_____________________ _____________
Wooden boxes, other than cigar_______________
Caskets and other morticians’ goods.......................
Wood preserving___________________ ______ _
Wood, turned and shaped____________________ |
See footnotes at #nd of table.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
109.8
99.4
105.9
116.1
94.5
94.7
103.0
109.1 108.6 114.0 178.6 181.1 178.9 157.1
99.0 97.6 98.6 155.4 156.6 152.9 124.6
105.1 104.9 107.9 171.8 174.2 171.5 149.8
116.3 116.4 127.8 199.1 201.4 204.9 187.4
97.6 94.4 91.9 147.3 153.9 148.5 115.9
92.6 95.1 116.9 175.5 178.6 183.4 181.6
100.1 98.6 111.4 165.61 167.1 163.7 153.4
Trend of Employment and Unemployment
841
T able 3. —Indexes of Wage-Earner Employment and of Wage-Earner P ay Roll in
Manufacturing Industries— Continued
Wage-earner employ
ment
Wage-earner pay "roll
Industry2
July
1943
June M ay July
1943 1943 1942
July June M ay July
1943 1943 1943 1942
122.1
126.6
114. (
101. i
90.1
127.6
93. i
122.5
126.7
111.6
102. f
90. £
129. 4
93.4
121.5
124.5
110.8
102.8
90. f
131. f
90. e
125.7
115.5
119.2
126.4
116.1
132.2
98.8
184.4
181.9
165. (
144.9
135. (
179.3
161. ]
189.6
185.2
163.9
146.C
137.8
190.4
163.2
187.7
182.8
160.5
145.;
136.2
191.2
154.6
163.2
140.7
143. 7
162. 2
152. 6
163.1
138. 5
136. C 143.2
100. f 101.1
66.5 * 66.3
318.2 "307. 6
"¡140. 2 139.1
139.6
100.2
*65.5
300. 5
137.5
136.5
112.8
74.4
211.5
135.6
199.7
173.2
*,87.1
482. 7
253.7
'231.4
;i76. ;
88.2
500. (
258.1
231.C
180.2
92.1
474.5
252.7
182.3
.157.8
86.1
313. 3
210.2
. 106. 5 107.8 108.3 113.0 173.7
122.3 123.2 123.7 128.5 207. C
124.8 127.4 128.9 135.2 206.8
79.3 79.9 80.1 87.8 130.6
179.4
211.3
215.8
135.3
180.7
216.0
223.3
135.4
162.0
193. 0
212.3
126. 2
D u r a b l e g o o d s —Continued
Stone, clay, and glass products____________
____
Glass and glassware_________________ . ______
Glass products made from purchased glass_____
Cement______________ . ___________________
Brick, tile, and terra c o tta 3___________________
Pottery and related products. _______________
G ypsum 3_____ ________ . . . ____. . . . . . . .
Wallboard, plaster (except gypsum), and mineral wool__________________________________
Lime_____ _________________________________
Marble, granite, slate, and other products______
Abrasives______ _____________________________
Asbestos products 3.................... ................................
N o n d u r a b le g oods
Textile-mill products and other fiber manufactures..
Cotton manufactures, except small w ares............
Cotton smallwares_________________ ____ _____
Silk and rayon goods_________________________
Woolen and worsted manufactures, except
dyeing and finishing________________ _ ____
H osiery-_____________________ ______________
Knitted cloth_______________________________
Knitted outerwear and knitted gloves_________
Knitted underwear__________________________
Dyeing and finishing textiles, including woolen
and worsted_____________________ ____ _____
Carpets and rugs, w o o l.______________________
Hats, fur-felt________________________________
Jute goods, except felts______ ____ __________
Cordage and tw ine___________________________
122.5
78.3
111.1
108.4
117.6
198.2
101.9
166.0
208.3
173.6
206.8
107.5
172.7
214.0
183.6
205. 0
108.2
173.8
203.4
184.1
200.6
91.4
149. 3
142.5
165.5
100.9 102.0 102. 8 101.5
87.4 90.8 91.3 89.9
67.6 69.0 70.3 70.9
103.7 111.9 111.9 109.2
141.9 141.8 141.9 136.5
Apparel and other finished textile products________ 105.6 108.0 109.6 109.7
M en’s clothing, not elsewhere classified............. 104.1 105.6 106.9 110.1
Shirts, collars, and n igh tw ear______ . . . _____ 84.2 85.9 86.4 96.6
Underwear and neckwear, men’s ______________
80.0 80.2 79.6 84.8
Work shirts 3________________________________ 136.4 138.8 139.5 141. 5
Women’s clothing, not elsewhere classified_____
84.4 87.8 88.7 85.0
Corsets and allied garments_______ ____ _______
85.0 87.4 88.2 87.3
M illinery___ ______________________________
75.7 70.1 80.2 66.7
Handkerchiefs_______________________________
76.0 76.5 77.4 93.2
Curtains, draperies, and bedspreads___________
97.8 100.8 104.9 93.8
Housefurnishings, other than curtains, e t c ... . . . 131.9 136.8 141.3 143.1
Textile bags_____________________________ . . . 119.8 120.8 123.3 124.9
Leather and leather products____________________
95.0 96.0 97.0 107.7
Leather_____________________________________
95.5 97.9 99.2 105.0
Boot and shoe cut stock and findings__________
90.8 91.8 93.5 96.7
Boots and shoes____________ ____ ____________
84.5 84.9 85.9 97.6
Leather gloves and m ittens__________________
144.7 144.8 146.0 148.8
Trunks and suitcases_______________________ . 157.4 163.5 162.5 184.6
Food___________________________________________ 118.9 111.5 106.9 123.1
Slaughtering and meat packing_____________ _ 133.4 132.1 127.8 149.1
B u tter3________________________ ____ ________ 133.2 132.1 128.8 130.0
Condensed and evaporated m ilk______
___
150.1 150.9 139.1 150.3
Ice cream______________ ____ _____________ _
113.6 109.2 98.9 122.6
Flour__________________________ _______ _____ 114.3 113.2 111.3 102.3
Feeds, prepared.. ___________________________ 140.7 143.7 144.8 122.0
Cereal preparations_____ _______ ____ _________ 133.9 135.4 132.2 118.0
Baking_____________________________________ 109.7 108.9 107.1 110.0
Sugar refining, cane__________________________ 105.1 101.2 92.9 91.0
Sugar, beet________ ____ _____________________ 48.0 45.6 42.1 54.8
Confectionery.. ______ ______________________ 104.4 105.2 106.9 101.9
Beverages, nonalcoholic________________ ____ _ 142.2 133.6 124.9 121.7
M alt liquors_________________________________ 133.2 129.8 123.6 120.0
Canning and preserving____________ ____ ____ _ 118.5 79.9 68.2 142.3
Tobacco manufactures_______ __________________
95.1 95.7 96.3 100.2
Cigarettes-______ ____________________________ 121.2 117.6 117.8 108.0
Cigars________________________________ _____ 82.2 85.1 86.2 98.9
Tobacco (chewing and smoking) and snuff_____
87.8 88.1 87.4 83.4
154.7
138.2
111.8
185.4
233.6
158.6
143.8
113.8
197.2
236.6
158.8
146.9
118.9
199.1
237.9
155.8
151.3
131.0
133.3
216.8
125.3
128.5
98.3
122.1
149.3
223.4
179.0
161.7
159.1
138.2
138.4
230.3
130.6
136. 5
80.0
123.1
163.0
235.5
180.4
164.3
162.8
136.0
137.9
236.7
131.0
137.3
96.7
126.1
168.0
240.6
181.9
135. 4
125.0
86.6
160.3
201.7
135.2
138.6
134.6
117.2
211.4
101.2
106.8
64.4
126.6
126.6
190.6
157.0
145.9
141.7
132.5
131.4
223.0
233.0
150.8
149.0
137.7
134.4
227.0
259.2
175.7
205.2
186.9
231.8
152.8
170.7
218.3
225.3
153.4
156.2
67.8
149.5
177.1
189.0
197.0
153.5
182.3
137.7
126.9
167.4
200.9
185.8
233.1
142.6
171.1
230.7
219.5
151.6
141.4
66.0
158.7
166.1
181.8
135.3
153.0
150.3
137.7
137.3
222.4
256.1
158.5
190.5
174.3
202.7
127.1
164.0
235.7
218.1
147.8
124.6
59.8
158.0
148.9
165.3
117.0
144.4
155.3
141.0
122.7
See fo o tn o te s a t end o f tab le.
551712- 43-
-14
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
110.5
72.7
107.1
116.4
108.3
112.6
73.6
108.6
118.0
110.1
113.8
73.9
108.8
115.3
110.6
149.3
158.7
147.8
124.7
148.7
146.5
125.6
136.9
190.2
210.0
153.7
175.4
162.7
199.3
144.9
130.5
168.6
155.8
135.2
110.2
72.8
127.3
140.5
150.4
213.7
133.8
150.4
126.0
112.4
842
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
T a b l e 3 . —Indexes
of Wage-Earner Employment and of Wage-Earner Pay Roll in
Manufacturing Industries— Continued
W age-earn er e m p lo y
m ent
W ag e-earn er p a y roll
I n d u s tr y 2
J u ly
1943
Ju n e
1943
M ay
1943
J u ly
1942
J u ly
1943
June
1943
M ay
1943
J u ly
1942
Paper and allied products__________________
Paper and pulp________________________
Paper goods, oth er...__________________
Envelopes____________________________
Paper bags_____ ________ ______________
Paper boxes___________________ _______
118.9
109.1
129.0
119.9
111.3
122.7
119.0
109.4
129.9
121.0
109.0
121.9
117.7
108. <
128.0
119.4
109.1
120.6
113.7
112. 5
117.6
110.7
109.5
103.8
176.3
168.8
180.6
167.2
175.3
174.2
180.9
172.9
187.2
173.9
172.0
179. 5
178.0
170.3
181.4
169,5
166.9
178.5
144.1
147.1
139.5
128.7
143.0
126.0
Printing, publishing, and allied industries___
Newspapers and periodicals____ ________
Printing, book and job_________________
Lithographing 3________________________
Bookbinding______ ____________________
103.4 101.8 100.4 99.3
94.4 95.7 95.7 96.3
106.6 103.2 100.6 99.5
99.2 96.8 95.5 86.7
118.1 114.3 112.7 109.6
127.0
112.4
132.7
122.4
174.1
126.4
112.0
131.4
125.1
174.2
123.0
110.7
126.1
119.4
170.7
110.0
104.4
110.9
94.4
141.8
Chemicals and allied products______________
Paints, varnishes, and colors____________
Drugs, medicines, and insecticides_______
Perfumes and cosmetics___ _____________
Soap__________________________________
Rayon and allied products_____ ____ ____
Chemicals, not elsewhere classified_______
Compressed and liquefied gases__________
Cottonseed oil_________________________
Fertilizers 3__________________ _________
257.4
106.8
170.1
110.6
94.1
108.9
168.2
161.7
78.7
95.3
257.7
106.1
167.0
105.9
94.8
108.5
166.2
159. 2
83.3
102.1
256.4
103.2
161.4
105.8
95.5
107. 5
163.2
160.4
93.1
132.8
212.8
103.2
135.6
102.7
98.8
106.3
160.2
165. 3
66.0
88.5
432.0
157.5
231.6
143.1
138.1
168.6
277.0
270. 1
133.0
188.9
432.5
160.6
233.8
143.0
140.1
166.9
274.0
266.3
142.3
195.0
425.2
155.0
227.8
141.9
136. 3
162.7
265*4
265.7
151.2
252.6
317.2
127.8
160.0
119.5
121.7
140.6
224.6
233.2
87.0
140.5
Products of petroleum and coal........................ .
Petroleum refining_____________________
Coke and byproducts 3___________ ______
Paving materials_______________________
Roofing materials._____ _________________
119.1
112.3
113.3
66.0
121.9
118.5
111.0
116.2
67.8
118.2
117.3
109.7
115. 2
66.2
117.1
121.5
110.3
124.8
84.7
131.2
191.9
179.9
184.0
107.3
200.6
189.2
175.2
191.2
120.0
196.0
182.3
170.5
179.7
107.0
184.5
154.0
137.6
162.8
122.3
189.6
Rubber products___________________________
Rubber tires and inner tubes____________
Rubber boots and shoes_________________
Rubber goods, other_____ ______________
158.9
161.7
149.3
141.3
156.4
157.1
149.7
140.5
153.9
153.9
146.5
139.2
126.3
121.2
124.5
118.2
256.1
253.3
246.5
228.1
264.0
256.5
259.7
241.0
250.9
243.9
247.9
228.7
176.3
166.8
172.1
168.8
Miscellaneous industries____________________
Photographic apparatus___________ _____
Pianos, organs, and parts________________
Games, toys, and dolls__________________
Buttons_______________________________
166.4 166.3 166.0 147.0
178.1 171.8 163.1 138.1
135.0 130.7 130.5 91.6
84.0 84.4 83.7 95.6
98.9 98.8 97.6 115.2
293.7
265.9
257.2
130.2
169.1
298.2
271.0
257.6
143.1
174.2
297.1
256.6
261.8
148.6
171.5
213.3
189.4
131.3
126.7
169.7
N o n d u r a b l e go o d s —Continued
Indexes for th e m a jo r in d u s try groups h a v e b een ad ju ste d to final d a ta for 1941 a n d p re lim in a ry d a ta for
th e second q u a rte r of 1942 m a d e a v a ilab le b y th e B u re a u of E m p lo y m e n t S e c u rity of th e F e d e ra l S ecu rity
A gency, a n d are n o t c o m p arab le w ith d a ta in issues of th e M o n th ly L a b o r R ev iew p rio r to M a rc h 1943
C o m p a ra b le series for ea rlier m o n th s are av a ilab le u p o n re q u e s t, in d e x es for in d iv id u a l in d u stries h av e
d a ta adjU sted t0 levels m d lc a te d b y th e 1939 C ensus of M an u fa c tu re s, b u t n o t to F e d e ra l S ecu rity A gency
2 U n p u b lis h e d in fo rm atio n concerning th e follow ing w a r in d u strie s m a y b e o b ta in e d b y a u th o riz e d
agencies u p o n re q u e s t. A ircraft engines; aircraft an d p a rts , excludin g engines; alloying; a lu m in u m m a n u
factures; a m m u n itio n ; cars, electric- a n d steam -railro ad ; co m m u n ic atio n e q u ip m e n t; electrical eq u ip m en t"
engines a n d tu rb in e s ; explosives a n d safety fuses; fire extinguishers; firearm s; firew orks; locom otives" m a
ch ine-tool accessories; m a ch in e tools; o p tical in s tru m e n ts a n d o p h th a lm ic goods; p rofessional a n d scientific
in s tru m e n ts a n d fire-control e q u ip m e n t; rad io s a n d pho n o g rap h s; a n d s h ip b u ild in g
3 R ev isio n s h a v e been m a d e as follows in th e d a ta for ea rlier m o n th sTin cans and other tinware—A p ril 1943 pay-roll index to 144.8.
Wirework. J a n u a ry 1943 to A p ril 1943 em p lo y m e n t indexes to 104.6, 104.7, 107.0, a n d 106.1; p av -ro ll in
dexes to 184.0, 185.4, 194.9, a n d 198.7.
Bolts, nuts, washers, and rivets—M a rc h a n d A p ril 1943 p ay -ro ll indexes to 360 4 a n d 365 3
Brick, tile, and terra cotta.— F e b ru a ry a n d M a rc h 1943 pay -ro ll indexes to 135.9 a n d 134.3.
Qypsuin.- F e b ru a ry , M a rc h , an d A p ril 1943 em p lo y m e n t indexes to 86.7, 87.7, a n d 89.3; F e b r u a r y 1943
p ay -roll index to 131.3.
J
Asbestos products—D ecem b er 1942 to A p ril 1943 em p lo y m e n t indexes to 138.3,137.6, 137.3, 138.4, a n d 137.4A u g u st 1942 a n d N o v e m b e r 1942 to A p ril 1943 p ay-roll indexes to 221.2, 230.6, 242.1, 242 0, 237 4 247 6 an d
249.5.
'
*9
Work shirts—J a n u a ry 1943 to A p ril 1943 e m p lo y m e n t indexes to 133.0, 139.4, 139.6 a n d 141 3; n av -ro ll
indexes to 215.6, 225.8, 233.2, a n d 240.6.
Butter .—J a n u a ry 1943 to A p ril 1943 e m p lo y m e n t indexes to 109.6,110.2,116.4, a n d 121.8; J a n u a r y to M a rc h
p ay -ro ll indexes to 144.9, 145.6, a n d 154.4.
J
Lithographing.— O cto b er 1942 to A p ril 1943 em p lo y m e n t indexes to 93.7, 95.7, 98.5, 97 2, 97 1 95 4 an d 96 2p ay -roll indexes to 104.6, 115.3, 119.9, 114.1, 113.7, 119.3, an d 121.2.
. Fertilizers. F e b ru a ry , M a rc h , a n d A p ril 1943 e m p lo y m e n t indexes to 141.1, 162.0, a n d 158 4" nav -ro ll
indexes to 229.0, 272.0, a n d 298.8.
Coke and byproducts .— S e p te m b e r 1942 to A p ril 1943 pay-roll indexes to 173.1, 162.6, 165.1, 163.5, 169.2 170.4
171.3, a n d 171.5.
’
*
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Trend of Employment and Unemployment
i£43
T a b l e 4 . —Estimated Number o f Wage Earners in Selected Nonmanufacturing Industries
Estimated number of wage earners
(in thousands)
Industry
July 1943
June 1943
M ay 1943
71.4
379
95.4
33.7
29.9
18.3
6.7
6.8
347
268
84.5
1,388
71.6
381
97.6
33.8
30.9
18.8
7.3
6.8
344
270
87.0
1,382
72.3
385
97.9
33.4
31.4
18.9
7.6
6.6
341
267
85.4
1,351
Anthracite min jng
_ ________________ —
B itura ill ntis-enal mining
_______________________
Metal min jng
_ ______ __________ _______
Iron
____________________________________
Hopper
_______________ ______________ Lead and 7,inn
__ ________________________
fin]ri f^nri silver
_ ____________________ —
_______ _____ ____
Miscellaneous metal mining
Hotels i
_____ ______________ _ —
Power laundries
_______________________ - Dyeing and. cleaning
______________________ -HJass I stpam railroad s 2 ___________________ _______
1 Data include salaried personnel.
2 Source: Interstate Commerce Commission.
July 1942
77.0
439
108.9
32.6
31.4
19.6
18.3
7.0
331
281
85.0
1,317
, . ,
,
Data include salaried personnel.
T a b l e 5 . — Indexes of Employment and Pay Rolls in Selected Nonmanufacturing
Industries
[1939 average=100]1
Pay-roll indexes
Employment indexes
Industry
Coal mining:
Anthracite
_______________________
Bituminous
- ________________ —
Metal mining
_____________________
j ron
______________ ______
Copper
___ ________ _____ —
Bead and zine
______ _________
Gold and silver _____________ ____
Miscellaneous
__________________
Quarrying and nnumetalljc raining ______
Crude-petrnleum prori notion 2 ____________
Public utilities:
Telephone and telegraph
_ ________
Electric light and power _____________
Street railways and b u sses____________
Wholesale trade
________________ -Retail trade
____________________
Food
_______ - ___________
General merchandising
_ __________
-Apparel
---- --------------Furniture aud honsefurnishings ________
Automotive
_____________________
Lumber and building materials ______
TTntolo ( vpnr-ronnd Ì 3
______________________
pnwer laundries
__________________
Dyeing and o]caning
___
_________
niass I steam railroads * _ _______
Water transportation 6 ___________ ___
July
1943
June
1943
M ay
1943
July
1942
July
1943
June
1943
M ay
1943
86.2
102.2
108.2
167.2
125.6
117.9
27.2
170.6
98.8
82.3
86.5
102.7
110.6
167.9
129.7
120.7
29.3
172.5
98.8
82.6
87.3
103.8
110.9
166.2
131.9
121.7
30.6
166.1
98.2
81.7
93.0
118.4
123.5
162.1
132.1
126.5
73.9
174.4
116.5
86.8
133.1
190.4
163.8
261.7
200.6
195.3
33.0
262.2
169.4
120.3
99.3
144.0
172.2
271.0
212.6
204.3
37.0
266.1
169.5
117.4
127.1
176.4
170.2
261.5
213.2
202.6
38.5
263.6
166.3
111.9
117.2
161.6
164.5
229. 4
183.0
190.5
78.3
245.8
171.3
102.3
126.8
86.3
117.6
96.0
96.6
104.2
108.6
100.3
66.7
63.7
92.6
107.6
118.6
125.2
140.5
152.5
124.7
86.5
117.7
95.8
98.9
105.7
112.7
111.8
67.7
63.1
92.0
106.8
119.6
128.9
139.9
143.0
123.2
86.4
117.5
95.1
98.5
105.6
112.5
110.3
67.3
62.5
91.2
105.8
118.4
126.5
136.6
131.8
123.4
97.6
108.4
100.6
99.5
112.0
104.2
95.7
80. 7
66.5
98.8
102.6
124.3
125. 9
133.3
85.7
148.2
110.5
156.1
127.1
119.9
131.6
131.4
124.4
86.3
84.6
122.7
139.7
152.3
170.6
(5)
345.3
145.0 143.8
107.7 106.5
155.9 153.8
126.5 124.3
121.1 117.1
130.2 125.8
133.3 129.7
139.6 129.0
88.0
85.5
84.1
84.8
122.8 119.5
137.7 134.5
154.6 153.8
182.5 177.8
(5)
(5)
326.7 307.7
'
131.8
112.9
130. 9
119.3
112.5
127.7
117. 1
110.4
93.1
79.1
120.4
118.9
141.7
149.0
(a)
171.3
1
July
1942
1 Mimeographed report showing revised data (1939=100) January 1939-December 1942 for each industry
available on request.
2 Does not include well drilling or rig building.
.
, , _ . . , ,
. . ,
s Cash payments only; additional value of board, room, and tips not included. Data include salaried
personnel
^ 4 Source': Interstate Commerce Commission. Data include salaried personnel.
« BasedVon estimates prepared by the U. S. Maritime Commission covering employment on steam and
motor merchant vessels of 1,000 gross tons or over in deep-sea trade only.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
844
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
T a b l e 6 . —Hours
and Earnings in Specified Months
MANUFACTURING
Average weekly
earnings 1
Average weekly
hours 1
Average hourly
earnings 1
Industry
July June May
1943 1943 1943
All manufacturing________________________ $42. 7( $43.3. $43.0
Durable g o o d s ...________ _____________ 48.81 49.31 49.2.
Nondurable goods......................... ............... . 34.01 34.41 34.0'
July June May July June May
1943 1943 1943 1943 1943 1943
C e n ts
C e n ts
C e n ts
44. ‘ 45.2
46. C 46.8
42.2 42.8
45.2 96.
95.! 95.3
46.! 106.1 105. 105.0
42.8 80. £ 80.4 79.6
47.2' 48.03 47.61
45.5
46.5
46.4 103. £ 103.
49.97
45.4£
44.01
47.43
36.80
35.95
47.05
41.31
49.12
48. i;
45.72
49.18
36.96
36.32
47.15
40.75
43.9
45.9
44.8
44.9
43.1
43.7
47.6
46.2
44.6
47.!
46.7
46.!
43.!
44.5
47.!
47.2
44.1 114.8 112.8 112.0
48.2 100.2 100.7 100.6
46.5 98.3 98.
98.5
46.9 106.2 105. S 104.8
43.7 85.7 84.5 84.5
44.4 82.2 81.9 81.6
48.0 99.5 98.6 98.5
46.2 89.5 89.2 88.1
43.04 44.67 44.60
41.40 42.78 42.65
43.88 44.84 43.87
46.9
46.5
46.1
48.6
48.1
47.8
48.4
48.1
47.5
D u ra b le goods
Iron and steel and their products___________
Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling
m ills2______ ____ _______ ____________
Gray-iron and semisteel castings ®______
Malleable-iron eastings ®_______________
Steel castings2_______ ______ ___ ____ _
Cast-iron pipe and fittings3_______ _____
Tin cans and other tinware 3...... ................
Wirework 3........................................................
Cutlery and edge tools_________________
Tools (except edge tools, machine tools,
files, and saws)______________________
Hardware2_________ ____ ____________ _
Plumbers’ supplies__________ _____ ____
Stoves, oil burners, and heating equip
ment not elsewhere classified-...................
Steam and hot-water heating appratus
and steam fittings______________ ____ _
Stamped and enameled ware and galvan
izing___________________ ______ ______
Fabricated structural and ornamental
metalwork_______ ___________________
Bolts, nuts, washers, and rivets 3________
Forgings, iron and steel_________________
Firearms24_____________ _______ _______
43.05 43. 96 44.48
45.2
51.25
44.55
51.82
55. 97
'52.31
46.63
55.96
56.93
51.43
47.09
56.87
56.45
48.7
45.7
45.0
46.7
Electrical machinery_______________________
Electrical equipm ent2______ ___________
Radios and phonographs___ ___________
Communications equipm ent2___________
44.72
46.84
38.89
41.21
45. 59
48.01
39.48
41.57
45.64
48.02
39. 42
41.26
46.1
46.5
45.4
45.4
47.0
47.4
46.0
46.2
47.3 97.0 97.0 96.5
47.8 100.9 101.1 100.6
46.3 85.6 85.6 85.1
46.2 90.7 90.0 89.2
Machinery, except electrical................................
Machinery and machine-shop products~2__
Engines and turbines 2_________________
Agricultural machinery, excluding trac
tors 2________ ____ ___________________
Tractors2_____________________________
Machine tools________________________’ ’
Textile machinery_________________ . . . ”
Typewriters_________________________ ’ ’
Cash registers, adding and calculating
machines____________________________
51.14 52.27 52.48
50.21 51.21 51.16
57.68 58.11 58.52
48.2
47.9
49.8
49.4
49.2
50.4
49.7 106.1 105.8 105.6
49.3 104.5 104.0 103.7
50.9 116.4 116.1 115.8
51.18
50.97
52.63
45.13
46.81
50.50
51.93
54. 76
45. 71
46.78
47.1
46.5
49.8
48.7
49.0
48.2
46.8
51.1
50.6
49.5
47.9 108.7 107.6 105.5
47.2 109.7 109.7 110.1
51.8 105.0 105.8 105.7
50.3 92.7 92.4 90.9
49.4 95.5 95.6 94.7
57.58 58.78 58.41
49.6
50.2
50.1 117.4 118.1 117.5
55.90 55.84 56.29
59.65 59.68 58.39
47.52 48.26 50.99
46.7
48.3
43.0
47.0
48.7
43.8
47.5 119.7 118.8 118.5
47.8 123.5 122.5 122.2
45.6 110.2 110.0 111.5
48.76 49.78 49.67
58. 77 58.66 61.16
60.62 59.80 60.04
45.6
46.1
47.7
46.5
46.3
47.6
46.8 107.3 107.0 106.3
48.8 127.5 126.6 125.2
47.8 126.6 125.3 125.5
Transportation equipment, except automo
biles__________________________________
Locomotives_____________________
Cars, electric- and steam-railroad____
Aircraft and parts, excluding aircraft
en g in es..__________________________
Aircraft engines2_________________
Shipbuilding and boatbuilding_____
49.62
47. 73
45. 96
49.61
37.09
36. 50
47.17
42.13
91.9
89.3
95.2
92.1
89.0
93.8
102.6
92.4
88.4
92.4
40.87 42.36 42.11
45.2
46.2
46.2
91.7
91.8
91.2
47.59 47.33 47.14
48.3
48.2
48.5
98.6
98.3
97.4
46.7
47.0
94.8
93.7
94.2
49.7
47.8
48.0
48.3
49.4 105.1 105.1 103.9
48.4 97.4 98.0 97.7
48.6 114.6 116.7 117.1
48.4 119.8 117.5 116.3
51.81
51.34
54.09
46.60
47.31
Automobiles______ ______ ______ __________
57.18 57.10 57.00
46.0
46.2
46.3 124.3 123.6 123.1
Nonferrous metals and their products_______
Smelting and refining, primary, of nonferrous metals________________________
Alloying and rolling and drawing of non-'
ferrous metals, except aluminum 2_____
Clocks and w atches..__________________
Jewelry (precious metals) and jewelers’
findings2_____________________
Silverware and plated ware______
Lighting equipment______________
Aluminum manufactures_____ ______
47.03 47.51 47. 76
46.2
46.9
47.1 101.8 101.3 101.4
See footnotes at end of table.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
46.64 45.77 45.51
45.1
45.0
44.7 104.4 102.7 102.9
52.63 52.24 52.12
39.25 39.51 40.19
48.1
44.7
48.0
45.8
48.1 110.7 110.0 109.2
46.4 87.1 86.3 86.6
36.04
44.78
44.40
49.02
42.7
46.2
44.7
46.9
45.5
46.6
46.1
47.6
45.5 83.0 84.9 84.3
46.8 97.1 98.7 96.4
46.0 99.3 98.6 100.2
47.7 104.4 104.2 104.3
39.26
45.93
45. 39
49.55
38.96
45.09
46.06
49.74
Trend of Employment and Unemployment
T a b l e 6 . —Hours
845
and Earnings in Specified Months—Continued
MANUFACTURING— Continued
Average weekly
earnings2
Average weekly
hours 1
Average hourly
earnings 1
Industry
July
1943
June M ay July June May July June M ay
1943 1943 1943 1943 1943 1943 1943 1943
D u r a b l e g o o d s —Continued
C e n ts
C e n ts
C e n ts
Lumber and timber basic products--------------- $31.51 $32. 78 $32.28
Sawmills and logging camps........ ................. 30.43 31. 97 31. 49
Planing and plywood mills---------- . ----- 34.49 35.34 34. 68
42.7
42.0
44.7
44.3
44.0
45.5
43.8
43.4
45.1
73.8
72.4
77.9
74.0
72.7
77.9
73.7
72.6
77.1
Furniture and finished lumber products_____ .32. 36 33. 05 32.74
F u rn itu re------------------------------ ----------- 33.05 33. 68 33.14
43.5
43.4
44.6
44.4
44.6
44.3
74.4
76.5
74.1
76.1
73.4
75.2
Stone, clay, and glass products-------------- - Glass and glassware...................... -................
Cement------------------ __ -----------------------Brick, tile, and terra cotta 3_____________
Pottery and related products----------------Marble, granite, slate, and other products.
Asbestos products 23-----------------------------
35. 40
36.15
38.31
30. 27
32.35
34.44
43.73
36.29
36.87
38. 22
30. 73
33.91
35.04
44. 65
36.16
36.96
37.73
30. 56
33. 27
37.08
44.22
41.8
39.8
42.6
40.4
39.6
41.5
47.4
43.0
41.4
43.0
40.8
41.5
41.8
47.8
42.9
41.6
42.7
40.2
40.9
43.1
47.6
84.7
91.1
89.9
74.8
81.4
82.9
92.3
84.4
89.1
89.0
74.8
81.7
82.9
93.3
84.3
88.9
88.4
7'5. 3
81.5
84.8
92.8
27.16
24.15
30.87
26.49
27.66
24.33
31.56
26. 99
27.82
24. 78
32.24
27.05
40.9
40.9
42.8
41.1
41.6
41.3
43.8
41.9
41.9
41.9
44.2
42.1
66.4
59.0
72.2
64.0
66.5
58.9
72.2
64.4
¡59.1
72.9
64.2
33.35
25. 86
30.68
29.51
23.74
33. 97
26. 75
31. 57
29.90
24. 65
33.56
26.76
31.73
29.07
24.66
41.3
37.1
42.0
41.9
40.5
42.0
38.6
43.2
42.5
41.8
41.7
38.9
43.6
41.2
41.7
80.9
69.5
72.7
68.5
58.3
80.9
69.6
72.7
68.8
58.8
80.4
68.9
72.5
68.5
59.0
31.80 32.20 32. 03
36.46 36.50 37.01
37.99 37.69 38.86
43.8
42.2
40.1
44.5
42.3
40.4
44.4
43.3
41.6
72.6
86.7
95.3
72.3
86.5
93.6
72.0
85.7
93.5
26.67
28.66
22.13
23.63
18.30
31.64
27.25
27. 74
N o n d u r a b le goods
Textile-mill products and other fiber manufactures------------------------------ -------- --------Cotton manufactures, except smallwares..
Cotton smallwares____________________
Silk and rayon goods----------------------------Woolen and worsted manufactures, except
dyeing and finishing--------------------------Hosiery...................... - ______ _________
Knitted cloth------------------ . ------------------Knitted outerwear and knitted gloves___
Knitted underwear____________________
Dyeing and finishing textiles, including
woolen and worsted__________________
Carpets and rugs, wool_________ ______
Hats, f in -fe lt.---------------- ------ . . -----Apparel and other finished textile products---M en’s clothing, not elsewhere classified-..
Shirts, collars, and nightwear 2--------------Underwear and neckwear, m en’s 23-------Work shirts 23______ _____________—
Women’s clothing, not elsewhere classified
Corsets and allied garm ents..___
_____
M illinery--------- ---------------------------------
26.05
27. 62
21.41
22.72
17.43
31. 59
26. 35
31.58
26. 61
28. 93
21. 63
23. 66
18. 64
31.45
27.08
29.31
36.9
36.9
37.0
35.8
36.1
36.5
40.5
32.1
38.1
38.3
38.0
37.3
37.7
37.7
41.3
29.7
38.4
38.8
37.4
38.2
38.4
38.1
41.6
31.6
70.6
74.7
57.9
63.4
48.0
84.4
65.2
83.9
70.0
74.6
58.3
63.3
48.4
82.4
66.1
81.5
69.3
74.6
57.6
61.9
48.1
80.8
65.3
80.9
Leather and leather products------- - ----------Leather. _. ___________________________
Boots and shoes. --------------------------------
29.13 29.81 29.95
36. 57 37. 52 37.41
27.43 27.90 28.24
39.1
42.0
38.3
39.7
42.9
38.7
40.1
42.9
39.3
74.5
87.2
71.4
75.1
87.6
71.8
74.7
87.5
71.7
Food------------------------------------------------- ------Slaughtering and meat packing_________
B u tter3______________________ ________
Icecream ------ -------------------------------- . .
Flour-------------------------------------------------Baking-----------------------------------------------Sugar refining, cane___________________
Sugar, beet_____________ . -- --- -----Confectionery_________________ ______
Beverages, nonalcoholic 2_________ ____
______ ____
Malt liquors 2-. ______
C anning and preserving------ - - ................
35.52
42.07
30. 83
36. 65
37. 90
35.98
35. 57
35.07
26. 52
32.98
49.36
26.45
36.01
41.90
30. 96
35.56
38.37
35.76
33.56
36.04
27.91
32. 92
48. 75
26.95
35. 55
41.09
29.74
35.06
37.28
35.40
32.08
35. 24
27. 34
31. 72
46. 66
27.45
44.4
48.2
48.0
47.9
47.6
44.9
42.8
37.0
40.2
44.8
46.7
38.2
44.9
47.8
47.9
46.8
48.7
44.7
41.4
37.9
42.0
44.2
46.5
39.0
44.6 80.0 80.2 79.7
47.3 88.0 87.8 87.1
46.4 63.6 63.3 63.3
45.8 73.4 73.4 73.4
47.7 79.7 78.8 78.3
44.7 80.4 80.1 79.3
40.1 83.1 81.0 80.0
37.1 94.9 95.0 95.0
41.4 66.5 67.0 66.6
43.4 74.0 75.0 73.7
44.7 106. 5 105.6 105.1
39.9 69.5 69.6 69.7
Tobacco manufactures-------------------------------Cigarettes 2 . . . . ---------------------------Cigars 2________ . . .
----- ------Tobacco (chewing and smoking) and snuff.
27.37
32.24
24.04
25.52
26.45
28.72
24. 98
25.00
25. 29
27.99
23.49
24.64
42.1
44.4
40.7
39.4
41.0
40.6
41.7
39.1
40.2
40.1
40.5
39.2
65.0
71.9
59.1
64.7
64.5
70.7
60.0
63.9
62.9
69.8
57.9
62.9
Paper and allied products--------------------------- 35.59 36. 47 36. 21
Paper and pulp-------------- -------------------- 39.02 39.83 39. 58
Paper boxes----------------------------------------- 31.37 32.48 32.53
44.6
45.8
42.9
45.7
46.8
44.4
45.6
46.8
44.6
79.8
85.2
73.2
79.8
85.1
73.4
79.4
84:5
73.2
40.02 40.38 39.82
45. 58 44.66 44.29
37.27 38.12 37.63
40.1
37.7
41.3
40.1
37.1
41.5
39.9 99.8 100.7 99.8
37.0 119.7 118.8 117.7
41.3 90.3 92.0 91.2
Printing, publishing, and allied industries---Newspapers and periodicals_________ —
Printing, book and job------------------------See fo o tn o te s a t end o f tab le.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
846
T a b l e 6 . —Hours
and Framings in Specified Months— Continued
MANUFACTURING— Continued
Average weekly
earnings 1
Average weekly
hours 1
Average hourly
earnings 1
Industry
July June May July June May
1943 1943 1943 1943 1943 1943
July
1943
June May
1943 1943
C e n ts
C e n ts
N o n d u r a b le g o o d s —Continued
C e n ts
47.2
44.8
45.6
47.0
43.0
44.7
41.4
46.3
47.5
46.5
C)
48.8
43.6
45.7 92. 8 92.1 90.9
46.8 92.4 93.1 93.0
44.0 76.6 77.0 76.3
43.7 93.6 94.3 93. 1
42.4 88.0 90.1 86.6
46.0 107.5 106.4 105.5
47.2 102.6 101.2 101.1
46.5 91.1 90.3 90.4
80.0
43.1 (5)
(5)
47.6 48.5 47.5 46.2
44. 0 64. 1 62.4 61.0
Products of petroleum and coal________ ____ 51.73 51.21 49.93
Petroleum refining-------------------------------- 54. 74 54.03 53.42
45.5
45.5
45.4
45.0
44.5 113.7 112.8 112.2
44.6 121. 0 120.2 119.6
Rubber products
_
____
Rubber tires and inner tubes------- _ _ __
Rubber boots and shoes_____ __________
Rubber goods, other___________________
45.00
52.48
37. 56
38.01
45. 63
53.15
38.25
38.88
44.2
44. 5
44. 1
43.8
46.0
46.2
45.3
45. 9
45.4 101.8 102.4 100. 5
45.6 118.1 118.3 116. 7
45.4 84.8 86.4 84. 1
45.1 87.1 88.6 86.4
Miscellaneous industries______________ __
Professional and scientific instruments
and fire-control equipm ent2---------------
40.17 40. 97 40. 92
45.6
46.5
46.4
51.40 51.43 > 1.44
50.8
51.5
51.1 101.1
37.7
37.1
43.6
46. 5
43.3
28.2
28.4
44.9
47.3
42.6
36.1 106.3 104.3 103.7
35.2 115.0 112.4 112.0
44.3 98.7 98.3 98.4
46.4 79.1 78.1 78.5
41.0 111. 7 109. 9 110.0
42.2
42.5
49.0
42.4
42.3
43. 8
38.5
38.3
44.0
47.4
43.9
44.6
43.9
44.2
(5)
42.1
41.7
49.5
42.5
41.6
43.1
37. 5
37.6
44. 4
47. 5
44.1
44.6
44.1
45.3
42.2 85.5 85.7 85.4
40.8 105.2 103.8 105. 1
49.0 &8. 3 87.9 87.6
41.7 93.3 92.6 93.4
40.9 67.5 67.3 66.3
42. 0 69. 2 68.3 67.6
36.6 55.8 55.3 54.6
36.6 70.3 71.7 68.4
44. 2 82.4 81.9 81.1
47.4 78.9 78.9 79.0
43.3 81.5 81.2 81.2
44.6 45. 5 45.1 44.3
44.4 54.9 54.4 54.5
45.1 64.4 64.9 64.8
(51
(51
39.0
39.5
Chemicals and allied products- $42.04 $42.00 $41.54
Paints, varnishes, and colors------------------ 42.42 43. 74 43.41
Drugs, medicines, and insecticides 2_____ 32. 25 33.19 33. 63
Soap_______ ______ _______ ___________ 41. 82 42.15 40. 69
Rayon and allied products______________ 37. 57 37. 32 36. 74
Chemicals, not elsewhere classified - - _ 49.18 49. 23 48.53
Explosives and safety fuses 2 _ _ _ _____ 47. 66 48.04 47.74
Ammunition, small-arms 2______________ 42.25 41. 99 42.07
Fireworks 2------------------------------- --------- (5)
34.50
(*)
Cottonseed oil__________ _______ ______ 23.04 23.31 22.00
Fertilizers---------------- ______ _ ------- 28. 69 27.23 26. 83
45. 3
46.3
42.3
44.7
42.7
46.0
46.4
46.4
47.10
54.60
39. 18
40.56
88.1
88.1
88.2
99.9 100.6
N ONM ANUF ACTURING
Coal mining:
A n th ra cite______ _ __ __ _____ ______ $39. 69 $29. 52 $37. 39
Bitum inous------------------------- -------------- 42. 76 31.92 39.12
Metal m ining,________ i___________ ______ _ 43. 30 44. 39 43.43
Quarrying and nonmetallie mining___ ______ 36. 72 36.90 36. 34
Crude-petroleum production_____ _______ 49. 51 48.21 46. 32
Public utilities:
Telephone and telegraph______ _______ 35.94 35. 88 35.94
Electric light and pow er3---------------------- 44.86 43. 77 42. 98
Street railways and busses______________ 44. 30 44. 40 43. 52
Wholesale trade_________________________ . 39.44 39. 22 38.86
Retail trade _ ___ _
__ _____ _____ 25. 48 25.13 24.42
31. 22 30. 46 29. 26
Food 3
General merchandising3________________ 21.26 20. 78 20.44
A pparel3___ _
_________________ __ 26. 59 26. 90 24. 92
Furniture and housefurnishings 3 _______ 35.17 35.18 34.63
Automotive 3_____________ __ _ ......... .36. 64 37. 08 37.12
Lumber and building materials 3__ ____ 34. 76 34. 65 34. 09
Hotels (year-round)3_____________ _______ 20.18 20. 00 19.91
Laundries_____________ _____
_________ 23. 47 23.64 23. 87
Dveing and cleaning 3 ___________________ 27. 55 28. 61 28. 59
Brokerage________________________________ 51.10 54. 25 50.89
Insurance ______________________ _ __
42. 81 41.77 41.35
Building construction_________________ ___ 47.97 48. 65 47. 46
C e n ts C e n ts
(51
()
()
5
5
()
()
5
5
()
(
5
5-1
C e n ts
()
()
5
5
38.1 123.1 123.0 124.0
a N ot previously published. Comparable series back to January 1939 available on request.
1 These figures are based on reports from cooperating establishments covering both full- and part-time
employees who worked during any part of one pay period ending nearest the 15th of the month. As not all
reporting firms furnished man-hour data, average hours and average hourly earnings are based on a smaller
sample than are weekly earnings. Data for the current and immediately preceding months are subject to
revision.
2 Comparable series for earlier months, which may include minor revisions in previously published data,
available on request.
2 Revisions have been made as follows in the data for earlier months:
C a s t-ir o n p i p e a n d f i t t i n g s . —January 1943 to April 1943 average weekly hours to 42.6, 43.0, 44.5, and 43.5;
February 1943 average weekly earnings to $34.77; April 1943 average hourly earnings to 83.5 cents.
T i n c a n s a n d o th e r t i n w a r e . —January and February 1943 average weekly earnings to $34.06 and $34.24;
average hourly earnings to 79.7 cents and 79.8 cents.
W ir e w o r k . —January 1943 to April 1943 average weekly earnings to $44.15, $44.58, $46.09, and $47.38; average
hourly earnings to 94.0, 94.9, 96.7, and 98.5 cents.
B o l ts , n u t s , w a s h e r s , a n d r iv e ts . —December 1942 to April 1943 average weekly hours to 46.3, 46.5, 47.2, 47.8,
and 47.5; average hourly earnings to 93.7, 95.7, 94.5, 95.6, and 96.4 cents; February, March, and April 1943
average weekly earnings to $44.54, $45.64 and $45.70.
B r i c k , t il e , a n d t e r r a c o tta . —February and March 1943 average weekly earnings to $28.98 and $29.46; March
'1943 average weekly hours to 39.4.
A s b e s to s p r o d u c ts . —August 1942 and March 1943 average weekly earnings to $39.14 and $43.03; January
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
847
Trend of Employment and Unemployment
C ivilian Labor F orce, A ugu st 1 9 4 3
THE civilian labor force declined seasonally by 600,000 persons
between July and August 1943 to a total of 54,900,000, according to
the Bureau of the Census Monthly Report on the Labor Force. At
the same time, unemployment dropped by 200,000 to a level of
1,000,000, while employment declined by 400,000.
T able
1.—Estimated Civilian Labor Force, by Employment Status and Sex, in Selected
Months, August 1940-August 1943 1
[Source: IT. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census]
Estimated number (millions of persons)
Sex and employment status
August
1943
July
1943
August
1942
August
1941
August
1940
Both sexes. ---- ------------ --------- -------------------------Unemployed 2----------------------------------------------Em ployed__________________________________
Non agriculture------------------ -----------------Agriculture______________________________
54.9
1.0
53.9
41.9
12.0
55.5
1.2
54.3
42.2
12.1
56.2
2.2
54.0
42.8
11.2
56.4
o. 4
51.0
40.8
10. 2
56.6
8.9
47.7
37.6
10.1
M a le s ...------- ------------------------------------ --------------Unemployed 2------- --------------------------------------Employed------- --------- ------ --------------- ------N onagriculture--------------------------------------Agriculture-------------------------------------- —
37.5
.5
37.0
27.3
9.7
37.8
.6
37.2
27.4
9.8
41.1
1.4
39.7
30.2
9. 5
42.4
3.6
38.8
29.9
8.9
42.9
6.0
36.9
27.7
9.2
Females----------- ------------------------------------------------Unemployed 2.......... ....................................... - ...........
Employed. . -------------------------------------------Nonagriculture__________________________
Agriculture________________________ ____
17.4
.5
16.9
14.6
2.3
17.7
.6
17.1
14.8
2.3
15.1
.8
14.3
12.6
1.7
14.0
1.8
12.2
10.9
1. 3
13.7
2.9
10.8
9.9
.9
1 All data exclude persons in institutions.
2 Includes persons on public emergency projects prior to July 1943.
The decrease in the civilian labor force was concentrated almost
entirely among persons 14-19 years of age. Although the usual
seasonal pattern has prevailed this summer, the sex composition of
teen-age participants in the civilian labor force has changed conFootnotes (table 6)—Continued.
1943 to April 1943 average weekly hours to 47.3, 46.5, 47.4, and 47.6; August 1942 and December 1942 average
hourly earnings to 86.2 and 89.0 cents.
U n d e r w e a r a n d n e c k w e a r , m e n ’s .— A p r i l 1943 average weekly hours and average hourly earnings to 38.1
hours and 61.1 cents.
W o r k s h i r t s — March and April 1943 average weekly earnings to $18.34 and $18.71.
B u t t e r . — 1 anuary, February, and March 1943 average weekly earnings to $29.10, $29.10, and $29.21; Janu
ary and February average weekly hours to 45.7 and 45.3; March and April average hourly earnings to 62.1
an(j 0 2 q cents
E l e c tr i c lig h t a n d p o w e r — March average weekly hours 41.0, average hourly earnings 102.0 cents.
R e t a i l tr a d e :
F o o d g r o u p .— Average
^
weekly earnings, January $27.93, April $28.62; average weekly hours January
41.6, April 41.2; average hourly earnings, January 64.6 cents.
G e n e r a l m e r c h a n d is e g r o u p .— Average hourly earnings, January 53.7 cents; average weekly earnings,March $20.51, April $20.43.
A p p a r e l g r o u p . —Average weekly earnings, January $24.80, March $25.28, April $24.64; average weekly
hours, January 37.7, April 36.3; average hourly earnings, January 67.3 cents, April 68.0 cents.
F u r n i t u r e g r o u p .— Average weekly hours, February 43.5; ¡average weekly earnings, March $33.43,
April $34.62; average hourly earnings, February 77.4 cents.
A u to m o ti v e g r o u p . —Average weekly earnings, January':'$33.83; [average weekly hours, January,
February, and April, each 47.3; average hourly earnings, January 72.2 cents, February 74.3 cents.
L u m b e r g r o u p — Average weekly hours, February 42.6; average hourly earnings, February 79.1 cents;
April 80.5 cents.
,
.
_
H o te l s . —April, average weekly earnings, $19.54; average weekly hours, 44.7; average hourly earnings, 43.7
D y e i n g a n d c le a n in g . —Average weekly earnings, March $26.30, April $28.57; average weekly hours, March
43.5, April 45.7; average hourly earnings, March 61.9 cents, April, 64.1 cents.
i April 1943 average weekly earnings for firearms, as published in table 2, page 5, of mimeographed release
dated August 16, 1943, should have been $57.36 instead of $47.36.
s N ot available.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
848
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
siderably during the past year. The number of boys aged 14-19 in
August 1943 was 1,300,000 lower than the August 1942 figure, a
development reflecting the entrance of many boys into the armed
forces. On the other hand, the number of teen-age girls in August
1943 exceeded the August 1942 level by 500,000 to offset partially
the exodus of boys.
Extensive changes also took place in the agricultural and nonagricultural composition of the employed group. The seasonal
decline of 100,000 in agricultural employment between July and
August 1943 was low compared to a 500,000 decrease for the corre
sponding period in both 1942 and 1941. Moreover, nonagricultural
employment decreased by 300,000 between July and August 1943, in
contrast to increases during this interval of 500,000 in 1942 and
600,000 in 1941.
T a b l e 2 . — Estimated Civilian Labor Force, Employment and Unemployment, by Age
and Sex, in July and August 1943 and August 1942 1
[Source: U . S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census]
Estimated number (millions of persons)
Total
Employment status and age
August
1943
July
1943
Male
August August
1942
1943
July
1943
Female
August August
1942
1943
July
1943
August
1942
Total civilian labor force___
14-19 years____________
20-24 years____________
25-34 years___ ______
35-44 years___ ______
45-54 years____________
55-64 years___ ___ __
65 years and over_____
54.9
7.2
5.0
11.2
12.2
10.1
6.4
2.8
55.5
7.8
5.0
11.3
12.0
10.0
6.6
2.8
56.2
8.0
6.4
12.1
11.7
9.5
6.1
2.4
37.5
3.9
2.1
7.4
8.6
7.8
5.3
2.4
37.8
4.2
2.1
7.5
8.5
7.7
5.4
2.4
41.1
5.2
3.6
8.6
8.9
7.6
5.1
2.1
17.4
3.3
2.9
3.8
3.6
2.3
1.1
.4
17.7
3.6
2.9
3.8
3.5
2.3
1.2
.4
15.1
2.8
2.8
3.5
2.8
1.9
1.0
.3
Total persons employed___
14^19 years________
20-24 years____ ______
25-34 vears____________
35-44 years........................
45-54 years____________
55-64 years____ _______
65 years and over.......... .
53.9
6.9
4.8
11.0
12.1
9.9
6.4
2.8
54.3
7.3
4.9
11.2
11.9
9.9
6.4
2.7
54.0
7.4
6.1
11.8
11.4
9.1
5.9
2.3
37.0
3.8
2.0
7.3
8.5
7.7
5.3
2.4
37.2
4.0
2.1
7.4
8.5
7.6
5.3
2.3
39.7
4.8
3.5
8.5
8.7
7.3
4.9
2.0
16.9
3.1
2.8
3.7
3.6
2.2
1.1
.4
17.1
3.3
2.8
3.8
3.4
2.3
1.1
.4
14.3
2.6
2.6
3.3
2.7
1.8
1.0
.3
Total persons unemployed 2.
14-19 years____________
20-24 years___ _______
25-34 years_____ _____
35-44 years____________
45-54 y e a r s ____ ___
55-64 years____________
65 years and over______
1.0
.3
.2
.2
.1
.2
(3)
(3)
1.2
.5
.1
.1
.1
.1
.2
.1
2.2
.6
.3
.3
.3
.4
.2
.Ò
.1
.1
.1
.1
.6
.2
(3)
.1
(3)
.1
.1
.1
1.4
.4
.1
.1
.2
.3
.2
.1
.5
.2
.1
.1
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
.6
.3
.1
(3)
.1
(3)
(3)
(*)
.1
.1
i3)
(3)
1 All data exclude persons in institutions.
2 Persons on public emergency work projects are included with the unemployed prior to July 1943.
3 Less than 50,000.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
.8
.2
.2
.2
.1
(3)
(3)
(3)
Recent Publications o f Labor Interest
OCTOBER 1943
Agriculture and Agricultural Workers
Legal rights of farm workers.
B y K . T . S u tto n a n d H . L. M itchell. M em
phis, T enn., South ern T e n a n t F a rm ers U nion, [1943]. 6 p p .; m im eographed.
They saved the crops.
B y C arey M cW illiam s. (In In ter-A m erican , W ashington,
A ugust 1943, pp. 10-14; illus. 25 cents.)
O bservations on an d resu lts of th e U n ited S tates-M exican p ro ject to bring
ag ricu ltu ral w orkers to th e U n ited S tates from Mexico. T h e article includes
statistics as to nu m b er of w orkers tra n sp o rte d a n d wages received, a n d discusses
reception of th e w orkers, th e ir reactions, a n d o p p o rtu n ities offered th em .
Agricultural reconstruction in China. By Owen L. D aw son. (In Foreign Agri
culture, U. S. D e p a rtm e n t of A griculture, Office of Foreign A gricultural R e
lations, W ashington, Ju n e 1943, pp. 123-134; m ap. 10 cents.)
T h e a u th o r discusses th e basic problem s of C hinese ag ricu ltu re, th e m easures
ad o p ted b y th e C hinese N a tio n a l G o v ern m en t to m eet th ese problem s, a n d agri
c u ltu ral reco n stru ctio n m easures in w hich th e U n ited N atio n s m ay lend aid to
C hina.
Agriculture in the Dominican Republic. B y Ja n e'S w ift Powell. W ashington, P an
A m erican U nion, D ivision of A g ricultural C ooperation, 1943. 27 pp.,
bibliography, illus.; m im eographed. (A m erican ag ricu ltu re series, No. 2.)
Survey of ag ricu ltu ral conditions a n d policy in th e D om inican R epublic. Social
an d econom ic aspects discussed include ru ra l housing, h ealth , education, wages,
lan d te n u re an d u tilizatio n , an d credit.
Breve resena de politica agraria en el Paraguay. B y N icasio M artin ez D iaz.
(In V éritas, B uenos Aires, A pril 1, 1943, pp. 364-367.)
B rief analysis of recen t a g ricu ltu ral relief m easures in P ara g u a y including those
relatin g to colonization, education, m inim um prices, credit, a n d o th e r m a tte rs.
Education and Training
Labor and education in 1942.
W ashington, A m erican F e d eratio n of L abor, 1943.
31 pp.
R ep o rts of th e E xecutive Council, A m erican F e d eratio n of L abor, a n d th e
an n u al convention of th e F e d eratio n in O ctober 1942, on th e su b ject of education.
Pre-induction training in vocational schools, vocational departments, and trade
schools. P rep ared jo in tly by th e W ar D e p a rtm e n t a n d th e U. S. Office of
E ducation. W ashington, U. S. W ar D e p a rtm e n t, 1943.
(P. I. T . 330.)
29 pp., illus.
Training war production workers: Biennial report of the Michigan program of
vocational training for war production workers, vocational training for rural war
production workers, and training for youth employed on N Y A work projects,
for the biennium ended June 30, 194%- L ansing, S ta te B o ard of C on tro l for
V ocational E d u catio n , 1942.
64 p p ., illus.
(Bull. N o. 285.)
Correspondence regarding the publications to which reference is made m t h i s list
should be addressed to the respective publishing agencies mentioned. Where data on prices were readily
available, they have been shown with the title entries. The amounts do not include postage, and also
they are subject to change.
E d i t o r ’ s N o t e .—
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
849
850
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
Dominion-Provincial youth training program; Dominion-Provincial war emergency
training program: Report of the Dominion Supervisor of Training for the fiscal
year ending March 31,1943. O ttaw a, D e p a rtm e n t of L abor, 1943. 24 pp.
Factory training manual. E d ite d by R eginald P ugh. B a th , E n g lan d , M anagem en t P ublicatio n s T ru st, L td ., 1942. 316 p p ., diagram s, illus.
Second editon of a p ractical tex tb o o k , by a group of engineers, for use in con
nection w ith th e B ritish M in istry of L ab o r schem e fo r tra in in g skilled a n d
sem iskilled operatives.
Employment and Unemployment
Development and operation of employment stabilization programs.
(In L ab o r M ark et, U. S. W ar M anpow er Com m ission, B u reau of P ro g ram R eq u irem en ts,
W ashington, M a rch -A p ril 1943, pp. 10-17.)
B rief acco u n t of th e em p lo y m en t-stab ilizatio n pro g ram s p ro m o ted in v arious
areas by th e U. S. W ar M anpow er Com m ission.
Freedom from fear and want: A study of the unemployment problem.
B y B asil
Sm allpeice. P o tte rs B ar, M iddlesex, E ngland, Gee & Co. (Publishers), L td .,
1942]. 47 pp. Is. 6d.
Full employment.
L ondon, E conom ist N ew spaper, L td ., 1943. 28 pp. (R e
p rin t of articles in th e E conom ist, O ctober 3, 10, 17, a n d N o v em b er 28, 1942,
an d Ja n u a ry 2, 1943.)
D iscussion of th e possibility of full em ploym ent, th e m eans to a tta in it, a n d th e
cost.
Principles of employment supervision in war and peace.
B y E lizab eth M. Jo h n
stone. (In In te rn a tio n a l L ab o r Review , In te rn a tio n a l L ab o r Office, M o n
treal, S eptem b er 1943, pp. 277-307. 60 cents.)
T he article covers one asp ect of em ploym ent o rganization— principles governing
supervision over en tries in to an d changes of em ploym ent— in A u stralia, C an ad a,
O reat B ritain , N ew Z ealand, U nion of S o u th Africa, a n d th e U n ited S tates,
w a rtim e controls of em ploym ent in G erm any are briefly noted.
Proceedings of the thirtieth annual convention of the International Association of
Public Employment Services, held at Louisville, K y., M ay 5-8, 1942. [CleveoU
1948 rj
99 pp.
SeiPle> S ecretary -T reasu rer, 1242 W est T h ird S treet,
Annual review of employment and pay rolls in Canada, 1942.
O ttaw a, D e p a rtm e n t
of T rad e an d C om m erce, D om inion B u reau of S tatistics, 1943. 71 d d
- charts.
^ ’
Shows em ploym ent a n d p ay rolls, in b o th a c tu a l n um bers a n d index num bers,
and gives inform atio n by in d u stries a n d by econom ic a n d geographic areas.
Food and Nutrition
Food management and inflation.
B y M ary J. B ow m an a n d A lbert H . H a rt
Ames, Iow a, Io w a S ta te College Press, 1943. 39 pp. 20 cents. (Iow a S ta te
College, D e p a rtm e n t of E conom ics a n d Sociology, W artim e farm a n d food
policy series, p a m p h le t No. 8.)
D eals w ith th e effect of food m an ag em en t in stim u la tin g or checking in flationary
rises m m oney incom es, a n d th e h an d icap s im posed on food m an ag e m en t by leavo'ood ° nSUmerS
a h u g e excess of spending pow er over supplies of consum ption
Food strategy. By M a rg a re t G. R eid.
Ames, Iow a, Io w a S ta te College Press, 1943.
40 pp. 20 cents. (Iow a S ta te College, D e p a rtm e n t of E conom ics a n d
Sociology, W artim e farm a n d food policy series, p a m p h le t N o. 1.)
E xam ines th e necessity for p lan n in g food p ro d u ctio n , for ratio n in g , a n d for
building a d eq u ate reserves.
Food supply.
B y H aro ld K ellock. W ashington, E d ito ria l R esearch R ep o rts, 1013
T h irte e n th S tre e t N W ., 1943. 18 pp. (Vol. 2, 1943, N o. 3.) $1.
S ubjects considered are food-supply dislocations in tim e of w ar, food control
a n d th e problem of subsidies, food supplies a n d controls in W orld W ar I a n d
p resen t problem s of d em an d a n d supply.
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Recent Publications of Labor Interest
851
A guide to practical nutrition.
E d ite d by M ichael G. W ohl, M . D .,.a n d Jo h n H .
W illard, M. D . P hiladelphia, P h ilad elp h ia C o u n ty M edical Society, 1943.
98 pp., bibliography.
A series of articles on n u tritio n , sponsored by C o m m ittee on N u tritio n a n d .
D eficiency D iseases, P h ilad elp h ia C o u n ty M edical Society, re p rin te d from issues
of P hiladelphia M edicine, 1941-42.
Mexico’s dinner guests. B y Belle Fligelm an. (In In ter-A m erican , W ashington,
Ju ly 1943, p p. 28, 29; illus.)
D escription of th e C om edor F a m ilia r (F am ily D ining-R oom ) N o. l , a n d sto ry
of its 1 y2 y ears’ o p eratio n in low -cost feeding of fam ilies in M exico C ity.
United Nations Conference on Food and Agriculture, Hot Springs, Virginia, May
18-June 8, 1943—final act and section reports. W ashington, G overn m en t
P rinting Office, 1943. 61 pp. 20 cents. (D e p a rtm e n t of S ta te publication
1948, Conference series 52.)
C ontains a sum m atio n of th e w ork of th e Conference, its recom m endations,
an d section rep o rts as follows: Section I, C onsum ption levels a n d req u irem en ts;
Section II, E xpansion of pro d u ctio n a n d a d a p ta tio n to consum ption needs;
Section I I I , F acilitatio n a n d im p ro v em en t of d istrib u tio n . T his m aterial was
also published by H is M a je sty ’s S tatio n e ry Office, L ondon, in official docum ents
(Cm d. 6451, 9d., an d C m d. 6461, 6d.).
Health and Industrial Hygiene
Industrial hygiene and plant efficiency through good lighting.
W ashington, U. S.
D e p a rtm e n t of L abor, D ivision of L ab o r S tan d ard s, 1943. 51 pp., bibliog
rap h y , illus. L im ited free distrib u tio n .
R e p rin t of “ A m erican recom m ended p ractice of in d u stria l lig h tin g ” approved
by A m erican S tan d a rd s A ssociation a n d published in 1942 by th e Illu m in atin g
E ngineering Society (N ew Y ork).
Industrial manganese poisoning. B y L aw rence T. F a irh a ll a n d P au l A. N eal,
M. D . W ashington, U. S. N a tio n a l In s titu te of H ea lth , 1943. 24 pp.,
bibliography. (Bull. No. 182.) 10 cents, S u p erin ten d en t of D ocum ents,
W ashington.
Covers in d u strial exposure to m anganese, sy m p to m s of poisoning, an d
tre a tm e n t of chronic in d u stria l m anganese poisoning.
The principles and practice of industrial medicine. E d ite d by F red J. W am pler,
M. D. B altim ore, W illiam s & W ilkins Co., 1943. 579 pp. $6.
C ollection of articles by 33 c o n trib u to rs on various phases of in d u stria l m edicine
an d in d u strial h e a lth hazard s. One purpose of th e volum e is to provide inform a
tion for th e m any p racticin g physicians who have n o t h a d experience in in d u strial
m edicine b u t are being asked to ta k e on th e m edical care of in d u stria l w orkers.
Report of a committee appointed to consider methods of suppression and removal
of dust containing silica in the tile making and the electrical porcelain fittings
sections of the pottery industry. L ondon, M in istry of L ab o r a n d N atio n al
Service, F acto ry D e p a rtm e n t, 1943.
19 pp., illus.
Studies on the duration of disabling sickness: IV , Duration of disability from, the
nonrespiratory-nondigestive diseases among male employees with particular
reference to the older worker. B y W illiam M. G afafer a n d R o sed ith Sitgreaves. (In P ublic H e a lth R eports, F ed eral S ecurity Agency, U. S. P ublic
H ealth Service, W ashington, Ju n e 25, 1943, pp. 969-979; ch arts. 5 cents,
S u p erin ten d en t of D ocum ents, W ashington.)
Industrial Accidents and Workmen’s Compensation
Accident facts, 1943 edition.
Chicago, N a tio n a l S afety Council, Inc., 1943.
96 pp., charts. 50 cents.
D a ta on all ty p es of accidents, including o ccupational injuries, in 1942 an d
earlier years.
Annual statistical number, Accident Prevention Magazine, Portland Cement Association, Chicago, June 1943. 15 pp., ch arts.
T his n u m b er of th e A ccident P rev en tio n M agazine gives su m m ary figures on
th e accident experience of th e cem ent in d u stry in 1942 w ith com p arativ e figures
for th e 4 previous years. D etailed d a ta for in dividual p la n ts are given in a
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Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
separately published ta b le accom panying th e m agazine. T h e frequency ra te in
1942 for all rep o rtin g p la n ts com bined w as 7.58 p er m illion m an -h o u rs of exposure
as com pared w ith 5.99 in 1941, a n increase of 27 p ercen t, ag ain st an increase of
only 5 p ercen t in m an -h o u rs of exposure; th e sev erity ra te increased from 2.22
to 5.11.
Annual summary of injuries in the 'petroleum industry, for 1942.
N ew Y ork,
A m erican P etro leu m In s titu te , D e p a rtm e n t of A ccident P rev en tio n , 1943.
18 pp., ch art.
Coal dust explosions.
L ondon, S afety in M ines R esearch B oard, 1943. 14 pp.
(C m d. 6450.)
Special re p o rt on th e colliery explosions in G reat B rita in in th e la s t few years,
an d th e plans an d progress of th e researches of th e S afety in M ines R esearch
B oard in to th e causes a n d p rev en tio n of coal-dust explosions.
Salvando vidas en la industria Portorriqueña.
B y P edro M o n tes H ernández.
(In V éritas, B uenos Aires, A pril 1, 1943, pp. 382, 383.)
D iscussion of th e 1939 in d u stria l safety a c t of P u e rto Rico a n d m easures tak e n
u n d er it for th e p rev en tio n of in d u stria l accid en ts.
Os acidentes do trahalho e os institutos de previdéncia social [Brazil],
By H elvecio
X av ier Lópes. (In B oletim do M inistério do T rab alh o , In d ù s tria e Comércio,
Rio de Janeiro , N ovem ber 1942, pp. 231-247.)
D igest of legislation p ro viding com pensation for in d u strial accidents in various
A m erican R epublics, a n d a d etailed ex am in atio n of B razilian legislation on th e
subject.
Workmen’s compensation in Canada—a comparison of provincial laws.
D e p a rtm e n t of L abor, Ju ly 1943.
O ttaw a,
29 p p .; m im eo g rap h ed .
Industrial Relations
Collective bargaining.
B y R . D . B undy. N ew Y ork, Chicago, etc., N atio n al
F o rem en ’s In s titu te , Inc., 1942. 59 pp. 2d rev. ed.
D edicated to th e p roposition th a t th e in terests of m an ag em en t a n d lab o r lie in
th e sam e direction.
Liberty concepts in labor relations.
B y B yron R . A b ernethy. W ashington,
A m erican C ouncil on P ublic Affairs, 1943. 119 pp. $2.50.
A stu d y of th e m eaning of th e ideas of lib erty as held by em ployers a n d em
ployees in relatio n to th e conflicts betw een th e tw o groups. In d u stria l conflict
is view ed as th e struggle by em ployers to re ta in th e ir pow er a n d privileged position
a n d by em ployees to o b tain a share in th e pow er of m an ag em en t a n d to assert
g re a te r_influence in determ in in g lab o r conditions. C h ap ters relatin g p a rtic u la rly
to th e ideas an d struggles of w orkers deal w ith freedom of association, freedom
to barg ain collectively, freedom to strik e, a n d freedom of expression.
Protecting management’s rights in labor relations.
New Y ork, In te rn a tio n a l S ta
tistic a l B ureau, In c., 1943. 32 pp. $2.50.
R ulings an d decisions of th e W ar L ab o r B oard, th e N a tio n a l L ab o r R elations
B oard, an d various courts. T hese rulings a n d decisions p e rta in to th e rig h ts
a n d du ties of m anag e m en t a n d to u n fair lab o r practices.
Reinstatement of employees under the Fair Labor Standards Act.
By George W .
C ro ck ett, Jr. (In M ichigan L aw R eview , A nn A rbor, A ugust 1943, pp.
25-50. $1.)
A dvances th e idea th a t a lth o u g h th e F a ir L ab o r S tan d a rd s A ct does n o t
expressly provide fo r th e re in sta te m e n t of em ployees w ith or w ith o u t back pay ,
th e Federal courts _possess in h e re n t pow er to com pel th e re in sta te m e n t of em
ployees discharged in v iolation of section 15(a) (3). T his section m akes unlaw ful
th e discharge of an y em ployee because he “ has filed a n y com p lain t or in s titu te d
or caused to be in s titu te d a n y proceeding u n d er or related to th is A ct, or has
testified or is a b o u t to testify in a n y such proceeding, or h as served o r is a b o u t
to serve on a n in d u stry co m m ittee.”
Representatives of their own choosing.
B y Louis B. B oudin. (In Illinois Law
R eview , C hicago, M a rch -A p ril 1943, pp. 385-417; M a y -Ju n e 1943, p p .
41-78.)
E v alu atio n of th e N atio n al L ab o r R elatio n s A ct a n d of th e w ork of th e N atio n al
W ar L abor B oard, based largely on th e decisions of th e U. S. Suprem e C o u rt in
th e C onsolidated E dison a n d th e A m algam ated U tility cases. T h e a u th o r con
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853
siders th e possible effects of those decisions upo n th e fu tu re of labor, th e N a tio n a l
L abor R elations A ct, a n d th e W ar L ab o r B oard.
El contrato de trabajo colectivo obligatorio, en una rama industrial, como medio para
mantener la estabilidad de las empresas, proteger los derechos obreros, e impulsar
la economía nacional, [México]. B y José Lorenzo Cossío. (In P ro
ceedings of th e E ig h th A m erican Scientific C ongress, held in W ashington,
M ay 10-18, 1940, Vol. X I, E conom ics a n d sociology, pp. 81-91. W ashing
to n , U. S. D e p a rtm e n t of S tate, 1943.)
R eproduction of provisions of th e M exican lab o r code t h a t p e rta in to collective
labor agreem ents, an d discussion of th e prin cip al ch aracteristics a n d benefits of
collective labor agreem ents in Mexico.
Labor Organizations and Congresses
Censo sindical do Brazil em 1939.
(In B oletim do M inistério do T rab alh o ,
In d ù s tria e Com ércio, R io de Janeiro, D ecem ber 1942, pp. 85—103.)
R esults of th e 1939 census of lab o r organizations in B razil, including o rganiza
tions of em ployees, em ployers, persons in liberal professions, a n d in d ep en d e n t
w orkers. F o r each category are show n th e n u m b er of m em bers, by S ta te , by
in d u stry , a n d by sex a n d n a tio n a lity ; a n d th e econom ic situ a tio n by in d u stry
an d by S tate.
Très flagrantes da sindicali zaçâo. B y Luiz A ugusto de Regó M onteiro. (In
B oletim do M inistério do T rab alh o , In d ù s tria e Com ércio, R io de Janeiro,
F eb ru ary 1943, pp. 145-156.)
R ulings of th e general d irecto r of th e B razilian N atio n al L ab o r B ureau on th e
following questions concerning l#bor organizations: Exercise by lab o r org an iza
tions of functions an d a ctiv ities of a n econom ic n a tu re ; union ta x a n d em ployees
of th e G overnm ent; th e position in th e lab o r organization of shareholders of
enterprises a n d of m anagers of stock com panies.
Forty-eighth annual report of the Irish Trade Union Congress. D ublin, N atio n al
E xecutive of th e Irish T rad e U nion Congress, 1942. 183 pp.
R ep o rt of th e n atio n al executive of th e o rganization for 1941-42 a n d th e p ro
ceedings of th e an n u al conference h eld in Ju ly 1942.
Union membership and collective bargaining by foremen. W ashington, U. S.
B ureau of L ab o r S tatistics, 1943. 11 pp. (Bull. No. 745; re p rin te d from
M onthly L ab o r Review, Ju n e 1943, w ith ad d itio n al d ata.) 5 cents,
S up erin ten d en t of D ocum ents, W ashington.
Manpower
Experience in the use of part-time workers.
(In L ab o r M ark et, U. S. W ar M an
pow er Com m ission, B ureau of P rogram R equirem ents, W ashington, M a rc h A pril 1943, pp. 22-31.)
„ ,, .
T he article discusses ty p e s of p a rt-tim e w orkers, fields m w hich em ployed,
an d som e of th e problem s connected w ith th e use of p a rt-tim e w orkers, in th e
U nited States.
Manpower problems—a selected and annotated list of references. C om piled by
John P. U m bach. W ashington, U. S. L ib rary of Congress, L egislative
R eference Service, M arch 1943. 22 p p .; m im eographed. (W ar service
bulletins, series H -5 .) L im ited free d istrib u tio n .
Maximum utilization of employed manpower— a check list of company practice.
P rinceton, N . J., P rin ceto n U n iversity, In d u s tria l R elations Section, 1943.
46 pp., bibliography. (R esearch re p o rt series, N o. 68.) $1.
New manpower through better utilization. B y F ra n k H . S parks a n d others. New
Y ork, A m erican M anag em en t A ssociation, 1943. 28 p p . (P roduction
series N o. 144.)
Manpower situation in Great Britain, 1943. W ashington, U. S. B ureau of L abor
S tatistics, 1943. 14 pp. (Serial N o. R . 1550; rep rin te d from M onthly
L abor Review , Ju ly 1943.) Free.
West Indian workers in Britain. B y A rnold R . W atson. London, H o d d er &
S toughton, 1942. 24 pp. 6d.
. , „
D .. .
D eals w ith th e schem e fo r bringing W est In d ia n w orkers in to G reat B ritain
to perform w ar w ork a n d th e problem s of w ork a n d w elfare am ong th em .
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Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
854
Minimum Wage
From maximum wages to minimum wages: Six centuries of regulation of employment
contracts. B y E. M errick D odd. (In C olum bia L aw R eview , N ew Y ork,
Ju ly 1943, pp. 643-687. 85 cents.)
Sketches th e developm ent of th e A nglo-A m erican law of em p lo y m en t c o n tracts.
P a rtic u la r a tte n tio n is p aid to th e increase in go v ern m en tal reg u latio n of m a tte rs
affecting lab o r in E n g lan d a n d th e U n ited S ta te s a n d to th e change in lab o r legis
latio n from law s fixing m axim um wages to those p roviding fo r m inim um w ages.
Progress of State minimum-wage legislation in 1942.
B y Louise S titt a n d L o re tta
Sullivan. W ashington, U. S. B u reau of L ab o r S tatistics, 1943. 8 pp.
(Serial No. R . 1519; re p rin te d from M o n th ly L ab o r R eview , M arch 1943.)
Free.
Economic factors bearing on the establishment of minimum wages in the logging,
lumber and timber, and related products industries. N ew Y ork, U. S. D e p a rt
m en t of L abor, W age a n d H o u r an d P ublic C o n tracts D ivisions, 1943.
48 p p .; m im eographed. Free.
Economic factors bearing on the establishment of minimum wages in the wholesaling,
warehousing, and other distribution industries. N ew Y ork, U'. S. D e p a rtm e n t
of L abor, W age a n d H o u r an d P ublic C o n tra c ts D ivisions, 1943. 60 p p .;
m im eographed. Free.
El salario minimo en el Brasil. B y O scar E gidio de A raujo. (In V eritas, Buenos
Aires, A pril 1, 1943, pp. 236-238.)
A ccount of gains to B razilian lab o r from ad o p tio n of m inim um -w age legislation,
w ith statistics from studies of wages in several different S tates of th e co u n try .
Negro in Industry
How management can integrate Negroes in war industries.
By Jo h n A. D avis.
N ew Y ork C ity, N ew Y ork S ta te W ar Council, C om m ittee on D iscrim ination
in E m ploym en t, 1942. 43 pp., b ibliography.
S ubjects d ealt w ith include selection, p lacem ent, a n d han d lin g of th e N egro
w orker, and th e position of th e tra d e union in th e in te g ra tin g situ a tio n . A list
of corporations an d persons th a t h av e h a d im p o rta n t experience w ith N egro
personnel is ap p en d ed to th e rep o rt.
The Negro and unionism in the Birmingham,'Ala., iron and steel industry. By
H e rb e rt R . N o rth ru p . (In S ou th ern Econom ic Jo u rn al, C hapel H ill, N . C.,
Ju ly 1943, pp. 27-40. $1.)
Organized labor and Negro workers. B y H e rb e rt R . N o rth ru p . (In Jo u rn al of
Political E conom y, Chicago, Ju n e 1943, pp. 206-221. $1.)
Old-Age Retirement and Assistance
Employee retirement plans: Social security in private enterprise.
(In Jo u rn a l of
Com m erce, N ew Y ork, Ju ly 15, 1943, second section. 60 pp.)
T he re p o rt contains discussions, by different w riters, of various aspects of th e
problem , an d of fun d am en tals, ty p e s an d operation, an d th e fu tu re of em ployeere tire m en t plans. T h ere is a section on T reasu ry D e p a rtm e n t regulations which
affect th e plans.
State and local employees covered by Government retirement systems. B y D o ro th y
M cC am m an. (In Social Security B ulletin, F ed eral Security Agency, Social
S ecurity B oard, W ashington, Ju ly 1943, pp. 31-41. 20 cents, S u p erin ten d en t
of D ocum ents, W ashington.)
R ep o rt on coverage a n d ty p es of re tire m e n t system s for public em ployees in th e
U n ited States, based on a q uestionnaire stu d y m ade for th e Social Security B oard
by th e D ivision of S ta te an d Local G o vernm ent of th e B u reau of th e Census.
Minnesota directory of licensed hospitals and related institutions, 1943. M inneap
olis, M innesota D e p a rtm e n t of H ealth , D ivision of C hild H ygiene, 1943.
31 pp.
Includes, am ong th e in stitu tio n s listed, hom es for aged w hich p rovide care for
convalescent an d chronic cases.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Recent Publications of Labor Interest
855
El sistema jubilatorio Argentino.
By Ju a n D. R am irez G ronda. (In D erecho del
T rab ajo , B uenos Aires, April 1943, pp. 145-152.)
T h e legislative bases of th e respective A rgentine retire m e n t funds for em
ployees of th e G overnm ent, railw ays, public service, banks, a n d m erch an t m arine,
for journalists, an d for em ployees of th e city of B uenos Aires, are cited, w ith brief
sum m aries of provisions as to a d m in istratio n , coverage, contributions, a n d benefits.
T he coordination of th e various schem es is also outlined.
Labor’s fight for the old folk. London, L ab o r P a rty , 1942. 14 pp.
R eview of th e w ork of th e B ritish L ab o r P a rty tow ards im p ro v em en t of th e
n atio n al pension system an d of th e dem ands of th e p a rty for increased pensions.
Post-War Reconstruction
Demobilization and readjustment: Report of Conference on Postwar Readjustment of
Civilian and Military Personnel. W ashington, U. S. N atio n al R esources
P lanning B oard, 1943. 106 pp., charts.
C ontains proposals for th e orderly handling of th e dem obilization an d re a d ju st
m en t of m en com ing o u t of th e arm ed forces a n d from w ar in d u stry a t th e close
of th e w ar.
Economic problems of the post-war— bibliography, selected and annotated. W ashing
to n , C ham ber of Com m erce of th e U n ited S tates, A ugust 1943. 22 pp.
Plan for reconstruction: A project for victory in war and peace.
By W. H . H u tt.
L ondon, K egan P aul, T rench, T ru b n e r & Co., L td ., 1943. 328 pp. 18s.
T he a u th o r’s p lan is for th e e n actm en t of special laws, d rafts of w hich are given
an d explained. F ull in stead of restrain ed p roduction is basic to th e program .
The transition from war to peace economy: Report of the Delegation on Economic
Depressions, Part I. G eneva, L eague of N ations, 1943. 118 pp. $1,
C olum bia U niversity Press, N ew Y ork.
Defines w h at th e D elegation considers should be th e objectives of post-w ar
econom ic policy an d analyzes th e p robable effects of w ar econom y a n d th e p ro b
lems of th e tra n sitio n from w ar to peace econom y. M easures to a v e rt w orld
depression a n d to establish a n enduring a n d peaceful w orld economic order are
recom m ended. A tta in m e n t of full em ploym ent is one of th e m ajo r problem s
considered. T he portio n s of th e re p o rt m ost d irectly concerning in d u stry an d
lab o r are analyzed in th e In te rn a tio n a l L ab o r R eview for Ju ly 1943.
Britain’s town and country pattern—a summary of the Barlow, Scott, and TJthwatt
reports. P rep ared b y th e Nuffield College Social R eco n stru ctio n Survey.
L ondon, F a b e r & F ab er, L td ., 1943. I l l pp., m ap. (R ebuilding B ritain
series, N o. 2.) 2s. 6d.
T he th re e rep o rts w hich are sum m arized are considered b y th e d irecto r of th e
survey, G. D . H . Cole, to be basic to p o st-w ar p lanning of b o th in d u stry an d
agriculture.
Price Control and Rationing
Fourth report of the Office of Price Administration, covering the period ended January
31, 1943. W ashington, 1943. 90 pp., ch arts. (H ouse doc. No. 248, 78th
Cong., 1st sess.)
R eview s th e ratio n in g pro g ram in general, ratio n in g of specific com m odities,
price control, price m ovem ents, an d re n t control.
Food rationing and morale. B y C. A rnold A nderson. Ames, Iow a, Iow a S ta te
College Press, 1943. 40 pp. 20 cents.
(Iow a S ta te College, D e p a rtm e n t
of Econom ics an d Sociology, W artim e farm a n d food policy series, p am p h let
No. 4.)
Stresses th e im portan ce of m orale in w artim e a n d outlines th e essentials of a
food-rationing program th a t will m a in ta in a high level of m orale.
Observations on rationing and price control in Great Britain. B y D ex ter M. Keezer.
(In A m erican E conom ic Review, 722 Jack so n Place N W ., W ashington,
Ju n e 1943, pp. 264-282. $1.25.)
Point rationing, with particular reference to British experience. By D o ro th y
C am pbell T om pkins. B erkeley, U niv ersity of C alifornia, B u reau of Public
A dm inistration, D ecem ber 1942. 6 p p .; m im eographed. (W ar bibliog
rap h y No. 4.)
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
856
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
Productivity and Technological Changes
Cosecha mecánica del algodón.
By R afael G arcía M a ta a n d R óm ulo A. F ranchelli.
Buenos Aires, M inisterio de A gricultura, J u n ta N acional del Algodón, 1942]
126 pp., diagram s, illus.
A re p o rt on experim ents w ith m echanical c o tto n h arv e ste rs in A rg en tin a an d
th e U nited S tates from 1937-1942, w ith in fo rm atio n on social, econom ic, an d
technological problem s connected w ith th e m ech an izatio n of c o tto n picking.
Work performed with principal farm machines. By A. P. Brodell an d Jam es W.
B rickhead. W ashington, U. S. D e p a rtm e n t of A griculture, B ureau of
A gricultural Econom ics, 1943. 44 p p .; m im eographed. (F. M. 42.)
S um m ary of m ore th a n 27,000 re p o rts from crop corresp o n d en ts of th e D e p a rt
m e n t of A griculture. In fo rm a tio n is given for th e several geographic divisions
regarding such item s as th e av erag e am o u n t of w ork done w ith th e p rincipal
farm m achines in a 10-hour day , th e to ta l w ork perform ed in 1941, a n d th e a m o u n t
of lab o r required to o p erate th e various kinds of m achines in th e p erform ance of
a given am o u n t of w ork. T his stu d y is described as designed to th ro w lig h t on
problem s of m achin ery an d m anpow er u n d er w ar conditions. An earlier su m m ary
of o th er d a ta from th e sam e re p o rts was p u blished u n d er th e title “ Age a n d Size
of P rincipal F arm M achines” (F. M. 41).
Labor aspects of machine and hand milking.
By A. P. Brodell a n d M. R. Cooper.
W ashington, U. S. D e p a rtm e n t of A griculture, B ureau of A g ricultural
Econom ics, 1943. 13 p p .; m im eographed. (F. M. 43.)
B ased on inform atio n received in F e b ru a ry 1943* from crop correspondents.
I t is sta te d th a t a b o u t one-half of th e m ilking m achines are less th a n 4 years
old and t h a t shortag e of lab o r h as g reatly stim u la te d th e d em an d for new m achines,
an d also has increased th e use of old m achines.
Indexes of man-hour requirements for Liberty vessels.
W ashington, U. S. B ureau
of L abor S tatistic s, E m p lo y m en t a n d O ccupational O utlook B ranch, 1943.
4 p p .; m im eographed. Free.
Productivity and unit labor cost in selected mining industries, 1935-43.
to n , L . S. B ureau of L ab o r S ta tistic s, 1943.
W ashing
9 p p .; m im eographed. Free.
Productivity and unit labor cost in the telephone and telegraph industries, 1935-42.
W ashington, U . S. B ureau of L ab o r S tatistics, 1943.
Free.
3 p p .; m im eographed.
Enquiry into joint production committees, being the third report on production
{PE!429). [London?], A m alg am ated E ng in eerin g U nion, 1943. 97 pp., m im
eographed.
T he resu lts of a check to ascertain th e effect of jo in t-p ro d u ctio n -co m m ittee
agreem ents on prod u ctio n in G re a t B ritain .
Sickness Insurance and Medical Care
Medical care and costs in relation to family income—a statistical source book including
selected data on characteristics of illness. B y H elen H ollingsw orth an d
M a rg aret C. K lem . W ashington, U. S. Social Security B oard, B ureau of
R esearch an d S tatistics, 1943. 219 pp. (B ureau m em o ran d u m No. 51.)
In ad d itio n to d a ta on m edical care a n d its costs, th e re p o rt co n tain s inform a
tion on th e prevalence, frequency, severity, a n d d u ra tio n of illness, prim arily
in relation to fam ily incom e, in th e U n ited S tates.
El seguro de enfermedad en el Ecuador.
(In B oletín de Inform aciones y de E stu d io s
Sociales y Económ icos, In s titu to N acional de Previsión, Q uito, M arch 1943,
pp. 8-29.) _
R ésum é of sickness insurance in E cu ad o r, w ith som e sta tistic s by years from
1938 to 1942.
J J
The British health services in wartime.
N ew Y ork, B ritish In fo rm a tio n Services,
1943. 20 pp. (I. D . 416.) Free.
D escribes th e fram ew ork of th e h e a lth services, th e em ergency h o sp ital schem e,
o rganization of supplies a n d personnel, air-raid p recautions, an d ch ild-health serv
ices, an d discusses n u tritio n , in d u stria l h ealth , a n d general h e a lth of th e population.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Recent Publications of Labor Interest
857
Health insurance in England.
Chicago, A m erican M edical Association, B ureau of
M edical Econom ics, 1942. 31 pp.
R eview of th e conditions a n d forces th a t led to th e ad o p tio n of th e B ritish
h ealth-insurance system an d a discussion of th e e x ten t to w hich it has a tta in e d
its avow ed objectives, considered from th e sta n d p o in t of th e m ovem ent in th e
U n ited S tates for th e in tro d u ctio n of com pulsory h e alth insurance.
Social Security
Panorama of social insurance in the Americas.
M ontreal, In te rn a tio n a l L abor
Office, 1943. 37 pp. (Inter-A m erican C om m ittee on Social Security,
P rovisional bull. No. 1.)
R eview of th e progress of th e social-insurance m ovem ent in th e A m ericas from
th e m iddle of 1940 to th e end of 1942. A ta b le show ing th e scope of social in su r
ance in th e various A m erican countries is included.
Report of the Social Security Commission of Puerto Rico, February 5, 1943. San
Ju an , 1943. 70 pp.
T he re p o rt covers th e first y e a r’s w ork of th e Comm ission an d deals w ith th e
estab lish m en t of a general program for social assistance in th e Island.
Origens e tendencias do seguro social. By B ezerra de F reitas. (In B oletim do
M inistério do T rab alh o , In d u s tria e Comercio, Rio de Janeiro, D ecem ber
1942, pp. 210-226.)
T his article deals m ainly w ith social insurance in B razil, from th e ad o p tio n of
th e law for railw aym en in 1923 th ro u g h 1939, b u t certain figures are given on social
insurance in A rgentina in 1936 an d 1937.
Operaciones de la Caja de Previsión de Empleados Particulares durante los años 1939
a 1942, [Chile], (In P revisión Social, M inisterio de S alubridad, Previsión
y A sistencia Social, Santiago de Chile, O cto b er-D ecem b er 1942, pp. 176-194.)
B rief listing of legislation, th ro u g h D ecem ber 1942, relatin g to th e C hilean W el
fare F u n d for Em ployees of P riv a te E nterprises, an d financial sta te m e n t for th e
period 1939-42 (two fiscal years) show ing assets an d liabilities, receipts, an d
expenditures.
Anteproyecto de ley del seguro social.
México, D. F., S ecretaría del T rab ajo y
Previsión Social, 1942. V arious paging, ch art.
R ep o rt of a stu d y of all phases of social security, m ade p rio r to adoption, on
D ecem ber 31, 1942, of th e social-insurance law in Mexico; te x t of th e proposed
law ; an d various financial a n d a c tu a ria l tables. T he tab les include sta tistic s of
in d u strial d istrib u tio n , an d wages an d hours of w orkers.
The Beveridge plan and the Italian legislation on social security. By Giorgio
Tagliacozzo. W ashington, B ureau of L a tin A m erican R esearch, 1943. 31
p p .; m im eographed.
F a c tu a l com parison of th e Ita lia n social-insurance system w ith th e B everidge
social-security plan for G reat B ritain , to refu te th e p ro p a g a n d a claims of th e
Ita lia n s t h a t th e fascist system is fa r in ad v an ce of th e B ritish plan.
Welfare outside the factory and seamen’s welfare in port, August 1941-August 1942.
L ondon, M in istrv of L ab o r a n d N a tio n a l Service, 1942.
6411.) 2d.
12 pp.
(Cm d.
W ages and Hours of Labor
Earnings in aircraft-parts plants, November 1942.
W ashington, U. S. B ureau of
L abor S tatistics, 1943. 15 pp. (Bull. No. 744; rep rin te d from M onthly
L abor Review , Ju n e 1943.) 5 cents, S u p erin ten d en t of D ocum ents, W ash
ington.
Earnings in the manufacture of industrial machinery, 1942 (part 3). W ashington,
U. S. B ureau of L abor S tatistics, 1943. 42 pp. (Bull. No. 720-B ; rep rin te d
from M onthly L ab o r Review, F e b ru ary , M arch, an d A pril 1943.) 10 cents,
S u p erin ten d en t of D ocum ents, W ashington.
F ive branches of th e in d u strial a n d electrical-m achinery m an u factu rin g in
d u stry are covered in th is b u lletin — m achine-tool accessories, dom estic-laundry
eq u ipm ent, refrigeratin g equip m en t, electrical appliances, and carbon pro d u cts
for th e electrical in d u stry .
551712—43----- 15
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
858
Monthly Labor Review—October 1943
Union wages and hours in the -printing trades, June 1, 1942.
W ashington, U. S.
B ureau of L abo r S tatistics, 1943. 73 pp., ch arts. (Bull. No. 739; re p rin te d
from M onthly L ab o r Review, M arch 1943, w ith a d d itio n a l d a ta .) 10 cents,
S u p erin ten d en t of D ocum ents, W ashington.
Some current factors in wage disputes—work of the War Labor Board.
(In Iow a Law
R eview , Iow a C ity, M ay 1943, pp. 671-682. $1.)
D iscusses th e m eaning th a t th e N atio n al W ar L ab o r B oard has given to th e
bases for authorizing increases above S eptem ber 15, 1942, wages. Those bases,
contained in E xecutive O rder No. 9250, are to correct m a la d ju stm e n ts or inequal
ities; to elim inate su b sta n d a rd s of living; to correct gross inequities (largely
elim inated by E xecutive O rder No. 9328 of A pril 8, 1943); a n d to aid in th e
effective prosecution of th e w ar.
Square meals and square deals.
B y E rn e st B evin. L ondon, L ab o r P a rty , 1943.
13 pp. 2d.
P resen ts th e po in ts a t issue on th e passage of th e B ritish catering wages bill an d
discusses its scope an d th e effect th a t wage p ro tectio n w ould have in building up
th e efficiency of em ployees in th e in d u stry .
Los salarios en el Perú.
By Jorge R am írez O tárola. L im a, B iblioteca de la
R ev ista de E conom ía y F inanzas, 1941. 14 pp. (C uadernos m onográficos
útiles, p rim era serie, No. 3.)
D etailed wage sta tistic s of app ro x im ately 24,500 w orkers in 70 in d u strial
establishm ents in P eru, show ing m axim um , m inim um , a n d m ost freq u en t wage
rates; an d statistics of em plo y m en t and average wages p aid in cotto n , sugar, rice,
w heat, a n d m ining in d u stries in various years, 1936 to 1938.
Women in Industry
Wartime employment of women in manufacturing industries, June 1943.
to n , U. S. B ureau of L ab o r S tatistics, 1943.
Free.
W ashing
19 pp., c h a rts; m im eographed.
Wartime opportunities for women.
B y E velyn Steele. N ew Y ork, E. P. D u tto n &
Co., Inc., 1943. 181 pp., bibliography, illus. $2.50.
Surveys th e num erous fields of w ar work, for wom en. O ccupations are appraised
n o t only on th e basis of th e p resen t em ergency, b u t also upon th e possibilities
offered for p erm an e n t a n d satisfying careers.
Women in war: A complete guide to service in the armed forces and war industries.
B y H e rb e rt B urstein . N ew Y ork, Service P ublishing Co., 1943. 166 pp.,
illus. $1.50.
In ad d itio n to th e ch ap te rs giving accounts of various w ar organizations of
women, o th er sections of th e volum e deal w ith th e need for w om en in in d u stry ,
m obilization of w om anpow er, policies as to reg istratio n of w om en, jobs a t w hich
w om en now w ork, em plo y m en t of w om en in o th e r countries, etc.
An abstract of laws governing the employment of women in New York State. A lbany,
N ew Y ork S ta te D e p a rtm e n t of L abor, D ivision of W om en in In d u s try an d
M inim um W age, 1943. 20 p p .; m im eographed.
Punch in, Susie! A woman’s war factory diary.
By N ell Giles. N ew Y ork and
L ondon, H arp er & Bros., 1943. 143 pp., illus. $1.50.
A lively acco u n t of th e experiences of a new spaper w om an who took a w ar job
w ith an electric com pany.
General Reports
A short history of labor conditions under industrial capitalism: Volume IT, The
United States of America, 1789 to the present day. B y Ju rg en K uczynski.
London, F rederick M uller, L td ., 1943.
228 pp.
10s. 6d.
Annual report of the Commissioner of Labor, submitted to the Governor of Puerto
Rico, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1942. San Ju a n , 1942. 108 pp.
T h e re p o rt covers th e w ork of th e in d u stria l supervision service, child ren ’s
bureau, em ploym en t service, hom estead division, m ed iatio n an d conciliation
service, a n d w orkm en’s com pensation service of th e P u e rto R ican D e p a rtm e n t
of L abor, an d lists collective agreem ents en tered in to du rin g th e y ear betw een
labor organizations a n d em ployers. T h e social legislation en acted during th e
special 1941 session a n d th e regular 1942 session of th e legislature is listed.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Recent Publications of Labor Interest
859
Labor trends and social welfare in Latin America, 194-1 and 1942.
By E rnesto
G alarza. W ashington, P an A m erican U nion, D ivision of L ab o r a n d Social
In form ation, 1943. 153 pp., illu s.; m im eographed. 25 cents.
Subjects covered include lab o r organizations a n d th e ir activ ities; g o vernm ental
m easures to regulate prices, ren ts, etc.; cost of living; wage an d salary situ a tio n ;
m igration of w orkers; colonization and' lan d -settlem en t p rogram s; cooperatives;
public housing program s; food d istrib u tio n an d n u tritio n ; m a te rn ity an d child care;
social-security program s; a n d effects of th e w ar on th e various countries.
Las condiciones sociales y económicas de la clase obrera Argentina. By José
Figuerola. (In Proceedings of th e E ig h th A m erican Scientific Congress,
held in W ashington, M ay 10-18, 1940, Vol. X I, Econom ics an d sociology,
pp., 171-180; charts. W ashington, U. S. D e p a rtm e n t of S tate, 1943.)
An exam ination of A rgentine cost-of-living a n d price indexes for various years
to an d including 1939, a n d unem p lo y m en t indexes for 1932, 1935, a n d 1936; an d
for th e F ederal C apital only, indexes show ing em plo y m en t levels for various years
including 1939, an d w age sta tistic s for certain in d u stries an d professions.
Labor problems in Bolivia: Report of the Joint Bolivian-United States Labor Com
mission. M ontreal, In te rn a tio n a l L ab o r Office, 1943. 48 pp., illus. 50 cents.
R eproduction of th e C om m ission’s re p o rt as originally issued in m im eographed
form by th e U. S. D e p a rtm e n t of S tate, w ith th e ad d itio n of a forew ord by th e
In te rn a tio n a l L abor Office, illu stratio n s, an d a page by page tra n sla tio n in to
Spanish.
Quinto censo general de población levantado el 7 de abril de 1940, [Guatemala]. G u ate
m ala, Secretaría de H acien d a y C rédito Público, D irección G eneral de E s ta
dística, 1942. 887 pp.
. .
G ainful w orkers are classified by in d u stry , occupation, sex, a n d political division
of th e R epublic.
Labor conditions in Greece. W ashington, U. S. B ureau of L ab o r S tatistics, 1943.
18 pp. (Serial No. R . 1561; rep rin te d from M on th ly L abor Review, A ugust
1943.) Free.
Department of Labor Bulletin, No. 1. Jerusalem , Palestine, O ctober—D ecem ber
1942. 28 pp.
T his is th e first issue of a bu lletin to be published q u a rte rly by th e P alestine
D e p a rtm e n t of L abor. I t contains a list of th e objectives of th e new D ep a rtm e n t,
w hich was established in Ju ly 1942.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
U. S. G¡ O V E R N M E N T P R I N T I N G O F F I C E : 1943
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
@FedFRASER