Full text of Monthly Labor Review : November 1945, Vol. 61, No. 5

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VOL. 61 • NO. 5

NOVEMBER 1945

IN THIS ISSUE
JZZ.

“Extra” Workers in Postwar Labor Force
Wartime Utilization of Jamaicans
Opinion on Relation Between Foreign Trade
and Employment
Price Control and Rationing in Foreign
Countries
Employment Pattern of Mexicans in Detroit
Work Injuries in Slaughtering and Meat
Packing

NITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR • BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
L. B. S ch w ellenbach , Secretary
♦
BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS
I sador Ltjbin, Commissioner (on leave)
A. F. H inrichs, Acting Commissioner

Inquiries should be addressed to Bureau of Labor Statistics, Wash
ington 25, D. C.

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Subscription price per year in the United States, Canada, and Mexico, $3.50 other
countries, $4.75.

+
The M onthly Labor R eview is published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics,
under authority of Public Resolution No. 57, approved M ay 11, 1922 (42 Stat 541)
as amended by section 307, Public Act 212, 72d Congress, approved June 30,1932.
This publication approved by the Director of the Bureau of the Budget.

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MONTHLY

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

CONTENTS
C<
• 7
• I
Special
articles:

n~r^ o

BUREAOfBf LABOR STATISTICS

lltf^ lBER

1945, Vol. 61, No. 5

I r IA I

“ E x tra ” w orkers in th e p o stw ar lab o r force____________________
W artim e u tilizatio n of Jam aican s in U nited S ta te s in d u stria l e sta b
lish m en ts________________________________________________
O pinion on th e relation betw een foreign tra d e an d em p lo y m e n t______
W ar and p o stw ar wages, prices, a n d hours, 1914-23 a n d 1939-44:
P a r t 2— W ar an d p o stw ar tre n d s ___________________________ __
Price control an d ratio n in g in foreign countries du rin g th e w a r______

Page
g^g
858
ggg
882

Discharged soldiers:
B enefits for ex-servicem en in five B ritfsh countries a n d U nited S ta te s .
Policy on em ploym ent of v e te ra n s_________________

900
909

War and postwar policies:
P o stw ar policies regarding foreign w orkers an d prisoners of w a r_____
A ustralian ren t-co n tro l regulations, 1945____________________ ______

910
912

Employment conditions:
E m p lo y m en t p a tte rn s of M exicans in D e tro it_______ _________
“ E x tra ” w orkers in th e p o stw ar lab o r force_________________________
W artim e u tilizatio n of Ja m aican s in U n ited S ta te s in d u stria l estab lish
m e n ts________________________________________ ____ ____ __
O pinion on th e relation betw een foreign tra d e a n d e m p lo y m en t_____
T e n an t-farm an d land-use regulation in I t a ly _________________ _

913
g41
g^g
858
923

Postwar reconstruction:
925

B uilding dam age and reco n stru ctio n in F ra n c e _____________________

Social security:
930
949

D evelopm ents in civilian fam ily allowances, 1944-45_______________
U nem ploym ent assistance an d re train in g p rogram in B elg iu m ______

Women in industry:
E arnings of w omen in Illinois industries, Ju n e 1945_________________

953

Industrial injuries:
W ork in ju ries in th e slaughtering a n d m eat-p ack in g in d u stry , 1943. _

955

Industrial relations:
G overnm ent collective ag reem ent w ith civil se rv a n ts in S ask atch ew an .
C onciliation service of G overnm ent of In d ia ________________________

972
973

Industrial disputes:
S trikes an d lock-outs in S eptem ber 1945__________________________ _
A ctivities of U. S. C onciliation Service, A ugust 1945_______________

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975
978

CONTENTS

Labor organizations and conventions:
U nderground trad e-u n io n a c tiv ity in N orw ay du rin g th e w a r-----------T rade-union grow th a n d in te rn a tio n a l policy in S w itzerlan d --------------

P age

979
981

Labor laws and decisions:
S ta te legislation on la b o r relatio n s a n d discrim ination in em ploym ent,
1945_____________________________________________________________
L egislative sessions in 1946-------------------------------------------------------------R ecen t decisions of in te re st to la b o r-------------------------------------------------

984
991
992

Employed youth:
S tu d e n t w orkers in N ew Y ork S ta te ------------------------------------------------

996

Wage and hour statistics:
W ar a n d p o stw ar w ages, prices, a n d hours, 1914-23 a n d 1939-44:
P a r t \2__________________________________________________________
T re n d of facto ry earnings, 1939 to A ugust 1945-------------------------------U n ited K ingdom — H o u rs a n d earnings in Ja n u a ry 1945-------------------

863
998
999

Prices and cost of living:
Indexes of consum ers’ prices in large cities, S ep tem b er 1945-------------R etail prices of food in S ep tem b er 1945------------------------------------------Supplies of food in in d ep e n d e n t re ta il stores, S ep tem b er 1945----------W holesale prices in S ep tem b er 1945--------------------------------------------------Indexes of strate g ic a n d critical ngaterials----------------------------------------P rice’ control an d ratio n in g in foreign countries du rin g th e w a r---------

1003
1005
1011
1012
1018
882

Building operations:
B uilding co nstru ctio n in u rb a n areas, S ep tem b er 1945------------ '---------

1019

Labor turn-over:
L abor tu rn -o v e r in m an u factu rin g , m ining, a n d pub lic utilities, A ugust
1945______________________________________________________________

1023

Trend of employment, earnings, and hours:
S um m ary of rep o rts for S ep tem b er 1945-------------------------------------------In d u s tria l an d business e m p lo y m e n t----------------------------------------P ublic e m p lo y m e n t-----------------------------E m p lo y m en t in sh ip y a rd s. ------------------------------------------------------C o n stru ctio n e m p lo y m e n t--------------------------------------------------------D etailed rep o rts fo r in d u stria l a n d business em ploym ent, A ugust 1945:
N o n ag ricu ltu ra l em p lo y m e n t---------------------------------------------------In d u s tria l a n d business e m p lo y m e n t----------------------------------------Indexes of em p lo y m en t an d p ay rolls---------------------------------A verage earnings a n d h o u rs----------------------------------------------T re n d of facto ry earnings, 1939 to A ugust 1945-------------------------------L ab o r force, S ep tem b er 1945------------------------------------------------------------Recent publications of labor interest---------------------------------------------------

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1029
1029
1030
1032
1033
1035
1035
1036
1045
998
1049
1050

This Issue in B rief

"Extra” workers in the postwar labor force
T he labor force in A pril 1945 exceeded long-run, p eacetim e ex p ectatio n s by
ap p ro x im ately 7 m illion persons. By 1950, th is volum e of “ e x tra ” w orkers is
expected to be reduced to p erh ap s only 1 or 2 million. M ost w artim e ad d itio n s
from th e youngest an d oldest groups are likely to d isap p ear very sh o rtly , a n d a
re tu rn to th e prew ar tre n d to w ard longer schooling an d earlier re tire m e n t is
indicated. M ost of th e w artim e excess am ong young women u n d er 35 reflects
th e effect of th e d ra ft on servicew ives a n d is likely to d isap p ear as servicem en
re tu rn to civilian jobs. Am ong m en a n d women in th e m iddle-aged groups,
surpluses over prew ar levels arose in response to a full-em ploym ent situ a tio n an d
are likely to p ersist— th ough to a less e x ten t th a n during th e w ar— if peace
tim e job o p p o rtu n ities are favorable. Page 841.

Wartime utilization of Jamaicans in industrial establishments
M ore th a n 12,000 Ja m aican n atives were em ployed in m an u fa c tu rin g estab lish
m ents in th e U nited S tates du rin g th e period of acu te lab o r shortage in late 1944
and early 1945. In over four-fifths of th e 60 p la n ts v isited by rep resen tativ es
of th e B ureau of L abo r S tatistics, all Jam aican recru its were placed on general
labor. A bout half of th e p la n ts gave Jam aican s some p rejob orien tatio n , an d in
m ost p la n ts forem en were given special in stru ctio n on supervising th e Jam aican s.
R ep o rts to B ureau rep resen tativ es in d icated th a t Jam aican s perform ed light
w ork m ost effectively; th e y w orked m ore slowly, b u t somew’h a t m ore steadily,
th a n dom estic laborers. A lm ost tw o -th ird s of th e com panies rep o rted th a t o u t
p u t p er w orker for Jam aican s com pared fav o rab ly w ith th a t of o th e r em ployees.
Page 848.

Opinion on the relation between foreign trade and employment
T he im portance of increased foreign tra d e in im proving w orld sta n d a rd s of
living is generally recognized. T he c o n trib u tio n th a t an enlarged foreign tra d e
m ig h t m ake to dom estic em ploym ent is, how ever, a m a tte r concerning w hich
th ere is wide divergence of opinion. Some ty p ical views are sum m arized in th e
article on page 858. A tten tio n is called to studies m ade by th e B ureau of L abor
S tatistics and th e U. S. T ariff Comm ission w hich th row some light on th e q u a n ti
ta tiv e im portance to dom estic em ploym ent of expanded foreign trad e. T he
com plexity an d u n c e rta in ty of th e relationship, ta k in g acco u n t of b o th exports
an d im ports,_suggest th a t th e em ploym ent objective of th e U n ited S tates m ig h t
be com prom ised if excessive reliance were placed upo n th e ab ility of increased
foreign tra d e to create ad d itio n al jobs.

War and postwar wages, prices, and hours, 1914-23, and 1939-44: Part. 2
W ages, average earnings, and prices from 1914 to 1923 were extrem ely v ariable.
T he average hourly earnings of facto ry w orkers, for exam ple, rose from $0,223
in 1914 to $0,564 in th e fo u rth q u a rte r of 1920, fell to $0,482 in th e first q u a rte r
of 1922, an d advanced to $0,522 in 1923. T he n e t rise of 69.8 percent in th e
consum ers’ price index betw een 1914 an d 1923 w as g reater th a n th e n et ad v an ce
of 47.7 p ercen t in wholesale prices. Increases in lab o r p ro d u c tiv ity as well as
in prices co n trib u ted to th e rise in wages. H o u rs of w ork in factories fell from
49.4 per week in 1914 to 46.3 in 1919, w ith little fu rth e r change except in a few
industries, notably, iron a n d steel. C onditions affecting wages a n d prices a t th e
end of W orld W ar I I prom ised a m uch sm aller v ariab ility th a n a fte r W orld W ar I,
b u t th e resto ratio n of w ork schedules p revailing in 1939 in d icated sh arp red u ctio n s
in hours of w ork. Page 863.

Price control and rationing in foreign countries
M ost n atio n s h ad som e form of price control b.v th e gov ern m en t in th e in te rw a r
period. W hen hostilities com m enced in 1939 certain countries established price

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T H IS ISSUE IN BRIEF

ceilings for a large n u m b e r of essential raw m aterials a n d consum er goods; others
h ad only lim ited price controls in th e early p a rt of th e w ar. Subsidies were
freq u en tly used, eith er a t th e p ro d u cers’, th e w holesalers’, or th e re ta ile rs’ level,
to m ain tain th e ceilings fixed. Price-control m easures p ro v ed largely ineffective
in th e countries in v ad ed by th e Axis pow ers, owing to th e extrem e shortages
caused by th e destructio n of eq u ip m en t a n d tra n sp o rta tio n a n d th e disru p tio n of
g overnm ent ad m in istra tio n . R atio n in g of certain essential foods was general in
w artim e. Some countries have decreased ratio n s in p eacetim e to aid th e food
supply in others. Page 882.

Benefits for ex-servicemen
On honorable discharge, a n a rm y p riv a te is given a v ariety of o p p o rtu n ities for
resettlem en t in A ustralia, C anada, G re a t B ritain , N ew Z ealand, a n d th e U nion
of South A frica. Provisions differ am ong th ese countries a n d also from th o se in
th e U n ited States. H ow ever, all six n atio n s h av e assured th e rig h t of th e v eteran
to re tu rn to his p rew ar em p lo y m en t a n d have estab lish ed system s of financial aid
in th e tra n sitio n to civilian life an d during a n y u n em p lo y m en t. O p p o rtu n ities
are afforded for m en to becom e self-em ployed in business or farm ing, th ro u g h
g fan ts a n d loans. T h ey will be able to p rep are for b e tte r jobs by m aking use
of th e financial aid for tra d e tra in in g a n d higher education. Page 900.

Employment patterns of Mexicans in Detroit
T he first M exican w orkers cam e to D e tro it in 1918; in 1944 th e re w ere betw een
2,000 an d 3,000 w orkers of M exican b irth or p are n ta g e in th e c ity ’s industries.
T he article on page 913 shows th e ty p e s of w ork in w hich th ese w orkers ordinarily
engage, th e ir ty p ical em p lo y m en t experiences, a n d th e special problem s encoun
tered^ as exem plified in a group of fam ilies stu d ied over th e periods 1920-38, 1939,
a n d la te r years.

Building damage and reconstruction in France
B uildings dam aged or d estro y ed in F ran ce in W orld W ar I I n um bered 1,804,000—
double th e n u m b er in th e F irst W orld W ar. T w enty-five p ercen t of all b u ild
ings dam aged in th e second w ar were com pletely destroyed, as c o n traste d w ith
40 p ercen t in th e first w ar. I t is estim a te d th a t 13.9 billion m an-hours of labor
will be req u ired for reco n stru ctio n . Page 925.

Developments in civilian family allowances 1944-45
S u b stan tial progress in th e m ovem ent for civilian fam ily allow ances in 1944-45
w as disclosed by a survey by th e B ureau of L abor S tatistics. D u ring th e w ar,
laws establishing such system s were en acted in C anada, A ustralia, an d G reat
B ritain and have alread y gone into effect in th e first tw o of these. In 1944-45,
in co n tin en tal E urope a n d L atin Am erica liberalization of benefit or broadening of
coverage took place in a n u m b er of countries. D evelopm ents in these countries
an d in th e U nited S tates are covered in th e article on page 930.

Work injuries in the slaughtering and meat-packing industry
In 1944, 1 of every 12 w orkers in th e slaughtering a n d m eat-p ack in g in d u stry
suffered a disabling w ork in ju ry . A special stu d y was m ade b y th e B ureau of
L ab o r S tatistics to m easure th e accid en t problem in th e in d u stry an d a scertain
th e p oints a t w hich im p ro v em en t in accid en t p rev en tio n is p racticab le. I t re
vealed a considerably higher ra te of accid en t frequency in th e slau g h terin g a n d
dressing operations th a n in th e m eat-p ack in g o perations. In general, th e large
an d very sm all p lan ts h ad b e tte r records th a n th e m edium -size p la n ts. Page 955.

State legislation on labor relations in 1945
T hree new labor-relatio n s ac ts were passed in 1945 a n d five S tates am en d ed laws
previously enacted. C oncilation, m ediation, an d a rb itra tio n were pro v id ed for
in four S tates an d tw o island possessions. Only one S ta te ad o p te d a “ rig h t to
w ork ” law, alth o u g h such bills were in tro d u ced in a t least 11 S tates. _ S eniority of
v eteran s w as legislated upon in one S ta te . M easures p ro h ib itin g discrim in atio n
in em ploym ent w ere passed in four S tates, a n d in a fifth an in v estig a to ry com
m ittee was provided for. T he provisions of th ese laws are sum m arized in th e
article on page 984.

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CURRENT LABOR STATISTICS
Current Statistics of Labor Interest in Selected Periods 1
IAvailable in reprint form]
1945
Item

U nit or base
period

Employment and unemployment
Civilian labor force (BC): T o t a l___ Thousands.
M ale_______________ __________
___do____
Female_______________________
___do____
Employed 4___________________
___do____
M ale_____________________
___do_____
Fem ale___________________
....d o ___
Nonagricultural____________ ___do____
Agricultural_______________
___do____
Unemployed___ ______________
. . . . d o ____
Civilian employment in nonagricul ___do____
tural establishments: Total.4
Manufacturing________________
.do. .
M ining__________ _____________
.do._
Construction 3___ ______________
-do_.
Transportation and public utili
.do. _
ties.
Trade_________________________
.do.
Finance, service, and miscellane
.do.
ous.
Federal, State, and local govern ___d o ..
ment, excluding Federal forceaccount construction.
M ilitary personnel_________________
.do.
Production-worker em ploym ent:6
Manufacturing_________________
.do.
Bituminous-coal mining______ . ..
.do.
Class I steam railroads, including
.do.
salaried employees (ICC).
Hired farm workers (B A E )_____
.do.
Hours and earnings
Average weekly hours:
Manufacturing_______ _________ Hours_____
Bituminous-coal mining___ . ____ ___do_____
Retail trade____________________ ___do_____
Building construction (p rivate)... ___do_____
Average weekly earnings:
Manufacturing____________ ____
Bituminous-coal mining________
Retail trade_____ ______________
Building construction (private)...
Average hourly earnings:
Manufacturing_________________
Bituminous-coal m ining________
Retail tr a d e ..._________________
Building construction (private)...
Average straight-time hourly
earnings in manufacturing,
using—
Current employment by in
dustry.
Employment by industry as
of January 1939.
Quarterly farm wage rate, per day
without board (BA E).
Industrial injuries and labor turn-over
Industrial injuries in manufacturing,
per million man-hours worked.
Labor turn-over per 100 employees in
manufacturing:
Total separations_______________
Quits_________ _______ _____
Lay-offs______________ _____
Total accessions...........1 _________
Strikes and lock-outs
Strikes and lock-outs beginning in
month:
N um ber_______________________
Number of workers involved____ Thousands.. .
All strikes and lock-outs during
month:
Number of man-days idle_______ ___do______
Man-days idle as percent of avail
able working time.

See footnotes at end of table.

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1944
1939:
average
Septem for
year
ber

Septem
ber

August

52, 900
34, 250
18, 650
51, 250
33, 320
17,930
42, 450
8, 800
1,650
35,268

54, 350
35,020
19, 330
53, 520
34, 590
18, 930
44, 470
9, 050
830
36,894

55, 220
35,140
20,080
54, 270
34, 660
19, 610
44,430
9,840
950
37, 229

2 18, 440
2 52, 250
2 34,190
2 18, 060
2 43, 580
2 8, 670
2 780
38, 571

3 54, 230
3 40, 950
3 13, 280
3 46, 930
3 35, 600
3 11, 330
3 37,430
3 9, 500
3 7, 300
30,353

12,149
785
946
3,840

13, 837
784
951
3,838

14,130
784
911
3,836

15,843
826
671
3, 791

10, 078
845
1,753
2,912

7,138
4,500

6, 963
4,605

6,975
4, 672

6,994
4,488

6,618
4,160

5,910

5,916

5, 922

5, 958

3,988

12,100

12, 200

12, 300

11,800

362

10,121

324
1,414

11,670
323
1, 449

11, 928
323
1,451

13,602
348
1,426

8,192
371
988

2,813

2,642

2, 544

2,817

2 3, 240

40.8
40. 1
41.2
40.3

44. 0
40.8
41.9
40.0

M5.2
8 44.0
8 41.9
40.1

37.7
27.1
43.0
32.4

$51.90

$41. 81
$49. 89
$29.01
$55.79

$45.42
$50. 70
$29.40
$55. 57

« $45. 88
8 $52.22
» $27. 64
$53. 71

$23.86
$23. 88
$21.17
$30. 24

$1. 350

$1.025
$1. 248
$0. 772
$1. 383

$1.032
$1. 255
$0. 775
$1.387

8 $1.016
8 $1.190
8 $0. 730
$1,339

$0. 633
$0.886
$0. 536
$0. 933

« $4. 39

July

2 53, 030
2 34, 590

$0. 969

8 $0. 945

$0. 622

$0.906

8 $0. 870

$0.622

$4. 48

« $4.08

» $1. 57

1» 17.0

4219. 8

15.4

11.4
6.5
4.1
7.3

17.9
6.2
10.7
5.9

7.7
5.2
1.5
5.7

7.6
6.1
.6
6.1

2 2.8
2 1.1
2 1.6
2 6.2

550
455

410
220

500
290

408
207

218
98

3,650
0. 61

1,350
0.19

1,500
Ò. 21

786
0.10

1,484
Ò. 28

CURRENT LABOR STATISTICS

Current Statistics of Labor Interest in Selected Periods 1— Continued
1944

1945
Item

Prices
Consumers’ price index (moderate income families in large cities): All
items, u
Food ________________________
Clothing_______________________
Rent
__________________
Fuel, electricity, and ice------------H ousefurnish ings________ ____ —
Miscellaneous__________________
Retail food price index (large cities):
All foods.
Cereals and bakery products..........
M eats_________________________
Dairy products.......... ........................
Eggs---------------------------------Fruits and vegetables----------------Beverages--------------------------------Fats and oils___________ ____ ___
Sugar and sweets_______________
Wholesale price index: All commodities.
All commodities other than farm
products.
All commodities other than farm
products and foods.
Farm products_________________
Foods
___________________
National income and expenditures
National income payments (B F D C )..
Consumer expenditures for goods and
services (B F D C ).
Retail sales (B F D C )---- --------- . . . .
Production
Industrial production index, unadjusted (FR): Total.
Manufactures....................................
Minerals-------- -----------------------Bituminous coal (B M )......................... .

Unit or base
period

1939:
average
Septem for year
ber

Septem
ber

August

1935-39=100

128.9

129.3

129.0

126.5

99.4

1935-39=100
1935-39=100
1935-39 = 100
1935-39=100
1935-39=100
1935-39 = 100
1935-39=100

139.4
148.2
108.3
110.7
146.8
124.6
139.4

140.9
146.4
111.4
146.0
124.5
140.9

141.1
145.9
108.3
110.0
145.6
124.3
141.7

137.0
141.4
108.2
109.8
140.7
122.4
137.0

95.2
100.5
104.3
99.0
101.3
100.7
95.2

1935-39=100
1935-39=100
1935-39=100
1935-39 = 100..
1935-39=1001935-39 = 100..
1935-39 = 1001935-39 = 1001926=100____

109.1
131.6
133.4
183.9
172.5
124. 7
124.1
126.5
105.2

109.1
131.8
133.4
171.4
183. 5
124.7
124.0
126.6
105.7

109.1
131.6
133.4
157.2
191.8
124.7
124.0
126.5
105.9

108.6
129.0
133.6
168.0
169.9
124.3
123.0
126.3
104.0

94.5
96.6
95.9
91.0
94.5
95. 5
87.7
100.6
77.1
79.5

July

1926=100____

100.9

100.7

99.7

1926=100____

99.8

99.9

99.7

98.6

81.3

1926=100____
1926=100____

124.3
104.9

126.9
106.4

129.0
106.9

122.7
104.2

65.3
70.4

$13,459
Millions____
___do......... « $25,335

$12,674

$13, 585

$6,207

$6,086

$5,755

____do______

7 $6,092
$13, 670
12 $24,499 12 $15,350
$6,034

7 $3, 647

1935-39=100-

175

189

212

234

109

1935-39=1001935-39 = 100Thousands of
of
short
tons.
Carloadings index, unadjusted (F R ).. 1935-39=100..
Electric energy (FPC ): T otal............. . Millions of
kw.-hrs.
Utilities (production for public ........ do.........
use).
Industrial establishments_______ ........do______
Construction
f} on struct, ion expenditures_________ M illions____
Value of urban building construction ........ do_............
started.
N ew nonfarm family-dwelling u n its..

182
138
46,330

197
143
47,620

224
145
47, 275

249
147
50,480

109
106
32,905

137
20,739

132
22, 606

143
23,038

150
22, 673

(! 3 )

17,016

18,625

18,954

18,516

3,723

3,981

4,084

4,157

( 13 )

$545
$186

$558
$173

$528
$169

$429
$86

( 13)

21, 600

20,100

23,300

11, 300

101

7 10,911

7 $680

7 42,400

'Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics unless otherwise indicated. Abbreviations used: BC (Bureau of the
Census); ICC (Interstate Commerce Commission); BAE (Bureau of Agricultural Economics); B FD C
(Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce); FR (Federal Reserve); B M (Bureau of Mines); FPC (Federal
Power Commission). M ost of the current figures are preliminary.
2
N ot comparable with July, August, and September 1945 figures because of a change adopted by the
Bureau of the Census in July 1945 in sampling methods. (See M onthly Report on the Labor Force, Sep
tember 1945.) Estimates for months prior to July 1945 are being revised.
3 10-month average—March to December 1940. (See footnote 2.)
4 Excludes employees on public emergency work, these being included in unemployed civilian labor force.
Civilian employment in nonagricultural establishments differs from employment in civilian labor force
mainly because of such groups'as self-employed and domestic and casual workers.
1 Includes workers employed by construction contractors and Federal force-account workers (nonmamtenance construction workers employed directly by the Federal Government). Other force-account non
maintenance construction employment is included under manufacturing and the other groups.
6 Reports in manufacturing and mining now relate to “production workers” instead of “wage earners
but with no appreciable effect on the employment estimates.
7 September.
8 August.
8 October.
10 June.
u Formerly listed as “ cost-of-living index.”
iJ Third quarter.
ii N ot available.

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MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW
NOVEMBER 1945

“ E x tra” W orkers in the Postw ar Labor Force 1
Summary

FOUR months prior to the close of World War II, the Nation’s labor
force exceeded long-run, peacetime expectations by approximately 7
million persons.2 Some idea of the probable extent of postwar with
drawals from the labor force may be obtained from a consideration of
the personal characteristics and numbers of these “extra” wartime
workers. The size and composition of the postwar labor force, how
ever, will also be determined by prevailing employment opportunities
and social-security policies and by long-term trends in labor-force
participation and population growth.
The sources of extra wartime labor supply are shown in the following
tabulation:
Millions of per
sons, A pril—
1945
1944

All g ro u p s_______________ N orm ally stu d e n ts, housew ives, re tire d
7. 3
or o th e r nonw orkers.
= —
B oys and girls 14-19_____School a n d college stu d e n ts ______________ 2. 8
Y oung m en a n d w om en College stu d e n ts a n d service w ives_____
.9
20-24.
W om en 2 5 -3 4 ___________ Service w ives___________________________ . 2
W om en 35 a n d o v e r_____ M arried w om en w ith no young c h ild ren .
1. 9
M en 2 5 -5 4 ______________ M arginal w o rk ers_____________________
.6
M en 55 a n d o v e r________ R e tire d _________________________________ . 9

6. 7
=====
2. 8
.9
(*)
1. 5
.7
.8

1 Fewer than 50,000.

Most of the wartime additions from the youngest and oldest groups
are likely to disappear, because the youngsters will soon reach normal
working age and the older persons are already past normal retirement
age. This assumes a return to the prewar trend toward longer schooling
and earlier retirement which in turn would mean a reduced inflow of
new workers for several years and an increased withdrawal of older
workers. A considerable number of young people, however, will want
part-time work while attending school.
Most of the excess among young women under 35 reflects the effect
of the draft on service wives and is likely to disappear as servicemen
return to civilian jobs. Maintenance of high marriage and birth
rates, which accompany prosperous times, could actually reduce labormarket participation of young women below normal levels. Among
men and women in the middle-age groups, surpluses over prewar levels
1 Prepared in the Bureau’s Occupational Outlook Division by Leonard Eskin (on military leave) and
Lester M. Pearlman.
2 The labor force includes members of the armed forces as well as the civilian employed and unemployed.

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841

842

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW----NOVEMBER 194 5

arose in response to a full employment situation and are likely to
persist—though to a less extent than during the war—if peacetime job
opportunities are favorable.
On balance, perhaps 1 to 2 million “extra” workers will be in the
postwar labor force by 1950.
Sources of Wartime Labor Supply

World War II brought the greatest mobilization of manpower in
American history.3 In the short space of 5 years some 17 million per
sons were added to the employed population. In April 1940, there
were about 45 million persons at work in the factories, farms, and
offices of the Nation, and an additional half million in the armed forces.
By the spring of 1945, civilian employment had increased to over 50
million and the armed forces had reached about 12 million.
About two-fifths of the manpower that was mobilized for the war
effort came from the pool of approximately 7){ million unemployed
that still existed at the start of the national defense program in
mid-1940. Five years later, immediately prior to the Japanese sur
render, fewer than 1 million persons were unemployed, and most of
these were between jobs.
The other three-fifths—some 10 million—of the wartime gain in
civilian and military employment was made possible by the entry of
new workers into the labor force. About 3 million of this gain was the
result of normal population growth and long-run demographic changes.4
The remaining 7 million represented persons who in normal times
would have been students, housewives, retired workers, or others not
seeking work in paid employment.5 (See accompanying table.)
Youths of college and school age constituted the largest single source
of additional wartime labor supply, and married women over the age
of 35 also contributed large numbers of wartime workers. Among
adult men, extra workers were recruited from persons who postponed
retirement, occasional workers, and men on the borderline of employ
ability. Women aged 20-34—a group affected to a great extent by
responsibility for the care of young children and the increase in mar
riage and birth rates since 1940—showed only a small gain from their
normal rate of labor-market participation. Young service wives,
however, contributed a substantial number of extra wartime workers.
Many of these extra workers have already left the labor market,
following the end of the war. The war’s impact, however, is certain
to have lasting effects upon the size and composition of the labor force
for many years to come. Wartime and immediate postwar shifts
in the composition of the population (e. g., urban-rural residence,
marital and dependency status) will considerably affect the postwar
pattern of labor-market participation, as will unusual changes in
propensities to work in the various population groups. In addition,
the redistribution and size of the labor force during postwar years will
depend upon the level of total economic activity, upon long-term
demographic and socio-economic changes, and upon social security
policies.
3 Figures in this article are taken from or are based on the unrevised series of the Bureau of the Census
M onthly Report on the Labor Force. Revisions of the data at a later date, however, are not expected
to affect significantly the general relationships and conclusions herein indicated.
4 See Normal Growth of the Labor Force in the United States: 1940 to 1950 (Census release P-44, No. 12).
5 See Wartime ■E xpansion in the Labor Force, in M onthly Labor Review, August 1945, and Sources of
Wartime Labor Supply in the United States, in M onthly Labor Review, August 1944.

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“EXTRA” WORKERS IN

843

POSTWAR LABOR FORCE

Estimated Excess of A pril 1945 Labor Force Over "N o rm a lC la ssifie d by Age and Sex 1
Estimated excess (in thousands)
Age group
Males

Both sexes

Females

Total, 14 years and o v e r _________ _________ ________

2 7,280

2 3,620

2 3,660

14-19 years _______ _____
- _________ ________
14-17 years
.
_ ______ _
__________
18-19 years ________________ __________________
20-24 years __________ __________ ___- _________
- ________________
25-34 years
_ - _________ 35-44 years
_______ - - _____ - -_________
45-54 years _________ __ _ -- - _______
- ________________
55-64 years
- - _______
65 years and over . _____ _______
_______

2,840
1,850
990
870
280
820
1,050
830
590

1,720
1,140
580
420
120
140
330
420
470

1,120
710
410
450
160
680
720
410
120

1 Based on comparisons between (1) estimates of actual labor force compiled from data on civilian labor
force from the Bureau of the Census M onthly Report on the Labor Force plus unofficial estimates of armed
forces; and (2) estimates of “normal” labor force adapted from Census Bureau release P-44, No. 12.
2 The excess is somewhat overstated because the “normal” labor force estimates refer to the last week in
March, whereas the actual estimates refer to the second week in April. There is a seasonal rise between the
two weeks.

Factors Affecting Postwar Employment of

Extra

”

Workers

There can be no very precise estimation of the number of extra
workers who will be in the labor force during the next 5 or 10 years.
Economists who have tried to relate the relative permanence of the
increases which have occurred to the characteristics and number of
extra workers have differed widely because of varying evaluations of
intangible factors. For this reason the analysis which follows has its
main value in pointing out some of the considerations involved in
estimating the number of extra workers in the postwar labor force.
The estimated total of 1 to 2 million extra workers by 1950, however,
is in line with the estimates of most Government economists.
YOUTHS NORMALLY IN SCHOOL

The 2% million extra wartime workers under 25 years of age who
would ordinarily be devoting full time to their schooling consisted of
1 million youngsters who were working while attending school and 1
million who left school early to take a job or enter the armed forces.6
The wartime expansion of labor-market participation of this group is,
for the most part, a temporary development. Within a few years
after the war, the great majority of these young extra workers will
cease to be extra workers by reason of the fact that they will have
reached their normal working age.
Postwar reductions in the out-of-school labor force under 25 will
come about primarily through resumption of the deep-set, long-run
trends toward longer schooling and later labor-market entry. As this
trend has persisted through peacetime periods of both prosperity and
depression, its reversal is unlikely even if job opportunities remain
favorable in the postwar period. Extension of child-labor legislation
would act to accelerate this trend.
Those youngsters who left school voluntarily to take civilian jobs
will almost certainly not quit the labor force in any large numbers, for
once young persons have left school, they are very reluctant to return.
Many young servicemen, however, will return to school because they
See Teen-Age Youth in the Wartime Labor Force, in M onthly Labor Review, January 1945.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

844

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

did not leave voluntarily and because of the special inducements
offered by the “G. I. Bill of Rights.” Others, especially older youths,
will want to enter the civilian labor market immediately, however,
regardless of educational opportunities.
In the case of student workers, slackening of extreme wartime de
mands for labor will result in less demand for the services of students.
Thus it may be expected, as the labor market eases this winter, that
some of the million extra student workers will disappear from the
labor force. However, if a high level of employment is maintained,
the number of students who take advantage of the opportunities for
part-time and summer work would probably exceed the number who
were in the prewar labor market.
W OM EN

(O T H E R T H A N T H O SE N O R M ALLY I N

SCHOO L)

The long-run trend toward increasing employment of women would
normally add some 3,300,000 women to the labor force between 1040
and 1950.7 The magnitude of this anticipated normal increase is
actually smaller than the number of extra women workers who partici
pated in the wartime labor force. So widespread and decisive has
been the impact of the war upon the pattern of female labor-market
participation that important lasting effects are certain. The proba
bilities with respect to the postwar labor-force status of girls and
young women in the wartime labor force who normally attend school
full-time have already been noted. The following discussion deals
with the probable postwar role with respect to the labor force of the
large majority of extra women workers, the group other than those
normally in school. For analytical purposes, the prospects for women
under 35 years of age and women 35 and over are considered
separately.
Women under 85 .—Young women under 35, most of whom would
normally be taking care of homes, contributed slightly over a million
to the additional wartime labor supply. This figure represents the
net effect of a variety of forces working in opposite directions.
Perhaps the main factor operating to draw young women into the
labor market was the pressure of wartime demands for labor, including
the availability of attractive jobs as well as the patriotic motive.
Workers affected were mostly newly married women who continued
to work when they might otherwise have quit upon marriage, single
women who might ordinarily devote full time to taking care of a home,
and a relatively few single girls who ordinarily have neither household
responsibilities nor jobs before they are married. Also very important
in this connection was the reduction in family incomes accompanying
the entrance of husbands into the armed forces, which made it neces
sary for many service wives to obtain a job or continue to work beyond
the time when they normally would have quit. In February 1944,
for example, there were approximately 3 million women with husbands
away in the armed forces. Half of these were in the labor force,
whereas only one-fifth of the married women with husbands at home
were working or looking for jobs. Even age for age, the proportion of
workers among service wives was between two and three times the
proportion among women with husbands present.
7 See Census release, P-44, No. 12.

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EXTRA” WORKERS IN

POSTWAR LABOR FORCE

845

On the other side of the ledger, the principal force acting to reduce
the labor-force participation of young women was the marked in
crease in marriage and birth rates since 1940. Most women do not
ordinarily continue to work outside the home after they are married,
and the great majority of those who do continue do so only until they
have children. In the age group 25-34, for example, the proportion
of workers among single women in 1940 was 78.9 percent as compared
with 33.4 percent among married women with no young children, and
only 8.8 percent among married women with young children. By 1944,
the worker rates within each of these groups increased to 84.3, 49.5,
and 12.1 percent, respectively.8 Between 1940 and 1944, however,
there occurred an increase in the number of young married women
relative to single women and an increase in the number of married
women with small children relative to those without small children.
The effect of this change in the number of persons in the various
marital and dependency groups was a generally lower participation
of young women, because the transfers were from groups with-higher
‘labor-market participation rates to groups with lower worker rates.
Furthermore, the additions to the labor force from among young
married women aged 18-34 was limited by the relatively large number
(70 percent in 1940) responsible for the care of young children.
Among single women of this age, additions were also limited because
of the large number already in the labor force, and because most of
those outside the labor force had household responsibilities.
In the case of women under 25 years of age, the positive factors
outweighed the negative, so that the number of extra workers in this
group approximated 1 million. In the age group 25-34, however, as
the various factors have largely offset each other, the labor force
exceeded normal peacetime expectations by only 160,000.
The rise in marriage and birth rates in 1940-41 before the United
States’ entry into the war and their maintenance at relatively high levels
throughout the war suggest that the increases resulted from economic
'prosperity rather than the psychological impact of the war itself. If
prosperity is maintained after the war, the increased percentage of
women married and with children will also be maintained for some
time and will exert a strong downward pull on the labor-force partici
pation of young women. For this reason it is likely, for example,
that the number of women workers aged 25-34 will be below the
anticipated normal if a high level of economic activity prevails,
especially since even wartime pressures did not cause the labor force
of women between these ages to exceed prewar levels significantly.
If times are bad, however, low marriage and birth rates, coupled with
forced entries of women into the labor market to supplement family
incomes, may be factors combining to raise the labor-force participa
tion of these young women above the normal peacetime expectations.
Many of the service wives as well as many of the young women
whose marriages have been delayed by the absence of millions of
young men on duty with the armed forces will undoubtedly quit work
after the men return to civilian life. The war record of this group
with regard to the labor force will certainly not carry over into the
postwar period.
There will, however, also be wartime factors working in the opposite '
direction—towards postwar participation of “ extra” young women
* The worker rate is the proportion of labor force to population.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

846

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW----NOVEMBER 194 5

workers. The effect of casualties upon wives and those who remain
unmarried because of the excess of women over men will be to increase
their propensity to enter or remain in the labor market. Also young
women who might not otherwise have entered the labor force may,
because of their job experience during the war, constitute a permanent
addition.
On balance, if high levels of employment are assumed, it is doubtful
that there will be net permanent additions to the postwar labor force
from the group of extra women workers under 35. Reduction of the
female labor force aged 25-34 to a level below “ normal” might offset
an increase among the women under 25.
Women over 35 .—The same reasons which led to the entry of
women over 35 into the wartime labor market may prove to be the
reasons for large numbers remaining in the labor force. These women
were able to take advantage of excellent wartime job opportunities.
While most of them have carried the double responsibility of running
a home and working for pay, many of them have made a full adjust
ment to this situation. The return to a 5-day week and normal
market conditions will relieve part of the wartime strain on these
workers. As a group they were little affected by the rise in marriage
and birth rates and are generally not responsible for the care of young
children. Few of them were service wives forced to work because of
the absence of their husbands. Consequently the pressure on young
service wives and other young married women to return to their
household responsibilities does not apply to middle-aged and older
women.
On the other hand, many women over 35 will not wish to remain
permanently in the labor force. Some may not consider the kind of
job opportunities that would be available, even in a peacetime fullemployment economy, to be sufficiently attractive to warrant their
continued participation in the labor force. Others may have worked
in war plants for patriotic motives and will retire soon after the war’s
end.
While substantial numbers of women over 35 may be expected to
remain in the labor force regardless of continued demand for their
services, postwar job prospects will influence their labor-market
participation to a large extent and in a manner quite different from
that of younger married women. Women over 35 will be encouraged
to remain in the labor force rather than to return to home duties if jobs
are reasonably available. If, however, times are bad, many middleaged and older women may be forced out of the labor market by their
competitive disadvantages relative to men and to younger wives t
forced to enter the labor market to supplement the family budget.
M EN

(O T H E R T H A N T H O SE N O RM ALLY IN

SCHOO L)

The nearly 2 million extra men over 25 years of age are approxi
mately evenly divided between men aged 25-54 from the “fringes” of
the labor market and older men aged 55 and over who have either
postponed retirement or reentered after retirement.
Only a small proportion of the able-bodied men under 55 years of
age, with the exception of those attending school, are normally out
side the labor force. However, in response to a full-employment
situation during the war, these men accounted for nearly 1 million of

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“ EXTRA” WORKERS IN

POSTWAR LABOR FORCE

847

the 7 million extra wartime workers. The extra workers from this
group include men who in prewar days sought work only occasionally
or intermittently and men on the borderline between employability
and unemployability.
The availability of steady jobs has reduced the number of occasional
workers—e. g., migratory, casual workers—who are outside the labor
force at any one time. Maintenance of a high labor demand after
the war should result in their continued participation in the labor
force. Otherwise these workers may return to their practice of enter
ing the labor force only during parts of the year when jobs are available.
In the case of men in the borderline group, their physical or social
handicaps and their lack of seniority result in their being the first to
be fired when business declines and the last to be hired when business
improves. They have a very low level of employability during a
period of large labor surplus such as that which preceded the war.
Recent experience has demonstrated that the services of persons on
the borderline of employability can be utilized,9 but special measures
may be needed to prevent them from being squeezed out of the labor
market or forming a “hard core” of unemployment, even under condi
tions of peacetime full employment.
Most of the 900,000 wartime additions from older men aged 55 and
over are likely to disappear very shortly after the war. Many older
men are already past normal retirement age, and the long-run trend
has been toward earlier retirement. Liberalization of social-security
legislation would result in an acceleration of this trend. In this con
nection, however, the wartime experience has shown that many older
men may be inclined to postpone retirement if employment oppor
tunities are favorable. In addition, some of the extra workers now
in their late forties and early fifties are particularly likely to continue
to be extra workers during the postwar period if jobs are available
for them. Some extra participation in the labor force by older men
will, therefore, accompany prosperous times.
CASUALTIES

In the military sense, there have been approximately 1,070,000
“casualties”—259,000 dead, 651,000 wounded, 36,000 missing, and
124,000 prisoners.10 In terms of the labor force after the war, however,
many of the wounded, missing, and prisoners will not be casualties,
but will remain in the labor force. Death would have claimed a cer
tain percentage of the men even under peacetime conditions. Also,
a relatively small number of the casualties represent persons who
would remain outside the labor market after the war in any event
(e. g., as students). Thus a reduction in the postwar labor force for
“casualties” should be considerably less than the number of casualties
reported by the Army and Navy.
» This suggests that it is unwise to think of them as “unemployable” even in a loose labor market. The
truly unemployable probably gives up the search for jobs, because a man’s self-respect is better protected
if he uses some ailment as an excuse for never working than it is if he is rebuffed day after day at the employ
ment offices. However, there undoubtedly is a group whose capacities are such that they find it hard to
obtain a job and difficult or impossible to hold one. In their passage from job to job they give rise to a signifi
cant group of unemployed in any but the tightest labor market. It has been demonstrated during the war
that the flow in and out of the labor market is large. It is probable that in normal times many of these
people disappear from the labor market during part of the time that they are between jobs.
10 As of September 13, 1945.

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W artim e U tilization of Jam aicans in U nited States
In d u strial E stablishm ents 1
Summary

MORE than 12,000 natives of Jamaica were employed in manufactur
ing establishments in this country during the latter stages of the war
period, when the labor shortage reached an acute stage. In making a
survey of their contribution to domestic production and the problems
incident to the use of the foreign workers, representatives of thoBureau
of Labor Statistics visited 60 plants in the Midwest and East Coast
areas. These plants employed over 60 percent of the 10,400 Jamaicans
engaged in manufacturing work in March 1945.
In over four-fifths of these plants, all Jamaican recruits were
placed on general labor. In the remaining establishments, numbers of
these foreign workers were placed in semiskilled production jobs. No
special jobs were created for the Jamaicans, although some overstaffing
was provided in many instances to maintain production.
About half of the establishments gave the recruits special instruc
tion, but in many plants job training was largely unnecessary, partic
ularly where Jamaicans were assigned maimy to unskilled labor.
Where they were placed on production work, however, more intensive
training was necessary than that usually given domestic workmen.
In practically all plants, supervisors assigned to Jamaicans were given
special instructions regarding their background and characteristics,
and in some cases Jamaicans were given additional job supervision.
Although no adequate records of relative productivity were avail
able, general information regarding the work performance of Jamaicans
was obtained for 37 of the plants. The reports indicated that these
workers handled light work most effectively. It was observed in a
number of cases that they worked more slowly, but somewhat more
steadily, than domestic laborers; almost two-thirds of the companies
reported that the output per worker for Jamaicans compared favorably
with that for other employees. A minority of the establishments
reported that the Jamaicans were excessively slow, and that their
output fell below that of domestic workers. It was apparent that
greater success in obtaining satisfactory production from the Jamaicans
was achieved when more effort had been devoted to fitting them into
their new working environment by means of special attention to
orientation, training, and supervision. Officials in nearly all plants
indicated that the utilization of foreign labor had contributed in an
important measure to production goals during the war.
Background and Extent of Survey

Extensive use of foreign workers in United States manufacturing
industry occurred for the first time during the last 2 years of the war,
when the labor shortage reached an acute stage. In accordance with
arrangements with the British Government, more than 20,000 West
Indian Negro workers were brought into the country and placed in
1 Prepared in the Bureau’s Productivity and Technological Development Division by George E. Sadler
under the supervision of James M . Silberman.

848

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

W ARTIM E UTILIZATION OF JAM AICANS IN U. S. IN DU STRIES

849

East Coast and Midwest establishments by the War Manpower
Commission, acting under authority of Public Laws 229 and 373
(78th Cong). The majority of these workers were Jamaicans.
During 1944 and the first half of 1945 a total of 15,129 men, including
6,830 Jamaican nationals, was brought in. This group was supple
mented by 5,465 Jamaicans transferred from agricultural work under
the War Pood Administration in the fall of 1944. Thus, altogether,
12,295 Jamaicans were assigned to industrial work in this country.
The majority of these employees were placed in plants on the eastern
seaboard and in Wisconsin, Ohio, and Illinois, where extreme shortages
of unskilled labor existed, particularly in foundries. These recruits
were assigned mainly to unskilled labor or light production work, in
many cases constituting a substantial proportion of all employees in
these categories. Most of the plants employed fewer than 100 West
Indians each, although in a number of cases large establishments took
as many as 500 foreign workers.
Recruiting of West Indian nationals was discontinued after mid1945, and repatriations have been made as contracts have expired
and as cut-backs have resulted in lay-offs.
The utilization of such a large number of foreign workers, most of
whom were completely unfamiliar with industrial routine and domestic
customs, inevitably created new problems for personnel and manage
ment staffs. Special attention was required for the orientation,
training, and supervision of the West Indian recruits, and the provision
of housing, feeding, recreation, and health facilities was necessary.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics undertook the present study to
ascertain the managements’ experience in the adaptation and utiliza
tion of imported workers. For the purpose of the study, only plants
employing Jamaicans were selected, since the majority of the imported
West Indian workers were from Jamaica. Representatives of the
Bureau visited 60 plants, which employed over 60 percent of the
10,400 Jamaicans reported by the War Manpower Commission to be
currently engaged in industrial work in March 1945. These plants
were in five areas of major importance in the Jamaican-labor program—
Milwaukee and Racine, Wis.; the Chicago industrial area; cities in
the general vicinity of Cleveland, Ohio; northern New Jersey; and
the Connecticut Valley industrial area. The remaining establish
ments employing Jamaicans were not included in the study because
they were either widely dispersed or employed only a few Jamaicans.
All of the plants visited were in areas of acute labor shortage.
Basis of Selection and Conditions of Employment
RECRUITMENT AND TURN-OVER

The recruits were chosen on the basis of age, physical qualifications,
and dependency. All were in the age group 18 to 35, but most of
them were in their early twenties. In view of the fact that they
might be utilized on rather heavy work, all applicants were given a
thorough physical examination. To be eligible for this program, the
men were required to have at least one dependent. About half of
the companies participating in the program sent representatives to
Jamaica to select their recruits; agents of the other establishments
interviewed the workers at the port of debarkation in this country.

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All Jamaicans engaged for industrial work were hired under a
standard employment contract drawn up by the War Manpower
Commission on the basis of agreements between the British and United
States Governments. Essential manufacturing or service establish
ments could obtain Jamaican workers by a 90-day contract, signed
by the employer, the recruit, and a representative of the War Man
power Commission.
These contracts provided, in the main, that all terms of employ
ment for Jamaicans, including wages, hours of work, and working
conditions, should be the same as for native United States workmen.
Jamaicans working under these contracts were free to join any estab
lished labor union. During the course of the original contract, the
worker could be separated from the job at either his own or the em
ployer’s request, provided proper cause for separation was shown
and the action was channeled through War Manpower Commission
offices. Contracts were renewable for an indefinite period at the
option of the employer and with the approval of the War Manpower
Commission. The renewal contracts could be terminated without
notice by the worker, or upon 5-day notice by the employer. Any
Jamaican discharged during the course of either original or renewal
contracts normally could either be placed with another company or
returned to his home country. Jamaican workmen had to provide
their own medical care, if possible; however, they were guaranteed
medical attention in emergency situations.
Experience of Industrial Establishments With Jamaican Labor
RECRUITMENT AND TURN-OVER

Data on recruitment and turn-over were obtained from 27 companies
employing 3,500 Jamaicans. Approximately 60 percent of the total
Jamaicans engaged by these companies arrived at the establishments
from Jamaica during the months of September 1944 through January
1945. The largest number recruited during a single month, repre
senting almost 30 percent of the total, was engaged in February 1945.
Only a few Jamaicans arrived in March, April, and May 1945, for
the major recruitment campaign during these months had been trans
ferred to regions other than Jamaica.
Turn-over rates for Jamaican employees were much lower than
the current average rate in manufacturing employment, which ranged
from 5.7 to 7.6 per 100 employees during the months September 1944
through February 1945. Only 12.6 percent of the Jamaicans recruited
during this period were separated from their jobs before renewal of
their 90-day contracts, and only 9.2 percent failed to obtain renewal
when their contractual period expired. Only 3 percent of the Jamai
cans hired after March 1, 1945, had been terminated; these contracts
had not yet come up for renewal at the time of the survey. The
low turn-over rates for Jamaicans may be explained in part by the
nature of their employment contracts and their short-term status
as foreign labor.
ASSIGNMENT OF WORK

For most establishments, the reason for participation in the
Jamaican labor program was the shortage of men capable of doing

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heavy general labor. All but 5 of the 37 companies from which in
formation on the nature of work assignments was obtained reported
that Jamaican recruits were originally placed only on work of that
type. Officials at the other 5 plants stated that large numbers of
their recruits were assigned as trainees on semiskilled production jobs
of a repetitive nature and that the more capable men had later been
advanced to higher-rated production work. In 8 of the 32 plants in
which Jamaicans were first assigned to general labor, many were re
ported to have worked up eventually to semiskilled production jobs;
in 6 establishments only a few unusually capable workmen had been
upgraded to such jobs. In 1 plant, however, a number of Jamaicans
had been tried on production jobs, but had not proved successful. In
the remaining 17 plants all Jamaicans had been kept on unskilled
work and heavy, general factory and yard labor; in most instances
their advancement was barred by the seniority system or the relatively
long training period required for production jobs.
Sixteen plants reported in detail the jobs to which Jamaicans were
assigned. As can be seen in table 1, over two-fifths of their Jamaican
workers were in unskilled factory jobs, such as trucker, packer, and
helper, handling materials or doing production work, while approxi
mately the same number were assigned to heavy general labor in the
yard and plant. About 14 percent of the Jamaicans in these plants
were performing semiskilled, repetitive production work, in jobs such
as machine operator, equipment operator, process helper, or tool
grinder. Only 2 perceut were handling jobs of a relatively high skill
level, such as operator of chemical-process equipment, foundry molder,
or maintenance mechanic. Although detailed statistics were not ob
tained for the remaining plants covered in the survey, in practically
all of them the majority of the Jamaicans were engaged in relatively
light, unskilled jobs, such as packaging, trucking, materials handling,
or clean-up work, or in heavy general labor in the factory. In a few
of these plants a sizable minority had been assigned to repetitive work
on production lines, such as shell loading or machine tending.
In general, Jamaicans had more opportunity to advance to semi
skilled and skilled jobs in plants in the chemicals, metalworking, and
light industries where a significant portion of the work was of a rela
tively light, repetitive character, than in establishments in the heavier
industries such as rolling mills, shipyards, or foundries.
In the plants surveyed, the Jamaican workers were almost always
placed in existing job vacancies. No special jobs were created for
them, nor were there more than a few instances where the job content
of positions was changed to accommodate the limited industrial back
ground of the recruits. In almost all cases, also, the same work
standards were retained for both native and foreign workmen. How
ever, in many establishments some overstaffing of Jamaicans was pro
vided for, because the production levels expected from them were
lower than for American workmen. Most of the plant officials inter
viewed stated that, in view of the lack of experience in the use of for
eign workers and the short term of the labor contracts, job reorgani
zation was not worth while. Furthermore, the majority of the
Jamaicans in most plants were placed in the least-skilled jobs, which
required little or no experience or training.
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Aside from the fact that the Jamaicans were recruited chiefly for
heavy unskilled work, they were assigned as individual placements
for jobs in almost all of the plants in the same manner as other new
workers. In only four plants were they assigned to jobs as a group or
was special consideration given to placing them in particular jobs.
In two of these plants, Jamaicans were kept in separate groups and
were not allowed to work with native laborers, because of the belief
that this would minimize personnel friction. In the other two estab
lishments, Jamaicans were not assigned to out-of-doors work during
winter months because it was believed that they were not capable of
withstanding the exposure.
Distribution of Jamaican Workmen in Selected Establishments, by Industry and
Occupation 1
Number of Jamaicans in specified occupations
reported by—
Total
Explo
Jamai
Food
cans Chem sives
and prod
icals
uct
plants ammu
nition plants
plants

Occupation

612

Paper
and
wood
prod
uct
plants

Metal
work
ing
plants
and
found
ries

All occupations__________ ______________

1,949

298

247

229

Skilled
_ _______________ __________
Chemical-process equipment operator.__
Jamaican leader _
. . . _____
Maintenance mechanic
Molder
Rubber-mill and calendar operator__ _

36
18
2
5
7
4

21
18
1
2

Semiskilled______________________________
Bench assembler
Blending, grinding operator _
_____
Cook
.
___________________
Filter, dryer operator
Furnaceman, ovenman
____________
Bel per, chemical process operator’s
__ ____
Helper, process utility
Helper, molder's
Helper, rubber-mill operator’s. _______
Helper, toolmaker’s
Machine operator, metalworking____ _
Machine operator, packaging, trimming.
Machine tender, textile. .
_________
Process press operator
Rough grinder and cleaner, castings

276
4
8
12
22
6
27
21
28
6
3
30
27
37
3
43

4
1

Unskilled__ ____ _ ____________________
Clean-out man, process equipment
Helper, fireman and furnaceman’s _
Helper, machine tender’s.
___
_ ..
Helper, other
Packer and helper
Trucker, materials handler_________

814
3
6
12
4
237
552

General labor .. ____________________
__
Foundry laborer . .
Gencraf laborer, yard or plant____ . . .
Janitor, sweeper___ ___ _______ ________

823
66
722
35

Other Other
light heavy
indus indus
tries
tries

151

321
4

1
1

8
21

2
7

123
4

5
27
20

1
28

3
30
6
37

3
43
27
3

445

23
1
171
169
2

102

209
236

1
3
97

2
6

167

137

150
17

134
3

27
4

84
66
10
8

161

12
3
13

161

150

82
1

150

1 Statistics based on reports for 2 plants in each industry group except “metalworking and foundries,”
which is based on reports for 4 plants.

ORIENTATION AND JOB TRAINING

The personnel officials responsible for handling the Jamaican
workers at most of the plants were aware of the abrupt change in
working and living conditions that the Jamaicans faced. Many of the
officials, in fact, were sufficiently interested in the Jamaicans to acquire

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an excellent understanding of their native background. About half
of the establishments visited gave the recruits special orientation in
struction before starting them in their regular work. This instruc
tion was given by means of meetings, lectures, or question-and-answer
groups. The subjects taken up generally included a description of
the plant facilities and the nature of the factory work, the living con
ditions in the area, clothing requirements, American customs, money,
and civic regulations. Groups of the recruits often were taken through
the factory, and the work procedures were explained. In some in
stances the companies purchased proper clothing for them, and ad
vanced them subsistence money. The remaining companies gave
their Jamaican recruits only the general directions given to any new
worker. In a number of these instances, however, additional in
struction was unnecessary since the Jamaicans had been recruited
from farm employment under the supervision of the War Food Ad
ministration or from other plants in this country and were already
familiar with their new environment.
Job training for the Jamaicans was largely unnecessary in about
three-fourths of the companies; in these establishments the foreign
workers were assigned solely to unskilled work. Whatever rudi
mentary instruction in job duties and work routine was required for
those simple jobs was given to the Jamaicans in the same manner as
was regularly given to new workers. However, in the remaining es
tablishments, all of which had assigned Jamaicans to production work,
the Jamaican workmen were given longer and more intensive job
training than was ordinarily given to native employees. Almost all
of the officials at these companies stated that the Jamaicans learned
factory duties rather slowly; this was attributed to their lack of an
industrial background. Several companies, two of which had
adopted comparatively elaborate training courses, indicated that the
majority of the Jamaicans were naturally apt and quick, and made
very capable workmen after a period of adjustment to factory routine
and discipline.
SUPERVISION OF WORKERS

In practically all plants, supervisors who were assigned Jamaican
workmen were given some special instruction regarding the back
ground and characteristics of these workers. An attempt was made,
generally, to have the supervisors keep in mind the differences between
Jamaicans and native workers. In many establishments, this pre
sented no new problems, since the plants ordinarily utilized numbers
of foreign workmen. In a large number of plants, however, it was
reported that an unusual amount of tact and patience was required,
as the Jamaicans were more temperamental and harder to direct than
native workmen.
With respect to work performance, in almost half of the companies
visited, Jamaicans received the same supervision as native workmen;
in the remaining half, extra supervision was necessary. About a third
of the plants reported that, in the first 2 weeks to 3 months on the job,
the Jamaicans required more careful supervision in the handling of
their work. Many of these same companies stated that directions
had to be given in great detail and that the Jamaicans possessed little
initiative and failed to think ahead of the immediate task. In the

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remaining one-sixth of the establishments, a less-favorable experience
was reported; company spokesmen stated that the Jamaicans required
an undue amount of supervision, and tended to be careless and lax.
Where extra supervision was required (reported by half of the
companies), it was attributed by plant officials largely to the inex
perience of the Jamaicans and to their general unfamiliarity with
factory work. In most cases in which adequate attention and
patience was given to introducing the Jamaicans to their job duties, it
was evident that supervisory requirements were no higher or only
slightly higher than for domestic workmen. Companies which sent
representatives to Jamaica or to the points of debarkation to select
carefully the recruits for the type of work to be done generally did not
report excessive claims on their supervisors’ time. Analysis of the
situation at plants reporting serious difficulties in supervising Ja
maicans indicated, in many instances, that this was due to poor
personnel practice or neglect on the part of the supervisors themselves
WORK PERFORMANCE

For comparisons of productivity, Bureau representatives attempted
to obtain actual records of production and man-hours expended by
Jamaican and native employees engaged on identical jobs. However,
as noted, at the majority of the plants Jamaicans were engaged only
on general labor, materials handling, and other forms of work not
readily measured and for which no records were ordinarily kept.
Although Jamaicans were in some production jobs in a number of
plants, many establishments did not keep adequate records, and in
many cases the work of Jamaican and native employees was not
entirely comparable. As a consequence, the data obtained were
insufficient to permit productivity comparisons based on production
records. However, in 37 plants information of a general nature was
obtained on several aspects of the work performance of the Jamaicans,
drawn from discussions with foremen supervising their work.
There were some differences of opinion among plant foremen and
supervisors about the job performance of Jamaican workers as com
pared to domestic employees. This disagreement may have resulted,
in part, from individual variations among the Jamaicans, and from the
varying degree of effort expended by different companies in training and
supervising them. Analysis of all the reports indicates that Jamaicans
were generally best fitted for relatively light work, of an unskilled
or semiskilled nature. With relatively few exceptions, they did not
prove to be well adapted to the heaviest types of labor or to difficult
production jobs, as, for example, in foundry work which involves
rapid and continuous expenditure of effort and considerable physical
strength. In almost all plants where Jamaicans had been assigned
chiefly to heavy laboring jobs they were not particularly successful,
whereas in most plants in which Jamaicans had been assigned to lighter,
unskilled, or semiskilled work their job performance was satisfactory.
Officials in a third of the companies indicated that the average
output per worker for the Jamaicans was approximately the same as
that for native workmen hired during the war, but was below the
volume attained by experienced workmen during the prewar period.
In these plants the Jamaicans were slower than other workers in

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855

their production rate or in the speed of performance, but this was
offset by a steadier work pace and greater industry. In somewhat
more than a third of the plants, however, the foremen reported that
the Jamaicans were excessively slow. In some of these plants the
volume of work obtained was only slightly below that of native
workmen, while in others the output per Jamaican was well below
that of other workers. On the other hand, in 11 plants, constituting
30 percent of the total reporting, it was stated that the Jamaicans
were of distinctly better caliber than the average domestic workman
that could be recruited currently, with a better record of production
as a result of a more consistent and steadier application to the job.
In some of these plants, some of the most capable Jamaicans were
rated as fully equal to the best of the prewar employees.
Representatives of more than two-thirds of the plants visited char
acterized their Jamaican employees as conscientious, steady workmen,
eager to learn, and with a good attitude toward their work. In some
of these establishments, the Jamaicans were rated as more dependable
and valuable than the majority of domestic workmen hired for un
skilled work during the war. The experience with Jamaican em
ployees at most of the other plants visited, however, was not so
favorable. In somewhat less than a third of the Companies (in all
of which the recruits had been placed on foundry work or on the
heaviest types of labor), it was claimed that the Jamaicans disliked
their work, and failed to apply themselves steadily when not super
vised closely. Few of these establishments had retained the Jamaicans
long on production work; some companies had placed them succes
sively on a variety of jobs, but each time without success. A common
reason given for their failure was that many had never previously
performed that type of heavy labor. In a number of establishments
(including foundries) where much of the work was particularly
exhausting, some Jamaicans had refused to perform jobs to which
they were assigned, and demanded lighter tasks.
With but few exceptions, Jamaican recruits had had no previous
experience in industrial work of any type. This limited somewhat
their ability to grasp quickly the essentials of new job assignments.
Representatives of more than half of the establishments visited, how
ever, indicated that the relatively high level of intelligence of most
of the Jamaican employees, coupled with an eagerness to learn their
new duties and perform them well, resulted in satisfactory adaptability
to most new assignments. On the other hand, at practically all of
the other establishments visited, the supervisors had found that the
lack of industrial experience of the Jamaicans was too much of a
handicap to overcome; such long periods of time were required for
the Jamaicans to learn new job duties that they could not be success
fully transferred about within the plant in accordance with production
requirements. A few of these establishments claimed that lack of
interest in the work made their adjustment to new jobs very difficult.
In general, the work performance of the Jamaicans and their atti
tude to their jobs were markedly influenced by their employment
status. Their wages were considerably higher than those earned in
Jamaica, and their employment tenure was short and would continue
only if their work was satisfactory. Although in most establishments
Jamaicans were scheduled for the same workweek as other employees,

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ranging from 44 to 60 hours, in almost all plants the Jamaican em
ployees regularly requested and obtained overtime work, frequently
working exceptionally long hours.
PROVISIONS FOR OUT-PLANT CARE

Jamaican laborers were generally housed in specially built barracks
or leased buildings frequently situated either near the plant or in a
nearby town. Five companies housed the Jamaicans in one of the
plant buildings, usually a converted warehouse, and a few establish
ments reported that their Jamaican employees lived in trailer camps
or in rooms rented in private residences in nearby towns. Recrea
tional facilities were frequently provided at the living quarters.
These consisted of games, letter-writing materials, and, in a few cases,
music.
In all but a fifth of the companies, special cooking facilities were
provided. Mess halls were used in the majority of the plants in which
Jamaicans were housed in barracks or camps. In all except a few
cases, Jamaican as well as domestic cooks were employed, so that
dishes could be prepared to which these foreign workers were accus
tomed. In only 5 plants were no Jamaican dishes served. It was
noted in most of the establishments that the recruits rapidly became
accustomed to American cookery and requested that it be served.
All but 6 companies made provisions for medical treatment for
the Jamaicans. In the majority of the plants they were treated at
first-aid rooms or hospitals at the factory or were cared for at their
living quarters. ' Most of the companies also arranged for regular
visits by physicians. In most cases, the Jamaicans were admitted to
the regular medical care and hospitalization plans provided for all
employees. Almost without exception companies reported that the
general health of the Jamaicans was good, but that they had frequent
colds because they were not accustomed to the relatively cold weather.
They were also susceptible to diseases, such as mumps and chickenpox,
which are endemic in the United States but uncommon in Jamaica.
GENERAL EXPERIENCE WITH PROGRAM

Officials in almost all of the plants participating in the Jamaican
labor program agreed that the utilization of the foreign labor in their
facilities had contributed in an important measure to production.
Although the costs involved in using these workers (including trans
portation, housing, and extra training and supervision) were very
high as compared with available local labor, serious shortages in un
skilled labor in most of the plants were in considerable measure solved
by the recruitment of Jamaicans. The extent of their contribution
to war-essential output is indicated by the fact that the majority of
the companies could not have attained production goals during this
period without the Jamaicans. With the exception of about a third
of the establishments, the experience with the individual production
of Jamaicans was such as to warrant favorable comparison with the
output of available native workers.
The employment of the Jamaicans, however, introduced many new
problems and required much management attention. Even the
companies which customarily emplo3Ted a large percentage of immi
grant labor found that the Jamaicans required considerably more

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time and effort on the part of the plant staff than they had been ac
customed to give. However, the establishments which were most
successful in obtaining satisfactory production from the Jamaicans
were those which put sufficient time into orienting, training, and super
vising them. Officials in the majority of the plants believed that the
contribution of the Jamaicans to production outweighed the problems
incident to their employment. In about 30 percent of the establish
ments the opinion was expressed that the output of the Jamaicans
barely outweighed the problems encountered in utilizing them, and
that they constituted a severe strain on the supervisory and personnel
staffs. Only two of the establishments visited declared that the use
of Jamaicans in their plants had been completely unsuccessful.

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O pinion on th e R elation Between Foreign T rade and
Em ploym ent 1
importance of Foreign Trade

IT HAS been said that if goods do not cross international bound
aries, soldiers will. The kind of cooperation foreshadowed at Dum
barton Oaks, San Francisco, Hot Springs, Atlantic City, and Bretton
Woods goes far toward insuring that normal international trade can
be and will be a positive influence for peace.
The political significance of foreign trade, great as it may be, is
probably overshadowed by its several important economic functions.
Exactly what they are is a matter of some controversy, but there
seems, to begin with, to be a large amount of agreement on the follow
ing propositions:
(1) World standards of living will be improved by encouraging the
international division of labor and using the special resources and
capacities of the various countries in accordance with the alaw of
comparative advantages.” (Many advocates of this general proposi
tion would, however, question whether regional specialization offers
much real advantage in cases in which the lower cost of imported
goods is due to low wages and inferior labor standards in the exporting
countries.)
(2) The United States needs many products of other countries in
order to maintain its standard of living. It would be very difficult,
if not impossible, to supply its own demands for coffee, tea, tin, tropi
cal fruits, wood pulp, sugar, and certain other commodities. More
over, certain strategic imports are required in order to use most effec
tively this country’s own resources. There is also a chance that the
steady depletion of such minerals as copper and petroleum may make
it desirable if not necessary to turn to foreign sources. The need for
these items has the further advantage that their purchase enables
other countries to buy goods from the United States.
(3) The United States, as the greatest producing country and pos
sessor of the largest volume of savings, is well equipped to provide
other countries with the capital goods necessary to raise their pro
ductivity and standards of living. If properly safeguarded, foreign
investment offers profitable opportunities here at the same time that
it benefits the borrowing countries.
(4) Certain industries in the United States, such as cotton, tobacco,
agricultural implements, sulphur, automobiles, and dried fruits, de
pend heavily upon the export market. An individual business is
often dependent for its prosperity upon the margin of sales provided
by exports. Although economists stress that it is imports which
provide real income, the practical interest of businessmen typically
centers upon exports.
(5) The special circumstances existing now, at the end of the war,
present both an extraordinary foreign need for capital goods and a
capacity in this country to satisfy that need in a manner that would
relieve the domestic situation. Large foreign investments would help
i

Prepared by Edgar E. Poulton of the Bureau’s Labor Economics Staff.

858

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859

the war-expanded heavy-goods industries which might otherwise
face an unnecessarily sharp curtailment of operations.
That foreign trade is vital to the most productive functioning of the
United States economy, as well as instrumental in the promotion of
security and peace, is evident from the above considerations. It is
also clear that a large export balance may lessen the severity of
transitional unemployment during the return to peacetime production.
The relationship of foreign trade to domestic employment over the
long run is, however, a controversial and complex matter.
The correct answer to the question whether expanded foreign trade
is essential for full employment, or whether full employment is, rather,
a prerequisite for expanded foreign trade, is a matter of increasing
interest. Full employment is probably the most pressing objective of
this generation. Enlargement of the important position long oc
cupied by foreign trade in the economy of this country seems to be
implied by the growth of internationalism, as such, and may be actively
promoted to enable trade to serve as a support of internal prosperity.
Recent legislation renewing the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act,
creating the International Bank and Monetary Fund projected at
Bretton Woods, and extending the lending authority of the ExportImport Bank reflects the enhanced prestige of foreign trade. The
Congressional hearings preceding this legislation provided a sounding
board for several different views on the subject.
Diversity of Opinion on Relation of Foreign Trade and
Employment

The above and other sources have been utilized in a compilation of a
report by the Bureau of Labor Statistics 2 giving a sample of the
opinion expressed by various persons and representatives of groups
on the relation between increased foreign trade and domestic employ
ment. The present article merely summarizes briefly some of the
typical views on this issue, to show how diverse they are.
1. It is urged, at one extreme, that increased foreign trade is indis
pensable to full employment. “Foreign trade” in this context usually
means “exports,” for it is apparently assumed that the domestic
market is satiated and that foreign markets are necessary if the great
productive capacity of this country is to be used and its output
absorbed. This production increment is then usually translated into
man-hours of employment by a simple arithmetic calculation.
2. A somewhat more sophisticated approach, pointing to the
employment-creating function of foreign trade as justification for re
duction of trade barriers, recognizes that in order to export one must
import. Once this has been said, however, the argument turns to
the key function of exports in providing what is sometimes described
as the difference between prosperity and depression, not only for
particular industries but for the whole economy.
3. The technical function of imports in the present structure of
production is sometimes cited as requiring an expanded foreign trade
in order for the economy to operate at levels that will provide full
employment. This is based upon the premise that the higher level
of production at full employment requires an increase in those im2
Foreign Trade and Employment: Typical Views on a Relationship of Vital Importance for National
Policy. (Mimeographed.) A copy of this report may be obtained from the Bureau of Labor Statistics on
request.

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ported materials which ordinarily are incorporated in the final
product.
4. A fourth view recognizes more fully the implications of an ex
panded export program, including the partially compensatory effect
of increased imports and the problem of securing payment for exports.
It is contended, nevertheless, that such a program is politically if not
economically superior to alternative methods of supporting production
and employment.
5. The causative significance of foreign trade is challenged in another
view which emphasizes that full employment is essential to expanded
foreign trade rather than vice versa. The ability of other countries
to export and thus to obtain the means wherewith to buy from the
United States is said to depend primarily upon the level of production
and employment here, which influences our need for, and our willing
ness to accept, imports.
6. Another approach to the question attempts to balance the em
ployment attributable to exports against the loss of employment
occasioned by imports. Whether or not there is a net increase or loss
in domestic employment from expanded foreign trade, it is urged that
its significance for employment is qualified by the degree of offset.
7. Finally, there is some anxiety that reliance upon expanded
foreign trade as a support of domestic employment—even if effective
to that end—may aggravate international frictions. Nations to
which this country (by its policies in pursuit of an enlarged export
surplus) “exports unemployment” may retaliate by erecting barriers
to imports as a whole, and thus prejudice both international harmony
and the existing system of specialization and trade.
Factors Influencing Employment Effects of Foreign Trade

Within the general categories of opinion outlined, there are further
variations and shades of emphasis. It should already be apparent,
however, that the points of view surveyed are so widely divergent that
the formulation of the United States’ foreign trade policy seems in
some danger of being complicated by confusion regarding its objec
tives. The attempt to judge the merits of the issue will not be made
here. However, attention may be called to studies made recently by
the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics and the U. S. Tariff Commission
which offer some quantitative basis for assessing the importance of
the various relationships involved.
The Bureau’s study3 is concerned with the amount of United States
employment attributable to exports in 1939. It covers the whole
nonagricultural segment of the economy,4 and is based upon a de
tailed study of interindustry relationships. The study reveals that
in 1939, when the value of goods exported by this country was 3.3
billion dollars, approximately 960,000 persons were employed directly
and indirectly in nonagricultural industries in the production of export
goods.6 When allowance is made for increased productivity since
3 Employment Resulting From United States Exports, 1939, in M onthly Labor Review, July 1945 (p. 37).
4 It should be noted, incidentally, that, although agricultural exports augment farm income, an increase
or reduction in them might have no immediate effect upon agricultural employment.
s “ Indirectly” refers to those workers required to produce raw materials, components, and services pur
chased by other industries for incorporation in goods for export, and excludes the so-called multiplier effect,
i. e., workers hired in various lines to meet the increase in demand for goods and services generally, resulting
from expanded income payments originating in export industries. In assessing the quantitative importance
of such exclusion, it should not be forgotten that secondary (multiplier) employment attributable to in
creased exports is at least partly offset by the loss of such employment from increased imports.

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RELATION BETW EEN FOREIGN TRADE AND E M PLO Y M EN T

861

1939 and the considerably higher prices in which future exports from
this country will probably be expressed, the difficulty of obtaining
the volume of exports required to produce the 5 million jobs frequently
held to be obtainable through foreign trade can be readily appreciated.
The task appears particularly formidable when it is recalled that total
exports—including lend-lease—averaged 13.6 billion dollars for the
years 1943 and 1944.
The study made by the U. S. Tariff Commission6throws light upon
the factors which determine the volume of import trade. Taking 1939
statistics of both dutiable and free imports as the basis for its calcula
tions, the Commission estimates the level of postwar imports under
alternative assumptions of changes in rates of duties and different
levels of national income. The study comes to the significant con
clusion that “The effect of high income in increasing imports would
. . . be much greater than the effect of a reduction of duties/’ For
example, after reconversion, the annual value of imports might be
about 3.2 billion dollars in 1939 prices with per capita income as in
1939 and duties reduced by 50 percent, as against, say, 4.6 billion dol
lars in prices 10 to 15 percent higher with duties as in 1939 and per
capita income 75 percent above 1939. Since imports and exports
tend to balance, more or less, over the long run, it appears reasonable
to infer that full employment and a high national income will also do
more to expand United States exports than can be accomplished by
lowering trade barriers.
In evaluating the effect of increased but balanced foreign trade upon
domestic employment, one must compare the employment created by
exports with that displaced by imports. The degree of offset may be
said to depend in general upon three things: (a) The intensity of the
demand for additional imports (which in turn create sales for exports
by placing dollars in the hands of purchasers in other countries) at any
given level of purchasing power, as compared with the intensity of
the direct demand for additional domestic products; (b) the amount
of labor required to produce a given increment of exports, as compared
with that needed to produce an equal additional value unit of other
goods for domestic markets, if the sums used to expand imports in
step with exports were spent on domestic products instead; and (c) the
relative effects of exports and imports upon secondary employment in
other parts of the economy, by way of the effects of added or subtracted
production on purchasing power. These clearly are relationships of
some complexity, all of them highly pertinent to the question whether
expanded but balanced foreign trade provides a net increase in em
ployment.
,
.
Undoubtedly, the matter of a trade balance may often seem academic
to those who are producing for export. Concerned with securing
foreign markets, they see little connection between specific exports
and the question of imports. Particularly if there is unemployment
and reduced purchasing power at home, the foreign market appears
to offer that much extra production, profits, and employment.
As a rule, those advocates of expanded foreign trade for employ
ment reasons who are aware of the balancing problem appear to have
in mind an export surplus continuing for a number of years. The
export surplus would presumably be sustained by loans, since the
• Post-War Imports and Domestic Production of Major Commodities.

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Washington, 1945.

862

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 194 5

possibilities of outright gifts—when recognized to be such—are limited.
The attraction of this course, which is highly regarded by many who
take a broad view of national economic policy, may be due partly to
the fact that it makes possible the postponement for some years of
the solution of the basic problems of a full-employment economy.
Such postponement may be justified if in the interim the United
States so manages its affairs as to be better able at a later date to
maintain full employment without resort to a support as uncertain as
the export market. The very success of temporary expedients might
prove dangerous, however, if it dulled our determination to solve the
problem of unemployment by domestic measures. It also is possible
that, if export markets should prove unable to support employment
to the extent contemplated, this might serve to discredit foreign trade
in spite of the other advantages obtainable from it.
No doubt the current emphasis upon exports owes something to the
belief that other effective means of supporting employment are lacking.
If domestic policy alternatives are carefully examined, it might be
found that domestic measures are capable of assuring national full
employment without prejudice to the benefits to be derived from
expanded foreign trade. These benefits could then be judged on their
merits as exports and imports found a level independent of employ
ment considerations.

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W ar and Postw ar Wages, Prices, and H ours, 1 914-23
and 1 939-44 1
P a rt 2.—W ar and Postwar Trends
Summary
THE comparisons of changes in wages, prices, and hours of work in
Part 1 of this report were limited to the periods 1914-19 and 1939-44,
which covered broadly similar conditions of the impact of war on the
United States and of preparation for war or actual warfare by the
United States. Part 2 describes in more detail the changes that oc
curred during World War I and the years of transition to comparative
stability in the twenties and also compares briefly the conditions
affecting trends after the two wars.
Weekly earnings of factory workers rose steadily from early 1916 to
the end of the war. The net result of the sharp postwar fluctuations
was a rise by 1923 to a level slightly above the war-end averages and
116 percent above the 1914 level. The postwar rise in factory hourly
earnings was followed by a decline and a later recovery of part of the
loss, the average in 1923 being 134 percent higher than in 1914. Other
measures of wages, such as union hourly rates and farm rates, show a
wide diversity in levels and in extent of change, but they indicate a
rough consistency with the variations in factory earnings from 1914
to 1923.
Prices were more variable than were wages from 1914 to 1923, but
the net advances in both consumers’ prices and wholesale prices were
smaller than the increases in most of the measures of wages. The
index of consumers’ prices (formerly called the index of cost of living)
was 69.8 percent higher in 1923 than in 1914; the wholesale price
index was only 47.7 percent higher. An economic basis for the larger
increase in wages than in prices was the rise in labor productivity.
The average weekly hours of factory workers declined between 1914
and 1919, largely because of reductions in scheduled hours. Further
reductions, caused mainly by part time, occurred during the business
depression of the early twenties, but comparative stability was at
tained by 1923 at approximately the 1919 level. Reductions occurred
in some industries by 1923, especially in blast furnaces and steel mills,
but these were substantially counterbalanced by postwar increases
in other industries.
Conditions affecting wages, prices, and hours of work at the end of
World War II differed significantly from those of the period immedi
ately following the First World War. Major differences related to the
degree of control of prices, rationing and reconversion, the trends of
hours of work, the extent of unionization, the comparative progress of
technology as a basis of controlling production costs, and the shifting
of emphasis to the roles of demand, consumption, and full use of in
come in maintaining adequate production and employment.
i Prepared by W itt Bowden of the Bureau’s Labor Economics Staff. Part 1, Comparisons of World
War I and II, appeared in the M onthly Labor Review, October 1945 (pp. 613-623).

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863

864

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 19 45

Wages, 1914-23

Information regarding monthly changes in wages during the First
World War is fragmentary. The major monthly series relates to
average weekly earnings in manufacturing industries. Annual aver
ages of hourly earnings for certain years are available for several major
fields of employment. Wage-rate data include workers in coal min
ing, the building and printing trades, marine transportation, and
agriculture.
AVERAGE WEEKLY EARNINGS IN MANUFACTURING

Average weekly earnings in manufacturing on a monthly basis are
available beginning in June 1914 (table 1).
T able 1.— Average Weekly Earnings of Wage Earners in Manufacturing, 1914-23 1
M onth

1914

1915

1916

1917

1918

1919

1920

1921

1922

1923

Average weekly earnings
January ___ .
____
$10.97 $11.36 $13. 61 $15. 72 $21. 59 $25 03 $24 38
February. ___
__ _
10.94 12. 28 13.69 15. 87 21. 20 24. 91 23 55
M arch..'.
_ _________
11.15 12. 49 14. 30 17. 27 21. 27 26 09 23 49
April___
.
. ___
11.06 12.49 13. 77 17. 62 21 03 25 79 23 03
M ay. _.
_______
11.23 12. 94 15.02 18. 91 21.12 26 61 22 68
J u n e ... _________ ______ . $11.20 11.29 12. 96 15.12 18. 97 21.46 27.18 22. 38
July_______________________ 11.06 11.16 12.14 14. 60 19. 41 21. 56 26.84 21.61
August___ . . .
11.05 11.36 12. 63 15.18 20.98 22. 36 26. 98 21.83
Septem ber.. . _ ____ . . . _ 11.00 11.34 12. 88 15. 33 21.30 22. 94 26.95 21.22
October___________________ 10.81 11.73 13. 24 16. 56 22. 57 22.46 26. 94 20. 67
November___ _ .
10. 86 11.82 13. 79 17. 25 20. 94 23.12 26.41 20.38
December_______________ _ 11.07 12.06 14. 07 17.09 22. 35 24. 35 26.08 21.11
Average for y e a r ..

___ ___

11.01

11.34

12. 77

15.13

19.33

22. 08

26.30

$2(1
20
20
20
21

3(1
63
85
65
04

$22
22
23
23
24

52
96
57
75
51

21.47
21.30
21.72
21.99
22.09
22. 63
22. 92

24. 36
23.64
23.65
23.70
24. 48
24. 30
24.41

22.18

21.51

23.82

221 4

184
187
189
187

Indexes (average 1914= 100)
Janu ary________ . . .
February_______ ______ .
M arch__ _ . _________ . .
April ..
......... . . . .
M ay _______________ _____
June____ ____________
July_______________________
August_____ . _ _____ . . .
September_________________
October_______ __________
November___ _
________
December_________________
Average for year

_______

103.2
111. 5
113.4
113.4
117. 5
117.7
110. 3
114.7
117.0
120.3
125. 2
127.8

123.6
124. 3
129.9
125.1
136. 4
137.3
132.6
137. 9
139.2
150.4
156. 7
155.2

142. 8 •
144.1
156. 9
160. 0
171. 8
172.3
176.3
190.6
193. 5
205.0
190.2
203.0

191 8

241 7

213
213
200
206

101.7
100.5
100.4
99.9
98.2
98.6
100.5

99.6
99.4
101.3
100. 5
102.0
102.5
101.4
103.2
103.0
106.5
107.4
109.5

194.8
195.8
203.1
208.4
204.0
210.0
221.2

246.9
243.8
245.0
244.8
244.7
239.9
236.9

203^3
196.3
198.3
192.7
187.7
185.1
191.7

195.0
193. 5
197.3
199.7
200.6
205. 5
208.2

221.3
214.7
214.8
215.3
222.3
220.7
221.7

100.0

103.0

116.0

137.4

175.6

200.5

238.9

201.5

195.4

216.3

196.1
192 6
193. 2
191. 0

227 3
226 2
237.0
234 2

9
4
2
0

4
4
4
6

i A series of average weekly earnings from January 1919 to December 1923 was derived by dividing total
weekly pay rolls by total employment. (Bureau of Labor Statistics mimeographed release, January 1941,
giving revised estimates after the exclusion of railroad repair shops from manufacturing industries.) Aver
age weekly earnings from June 1914 to December 1918 were calculated as follows: Index numbers of average
weekly earnings from November 1915 to January 1919 were derived by dividing indexes of pay rolls by
indexes of employment. (M onthly Labor Review, August 1925, p. 115.) These index numbers were then
used to extend the average weekly earnings back to November 1915, linking at January 1919. For months
prior to November 1915, the average weekly earnings for N ew York State (New York State Department
of Labor, Industrial Bulletin, vol. 2, p. 221) were linked to the Bureau of Labor Statistics series by means
of the ratio of the averages for the 12 months ending October 1916.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics indexes of employment and pay rolls for the earlier period (November
1915 to January 1919) when taken separately appear to have serious biases but the index derived by dividing
the index of pay rolls by the index of employment indicates the approximate trend of average weekly earn
ings for this period. A ny appreciable error in the trend would have resulted in a bias in the estimated
averages for the earlier years. It is found, however, that the average for 1914, calculated as described ahove,
is almost identical with the average derived by use of the Census of Manufactures revised data of employ
ment and pay rolls from which railroad repair shops have been excluded.

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WAR AND POSTWAR WAGES, PRICES, AND HOURS

865

It will be noted that no significant changes in factory average
weekly earnings occurred before 1916. The rise early in 1916 con
tinued virtually without interruption through 1918.. Earnings in the
first part of 1919 were substantially stabilized but the rise was resumed
during the latter part of the year, the high point being reached in
1920. The ensuing decline extended into 1922. The upturn begin
ning in the spring of 1922 raised the averages in 1923 to the levels
which may be viewed as bringing to an end the period of postwar
readjustment, the averages ranging around $24 per week as com
pared with less than $12 per week in 1914 and in most of 1915.
The changes in average weekly earnings were caused mainly by
changes in basic rates of wages but by 1919 the reduction of average
weekly hours counteracted in part the rise in rates. _The period of
the war was marked by a comparatively large increase in employment
in war industries, largely in the heavy-goods industries, which paid
comparatively high wages. The transition to peace was accompanied
by a shift of employment in the opposite direction.
AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS IN MANUFACTURING

Estimated average hourly earnings in manufacturing rose from
$0,233 in 1914 to $0,477 in 1919 (table 2). Quarterly data extending
from the first quarter of 1920 to the first quarter of 1922 indicate a
continued rise in 1920 to $0,564 in the fourth quarter of that year
This rise was followed by a decline to $0,482 in the first quarter of
1922. The ensuing upturn raised the average for 1923 to $0,522.
T a b l e 2 . —Average Hourly Earnings in Manufacturing, 1914-23 1

Year and quarter

1914: Year.................. .
1919: Year.............. .
1920: First quarter...
Second quarter.
Third quarter..
Fourth quarter

Average
hourly
earnings
$0. 223
.477
.545
.555
.555
.564

Year and quarter

192T First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
1922’ First quarter
1Q23* Year

_______ ___ ____________
_______
____________
______ - - -___________ _

Average
hourly
earnings
0. 537
.519
.510
.491
.482
.522

l 'Em- thp vpars 1914 1919 and 1923, data are revisions of average nouriy earnings oi wage eaiueio
by Bureau of L a b o r Statistfcs in Monthly Labor Review, September 1940, pp. i5^
^ n n t e d » Se^
"Mo R i i 50') Ouarterly data for the years 1920 to 1922 are interpolations based on the trend of average
hourlv’earnings of^ailTmployees as shown in Table LVII (p. 113) in Employment, Hours, and Earnings m
Prosperity and Depression, United States, 1920-22, by W. I. King (National
°f Econo^^
N pw York 1923) The information on manufacturing used in this volume was collected by a cooperative
arm ngeSeit between the Bureau of the Census, the President’s Conference on Unemployment, and the
National Bureau of Economic Research.

Information regarding hourly earnings during the years 1915 to
1918 is fragmentary but inferences may be drawn from trends oi
average weekly earnings and average weekly hours, bclieduled
hours of work were reduced in many important branches oi employ
ment but the reductions were accompanied, especially alter 1915, by
increased production and demand for workers, and part time seems,
therefore, to have been reduced, while at the same time the amount
of overtime increased. The probable result of these countei balancing
factors was no significant change, from 1914 to 1918, m the average
number of weekly hours actually worked. It may, m consequence,
be assumed that up to 1918 average hourly earnings followed sub
stantially the trend of average weekly earnings.

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866

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW----NOVEMBER 194 5

AVERAGE HOURLY AND WEEKLY EARNINGS IN MANUFACTURING, COAL
MINING, AND RAILROADS

Average hourly earnings and average weekly earnings have been
estimated for the years 1914, 1919, and 1923 for manufacturing,
anthracite mining, bituminous-coal mining, and class I steam rail
roads (table 3). For comparative purposes, the annual averages for
manufacturing given above (tables 1 and 2) are included with those
for mining and railroads in table 3. The average hourly earnings
of coal miners are for hours of work at the face or usual place of work,
excluding travel time in the mine. The hourly earnings of railroad
workers are for hours paid for, not hours on duty, the number of
hours paid for but not on duty being chiefly important for employees
in road train and engine service.
T a b l e 3 —Average Hourly and Weekly Earnings of Wage Earners in Manufacturing,

Coal Mining, and Class I Steam Railroads, 1914, 1919, and 1923 1
Average hourly earnings Average weekly earnings
Industry

Manufacturing___ _ _ __
Anthracite mining
Bitum inous-coalmining___ _
Class I steam r a i l r o a d s , ____ _ . .

1914

1919

1923

1914

1919

$0.223
.274
.358
.252

$0.477
.640
.759
.537

$0. 522
.791
.845
.581

$11.01
11.41
12. 22
13.66

$22.08
26. 95
25. 65
24.84

1923
$23.82
34. 22
25.60
26,42

1 A revision and extension of data in M onthly Labor Review, September 1940 (pp. 523-534).

Average hourly earnings more than doubled between 1914 and 1919
in manufacturing as a whole, the coal-mining industries, and steam
railroads. There was a further rise in hourly earnings between 1919
and 1923 in all of these branches of employment. The increases in
average weekly earnings, with the exception of anthracite mining,
were somewhat smaller than the increases in average hourly earnings,
primarily because of reductions in average hours of work.
The increases in the average hourly earnings of the major groups of
industrial wage earners were substantially larger than the rise in
either the consumers’ price index for moderate-income families in
large cities or the wholesale price index. An economic basis of the
advances in hourly earnings was the substantial increase in average
man-hour output. Labor productivity in manufacturing underwent
little change during the war but rose sharply after 1919. The real
hourly earnings of factory workers (average hourly earnings adjusted
by the consumers’ price index) rose about 11 percent from 1919 to
1923, in contrast to an increase of about 31 percent in average man
hour output. Later in the twenties hourly earnings and consumers’
prices both underwent little change, in contrast to a continued sharp
increase in average man-hour output.
AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS IN SELECTED MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

Changes in average hourly earnings may be traced in some detail
for various industries from special surveys made during the First
World War and the early years of peace. These industries include

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WAR AND POSTWAR WAGES, PRICES, AND HOURS

867

cotton goods, woolen goods, silk, hosiery and underwear, men’s
clothing, boots and shoes, and furniture (table 4), and blast furnaces,
steel works, and rolling mills, formerly described as the iron and steel
industry (table 5).
T a b l e 4 . —Average Hourly Earnings in Specified Manufacturing Industries, 1913-24 1

Year 2

1913___________________
1914
__________
1915
_____________
1916
_________
1917
______________
1918
__________
1919
____________
1920
______
1921
____________
1922
__________
1923
_____________
1924__________________

Cotton
goods

Woolen
and
worsted
goods

$0.153

$0.182

.179

.225

.267

.342

.480

.628

Silk

$0. 202

Hosiery
and
under
wear

M en’s
clothing

$0.172

$0.256

Boots
and
shoes

$0.243
.259

.384

.315

.446

Furni
ture

$0.220
.227

.336
.559

.330

.474

.354

.728

.501

.372

.533

.409

.760

.516

.337

1 Data are the results of special surveys, published in Bureau of Labor Statistics bulletins, as follows:
Cotton goods, Bull. No. 446 (p. 6); woolen and worsted goods, Bull. No. 443 (p. 7): silk, Bull No 668 (d 2V
hosiery and underwear, Bull. No. 452 (p. 9) and Bull. No. 265 (pp. 37, 38); men’s clothing, Bull. No 387
(p. 8); boots and shoes, Bull. No. 450 (p. 2); furniture, Bull. No. 526 (p. 2), and Bull. No. 265 (pp. 37 38).
The averages for men s clothing are not representative of the industry as a whole because of an overrepre
sentation of larger northern cities.
2 b should be noted that the special surveys did not cover the whole of the years indicated. Thev were
i<Sited t0 cerJ'?,J,n months or periods, as M ay for the 1914 cotton-goods survey and January to April for the
1924 survey of the boot and shoe industry. In a period of rapid changes in rates of wages, a limited period,
especially if near the beginning or the end of the year, cannot be viewed as representative of the year.

The averages for 1914 and 1924 show not only a wide range among
the industries in levels of hourly earnings but also significant diver
gences in the trends. The averages in 1914 ranged from $0,153 in
the cotton-goods industry to $0,301 in blast furnaces, steel works,
and rolling mills. The increases between 1914 and 1924 ranged from
112 percent in boots and shoes to 197 percent in men’s clothing. The
increase in blast furances, steel works, and rolling mills was 114 per
cent. The rise in all manufacturing industries combined during the
same period was 145 percent.
The special surveys from, which the averages of tables 4 and 5 were
derived were made primarily for the purpose of analyzing the occu
pational wage structures of the several industries as they existed when
the surveys were made. Studies of different industries were made in
different periods oí the year. During the war and the years imme
diately following, there were rapid changes in wages, and the averages
as shown are not to be viewed as annual averages or as strictly com
parable for the several industries. The years 1914 and 1924, however,
were years of comparative stability in the wage structure, and the
averages for these two years are therefore comparable, as are the
percentages of change from 1914 to 1924.
The study of blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling mills by the
Bureau of Labor Statistics in October 1920 was made when wages in
that industry were near their peak (table 5). Hourly earnings at
that time averaged $0.745, as compared with $0.301 in May 1914,
the increase being 148 percent. The sharp downturn of 31 percent
in the average hourly earnings of these workers between October 1920
670119— 45------ 3

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868

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

and October 1922 was significantly greater than the general decline
in hourly earnings. The rise to $0,644 in January 1924 was accom
panied by reductions in the scheduled or full-time hours of work from
63.2 hours per week in October 1922To 55.2 hours in January 1924.
The average hourly earnings of common laborers in blast furnaces,
steel works, and rolling mills rose from $0,181 in May 1914 to $0,508
in October 1920, an increase of 181 percent as compared with the rise
of 148 percent in the average hourly earnings of all workers in this
industry. The earnings of laborers, however, fell somewhat more
than did the general average between October 1920 and October 1922,
and rose somewhat less from October 1922 to January 1924. The
increase from May 1914 to January 1924 was 114 percent for all
workers and 130 percent for common laborers.
T a b l e 5 . —Average Hourly Earnings in Blast Furnaces, Steel Works, and Rolling M ills,

1914-24 1

Department

1914
(May)

1915
(May)

1918-1919
1917
1924
1922
1920
(Septem (October
1918 to (October) (October) (January)
ber)
May 1919)
All occupations

All departments------------- -----‘RJflfst furnaces
■RpqcjpTnpr converters
Open-hearth furnaces
Puddling mills
Blooming mills
Plate mills
Par m ills
ftt.andard-rail mills
fthp.pt mills
Tin-plate mills

$0. 301

$0. 297

$0. 745

$0. 513

$0. 644

.206
.255
.237
.328
.269
.258
.278
.252
.488
.425

.207
.264
.246
.315
.268
.270
.266
.240
.450
.428

.571
.677
.671
.885
.659
.671
.713
.632
1.039
.949

.398
.470
.480
.496
.472
.476
.486
.470
.694
.650

.520
.624
.635
.721
.613
.562
.585
.573
.809
.795

Common laborers
All departments_____________
Blast furnaces_______________
Bessemer converters__________
Open-hearth furnaces-— ______
Puddling mills _
Blooming mills____ — ___ _
Plate mills
_______
_____
fttjmdard-rail mills
Bar mills
Sheet mills.- ___________ ____
Tin-plate mills _ ____________

$0.181

$0.180

$0. 298

$0.461

$0. 508

$0. 336

$0.417

.177
.193
.185
.173
.187
.174

.171
.193
.186
.167
.187
.174

.281
.298
.292

.457
.489
.468
.436
.469
.450

.474
.537
.525
.457
.511
.498

.315
.363
.354
.305
.350
.336

.173
.188
.189

.173
.188
.190

.443
.462
.461

.506
.536
.533

.316
.356
.359

.401
.448
.434
.355
.462
.432
.385
.392
.420
.436

.287
.294
.331

i
Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 442 (pp. 3,4,13); M onthly Labor Review, March 1918 (pp. 29-51).
The figures are not annual averages but are limited to the periods indicated. The earnings of laborers in
rail mills, although not shown separately except for 1924, are included in the averages for all years except
1917. The comparatively small coverage for 1917 may aflect slightly the average for that year.

AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS OF RAILROAD WORKERS

i
The average hourly earnings of railroad wage-earning groups
(including clerical employees) were given above (table 3) for certain
years. Average hourly earnings of all workers, including salaried
employees, are available for each of the years from 1915 to 1923, as
shown in the following tabulation.

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WAR AND POSTWAR WAGES, PRICES, AND PIOURS

869

Railroad
average
hourly
earnings 1

1915 (year ended Ju n e 30)_________ $0.
1916 (year ended Ju n e 30)__________
1916 (calendar y e a r)_______________
1917 ______________________ ______
1918 _____________________________
1919 _____________________________
1920 _____________________________
1921 ____________________________
1922— __________________________
1923’_

269
. 276
. 283
. 320
. 458
. 565
. 676
. 677
.6 2 9
.6 2 7

1
Sources: Interstate Commerce Commission. For the years 1915 to 1920, data are from the 1919 and 1924
volumes of Statistics of Railways in the United States. For the years 1920 to 1923, the data as published
were based, except for certain occupations, on time paid for. The averages for these years have been recalcu
lated from figures of total time worked or on duty and total compensation as given in Statistics of Railways,
1921, p. X X III, and in Wage Statistics for the last 6 months of 1921 and for the years 1922 and 1923. These
averages are higher than those in table 3 mainly because of the inclusion of salaried employees and to a slight
extent because of the use of hours on duty as distinguished from hours paid for.

On the basis of data compiled by the Interstate Commerce Com
mission, with certain adjustments for comparability of the data for
different years, the hourly earnings of all railroad workers during the
year ended June 30, 1915, averaged $0,269. Small increases occurred
up to the end of 1917, the average for the calender year 1917 being
$0,320. The efforts of labor organizations, combined with the recom
mendations of public agencies, notably the Lane Commission ap
pointed to investigate railroad wages, resulted in sharp increases to
$0,458 in 1918. Further advances raised the average to $0,565 in
1919 and to $0,676 in 1920. Basic wage rates remained unchanged in
1921 but readjustments of rates reduced average earnings by 1923
to $0,627.
UNION WAGE RATES IN BITUMINOUS-COAL MINING

Tonnage workers in coal mining, although declining in relative
numbers as a result of mechanization, still form a significant part of
total employment. Tonnage and other piece rates vary widely with
the nature of coal veins, the type of work, the extent of mechanization,
and other conditions. One of the basic aims of union policy, however,
has been the maintenance of an equitable relationship between ton
nage rates and the rates of day workers. Changes in the rates of day
workers may, therefore, be viewed as indicating broadly the general
trends of wage rates in coal mining.
The trends of the wage rates of day workers are indicated by changes
in the rates of a comparatively few occupations. The rate of brakemen inside the mines (a group of workers with rates the same as those
of several other occupational groups) was $2.84 in the Hocking Valley
district during the wage-agreement period extending from April 1,
1912, to March 31, 1916, and the rate rose to $7.50 in August 1920
(table 6). Similar changes occurred in the wage rates of other occu
pations. Thus, the rate per day of inside laborers and that of outside
dumpers and trimmers rose from $2.36 to $7.25.
The Hocking Valley district of Ohio was formerly viewed by opera
tors and miners as the basic-scale field for the determination of union
rates in the surrounding districts of Ohio, in the Danville district of

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M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

Illinois, in Indiana, and in western Pennsylvania. The rates given
in table 6, although a significant measure of the levels and trends of
union rates, are not to be interpreted as representative of all rates.
Some of the unionized areas had independent rate scales and some
mining areas were not unionized. The percentage changes in basic
day rates naturally differ from the percentage change in the average
hourly earnings of all bituminous-coal miners (table 3) because of the
numerous factors, such as tonnage rates, labor productivity, and the
changing composition of employment, that effected the changes in
average hourly earnings.
T a b l e 6 . — Union Rates Per Day in Selected Occupations in the Bituminous-Coal Industry

of the Hocking Valley District, 1908—23 1
Rate per day
Outside work

Inside work
Period of wage agreement
Laborers

April 1, 1908, to March 31, 1910-.. ......................
...
April 1, 1910, to March 31, 1912___________________
April 1, 1912, to March 31, 1914. _ -------------------- .
April 1, 1914, to March 31, 1916 -. .
--------April 1, 1916, to April 15, 1917_____________________
April 16, 1917, to October 31, 1917_________________
November 1, 1917, to March 31, 1918-.. ..............
April 1, 1918, to November 30, 1919-.. ---------------December 1, 1919, to March 31, 1920...
- ..........
April 1, 1920, to August 15, 1920----------------------August 16, 1920, to March 31, 1922_________________
April 1, 1922, to March 31, 1923____________________
April 1, 1923, to March 31, 1924___________________

$2.360
2. 490
2. 620
2. 620
2. 750
3. 350
4. 750
4. 750
5.420
5. 750
7. 250
7. 250
7. 250

Brakemen
$2. 560
2.700
2.840
2. 840
2. 980
3.600
5.000
5.000
5.700
6.000
7.500
7.500
7.500

Trappers
(boys)
$1.130
1.250
1.320
1.320
1.400
1.900
2. 650
2. 650
3.020
3.180
4.000
4.000
4.000

Dumpers
Carpen and
trim
ters
mers
$2. 530
2. 670
2.810
2. 810
2.950
3. 550
4. 950
4. 950
5. 640
5. 950
7.450
7.450
7.450

$2.360
2.490
2. 620
2. 620
2.750
3.350
4. 750
4. 750
5.420
5. 750
7.250
7. 250
7. 250

i Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 601; Wages and Hours of Labor in Bituminous-Coal M ining,
1933. The Hocking Valley district of Ohio was formerly viewed by operators and miners “as the basic-scale
field, not only for the surrounding districts in Ohio, but also for the Danville district of Illinois, for Indiana,
and for western Pennsylvania.” Brakemen’s rates were the same as the rates of various other occupational
groups. More than half of the workers were piece-rate workers, with rates dependent on the type of work,
extent of mechanization, etc., but a general aim in wage adjustments was the maintenance of established dif
ferentials between the earnings of tonnage workers and day workers.

CHANGES IN UNION HOURLY WAGE RATES IN BUILDING AND PRINTING
TRADES

Union hourly wage rates in the building and printing trades from
1914 to 1923 reflect the changes in basic rates of wages in important
segments of the national economy during a period when building
construction and printing and publishing were subordinated to the
more urgent requirements of wartime production. The wage rates
embodied iu union agreements naturally differ as to levels and prob
ably also in some degree as to trends from the wage rates of unorganized
workers. The union rates do not include rates for overtime work; An
outstanding characteristic of union rates in the building and printing
trades (table 7) is their comparative stability. The averages were
computed from indexes, which were constructed for the purpose of
eliminating the effects of variations in the samples covered from year
to year.
The rates of building-trades journeymen rose only 39 percent
between May 1914 and May 1919, in contrast to a rise of 53 percent
in the rates of helpers and laborers. The rates of journeymen also
rose less than’did those of helpers and laborers between 1919 and 1920.
The changes between 1920 and 1923 were somewhat more favorable

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871

WAR AND POSTWAR WAGES, PRICES, AND HOURS

to journeymen than to helpers and laborers, but the increase for the
entire period from 1914 to 1923 was 117 percent for helpers and laborers
in contrast to a rise of only 97 percent for journeymen.
Reductions in the union rates of building-trades workers occurred
between 1921 and 1922, but printing trades advanced throughout the
period. The increases in union building-trades rates during the period
as a whole were smaller than the advances in the hourly earnings of
industrial workers generally (table 3), but union building-trades rates
continued to rise sharply after 1923. The increase between 1923 and
1930 was 31 percent, as compared with only 6 percent in average
hourly earnings in manufacturing industries as a whole.
Union rates of the book and job printing trades showed a signifi
cantly larger increase than did rates of the newspaper trades. The
average for the book and job trades rose 116 percent from 1914 to
1923, in contrast to an increase of only 78 percent for the newspaper
trades. The average rates for both the book and job and the news
paper trades continued to rise throughout the period of the war and
the transition to peace from 1914 to 1923. The increases during the
period as a whole were smaller than the increase in average hourly
earnings of factory workers as a whole, but, as with building-trades
rates, the increases from 1923 to 1930 were larger than the rise in
average hourly earnings in manufacturing.
T a b l e 7 . — Union Hourly Wage Rates in Building and Printing Trades, 1914-23 1
Union hourly wage rates

Year

Building trades
All
trades

1914_____________■
1915___________ ________
1916__________________
1917______________
1918______________
1919______________
1920______________
1921______________
1922......... .............. .........
1923______________

$0.481
.485
.500
.532
.590
.676
.912
.929
.872
.963

Printing trades

Journey
men

Helpers
and
laborers

All
printing

$0. 533
.538
.556
.587
.649
.741
.992
1.010
.952
1.050

$0. 251
.253
.261
.287
.333
.385
.558
.564
.513
.544

$0.449
.452
.456
.472
.513
.628
.805
.882
.891
.919

Book
and
job
$0.410
.411
.418
.433
.479
.591
.770
.848
.852
.885

N ew s
paper
$0. 558
.562
.565
.579
.607
.732
.896
.974
.983
.994

. 1 The average hourly rates were calculated by use of indexes applied to the 1944 levels of wage rates. These
indexes were constructed from percentage changes in annual averages which in turn were computed from the
quotations of those unions which furnished reports for identical occupations in 2 consecutive years. Data of
union hourly wage rates are collected once each year during the spring or summer. The indexes for the
years 1914 to 1923 are based on reports for M ay 15. The averages are straight-time union rates, excluding
overtime and other special rates.

MONTHLY WAGES OF MARITIME WORKERS

Wartime and postwar changes in the monthly wages of two groups
of maritime workers—able seamen and firemen—are broadly indica
tive of changes in this field of employment. The data shown for the
period from 1914 to 1918, for 1922, and for 1924 (table 8) are not
wholly comparable in coverage, and maritime wages, which are in
addition to the equivalent of board and lodging, cannot be compared
with industrial wages. The figures are nevertheless significant as
indicating the general nature of the changes in the wages of maritime
workers.

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M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

T able 8.—Monthly Wages of Able Seamen and Firemen, 1914-24
Vessels sailing from N ew York and San Francisco, 1914-18 1
Sailing from San Francisco

Sailing from N ew York
Fiscal year endedTransAtlantic

To West
Indies and
Gulf of
Mexico

Atlantic
and Gulf
coastwise

To
South
America

Trans
pacific

PacificAtlantic
coastwise

Pacific
coast
wise

Able seamen
Jiine 30,
June 30,
June 30,
June 30,
June 30,

$27. 50
27.50
35. 00
45. 00
60. 00

1914
1915
1916
1917
1918

$30. 00
30. 00
35. 00
45.00
60.00

$30. 00
30.00
35.00
45. 00
60. 00

$27. 50
27. 50
35.00
45.00
60. 00

$40. 00
38.43
41.88
55.20
65.00

$31.00
32.38
36.86
56.15
65.14

$47.10
47. 53
50. 45
55. 53
66.00

$55. 00
53. 33
52. 35
55.30
65.00

$38.00
43. 35
43. 84
55. 67
65.14

$54. 91
54. 82
54. 50
55. 61
66. 00

Firemen
June 30,
June 30,
June 30,
June 30,
June 30,

$40.00
40.00
40. 00
50.00
60.00

1914.
1915
1916
1917
1918

$40.00
40.00
40. 00
50. 00
60.00

$40. 00
40.00
40. 00
50. 00
60. 00

$40. 00
40.00
40. 00
60. 00

American cargo steamships, 19222

Able seamen

, Employer or operator
Period covered

Shipping Board_______ July 24-Sept. 7 ,1922_

Firemen

N um Wages N um Wages
ber of per
ber of per
ves month ves month
sels
sels
1
l

f
Other__

American steam and motor
cargo vessels of 5,000 gross
tons and over, 1924 3

July 31-Aug. 22,1922. \

1 $45.00
1 47. 50
15 55.00
4 40. 00
2 42. 00
1 45. 00
6 47. 50
2 50. 00

Date

Able
sea
men

Fire
men

1 $47. 50 I
1 50. 00 p an . 1,1924 $63.00 $65.00
15 57. 50 ]
4 40. 00 1
2 45.00
1 47. 50 >___do_____ 60.00 63.00
7 50. 00
1 55.00

iU . S. Shipping Board, Marine and Dock Industrial Relations D ivision, Report on Marine and Dock
Labor: Work, Wages, and Industrial Relations During the Period of the War (p. 110), by Horace B. Drury.
Washington, 1919. Wages shown are the predominant wages.
2 M onthly Labor Review, February 1923, pp. 132-138 (derived from reports by American Steamship
Owners’ Association).
3 M onthly Labor Review, April 1927, p. 85 (derived from Merchant Marine Statistics, 1926, published
by U . S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Navigation).

The wages of workers on vessels sailing from New York and San
Francisco for ports in various regions ranged widely in 1914, the lowest
monthly wage of able seamen as represented in table 8 being $27.50
and the highest monthly wage being $47.10. The corresponding
range of the monthly wages of firemen was from $40 to $55. By
June 30, 1918, wages had risen substantially, especially for workers
whose wages in 1914 had been comparatively low. The rates for able
seamen and firemen on vessels sailing from New York were raised to a
uniform level of $60 per month. The monthly rate of both able
seamen and firemen was $65 on vessels sailing from San Francisco
to trans-Pacific ports, $65.14 on Pacific-Atlantic coastwise vessels
from San Francisco, and $66 on Pacific coastwise vessels from San
Francisco.

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WAR AND POSTWAR WAGES, PRICES, AND HOURS

873

The high degree of uniformity in rates attained by 1918 was broken
down after the war, and the wartime levels of wages were seriously
lowered. By January 1, 1924, however, a comparative uniformity was
again restored at levels of wages similar to those of 1918.
FARM WAGE RATES

The Bureau of Agricultural Economics of the Department of
Agriculture obtained wage-rate data of four types for the period of the
war and the transition to peace: Rates per month with board and
without board, and per day with board and without board (table 9).
The Bureau of Agricultural Economics also computes the weighted
average rate per month, primarily for the purpose of indicating the
general trend as distinguished from the levels of farm wage rates.
Each of the four types of farm wage rates rose steadily from 1914 to
1920. The rate per month with board rose 129 percent, and without
board, 120 percent; the rate per day with board rose 155 percent, and
without board, 142 percent; and the weighted average rate per month
rose 138 percent. The increase in the general rate was somewhat
smaller than the advance in average hourly earnings of factory workers
and about the same as the rise in average weekly earnings in factories.
Sharp declines occurred between 1920 and 1922, the reduction in the
weighted average rate being 37 percent. An increase of 12 percent
occurred between 1922 and 1923. The rise in the weighted average
wage rate from 1914 to 1923 was 67 percent, much smaller than the
increases in most of the nonagricultural branches of employment.
T a b l e 9. —Farm Wage Rates, 1914-23 1
Farm w age rates
Per month

Year

W ith
board
1914_________________________________
1915___________ _______ ____________
1916________________________________
1917___________________________________
1918___________________________________
1919_______________________________
1920___________________________________
1921__________________________ ______
1922___________________________________
1923___________________________________

$22. 62
22. 97
25.17
31.11
37. 96
43.29
51.73
33. 62
32. 75
37. 24

W ithout
board
$29. 74
30.06
32.84
40. 52
48.80
56.63
65.40
44. 67
43.33
48. 25

Weighted
average
rate per
month 2

Per day
With
board
$1.17
1.18
1.31
1.65
2.15
2. 54
2.98
1.77
1.73
1.89

Without
board
$1.43
1.44
1. 58
1.98
2. 54
3.03
3.46
2.12
2.07
2. 25

$25.13
25.41
27.93
34.79
43.73
51.13
59. 88
38.29
37.47
41.87

1 U . S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural Economics, Farm Wage Rates, Farm E m
ployment, and Related Data (p. 3).
2 Computed primarily for indicating the general trend rather than the general level.

AVERAGE SALARY-WAGE

Estimates of the average annual salary-wage of all nongovern
mental nonagricultural employees (full-time equivalents) for 1914
and 1919 were given in Part l.2 The averages for 1919 to 1923 are
derived from somewhat more satisfactory data than is the estimate
2
See Part 1, M onthly Labor Review, October 1945, footnote 3, p. 618 (giving sources and limitations of
the data).

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874

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

for 1914. They are to be viewed, however, not as exact measures
but only as rough indications of trends. The estimates are as follows:
1914.
1919.
1920.

$753 1921
1, 283 1922
1, 513 1923

$1, 378
1, 343
1, 428

The average salary-wage was less variable than were the earnings
of industrial workers. The low point for both was 1914 and the high
point was 1920; the increase between these years was 101 percent in
the average salary-wage and 139 percent in the weekly earnings of
factory workers. The period of depression from 1920 to 1922 reduced
factory weekly earnings 18 percent as compared with a decline of only
11 percent in the average salary-wage. The average was 90 percent
higher in 1923 than in 1914, as compared with a somewhat larger
increase of 116 percent in the weekly earnings of factory workers,
but the increase from 1919 to 1923 was slightly in favor of the average
for all nongovernmental nonagricultural employees.
Thus, the increase in the average salary-wage was smaller and the
fluctuations were less extreme than were the changes in average
earnings of industrial workers. Salaries were affected to a com
paratively small extent by changes alike in basic rates and in hours
of work, and also by changes in productivity, especially as these are
reflected in piece-rate or incentive systems.
Consumers’ Prices and VFholesale Prices , 1914-23

The most important single factor affecting the rise in wages during
the period of the First World War and the transition to peace was the
general increase in prices (table 10).
The index of consumers’ prices for moderate-income families in
large cities underwent little change during 1914 and 1915. The up
turn beginning late in 1915 continued, however, virtually without
interruption until June 1920, when the index number was 108.1 per
cent higher than in 1914. The decline which began in July 1920 con
tinued until April 1922, when the index was only 66.0 percent above
the 1914 level. Thereafter, only minor changes occurred until the end
of the decade.
In the index of wholesale prices of all commodities, as in that of
consumers’ prices, only minor changes occurred until late in 1915.
The rise which began in October 1915 was much more rapid than the
rise in the consumers’ price index. The increase continued until May
1920, when it reached a high point 145.5 percent above the 1914
average. The postwar low point, reached in January 1922, was 34.2
percent above the 1914 level. A new upward movement raised the
index by March 1923 to a level 53.5 percent above 1914, but the
year-end. index number, which was 44.1 percent above 1914, was more
nearly characteristic of the price levels of the rest of the decade.
The index of consumers’ prices did not reach as high a level as com
pared with 1914 as did the index of wholesale prices, but the net result
of the changes from 1914 to 1923 was a comparatively high level of
consumers’ prices above the 1914 average. The consumers’ price
index for the year 1923 was 69.8 percent above the 1914 average; the
wholesale price index was only 47.7 percent higher.

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WAR AND POSTWAR WAGES, PRICES, AND HOURS

T a b l e 10.—Indexes of Consumers’ Prices and Wholesale Prices, January 1914 to

December 1923
Month

1914

1915

1916

1917

1918

1919

1920

1921

1922

Indexes (1914=100) of consumers’ prices 1
January...............
February_________
M arch........... ...........
A pril....................
M ay...... ...................
June_____________
July_____________
August____ ______
September________
October___ _______
N ovem ber________
December________

100.0
99.0
98.5
97.9
98.2
98.9
99.9
101.4
101.8
101.1
101.3
101.1

100.7
100.1
99.3
99.9
100.3
100.6
100.6
100.7
101.1
102.1
102.6
103.1

104.0
104.2
104.9
105.8
106.4
107.7
107.7
108.9
110.9
112.3
114.3
114.8

116.2
118.9
119.8
124.8
127.7
128.8
127.9
129.7
132.0
134.4
134.5
136.2

138.9
140.5
139.7
141.1
144.0
146.8
150.1
152.8
156.7
159.3
161.6
164.3

164.6
160.9
162.7
165.7
167.8
168.5
173.0
176.0
177.2
180.1
184.1
188.4

192.2
194.2
196.4
201.8
205.3
208.1
207.2
201.7
199.6
198.3
197.2
192.6

189.6
183.4
181.9
179.7
176.3
175.3
175.5
176.3
174.5
174.0
173.1
172.1

168.7
167.8
166.2
166.0
166.0
166.4
166.7
. 165.2
165.3
166.4
167.1
167.7

167.3
166.9
167.4
168.4
168.7
169.4
171.2
170.6
171.4
171.9
172. 3
172.0

Average for year....

100.0

101.0

108.5

127.6

149.7

172.4

199.6

177.9

166.7

169.8

Indexes (1914=100) of wholesale prices (all commodities)
J an u ary ..................
F eb ru ary ................
M arch___________
April________ ____
M ay_____________
June........ ..................
July_____________
August___________
September................
October__________
N ovem ber................
December..............

100.7
100.3
99.9
99.3
99.0
99.0
98.8
102.2
103.1
99.9
99.1
98.8

100.0
100.7
100.1
100.9
101.3
100.3
101.8
100.7
100.3
103.1
105.3
108.7

113.1
115.3
118.1
120.0
121.1
121.7
122.5
125.0
127.6
133.8
143.0
145.7

149.9
153.5
158.1
167.5
177.2
179.1
180.6
183.3
181.4
179.4
180.3
180.5

183.6
180.2
185.6
188.4
188.1
189.4
193.8
197.2
201.9
200.1
200.1
200.1

197.4
190.6
192.8
195.3
198.7
199.1
207.2
211.9
207.2
207.9
212.2
221.0

231.6
230.7
232.9
243.0
245.5
244.5
243.5
237.0
227.9
211.7
195.9
177.2

167.4
154.0
150.4
145.2
141.3
137.2
137.2
137.3
137.2
138.2
138.3
136.4

134.2
136.4
136.3
136.9
141.1
141.4
146.0
144.8
145.8
146.3
147.6
147.9

149.8
151.7
153.5
152.6
149.6
147.3
144.5
143.6
146.4
146.0
144.5
144.1

Average for year__

100.0

102.1

125.6

172.5

192.8

203.5

226.7

143.3

142.0

147.7

i The indexes show average changes in retail prices of selected goods, rents, and services bought b y families
of wage earners and lower-salaried workers in large cities.

Hours of Work, 1914-23
PREVAILING HOURS IN MANUFACTURING

Prevailing hours of work in manufacturing industries averaged 55.1
hours per week in 1914 and 50.8 hours in 1919.3 The average for
1923 was 51.1 hours, and for 1929, 50.6 hours. The major change
in prevailing hours of work, it will be noted, occurred between 1914
and 1919. These figures are averages of the regularly scheduled
hours of plant operation or of shifts, not average weekly hours
actually worked.
FULL-TIME HOURS PER WEEK IN SELECTED MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

Major sources of information regarding scheduled hours of work
are the special industry surveys of wages and hours made by the
Bureau of Labor Statistics. In these surveys the term “full-time
hours of work” was used. The figures relate to varying periods, but
information is available for a considerable number of industries for
1914, for 1924, and for certain intervening years (tables 11 and 12).
3
These averages are computed from the frequency distributions of workers by prevailing hours of labor
per week as formerly published by the Bureau of the Census in the Census of Manufactures.

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M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

T a b l e 11. —Average Full-Time Hours per Week in Specified Manufacturing Industries,

1914-241

Year J

1914
1915
1916
1917
1918

__________________________

...... ............

IQiq
■jq?n

1921
1922
1923
1924

_______

Hosiery
and
under
wear

M en’s
clothing

54.8

51.3

Cotton
goods

Woolen
and
worsted
goods

56.8

55.0

56.9

54.8

54.6

56.0

54.3

52.3

51.8

48.3

Silk

54.6

47.9

51.6

__________ ______

52.8

48.8

51.6

44.1

___________________

53.0

49.1

50.7

44.1

Boots
and
shoes
54.7

48.6
48.7
49.0

1 Data are the results of special surveys, published in Bureau of Labor Statistics bulletins, as follows:
Cotton goods, Bull. No. 446 (p. 6); woolen and worsted goods, Bull. No. 443 (p. 7); silk, Bull. No. 568
(p. 2); hosiery and underwear, Bull. No. 452 (p. 9); men’s clothing, Bull. No. 387 (p. _8); boots and shoes,
Bull. N o. 450 (p. 2). The averages for men’s clothing are not representative of the industry as a whole
because of an overrepresentation of larger northern cities.
.
,
2 It should be noted that the special surveys did not cover the whole of the years indicated. They
were limited to certain months or periods, as M ay for the 1914 cotton-goods survey and January to April
for the 1924 survey of the boot and shoe industry.

Average full-time weekly hours in the industries covered ranged, in
1914, from 51.3 hours in men’s clothing to 64.9 hours in blast fur
naces, steel works, and rolling mills (described in the earlier reports
as the iron and steel industry). The average for the men’s clothing
industry represents a coverage confined to larger cities and is prob
ably lower than the average for the industry as a whole. Most of
the industries reduced their hours significantly by 1920. Between
1920 and 1924, work schedules were somewhat lengthened in cotton
goods, woolen and worsted goods, and boots and shoes. During the
period as a whole, however, from 1914 to 1924, all of the available
averages show substantial reductions. Full-time hours in cotton
goods fell from 56.8 in 1914 to 53.0 in 1924; in the woolen and worsted
goods industry, from 55.0 to 49.1; in the hosiery and underwear in
dustry, from 54.8 to 50.7; in men’s clothing, from 51.3 to 44.1; and
in boots and shoes, from 54.7 to 49.0 hours. The largest reduction
(from 64.9 to 55.2 hours) was in blast furnaces, steel works, and
rolling mills (table 12).
T a b l e 12. —Average Full-Time Hours per Week in Blast Furnaces, Steel Works, and

Rolling Mills, 1914-24 1
Department

1914
(May)

1915
(M ay)

1924
1922
1920
(October) (October) (January)

All departments_________________________________

64.9

65.5

63.1

63.2

55.2

Blast furnaces
_______ ____ _________________
B e s s e m e r converters
__ __________ ________
Open-hearth furnaces-- ______ _______________ _
Puddling mills
_ __________ ________ ______
Blooming mills
-- -______
Plate mills
_ ____ - ______ ______
_____
Bar mills
_____________________ -- - ____
Standard-rail mills
______________ ____________
Sheet mills
__ _ __________________ - _______
Tin-plate mills
______- ________ _______ _____

74.8
68.4
74.5
53.2
70.5
69.0
61.7
70.1
52.3
46.0

74.9
68. 7
74.4
52.2
71.0
69.8
61. 4
70.9
52. 5
50.4

72.1
70.3
68.7
53.9
67.5
68.8
61.8
61. 2
50.3
50.6

72.3
68.7
70.8
52.1
68.0
66.2
61.2
61.5
51.1
49.9

59.7
52.3
58.0
55.7
54.6
57.2
55.6
57.4
50.2
48.8

i Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin N o. 442 (pp. 3, 4).
lim ited to the periods indicated.

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WAR AND POSTWAR WAGES, PRICES, AND HOURS

877

The different departments of blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling
mills in 1914 showed extreme variations in full-time hours. The
blast-furnace average was 74.8 hours, that of open-hearth furnaces
was 74.5 hours, and that of standard-rail mills was 70.1 hours; in
contrast, the average in tin-plate mills was only 46.0 hours, and two
other departments had averages somewhat lower than those of most
of the other industries covered by the Bureau of Labor Statistics
surveys.
The extremely long workweek in blast furnaces, open-hearth fur
naces, and some of the other departments is explained by the survival
in many plants of the 12-hour shift and the 7-day week. Wartime
public agencies recommended reduction in hours and a few plants
adopted the 3-shift system, some of these reverting, however, after the
war, to 2 shifts. Hours in the industry as a whole underwent only a
small reduction before 1923, the average for October 1922 being 63.2
hours as compared with 64.9 in May 1914. Between October 1922
and January 1924 there was a sharp reduction, from 63. 2 to 55.2
hours, largely as a result of the extensive adoption, late in 1923, of the
3-shift system in plants with continuous operation. In many de
partments of the industry, the 7-day week was retained after the
adoption of the 8-hour shift.
SCHEDULED HOURS IN RAILROAD TRANSPORTATION

The distinctive nature of the work schedules of railroad operating
employees, especially of those engaged in road service, makes difficult
an exact comparison of the hours of these employees with the hours
of other groups. The dual basis of pay of road-service employees
provides for a basic day’s work for a specified mileage or for a specified
number of hours, the mileage system being essentially a piece-rate or
incentive system. The Adamson Act of 1916, effective in 1917, re
quired that in contracts for labor and service, 8 hours must be deemed
a “day’s work and a measure or standard of a day’s work for the pur
pose of reckoning the compensation for services.” That act applied
to operating employees, but in 1918 the Director General of the U. S.
Railroad Administration recognized the principle of the basic 8-hour
day for nonoperating employees.4
SCHEDULED HOURS IN BITUMINOUS-COAL MINING

According to data collected by the Bureau of Mines, little change
occurred in the weighted average workday of workers employed in
bituminous-coal mining during the period of the First World War and
the transitional period following the war. The weighted average
workday in 1914 was 8.6 hours, and the average in both 1919 and 1923
was 8.06 hours (table 13). There was, however, a decline in the pro
portion of workers employed in 10-hour mines, from 23.9 percent in
1914 to 1.1 percent in 1923. The proportion of miners employed in
9-hour mines fell from 15.4 to 4.2 percent, and the proportion working
in 8-hour mines rose from 60.7 to 94.7 percent.
* The Interstate Commerce Commission before 1919 computed the hours of employees whose time was
reported on a daily basis by multiplying the number of days by 10, but beginning in 1919, the Commission
multiplied the number of days by 8. There remained many exceptions to the 8-hour day, as for example,
among station agents and telegraphers, and many employees continued to work 7 days per week.

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M O N T H L Y LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

T a b l e 13. —Percent of Men Employed in Bituminous-Coal Mines With Established

Working Days of 8, 9, and 10 Hours, 1914-23 1
P e r c e n t o f t o ta l e m p lo y e e s in —
Y ear
8 -h o u r
m in e s

9 -h o u r
m in e s

1 0 -h o u r
m in e s

W e ig h te d
average
w o r k in g
day
(h ou rs)

1 9 1 4 ____________________________________________________________
1 9 1 5 ______________ __________ ___________________________ _____ _
___________________________________________
1916
. .
.
1917
.
___________________________________________
1 9 1 8 ____________________________________________________________

6 0 .7
5 9 .6
5 8 .6
7 9 .0
9 0 .6

1 5 .4
1 7 .0
1 7 .4
1 2 .6
6 .7

2 3 .9
2 3 .4
2 4 .0
8 .4
2 .7

8 .6
8 .6
8 .6
8 .3
8 .1 2

1919
_________________________________________________________
1920
___________________________________________
1921
_________ . . . .
_________
1922 ___________ _________________________________________ _______
1923
___________________ _________ ____

9 5 .5
9 7 .1
9 6 .6
9 5 .1
9 4 .7

3 .5
2 .0
2 .9
4 .0
4 .2

1 .0
.9
.5
.9
1 .1

8 .0 6
8 .0 4
8 .0 4
8. 06
8 .0 6

1 U. S. Bureau of Mines, Coal in 1930 (p, 655) (from Mineral Resources, 1930, Part II). See also U . S.
Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 516: Hours and Earnings in Bituminous-Coal Mining, 1929 (p. 13).
The percentages were calculated on the basis of total number of men in mines definitely reported as having
an 8, 9, or 10-hour day. A small number of mines that worked more than 10 hours or less than 8 hours were
excluded, as were also all mines for which the reports were defective or which changed their working day
during the year.

Prevailing mine practices called for a 6-day week. The full-time
workweek, or the number of regular or customary hours per week, was
therefore the number of hours per day multiplied by 6, or 51.6 hours in
1914 and 48.4 in 1919 and 1923. The average full-time week, as com
puted from data collected by the Bureau of Labor Statistics for a
sample pay period in 1919, was 48.8 hours.5
UNION HOURS IN THE BUILDING AND PRINTING TRADES

There was little change in the weekly hours of union workers in the
building trades as embodied in union agreements (table 14) from 1914
to 1923. The hours, it should be noted, are normal full-time hours,
excluding both part time and overtime.
T a b l e 14. — Union Weekly Hours in Building and Printing Trades, 1914-23 1
Union weekly hours
Printing trades

Building trades
Year
All
trades
1914_______________ ____ ______________
1915..._________________________________
1916_______ _______ ____________________
1917_____________________ _____________
1918____________________ _____ _________
1919__________________________________
1920___________________________________
1921___________________________________
1922___________________________________
1923......................................................................

46.4
46.4
46.2
46.1
45.9
45.6
45.4
45.3
45.3
45.4

Journey
men

Helpers
and
laborers

All
printing

Book
and job

45.8
45.8
45.6
45.5
45.3
45.1
44.9
44.8
44.9
44.9

48.0
47.9
47.8
47.6
47.4
47.0
46.7
46.7
46.6
46.6

49.5
49.5
49.5
49.5
49.5
49.5
48.1
45.1
45.0
44.8

51.0
51.0
51.0
51.0
51.0
51.0
49.1
45.2
44.6
44.3

N ews
paper
44.9
44.8
44.8
44.8
44.8
44.9
44.8
44.7
45.6
45.5

1 The average weekly hours were calculated by use of indexes applied to the 1944 levels of weekly hours.
These indexes were constructed from percentage changes in annual averages which in turn were computed
from the quotations of those unions which furnished reports for identical occupations in 2 consecutive years.
Data of union weekly hours are collected once each year during the spring or summer. The indexes for the
years 1914 to 1923 are based on reports for M ay 15.
The hours are averages of regularly scheduled straight-time hours under union agreements and are not
affected by part time or overtime.
'Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 279: Hours and Earnings in Anthracite and Bituminous-Coal
Mining (p. 9).

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WAR AND POSTWAR WAGES, PRICES, AND HOURS

As indicated in table 14 above, the average of all trades fell from
46.4 hours in 1914 to 45.6 hours in 1919, and the reduction there
after (to 45.4 hours in 1923) was nominal. The hours of journeymen
building-trades workers were somewhat lower than the hours of helpers
and laborers. The average for journeymen fell from 45.8 hours in
1914 to 44.9 hours in 1923, and the average of helpers and laborers fell
from 48.0 to 44.6 hours.
CHANGES IN AVERAGE WEEKLY HOURS ACTUALLY WORKED

Average weekly hours have usually been significantly lower than
scheduled hours, because hours actually worked are affected by part
time, labor turn-over, overtime, illness, and other factors. Informa
tion regarding average hours as thus defined is comparatively slight for
the period of the First World War and the years immediately following.
Estimates are available for the Census years 1914, 1919, and 1923 for
manufacturing, coal mining, and railroads (table 15).
Average weekly hours in manufacturing fell from 49.4 in 1914 to
46.3 in 1919. Available information does not permit the making of
satisfactory estimates of average weekly hours during the years inter
vening between 1914 and 1919, but the curtailments of scheduled
hours were probably counterbalanced, up to 1918, by reductions in
part time and increases in overtime. Employment in factories began
to decline in the summer of 1920, and average hours were reduced by
part time and labor turn-over. The estimated average in the first
quarter of 1922 6 was 42.7 hours. The industrial recovery beginning
in 1922 raised factory employment by 1923 almost to the 1919 level,
and average working time rose by 1923 to 45.6 hours per week, not far
below the 1919 level.
T a b l e 15.—Average Weekly Hours in Manufacturing, Coal Mining, and Steam R ail

roads, 1914, 1919, and 1923 1
Average weekly hours
Industry
1914
Manufacturing_____ . . ________________ _________
Bituminous-coal mining 2______________________ ____ _
Anthracite mining 2 __ _______________ . . . ________
Steam railroads (class I)_____________________________

1919
49.4
35.2
41.6
54.1

1923
46.3
35.5
42.1
46.3

45.6
31.3
43.2
45.5

1 The sources and methods used in computing the averages are described in M onthly Labor Review,
September 1940 (pp. 517-544), but the averages there given have been revised.
2 Travel time in the mine is excluded. The 1943 bituminous-coal agreement and the 1945 anthracite agree
ment provided for the inclusion of travel time as compensable time, thereby increasing the computed
average of weekly hours by 7 or 8 percent.

The reduction of average weekly hours in bituminous-coal mining
from 35.5 in 1919 to 31.3 in 1923 is explained largely by an increase in
part time. The average number of days of operation of the mines
fell from 195 in 1919 to 179 in 1923. Part time and reduced weekly
hours were caused in part by the distinctive nature of skills in coal
mining and the relative isolation of mining communities, which tended
to prevent mine workers from leaving the industry.
Average working time in anthracite mining rose slightly, from 42.1
hours per week in 1919 to 43.2 hours in 1923. The average number of
Computed by dividing average weekly earnings (table 1) by average hourly earnings (table 2).

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M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

days of operation of the mines also rose slightly, from 266 days in
1919 to 268 in 1923.
The average weekly hours of railroad workers fell much more sharply
from 1914 to 1919 than did the hours of factory workers, the major
cause being the Adamson Act and the widespread shift from the 10hour to the 8-hour day.7 The averages for railroads and factories
were virtually identical in both 1919 and 1923.
Conditions Affecting Trends After the Two Wars

The extreme variability of wages, and especially of prices, after the
First World War was largely a result of the sudden ending of the war
in the midst of full-scale preparations, the abrupt transition, and lack
of controls of prices and of the flow of materials for production and of
goods for consumption. Conditions at the end of World War II gave
promise of relative stability. As for wages, there was relatively little
control after the First World War, either by collective agreements or
by public policies, to raise wages in keeping with labor productivity
and prices or to prevent wages from falling below minimum levels
such as those later adopted and in effect at the end of World War II.
At the beginning of the First World War the usual workweek was
so long that pressure for reductions of hours was effective to a con
siderable degree during the war, but after the war there were few
marked reductions in hours. Average hours during the 20’s continued
near the levels of 1919. At the beginning of World War II, hours
generally had been reduced to a scheduled 40-hour workweek, and
average hours actually worked were usually below 40. During the
war, hours rose sharply, and the lengthening of the workweek was
accompanied by a large increase in the proportion of premium pay
ments for overtime.
The tendency after World War II to restore prewar scheduled hours,
with the accompanying elimination of premium payments for over
time, brought about demands for increases in basic rates of wages to
check reductions in weekly earnings. Such a program has been adopted
by most of the unions. Among«Govermnent officials, the Director of
the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion, in his Second Report,
April 1, 1945, stated: “I feel sure that ultimately, after the war, total
take-home pay in the United States will reach the present level.”
In his Third Report, the Director stated that workers had voluntarily
given up the right to strike, and that this no-strike pledge implies an
obligation on the part of the public to protect the workers’ standard
of living. Wage adjustments should be possible, he stated, because
of declines in premium payments for overtime and increases in aver
age output. “Therefore, we must be prepared to make some up
ward adjustments to compensate for severe declines in take-home
pay.” 8
Technological changes and general improvements in the efficiency
of production are of primary importance as an economic basis for wage
r The railroad averages were derived from Interstate Commerce Commission figures with certain ad
justments for comparability, the adjusted figures representing hours paid for and the average number of
employees on pay rolls, excluding principal salaried groups.
8 Office of Director of War Mobilization and Reconversion, Second Report, April 1, 1945 (p. 23); “The
War—Phase Tw o,” M ay 10, 1945 (p. 18); and Third Report, July 1, 1945 (pp. 38, 39): The Road to Tokyo
and Beyond.

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WAR AND POSTWAR WAGES, PRICES, AND HOURS

881

adjustments. Changes of this nature after the First World War were
extensive but were based mainly on postwar developments rather
than on wartime experiences. During World War II, there was an
unprecedented effort to improve techniques, to promote favorable
labor-management relations, and to utilize resources effectively for
maximun production. There existed at the end of the war not only
a large accumulation of knowledge and experience acquired during the
war, but also an exceptional organization of the facilities for research
and for the application of improved techniques. Related factors
affecting postwar productivity include the lifting of restrictions on
materials and equipment for civilian-goods industries, the shortening
of the workweek, additional holidays and vacations, and the with
drawal from the labor market of many workers whose age, lack of
training, or family duties impaired their efficiency. It is therefore
expected that for a considerable period after the war, labor produc
tivity will increase at above-normal rates,9 or, inversely, that unit
labor requirements will materially decline.
Wage changes are significantly subject to such general influences as
prevailing economic and political views. During the 20’s the prevail
ing views emphasized dependence on the flow of savings and invest
ment as determined by the “free” competitive markets to maintain
“equilibrium” of supply and demand at the level of “full employment”
of both labor and capital. The “return to normalcy” was the prevail
ing ideal, both politically and economically, and “normalcy” implied
that full freedom to save and invest would automatically take care
of employment, production, and consumption.
The later experiences with depression, unemployment, and public
relief, the emergence of World War II out of depression, and the evolu
tion of the war economy with unprecedented use of productive capacity
for war, gave rise to new points of view. Emphasis was shifted to the
roles of demand, consumption, and the full use of income in maintain
ing adequate production and employment. The extent of use of cur
rent income, and the nature of its use, either for needed productive
facilities or for the purchase and consumption of the products, is
thus viewed as a vital factor in determining the succeeding volumes of
employment, production, and income. These views led in turn to
emphasis on the avoidance of unused savings and the maintenance of
high levels of wages as the major source of demand and consump
tion.10
* U . S. Senate, Wartime Technological Developments: A Study made (by the U . S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics) for the Subcommittee on War Mobilization of the Committee on Military Affairs. Senate Sub
committee Monograph No. 2 (79th Cong., 1st Sess.), Washington, 1945.
i° The nature and prominence of such views are illustrated by the Full Employment Bill (S. 380, 79th
Cong., 1st Sess.), by the Third Report of the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion (Washington,
1945), by the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture for 1944 (sections on full industrial employment
and adequate wages as the basis of farm prosperity), by the programs of labor unions, and by the more recent
concepts in the study of national income as accounting on a national scale and the use of these concepts in
the work of such agencies as the National Planning Association.

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P rice C ontrol and R ationing in Foreign Countries
D uring the W ar 1
Summary

WHEN manpower and materials are diverted to war production
and shortages develop at the same time that purchasing power is
expanding, serious disturbances in the production and distribution
of wartime essentials are inevitable unless goods are rationed and
their prices controlled. Judging from reports which have come to the
United States, some type of price control was in effect in all the coun
tries of the world during the war period, and controls have been con
tinued since the end of the war, because there has not yet been the
time or productive capacity to provide enough goods to meet current
effective demand. Great Britain has already enacted a law making
it possible to maintain economic controls over a 5-year period.
Price-control measures have varied widely from country to coun
try during the war period, depending on the military situation, the
extent of dependence on imported goods, the transportation facilities
available, and the traditions of the country as to government control.
Most nations had some form of price control by the government in
the interwar period. In some, controls were designed only to pre
vent unfair competition. In some, rents were also regulated because
of housing shortages. In certain countries, prices of specific commod
ities regarded as particularly important to the national economy
were subject to government control. In other countries, prices
generally were subject to government control before the outbreak of
the war—notably in New Zealand, the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics, Norway, Denmark, Switzerland, Mexico, Chile, Italy,
Germany, and Japan.
At the outbreak of hostilities, price ceilings for a large number of
essential raw materials and consumers’ goods were set by some gov
ernments immediately. Others, Canada for example, limited price
controls in the early part of the war largely to informal agreements
with the trade to restrain prices, and did not establish formal con
trols generally until several months, or even a year or more, after the
war began.
In some countries, price ceilings have been set for all goods and
services. In others, as for example in the United Kingdom, prices
of goods and services which were regarded as essential in wartime
were strictly regulated, but no attempt was made to regulate prices of
goods which were not considered necessaries. It was thought that
this procedure insured effective policing of price ceilings for the goods
which every family must have, without diverting manpower (needed
for war production) to policing prices charged for luxury and semi
luxury goods which it was possible to do without as long as hostilities
continued.
Many countries have resorted to subsidies for food and some other
necessaries either at the producers’, the wholesalers’, or the retailers’
1 Prepared by Faith M . Williams, Bureau Consultant on Costs and Standards of Living, with the assist
ance of the staff on foreign labor conditions. See the October M onthly Labor Review for statistics of price
trends during the war period.

882

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PRICE CONTROL AND RATIONING IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES

883

level to maintain prices at the ceilings fixed, in spite of increased
production costs.
Subsidies to producers encouraged the production required at a
lower cost to the whole population than would have resulted if pri
mary-market prices had been allowed to rise and distribution charges
at each level had been computed on the basis of increased prices.
In some cases, subsidies were granted to high-cost producers of war
materials who would not have been able to operate under the ceilings
set for the industry as a whole. Subsidies were introduced at the
wholesalers’ or retailers’ level when primary-market prices had
risen, but the stabilization of prices at retail was regarded as necessary
in order to prevent undue increases in living costs.
In the countries which were invaded by the Axis powers, pricecontrol measures have proved largely ineffective because of the
extreme shortages caused by the destruction of production equipment
and transportation facilities, and the disruption of government
administration.
In most countries from which reports are available, certain essen
tial foods were rationed during the war period, and food rationing
continues even in countries with export surpluses because of the
general shortage of food around the world. The cessation of hostili
ties has made it possible to increase food rations in some countries
recently but in others rations have been decreased. Bad weather
in a number of important food-producing countries and the disruption
of production caused by the war have combined to keep world food
supplies far below prewar levels. Food production in continental
Europe and North Africa is estimated as 25 percent below the 1935-39
average in 1944-45. It is clear that large exports from areas having
food surpluses will be required to avert general disaster. Production
in Occupied China, the Philippines, Siam, French Indo-China, and
Japan was also below the prewar average this year, and the food
situation in East Asia is serious.
In most countries certain essential articles of clothing were rationed
during the war period and in some countries, rationing covered cloth
ing of all types and housefurnishings. In addition, tires and gasoline
were rationed in many areas and other essential consumer goods
were allocated only to persons who had lost their possessions as a
result of enemy action.
New Zealand

Price control was in effect in New Zealand before the European
war. Under the Prevention of Profiteering Act of 1936, prices were
not to be raised above those in effect on June 1, 1936, unless the in
creases were “reasonable.” The Primary Products Marketing Act
of 1936 provided for the fixing of prices of butter, cheese, eggs, fruit
and honey, hops, and potatoes. Maximum prices were set for a
wide variety of foods which the Government marketed at wholesale.
Certain categories of rent were regulated under the Fair Rents Act
of June 1936. These measures continued in effect during the war, in
addition to the specifically wartime controls.
Immediately following the outbreak of war, prices were frozen at
the September 1, 1939, level. However, within a few weeks, the
Price Tribunal was authorized to grant increases for goods with in670119— 45------ 4

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creased costs, though the seller might be required to absorb part or
all of the increases when gross profits seemed high; replacement
costs were not included in computing permitted price increases. In
August 1941, it was announced that the retail prices of 38 essential
commodities were to be stabilized at the September 1, 1941, level,
using standardization, improvements in the organization of produc
tion, and subsidies where necessary; the commodities included food
stuffs, New Zealand-made clothing and footwear, streetcar fares, and
fuel and light. No increases in these commodities were to be permitted
by the Price Tribunal, which continued to hear applications for price
increases, even for stabilized items, and to recommend methods of
stabilizing prices, when increased costs could not be absorbed. The
policy was one of stabilizing the price of each item separately. Ra
tioning was applied in April 1942 and was extended as shortages
developed, covering meat, sugar, butter, tea, clothing, footwear, etc.
By November 1942, the retail-price index was 14.3 percent higher
than in August 1939, and in December 1942 regulations were issued
promulgating a new stabilization policy. In order to provide the
Government with a more effective check on price trends than had
been available hitherto, a new wartime index of retail prices was
prepared. It covered a broader range of commodities and services
than the earlier index and included all items which were regarded as
essential to a wartime standard of living and which the Government
intended to control. Instead of trying to stabilize the price of each
item separately, however, the Government aimed at stabilizing the
wartime index. Thus, increases in some prices might be offset by
reductions in others. Rents other than those of dwelling houses,
which were covered by the Fair Rents Act, were fixed at the rent
payable on September 1, 1942, although a “fair rent” above that
amount could be determined. Subsidies were utilized extensively,
totaling 3.5 million pounds in 1943-44, and being estimated at 5.4
million pounds for 1944-45; items subsidized included sugar, wheat,
hides, etc.
Australia
Price control became effective in Australia in October 1939, under
an order providing that certain products should not sell at higher
levels than on August 31, 1939, unless it could be shown that unavoid
able increases in costs had occurred. This order was superseded by
the National Security (Price) Regulations of 1940, which prohibited
any unauthorized increases in wholesale or retail prices. At first,
allowance was also made for maintaining a constant ratio between
profits and costs, but in April 1942 it was decided that the total profits
of any business should not exceed those of April 15, 1942, assuming
the same volume of business and notwithstanding any rise in the
value of sales resulting from higher costs. Rent restrictions were
instituted early in the war and differed in form, depending upon the
tenants and kind of property. In general, increases were made con
tingent on obtaining official permission.
On April 12, 1943, rigid general ceiling prices were introduced, the
maximum being fixed at the levels current on that date. All com
modities on the civilian market were subjected to stabilization, it
being the deliberate public policy to include goods outside the coverage
of the official price index. To maintain the ceilings, the Government

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subsidized producers and traders for any advances occurring after
the price freeze. The subsidy even extended to wage increases.
During 1943-44, the total cost of the subsidy was 7 million pounds,
and in 1944-45 it was 12 million pounds. Items that bulked large in
the respective totals were tea, potatoes, milk, firewood, essential
imports (particularly textiles), and wage increases. Essential con
sumer goods gradually brought under consumer rationing were cloth
ing, footwear, certain household drapery goods, butter, tea, sugar,
gasoline, and meat. Many additional items were rationed at the
source, by the restriction of supplies of raw materials and labor.
From the date of the stabilization program (that is from the end of
the March quarter of 1943) to the first quarter of 1945, the price index
for all household commodities remained constant.
Canada a

On September 3, 1939, Canada established control of the supply
and prices of the “ necessaries of life.” In addition, prices of specifi
cally war materials were controlled. During the following 2 years,
control consisted largely of informal agreements with the trade, to
restrain prices; efforts to increase supplies; and a few formal price
¡controls during emergencies only (wool, sugar, and butter). Control
of housing rentals was established in September 1940, and certain
areas were put under formal price-control orders.
In the fall of 1941, prices advanced more rapidly and increases were
more widespread than during the previous 2 years. Accordingly, a
general price ceiling was announced in October 1941, centralizing
regulation of all prices of goods and of certain services—at all levels
of distribution—under the jurisdiction of the Wartime Prices and
Trade Board, and freezing prices of most of them at the highest
prices charged in the period September 15 to October 11, 1941. Cer
tain exceptions were made, such as sales by the primary producer of
a wide range of foods, but even in these cases prices could not be more
than “ reasonable or just.” Rent control was extended to include all
except farm land, and maximum rental for those properties not
already controlled was established at the rate in effect on October
11, 1941. Consumer rationing on a relatively very limited scale
was adopted for some products, such as several foods (sugar, butter,
preserves, and meat, formerly also tea and coffee), tires, and gasoline.
Subsidies were used freely, as well as remission of duties and bulk
purchasing for resale, any losses being absorbed by the Government.
Subsidies were restricted to essential consumer goods; they were
utilized for many foods, such as tea, rice, oranges, butter, milk,
groceries, and canned fruits and vegetables, and for coal, petroleum
and its products, fertilizers and chemicals, raw cotton and wool and
their products, raw hides and skins and their products, lumber, foot
wear, woodenware, and other products. In the first 6 months after
December 1941, the amount paid in subsidies amounted to 4 million
dollars; for the period between December 1, 1941, and December 31,
1944, expenditures totaled 230.8 million dollars (including^direct sub
sidies and trading losses of four administrative agencies). As_ a
result of the measures, the cost-of-living index for Canadian cities
rose only 2.8 percent from October 1941 to April 1945.
2 See Price Control in Canada, in M onthly Labor Review, August 1945 (p. 243).

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United Kingdom

Responsibility for the public control of prices of raw materials and
of food was assumed by the British Government at the outset of hos
tilities in 1939; other goods bought by consumers were soon controlled;
and. rents had been regulated since 1915. The State became the sole
importer and sole buyer of many raw materials, but followed the policy
of permitting the preexisting wholesale and retail distributive system
to be maintained by allowing all reasonably efficient traders to con
tinue in business. On the consumer side, pressure on supplies was
checked by the early introduction of rationing, which started with
bacon, ham, butter, and sugar, and was gradually extended to most
of the scarce foods and to clothing, and by the introduction of utility
goods designed to meet essential needs in the most economical manner.
Living costs mounted rapidly during the first 4 months of the war,
when prices of consumer goods other than food were still uncon
trolled. Chief causes of the rise were the depreciation of the pound
sterling, rising prices in the countries from which goods were imported,
and sharp advances in shipping costs. Subsequently, shipping costs
and insurance rates continued to increase.
Under the Prices of Goods Act, which was enacted in 1939 and be
came operative on January 1, 1940, the Board of Trade was em
powered to freeze the price of any goods at the level prevailing on
August 21, 1939, subject to adjustment for changes in costs. Per
mitted changes in prices were limited to those “reasonably justified in
view of changes in the business,” and this provision was interpreted
to cover only the amount of increased cost, leaving the profit margin
at the same money level and not permitting a percentage rise. The
net result of the interplay of pressure on prices and of controls was
that the official cost-of-living index increased by 28 percent between
September , 1939, and April , 1941.
Beginning in the latter month, the Government successfully under
took to stabilize consumer prices, as measured by the official cost-ofliving index, at not more than 30 percent above the prewar level.
Under the Goods and Services (Price Control) Act, effective July 22,
1941, the Board of Trade was empowered to fix maximum price orders
covering any stage of production or consumption and not merely to
freeze prices as had been provided by the 1939 price law. Another
important factor in stabilization was the doubling of subsidies in 1941
as compared with 1940. Initially, subsidies had been placed on flour,
bread, meat, bacon, and milk, and were later extended to other com
modities. Estimated expenditures by way of subsidy in 1945 total
225 million pounds, of which 65 million pounds are for bread, flour,
and oatmeal, 26 million for bacon and other meat, 40 million for milk,
cheese, and eggs, 17 million for sugar, 3 million for tea, 28 million for
potatoes, and 46 million pounds for other commodities. The amounts
spent annually for subsidies from 1938 through 1945 are shown in the
accompanying statement.
1

1938
1939.
1940
1941.
1 Estimated.

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£15, 000, 000 1942
20, 000, 000 1943
_ 70, 000, 000 1944.
140, 000, 000 1945.
.

£175, 000, 000
- 190, 000, 000
-

220, 000, 000

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In the budget statement of April 1944, the Chancellor of the Ex
chequer stated that it might be necessary to allow the cost-of-living
index to rise 35 percent from the prewar level instead of 30 percent.
However, by July 1, 1945, the index, having reached its maximum in
World War II, was 33.5 percent higher than at the outbreak of war
in Europe.
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
The Soviet civilian supply of foods and goods was seriously cut by
the German invasion in June 1941 and the continued demands of the
Soviet armed forces. So grave was the situation that rationing was
introduced in July 1941, after a period of about 6 years of nonration
ing. For purposes of rationing, the civilian urban population was
divided into the following five categories, in descending order of size
of rations received: (1) Manual workers in war industries, (2) other
manual workers, (3) white-collar workers, (4) dependents over 12
years of age, and (5) children under 12. For example, in 1942 bread
(the principal item of food) was rationed daily to the five population
categories as follows: Those in class 1 received 28 ounces; those in
class 2, 21 ounces; those in class 3, 18 ounces; and those in classes 4
and 5, 14 ounces. The customary wartime diet of the Soviet worker
included cabbage and potatoes, in addition to bread. Very little
meat, if any, was available to civilians during the war period.
In March 1943, the bread ration for manual workers in war indus
tries was reduced to 25 ounces, but miners and workers performing
extra-heavy work were entitled to a special ration of 35 ounces of
bread a day. In addition, workers fulfilling or exceeding their pro
duction quotas received supplemental food rations. Such workers
also had priority in purchasing goods that were too scarce for general
rationing. Price fixing was essential in carrying on the distribution of
the rationed foods and goods, and prices were frozen during the war
period. The consumer, moreover, could buy his rations only at the
store where he was registered.
Civilians could supplement their food rations by planting individual
gardens (in 1944, some 16.5 million workers had done this) and by
buying on the inflated-price free market or, after April 1944, in spe
cial Government-controlled stores.
In contrast to the “frozen” prices of rationed foods and goods,
prices on the free market in the Soviet Union are uncontrolled.
Prices of certain commodities on the free market and in the special
Government stores selling foods and goods on a nonrationed basis
are available for certain dates. In Moscow, in April 1944, the un
controlled prices on the free market were about 30 to 40 times higher
than the prices that the Government asked for corresponding foods
that were rationed. This indicated a steep wartime rise in prices on
the free market, for in January 1940 free-market prices of meats and
eggs in Moscow were only half again as high as the fixed prices in
Government stores; the price of milk was 1% times higher; the price
of potatoes proved to be the exception by being 12 times higher. The
free market is supplied by collective farmers who want to sell or barter
any of their share of the collective-farm produce or of the products from
their own gardens. Free-market prices vary from city to city and are
progressively higher east of Moscow; in the summer of 1943 freemarket prices on the Siberian coast were on the average about twice

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as high as Moscow prices. In evaluating these figures, it is important
to remember that only a very small part of the goods produced in
Kussia is sold on the free market. Most of the goods produced are
rationed and sold at ceiling prices. Goods sold on the free market are
those for which production quotas were not established in plans for
the year.
The establishment, in several large cities in mid-April 1944, of
special Government-controlled department stores, food shops, and
restaurants served to stabilize or reduce prices on the free market.
The Government made available some foods and other goods on a
nonrationed basis, at prices approximating or lower than those on the
free market. Factory workers were allowed a 10-percent discount,
Government employees a 20-percent discount, and heroes of the
Soviet Union and other distinguished citizens a 40-percent discount.
As a result of this Government action, it was reported that by AugustSeptember 1944 prices on the free market, as compared with prices
of a year before, had decreased as follows: Meats, 66.7 percent; milk,
70 percent; potatoes, 28.6 percent; onions, 40 percent; cucumbers,
75 percent; and carrots, 50 percent. According to Izvestia (Decem
ber 21, 1944), the opening of these special Government-controlled
stores indicates the stimulation of war-interrupted production in the
textile, shoe, haberdashery, perfumery, pastry, and other consumergoods industries.
France
On September 1, 1939, a decree law was passed in France providing
for strict limitation of the profits of private enterprise working in the
interest of the nation. Similar restrictions were placed on the profits
of other enterprises by a decree of September 9. A price-stabilization
law followed on October 21, 1940, after the country had been occupied
by the enemy. The price structure was then geared to German
economic policy. Large proportions of the goods produced in France
during the German occupation were shipped into Germany. On
liberation, the returning French Government undertook to retain
the price-fixing system, with modifications designed to make the
arrangements more equitable, but the machinery did not operate
successfully. Price rises continued, owing to shortages of supplies,
inadequate transportation, wage increases, hoarding, and inability
to enforce the price controls. The continuance of rationing of most
essential food and clothing items and Government subsidies on food
products and basic industrial products to a total of 40 billion francs
(for an unstated period) were ineffective in halting either the price
rise or the black market.
In an effort to avoid placing a heavy burden on future generations
by reason of subsidies, the Government determined to pursue a changed
policy in the spring of 1945. This program was presented by the
Minister of Finance and National Economy, who stated that effective
stabilization of prices and salaries would require courageous measures,
that is, the absorption into prices of certain costs such as wage in
creases already granted (and a fraction of certain others) and the full
cost of fuel and raw materials, including the payment of costs of wheat
for bread that was formerly subsidized from public funds. Once these
and other adjustments were made, enterprises would be expected to
meet their own price problems by recourse to economies and by in
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creasing production; wages would be stabilized. Rents were to remain
frozen for workers’ dwellings throughout 1945. Regarding agricul
tural prices, some upward adjustment was considered to be warranted
on livestock, and a bonus was believed to be in the interest of insuring
an increase in milk production during the winter of 1945-46. For the
Government’s part, it would exchange old bank notes for a new issue
and would control credit.
For the 1945 growing season, the French Government removed
fresh fruit and vegetables from price control and undertook to estab
lish retail “token” shops in Paris and other major cities in which such
products were to be sold at fair prices. It was hoped that such
shops would operate to drive the regular distributors’ prices down to
a fair level.
ItalyFascist Italy .—The first central price committee in Italy was
initiated by the Fascist Government in Italy in 1935, and soon after
the outbreak of war in Europe the Government adopted rationing for
individual consumers. Beginning in July 1941, food prices were
regulated by a committee attached to the national directorate of the
Fascist Party, and rationing was extended. Nevertheless, prices rose
rapidly.
The cost-of-living index for 50 Italian cities, which stood at 77.5
in 1935 (1928 = 100), reached 99.1 in 1938 and 102 in 1939. During the
same periods, the food index rose from 72.8 to 93.0 and to 96.0. By
June 1942 (the latest date for which this series is available) these
indexes (1929 = 100) had risen to 162 and 172, respectively.
Liberated Italy .—For the period of Allied-Italian control over liber
ated Italy, as well as the latter part of the Fascist regime, neither satis
factory indexes nor price lists are available. In March 1944, the
Allied authorities froze prices of a number of foods, daily necessaries,
and public utilities and an Allied Military Government decree required
the posting of fixed price lists twice a month. The compulsory collec
tion of grain, oil, livestock, and other commodities was continued.
Fertilizers, important raw materials, etc., were allocated by the Allied
authorities.
Coupon rationing was complicated by problems of transportation as
well as of supply from Italian and Allied sources. A High Food
Commissioner of the Italian Government, with power to fix prices,
control supply and distribution, and requisition supplies, collaborated
with the Allies in establishing ration scales, which varied for different
categories of consumers. Until March 1945, government subsidy
kept the price of bread down to 5 lire per kilogram, but at a cost of
some 10 billion lire annually. The system of price control and ration
ing was extended as the area of liberated Italy grew.
Increases in wages and cost of living and family allowances and
increases in prices operated in a cycle, while compulsory pooling of
agricultural supplies became more ineffective and the quantity ofhre
in circulation (14 times as great in early 1945 as in 1938) expanded.
A cost-of-living index (November 1940=100) for Rome (from the
Rome Chamber of Labor) stood at 400 in November 1943 and 1070
in December 1944. An index of the monthly cost of a food budget,
providing 2,200 calories daily for a family of 3.9 consuming units
(based upon data from the Central Statistical Institute and the Allied

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Labor Subcommission, with 1938=100), reached 100.9 in 1939, 134.4
in 1941, 544.8 in 1943, and 2229.4 in November 1944.
The black market operated openly, providing a market for those
sellers who did not wish to take Government prices in the pools
(ammassi centrali) and a source of supply for those buyers who could
afford to supplement their rations. The Labor Subcommission esti
mated that of a food budget of 171.8 kilograms, 39.0 percent was
obtainable by ration card and 61.0 percent only on the black market in
September 1942, and 23.4 and 26.2 percent by ration card and 76.6
and 73.8 percent on the black market in September of 1943 and 1944,
respectively. In March 1945 about one-twelfth of the theoretical
budget of a family of five, providing 2,200 calories daily per consuming
unit, could be obtained by ration card; the remainder would have to
come from other sources—obviously the black market.
The Italian rationing authorities, in collaboration with the Allied
Commission, established different categories of consumers, whose
rations differed in quantity and kind. Children and the aged, for
example, were entitled to a larger sugar ration, and expectant and
nursing mothers were entitled to an extra milk ration. The actual
distribution of supplementary foods to persons in need has been
irregular, however, and uncertain. The daily ration, in ounces, of
the two major foods for the principal categories of the population, was
as follows:
Bread
(ounces)

Allied diplomats______________________ ■_______________
Policem en and o th e r public secu rity officers__________
Merchant seamen________________________________
H o sp ital p a tie n ts _____________________________________
Refugees in camps------------------------ -------------------I _ _ I I
Civil prisoners------------------------------------------Ita lia n arm y in d u c te e s_______________________________
Ita lia n civilians______________________________________

17.
14.
14.
12 .

64
99
99
35

10.58

8. 82
8. 82
7. 05

Spaghetti
(ounces)

7_ 05
3 . 00
3 qo
3. 53
3.53
2. 82
2. 82
2 . 82

Some suggestion of how present food shortages are affecting the
Italian people is provided by recent data on mortality rates. In 1944
the death rate in Rome was approximately 50 percent greater than in
1937 and it exceeded the birth rate for the first time since the epidemic
of 1918. The largest number of deaths was attributed to “heart
failure/’ and the second largest to tuberculosis. The infant mortality
rate is reported to be approximately 50 percent; and the press states
that in one foundling home 40 percent of the children are dying of
malnutrition.
Norway
In the interwar period, control of certain prices in Norway was
vested in a Cartel Control Board. Price controls initiated in Sep
tember 1939 were therefore merely an enlargement of regulations
already in operation.
In September 1940, after the German occupation of the country,
a Price Directorate was established by the Quisling Government
which set prices and rations and had extensive powers to investigate
the records of producers and distributors and to fine or imprison
persons who violated its decrees. There was an extensive black
market, as the Norwegians regarded black-market purchases as a
means of hampering the German administration. Black-market
prices are not reflected in the official statistics.

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Industrial materials, foodstuffs and other consumer goods, trans
portation, and use of communications facilities were rationed. Meat
was available to the general pùblic only on certain holidays; although
some persons in the employ of the German Government had almost
half a pound a week, the average person received only about 2 pounds
a year. Whole milk was generally reserved for children; adults had
rations of skimmed milk. Vegetable rations fluctuated with supply.
Wheat, rye, and potato flour, bread, and cakes constituted a single
ration unit and consumers distributed their purchases among these
items as they saw fit. Clothes were rationed on a point system.
Raw materials were allocated to manufacturers on a quota basis.
During the occupation, the first consideration in making allocations
was to supply producers of goods ordered by the German Government.
At the time of the liberation, it was decided that the continuance
of controls of prices and wages and rationing would be necessary for
a while because of shortages of goods of all kinds. In a statement
of June 9, 1945, in the Arbeiderbladet, the Price Director of the free
Norwegian Government pointed out that, with the amount of cur
rency in circulation and the short supplies, the danger of inflation
was imminent. He stated that the new decree on controls was “only
of a temporary and extraordinary character,” and that it was desirable
that the Storting consider this entire matter as soon as possible.
Denmark

Price control over certain goods which enter into foreign trade was
established in Denmark in 1937. Ceiling prices, established by the
Germans the day after the occupation, were soon ineffective owing to
the withdrawal of ceiling prices on agricultural products and inclusion
of the increased cost of production in the prices of other commodities.
The laws of May 30, 1940, supplemented by theHaw of November
22, 1941, however, strengthened the controls.
In view of German dependence on Denmark as a source of food
supply, prices paid for agricultural products were allowed to rise
rapidly between August 1939 and April 1940. Thereafter, subsidies
were granted to producers to keep down the prices of staple goods.
In 1942-43 these, together with direct rebates on food and clothing
to needy consumers, amounted to 158 million crowns. The black
market was relatively inactive.
Sweden

Sweden’s economic life was practically untouched during the first
6 months of the war, thus permitting the testing of the emergency
system before it was put into full operation after the blockade of
April 1940. The State Food Commission was established in October
1939, the official Fuel Commission in July 1940, and the State Price
Control Board in June 1941. Rationing of food and fuel was insti
tuted as necessary to prevent shortages and hoarding, and subsidies
were maintained on the most important foodstuffs. By the beginning
of the fourth year of war (September 1942), because of the blockade
and the very poor harvests of 1940 and 1941, it was necessary to
ration foods representing 70 percent of Sweden’s total food] con
sumption. Milk and fish are the^only important foods which have

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been unrationed. Clothing was rationed from December 30, 1941,
and shoes from May 1943.
Poland
In the summer of 1941, after the Russian retreat, all of prewar
Poland came under German control, and strict price control, wage
control, and rationing were instituted. The industrial parts of western
and northwestern Poland, with about 10 million people, were incor
porated into the German Reich, and prices, wages, and rationing
conformed to the system for Germany. In the remaining territory
of Poland, prices, wages, and rations were also strictly regulated.
However, non-Germans received lower wages and lower rations;
Poles received rations which constituted only about half the normal
requirements for health, and Jews were entitled to only about half
the inadequate rations received by other Polish citizens. As a result
of the low rations, black-market prices are reported to have risen to
500 percent of 1939 prices by 1941, and subsequently became much
higher still. In 1942, when the food situation was the worst, actual
famine occurred in many localities. The food situation became less
critical by the autumn of 1943. On October 1, 1944, the Polish
Committee of National Liberation introduced a ration-card system
in liberated Polish territory, providing for larger and more adequate
rations of food and other consumer goods at prices fixed by the
State.
Switzerland
As the Swiss Price Control Office was established as early as 1932,
Switzerland at the outbreak of the war had an experienced agency to
cope with emergencies. Its chief weapon was the right to enforce
price ceilings. Another Government measure was the establishment
of a fund from which profits on similar articles could be equalized.
Under the 1932 law~s, a grain reserve had been accumulated, which at
the outbreak of the war totaled 80,000 metric tons. Bread was not
rationed during the first 3 years of war; thereafter a ration of 7.9
ounces per day was set, which was increased during the fifth war year
to 8.8 ounces. Government subsidy kept down the price of the
bread. Rationing in 1944 included all staple foods except fruits and
vegetables. Switzerland was forced to rely almost exclusively on
German coal throughout the war, and the prices rose 80 to 90 percent
during the first war years.
Egypt
Maximum prices of some foods were fixed in 1940 and the system
was extended in 1941 to include cereals, flour, bread, and later rice
and rice flour. Eventually the Government became the sole buyer
of the wheat and corn and other essential food crops. Rents were
frozen at 12 percent above the April 1, 1941, level. Control to pre
vent war profiteering began early in the war, and decrees of 1943
regulated sales of retailers, wholesalers, and manufacturers and limited
commercial profits. In spite of these and other devices, the wholesale
price index (1935=100) stood at 322 in February 1945, and the costof-living index (June, July, and August 1939= 100) at’294. In Egypt,
as in other countries of the Middle East, production' and import

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control was carried on in cooperation with the Middle East Supply
Center—a British and American war agency.
Iran

A Price Stabilization Section was created in the Ministry of Finance
in Iran, and it acted with the Middle East Supply Center in allotting
import quotas for Iran. The Finance Ministry controlled the licens
ing of private dealers, the distribution of rationed and unrationed
goods, and the Government stores. Although the Government placed
sugar, cotton piece goods, tea, wheat, and other items under Govern
ment monopoly, the distribution of the available supplies in the
Provinces was difficult.
Palestine

The Government of Palestine adopted price fixing as early as 1940,
and maximum-price orders were issued from time to time for milk
and other dairy products, meat, and various vegetables. The Gov
ernment also subsidized wheat, flour, and millet, and assumed control
of imported wheat and flour. Certain foods (meat, bread, sugar,
vegetable oil, cocoa, etc.) were rationed by a point system in urban
areas and by allocation in villages and semi-urban areas (the source
of supply to retailers being under Government control). These
measures were accompanied by others which limited the amount of
currency in circulation (increased income and land taxes and the
sale of defense bonds).
Mexico
Price control was established in Mexico by a decree of June 25,
1937. This measure gave the Department of National Economy
control over the production, distribution, and prices of all commodities
regarded as of fundamental importance. Prices continued to rise,
however, and in July 1938 a Federal Regulatory Committee of the
Food Market was authorized to fix and to advertise the prices at
which specified food products were to be sold to producers and to
consumers. The organization was also empowered to purchase and
to import wheat, rice, and corn for the purpose of lowering prices.
The committee’s chief function proved to be the Importation of wheat
and lard to meet a serious national deficit.
In 1939, the Government opened a number of retail stores to sell
staple commodities such as rice, flour, corn, and sugar, and price
ceilings were established for these commodities. In addition, legisla
tion provided for export control of goods needed in Mexico.
The Federal Regulatory Committee of the Food Market was dis
solved when a decree of May 3, 1941, established the National Dis
tribution and Regulating Company (“Reguladora”) under the Min
istry of National Economy. The new agency was “to regulate the
prices of commodities of prime necessity, or of those which serve as
raw materials in the manufacture of products of that nature, and to
assure fair prices to the producers and consumers.” Later (April 23,
1942), Reguladora was directed to purchase the total production of
certain vital foodstuffs, and to sell them directly to merchants “in
order to prevent speculation and profiteering.” ActingAupon that

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authority, Reguladora in 1942 intervened directly in the Mexican
market and bought and sold 60 percent of the rice, about 85 percent of
the lard, and from 60 to 70 percent of the corn consumed in the
country.
In the meantime, the Secretary of National Economy was given
the power to compel all persons holding large stocks of certain im
portant items to put them on sale at prices not in excess of the legal
maximum. Merchants were ordered to display a list of prices of all
the articles named and a decree of April 13, 1942, required a monthly
declaration of stocks on hand of articles of prime necessity by all
farmers, merchants, and shop owners with a capital of more than
10,000 pesos, engaged in buying and selling one or more articles of
food considered as of prime necessity, to register in the Department
of National Economy, and thereafter to make weekly declarations
concerning their stocks of such items.
Further intervention in marketing operations was sanctioned by a
decree published March 2, 1943. This measure authorized the estab
lishment of a Consortium by Reguladora and three other Government
agencies—the National Bank of Agricultural Credit, the National
Bank of Ejidal Credit, and the Importing & Exporting Co. In order
to maintain price stability, protect producers and-consumers, and
prevent speculation, the Consortium was empowered to acquire rice,
beans, corn, and wheat at fair prices. It was also given the control of
exports.
Absolute control over the prices and transportation of foodstuffs
was established by an executive decree promulgated May 18, 1943.
The price-control machinery was reorganized in February 1944 when
a presidential decree abolished the Consortium and transferred Regu
ladora and the price-control activities to the Ministry of Finance.
Since that time, emphasis has been placed upon increasing the pro
duction of foodstuffs by the extension of credit to producers and by
giving Reguladora authority to enter any market and control it to
the extent needed. Probably the most effective price-control mea
sures have been Reguladora’s imports of large quantities of basic food
items, thereby increasing available supplies.
Despite the efforts of the Government to control them, prices and
the cost of living have risen almost continuously in recent years.
An exception to this general statement as to price-control measures
has been the price ceilings for pharmaceutical products, established
by the Ministry of Public Health since July 1942. These ceilings are
said to have been generally well observed, having had the backing of
public opinion as well as active enforcement by Public Health in
spectors. Aside from import control of commodities allocated to
Mexico by the United States, designed to complement the United
States allocation and export-control system, Mexico has not resorted
to rationing, except for rubber, rubber products, and cement,
B razil

Under the Coordinator of Economic Mobilization, who was ap
pointed in September 1942, municipal price commissions were created
in Brazil on January 10, 1943. Temporary price ceilings were estab
lished for foodstuffs and basic commodities, at the levels of December
1, 1942, and the commissions were directed to ascertain what prices

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895

were charged on that date by producers and wholesale and retail
dealers. By that time, the cost-of-living index for Bio de Janeiro had
risen 23 percent above its August 1939 level. The price commissions
were authorized to publish and enforce the observance of maximum
prices set for foodstuffs and “commercial” products of necessity to the
less-privileged classes.
Subsequent orders of the Coordinator fixed prices of all merchandise
for which ceilings had not been issued earlier, froze transportation
rates at November 10, 1943, levels, prohibited profits greater than 10
percent on certain articles, and established the conditions of their sale.
Nevertheless, the Bio de Janeiro cost-of-living index rose almost 27
percent between January 1942 and May 1944. In that month the
Coordinator placed prices for 10 articles under the control of the
Federal Government, assumed control of export permits, and an
nounced plans for further price-control measures. The Bio de Janeiro
index continued to rise, however, through March 1945, the latest
date for which the series is available in Washington.
In May 1945, a plan was announced to abolish the Office of the
Coordinator of Economic Mobilization and to transfer most of its
functions to other Government agencies.
Bolivia

Price control in Bolivia developed from governmental efforts to
check speculation in the distribution and sale of imported foods and
commodities. The nation-is largely dependent upon other countries
for its supplies of food and most other consumer goods, and the in
adequacy of transportation and distribution facilities encourages
speculation. Until June 1941, Government regulation of prices in
Bolivia was carried out under the direction of the Ministry of National
Economy through the powers granted by a law of 1938 intended to
prevent speculation. The Minister, however, exercised his pricecontrol function directly only in La Paz; in the Departments, prices
were fixed by price-regulation committees under his supervision and
with his approval. These committees were composed of the Prefect
of the Department, an agent of the Central Bank, and the local
inspector of commerce and industry. Prices were determined on the
basis of cost, plus profit and overhead.
The Ministry of National Economy was also given the authority,
on June 21, 1941, to regulate prices of imported articles of subsistence
and of articles of national production. A decree of September 17, 1941,
governing the prices of all commodities, established 5 categories of
merchandise—live animals, articles of subsistence, raw materials,
manufactured articles, and gold and silver. On these 5 groups, the
decree set profit and overhead percentages which varied according
to two factors—the type of merchandise, and the activity of the
merchant (i. e. whether importer, wholesaler, or retailer). The
decree also required merchants to display price lists and use price tags
on articles for which prices had been fixed. No general price ceilings
were established and there was no general rationing system.
In May 1943, the Office of Price Control was established under the
supervision of the Ministry of National Economy. The Office was
authorized to establish and maintain fixed prices for all articles of
consumption, services, and rents; to ration articles subject to import

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quotas; and to act as a court in hearing charges of violations of its
price-control regulations. Each Department was to have a price
administrator and a price-control council, and within the Departments,
each Territory was to have a price-control council. The Office of
Price Control was empowered to use the services of the inspectors of
commerce and industry who previously had been assisting in the
enforcement of price-control measures in the various Departments.
Within a year of its establishment, the Office of Price Control was
abolished (April 30, 1944). Control of prices for farm products and
foods of prime necessity reverted to the municipalities, with the
Ministry of National Economy continuing its former functions with
regard to price control.
Chile
The 1932 law providing for the Chilean Commissariat General of
Subsistence and Prices did not go into effect until July 1939. Since
that date, broad powers have been granted to the Commissariat.
In 1942, it was further strengthened by a budget appropriation,
instead of having to rely upon income from fines imposed. Even
before the war, the Commissariat had the authority to control prices,
take measures to prevent hoarding and speculation, designate com
modities as “articles of prime necessity,” and subject the industries
concerned to regulation with regard to manufacture, imports, exports,
distribution, transportation, quality, weight, and measurement. In
the exercise of these powers numerous decrees were issued, fixing
prices and regulating trade in a variety of articles of common con
sumption, including rice, potatoes, coal, sugar, alcohol, candles, shoes,
beans, and wheat.
After the outbreak of the war, the Commissariat was assigned the
control of wartime prices and the rationing of specified vital commod
ities. It imposed a general prohibition against retail prices higher
than those prevailing on August 25, 1939, and regulated wholesale
prices also when necessary. Acute shortages of numerous articles
were met by price controls and regulations governing distribution
and consumption. Representative articles thus controlled were alu
minum ingots, matches, tin plate, iron products, tires and inner tubes,
paper products, sewing machines, sacking and jute, and electrical
supplies. Control over the price of wheat and wheat products was
vested in the Agricultural Export Board.
The status of the Commissariat was changed by the Economic Law
of December 1943, which placed the Commissariat under the Presi
dent; control of prices in each commune was vested in Vigilance Com
mittees composed of 5 members designated by the Intendant of the
respective Province from the citizens of the place. The members of
the Vigilance Committees were to serve for 1 year, were available
for reappointment, and were to serve without pay.
The Commissariat has continued to function as an executive agencj7
under the President. During the first quarter of 1945, the majority of
price-control decrees published by that agency established higher
wholesale and/or retail ceiling prices for foodstuffs, agricultural
products, and certain industrial commodities. Such increases were
only partly reflected in the official cost-of-living index for Santiago,
since it includes relatively few fabricated goods. Two other decrees
provided for submission of financial statements or balances and stock

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PRICE CONTROL AND RATIONING IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES

897

declarations to the Commissariat General by all individuals or firms
possessing articles of prime necessity or of habitual use or consumption.
It is difficult to assess the effectiveness of the price-control activities
of the Commissariat because there is no price index with a commodity
or geographic coverage extensive enough to reflect the total situation.
Recent reports indicate that, despite the existence of ceiling prices,
there is a strong tendency toward increases in the prices of staple
foodstuffs.
Argentina
Price control in Argentina was initiated by law No. 12,591 of
September 8, 1939, which froze maximum retail prices of articles of
prime necessity at the level of the first 15 days of August of that
year, and authorized the executive branch of the Government to
determine and enforce maximum prices to be charged by factories,
wholesale dealers, and importers. Reduction of wages or salaries
because of price fixing was prohibited under this law. Commodities
such as food, clothing, household goods, construction materials, and
equipment for lighting, heating, and sanitation were declared to be
subject to regulation or expropriation. At about the same time,
Government price guaranties for wheat and linseed were abolished.
No general system of rationing has been organized; however, from
time to time various agencies have been created or designated to
supervise the distribution of scarce materials.
China

Controls of production, transportation, and sales of essential com
modities were introduced by the Chinese Government under the
regulation of 1937, which governed wartime control of agriculture,
mining, and commerce. In an effort to control the price and distri
bution situation in China, the Executive Yuan subsequently estab
lished controls over strategic raw materials, coal, iron and steel,
alcohol, cotton, and rice. A system of incentive prices for coal was
initiated on August 1, 1945. Although price controls are national
in scope, they have been administered locally, and have affected the
conditions in the large cities primarily. Such controls have been
more effective for manufactured products than for farm commodities.
However, ceiling prices on manufactured goods vary between locali
ties, owing to differing production costs.
Price subsidies take different forms. The Chinese Government
has a monopoly on all salt produced, and fixes the price. It buys
cooking fats and may sell them below cost. Rice, cotton, and wheat
are accepted in payment of taxes and, in addition, producers are
required to lend or sell part of the rice crop to the Government at
fixed prices. These commodities may be sold in the cities or supplied,
as wages in kind, to Government employees, teachers and workers in
Government factories, and in factories working on Government orders;
these groups include most of the industrial wage earners in free China.
In the last year, supplies of the blue cotton cloth which is so impor
tant to the Chinese worker and his family have not been large enough
to give rations to the entire population, and tickets entitling the holder
to buy such cloth have been distributed from time to time by lot.
Such rationing as exists is for city populations. Each individual

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registers with a single cooperative and must purchase his rationed
articles from that source.
The great difficulties under which the Chinese Government has
been operating during the war period are well known. Measures
intended to control prices have been hampered by the fact that the
major part of the war expenses of the Chinese Government has been
met by borrowing from the banks, which in turn have issued currency
against credits given the Government.
The rise in prices has led to hoarding of commodities in anticipa
tion of future price increases and to the purchase of foreign currencies
by persons who anticipate returning to occupied China after the war
and who wish to have foreign balances to buy production equipment
for the replacement of machinery destroyed by the Japanese. The
Government has met especial difficulty in increasing the available
supplies of agricultural products, because of the traditional attitudes
of the Chinese farmers who have not been accustomed to Govern
ment controls and usually sell only enough produce to finance their
needs for clothing and salt. In a period of inflation, they tend to
withhold their products from the market in anticipation of higher
prices later.
Germany
Price control, introduced toward the end of 1936 in Germany, was
based on the prices prevailing on October 16, 1936, and was rigor
ously enforced throughout the war. Certain adjustments to wartime
conditions were reflected in the relatively slight wartime rise in the
official cost-of-living index. Penalties for the violation of price regu
lations were severe and speedy, even in the early period of the war;
for example, in March 1941 alone, no fewer than 3,975 Berlin shop
keepers were convicted of violating price regulations. However,
ways were found to circumvent price control, mainly by barter which
the State-controlled press in 1942 called “Public Concern No. 1.”
Allied bombings and the German mobilization of manpower for the
armed forces caused an increasing shortage in consumer goods and
in price-control enforcement personnel. In April 1943, the Frank
furter Zeitung admitted that price control had become more difficult
for these reasons. The effect of the bombings was so great that, at
the beginning of 1944, over 26 million people in Germany were
reported by the German Labor Front as being fed in communal feed
ing centers; subsequently, this number increased. Contributing
greatly to the maintenance of the food situation in Germany before
the last year of the war was the importation of animal products from
the occupied countries. Because of this, the consumers’ level of
living in Germany was higher than that of any other belligerent
European State, with the possible exception of the United Kingdom.
The German food situation became really serious toward the end of
1944, when the first cut in food rations to consumers was made.
Other cuts followed in 1945, and the rationing system broke down
completely after the capitulation of the country to the Allied Nations.
Japan
When increased industrial expansion began in Japan about the time
of the “China incident” of 1937, the Antiprofiteering Ordinance of 1917
was revived and its control extended. Enforcement was ineffective,

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899

and the Government began a policy of subsidization of industry.
Maximum prices for raw cotton, rubber, etc., were fixed by voluntary
agreement between producers and dealers. The wholesale price index
was rising, however, and in 1938 the Government created an organiza
tion for price fixing, with a central committee presided over by the
Minister of Commerce and Industry. Official maximum prices were
set for 60 important commodities. With the outbreak of war in
Europe, the Government froze all wages, prices, freight rates, and other
fees and charges at the level of September 18, 1939. Since prices
continued to rise, the central price committee was reorganized in
April 1940, and a price-policy council was attached to the Cabinet.
The policy then introduced was to include better enforcement and
subsidies to stimulate production.
Early in 1943, an emergency price plan was announced and in
November the Government again reorganized the price-control
structure. The Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce was estab
lished, and within it a price-control deliberative council and a pricecontrol committee. Meetings of the council began in 1944, preceded
by the mobilization of a country-wide organization of price admini
strative informants. By 1944, food consumption had decreased
materially, and all staple foods were controlled by the Government
and distributed through the Central Food Corporation which, after
providing for the aimed forces and for a reserve, sold the remainder
to local food corporations. These corporations, under the administra
tion of the local governments, passed the supplies on to local neighbor
hood associations.
Food rationing based on age, sex, and type of work began in 1941.
Families received ration coupons, and commodities were obtainable
through the neighborhood groups on surrender of the coupons. By
1945, the caloric value of the Japanese diet had fallen by about a
third.
In spite of subsidies to agriculture, the farmers’ incentive to pro
duction was reduced by high living expenses, and early in 1945 the
Food Administration Inspection Mission estimated that there were
1,000,000 illegal peddlers of foodstuffs. In Tokyo, the retail price
index of daily necessaries reached 294 in October 1944—an advance of
194 percent since the year of the “China incident” and of 110 percent
since 1939. No index of illegal black-market prices is available.
Rationing of textiles was started in February 1942; nearly every
item of wearing apparel was rationed. Cards were issued on the point
system, differentiated for rural and urban consumers, and (in 1944) for
the summer and winter season, with points based on age and special
conditions. The inferior quality of textiles and shoes and the ear
marking of goods for military uses caused serious shortages.
In order to make economic regulation effective during the war, the
Japanese Government created control societies in the fields of produc
tion, distribution, and transportation. These eventually became
business corporations attached to the various ministries. The control
society of each industry had the responsibility of developing maxi
mum production under complete Government control. Great com
plexity in business procedures developed, as well as opposition to
interference with the profit motive, which may have aided in the
development of widespread black-market operation in foods, war
materials, and labor.
670119— 45------ 5

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

Discharged Soldiers

Benefits fo r Ex-Servicemen in Five B ritish Countries
and the U nited States 1
MEMBERS of the armed forces in Great Britain and the British
Dominions are being granted certain benefits when they are discharged
from the services which are designed to ease the transition from mili
tary to civilian life and which are similar in many respects to those
granted in the United States. Some of these benefits are financial;
others facilitate training for useful peacetime employment. The
present article summarizes the different forms of veterans’ aid in the
United States, Australia, Canada, Great Britain, New Zealand, and
the Union of South Africa.2 The benefits described are those for the
physically fit, honorably discharged army private of the lowest rank.
Benefits for ex-servicewomen, for the disabled, for other men up to the
rank of officer, for officers, and in other branches of the armed forces
are not included; in some instances they are the same as for the
private of lowest grade and in others they vary with the rank.
Reinstatement in Civil Employment

All six Governments adopted regulatory measures whereby em
ployers are required to reinstate former employees on return from war
service. Certain of the obligations of ex-servicemen and of their
employers are shown in table 1. The preservice employment re
quirement for reinstatement with the former employer is approxi
mately 1 month, except in Canada where it is 3 months and in the
United States where no time is prescribed. The period allowed for
application for reinstatement varies from 1 month to 6 months. The
time for availabliity for employment is fixed by three countries,
ranging from 2 months to 6 months; in Canada and New Zealand
the employer may designate the date, and in the United States no
formal provision is made on this point. Reinstated employees must
be retained from 6 months to 1 year except in Australia which did not
fix a time limit; and all five foreign countries established priorities for
reinstatement as between men who joined the armed forces, taking
into account length of service, date of enlistment, or a combination of
factors. In the United States, court rulings will determine the priority
in reinstatement, as the law seems to be subject to varying interpre
tations of the right or degree of right of the veteran to his former job
on the basis of seniority.
1

Prepared by Margaret H . Schoenfeld and James R. Mock of the Bureau’s Foreign Labor Conditions

St?B enefits available to veterans of World War II in the United States and other countries have been de
scribed from time to time in the M onthly Labor Review as they were provided.

900

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DISCHARGED SOLDIERS

In the reinstatement laws and regulations, it is recognized that the
employer’s position may have so altered that he is unable to reinstate
his former employee under the conditions laid down. Such circum
stances are taken into account in the different countries and the
employer is required to reinstate the worker only if “reasonably
practicable,” or to reinstate him in the most favorable position and
under the most favorable terms possible. Penalties are fixed by all
five foreign countries for acts of noncompliance with the requirements
for rehiring and retaining employees, and in some instances the penal
ties to which employers are subject are relatively heavy. For ex
ample, in Canada an employer who is convicted of a violation of the
reinstatement law is liable to a maximum fine of $5003 and the court
may also order him to give the person concerned 12 weeks’ pay at the
rate he was receiving when he left the employment to enter the armed
forces. In the United States, veterans have recourse to the courts,
with the United States attorney serving as their counsel.
T a b l e 1.—Reinstatement Rights of Ex-Servicemen in 5 Foreign Countries and the United

States
Requirement

United States

Australia

Canada

Preservice em ploym en t... A position “other than
temporary.”
Application for reinstate
ment.

28 days out of 56 days 3 months’ employment or
immediately preced
recognized
employee
ing war service.
status.
90 days from discharge.. 1 month from discharge. 3 months from Canadian
discharge, 4 months
from
overseas
dis
charge.
No formal requirement.. 2 months from applica Designated by employer.
tion.
N ot within 1 year
No fixed term _ ______ N ot within 6 months.

A vailability for employ
ment.
Dismissal of reinstated
employee.
Priority in reinstatement- Subject to court inter
pretation.!

Requirement

Great Britain

Preservice em ploym ent... 4 weeks immediately
preceding war service.
Application for reinstate Fifth M onday following
ment.
discharge.
Availability for employ
ment.
Dismissal of reinstated
employee.

N inth M onday follow
ing discharge.

N ot before 26 weeks with
less than 1 year’s serv
ice; not before 52 weeks
with 1 year or more of
service.
Priority in reinstatement. Longest service em
ployee who enlisted
first.

L o n g est-serv ice em
ployee on date of en
listment.
N ew Zealand

First to enlist.

Union of South Africa

4 weeks preceding war 4 weeks preceding war
service.
service.
1 month from N ew Zea 6 months from discharge.
land termination; 6
months from termina
tion overseas.
Designated by employer. 6 months from discharge;
2 months from com
pletion of training.
N ot within 6 months___ N ot within 12 months.

First to enlist.................... First to relinquish em
ployment.

1 See discussion on p. 900.
s Throughout this article the'quotations in money are in"the currencies of the countries concerned. August
1945 exchange rates in terms of U. S. currency were Australian pound=$3.21; Canadian dollar=$0.90; British
pound=$4.03; N ew Zealand pound=$3.22; and Union of South Africa pound=$4.01. Studies in the inter
war period showed that to convert one currency into another according to the foreign exchange rate does not
give an accurate measure of the relative purchasing power of money but information is not available showing
the relative living costs in the United States and foreign countries.

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M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

Preference in Employment

Preference afforded to veterans in employment is confined in large
part to governmental services, as is shown in table 2 for national
governments. Many States and municipalities provide their own
systems of preference. In the United States Federal Government,
except for jobs in special critical categories, only veterans may take
new examinations for Civil Service positions. Names of veterans
who take these examinations are placed above the names of nonveterans with equal rating on the respective Civil Service lists.
The Canadian Government gives veterans preference in civil serv
ice appointments, including appointments over civilians with higher
ratings. Under procedure followed in the foreign countries, generally,
either an absolute preference is granted to ex-servicemen or a certain
quota of positions at different levels is set aside to be filled by them.
Among the six countries, New Zealand is the only one in which a
specific system of military preference does not appear to have been
applied in public employment.
T a b l e 2.-—Preference in Employment for Ex-Servicemen in 5 Foreign Countries and the

United States
Kind of preference

United States

Public employment- More than 30 Civil Service
positions reserved as
long as veterans are
available.

Kind of preference

Great Britain

Public employment- Specified quota in admin
istrative, executive, and
clerical classes.

Australia

Canada

Positions in Common
wealth Government and
on public-contract work
for those having over
seas service.
For 7 years following war,
if qualified.

Positions in Dominion
Government; reasonable
quota in war-contract
work.

N ew Zealand

Union of South Africa

N o pro vision________

Specified quota in clerical,
professional, and techni
cal grades.
Written consent required
to employ persons who
have not performed war
service.

With regard to preference in nongovernmental pursuits, some action
has been taken, notably in Australia and the Union of South Africa.
Australia established a plan for preference, by legislation adopted in
1945. The Union of South Africa extends coverage to those who have
performed “ war service.” However, the tendency is to regard the
question of employment for veterans as a part of the general employ
ment problem. For example, the report of the New Zealand Rehabil
itation Board for the year ended March 31, 1944, places emphasis
“ on the desirability of keeping the question of preference for exservicemen in perspective with that arising from the needs of citizens
as a whole.” Although Australia has subsequently taken a strong
position on veterans’ preference, the interstate executive of the
Australasian Council of Trade Unions placed itself on record in
1944 with a statement that preference to returned servicemen is not in
the country’s best interest and should be abandoned in favor of con
centrating effort on providing employment opportunities for all
citizens. These views are in line with development of governmental

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903

DISCHARGED SOLDIERS

plans for a high and stable level of employment that are being devel
oped by most of the English-speaking nations and for which legislative
and other action is under consideration.
Financial A id

The financial assistance that is provided is of three main types:
(1) Money payments made at the time of discharge or shortly there
after, which servicemen receive automatically; (2) special grants and
loans that men may receive if qualified to run businesses (including
farms), and the aid they may qualify for owing to unemployment; and
(3) financial help provided for training or education if it is determined
that the applicants are suitable for and in need of further courses.
Discharge payments .—Great Britain and the four Dominions grant
leave with pay (called a “rehabilitation grant” in Canada) to ex-service
men for varying lengths of time and in most instances depending on
different factors, including length of service and length of service
overseas, as shown in table 3.
T a b l e 3 . — Discharge Payments to Ex-Servicemen in 5 Foreign Countries and the United

States
Class of payment
Leave with pay___

United States
None 1______

Mustering-out p a y .. Less than 60 days’ service
$100; more than 60 days,
but no overseas service,
$200; with overseas serv
ice $300.
W ar-service gra- N one.
_________
tuity.

Postwar credit or
deferred pay.
C loth in g _________

Australia

Canada

After any service, 15 days;
after 6 months’ service,
30 days.
Allowances
during leave.

After 6 months’ service 1
month. Allowances dur
ing leave.

6d. per day for home serv
ice; 2s. 6d. per day of
combat service.

$7.50 for every 30 days of
volunteer
service
in
Western
Hemisphere;
$15 for every 30 days over
seas plus 7 days’ pay and
allowance for every 6
months overseas.

N one___________

2s. per day______________

Service clothing________

An outfit

Class of payment

Great Britain

N ew Zealand

Leave with pay____ 8 weeks. Allowances dur 2 days for each month
ing leave.
After 6
overseas; minimum 28,
months overseas, 1 day
maximum 91 days.
for each month overseas.
Mustering-out pay..
W ar-service gra After 6 months’ service, £1 for each month in New
tuity.
10s. per month.
Zealand; £3 15s. for each
month overseas.
Postwar credit or
deferred pay.
Clothing____ _____

6d. per day_______
After 6 months’ service an
outfit worth £12.

Is. per day of overseas
service.
After 6 months’ service
£10, rising after 12
months' service to £25.

$100.
Union of South Africa
Full pay and allowances in
lieu of accumulated leave.

After 6 months’ service, £1
10s. for each month of
service, for Europeans,
10s. for colored, and 5s.
for natives.2
After 3 months’ service £15
for Europeans,3 £ 9 for
colored, and £ 2 plus suit
and hat for natives.

1 A 45-day furlough is granted to returning m en without sufficient points for discharge; terminal leave
with pay is granted only to junior officers through the rank of captain in the Army and lieutenant in the
N avy. The latter leave may not exceed 3 months or the equivalent base pay for that period
2 A European is defined as of pure European descent; a colored person is one of mixed bloods; and a native
is a pure-blooded aboriginal.
2
The clothing allowance was raised to £25 for Europeans on April 1, 1945; information is not available
showing other increases, if any. In addition, £ 5 in cash was authorized for Europeans; information is not
available regarding such a payment to others.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

904

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

A special feature of the payments provided at discharge is the
continuance, during terminal leave, of allowances for dependents. In
addition all live of these countries pay war-service gratuities to veter
ans which in most instances are higher for service overseas than for
service in the home country. The Union of South Africa differentiates
between races in fixing the amount of the gratuity. A special feature
in Australia and Great Britain is the postwar credit allowed to the
veteran by the Government for every day of service. A similar pay
ment, which is called “ deferred pay,” is granted in New Zealand and
covers overseas service only. In the United States, the discharged
serviceman does not receive a war-service gratuity or postwar credit,
but is given mustering-out pay, varying with the length of service and
increasing for overseas service.
All six countries make some provision for clothing discharged men
(see table 3). In Australia, Great Britain, and the United States he
receives some apparel; in Canada and New Zealand, a sum of money is
granted for clothing; and in the Union of South Africa, a money pay
ment is made for men of all races, natives also receiving some clothing.
Special grants and loans.—-The grants and loans for starting or
restarting businesses, including farming, cover a wide range, as shown
in table 4. Certain loans may also be applied on the purchase of
homes but this phase is not discussed here, as many of the provisions
are interrelated to home-ownership programs of broader coverage.
The different Governments stress the fact that ex-servicemen must
have practical experience or be able to show that they are fitted to
carry on the work for which they seek capital to establish themselves.
Great Britain is the only one of the five foreign countries which
makes provision for a grant for business purposes (amounting to
£150) but which does not have a scheme for loans. In Australia and
New Zealand, outright grants are small and the emphasis is on loans.
A Canadian veteran may receive a reestablishment grant provided
he has not received a loan or training and, if fitted, may secure aid for
settlement on Provincial land.4 The Government of the Union of
South Africa has worked out a plan permitting the veteran to combine
grants and loans, provided that the total sum shall not exceed the
maximum allowable for a loan, namely £1,250.
Among the five foreign countries, the range in possible loans is
from £250 to £1,000, according to type of enterprise, in Australia 5
to a maximum of £6,250 in New Zealand for land and stock in a
sheep-raising venture that is a going concern. The interest rates on
loans and the period allowed for amortization have an important
bearing on the ability of individual veterans, who qualify for aid, to
take advantage of this form of assistance. In Canada, a veteran
pays interest at the rate of 3% percent; he is forgiven one-third of the
loan for land and buildings in repaying his indebtedness; and the loan
must be paid in 25 years. Arrangements for interest payments vary
in New Zealand and were recently reduced; for example, loans for
tools and furniture are interest free and most of the others are granted
at 2 percent the first year and 4 percent thereafter (3 per cent there
after for farming and sheep raising); and the maximum amortization
period is 45 years. South African loans are without interest for 5
years and then at 4 percent; loans are repayable in 15 years.
4 In the other four foreign countries land-settlement plans were discussed during hostilities but no infor
mation is available to show what action has been taken.
» A veteran may also receive £5 as a grant or loan, if urgently needed.

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DISCHARGED SOLDIERS

905

Assistance in the United States takes various forms. Aid from the
Veterans’ Administration consists of a guaranty of 50 percent of the
principal of a loan up to $2,000. The interest rate is not to exceed
4 percent (paid on $2,000 by the Government during the first year),
and the loan is not to run for more than 20 years. Under the Depart
ment of Agriculture’s farm-ownership program, $25,000,000 was ear
marked for loans to veterans, with a loan limit of $12,000 per service
man. The interest rate is 3 percent, and the loan may be for 40
years. Veterans, who were rehabilitation borrowers before entering
the service, and whose failure to repay 50 percent of their indebted
ness is directly related to their military service, may receive supple
mentary loans if required. For operating expenses, the Department
of Agriculture provides short-term loans the veteran may use to
buy seed,'feed, fertilizer, tools, farm machinery, and livestock. Loans
are repayable in 1 to 5 years. The interest rate is 5 percent.
. Veterans are also given credit for their military service—not exceed
ing 2 years—for acquiring title to land under the homestead laws.
Ihe serviceman must reside for 1 year on the land taken.
T able 4.

Special Grants and Loans to Ex-Servicemen in 5 Foreign Countries and the
United States

Grant or loan

United States

Australia

Canada

£10 for tools of trade,
plant, and equipment,
professional instruments
or other equipment, ex
cluding clothing.
Maximum of £250 general,
£500 for business, and
£1,000 for farming.

Lacking loan or training,
a grant equal to warservice gratuity; $2,320 to
.settle on Provincial land.

Grants for farming,
business, etc.

None_

Loans for farming,
business, etc.

U n e m p lo y m e n t
benefits.

Maximum Government
guaranty of $2,000 (50
percent of total loan)
for farming, farm ma
chinery, or business;
$12,000 under farm-own
ership program; $100 to
$2,500 for operation on
farms.
$20 per week for not to
exceed 52 weeks.

Grant or loan

Great Britain

N ew Zealand

Union of South Africa

Grants for farming,
business, etc.

Maximum of £150”to re
start business.

£ 1 0 ln cases of hardship...

Loans for farming,
business, etc.

None_

U n e m p lo y m e n t
benefits.

Under national unem
ployment-insurance sys
tem; veteran credited
with full contribution
for time in service.

Maximum of £50 for tools,
£100 for furniture, £500
for business, £5,0003
for farming, £6,250 3 for
sheep farming, and
£1,500 for separate pur
chases of stock.
£3 10s. to £ 6 weekly, ac
cording to number of
dependents for not to
exceed 13 weeks.

Maximum of £250 for
Europeans, £150 for
colored, and £100 for
natives, for business in
cluding farming. M axi
mum £50 for Europeans
for tools.3
Maximum of £1,250 for
Europeans, £750 for
colored, and £500 for
natives, for business in
eluding farming.3

£ 2 10s. to £ 4 19s. weekly,
according to number of
dependents, for not over
3 months within 12
months of discharge.1

$6,000 for land and build
ings or land, buildings,
and livestock, for small
farm or for fishing proj
ect.

$50 per month for single,
$70 per month plus al
lowances for married for
period of service but not
to exceed 52 weeks in 18
months following dis
charge.1

Military pay and allow
ances until reemployed.

1 Payable also while waiting for return from farm or business.
. A Eurl°,pe5ni s defined a,s of pure European descent; a colored person is one of mixed blood; and a native
is a pure-blooded aboriginal.
3 Going concern.
.

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906

M O N T H L Y LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

Arrangements have been made to assist unemployed veterans by
the establishment of special benefit systems in all of the countries
covered, except Great Britain. In Britain, claims of ex-servicemen
are handled under the national unemployment-insurance system in
the same manner as are those of the civilian population, an unem
ployed adult male receiving a combined weekly benefit of 24s. plus
16s. for an adult dependent, 5s. for the first child, and 4s. for each
additional child for a maximum of 180 days. In most of the foreign
countries it is notable that dependents are taken into account in
fixing benefits. The duration of payments is approximately 3 months
in Australia (6 months in special circumstances) and New Zealand,
T a b l e 5. — Training Facilities for Ex-Servicemen
Arrangements by
type of training

Canada

Australia

United States

Apprenticeship
Government
sidy.

sub-

Maximum pay-----Credit for time in
service.

$50 to $75 per month ac
cording to dependents.

(')-

(2) -

Sufficient to bring pay to
beginning journeyman’s
rate.3
Determined by joint board
of employers and union
men.

Vocational
Service requirement 90 days........... - ...................... 6 m onths.----------------------

N ot specified........................

Application period- 2 years from discharge or
termination of hostili
ties, whichever later.

12 months from discharge
or close of hostilities,
whichever later.

Government - approved
institution or qualified
enterprise.
Subsistence allowance up
to $50 to $75 per month,
according to dependents,
plus apprentice Wage,
total not to exceed begin
ning journeyman’s rate.
Maximum 4 years6_____

Government and other
schools and in service.

Paym ents completed 18
months from discharge
or end of war, whichever
later.
Training centers and in
service.

£3 5s. to £5 5s. weekly
depending on marital
status, allowances.5

$60 per month single, $80
per month married, al
lowances.

3-12 months in school until
efficiency is 10 percent;
in service until efficiency
is 100 percent.

Maximum 52 weeks (with
exceptions).

Service requirement 90 days............

6 months...............................

N ot specified------------------

Other
eligibility
requirements.

N ot specified-

Suitable for and in need
of training, interrupted
education.

Qualified for entrance;
education interrupted
by war service.

Application period.

2 years from discfiarge, or
termination of hostili
ties, whichever later.
Maximum tuition $500,
and same rates as for
vocational training.

12 months from discharge
or end of hostilities,
whichever later.
Tuition and same rates as
for vocational training.

15 months from date of
discharge.

Maximum 4 years8............

Free for 3 years; later liv
ing allowance at 2 per
cent interest (excluding
amounts received for
dependents).

Period of service, subject
to extension.

place of training.. .
P ay.....................

Duration.

Professional or
university

Financial
sions.
Duration.

provi

Fees and same rates as for
vocational training.

1 Existing provisions of National Security (Apprenticeship) Regulations were being continued in July 1945.
2 Details not available.
3 Determined by joint employer-trade-union bodies for individual trades.
4 R evived for term unexpired at the date of suspension or for 3 years, whichever is shorter, if over 21 years
of age; credit for full period of service if under 21 years of age.
. . .
,
.
5 Award rate is paid after 40 percent efficiency is reached, Government supplementing wages by employer.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

907

DISCHARGED SOLDIERS

52 weeks in Canada, and in the Union of South Africa military pay
and allowances are continued until the man is reemployed. How
ever, if he refuses suitable work, he is placed on a reduced scale of
allowances for a maximum of 4 months from the date of refusal.
Benefits are paid in the United States at the rate of $20 per week
for a maximum of 52 weeks. If the veteran is partly unemployed, he
receives the difference between his pay and $23 per week. If he is
self-employed, he may be paid the difference between what he makes
and $100 per month.
Training facilities .—For those men who would benefit from some
form of training, provision has been made in all six countries to aid
in 5 Foreign Countries and the United States
Great Britain

N ew Zealand

Union of South Africa

Arrangements by
type of training
Apprenticeship

Maximum one-third of Sufficient to bring pay to
journeyman’s rate, in
level would have atcluding war bonus for
tained, if not interrupt
trade and district.
ed.
Maximum
of journey- Maximum £6 (full jourm an’s rate, including
neyman rate).
bonus.
Maximum one-third of un- Adjusted 4__________ ____
expired term of apprenticeship.

(2) -------------------------- -

Government subsidy.
Maximum pay.
Credit for time in
service.
Vocational

Full-time service________
N ot specified------------------

Overseas service (with Full-time service ..
exceptions).
N ot specified____ _______ 6 months from discharge
or operation of scheme.

Service
require
ment.
Application period.

Government centers, technical colleges, and in
service.
Maximum £3 per week,
allowances.

Government and other
training centers and in
service.
£5 5s. to £6 weekly, allowances.

Place of training.

6 months and over_______ 3 years.

Technical colleges and
other institutions and
in service.
Maximum grant £250;
loan up to £600.

____ _________ N ot specified—

Pay.

Duration.

Professional or
university
N ot specified____________ N ot specified_________ . . ____do___

Service
require
ment.
Other eligibility requirements.

Training to national ad- Interrupted
education ____do______ ______ _____
vantage; education in(with exceptions).
terrupted or prevented
by war service.
__do___
N ot specified____________ N ot specified____

Applicationperiod.

Adjusted to individual’s
needs.

Grants and loans same as
for vocational training.

Financial
sions.

N ot specified____________

Duration.

N ot specified____________

Tuition and £3 3s. to £5
5s. weekly and allowances; £250 (sterling)
for graduate study.
Postgraduate 3 y e a r s ;
other not specified.

provi-

• If the veteran was under the age of 25 years when he entered the service and his education was interrupted
by military service he may continue vocational training or education for a period of 1 year or for the length
of his service not to exceed 4 years; if over 25 years of age he must prove interruption of his education to
receive more than 1 year of training and may then receive training or education for the length of his service
not to exceed 4 years.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

908

M O N T H L Y LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 194 5

the ex-servicemen in financing their training. Particular care is
being exercised to insure that the trainees shall acquire skills and
professions for which a need exists. The training here being dealt
with is that involving full-time study. However, certain opportuni
ties are afforded for part-time training, as well. The provisions are
shown in table 5.
Details of veterans’ apprenticeship plans are available for Great
Britain and New Zealand. In both of these countries, the Govern
ments subsidize the wages of apprentices, thereby making it possible
for many mature men who have spent a number of years in the armed
forces to complete their trade training at rates comparing favorably
with those paid to other workers. The British veteran-apprentice
receives a maximum pay equal to eleven-twelfths of that of the
journeyman; in New Zealand he attains the journeyman’s rate before
apprenticeship ends; and the United States Government provides
that in no instance is the sum of the subsistence allowance granted
by the Government and apprenticeship pay from the employer to
exceed the wage of a beginning journeyman. For training acquired
in the armed forces, some allowance is also made against the unex
pired term of apprenticeship, thus shortening the apprenticeship
period to be completed. In the United States, comparable training
acquired in service is allowed in satisfying trade-apprenticeship
requirements. This trade experience of the veteran is evaluated
by a joint board of representatives of employers and trade-union
involved.
In furnishing vocational training, the foreign countries customarily
give the courses free in a variety of institutions and in employer estab
lishments, and pay the trainees living allowances. Various other
kinds of help are afforded, including allowances for dependency and
for transportation when the trainee must travel some distance between
home and place of training. Another feature of the scheme is the
provision of allowances to trainees who maintain their families in one
place and live in another. The maximum weekly payment in such a
contingency is 30s. in Australia and New Zealand; Canada pays $5,
and Great Britain 24s. 6d. In the United States subsistence, tuition,
and other fees are paid, but without any special allowances for such
items as transportation.
For professional or university education, suitability of the candi
date and interruption of education appear to be the main factors in
determining whether veterans in the five foreign countries shall
receive advanced training. An age limitation of 25 years is fixed in
the United States beyond which education is_ not deemed to have
been interrupted by entrance into the service; if the veteran is older,
he must prove interruption of education to receive aid for more than
1 year. The possibility of receiving educational grants is not always
restricted entirely to college or university training. The Australian
Government will assist qualified veterans to prepare for their higher
education. During the period of “ qualifying training” (1 year full
time and 2 years part time), the payments will be at the same rate as
and in addition to the college-training payments. In New Zealand,
the plan extends to the secondary-school level in preparing for higher
education. A veteran in the United States, who is entitled to benefit
by reason of capacity and service from educational and training
provisions, may elect any course he desires.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

DISCHARGED SOLDIERS

909

Four of the countries covered grant the same financial aid during
education of other types as for vocational education. Exceptions
are Great Britain where special financial arrangements are made for
students taking higher education and New Zealand where the student
in an academic institution receives less than the trade trainee. The
duration of educational aid is kept fairly flexible and bears a direct
relation to proficiency in most instances.

Policy on Em ploym ent of V eterans
PREFERENCE in job referrals is assured for veterans under plans
of the Veterans Placement Service Board.1 The policy of the Board,
which is headed by the Administrator of Veterans’ Affairs, is that
every office of the U. S. Employment Service shall have a division
charged with providing the veteran with “the maximum job oppor
tunity in the field of gainful employment.” The Board made the
following provisions regarding placement of servicemen:
1. In filling orders for workers, any qualified veteran shall be given priority
over all nonveterans. On all orders specifying veterans, no nonveterans shall
be referred.
2. When veterans are available for whom no order has been placed, the veterans’
representatives shall make every effort to develop an opening in the industry or
profession in which the veteran is qualified.
3. Veterans needing employment counseling should be served by a specially
trained counselor who should be a veteran.
4. Special preferential service shall be accorded all disabled veterans by all
personnel and for all jobs for which they are qualified.
5. The veterans’ employment representative shall serve any veterans having
unusual problems, and every veteran shall have the right to see the veterans’
representative. Service given under these circumstances m ay include advice
and information about hospitalization, loans, and other benefits provided by
Congress that are ordinarily outside the scope of the employment office.
6. Where the office has more than one station for the reception of applicants,
one or more of these shall be specially designated for veterans and clearly marked.
This station shall preferably be attended by a veteran.
1 Veterans Administration, Press release August 15, 1945 (OWI-4826).

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W ar and Postw ar Policies

Postw ar Policies Regarding Foreign W orkers and
P risoners of W ar 1
UNDER the War Manpower Commission, plans were made to speed
the return to their homes of foreign workers who have been employed
in the United States, and to halt the use of prisoners of war in nonagricultural jobs.
Foreign Workmen
Of the 83,000 foreign workers recruited, 67,000 were brought from
Mexico to fill vacancies on American railroads, and 16,000 were
brought from the West Indies (Barbados and Jamaica) and British
Honduras, for work in eastern and midwestern industries. The
Jamaicans and Barbadians entered the United States as civilian
workers, under agreements with their Governments which did not
entail personal bond. The Mexicans entered under personal con
tract and personal bond of $500. The contracts for the West Indian
workers are being terminated by WMC as rapidly as qualified Ameri
can workers become available. Mexican railroad workeis will be
returned to Mexico as rapidly as their contracts expire. These con
tracts were originally for 6 months, but contracts expiring in recent
months had been renewed for 90 days.
With regard to the non-Mexican workers, recruitment and
recontracting at Camp Murphy, Fla. (the principal WMC repatria
tion center for this activity), have been discontinued and no new
orders for such workers are to be accepted. If domestic labor is
not available, “present employers will be permitted to continue their
employment of foreign workers temporarily wherever necessary for
the liquidation of war contracts and for orderly reconversion from
war to peace.”
Specific industries aided by the temporary foreign-worker immigra
tion and the number of workers as of June 30, were as follows:
Textiles, 438; foundries, 4,113; steel, 360; food processing, 3,093;
ordnance, 1,837; lumber, 2,628; chemicals, 1,215; and miscellaneous
industries, 2,662.
Prisoners of War
Since YJ-day the field offices of the WMC and the U. S. Employ
ment Service offices have been reexamining certifications authorizing
the employment of prisoners of war, to make certain that none is
employed when domestic workers are available. Some 64,000, out
i
War Manpower Commission. Press releases August 22, 1945 (PM-4871), August 30, 1945 (PM-4875),
and August 19,1945 (PM-4867).

910

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

911

WAR AND POSTWAR POLICIES

of a total of approximately 140,000 allocated by the War Department
for work in agricultural and non agricultural employment, were found
to be working in food-processing plants, foundries, doing forestry and
logging work, and helping out in other industries where critical labor
shortages existed.
The WMC reported, in August, that prisoners of war, who were
performing an average of 875,000 man-days of work a month in
various nonagricultural fields, were occupying hard-to-fill jobs. With
the discontinuance of war production, however, American workers
are becoming available for this employment. The War Department,
therefore, is going ahead with a repatriation program which calls for
the gradual closing down of prisoner-of-war camps and the shipping
out of these men as rapidly as possible. No dependence can be
placed by employers on the availability of this labor after the end
of this year, and it appears likely, now that the Japanese war is over,
that a much earlier deadline may be set.
Practically every State has prisoner-of-war camps supplying work
ers for food processing, forestry and logging, and other types of
nonagricultural employment. Indicative of the use being made of
this type of labor is the following table, which shows, by Army service
commands and States, the man-days of contract nonagricultural
work done by prisoners during June, 1945, the latest month for
which completed records are available.
Man-Days Worked by Prisoners of War in Nonagricultural Labor, June 1945
Army Service Command

Total
man-days
worked

First______________________________
M ain e.____________ ________
Massachusetts____ __________ . .
N ew Hampsuire___ _____ _ _ ____

35, 601
30,029
262
4, 310

Second_________ ___________________
___________
Delaware________
N ew Jersey________________
N ew York________ ____________

105, 667
35,423
29, 337
40,907

Third-. _________ ______ ______
Maryland____ ________________
Pennsylvania______________ . . .
Virginia________ _________

171, 009
54, 097
43,159
73, 753

Fourth____________________________
Alabama___
_ ____ _______
Florida____________ _____ ____
Georgia_________________ _____
M ississip pi____________________
North Carolina___
_______
South Carolina_______ ________
Tennessee______________________

261,273
52, 023
16, 232
53, 111
26,161
49, 666
50,061
14,019

Fifth____________________________
Indiana___ _________ __________
Ohio______________ ______ _
West Virginia__________________

80, 297
45,076
32, 656
2,565

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Army Service Command

Total
man-days
worked

Sixth
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin_________

77, 531
29, 747
31,371
16, 413

Seventh
Colorado
Iowa
Kansas
Minnesota ___
Missouri
Nebraska
Wyoming

38, 720
180
7,513
2,181
8,439
2,500
5,338
6,569

. . . . . . . ___. . .

Eighth______ ______ ____ Arkansas
Louisiana
N ew Mexico
Oklahoma
Texas

98, 711
22,832
20,060
573
2,840
52,388

Ninth
Arizona
California____ __________
Idaho
Orp.gon
Utah
W ashingon

6,201
1,752
1,281
380
2,328
430
32

912

M O N T H L Y LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

A ustralian R ent-C ontrol R egulations, 1945 1
REGULATIONS for rent control became effective in Australia during
July 1945, whereby rents that had not previously been pegged were
fixed at the level of March 1, 1945, subject to change by a fair-rents
board. The Commonwealth Rent Collector was empowered to deter
mine the rates of rental of rooms and apartments, but his determina
tions may also be appealed to a fair-rents board. Any person guilty
of a violation of a rent ceiling may be punished by a fine of not to
exceed £100, or 6 months’ imprisonment, or both, if prosecution is
summary; for prosecution on indictment the fine and/or imprisonment
is not limited.
The maximum period of notice required before vacating premises
was reduced to 60 days—from the 91-day notice period previously in
effect. A maximum notice period of 14 days was established for ten
ants who fail to take care of premises or who commit other violations.
The maximum period of notice to vacate rooms and apartments was
placed at 14 days. The regulations prohibited the offering of rewards
to obtain houses, or the granting of tenancy on condition that goods
will be purchased.
1Information is from the Australian Worker (Sydney)

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July 11, 1945.

Em ploym ent Conditions

Em ploym ent P atterns of Mexicans in D etroit
By

o r m a n

u m p h r e y

Department of Sociology, Wayne University

Summary

IN 1944, Detroit had between 2,000 and 3,000 persons of Mexican
birth or parentage holding jobs in its industries. Mexicans in Detroit
have been so mobile, and the jobs they have held so variable, that
any simple statement of an “ average” job history is unwarranted.
Yet, although employment histories vary from individual to individ
ual, patterns of employment are perceptible in the series of cases
which have been examined as a basis for this study, and reflect, in
a general way, the work adjustment of the whole group.
The kinds of work which Mexicans in Detroit engaged in initially
followed largely the broad fields of employment which Mexicans
usually entered on coming to the United States—agriculture and
railroad labor. Primarily of native rural background and alien status,
the Mexican worker, on coming to Michigan, was to be found in the
outdoor hand labor to which he had been accustomed. He became
a worker in the beet fields or a “ shovel” laborer with the railroads,
the utilities, and construction companies. His next ranking employ
ment was in packing-house or fertilizer plants, which ordinarily pre
ceded, or alternated with, more typical industrial employment. The
higher wages paid in automobile plants attracted those who could
adjust to the swift tempo of machine or assembly line, but factory work
was a new experience and involved difficult problems of adjustment.
Employment on beet farms meant a migratory and seasonal exist
ence, with relatively low pay and unattractive living and working
conditions, and need for obtaining work in the city during the winter.
For many it was resorted to only when work was unavailable in Detroit.
Track work on railroads was more stable but less remunerative than
industrial jobs. Packing-house and fertilizer work was equally as
hard as railroad maintenance and paid almost equally low wages.
During periods of lay-off or unemployment, the Mexican worker in
Detroit often accepted less-skilled and less-remunerative work, largely
in the fields of his former experience. In general, Mexicans in Detroit
have remained on the lowest rung of the industrial ladder, although
some early migrants who received technical training as apprentices
in Detroit have climbed into middle income brackets.
Prior to the depression of the 1930’s the foremost employer of
Mexican labor in Detroit was an automobile company which, except
for seasonal lay-offs, provided regular employment for the groups
studied. With the beginning of the depression, however, most Mexi
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cans were discharged. Some were recalled at various times there
after, but it was not until 1939 that many former employees were
sent for. In the meantime, some Mexican workers were placed on
Government work-relief projects, others turned to railroad track
work, and still others were entirely on welfare relief.
There are indications of attempts at self-help during this period,
but the mass of Detroit Mexicans resorted to work-relief programs,
especially those of the Civil Works Administration and Works Prog
ress Administration. In 1938, when unemployment compensation
became available in Michigan, some Mexicans employed by the WPA
quit their jobs, on advice, to apply for these benefits, only to find
later, when their insurance was exhausted, that as aliens they could
not be reemployed by WPA. Lack of citizenship also caused a num
ber of Mexicans, engaged in track laying and sewer construction for
city departments of street railways and public works, to lose their
jobs in the early stages of the depression. Previously, citizenship
was not a requirement for employment on public works; when this
requirement was imposed it constituted a formidable barrier for most
Mexican laborers, as their main source of paid employment was in
this field.
With the defense boom of 1940, the older men were accepted in
industry, but lack of citizenship interfered with their continued
employment. However, their American-born sons, and to some extent
their daughters, obtained work in industry.
Method of Study

The patterns of employment of Detroit Mexicans for the period
1920-38, here described, were derived from an examination of Detroit
Department of Public Welfare case records of 50 persons receiving
aid in November 1938, and were substantiated and corroborated
through examination of an equal number of cases handled by the
writer in that department in the summer of 1939. They were sup
plemented by case studies developed through interviews of Detroit
Mexicans by the writer and his students between 1940 and 1943.
The Mexican in American Industry

Most Mexicans, on coming to the United States, work first in
agriculture or on railroads.1 I t is largely from these groups that
Michigan sugar-beet, packing-house, and industrial workers are
drawn.2 Those going into industrial plants face particularly difficult
problems of adjustment.
A major difficulty confronting any migrant moving in a rural-tourban direction is that of adjusting to types of work and a tempo of
work previously unknown. Manuel Gamio 3 ascribes the Mexican’s
frequent failure to adjust quickly to shop life to his lack of “ vitality,”
which, in turn, is a consequence of the long working day and small
wage which were his lot in Mexico. Another cause may lie in the
1 D on’t Drive out the Mexicans, by W. V . Woelke, in Review of Reviews, M ay 1930 (p. 67); Mexican
Workers in the United States, by Robert N . McLean, in Proceedings of National Conference of Social Work,
1929 (p. 534); and Social Problems of Our Mexican Population, by I. B. Gwin, in Proceedings of National
Conference of Social Work, 1926 (p. 330).
2 Mexicans North of the Rio Grande, by Paul S. Taylor, in The Survey, M ay 1931 (p. 136).
3 Manuel Gamio: Mexican Immigration to the United States, Chicago, 1930 (p. 42).

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unfamiliar and fearsome aspect of the highly mechanized environ
ment of modern industry. Outdoor workers from the cotton fields
have described their terrifying impression of the first sights and sound
of machinery in a modern steel plant in an extemporaneous work song.4
Those who survive the work tempo in such a plant are the workers
who are able to endure heat well and are especially apt at work on the
open-hearth and blast furnaces. Although this may be interpreted
as ‘‘adjustment/’ Prof. Paul Taylor feels that the steadiness of those
staying on is as much a result of the elimination of the unsteady
workers as of generally greater adaptation to the new conditions.6
The steadying influence of a family is reflected in empjoyers’
preference for men with families, noted by both Gamio and Taylor.
Such preference is, of course, not restricted to the employment of
Mexicans.
Another aspect of adjustment is apparent in the observation that
when Mexicans work alongside Americans, “ they grow to understand
the good nature of our rougher ways.” 6
The Mexicans, like other minorities, find it difficult to retain their
jobs in times of economic stress. One writer observed that “ the
Mexican is the first to suffer from depression in industrial and economic
enterprises.” 7 Taylor discovered that, in the Bethlehem steel mills,
Mexicans frequently complained of discrimination on the part of the
“ European” (i. e., Polish, Italian, etc.) foremen; the higher executives
appeared to have won the Mexicans’ good will. This feeling of dis
crimination is explained by the fact that depression-time lay-offs,
the most common form or vehicle of discrimination, were generally
controlled by the foremen.
The credit side of the ledger for Mexican workers engaged in
American industry is summarized by Gamio. “ Although the im
migrant often undergoes suffering and injustice and meets many
difficulties, he undoubtedly benefits economically by the change. He
learns the discipline of modern labor. He specializes. He becomes
familiar with industrial and agricultural machinery. . . . He be
comes a laborer of the modern industrial type, much more efficient
than before.” 8 All these observations are applicable to the adjust
ment of Mexicans to the automobile and accessory industries in
Detroit.
Types of Work Done by Detroit Mexicans
Before discussing in detail the adjustments involved in the several
types of work Michigan Mexicans have come to do, some insight
may be gained through the construction and contemplation of a
composite employment history, indicating the typical swift casualness
of events in the life of a Mexican immigrant.
The first job Ju an Diego Rosario held on coming to the United States was that
of a cotton picker in Texas. He left the cotton farm after the fall harvesting and
went to work as a railroad construction worker (tra q u c ro ), which took him to a
number of work camps near small midwestern towns in a number of Prairie
States. One winter he got a job in a K ansas C ity slaughterhouse, and when
4
Ballad Pennsylvania ( Corrido Pensilvanio) , in Mexican Labor in the United States: Bethlehem, Penn
sylvania, by Paul S. Taylor, Berkeley, 1931 (pp. vii-ix).
. .
s Paul S. Taylor: Mexican Labor in the United States; Bethlehem, Pennsylvania (p. 14).
s The Human Side of Mexico, by C. G. Nordhoff, in Atlantic M onthly, October 1919 (p. 504).
i Life in the United States for the Mexican People, by Ernest Galarza, in Proceedings of National Confer
ence of Social Work, 1929 (p. 400).
8 Mexican Immigration to the United States (p. 49).
6 7 0 1 1 9 - 45 6

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spring came Juan left by truck with a group of families for a sugar-beet farm near
Caro, Mich. He put in the whole summer in the hot fields there, only to find at
the end of the season that he had charged more goods on credit at the village
grocery than he had earned on the farm. Broke, he and the pregnant girl he had
lived with on the beet farm rode into Detroit with another fam ily in a “ jalo py.”
They stayed briefly with two other families in a 50-year-old, dilapidated frame
cottage on Tenth Streetn ear Howard. After a week of searching, Juan obtained
a job as a day laborer with a Detroit Department of Public Works paving gang at
$4 a day. This was in the fall of 1926. In March 1927. he obtained work in the
foundry at the Ford Rouge plant. During the seasonal lay-off, before new models
began to roll off the final assembly line in a part of the shop which he never saw,
Ju an went back to laying track, this time for the Michigan Central Railroad. B y
1930, he had three children (his “ wife” was bearing a fourth) and a third-hand
Chevrolet truck. He was planning to save enough money, if his job held out, to
go back to Mexico, there to farm for a living. Then he lost his job, and his wife
lost the child, and prosperity was just around some corner. He went on relief, but
the grocery order was too small to cover his needs. He supplemented his income
by surreptitiously collecting junk, unbeknown to his case worker. He would
gladly have returned to Mexico in 19 33 if the Welfare Department had supplied
him with gas for the truck, but somehow this couldn’t be done. He thought also
about going to a Michigan beet farm for the summer, but if he did this, he learned,
he would lose his “ legal residence” in Detroit. Besides, Ju an felt he got along
better junking and repairing trucks than he would by “ working the beets.” In
1934 he obtained a Civil Works Administration job. He had been laid off CW A
for only a month when a miraculous postcard was delivered which requested him
to report for work at the Ford Rouge plant. The $5 a day he now received
looked bigger to him than the $7 he had earned in 1928, but the job lasted only 4
months. On relief again, Ju an would gladly have made application for his “ first
papers” (as the welfare worker demanded) if he weren’t so aware that he had come
into the country illegally. He did get a W PA job, however. In 1937, after his
W PA “ work separation” slip came through, he landed a job in a fertilizer plant at
$20 a week. In_1938 he returned to work at Ford’s, butbecause he wasn’t natu
ralized he was laid off in 19 4 1. Ju an didn’t care so much this time, however, be
cause Jose, the oldest boy, was making $35 a week as a crib clerk in Dombrowski’ s
tool shop.

The case of Juan Rosario indicates a job sequence which is patterned
on many case histories of Mexican immigrants. This sequence may
now be considered in a somewhat less personalized manner.
EM PLOYM ENT IN

S U G A R -B E E T F IE L D S

Mexicans who have tried sugar-beet work have found it seasonal,
variable in wages paid, and relatively unremunerative for the labor
demanded. The seasonality of this work is illustrated by several
cases.
Mr. P .’s first employment on coming to the United States was at Ivanhoe,
Mich., where he was employed in M ay 1928 in the sugar-beet fields. Coming to
Detroit, he worked at the Ford Motor Co. for 1 year, being paid off in Ju ly 1930.
He applied for relief on August 15, 1930. In 1932 he returned to the beet fields
near Rosebush, Mich., and was working in the spring of 19 33 in the sugar-beet
fields near Blissfield, Mich.
Before coming to D etroit in 1928, M r. M. worked on a sugar-beet farm near
Owendale, Mich. He then worked for the D S R [Detroit Street Railway] and was
paid off in October 1929. Thereafter, on several occasions he sought beet-field
work near M t. Pleasant and Alma.

The difficulties as to earnings are evidenced by the following case
excerpts:
M r. V. explained to the [social] worker that he had been in the “ sugar-beet
fields” and had earned a few dollars up there. He had not been able to do very
well because of the rainy weather and [the fact that] the contractor he worked
for was “ broke.”
Mr. D. said that he contracted to take care of a certain amount of acreage at
the rate of $ 18 per acre, and from this source he expected an income for the

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summer of $276, but because of illness he was unable to make this amount since
he had to call in help to clear the field.

Living and working conditions on the beet farms were sufficiently
unattractive to prevent some Mexicans who at one time had been
beet-workers from returning to the farms in the summer time. The
houses provided by the sugar companies in the 1930’s ordinarily were
makeshift corrugated steel shacks which were almost uninhabitable
in winter.
Many persons turned to the beet fields only after being unable to
find city work. Following is a typical case:
Mr. C. first came to Detroit in 1925 and returned to Mexico in 1928, where
he married. On coming back to Detroit, he was unable to find employment.
The fam ily then moved to a sugar-beet farm near Rockford, Ohio, where they
spent 1930 and 19 3 1, returning to Detroit on April 6, 19 3 1.

Many who worked on beet farms moved to the city in winter and
thereafter returned to the fields only during intervals of industrial
unemployment. For some Mexicans, however, the fields had con
tinuing attraction. Since most Mexicans have had an early rural
background, farm work in this country was culturally consistent with
employment in the homeland. Moreover, the difficulties involved
in making a living in the city may have engendered a conception of
farm life as an ideal toward which to aspire.8
E M PL O Y M E N T O P P O R T U N IT IE S I N T H E CITY

When the erstwhile beet-field worker came to Detroit to look for
work he was faced with the problem of seeking work as an outdoor
“shovel laborer” or of applying directly to the factory. The choice
between these alternatives was, of course, dependent partially on
the actual jobs available at the time, but the sort of work chosen was
largely a consequence of the past work experience. In shovel labor
and, to a somewhat less extent, in packing houses, the Mexican found
work more in line with his previous employment than that in the
industrial shop, in which the tempo of work was dictated by the
speed of the assembly line or the machine. The following excerpt
illustrates an order of job types in which the person briefly attempted
factory work only to give it up and find employment similar to that
of the homeland:
Mr. Y . said in 1930 that he had last worked at Dodge Bros. The employment
letter from the Dodge plant, however, showed him to have been employed only
from M arch 2, 1926, to March 6, 1926, at which time he quit, claiming to leave
the city. He was employed by the D PW [Detroit Departm ent of Public Works]
from April 3, 1.926, to September 2 1, 1930, at $4.40 per day. tie then searched
for sugar-beet employment but was unable to find it, and was briefly on CW A
in 1934.

Other persons who first became shovel hands later went into indus
try. Thereafter, the higher wages of the factory made track or
utility hand labor a less-desirable alternative, accepted only during
periods of lay-off from industry and in preference to work in the sugarbeet fields. This more typical employment history is evident in the
case of Mr. M.
M r. M. came to Detroit in September 1920. He was employed briefly by the
M C R R [Michigan Central Railroad] for 6 weeks in 19 2 1. He then had inters Thus, “ Mrs. G. likes farm work much better than that of the city and at one time the family thought
of going on a farm near Imlay City for a permanent abode. They tried it but returned to Detroit. Mrs. G.
is unhappy in city life and would like to be on a farm.”

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m ittent employment with the Detroit D PW to November 1, 1927, when he went
to work for the Ford M otor Co., where, except for brief lay-offs (during which
time he worked for the M C R R ), he continued work until laid off on August 10,
19 3 1. He worked on CW A from December 13 , 1933, to April 24, 1934, and in
1936 was placed on W PA.
SHOVEL LABOR

The largest employers of “ shovel” labor have been the railroads,
the public and private utilities, and construction companies. Of
these, the railroads have been able to offer the most continuous employ
ment, but at wages low in comparison with those of industry. This is
seen in the following case:
M r. M. is stepfather of three children and father of three, having married a
widow, M rs. Louise M., on Jan u ary 5, 1927, in Detroit. M r. M. has been steadily
employed by the N Y C R R [New Y ork Central Railroad] as a track laborer since
June 1, 1926. He had averaged but $70 a month during this period, working 4
days a week at $4 per day. He has had no other employment and requires supple
mentation of his income for sustenance.
Steve M. is noted as having sold papers at the Belle Isle Bridge and E ast Jeffer
son ( 1 2 - 1 5 - 3 1 ) . Later he worked at Riopelle and Jefferson (9 -10 -34 ). In 1936,
both he and his brother were assigned to N Y A [National Youth Administration]
(1-2 7 -3 6 ). Stephen then received employment with the M C R R at 40 cents per
hour. Bernard also got a job there, the two boys working in a railroad camp
near Dexter, Mich., earning $3.37 per day, 5 days per week.

Many Mexicans were employed in track laying and sewer construc
tion by city departments of street railways and public works prior to
the beginning of the depression. With its onset, these latter agencies
required, as a condition of employment, that the foreign born be
naturalized. As a result, Mexican workers, largely unnaturalized,
were dismissed from such jobs. The railroads servecl as a partial
outlet for this labor supply, but retrenchment in this area, also, tight
ened the labor market. Government works which, as noted, at first
did not require citizenship, were the major source of employment.
Mr. D. was first noted to have worked for the D PW at $4 .10 per day, where he
was employed from April 4, 1929, to October 1, 1929. In 1933, he was thought to
be doing barbering in his home. On reapplying on December 13 , 1937, M r. D.
had worked for the W PA for 15 months prior to his employment by the N Y C R R
as a track laborer, being laid off by the latter in November 1937.
Mr. E . worked for the D S R from March 26, 1929, to October 14, 1929, and in
1936 received a W PA assignment, on which he worked until August 1938, when he
got work at the M C R R .
PACKING-HOUSE EMPLOYMENT

Mexican breadwinners also found places in the packing-house and
fertilizer plants which provided work equally as hard as railroadtrack work and paid almost as low wages. Packing-house, or animalreduction work, is often viewed as undesirable by American workers,
and jobs of this sort have usually been relegated to the newly arrived
immigrant struggling for a foothold in the labor market. Those
Mexican laborers who came early to the United States were likely to
have had employment of this sort in their work histories. Such work,
then, ordinarily was engaged in prior to periods of more purely indus
trial employment or was interspersed between them.
Techniques for Obtaining or Retaining Factory Employment

Considered primarily as an industrial worker, the Mexican in
Detroit, in his process of adjustment, has had to meet the complex

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problem of harmonizing his conduct with the institutional aspects of
industry. This has meant not only readjusting to the loss of employ
ment by seeking another job, but also maintaining employment by
coming to know techniques for staying on the job.
The following discussion is based upon the employment process
and Mexican adjustment to it, in the Ford Motor Co. That company
was selected because it has been the foremost employer of Mexican
workers in Detroit. It was responsible for introducing them into that
city in 1918, when 75 Latin-American students, mostly Mexicans,
began work as apprentices in its plant. During the prosperous 1920’s
many immigrant peasant Mexicans found jobs with this company,
only to be released with the beginning of the depression.
Although not all industrial employment in Detroit would be as
“ institutionalized” as that at the Ford Motor Co., the same general
patterns of work adjustment are typical of the other automobile plants.
In the Briggs Manufacturing Co., another large employer of Mexican
industrial labor, much the same sequence of employment would be
perceptible. Frequently the first industrial employment the Mexican
breadwinner had was at its plants. Unlike the sitution at the Ford
Motor Co., however, reemployment after the first depression lay-offs,
was not so likely to occur. Often the lay-off period was also followed
by governmental project work, and then by shovel labor in private
industry.
The composite employment pattern of Mexican Ford workers
would be somewhat as follows. Breadwinners had regular work (with
seasonal lay-offs) for several years preceding the great depression.
When it began, most Mexicans were discharged. A small group was
rehired after the depression was well under way. Still more were re
employed briefly in 1934 and 1935. Postcards were sent out by the
company in 1939, calling many former employees back to work.
By the time the defense boom began, almost all former employees who
wished to do so had returned to work. In the depression period, wel
fare relief kept those who remained in Detroit from going hungry,
and relief policies also aided Mexicans in obtaining employment on
Government work-relief projects. For some, the hardships of unem
ployment were relieved by track work for railroads. These experiences
are evident in the case excerpts already given, and may be indicated
further in the following:
Mr. A. worked at Ford’s from 1926 to 19 3 1, when he was laid off. He was re
hired shortly thereafter and worked until October 1 1 , 1932, when he was again
released. On Jan u ary 13, 1934, he was placed again on CW A, which he quit to
return to Ford ’s on Jan u ary 22, 1935. Laid off again in Jan u ary 1938, he was
told to apply for unemployment compensation on September 9, 1938. When not
working at Ford’s, he had brief employment with the M C R R . While receiving
unemployment compensation he was rehired at the Rouge plant.

Gaining employment.—In the past there have been several methods
of obtaining employment in this company. One .was to apply for work,
when hiring was being done, at the employment office. Thus, “Mr. V.
literally waited in a line before the employment office from morning
until late afternoon, day after day, before he was hired on January
30, 1935, only to be laid off on May 14, 1935.”
A much more effective method was that of presenting a “letter” (in
effect a recommendation, whose influence with the gate guard varied
with the importance of its author in the estimation of the company).
Such a letter, if it bore the right magic, enabled the bearer to pass the

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guard and enter the employment office itself, where job chances were
good.
Another method, at least historically valuable, was that of having
residence status and receiving relief in the city of Dearborn; during a
part of the depression the company relieved the city of its employable
relief clientele by allowing men to work at the plant for the sustenance
which would otherwise be provided by the municipality:9
A technique conducive to rapid reemployment of laid-off employees
was that of having the employee’s women relatives go to the plant
employment office, whence they would be escorted to the “Socio
logical Department,” where the plight of the family would receive
consideration.
Maintaining employment.—Several methods of retaining jobs, or at
least some source of income, were well known to the employees of the
company. (1) If a member of the family was hospitalized at the
Henry Ford Hospital, thereby incurring a debt to the hospital, the
debt could be paid through check-offs from the biweekly pay envelope;
presumably the job would last until the bill was paid. (2) A child
enrolled in the Ford Trade School would receive both academic in
struction and a wage (scholarship), thus maintaining an income in the
family. Such an income was especially helpful when the principal
breadwinner was unemployed. “Jesus, who later changed his name
to Joseph, enrolled in the Ford Trade School on May 6, 1930, when
his father was employed by the company, and, upou graduating from
the school, went to work full time in the plant, where he has been em
ployed except for brief lay-offs, since that time.” (3) Early in the
CIO unionization drive on the plant, many workers believed that
membership in the company-dominated “Liberty Legion” was con
ducive to continuance of employment.
All these expedients were known to some Mexicans and are noted in
social-work case records as having been used by them. Taken to
gether, they constitute patterns of adjustment to an industrial organi
zation.
Self-Help Devices

The mass of Mexicans in Detroit resorted in times of unemployment
to Governmental programs of work relief. Certain of the more enter
prising of these workers, however, undertook individual self-help
enterprises of various sorts. The most frequent form which self-help
has‘taken among unemployed Mexicans in Detroit has been that of
“junking.” This sometimes consisted merely of collecting with a
pushcart, as in the case of Joseph M. “Between seasons in the beet
fields after 1928, Joseph M. did junking with a pushcart. He had a
license for this. The junk dealer to whom he sold parts said that he
made from 15 to 30 cents per day.” In other cases operation was on
a larger scale—actually buying junk in the rural hinterland and selling
it in the city, using a truck as the means of transport, as in the follow
ing cases. Truck or auto repairing frequently accompanied this
occupation.
At the time of his lay-off from Ford’s in 1930, Mr. S. had a Ford truck with
which he used to go out into the country to collect junk which he sold in Detroit.
9 “In 1932, the Ford Motor Co. was attempting to keep clear the Dearborn relief load of employables by
giving them work in the shop. Mr. A. contemplated moving to Dearborn as he felt that he might be re
employed more easily at the Rouge plant if he were living in Dearborn.”

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The back of the house was used by Mr. S. as a junk yard. From 1930 to 1932, he
paid for his rent, while otherwise receiving aid, by means of junking.
From 1930, when the P. fam ily began receiving relief, case workers were con
tinually rediscovering the fact that the P. fam ily owned trucks. Probably M r. P.
was “ junking.” In 1937, M r. P. was found helping to fix a truck which belonged
to his neighbor, Joseph O. M r. P. stated that he knew ju st enough of auto
mechanics to be of assistance.

Although, as a permanent and sustaining source of income, “junk
ing” has not proved to be dependable, the desire for ownership of a
junk yard was often expressed. A typical case is that of Mr. D., who
after working in the beet fields from May to September 1935, had come
to Detroit, where he had repaired cars during the winter. It was his
ambition to “open a junk yard for used cars.”
Other plans .—The Mexicans have not been altogether aimless in
searching for employment and income for the family. When indus
trial employment failed, they have tried to compete in other areas.
Thus, in one family interviewed by a student of the author, note
worthy initiative was displayed by the wife:
When M rs. B .’s husband could not find work, she, being an excellent cook, con
ceived the idea of putting up lunches for the men in the neighborhood who were
working in the factories. This procedure was so successful that the fam ily was
able to move to other quarters, where‘she began serving three meals a day for
paying guests. M rs. B. explained to the interviewer that such a procedure would
have been impossible in Mexico, where women do not work to earn money. The
idea of women working in the United States, M rs. B. explained, is a procedure
which M exican women in Detroit were coming to regard as “ all right.”

Also in the following case, the social-work records note an attempt
to capitalize upon an idea for self-help.
M r. A. had an idea for making toy rocking chairs out of a piece of metal. The
dies from which the chair would be made would cost about $200, and he inter
viewed a number of people, trying to interest them in the idea, but could get no
one interested. He wrote the ------ Toy Co., explaining the idea, but received
no consideration (8-24-32). The case worker is afterwards inclined to rem ark:
“ This fam ily has more initiative than the average M exican.” (12 -38 -32.)

Public Relief and Employment

The Civil Works Administration provided employment for a large
segment of the Mexican population of Detroit in the winter of 1933
and the spring of 1934. For many it was not conceived of as a “stop
gap,” but rather as the first employment available since the beginning
of the depression. In several instances the CWA program ended in
reemployment of individuals by private industry, but for most of the
group its cessation meant a return to the relief rolls. Moreover the
employment which immediately followed was provided by the succeed
ing agency, the Works Progress Administration. A very small num
ber of semiskilled Mexican laborers were also employed in Detroit on
Public Works Administration jobs.
From its beginning in 1935, the WPA was a source of employment
to many Mexicans. Some, however, were reluctant to accept such
jobs, for fear that the income therefrom would not be sufficient to
support their large families. In one such case an arrangement was
made for a WPA job for the breadwinner, which he at first refused
because of his large family, feeling that if he took it, he would get no
further relief; two of his sons were therefore assigned to NYA jobs, in
addition to the father’s WPA assignment. In other cases assignments

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were refused as a result of family discord 10 and misconceptions of
responsibility regarding the support of wives and children.
Since M r. R . had married Mrs. A. when she had already borne three children to
another man, he was reluctant to accept responsibility for their support. M r. R .
said that if he liked the W PA job he would take it, but if not, he probably would
not; that he wasn’t concerned about his own welfare, and would like to see Mrs.
R . and the children taken care of. He felt that he was not obliged to care for the
children, and that if he did not want to, he could go aw ay and the Welfare would
have to take care of the three children. He was placed on W PA on December
12, 1935.

In several instances an absence of as much as 5 days from the project
resulted in the worker’s discharge. Illness was usually the ostensible
reason for absence, but since this condition was often not properly
reported, lay-off occurred. Many more Mexicans were released in
August or September 1937 as aliens. In most cases this resulted in a
return to direct relief, although continuance on WPA was in at least
one case effected by the worker’s being placed on the administrative
pay roll.
When unemployment-compensation benefits from the State became
available in 1938, at the suggestion of the Detroit Department of
Public Welfare men who were employed on WPA quit their jobs to
receive the unemployment benefits. They later found, however,
that they could not be reemployed by the WPA when these benefits
had been exhausted.
M r. A. worked from December 1936 to December 19 37 at the Ford M otor Co.
A fter applying for aid he was placed on W PA. When it was recognized that he
was eligible for unemployment-compensation benefits, he was advised to quit
W PA, which he did. On receiving his last insurance check he again applied for
aid, and was again given a W PA assignment. But he was quickly released. He
was an alien and the assignment had been made in error.

By this time aliens had been ruled ineligible for WPA employment,
and this constituted a formidable work barrier for most Mexican
laborers. American-born sons took over, however, and in many cases
supported their parents. With the defense boom of 1940, the older
men obtained jobs in industry, but their lack of citizenship interfered
with continued employment. Again the sons and some of the Ameri
can-born daughters, got jobs in the shops.
Factors Toward Assimilation of Mexicans

The several types of jobs held by Mexicans have provided oppor
tunity of varying sorts for contact with and participation in American
culture. Sugar-beet employment has afforded very little chance for
the perception of American example, since most of the Mexican
family’s time was spent in grueling, isolated field work, in which there
was little contact, and that largely with people of its own kind and
culture. The same sort of conditions obtained in shovel labor, for the
work gang, although composed usually of persons of diverse ethnic
backgrounds, was sufficiently large to allow for congregation and inter
course among cliques of nationals. In the course of time, however,
workers on such gangs came to share experiences and observations on
American culture so as to be familiar at least with its veneer. This
io “Mr. P., whose domestic situation is evidenced by the fact that his wife was afraid he would kill her,
refused a W PA job as a painter by saying his rheumatism would not allow him to work outside, and upon
being given a job in a comfort station at $12.50 per week, rather than at $15, returned the assignment to the
office saying, ‘to hell with the job.’ He said he would run away from his family if the department insisted
on his working.”

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

EM PLO Y M EN T CONDITIONS

923

was possible partly because gangs never worked long in one place, and
in the course of several years a laborer saw a number of different sec
tions of the city and surrounding country. The absorption of these
cumulative impressions made for easier transition from shovel labor
into the industrial employment. Some degree of assimilation in the
factory is also evident in the immigrant’s acceptance of American
usages for gaining and maintaining employment.

T enant-Farm and Land-Use R egulation in Italy 1
A MINISTERIAL committee was appointed in Italy, in July 1945, to
attempt to bring about an equitable settlement of a dispute regarding
the division of crops between landowners and their share tenants.
The dispute arose out of decrees issued by the Government in October
1944 and April 1945, aimed at effecting the full use of agricultural
land, maximum food production, and improved agricultural conditions.
Difficulties over land-rental contracts in Italy arose after World
War I, especially as they pertained to the half-share system; they
were suppressed by the Fascist regime and flared up again on its
defeat. The sharecropper system is prevalent in central Italy, the
highlands of Emilia and Veneto, the hill areas of northern Italy, and
parts of the south, employing in 1936 slightly less than a fourth of
the 8,756,064 gainfully occupied in agriculture. Agitation for im
provement in the condition of agricultural workers and in the rural
land system increased after the liberation of southern Italy. The
Italian General Confederation of Labor (CGIL) supported the organiza
tion of farm workers into a single group, the Federterra, and made
the improvement of their position one of its main objectives.
In October 1944 the Italian Government provided for an increase
in the acreage and manpower devoted to agriculture, by means of
decrees which permitted associations of cultivators to obtain conces
sions to run for a period not exceeding 4 years on nonproducing public
or private lands and (under guaranty of production) on sequestered
Fascist-owned lands, and authorized the agencies engaged in liqui
dating public lands for a year after the conclusion of peace to grant
individual operators cultivable lands on the basis of units suitable for
family use.
Increased Shares for Tenant Farmers

At the same time, long-established relations of rural landlord and
tenant were changed by legislation which regulated share-tenancy
contracts, giving the cultivator four-fifths of the produce and profits
of lands on which the grantor (owner) provided only the land, and
three-fifths on lands for which the owner and cultivator shared ex
penses of cultivation, excluding labor.2
In the spring of 1945, the changes begun in the preceding autumn
were carried further by decrees of April 5 which prohibited the transfer
of lease contracts, the subletting or transfer of labor contracts, and
i Data are from report of Russell S. Kifer, agricultural attaché, United States Embassy, Rome, August
13, 1945 (No. 169); Annuario Statistico Italiano, Istituto Centrale di Statistica (Rome), 1939; and Gazzetta
Ufficiale, November 4, 7, and 18, 1944 and M ay 2, 1945.
Prevailing custom or contract more favorable than these terms was to take precedence.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

924

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW----NOVEMBER 194 5

any type of subleasing, and extended for 1 year after the termination
of war all share leases and direct cultivators’ leases which were to
end during the agricultural year 1944-45.
Result of Regulation

When the time for the division of the 1945 crop arrived, public
discussion of the decrees increased. Landowners resisted the legisla
tion and efforts were made “to tie the decrees up in the courts.”
The decrees of April 1945, however, prevented the discontinuance of
existing contracts and those of October 1944 prevented the owners
from leaving lands idle. At meetings held in June 1945 in the Prov
ince of Terni, at Florence, Lucca, and Naples, and elsewhere, the
tenants passed resolutions calling for revision of the Fascist legislation
as to common land, a sharing of exceptional expenses of labor (as at
harvest), and a division of products on the basis of 60 percent to the
tenant. Through their organization—the Confederazione Italiana
degli Agricoltori (Confida)—which met in Rome early in July, the
landowners opposed the demands of the tenants, maintaining that
the decrees did not affect half-share tenants, that the division of crops
should permit deductions for farm expenses, that the agitation was
political and not economic, and that a change in proportionate returns
would reduce agricultural production. As a consequence of the
agitation, the success of the grain pools for 1945 was threatened.
In order to settle the dispute at the national level, leaders of the
Confida, the CGIL and the Federterra, were called into joint session in
Rome on July 18. No compromise could be reached, and on August
3, the Council of Ministers delegated to the Ministers of Reconstruc
tion, Agriculture, and Labor the responsibility for settling the con
troversy through conciliation, or through arbitration by the Govern
ment in case of failure.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

Postw ar Reconstruction

B uilding Damage and R econstruction in France 1
THE total number of buildings damaged and destroyed in France in
World War II was some 1,804,000, or double the number in World
War I. The greatest amount of destruction occurred in the north
western and northeastern Departments, which had also suffered the
heaviest damage in the previous war. Nearly 25 percent of all
buildings damaged in World War II were completely destroyed.
The Ministry of Reconstruction and Town Planning, which announced
the damage survey, concluded that 13.9 billion man-hours or 7,000,000
man-years of labor would be required for reconstruction. Although
the first legislation for reconstruction was passed as early as August
1940, comparatively little rebuilding was completed during the occu
pation. The Ministry of Reconstruction and Town Planning was
created in November 1944, and subsequent legislation provided for
Government assistance in reconstruction.
Extent of Destruction

The total number of buildings either damaged or destroyed in
France during World War II, according to the Ministry of Reconstruc
tion, was 1,804,200—or perhaps 1,824,000, if certain incompletely
surveyed miscellaneous buildings were added. Of the 9,975,000
buildings in France in 1939, therefore, some 18 percent have been
destroyed or damaged ( 4 percent wholly destroyed and 13% percent
partially destroyed). The number of buildings suffering various
degrees of destruction in World War II was approximately double the
number similarly affected in World War I. In 1918—19, however,
40 percent of all buildings injured were found to be wholly destroyed,
as against only 25 percent in 1945. One estimate of the Ministry
of Reconstruction and Town Planning places the total war damage in
World War II at 1,500 billion francs.
The number of buildings wholly and partially destroyed in France
in World War II is indicated in table 1, by type of building (dwelling,
public, industrial, etc.).
Of the total 1,804,200 buildings damaged or destroyed in World
War II, more than two-thirds were dwellings, and of these more than
a fifth were damaged beyond repair. Destruction to commerce and
industry totaled 216,800 buildings, with almost a fourth completely
destroyed. In agriculture the percentage of total destruction was
even higher.
i Data are from report'of E. Allen Fidel, economic analyst, United States Embassy, Paris, August 30,
1945; Journal Officiel de la République Française, Ordonnances et Décrets (Paris), April 11 and 22, 1945;
and Free France (French Press and Information Service, N ew York), September 1 and 15, 1945.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

925

926
T a b l e ,1.

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5
Number of Buildings Wholly and Partially Destroyed by War in France
September 1939 to July 1, 1945, by Type of Building

Item

Total

Dwellings

Buildings damaged or destroyed from
September 1939 to—
July 1, 1945________ ____
1,804,200 1,242,000
Partially destroyed.. _
1,361,400
947,700
Wholly destroyed. .
442,800
294,300
June 1, 1944 . . .
683,000
524.000
Partially destroyed . . . .
547,000
422, 500
W holly destroyed. .
136.000
101, 500
January 1, 1944
522, 500
383.000
Partially destroyed ____
415, 500
314.000
Wholly destroyed_____
107.000
79.000
June 25, 1940 .
403.000
292, 000
Partially destroyed. . .
317, 500
232,0,00
Wholly destroyed___
85, 500
60.000

2
2
2

Indus
Agricul trial and
Miscel
tural
commer Public
buildings laneous
buildings
cial
buildings
buildings

314,000
221, 500
92, 500
76.000
59, 500
16, 500

68.000

53.000
15.000
62.000
48.000
14.000

216,800
166, 800
50.000
48, 500
37.000
11, 500
33.000
24, 500
8,500
24.000
17.000
7,000

31.400
25.400

6,000

14, 500
13.000
1.500
13, 500

12.000

1.500
11,500
10, 500

1,000

(9
(')
(9
20, 5-00
15, 500
5.000
15.000

12.000
3.000
13, 500

10,000
3,500

1 Incomplete.
2 Items do not add to total, but are as given in source.

About 25 percent of all damage occurred between the time the
Germans entered France in the autumn of 1939 and the end of armed
resistance in June 1940. Up to June 1, 1944, France had suffered
damage to 683,000 buildings. In the following year, as the Allies
fought to liberate the country, that number was almost trebled. The
loss to industrial and commercial buildings in the last 12 months of
the war was high—considerably more than 3 times as many structures
being damaged as in 1939-44.
T able 2.

Number of Buildings Wholly and Partially Destroyed in France, by Depart
ments, September 1939 to July 1, 1945

Departments

Total

W holly
de
stroyed

All departm ents.. ■1,804,200 ■442,800
Somme________
132,200
32,927
Pas-de-Calais____
130, 500
28,000
Calvados________
123, 000
69.000
Nord________. . .
117.000
22.000
Haut-R hin_____
100.000
25.000
Bas-Rhin______
99.800
18, 850
Moselle_________
80, 000
20.000
Seine-Inférieure.. .
69,200
28,060
Seine___________
66, 700
5,200
Manche_________
54, 000
17.000
Oise_________
53.800
10,200
A isne.. ______ _
46, 600
6,600
Seine-et-O ise.___
40, 800
5,135
Ille-et-V ilaine___
39,100
4,100
Ardennes______
38, 700
9,520
Orne___________
35, 400
11,720
Vosges_________
35, 000
10.000
Eure___________
34, 700
7,655
Marne_______ .
33, 400
5,400
Meurthe-etM oselle.. _____
28. 700
4,312

Partially
destroyed

Departments

■1,361, 400
99,255
102, 500
54, 000
95.000
75.000
80, 900
60.000
41,122
61, 500
37, 000
43, 600
40, 000
35,654
35.000
29, 200
23, 700
25.000
27, 028
28, 000

Var_____________
Loire-Inférieure...
Bouches-du
Rhone______
Seine-et-Marne__
Indre-et-Loire. .
C h aren te-M ari
tim e____ ____
Alpes-Maritimes..
Eure-et-Loir_____
M orbihan_______
Finistère________
Hérault_________
M euse__________
Loiret. __________
Coté-d’Or. ___
Gironde_________
A ube___________
Ot h e r , ( u n d e r
10,000 each)____

Total

Wholly Partially
de
stroyed destroyed

24, 500
23, 300

4, 250
9, 300

20,250
14.000

21,000
19.000
18.000

4, 500
5,025
3,200

16, 500
14.000
14, 800

16,300
15, 400
15, 200
13.800
13.000
11.800
11, 600
11,200
11,100
11.000
10, 300

9,886
993
1,989
8,860
5, 750
1,041
2,840
2,725
1,122
970
2,757

6,452
14, 403
13,209
4,940
7,250
10,743
8, 750
8, 454
9,986
10, 090
7,585

198,300

37,346

160,385

24, 393

1 Items do not add to total, but are as given in source.

The heaviest damage to buildings was suffered in the northwestern
and northeastern Departments of France. More than 7 percent of
all buildings damaged or destroyed were in the Department of Somme;
more than a third were in the 5 Departments of Somme, Pas-de-Calais,

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

927

POSTWAR RECONSTRUCTION

Nord, Calvados, Moselle, and Haut Rhin. For the most part, the
Departments that suffered the greatest property damage in World
War I again endured the most severe destruction in World War II.
The majority of the buildings that had to be rebuilt in this area after
1918 will have to be rebuilt again after 1945.
All France was fought over in World War II. Damage was
lightest, however, in the southern and especially in the south central
parts. In each of the Departments of Cantal, Haute-Loire, Lozère,
Aveyron, Tarn, Tarn-et-Garonne, Lot-et-Garonne, Gers, and Hautes
Pyrénées, only 300 or fewer buildings were destroyed or damaged.
Manpower Needs for Reconstruction

An estimate of the manpower needs for reconstruction, made by
the French Ministry of National Economy, places the total at 13.9
billion man-hours. The Ministry estimates the needs for different
types of reconstruction as follows:
Man-hours
(in billions)

T o ta l_____________________________________________________

13. 9

Preparation (clearing and de-mining)______________________
M anufacturing and transport of raw materials (not includ
ing rail or water transport)---------------...------------------------Work with raw materials:
Rebuilding properties—
Main walls and roofing___________________________
Equipm ent______________________________________
Other works (roads, streets, sanitation)----------------------

1. 0
1.0
9. 0
1. 4
1. 5

On the basis of a 48-hour week, and taking into account holidays,
illness, and bad weather, the Ministry of National Economy esti
mates that this total would be equal to 7,000,000 man-years—or
10,000,000 man-years, if the rebuilding of monuments and public
buildings were added. Before the war, about 700,000 workers were
employed in the construction trade. Placing the postwar number of
such workers at only 500,000, and relegating them to maintenance of
existing construction, the Ministry concludes that reconstruction in
France will require 1,000,000 workmen from other countries for a
period of 10 years.
Reconstruction Legislation
Period of occupation.—By a law of August 22, 1940, only 2 months
after the German occupation began, the State took under its charge
the razing and clearing away of destroyed buildings. On October 19,
1940, another law provided for the reconstruction of damaged in
dustrial and commercial properties and for assistance to the owners
of damaged residences. A law of November 28, 1942, specified the
amount of financial assistance the State would give in industrial and
commercial reconstruction and required that such reconstruction
plans should have the approval of the Ministry concerned. Under a
law of October 17, 1944, farmers could obtain reconstruction loans
from the Agricultural Credit Fund. Other legislation of the occupa
tion period included plans for the reconstruction of public utilities,
public buildings, and destroyed monuments. The beneficial results
of such legislation, however, were slight; only 348,000 cases of all
types were settled, for a total of less than 6 billion francs, during the
4-year period.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

928

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

Period after liberation.—In November 1944, after the liberation of
France, the Government created the Ministry of Reconstruction and
Town Planning. Under the authority of this Ministry (1) the Gen
eral Department of Town Planning, Housing, and Construction is
sues directives regarding reconstruction and the study of urban prob
lems, with the Department of Works giving architectural and en
gineering advice; (2) the Department of Planning computes the needs
for reconstruction and determines the manner of filling these needs;
(3) the_ Department of De-mining is charged with excavation and
neutralization of mines left in France by the Germans; and (4) a
Supervising Section composed of inspectors, technicians, and financial
experts directs the field services.
In an ordinance of April 10, 1945, the Government enumerated the
activities which the State would undertake on its own account—the
clearing of roads and urban areas and, in general, work necessary to
permit reconstruction to go forward. The ordinance outlined the
regulations to be followed (1) by prefects who receive requests for
shelter from refugees and war victims and by the reconstruction serv
ices which provide for the construction of temporary buildings for
such victims, and (2) in the reconstruction of buildings which were
only slightly damaged.
Payments for losses caused by war damage are to be made on a
provisional basis, following a rapid study of each case of destruction.
After a final decision on the case has been made, the Government is
to pay one-third of the amount owed, if the reconstruction work has
not been started, and three-fourths, if the work has been completed.
The Ministers of Reconstruction and Town Planning and of Finance
are authorized to arrange for the credit necessary for such payments.
Earlier legislation (1940) had provided that the assistance given
by the State as compensation for losses on private residences and
real property necessary for agriculture could amount to 80 percent
of the normal cost of reconstruction, if the buildings were totally
demolished. If the proprietor decided not to rebuild he could claim
an amount equal to 30 percent of the amount the State would have
contributed had the property been reconstructed.
For industrial and commercial buildings, legislation passed in 1942
similarly had provided for State assistance equal to 70 percent of
normal reconstruction costs, or for remuneration amounting to 30
percent of value as of September 1, 1939, in addition to 15 times the
annual net income which had been derived from the property (not to
exceed a specified limit).
_ Penalties for filing false statements concerning losses, and limita
tions upon the persons who may represent a war victim in indemnity
claims, were provided in a second ordinance of April 10, 1945. War
victims are to be allowed to form associations in order to present their
claims more effectively. The ordinance also nullifies specified articles of
certain previous reconstruction laws and consolidates other provisions.
On April 21, 1945, a third ordinance authorized the Minister of
Reconstruction and Town Planning to requisition personnel and
material, under certain conditions and with the approval of the inter
ested Ministries. The ordinance requires the Minister to consult with
the Ministry of Public Health on all matters regarding the hygienic
phases of housing, and with the Ministries of the Interior and Indus
trial Production regarding reconstruction problems which fall within

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

POSTWAR RECONSTRUCTION

929

their spheres. Special duties of the Ministry of Reconstruction de
fined in the decree include (1) the development of a general plan of
reconstruction, (2) arrangements (in accord with international agree
ments and with the Ministries of Foreign Affairs and National Econ
omy) for certain reparations, (3) planning (together with the inter
ested ministers) for the reconstruction of public works belonging to
collective and public establishments, and (4) the task of clearing and
rebuilding public highways, in accordance with regulations on historic
monuments and sites.

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Social Security

Developm ents in Civilian Fam ily Allowances, 1 9 4 4 -4 5 1
Summary

THE wastage of youth in war has intensified world interest in the
rising generation, resulting in the extension of child-welfare programs
and in increased action in the special field of civilian family allowances.
In 1944-45 substantial progress was made, which is reviewed in this
article.
During the war three family-allowance measures for civilians were
enacted in the British Empire—the Australian Act of 1941, the Cana
dian Act of 1944, which became effective July 1, 1945, and the British
Act of 1945.
In New Zealand, under a provision effective October 1, 1944, family
allowances were raised, the gross weekly income limit beyond which
a family is not eligible for these benefits was increased, and further
liberalization has been under discussion. In South Africa, a report
including a recommendation for family allowances was submitted to
the Parliament in 1944, and a select committee was appointed to study
this document. This committee was in turn to make recommendations
to the 1945 legislative session. Proposals for family allowances are also
under consideration in Southern Rhodesia.
In Continental Europe, Belgium provided for family allowances in
its new social-insurance legislation and widened their coverage.
France raised rates of benefits. A social-insurance program recently
drafted for Czechoslovakia contains provision for children’s allowances.
In Rumania, employees and laborers of private industrial and com
mercial enterprises have been entitled to a family bonus since July 1,
1944. Soviet Russia has increased its appropriations for large families.
In Spain, an increase in the rate of allowances and a more intensive
application of the family-allowance system to agriculture were
effected. Strengthening of the family-allowance provisions and a
liberalization of regulations took place in the Swiss Cantons. Within
the past 12 months, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden have taken steps
which manifested their interest in easing family financial burdens.
Some developments in the field of family allowances in the period
under review are recorded for at least 5 Latin American countries—
Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay. Colombia’s new
labor law makes reference to possible consideration of family responsi
bilities in the determination of wages.
In the United States in 1944-45, the salary schedules in a relatively
small number of public school systems included supplements for
teachers with family responsibilities. Aid for dependent children under
1 Prepared by Mary T. Waggaman, of the Bureau’s Publications Staff.

930

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

SOCIAL SECURITY

931

the Social Security Act in the calendar year 1944 exceeded $135,000,000. From July 1, 1942, through April 30, 1945, $7,063,138,895 was
disbursed in family allowances for the dependents of the Army, Navy,
and Coast Guard personnel, $2,599,590,939 being contributed by the
members of the Armed Forces themselves. The provision of $50,000,000 in the 1946 Appropriation Act for the Department of Agriculture
for school lunches might be regarded as a grant for children’s allowances
in kind. Other proposed benefits, such as large lump-sum birth
bonuses, an appropriation of $150,000,000 for student aid in behalf of
youth under 21 years of age continuing their education or training,
and a “basic food-allotment” system, are close to the border line of
child endowment. Demands for higher pay and for a guaranteed
annual wage are becoming more frequent.
General trends in fam ily allowances.—There appears to be a growing
tendency to correlate family allowances with credit for dependents
under income-tax legislation, which emphasizes the fact that children
of parents in the very low income brackets receive little or no benefit
from such exemptions.
The controversy between the advocates of family allowances in cash
and of allowances in kind seems to be developing into a compromise
which would provide for both types of benefits. For example, a recent
British article states that “cash allowances and social services should
not be regarded as alternatives but as different facets of a common
policy.” 2
That family allowances are becoming more acceptable to organized
labor is indicated in the recent annual interviews of delegations from
the principal Canadian federations of labor with members of the
Dominion Cabinet and the statements of British labor representatives
in parliamentary debates. These allowances were recommended in the
declaration of the Committee on Postwar Reconstruction and Immedi
ate Trade Union Demands at the World Trades Union Conference at
London in February 1945. A delegate from the Congress of Indus
trial Organizations was chairman of the committee.
British Empire
GREAT BRITAIN3

The British Family Allowances Act of June 15, 1945 (8 and 9
Geo. 6, ch. 41), will bring into being a reform advocated since World
War I. According to estimates by the Government, approximately
2,500,000 families with 2 or more children will come under the act,
and about 4,400,000 children will be eligible for allowances. It is
estimated that the law will entail an annual cost of £57,000,000.4
The cash allowances are to be supplemented, under the new Education
Act, by free milk and meals to school children, at an ultimate cost of
£60,000,000 per annum.
Major 'provisions.—The act, which is based largely upon the pro
posal for family allowances in the Beveridge Report on Social Security
and the subsequent White Paper on the subject, provides for an
2 The Highway (London), April 1945 (p. 99).
3 Data are from 8 and 9 Geo. 6, ch. 41; British Speeches of the D ay (British Information Services), April
1945 (p. 300); Canadian Labor Gazette (Ottawa), June 1945 (p. 812); and Parliamentary Debates, March 8,
1945.
i Average exchange rate of British pound in July 1945, free=$4.029.
6 7 0 1 1 9 — 45 ------- 7

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932

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 194 5

allowance to every family including 2 or more children, at the rate of
5 shillings per week for each child in the family except the eldest. A
“child” is defined as a person under the upper limit of the compulsory
school age; or one over that age until August 1 next following his or
her sixteenth birthday, if attending school full time or apprenticed.
Beneficiaries include the own child or children of a man and wife
living together and other children being maintained by them; or the
own child or children of a man not living with his wife or having no
wife, and any children maintained by him; or those of a woman not
living with her husband or having no husband, and any children main
tained by her.
Children who are already receiving benefits under the Poor Law Act,
1930, or under the Widows’, Orphans’ and Old Age Contributory
Pensions Act, 1936, are not to be treated as included in any family.
Adjustments are to be made in cases of children for whom equivalent
grants are receivable under provisions for the naval, military, and
air forces and for war injuries.
Certain residential requirements are specified, but reciprocal ar
rangements are permitted with other parts of the British Dominions
having similar legislation.
Allowances for the family of a man and his wife living together are
receivable by either parent. Such grants are inalienable.
A penalty of imprisonment not to exceed 3 months, or a fine not
exceeding 50 pounds, is provided for wrongfully obtaining or receiving
these benefits. Any person contravening or failing to comply with
the regulations made under this act “shall be liable on summary
conviction to a fine not exceeding 10 pounds.”
Allowances will be considered as taxable income, but the income-tax
exemption of £50 per child will be continued.
The act becomes operative on such date as may be determined by
the Minister of National Insurance.
Attitude of labor.—The change of attitude of the British Trades
Union Congress on the subject of family allowances, noted in previous
articles in the Monthly Labor Review, was described as follows dur
ing the Parliamentary debates on the new measure:
Now opinion has changed, and the T. U. C., as well as the political movement
to which I am privileged to belong, have declared themselves in favor of fam ily
endowment, or fam ily allowances, on the principles laid down in this bill. There
are two reasons for that. We think now of this great principle which we are
establishing, in a inodest way, today not as something by itself, but as part of a
great comprehensive social-insurance scheme by which we shall provide security
for our people. It is in that sense that we have to consider this bill today, not
in isolation but in relationship to the other schemes which are forthcoming. It
is part of the National Insurance scheme, part of the complete structure which
eventually—-and in the not-too-distant future—-we hope we shall build. I think
another reason for the_ change in public opinion generally, and particularly in our
own movement, on this subject, is th e fine pioneering work done in this m atter,
as in every other kind of social security matter, by the Labor Government in
New Zealand.
AUSTRALIA 5

In Australia, during tbe fiscal year ended June 30, 1944, the sum of
£12,256,976 6 was disbursed for 921,973 children under 16 years of
5 Data are from Bulletin of Child Welfare League of America (New York), February 1945; Australia
(Australian News and Information Bureau, N ew York), July 1945; Montreal (Can.) Gazette, June 27, 1945
(p. 17); and Australian Worker (Sydney), January 10,1945.
8 Average exchange rate of Australian pound in 1944=$3.228.

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age, under the Child Endowment Act. This act, which came into
effect July 1, 1941, was amended on June 30, 1942, to include children
in Government charitable institutions approved by the Minister of
Social Service. Previously only private charitable institutions had
been covered, except when the maintenance cost of the child was paid
partly or entirely by the parent or guardian.
Table 1 gives the amounts disbursed under this act for the 3 fiscal
years ending June 30, 1944:
T able

1.— Statistics of Child Endowment in Australia, 3 Years Ending June 30, 1942,
1943, and 1944

Year ending—

June 30, 1944_______________________
June 30, 1943 _____________________
June30j 1 9 4 2 ............................. ..............

Total
number
of en
dowed
children

921,973
908,159
909,847

Endowed families
Total
amount paid
to endowees
and ap
Number
proved
Number of chil
institutions
dren
Pounds 1
12,256, 976
11, 659, 626
11,302,863

503,140
491,121
487,674

903, 577
891, 221
895, 558

Institutions

Number

321
315
246

Number
of chil
dren
endowed

18,396
16,938
14, 289

1 Average exchange rate of pound in period 1942-44=$3.228.

Under an act passed in June 1945, the rate of benefit was increased
from 5s. to 7s. 6d. a week for each child under 16 years of age, with the
exception of the first. There is no means test. This amendment
affects 935,411 children and will, it is estimated, add $22,100,000 per
annum to Government expenditures.
With certain specified exceptions the endowment is paid to the
mother. (The term “mother” under the act includes a stepmother or
foster mother or the wife of a man maintaining an adopted child.)
Mothers in Australia also receive a bonus of $16 when a child is born
and a maternity benefit of $4 per week for 8 weeks. The great
majority of Australians are members of hospital benefit funds which
include free hospitalization for maternity care.
The first child in the family is not endowed. It is the belief of the
Commonwealth Arbitration Court that “the basic-wage family
[parents and one child] should be assured of adequate nutrition, but
that nutrition and clothing became matters of concern as the number
of children increased.” Although efforts are still being made for the
extension of endowment to the first child, the cost of such an extension
is a hindrance. It was estimated, even before the July 1945 liberaliza
tion of the rate, that endowment of the first child would cost
£11,000,000 a year.
The Director-General of Social Services in Australia stated that
since the passage of the original act, in 1941, some decline in mortality
among children has been apparent and their health and happiness have
shown improvement. No spectacular rise in the birth rate is claimed,
but to the degree that parents of large families have had some relief
from economic harassments, the tendency of the scheme “must be in
the direction of improving the rate.” An incomplete survey indicated
that the majority of the beneficiaries were making “good use” of the
allowances under the Child Endowment Act and were applying the
grants for the purposes for which they are made.

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The Western Australian Commissioner of Native Affairs was quoted
as declaring—
Whilst it is obvious to me that, generally speaking, the native children are
better dressed and in better health because of payment of child endowment, there
have been correspondingly good features arising from payments to endowees.
Until recently there was a good deal of simple mating between detribalized parents
but now there is a definite tendency towards the social question of marriage, and
noticeably, too, there is more desire for the education of native children.

In Australia, as in various other countries, the war has accentuated
sharply the fact of the shrinkage in the birth rate, leading the Acting
Prime Minister of the Commonwealth to make the following comment:
We must make a realistic approach to
3 million square miles but carries only
sharp fall of the birth rate pointed to a
the next 3 decades. H istory will some
being overrun. Divine Providence was
another chance.

the population problem. Australia has
7,300,000 people. In prewar days the
decline in Australian population within
day reveal how close Australia was to
on our side. We might not be given

CANADA 7

The Canadian Family Allowances Act of August 1944 became oper
ative on July 1, 1945. Under this statute, a monthly allowance is
payable from the Consolidated Revenue Fund, for each child under 16
years of age resident in Canada and maintained wholly or substan
tially by the parent.8 The scale of payments for the first four children
is as follows:
Amount per child

Under 6 years of age_______________________________
6 and under 10 years of age_________________________
10 and under 13 years of age_______________________
13 and under 16 years of age_______________________

$5
6
7
8

For a fifth child maintained by the parent the above rates of allowance
are reduced by $1;9 for the sixth and seventh children, by $2 each;
and for the eighth and each subsequent child, by $3 each. The grants
must be applied “exclusively toward the maintenance, care, training,
education, and advancement of the child.” Benefits may be discon
tinued if they are not properly applied.
It has been decided administratively that the allowance shall be
paid to the mother or to the female person (if any) taking the place
of the mother. Special arrangements will be made in regard to Indian
and Eskimo families, the latter to be granted allowances in kind
rather than in cash.
Official estimates by the Department of National Health and Wel
fare indicate that the total disbursements in family allowances for a
full year, if all eligible children are registered, will total $253,560,000,
payable to about 1/ million families, for about 3K million children.
The expenditure is given as a gross figure, no account being taken of
refunds to the Government through reduced tax exemptions, which
it is anticipated will aggregate about $50,000,000. The scheme is
entirely a Federal project, both financially and administratively.
7 Data are from report from Homer S. Fox, commercial attaché, United States Embassy, Ottawa, July 6,
1945 (No_. 190); American Sociological Review, June 1945; Public Welfare (American Public Welfare Associa
tion ^Chicago), August 1945; Revenge of the Cradles, by C. E. Silcox (Toronto, Ryerson Press, 1945); Public
Affairs (Dalhousie University, Halifax), Winter 1945; Trades and Labor Congress Journal (Montreal),
M ay 1945; and Canadian Labor Gazette (Ottawa), M ay 1945.
8 “Parent” means any person who maintains or has custody of a child. The term does not include an
institution.
8 Average exchange rate of Canadian dollar=90.9 cents.

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Family allowances and tax exemptions for dependents.—The familyallowance scheme has been so devised that it will be of assistance
only to families in the lower income brackets. Families having an
income of over $3,000 benefit only by tax exemptions for dependents.
In the last census year—1941—upon which some of the estimates
relative to family allowances are based, 300,384 persons were assessed
for income tax, 66.7 percent of whom had incomes not exceeding $3,000.
B y 1944 the number of taxpayers had risen to 2,450,000, of which 1,290,000
had incomes of $2,000 or less, and 595,000 had incomes between $2,000 and $3,000,
leaving a balance of 565,000 with incomes above the level at which any benefit
from fam ily allowances is obtainable. While not all of this last group (probably
only a minority) have dependent children, the number is perhaps sufficient, added
to the number in the $l,200-$3,000 income bracket benefiting only partially from
the allowances, to make a substantial reduction in the net total allowances p ay
able by the Government.

The legislation is expected to increase the buying power of the
Nation and consequently to provide additional employment. As it
is officially estimated that 84 percent of the children under 16 are
dependent on only 19 percent of the gainfully employed, it is also
claimed that the disbursement of funds in family allowances “ will be
far more effective and equitable than an equal amount of money dis
tributed in increased wages or salaries, without reference to unequal
needs.” The statute also tends to rectify the previous anomalous
situation which resulted from the financial advantage through incometax exemptions which were accorded to persons in the middle and
higher income groups, but not to those in the low income groups (as
family heads with incomes under $1,200 were not liable for income
tax, the exemptions for dependents did not, of course, affect them).
The following tabulation shows the proportion of actual benefit
receivable from family allowances which will be canceled by 1945
income-tax adjustment for married persons and persons having a
married status (other than those in the armed forces): 10
Percentage of family
allowance to be canceled
1 1

•

M O O UlrW iy

C'/l'l/

Amount of taxable income:
tax deduction
N ot over $1,2 0 0 ___________________________
0
Over $1,20 0 but not over $1,400__________________ 10
Over $1,400 but not over $1,6 00__________________ 20
Over $1,600 but not over $1,8 00__________________ 30
Over $1,800 but not over $2,000__________________ 40
Over $2,000 but not over $2,200__________________ 50
Over $2,200 but not over $2,400__________________ 60
Over $2,400 but not over $2,600__________________ 70
Over $2,600 but not over $2,800__________________ 80
Over $2,800 but not over $3,000__________________ 90
Over $3,000______________________________________ 100

Adjustments for members of the armed forces, and for single per
sons supporting children, would differ somewhat from the above.
Public attitude toward the law.—Comment on the family-allowance
legislation ranges from laudatory approval to highly caustic criticism.
For example, the act has been described, on the one hand, as “ much
the most ambitious social measure ever to be enacted by Parliament,”
“ a great instrument for combating want,” and “ the greatest single
reform since the adoption of free education,” and, on the other, has
been declared to be “ probably the most precipitate and indefensible
The 1945 income-tax arrangement is temporary, pending amendment of the tax law.

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piece of legislation which a civilized Government has ever ventured
to pass in wartime.”
It has been charged that the act is unconstitutional, probably be
cause, under the British North American Act, it is primarily the
responsibility of the Provinces to enact social-welfare measures.
Attitude of organized labor.—-The new legislation has received little
criticism from organized labor, which until recent years feared that
the granting of family allowances would adversely affect its claim for
increased wages. However, the rise of wage scales in both Australia
and New Zealand since they have had child-endowment acts has
tended, according to some observers, to allay such fears. At the 1945
annual interviews of representatives of several of the major federated
labor organizations of Canada with Dominion Cabinet ministers,
references were made to family allowances. The Canadian Trades
and Labor Congress recommended such grants, but stated that they
must not take the place of an adequate wage rate, and that the Con
gress would continue its efforts “to achieve the proper wage level as a
basic need for workers and their families as a fundamental condition
for continued prosperity.” The Canadian Congress of Labor also
endorsed family allowances with a similar proviso.
The Canadian and Catholic Confederation of Labor recommended
that family allowances should not be substituted for decent minimum
wages, and advocated that the grant for the fifth child and subsequent
children should not be decreased.
Administration of act.—It is said that the success of this venture in
family allowances will depend largely upon the administration of the
statute, and that the administrative features are more complex than
they seem or have been reported to be.
Since the passage of the measure through the Canadian House of
Commons, a new department has been established by the Dominion
Government for the administration of health and welfare services,
and two Deputy Ministers have been appointed, one for health and
the other for welfare.
According to a writer in the winter 1945 number of Public Affairs,
“If the Federal Government is not discerning enough to work out a
coordinated plan with the Provinces and the municipalities in dealing
with the social service aspects of family allowances, we will have lost
one of our best opportunities for promoting social progress.”
NEW ZEALAND 11

In New Zealand, under a measure effective October 1, 1944, the
allowable gross income in relation to family benefits was raised to
£5 10s. (exclusive of the family benefits), and the weekly benefits for
each dependent child under 16 years of age was raised from 7s. 6d. to
10s.12 Further changes have been proposed. Thus the New Zealand
Standard (official organ of the Labor Party) in its issue of March 1,
1945, suggested that one way of coming to the aid of the lower-bracket
taxpayer with children, without raising the benefits of those who can
afford to pay, would be to eliminate the tax exemption for children
11 Data are from N ew Zealand, a Working Democracy, by Walter NashJ(New York, Duell, Sloan, and
Pearce, 1943); N ew Zealand Standard, February 8, March l, and April 26, 1945; N ew Zealand Newsletter
April 1945, and information supplied to the Bureau of Labor Statistics by the N ew Zealand Legation in
Washington.
12 Average exchange rate of N ew Zealand pound (20 shillings) in 1944=$3.24.

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937

and substitute an income-tax credit of 10s. per week per child. In
the same publication, April 26, 1945, a Member of Parliament was
quoted as predicting that after the war family allowances will be
extended to all persons. In his opinion, the means test, in connection
with family allowances, meant in numerous cases that an increase in
wages was of little benefit to a worker.
Minimum-family-income legislation proposed by the Government
would provide a man and wife with an income of not less than £4 per
week; any lower earnings, pension, benefit or income would be aug
mented by social-security grants in amounts necessary to raise the
income to thatTminimum.
In New Zealand free apples and milk are distributed to school
children and free dental treatment is given them in special clinics.
INDIA

The question of family allowances has been raised in India. The
Bulletin of the Indian Federation, of Labor (Delhi) of April 1944,
contained an article in which it was said—•
Size of a worker’s fam ily is always expanding. * * * I f no provision is
made for the members in addition to the average size of the fam ily, then the
standard of living of the fam ily is bound to go down. * * * A lower average
per consumption unit would mean driving the fam ily to make severe inroads on
their health. For it would be impossible even by exercising the extreme frugality
to make adequate arrangement for bare necessities. A system of wages should,
therefore, take account of these facts and expand with the expanding size of the
fam ily. A system of fam ily allowance with an equalization fund is, therefore,
suggested. The average size of the fam ily should be fixed and allowance made
only in respect of children in excess of the average number.

Since January 1944 a scheme for supplying free milk has been in
operation in Bombay City. In the first quarter of that year, 38,764
children each were receiving half a pound of milk a day, served from
13 labor welfare centers.13
SOUTHERN RHODESIA

In the South African Journal of Economics of March 1945, reference
is made to proposals under consideration in Southern Rhodesia for a
social security scheme which would include family allowances.
UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA

The South Africa Social Security Committee appointed in January
1943 included in its recommendations for social security, family
allowances for large families. This report was given to Parliament
during the 1944 session, and the House of Assembly appointed a select
committee to consider the recommendations. In turn the select
committee recommended that a modified social-insurance scheme
should be prepared for introduction at the 1945 session of Parliament.14
Accordingly an interdepartmental committee was appointed for this
purpose, but no information is available as to whether these proposals
have yet been submitted to Parliament.
13 International Labor Review (Montreal), September'"1944 (p. 384).
14 Outline of Postwar Reconstruction (Union of South Africa,«Pretoria,'1944)5

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Continental Europe
BELGIUM 15

Under the Belgian social-security legislation of December 28, 1944,
a national office was established in the Ministry of Labor and Social
Welfare to collect and allocate contributions payable under this meas
ure by employers and workers for various purposes, among them
increased rates of family allowances.
An order of December 29, 1944, raised the monthly rates from
January 1, 1945, to 115 francs each for the first and second child, 160
francs for the third child, 210 francs for the fourth, and 300 francs for
the fifth and subsequent children.16
For orphans the above rates are doubled. A worker’s right to
family allowances continues when he is sick or injured in an accident
for which he is entitled to a pension, provided his degree of incapacity
is not less than 66 percent. Should the worker’s death be the result
of an industrial accident or an occupational disease, his children are
eligible for family allowances for the period designated in the Family
Allowances Act of August 4, 1930. When a child is born for whom a
family allowance is payable under that law, the fund must grant 1,000
francs for the first child and 500 francs for each succeeding child.
The order of December 29, 1944, instituted substantial changes in
earlier legislation, especially in permitting recognized independent
funds and special funds to call upon their members for an additional
contribution in order to secure “certain family benefits other than sup
plementary family allowances.” The new order also simplifies the
administration of the family-allowance system and eliminates some
inequalities that in the past have been the subject of criticism.
CZECHOSLOVAKIA

The Czechoslovak Government has recognized that the liberation of
the country affords an opportunity to reorganize the whole scheme of
social insurance, which at present includes no provision for children’s
allowances. At the Government’s request, Prof. Emil Schoenbaum,
actuarial adviser of the International Labor Office, prepared a program
for “the reconstruction of social insurance in Czechoslovakia,” which
contains the following paragraph concerning children’s allowances.
“ Use can be made of the organisation of territorial institutions (dis
trict insurance institutions) as pay offices for the proposed grants to
large families, consisting of allowances for each child except the first,
the first two, etc. This scheme could be financed either directly by
the State, or with the participation of employers and employees,
depending on the financial situation. It should be put into force only
after the completion of thorough administrative and financial prepara
tion.”17
DENMARK 18

Following wage increases that were accorded to workers in Denmark
in August 1944, a voluntary agreement was reached in regard to
15
Data are from International Labor Review (Montreal), April 1945 (p. 527); and Great Britain,
M inistry of Labor Gazette, (London), March 1945 (p. 47).
« Exchange rate of Belgian franc, set September 1944 = 2.28 cents.
17 International Labor Review (Montreal), February 1945.
18 Data are from report (No. LI) by Richard A. Forsyth, labor attaché, and M . Holmgren, United States
Legation, Copenhagen, July 1, 1945; and airgram'from Stockholm, November 13, 1944.

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939

salary advances for civil servants, effective November 1, 1944. Under
the agreement, unmarried State employees receive a cost-of-living
allowance of 80 kroner additional, per annum; for married employees,
40 kroner extra are added, raising their allowance to 120 kroner.19
About 70,000 State employees are covered by this agreement, which
costs the Government 7,000,000 kroner a year.
Similar cost-of-living allowances are paid to 25,000 municipal em
ployees in Copenhagen, at an annual cost to that city of approxi
mately 2,500,000 kroner. These supplements were likewise effective
from November 1, 1944.
On May 9, 1945, at the opening of the first postliberation parliamen
tary session, the Social Democratic Prime Minister submitted the
Government’s program. That program among other matters relative
to the social and labor conditions in Denmark, set forth the following
policy: “Until wages match the real wage level as it was before the
war the present rebate system for people of small means will be
maintained with particular regard to big families.” Under the rebate
system mentioned, it is reported, in the fiscal year 1942-43, the sum of
67 million kroner was disbursed to consumers in direct foodstuff
rebates, and 22 million kroner in the form of clothing rebate coupons.
FRANCE 20

On October 3, 1944, the Minister of Labor and Social Security issued
a circular requesting the chairmen of the family-allowance equalization
funds to admit to the benefits of such funds the family heads who had
refused to perform compulsory labor for the Germans and conse
quently had received no allowances for some time. The funds were to
be reimbursed, for any sums so paid, by the Central Committee for
Family Allowances from a special fund constituted from contributions
by German enterprises.
After the general increases in French wages in the fall of 1944, an
order was issued on October 17 of that year which appreciably bettered
the living conditions of families of wage earners. This order, effective
(beginning September 1, 1944) for 6 months (but later extended to
December 31, 1945), provided not only for larger family allowances
but also for increases in the birth bonus for the first child and in “single
wage allowances.” The increase in family allowances amounted to 80
percent for families having 2 or 3 children and to 50 percent for families
having more than 3. Table 2 shows benefits under the old and amend
ed plan in the Department of the Seine.
On January 6, 1945, an order, effective February 1, was promul
gated by the Provisional Government of France, which reorganized
salaries of officials of the Government and civil and military pensions.
According to a communiqué issued on December 30, 1944, this reform
included—
(1) The fixing of a basic salary for all officials, with a minimum of
36,000 francs 21 a year; (2) the réintroduction of a progressive salary
» In August 1945, the buying rate of the krone in Denmark was quoted as 20.79 cents, the selling rate as
20.8 cents.
20 Data are from International Labor Review (Montreal), M ay 1945 (p. 609); Journal Officiel (Paris),
November 30,1944 (p. 1537); Canadian Trades and Labor Congress Journal (Montreal), M ay 5,1945 (p. 41);
World Economies (Washington, D . C.), March-June 1945; and Free France (French Press and Information
Service, N ew York), January 15 and M ay 15, 1945.
21 The “invasion” exchange rate of the franc was quoted in June 1944 as 2 cents; on October 10, 1945, the
exchange rate was quoted as 2.018 cents.

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M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW----NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

scale for different grades, the maximum annual salary for certain
high officials being fixed at 450,000 francs; (3) the abolition of sub
sidiary allowances; (4) compulsory savings for all officials whose gross
remuneration exceeds 100,000 francs; (5) increased benefits for officials
with family responsibilities; (6) a revision of all posts created since
16 June 1940 and the introduction of measures to increase efficiency.
T a b l e 2 .—Family Allowances in the Department of the Seine, France, Effective

September 1, 1944
Amount of allow
ance

Amount of allow
ance

Size of family

Fam ily allowances to families
with—
2children__ _ _ _ _ _
3 children____ . . . ___
4 children __ _ _ ___
5 child ren_________ _
6 children_____ _________

Old
scheme

Effective
Sept. 1,
1944

Francs 2
225.00
675.00
1, 350.00
2,025. 00
2, 700. 00

Francs2
405.00
1, 215.00
2,025. 00
3, 038. 00
4, 050. 00

Size of family
Old
scheme
Family allowances and single
wage allowances 1 to fami
lies with—
1 child-- ___ _____ _
2 children___ ______ ____
3 children. __ _ _______
4 children__ ____ _______
5 c h ild re n ____ ________
c h ild re n ______ _______

Effective
Sept. 1,
1944

Francs 2 Francs 2
450. 00
675.00
787. 50
1, 248. 75
1, 350. 00
2, 227. 50
2.025.00
3,038. 00
2, 700. 00
4, 050.00
3.375.00
5,062.00

T h e “ s in g le - w a g e a l l o w a n c e ” i s p a y a b l e t o f a m i li e s o f w a g e e a r n e r s a n d p u b l i c o f fic ia ls w h o r e c e i v e
in c o m e fro m o n e so u r c e o f e m p lo y m e n t o n ly .
2 E x c h a n g e r a t e o f F r e n c h f r a n c i n N o v e m b e r 1944 w a s q u o t e d a s 2 c e n t s .

As an outcome of many representations by the French Seamen’s
Union, allotment notes and family allowances, which under the Vichy
regime had been discontinued for the families of seamen working for
the Allies, have been resumed. As the decision is retroactive, those
who were excluded from any allotment or allowance in the 1940-44
period are entitled to receive the full arrears. Pending final settle
ment, lump sums of 3,000 francs for the wife or each parent, and
1,000 francs for each child dependent on the seamen, were paid.
Population problems.—At present 6 million of the 40 million inhab
itants of France are elderly people. “If France is to live, if she is to
enter upon a bold and progressive program of military, social, and
economic development, she must necessarily have a more youthful
population, and she can if society welcomes children and if the State
supports the family.” This declaration was made in the May 15,
1945, issue of Free France. The same publication reported the
establishment of a Secretary-Generalship for Families and Popula
tion, in the Ministry of Public Health; an Advisory Committee on
Families and Population connected with the Office of the Premier;
and an Inter-Ministerial Committee on Families and Population.
A population institute, it was stated, would be founded in the near
future. A vigorous campaign will be carried on to reduce the high
death rate, combat disease and alcoholism, and organize social secu
rity and health instruction and improve child care. Existing privi
leges for families with children will be increased; among these the
system of family allowances is listed.

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The “ cardinal importance” of population growth in France was
stressed in the March-June 1945 issue of World Economics as follows:
The French birth rate has been steadily declining. During the German occu
pation it fell further, from 650,000 to 400,000 a year. While a falling birth rate
is a general trend in Western Europe, the density of the French population does
not compare favorably with that of other countries of Europe. French patriots
will not easily forget what happened to the 40 million French population when
confronted practically alone with 80 million Germans. More and more encour
agement will be given to large families. Fam ily allowances, which were ridicu
lously low in prewar France, will become a steadily growing component of the
fam ily income. Wages and salaries will evolve more and more from an individ
ualistic to a fam ily basis.
ITALY 22

In 1944, two legislative decrees were issued in Italy on family
allowances. No. 303, of November 2, granted a cost-of-living allow
ance of 5 lire a day 23 for each dependent of all workers entitled to
family allowances except agricultural workers. However, in accord
ance with the same decree, all workers in the latter group were granted
a flat increase of 10 lire.
Decree No. 307, of November 9, provided a more substantial
increase in benefits, and also removed some of the inequalities in
cluded in the Fascist laws on family allowances. The average allow
ance per child is computed under the previous law and is raised by
50 percent. As a consequence, the total increase for small families
is somewhat over 50 percent and for large families somewhat less
than 50 percent. The decree raised to 3,000 lire per month per
worker the amount upon which family-allowance fund assessments
might be computed, and the Government agreed, under this measure,
to meet any deficit in the fund up to 350 million lire, as a result of
higher payments. Grants are to be made for parents and grand
parents only when they live with the worker. Formerly, banking and
insurance and agricultural workers were not eligible for benefits for
grandparents, and industrial and banking and insurance workers were
entitled to benefits for parents who did not reside with them.
Five other decrees had not yet become law. These, respectively,
provide for a representation of labor and management on the Special
Committee on Family Allowances, broaden the salary bases for com
puting assessments for the Family Allowance Fund, provide for future
limitation, by decree, of the types of remuneration on which such
assessments may be computed, increase to 3,600 lire the maximum
amount of monthly remuneration per worker subject to assessment,
and provide for a cost-of-living bonus of 104 lire a month to industrial
workers and to clerical workers in agriculture, and a bonus of 95 lire
to workers in other sectors. Under this last-mentioned decree, “each
worker will receive his own cost-of-living bonus directly from the
employer, while the bonus for Iris dependents will be paid along with
his family-allowance allotment. The decree is effective as of March
1, 1945, and pending its publication instructions have been given the
Istituto Nazionale Previdenze Sociale to pay advances to workers.”
22 D a t a a r e f r o m r e p o r t f r o m J o h n C l a r k e A d a m s , l a b o r a t t a c h é a t U n i t e d S t a t e s E m b a s s y
J u n e 25, 1945 ( N o . 1 0 7 ).

R om e,

23 The Allied Military Government established, in July 1943, for the liberated portion of Italy, an ex
change rate of l lire for 1 cent.

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942

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

The following table, gives the amounts payable in family allow
ances and cost-of-living bonuses.
T a b l e 3 . —Ordinary Family Allowances and Cost-of-Living Supplements in Italy,

March 1945 1
For each child

For each parent

For the wife

Item

Family
allow
ance

Cost-ofliving
bonus

Family
allow
ance

Cost-ofliving
bonus

Family
allow
ance

Cost-ofliving
bonus

Industry (weekly allowance) :2
Manual workers
__ _____________
Clerical workers
_
_ ________
Agriculture (daily allowance) :3
Clerical workers
_
___
O th ers____________
____ ____ _
Commerce, arts, and professions (month
ly allowance) :4
Manual workers
__________
Clerical workers___________________

Lire

241
36/

1
6

961
144/

215

301
42/
1.45
7.
1081
156/

50
5
215

t51
24/
0.80
4.
601
84/

50
9
215

1 According to legislative decree of the Lieutenant General, N ov. 9,1944 (No. 307), with corrections made
according to draft of decree described as No. 5, in report No. 107 (see p. 941).
2 Assessments (paid by employer)—amount: 20 percent on first 3,600 lire of gross monthly salary.
3 Assessments (paid by employer)—amount: 20 percent of first 3,600 lire of gross monthly salary (other
than clerical workers).
* Assessments (paid by employer)—amount: 14.8 percent of first 3,600 lire of gross monthly salary.

NORWAY 24

Under a Royal Resolution of July 20, 1945, a wage supplement from
Norwegian public funds may be granted those who are not usually
employed in agriculture, but who are so employed during the existing
manpower shortage. This wage supplement is 1 krone 25 per working
day, plus 1 krone per dependent (par0rende) up to a maximum of 5
kroner a day.
RUMANIA

According to a decision of the Rumanian Office of Price Administra
tion employees and laborers of private industrial, commercial, and
transportation enterprises from July 1, 1944, “ are entitled to a family
bonus in addition to their salaries.” State employees and laborers are
not included in this provision, as their status and salaries are regulated
by a special code.
Under the decree, laborers are entitled to a bonus of 1,000 le i26
per month, or 40 lei per shift, for each child under 14 years. For
children who are not able to work or children attending school (except
apprentices) the allowances may be paid up to 16 years of age. For
office workers in private enterprises the allowance is 1,000 lei for each
son or daughter under 21 years, as long as such child receives no salary.
If both parents are employed, the allowance based on their family
responsibility is granted to only one of them.
In cases in which family allowances are being paid at a rate higher
than that here provided, no reduction is to be made.
The allowance may be paid in kind—that is, in food or clothing—if
the workers agree to such procedure.
Enforcement of the regulations is vested in the Control Officers of
the Office of Price Administration.
34 Ukens N y tt fra Norge (Royal Norwegian Information Service, Washington), August 9, 1945 (p. 227).
25 Exchange rate of krone in M ay 1945 was quoted as 20.175 cents.
26 Official exchange rate of lei, April 1, 1941, to April 1945 was a little over one-half cent.

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943

SOVIET UNION

On July 8, 1944, a decree promulgated by the Presidium of the
Supreme Soviet of the U. S. S. R. provided for an increase of Govern
ment assistance to pregnant women, mothers of large families, and
unmarried mothers; better protection for mothers and children; and
institution of the honorary title “Mother Heroine,” and of the Order
of Glory of Motherhood, and the Motherhood Medal.27 In the 12
months following the issuance of this decree, People’s Commissar of
Health Protection of the U. S. S. R. Miterev reports: 27 “One and a
half billion rubles 28 in State allowances were paid to hundreds of
thousands of mothers. In this period tens of thousands of mothers
were decorated with the orders and medals created by the decree.
The honorary title of ‘Mother Heroine’ was conferred on hundreds of
women.”
SPAIN

In a report giving social-insurance statistics for Spain, published in
the International Labor Review (Montreal), July 1944, the following
statements are made:
The largest benefit expenditure has been incurred in respect of fam ily allowances,
which in 1942 accounted for 378 million pesetas,29 including widows’ pensions,
marriage loans, and birth bonuses.
In 1942 the number of workers insured for fam ily allowances, excluding public
officials, was 2,409,526 and the number of families receiving these allowances
was 1,12 7 ,7 7 4 . The family-allowance system recently increased the rate of its
allowances, with the result that in 1944 it is expected that the expenditure will rise
to 776,110,000 pesetas; part of this increase, however, will be due to a more
intensive application of the system to agriculture.
SWEDEN 30

The Swedish Postwar Economic Planning Commission, headed by
Prof. Gunnar Myrdal, submitted to the Government a proposal for
reducing unemployment during depressions by subsidizing sales of
durable consumer goods such as clothes and household equipment.
In addition, it was urged, such a plan would operate to meet a need,
otherwise not satisfied, on the part of large families and families in
which the mother is the only provider. It was estimated that 64,000,000 kronor (about $16,000,000) a year would be required to finance
such subsidized production. The Conservative representatives of
the commission dissented from the above proposal of the majority.
Another proposal aimed at equalizing the economic conditions of
large and small families is that a children’s allowance scheme (barnbidrag) be established covering all children regardless of the income of
their parents, it being argued that the fixing of a maximum income
would discredit the provision as “poor relief.” Such a scheme would
largely replace existing legal provisions favoring large families. In
May 1945 two measures on this subject were rejected by the Swedish
Parliament, which decided to wait for the report of the Population
Commission before taking any action.
21 Information Bulletin of Embassy of Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Washington, D . C.), July 26,
1945.
2* Exchange rate of ruble was quoted in April 1945 as 18.87 cents.
29 Exchange rate of gold peseta was quoted in December 1942 as 32.67 cents, of paper peseta as 9.133 cents.
30 Data are from report No. 5772 from office of labor attaché, United States Embassy, Stockholm, June 30,
1945; and Foreign Commerce Weekly (U. S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Washington),
March 31, 1945.

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M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5
SWITZERLAND 32

At the close of December 1944, the purchasing power of the average
Swiss worker was only 92.4 percent of what it was just before the out
break of the war. This gap between earnings and prices, although
not nearly so wide as in various other European countries, created
much dissatisfaction among the workers. The Federal Counselor
heading the Department of Public Economy promised remedial action.
An interim expedient proposed was the institution of family-allow
ance funds. Such funds had been established as an emergency
measure during World War I, but had been discontinued; only one
Cantonal fund was in operation in 1939. However, in the period
1941—
44, compensation funds for family allowances were again organ
ized, and on a more comprehensive scale.
Three Cantons, Yaud, Geneva, and Fribourg, have passed laws
making compulsory the provision of family allowances. The Yaud
act was passed in May 1943, the Geneva act in February 1944, and
the Fribourg act in February 1945.
Under the Vaud law, which covered over 90 funds in 1944, every
employer affiliated with the general fund must pay each month (a) an
amount not exceeding 2 percent of the total wages paid in cash or
in kind to its employees working in the Canton, (b) a contribution
toward expenses of administering the fund, and (c) a contribution
toward a reserve fund, but (b) and (c) must not exceed one-half of
1 percent of the employer’s total pay roll. Swiss employees of these
affiliates of the general fund become eligible at the birth of the second
child to a grant of 10 francs 33 a month for each legitimate or illegiti
mate child under 16 years of age; the first child is also included if the
parents have been residents of the Canton for at least 10 years. The
allowances are paid regardless of the parents’ income. An allocatee
must be “ the father or mother of a family, married, divorced, or
widowed, having the legal responsibility and actual charge of the
children.”
The Geneva act includes wage earners, manual workers, and office
employees who have lived at least 2 years in the Canton. A monthly
allowance of at least 15 francs is paid for each child under 18 years of
age and in specified circumstances up to 20 years of age. These
grants are made through family-allowance funds.
Under the Fribourg act the provisions are similar, but the allowance
is not so large. As of June 1 , 1945, the Fribourg Fund had 95
affiliates and had granted allowances to 1,365 children. One of the
special funds established under the Fribourg act was organized by
peasants and is adapted to agricultural conditions.
Although in theory all of the family-allowance funds are temporary
means adopted to meet an emergency, there is in fact in the Cantons
an apparent trend towards the strengthening of the family-allowance
provisions, as indicated by the compulsory features of the Yaud and
Fribourg laws. The Vaud measure has been amended several times
for the purpose of providing more definite administrative procedures
and clearing up debatable points. Moreover, a tendency is discern
ible toward the liberalizing of regulations concerning persons and
conditions covered, the amounts of allowances, and more efficient
32 Data are from reports from Dorothy M . S e l ls , labor attaché, United States Legation, Bern, June 19
and September 22,1945.
« Exchange rate of S w is s franc on M ay 1, 1943=29.1 cents.

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945

reorganization of Cantonal systems. Recently, for example, the
Canton of Vaud reached a decision to supplement the regular family
allowance by a bonus of 45 francs for each birth in the family, and
also to grant allowances to families with only one child.
Latin America 34
ARGENTINA

Regulation of the payment of family allowances to railway men in
the Argentine Republic was provided for by a decree of July 3, 1944,
retroactive to January 1, 1944. Approximately 150,000 wage earners
and salaried employees were affected.
Fam ily allowances are granted by this decree to railwaymen who have in their
charge legitimate, legitimated, or illegitimate children under 16 years of age, or
under 18 years of age if they are attending industrial or special schools, and with
out age limit if they are disabled, and to railwaymen who have permanently in
their charge orphans or abandoned children under the same conditions. In order
to obtain a fam ily allowance, the wage or salary of the person concerned must
not exceed 300 pesos a month.35

A “ common fund” was to be formed, supported mainly from the
proceeds of a 2-percent tax on railroad fares and from fines imposed
under the regulations. The Railwaymen’s Pension Fund Section
administers this common fund and determines, every 6 months, the
rate of the allowances, the scale being based upon the available re
sources. No figures on the amounts paid per child are available.
Allowances are to be paid monthly, along with the wage or salary of
the worker.
BOLIVIA

A recent decree provided for family subsidies in Bolivian banks.
However, up to June 1945, no regulations had been issued for its
enforcement and the decree was said to be so loosely drafted that
uniformity of application was difficult. One bank was reported to
be paying for all children under 19 years of age, another only for
children of school age, and another was paying no allowances at all.
BRAZIL

In 1944 in Brazil, children's allowances were reported as being paid
to an increasing number of beneficiaries.
CHILE

Family allowances of 600 pesos 36 per month (more in certain Prov
inces) for each dependent were established in Chile under decree
No. 2500 of June 24, 1944.
COLOMBIA

In the Colombian labor law passed in February 1945 family re
sponsibilities were listed as one of the approved bases for differences
in wages of “ workers doing equivalent work for the same employer",
other bases listed were those “ of individual ability, of seniority or
experience * * *, or of output."
MData are from International Labor Review (Montreal), June 1945 (pp. 706, 792, 793); Bulletin of the Pan
American Union (Washington, D . C.) July 1945 (425 p.); and certain confidential sources.
35 Average exchange rate of peso in 1944=29.7 cents.
36 Average exchange rate of Chilean peso=in 1944, special= 5 cents, free=3 cents.

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946

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW----NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5
URUGUAY

Regulations for the operation of family-allowance equalization
funds in Uruguay, which had been provided or under Act No. 10449
of November 12, 1943, were issued in a decree of May 17, 1944.
United States 37

Payment of family allowances in cash to employed civilian workers
in the United States is confined mainly to teachers in certain publicschool systems. However, aid from Federal, State, and local funds to
dependent children deprived of parental support, which is a rather
close approach to family allowances, totaled over $135,000,000 in the
12 months ending December 31, 1944. Federal Government disburse
ments from July 1, 1942, to April 30, 1945, inclusive, for allowances
for dependents of Army, Navy, and Coast Guard personnel, aggregated
$7,063,138,895; of that amount, $2,599,590,939 was contributed by
the members of the armed forces themselves. A subsidy of 50 mil
lion dollars for school lunches, included in the appropriation act for
the U. S. Department of Agriculture for the current fiscal year, might
be considered as family allowances in kind.
In some foreign countries, tax exemptions for dependents are being
correlated with family-allowance legislative provisions. In fact, such
exemptions might be considered indirect family allowances, although
the family incomes in the lowest brackets are frequently too low to be
subject to tax or, if so subject, too low to involve exemptions for all the
children in large families. Credits for dependents in the United States
for 1942 including taxable and nontaxable returns, totaled at least
$10,463,321,000 (preliminary report).38 However, only the taxes
which did not have to be paid on this amount can be considered as
indirect allowances for the maintenance of dependents.
FAMILY ALLOWANCES IN PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEMS

In 1944-45 at least 16 cities with a population of over 30,000 were
paying family allowances or married men’s differentials in their publicschool systems, as shown in the following table based on an analysis
made early in 1945 by the Research Division of the National Educa
tion Association. Of these cities, 5 reported family-allowance pro
visions and 11 reported married men’s differentials. The median for
the maximum differentials in the 14 cities reporting definite figures
was $300. Table 4 lists the cities which have included the family
allowances or married men’s differentials in the years 1940-41 and
1944-45.
In three cities—Rock Island, Dubuque, and Superior—the family
allowance is payable to either women or men teachers, but in Rock
Island and Dubuque it is restricted to those with dependent children;
in Superior the allowance is payable, as well, for a dependent husband
or wife.
37 Data are from Pub. No. 52 (ch. 109), S. 717, S. 837, and S. 1151 (all of 79th Cong., 1st sess.); Statistics
of Income for 1942, Pt. 1 (U. S. Bureau of Internal Revenue, 1944); Source of Funds Expended for Public
Assistance, 1944 (U. S. Social Security Board, Bureau of Public Assistance); Fam ily Allowance and
Class E Allotment of Pay Expenditures, as of April 30, 1945 (U. S. War Department, Office of Depend
ency Benefits); and unpublished data supplied to the Bureau of Labor Statistics by the U. S. N avy
Department, Bureau of Supplies and Accounts, and by the National Education Association.
38 Furthermore, in 1942 an exemption of $1,200 was allowed an unmarried person such as a widow who
maintained a household for herself and a dependent. This exemption was included under “personal
exemptions” for taxpayers and their spouses and not under “credit for dependents.”

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947

SOCIAL SECURITY

T a b l e 4 . — Cities in the United States With Over 30,000 Population, Reporting Family

Allowances or Married Men's Differentials,1 1940-41 and 1944-45
Amount 0] allowance
Class of provision

State and city

1944-45
Illinois:
Bloomington
Elgin.
Peoria____ ___ . .
.
______
Quincy___________ ____ ____ . . .
Rock Island
_______________ _
Iowa:
Cedar Rapids
_
. . . ___ _
Council Bluffs
Dubuque
Massachusetts:
Brockton _ _______ ____________
Springfield
Michigan: Dearborn_________________
Mississippi: Jackson
Missouri:
Joplin
St. Joseph
...........
Oklahoma: Muskogee
South Dakota: Sioux Palls
_____
Wisconsin:
Green Bay
______
La Crosse
- ______
Oshkosh
_
_
____
Racine
______
Sheboygan
_____ ___
Superior
______
___

Married men’s differential______
_ __ do________ _______ _______
___ do____ __ _ _______ ______
Family allowances.__ _________
_ ___do_________ _______________

(2)

$200

(2)

300
300
500

(2)

_ __do________________ __ __ ___
__ __do___________
__________
____do___________ _____________
_ ___do_____________ ___ ______

(9
(9

__ __do_________________________
__ __do__ ________ _ _______ _
____do___ _ ________________ ___
____do______ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
___do__ ___ __
_ _ _______
Family allowances_______ ______

$500
500

(?)

(5)

Married men’s differential_______
Family allowances__ ______ ___
Married men’s differential_______
___do______ _ ________ ________

(9
(9
(9

(9
(9

Married men’s differential_____
do
___________
___
Family allowances____
_ . ___

1940-41

400
200
100
120
400
400
300
300
300
200

(9
(9
(9
(9
(9

200
100
100
100
300
400
500
300
200

1 The amounts recorded indicate the maximum differentials between the salaries of married men teachers
and women teachers or between persons with dependents and persons without dependents.
2 No provision.
3 No data.
< At minimum salary only.
* No lim it set for family allowance.
• No schedule.
7 40 percent above schedule.
3 No schedule for men.

The percentages which these differentials add to the maximum
salary of a teacher with a master’s degree were found to range from
3.8 to 23.8. A distribution of these percentages for 14 cities is given
below:
Number of cities

Less than 5.0 percent_________________
5.09.9 percent__________________
10 .0 14.9 percent_________________
15 .0 19.9 percent_________________
20.024.9 percent_________________

1
5
5
1
2

In Quincy, 111., and in Springfield, Mass., only married men are
eligible for family allowances.
In 1940-41, there were approximately 60 cities with a population
of less than 30,000 providing annual supplements to public-school
teachers for family responsibilities. A preliminary inspection of the
1 9 4 4 - 4 5 public-school salary schedules for cities in the same popu
lation group indicated that at least as large a proportion of these
schedules included provisions for such allowances.
LEGISLATIVE PROPOSALS

Student aid .—The extension of family allowances beyond specified
age limits when children continue their education is a conspicuous
feature of various foreign family-allowance schemes. A bill (S. 717)
6 7 0 1 1 9 — 45 ------- 8

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M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW----NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

introduced in the United States Senate on March 8, 1945 (the Federal
Aid to Education bill) would provide for disbursements by State
authorities or by trustees (thus to cover both public- and nonpublicschool youth) to enable and assist students to continue their educa
tion. The sum of $150,000,000 would be appropriated for assistance—
1. To persons 16 and under 2 1 years of age attending a public or nonpublic
school or a training center which complies with standards prescribed by act of
August 16, 1937 (50 Stat. 664— the act placing in Department of Labor power
to promote standards for apprentices).
2. To parents of needy persons 14 and under 16 attending such schools or such
training centers.

The benefits would include scholarships, stipends, or compensation
for work done for public or nonprofit agencies. Disbursements
made under the plan would be applicable under similar conditions to
all persons qualifying in the age group, ‘‘without discrimination on
account of race or creed.”
Lump-sum family allowances.—Bill S. 837, introduced on April 6,
1945, would provide for what might be termed “lump-sum” family
allowances. The bill reads in part as follows:
* * * the Chief of the Children’s Bureau is hereby authorized and directed
to pay to the parents of each child born in the United States after the date of
enactment of this act the sum of (a) $500 if such parents are the parents of one
other child, (b) $750 if such parents are the parents of two other children, and
(c) $1,000 if such parents are the parents of three or more other children.

Food allotments.-—S. 1151 (the Aiken-La Follette National Food
Allotment bill) introduced June 15, 1945, might be considered to
provide for indirect allowances in kind. The purpose of the measure
is to insure the efficient distribution of available food supplies among
the people at various income levels and “that the means for obtain
ing sufficient food for an adequate diet be placed so far as possible
within the reach of every person in the Nation.” “Basic food allot
ment,” according to the bill, means the specified “amounts of food per
person per week or the equivalent thereof in nutritional value and
approximate cost as determined by the Secretary of Agriculture.”
The advantages that would accrue to large families are obvious, as
the plan would be adapted to households of differing incomes and
composition.
International
DECLARATION OF WORLD TRADE-UNION CONFERENCE COMMITTEE

At the World Trades Union Conference held in London, February
6-17, 1945, a declaration was made by the Committee on Postwar
Reconstruction and Immediate Trade Union Demands, which included
a statement on family allowances. The paragraph on social security is
quoted in full in order to show the setting of family allowances in the
recommended social-security program:
14. Social security is another essential foundation stone of every society.
However well national economies m ay be organized there will always be some men
and women who are unable to work. It is therefore essential that a single and
comprehensive system of State social insurance should be established in every
country and financed m ainly by contributions from governments and employers.
This system of social insurance must guarantee a normal existence for all working
people whenever they are unable to secure this by their own labor, as a result of
unemployment, temporary or permanent loss of the capacity for work, old age,
^industrial accident, sickness, and the like. Provision should, also be made for

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949

comprehensive medical and rehabilitation services free for all who need them.
The health and safety of workpeople must be properly safeguarded by legislation
which also provides for adequate supervision to secure its enforcement. Pre
ventative measures must be undertaken by the government to diminish sickness
and fatal accidents to a minimum. Governments should provide sanatoria and
rest homes for workers without charge. They should provide adequate grants
paid periodically to families who have lost their breadwinners and to orphans until
theii coming of age. The welfare of children must be one of the prim ary concerns
of all governments and therefore protected by the paym ent of fam ily allowances
and by the provision of kindergartens, nurseries, and ample child welfare facilities.
Finally, this Conference emphatically demands that there should be trade-union
participation in the control and management of all such social insurance and social
welfare schemes.39

The committee making the declaration included representatives of
labor organizations in Great Britain, Soviet Russia, the United States,
France, China, New Zealand, Latin America, and the British Crown
Colonies, the chairman being a delegate from the Congress of Indus
trial Organizations.

U nem ploym ent Assistance and R etraining Program in
Belgium 1
A PROVISIONAL system of unemployment compensation and re
training was created in Belgium by a decree law of May 26, 1945, to
operate within the general social-security scheme outlined in a decree
law of December 28, 1944. The unemployment-insurance system
covers workers who normally are employed under contract and have
made certain contributions but who have involuntarily become un
employed. It provides for such persons (1) benefits scaled on mini
mum wage for age and sex, with family allowances, and (2) vocational
retraining facilities. An extensive organization of public labor ex
change is also established. The system is to be financed by contri
butions from workers and employers and by State subsidy. It is
administered by a director general, a central council, and regional
exchanges, advised by joint committees of workers and employers
with independent chairmen.
Coverage and E ligibility 2

A worker is covered by the unemployment-insurance system and
eligible for benefits if (1) he has been normally employed under the
provisions of an employment contract, (2) he is available for work
and has registered at a labor exchange of this system, and (3) he is
involuntarily unemployed. The workers defined as normally em
ployed under the provisions of an employment contract are those who
make contributions to the Belgian social-security system ; or those who
(though they do not contribute to that system) have paid their con
tribution to an official or approved unemployment fund continuously
from January 1, 1938, to May 10, 1945, and have paid their contribu
tions for old-age pension during at least 3 years between January 1,
39
Report of the World Trade Union Congress, February 6 to 17, 1945, convened by the British Trades
Union Conference. London, S. W. 1, 1945.
1 Data are from Moniteur Beige (Brussels), December 30, 1944, and June 25-26, 1945; and report of Smith
Simpson, labor attaché, United States Embassy, Brussels, July 16,1945.
.
,
2 For a summary of the original unemployment-insurance system, see M onthly Labor Review, l 1ebruary
1944 (p. 296).

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M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW----NOVEMBER 194 5

1935, and May 10, 1945; or those who, because of their activity or
professional study, are accepted as belonging to a category insurable
under the regulations in force on May 10, 1940.
A worker is not regarded as involuntarily unemployed under the
terms of the decree law when he is (1) unemployed as a direct result of
a strike which has been called with his consent or to support nonpro
fessional claims, (2) on strike or the victim of a lock-out, unless the
national council of the unemployment system considers him as
involuntarily unemployed under the conciliation and arbitration regu
lations, or (3) supporting, or a member of a group supporting, strikers
in a manner to prolong a strike.
Workers partially or accidentally unemployed for periods not longer
than 2 weeks are not eligible for unemployment benefits.
Unemployment Benefits Provided

Daily unemployment-benefit rates provided by the decree law are
scaled at 50 percent of the minimum wages, to be determined by the
Minister of Labor and Social Welfare on the basis of collective agree
ments in force. Payments are to be made weekly. Under minimum
wages in effect on the date of promulgation of the decree law, the daily
benefit rates were as follows:
Daily rates (in francs 1

Male workers, 2 1 years and over____________________________
M arried minors_____________________________________________
Women, 2 1 years and over_______________________________ ___
Male workers, 18 to 20 years________________________________
Women, 18 to 20 years______________________________________
Male workers, under 18 years_______________________________
Female workers, under 18 years_____________________________
i

32
32
24
24
18
15
12

Exchange rate of the Belgian franc was quoted in September 1945 as 2.28 cents.

In addition to the above, heads of families and persons with similar
responsibilities who are eligible for unemployment benefit are to receive
family allowances for (1) unemployed children under 16 years of age,
(2) children attending general or vocational day schools, up to 18
years of age, and (3) children physically or mentally unable to work,
up to an unlimited age. The daily allowances rates are as follows:
Daily allowance (in francs)

Each of first 2 children___________________________
Third child______________________________________
Fourth child_____________________________________
Fifth and each additional child____________________

4. 60
6. 40
8. 40
12. 00

Unemployment benefit may not be paid for unemployment of less
than 4 days in 1 month, for unemployment of only 1 day per week,
or for unemployment of half a day (except in the case of dockers).
Half days, however, may be totaled and counted in with the unem
ployment of those who are partially unemployed.
Claimants who make false or incomplete declarations are to be
deprived of benefits for a period of not less than 1 week and not more
than 13 weeks, and, on repetition of the offense, for specified longer
periods.
Financial Resources
The unemployment-insurance system established by the decree law
of May 26, 1945, is to be financed by contributions from employers and

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SOCIAL SECURITY

951

employees, and (as provided by the social-security decree of December
28, 1944) by a State subsidy. The designated contribution from the
employee amounts to 1 percent of wages, and the employer’s contri
bution to 1 percent of pay roll—in both cases only on earnings up to
3,000 francs monthly.3
Occupational Retraining of Unemployed

Retraining of workers is one of the major benefits provided by the
system. Unemployed workers may be designated for apprenticeship
retraining either individually or collectively by the consultative com
mittees of the regional offices, after determination of the individual’s
age and ability.
Retraining or réadaptation of individual workers may be carried on
in private plants, provided that the number of unemployed being re
trained in a plant does not exceed 2 percent of those employed in the
given plant. If there is special need for workers such as those being
retrained, this rule may be relaxed. An unemployed worker may be
assigned for training to plants employing fewer than 50 workers, if the
employer undertakes to employ the trainee after retraining.
Collective retraining may be provided in private plants, in retraining
establishments created or subsidized by public moneys, or, under cer
tain conditions, in a retraining center organized and supported by the
unemployment fund.
During the period of apprenticeship or retraining, the unemployed
person retains his right to unemployment benefit, and may also receive
other remuneration, provided that the sum of the unemployment
benefits and other pay is not greater than the normal wage received by
qualified workers in the occupation in which training is being given.
During the same period, the unemployed worker’s name is retained
on the list of available workers in his previous trade, but he may not be
called for a job in that trade if another unemployed worker is available
for it. An unemployed worker who refuses retraining or interrupts
that training voluntarily is to be considered as voluntarily unem
ployed, and would thus lose his right to unemployment benefits.
Labor Exchanges

The free, public labor exchanges established in the unemployment
system are to be maintained under the supervision of joint committees
as provided in the Belgian law of July 22, 1930, which ratified the In
ternational Labor Convention on labor exchanges. The exchanges will
form a national system, with regional offices, coordinated with the free
private exchanges.
All offices must collaborate with employers and their organizations,
with workers and their organizations, and with agencies which can
inform them of employment opportunities. They must exchange in
formation on placement opportunities daily with neighboring offices
and once a week with all regional offices.
When making use of the labor exchanges, employers and workers
are required to state the wage offered or demanded, the nature of the
work and the degree of skill required (according to classes outlined
by the joint committee), and all other conditions offered or required.
3 For details of contributions and financial resources, see M onthly Labor Review, July 1945 (p. 68).

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952

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

Private exchanges. —Free private employment exchanges controlled
by philanthropic or professional organizations are permitted to oper
ate, provided they receive approval from the Minister of Labor and
Social Welfare and submit required information to the administrative
authorities of the unemployment-insurance system. This information
must include two statements—one, to be made before the tenth of
each month, reporting placements effected, and the other, to be made
weekly, reporting the offers of employment which could not.be filled.
Free private exchanges are authorized to receive State subsidies, in
amounts to be fixed in proportion to the number of placements made.
Fee-charging private employment exchanges are prohibited, except
those operating for agricultural workers, domestic and other servants,
musicians, and certain stage and other performers. Licenses for such
exchanges are to be renewable annually (up to 10 years from the date
of Belgium’s eventual ratification of the 1933 International Labor
Convention concerning fee-charging exchanges), on application to the
Minister of Labor and Social Welfare. Only exchanges which were in
operation before May 10, 1940, are to be permitted to apply for
licenses, and their activities are to be delimited by the aforementioned
Minister. License holders will not be allowed to maintain their
offices within any place at which liquor is sold.
Administration of System

The unemployment-insurance system is to be administered by a
director general and a National Council, to be named by royal decree.
The 13 members of the National Council must be selected as follows:
6 members from 8 candidates submitted by representative workers’
organizations; 6 members from 8 candidates submitted by represen
tative employers’ organizations; and an independent chairman. The
term of office may not exceed 3 years. The Council is authorized to
discuss any problem which its members deem it advisable to con
sider. The Director General must consult the Council on all general
matters, reply to requests of the Council, and submit to supervision
by the Minister of Labor and Social Welfare.
Each regional office is to have the advice and supervision of a con
sultative committee designated by the Minister of Labor and Social
Welfare—4 members from the 6 candidates presented by representa
tive workers’ organizations, 4 from the 6 candidates presented by
employers’ organizations, and an independent chairman. The con
sultative committees are required to advise the regional offices or labor
exchanges and aid in improving the efficiency of their services, examine
complaints, and insure the impartiality of services given to industry
and labor.
"
J
The duties of the regional offices include recruitmeut and placement,
of workers, the retraining program, supervision of payment of unem
ployment benefits (to be carried out bv local governments and ap
proved workers’ organizations), and cooperation with the 9-man
workers’ and employers’ claims committees which are to be created
to settle disputes regarding benefit payments and workers’ rights.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

Women in Industry

E arnings of W omen in Illinois Industries, Ju n e 1945 1
WEEKLY earnings of women in various industries in Illinois in
June 1945, in all reporting establishments, averaged $32.86, as com
pared with $54.99 for men. These earnings were based on a report
from a sample group of firms. In the manufacturing industries in
the same month, women’s average weekly earnings were $34.59 and
men’s $55.48, the latter being 79 cents below the peak record of
December 1944 when overtime schedules were at the maximum,
while the June 1945 earnings for women were the highest ever recorded.
The accompanying table gives the average weekly earnings and
the average weekly hours of work for women as compared with men,
in specified industries, in June 1945.
Average Weekly Earnings and Hours, and Average Hourly Earnings of Wage Earners in
Illinois Industrial Establishments, by Sex, June 1945 1

Industry group

All industries4 ___ _____ __________

Average weekly Average weekly Average hourly
earnings 2
hours 3
earnings 3
Men

Women

Men

Women

Men

Women
$0.82

$54. 99

$32. 86

47.5

41.3

$1.16

M anufacturing________________

55.48

34.59

47.7

41.5

1.16

.83

Stone, clay and glass_____ . ______ ______ _
Gravel and other stone__ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _
Lime, cement and plaster________
___
Brick, tile, pottery, clay products. _ ___________
Glass and glass products _ ___ _ _______ _
Metals and machinery.. _ _
___
Blast furnaces and rolling m ills___ _____
Foundry and forge products_____ _____ ____
Sheet iron and tin plate___ _ _______ _____
Cutlery, edge tools, hardware____ _ ____
Heating, plumbing equipment____ _____
Machinery and machine tools__ ____ _
Electrical machinery, apparatus.. ___
Nonferrous metals and products___
_____
Watches, clocks, and jewelry___ . . . _
Transportation equipment
Automobiles (excluding repair)___________
Cars—locomotives, electric—steam
Other transportation equipment.
_ .
Wood and allied products. _ _
Saw and planing m ills________
Furniture and cabinet work___ _
___
Other wood products__
_ ...
Rubber products____ ___________ _.
Leather and allied products . . ____
Leather, tanning________ _ _ ___ _
Other leather and fur goods. _ . . . . .
....
Chemicals and allied products.. _____ _____
Drugs, compounds, cosmetics.. ____ ___
Paints, varnishes, dyes, colors____ ____
Petroleum refining___________________

47.61
51. 50
47.37
42. 26
47.05
57.14
56. 81
57.41
52.89
56. 28
58.24
59.05
59. 39
51.85
57.09
5fi 7ft
59. 21
50. 97
62.33
48. 95
44. 66
48. 61
52.36
50.28
50.03
52.45
48. 73
52.39
40.08
46. 60
55.09

28.10
34.23

46.2
50.6
46. 7
43. 6
43.6
47.9
46.8
48.7
47.7
49.6
47.8
48.8
47.9
47.1
49.0

37.7
40.3

1.03
1.02
1 m
. 97
1.08
1.19
1.21
1.18
1.10
1.14
1.22
1.21
1.24
1.10
1.16

. 75
. 85

27.24
36.82
38.68
37.10
33. 48
31.01
38. 42
37.10
38. 47
32. 67
34.80
40. 29
32.04
48.94
32.31
35.99
29.11
33.01
29. 75
33.19
31.42
32. 65
26.91
30.39

47.1
48.1
45.6
47.6
46 8
46. 5
50.3
48.1
46.9
48.9
52.1
47.1
41.7
47.6
45.3

37. 2
42.2
41. 5
42.4
40.5
41.0
41.2
42.2
42.7
41.9
43.1
43.8
39.5
45.7
41.2
42.1
40. 2
42.7
39.7
41.6
38.0
41.9
39.1
41.3

1.26
1.06
1.37
1.03
95
1.05
1.06
1.05
1. 06
1.07
.94
1.11
.96
.98
1.24

See footnotes at end of table.
'Illinois Labor Bulletin (Chicago), August 1945.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

953

. 73
. 87
. 93
.88
.83
.76
.93
.88
.90
.78
.81
.92
.82
1. 07
.78
.85
.72
.77
.75
.80
.83
.78
.69
.74

954

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW----NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

Average Weekly Earnings and Hours, and Average Hourly Earnings of Wage Earners in
Illinois Industrial Establishments, by Sex, June 1945 1—Continued

Industry group

Paper goods, printing, publishing_________ . . . . . . .
Paper boxes, bags, tubes_______________________
Other paper goods_____________________ _. ____
Job printing_________ ____ ___________________
Newspapers and periodicals, _ _ _ ____
.....
Bookbinding and pu blishing_____ _ . . _____
Lithography_________________________
..
Textiles__________________________ _____________
Cotton, woolen, silk goods____________ .
Knit goods---------------- . . . ------------- ----------Thread and twine ___. . .
______
Clothing and millinery___ _
.
. . .
--------M en’s clothing_____
_ . ____ ______
M en’s furnishings, work clothes____ . . _____
Women’s and children’s clothing______
Women’s—children’s underwear__________ .
Millinery
. _ . ________________ ___ .
.
Food, beverages, and tobacco_________ . . . . .
Slaughtering and meat packing. ___________
Dairy products------------- ------- -----------------------Flour, feed, and other cereals .. . .
---- -----Fruit and vegetable canning..
-------------------Other groceries__________________
________ _
Bakery products___________ _ -----------------------Confectionery_____________ . . .
. . . . . . ..
Beverages. _______ _____ . . . . . . ________
Miscellaneous manufacturing______________________

Average weekly Average weekly Average hourly
earnings 2
hours 3
earnings 3
Men

Women

Men

Women

Men

$59.11
49. 84
50. 27
61.40
58.38
71.32
67.47
50. 25
51.27
44.15

$29. 95
26.08
26.16
26. 07

46.9
50.6
47.4
45.3
37. 5
52.1
45.0
48. 2
48. 1
50.3

38.6
36.9
38.8
37.0

$1.27
.99
1.07
1.36
1. 63
1.37
1.50
1.05
1.07
.90

51.61
52. 67
50. 75
48. 92
43. 83
52.87
49.36
50. 52
54. 65
53.68

30.50
24.91
31.58
32. 93
26.81
28.80
30.54
33. 52
27.33
27.63
34.06
27. 20
28. 75
31.74
30.34
27. 82
22. 62
28. 99
25. 00
30.19
29. 32
33.73

Nonmanufacturing 4. . ___________ _______________ . . 51.95
Trade, wholesale and retail__ ... . . . . . _____ _ ___
Wholesale groceries_____________ _____
. ... .
Jobbing metals, electric goods___________
. .
Other wholesale___ _____ _ . ________ _____ _
Retail apparel._____________ _______ _______
Retail furniture, household g o o d s _
Milk distribution... .
.
. . . . . . . .
Other fetail_________ _________________ _. . .
Services-------- ------------- ------------------------- --------H otels---------- ------- ------------------- . . .
---Laundering, cleaning, dyeing______ __________
Automobiles, sales, repairs... . .
.....
Other services___ 1 . _____
.
.
___
Coalmining
.
. . .
. . .
. . .
____
Miscellaneous nonmanufacturing___ . . . ___________

50. 76
51.95
43. 40
53.20

53. 39
57. 98
55.31
58.09
43.51
44. 43
64.29
43.19
41.37
31.81
49.65
53.47
49.42
59.87
47. 27

40.3
39.4
42. 7
41. 1

44.0
36.6
40.7
41.1
40.0
38. 8
38.2
37.1
38.3
36.9
44.1

1. 27
1.34
1.00
1.29

Women
$0. 70
.70
.67
.71
.69
.69
.78
.80
.70
. 74
.80
.90
.71
.74
.79

49.8
50.9
50. 1
50. 5
48.4
49.6
47.8
48.5
47.2
47.4

40.7
43.8
45.3
39.4
35.2
40.9
38.5
40.6
40.3
42.9

1.03
1.03
1.01
.95
.90
1.07
1.03
1.04
1.14
1.14

.71
.72
.67
.70
.64
.71
.63
.75
.72
.79

SI. 25

45.6

38.5

1.17

.65

19.31
29.14
32.05
30. 26
25.73

44. 1
44.8
45.5
41.2
38.5
41.0
48.1
44.4
46.5
47.5
46.8
46.8
45.5
45.3
46.6

36.8
39.2
40.6
37.9
31.5

1.20
1.31
1. 20
1.28
1.07
.92

.69
.72
.79
.80
.73

37.9
39.7
42.0
38.1

.95
.92
.65
1.05
1.13
1.09
1.32
1.01

.65
.56
.49
.58

25. 68
22. 68
21.58
22.12
31.41
34.07

37.3
42.5

.83
.80

1 Based on reports of a sample group of firms. Reports cover production and related workers in manu
facturing and mining and the laundering, cleaning, and dyeing industries, but all employees (other than
high-salaried officials and executives) in other represented industry classifications.
2 Establishments reporting employment and pay-roll data separately by sex; 612,540 employees covered.
Data omitted for industries in which average is considered too small to be representative.
3 Establishments reporting man-hour data separately by sex; 567,691 employees covered.
4 The building-construction industry is not included as the sample for that industry is being revised, so
that the sample for all represented industries and the nonmanufacturing industries is not strictly com
parable with previous months.

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Industrial Injuries

W ork In ju ries in th e Slaughtering and M eat-Packing
Industry, 1943 1
Summary

ELIMINATION of work accidents can be achieved only as a result of
carefully planned and executed efforts of all concerned. Both manage
ment and workers benefit from a successful safety program, and both
groups must cooperate to make any program successful. Such co
operation, however, depends upon conviction that there is a definite
problem to be solved and that there is a reasonable possibility of
improvement through practical measures.
As the slaughtering and meat-packing industry is one of unusually
high-injury rates, it would appear that an analysis of the hazards
would indicate possible safety precautions. To this end the Bureau
of Labor Statistics undertook a study to measure the extent of the
accident problem in the industry as a whole, to indicate specifically
the segments in which the problem is greatest, and to show, wherever
possible, the outstanding sources of injuries, thereby permitting a con
clusion as to whether or not improvement is practicable.
Summary reports on accidents in 1943 were obtained from 177
plants doing slaughtering only, 400 plants doing packing only, and
389 plants carrying on both types of activity.
Analysis revealed a considerably higher injury-frequency rate in
slaughtering and dressing plants than in establishments carrying on
meat-packing operations only—60.5 as compared with 29.7. In
general, it appeared that the large plants and the very small plants
had better safety records than the medium-size plants ; the proportion
of accidents resulting in permanent partial disabilities, however, was
generally greater in establishments with 1,000 or more workers than
in the smaller plants.
Slaughtering and meat-packing operations during 1943 appeared
to have been conducted most safely in the Middle Atlantic region,
where the average frequency rate was 40.5. In contrast the relative
volume of injuries was greatest in the South Atlantic region, where
the average rate was 64.2. The East North Central region, from
which the largest number of reports were received, had an average
rate of 42.0. Among the 31 States for which separate average fre
quency rates were computed, Delaware had the lowest (9.4) and Georgia
the highest (118.4). The Pennsylvania average of 38.5 was based
i Prepared in the Bureau’s Industrial Hazards Division b y Prank S. M cElroy and George R. McCor
mack. A subsequent report will summarize the causes of accidents in the slaughtering and meat-packing
industry. The statistical details upon which these discussions are based w ill be presented, with additional
material, in a forthcoming bulletin.
*

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

955

956

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

upon a larger number of reports than was received from any other
State. The Illinois rate of 41.4, however, was based ‘upon the ex
perience of a much larger number of workers than was reported from
any other State. Various factors enter into these regional and State
differences. State safety laws and the extent to which they are en
forced, the general size of the plants in an area, the predominating
type of operations performed by the plants, and the general interest
in safety as evidenced by the safety activities of local associations all
have much to do with the general level of frequency rates in any area.
The Industry Record
COMPARISON WITH OTHER GROUPS

Throughout the 5-year period 1940-44, the injury record of the
slaughtering and meat-packing industry compared unfavorably with
the records of most other industries of the food group and of most
manufacturing industries in other groups.
In 1940 the reports submitted to the Bureau of Labor Statistics
indicated that workers in the slaughtering and meat-packing industry
experienced an average of 26.8 disabling injuries in the course of every
million employee-hours worked, which was considerably higher than
the average of 20.2 for the entire group of food industries, and 75 per
cent higher than the average of 15.3 for all manufacturing activities.
Similarly in 1941, the average injury-frequency rate for slaughtering
and meat packing was 30.9, as compared with averages of 23.4 for the
food-industry group and 18.1 for all manufacturing. In 1942, the
injury-frequency rates for most manufacturing industries again rose
sharply, reflecting the operating difficulties occasioned by conversion
to an “all-out” program of war production. From the safety view
point the most important of these difficulties were (1) the loss of trained
workers to the armed forces or to the new war industries, (2) the intro
duction of large numbers of workers who were entirely new to indus
try, (3) pressure for greater production, and (4) lack of materials and
facilities to accommodate the expanded work force adequately, which
resulted in crowding, and the deterioration of machines and equipment,
caused by excessive use and the absence of adequate repair or replace
ment parts. As a result of these factors the all-manufacturing fre
quency rate in 1942 was 19.9; the average for the food group was 27.3;
and that for slaughtering and meat-packing was 44.8." In 1943 there
were indications that the wartime safety problems were being brought
under control; although frequency rates generally continued to rise,
the rise was much less drastic than in 1942. In that year the all
manufacturing average was 20.0 disabling injuries per million em
ployee-hours worked; the average for the food industry group rose to
29.7; and the slaughtering and meat-packing average reached 47.6.2
In 1944, the upward trend in injuries was generally reversed; the
all-manufacturing average frequency rate declined to 18.4 and that
2 T?1*8 i 943 industry average, taken from the Bureau's regular annual survey from which all the other rates
used m the above comparisipns were also taken, differs substantially from the rate of 39.0, which was the aver
age for all plants participating in the special slaughtering and meat-packing survey of 1943, reported upon in
this article. The difference reflects the much broader coverage of the special survey, particularly the inclu
sion of many plants engaged in processing poultry, other small animals, and casings, which do not regularly
participate m the annual surveys. For the purpose of comparison, however, either of the rates will serve to
emphasize the greater incidence of injuries in slaughtering and meat packing than in most other industries.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

INDUSTRIAL IN JU R IE S

957

for the food-industry group, to 27.1. In line with this trend but
stimulated to greater achievements by a national safety campaign
sponsored by the U. S. Department of Labor, the slaughtering and
meat-packing industry reduced its average rate even more impressively
to 35.9.
INDUSTRY RECORD FOR 1943 AND 1944

Injury-frequency rates are considered to be the most reliable gauge
for evaluating the safety record of any particular plant or industry.
Their implications become more apparent when it is stated that 1 in
every 9 slaughtering and meat-packing workers experienced a disabling
injury in 1943, and that in 1944 this ratio was 1 for every 12 workers.
In actual numbers, it has been estimated that 19,400 slaughtering and
meat-packing workers were disabled by work injuries in 1943 and
18,300 in 1944. In the single year, 1944, about 35 workers in the
industry were killed in the course of their employment and about 470
others were injured so severely that they will be physically impaired
for the rest of their lives. Even these large figures tell only a part
of the story for 1944. In addition to the 18,300 disabling injuries,
there were untold numbers of minor injuries which were not recorded
because they did not cause the injured employee to remain away from
his work beyond the day of injury. In the aggregate, these minor, or
nondisabling, injuries represent a tremendous loss to the industry in
terms of working time taken for first-aid treatments and of direct
cash expenditures for these treatments.
No accurate estimate of the volume of nondisabling injuries in the
slaughtering and meat-packing industry is possible, because of the
lack of sufficient records. Such evidence as is available, however,
indicates that the commonly quoted ratio of 29 nondisabling injuries
for every disabling case, which is considered a reasonable average
for all manufacturing, is probably much too low for the slaughtering
and meat-packing industry. As an example (although not presented
as a generalization), an exhaustive review of the medical records in
three of the large plants visited in the course of the survey revealed
that, in a period of 12 months, 30,499 injuries were reported to the
medical offices, and of these, only 337 were disabling. In other words,
there were in these three plants 90 nondisabling injuries for every
disabling case.
Without any allowance for the continuing loss in production and
earning power arising from the deaths and permanent impairments,
it is estimated that the actual employment losses resulting from the
disabling injuries experienced by slaughtering and meat-packing
workers amounted to at least 366,000 man-days during 1944. When
the standard time charges for deaths and permanent impairments are
included, it is estimated that the future economic loss accruing from
the more serious injuries will eventually bring the total loss to at least
673,000 man-days. This evaluation of the loss arising from the dis
abling injuries of 1944 takes no account of the losses in time and
money resulting from the vast number of nondisabling injuries which
also occurred, nor of the collateral or hidden costs connected with the
injury-producing accidents. As a monetary cost item, these hidden
losses undoubtedly exceed the direct injury cost several times over.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

958

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 194 5

Hazards of the Industry

Although the hazards faced by the workers in any particular de
partment are primarily related to the specific operations of that de
partment, certain hazards affect to some extent practically all workers
in the industry. Slippery floors, which cause many slips and falls,
are particularly common in dressing, cutting, and trimming rooms.
Grease, carried on the workers’ shoes, however, frequently makes
slippery floors and stairways a hazard throughout an entire plant.
Water is used freely in slaughtering and meat-packing plants for
cleaning floors and equipment, as well as for washing carcasses.
Unless it is promptly removed from the floor, this water adds appre
ciably to the slipping hazards in many parts of the plants. Inad equate
plant maintenance is frequently a contributing factor in the creation
of slipping hazards, particularly in respect to rough and uneven floors,
on which the water collects in little pools.
Crowded working conditions and improper lay-out of traffic also
contribute to many accidents in various parts of the plants. Although
the use of conveyors is widespread, many of the products and trim
mings must be transferred from one place to another in hand trucks.
The movement of these trucks through the aisles presents a hazard
to all employees who use the passageways or who work adjacent to
the trafficways. Poor maintenance of the passageway floors and
poor housekeeping in the aisles may add greatly to these hazards, as
the trucks are easily deflected from their course by uneven flooring
or by material lying in their way. Poor routing and inadequate
planning for the transportation of materials also contributes to many
injury-producing accidents. A case illustrating this point was ob
served in a plant where the indicated route for tractor-trailers passed
through a doorway which was so low as to require each driver to
duck his head as he went through. As might have been expected,
one driver eventually forgot to duck and was severely injured when
his head struck the top of the doorway.
Knives are used to some extent in nearly all of the operating
departments, and practically all employees on occasion must move
or help to move relatively heavy materials. As a result, the possi
bility of knife cuts and of injuries from overlifting are hazards com
mon to most of the departments.
THE PRINCIPAL OPERATIONS AND THEIR HAZARDS

The departmental organization reported by the participating plants
varied extensively—from no departmentalization at all in some small
plants to 20 or more departments in the larger integrated plants.
For this reason there were many differences in the number of units
and in the operations and occupations included in the various depart
mental groups. This was particularly true in respect to the various
meat-processing and by-products operations. Generally, however,
most of the plants were able to furnish comparable data for the
principal types of operations, such as beef and hog dressing, trimming
and cutting operations, sausage making, and smoked-meat processing.
Other departments frequently reported separately included curing
cellars, hide cellars, rendering departments, and the various plantservice departments, such as boiler and engine room, maintenance,
shipping, and watchmen.

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Livestock handling.—Most of the larger slaughtering plants reported
separate livestock departments, which are responsible for the care
of the animals during the period between their arrival at the plant
and their delivery to the killing floor. The smaller plants generally
reported that this function was included in the duties of the dressing
departments. The principal hazards connected with this work con
sist of the possibility of forcible contact with the animals, falls on
the irregular and sometimes slippery surfaces of the pens, and strains
or sprains arising from overexertion in the handling of feed and
water for the animals.
Dressing departments.—Although there are marked differences in
the detailed procedure in slaughtering and dressing various kinds of
animals, the operations generally follow the same basic pattern.
After the animal has been killed and the blood drained from the
carcass, the hide or hair is removed, the head and entrails are also
removed, the carcass is divided into halves, washed, inspected and
stamped, and then placed in the cooler for approximately 24 hours
to remove the body heat. Production-line methods are used exten
sively. To eliminate unnecessary handling of the carcasses or cuts
of meat, the killing floors are frequently situated at the top of the
building, to which the live animals are driven over ramps. Chutes
can then be used to pass the cuts of meat to successive operations on
the lower floors. The use of these chutes sometimes constitutes a
definite hazard in that there are usually tables at the foot of the
chutes on which the meat is further cut or trimmed. It is not unusual
for a cut of meat to slide with considerable force from the chute
and to strike one of the workers at the bench.
In dressing operations the carcass is transferred from one point to
another by the use of shackles attached to wheels which run on
overhead monorails. These wheels usually are held on the rail only
by the weight of the carcass, and swinging loads frequently throw
the wheels off the rails. Switches, built into the rails at various
points to permit diversion of the loads, present a similar hazard
unless they are properly equipped with dogs or lugs to prevent the
wheels from running off the end of the rails when the switches are
open. It also happens at times that improperly suspended loads
will come loose from the hooks or shackles and fall from the con
veyor. In any of these cases workers near the conveyor line may
be struck either by the falling carcass or by the equipment with
which it was suspended. For protection against head injuries in
such accidents, many plants encourage the wearing of hard hats or
helmets by all employees who work in coolers or near conveyor lines.
In none of the plants visited, however, was the wearing of helmets
mandatory, and most of the plant officials who were interviewed
stated that it was very difficult to persuade workers to wear helmets
or other personal protective devices.
The usual procedure in killing hogs is to drive the animal into an
enclosed area on the killing floor, where an employee, called “the
shackler,” places a shackle on one of the hog’s hind legs. The other
end of the shackle is then hooked into an endless chain, which rides
up over a large powered wheel, lifting the hog off the floor. When
fully suspended, the animal hangs head downward about 4 feet off
the floor. A considerable amount of skill and extreme care are
necessary in applying the shackle so that it will not come loose and

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M O N T H L Y LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

permit the hog to fall. The animal is then killed by an employee,
called “the sticker,” who cuts through its jugular vein. As the
sticker must stand in the blood which drains from the animals, he
must wear boots and be very careful of his footing on the slippery
surface of the blood pit. As a safety measure, it is necessary that the
surface of the blood pit be made of a nonslip material. Another
hazard faced by the sticker is the possibility of being kicked by the
forefeet of the suspended animal. Such a kick against the hand in
which he holds his knife sometimes will drive the knife into his other
hand or arm or even into his body.
After the blood has been drained from the carcass, it is lowered into»
a hot-water tank to be scalded and is then passed through a dehairing
machine, where most of the bristles are removed. The remaining;
bristles around the ears and other irregular surfaces are removed later
with a hand scraper. In some plants the bristles are removed by
placing the carcass in a tank of hot resin. The resin hardens when
the carcass is removed from the tank and can be peeled off, lifting the
bristles with it. Burns from contact with the hot water or hot resin
are common in this work, and strains from lifting the carcasses out of
the tanks are numerous. The dehairing machines are generally com
pletely enclosed and, therefore, present little hazard.
The carcass then passes by monorail conveyor through a series of
specialized operations during which the head and entrails are removed
and various other cuts are made. Certain parts of the animal, such
as the heart and liver, are passed to the warm fancy-meat depart
ment and the intestines are sent to the casing department. During
these operations each carcass is examined for evidence of disease, and
condemned carcasses are sidetracked to be used in the manufacture of
fertilizer. Approved carcasses are thoroughly washed, the stamp of
the inspector from the Meat Inspection Division of the U. S. Depart
ment of Agriculture is applied, and the carcasses are then pushed
along the conveyor into the cooler. In these dressing operations most
of the work involves the use of knives. Knife cuts, therefore,
constitute the chief hazard.
As a general rule, the killing and dressing of other small animals,
such as sheep and calves, is very similar to the procedure in handling
hogs.
In killing beeves the procedure is somewhat different. The animal
is driven into a small pen in which it cannot turn around. At the
side of the pen a worker, called the knocker, stands upon a raised
platform. The knocker stuns the animal by striking it between the
eyes with a long-handled hammer. When the stunned animal has
slumped to the floor, the gate at the front of the pen is opened, and
the back of the pen is raised. This causes the animal to slide out onto
the killing floor. The platforms from which the knockers work are
usually rather narrow and are seldom railed. Guardrails would
eliminate the hazard of falling.
When the stunned animal reaches the killing floor, a shackler places
a shackle around both its hind feet, and a sticker cuts its throat with
a long-handled knife. The carcass is then raised to the conveyor to
permit the blood to drain. The chief hazards in these operations are
the possibility of being struck by the animal as it slides from the
knocking pen, of being kicked by incompletely stunned animals, and
of slipping on the blood-covered floor.

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After the blood has been drained, the carcass is lowered to the floor,
and the hide is removed. As this is mostly knife work, the possibility
of cuts constitutes the chief hazard.
When the hide has been removed, the carcass is returned to the
conveyor. From this point onward, it passes through the same series
of operations as were outlined for the hog-dressing departments.
The head and entrails are removed; the carcass is split in half, washed,
stamped, and moved into the cooler. The danger of knife cuts is the
major hazard in these operations, but strains from overlifting are also
numerous.
Warm fancy-meat separating.—In many plants the warm fancy-meat
separating unit is considered to be merely a collateral operation of the
dressing department, and, as a result, few separate reports covering
this work were received. In the Bureau’s tabulatious, therefore, the
experience of the employees engaged in this work was included with
that of the dressing departments. The work, however, is sufficiently
different to warrant some comment regarding its hazards.
The function of this department is to process specialties, such as
kidneys, hearts, livers, brains, pigs’ feet, tongues, lungs, etc. Most
of the work consists of trimming the various parts and of removing
fat. As this is primarily knife work, the workers are constantly faced
with the danger of cutting themselves. They stand around long
tables, onto which the material usually slides from a chute leading
from the killing and dressing floor. Crowding of the workers around
the table and congestion of the materials on the table frequently create
hazards in that the workers may not have sufficient room to make
their cuts without exposing themselVes or their neighboring coworkers
to the possibility of cuts if their knives should slip. When chutes are
used to deliver the material to the tables, there is always the chance
that a sliding piece will skid across the table and strike one of the
workers. The chief danger in such an accident is that the worker’s
knife may be deflected against himself or another worker at the table.
Opening skulls for the removal of brains is probably the most
hazardous operation performed in the warm fancy-meat departments.
Frequently the skulls are split with a cleaver, although the more usual
procedure is to use a skull-crushing machine. These machines are
similar to a guillotine, with a heavy blade which breaks or crushes
the skull. No satisfactory guard has been designed for skull-crushing
machines, and as a result the operators are always exposed to the
risk of losing their fingers or hands under the falling blade.
Casings departments.—As in the case of the warm fancy-meat units,
the work of the casing units was commonly reported as a part of the
dressing departments, and for this reason their injury experience was
not separately tabulated. In these units, the intestines of the
slaughtered animals are prepared for use as sausage casings. The
preparation of the casings consists primarily of cleaning, scraping, and
trimming foreign matter from the intestines. After cleaning, the
casings are tested with water or compressed air, graded, and packed
in salt for curing or toughening.
Practically all this work is done in water, and consequently the
working areas are generally quite damp. Knife cuts are the most
common injuries, although salt sores resulting from the curing opera
tions are also numerous.

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M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW----NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

Coolers.—From the dressing department the carcasses and half
carcasses pass into the coolers, which are merely large refrigerated
rooms in which the meat is chilled and held until it passes on to the
trimmers and cutters. Throughout its stay in the cooler, the meat
remains suspended from the monorail conveyor. In order to dis
tribute it, however, considerable switching and moving is necessary
inside the cooler. In this moving and switching, as in all the overheadconveyor operations, there is danger of the meat and the suspension
equipment falling from the rail. Hard hats are generally recom
mended, but are not customarily worn. Because of the moisture gen
erally present in the coolers, the floors are frequently covered with
frost or ice and present a definite slipping hazard. Liberal use of
salt or sawdust and frequent cleaning can do much to minimize this
hazard. Another hazard faced by workers in the coolers is the sudden
change in temperature which they experience as they pass in and out
of the cold room. Care must also be exercised in going through the
cooler doors. These doors are usually very heavy and are equipped
with automatic closers. Severe injuries sometimes result when work
ers are struck by these doors or have their fingers caught between a
closing door and the doorframe.
Trimming and cutting departments.—In the trimming and cuttingrooms the carcasses are prepared for the wholesale market. Beef
carcasses are frequently sold as halves or quarters and in such cases
require only a minimum of cutting and trimming. Most of the beef
cutting and boning, therefore, is performed inside the coolers. Hand
saws and knives are generally used in this work, and the workers face
the constant hazard of cutting themselves with these sharp tools.
There are also certain hazards involved in handling the beef carcasses
in this work. The carcasses and part carcasses are quite heavy, and
many workers experience severe strains from overlifting in taking
them from, or returning them to, the conveyor. This hazard is inten
sified when the floor is slippery, making it difficult to maintain good
footing. There is also the danger of having the carcasses fall from
the conveyor onto the persons who work around them.
Hog carcasses, on the other hand, are usually divided into a number
of specialty cuts, such as hams, loins, etc., which necessitate consider
ably more handling than is normally the case in cutting and trimming
beef. Pork cutting and trimming, therefore, is commonly organized
on a production-line basis, and each worker performs only one special
ized operation. When a carcass is taken from the cooler, it is placed
upon a belt conveyor which carries it to the first operator, who
removes it to his work bench, makes the first cut, and returns the
pieces to the belt for transfer to the next bench, where a further cut
is made. In some cases, only the remaining part of the carcass is
returned to the belt, the smaller separated pieces being thrown into
gravity chutes which slide the pieces onto benches on a lower floor,
where further trimming is done. Removing the pieces from the con
veyor and returning them to the belt is heavy work and results in
many strains. Grease on the floor frequently adds to this hazard
by making it difficult to maintain a firm footing while lifting or pull
ing the meat.
Power saws, which are used in many of these cutting operations,
frequently present a great hazard. None of the band saws or circular
saws observed by the Bureau representatives in the course of the

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963

survey were guarded, and the general opinion expressed by the plant
safety men was that they could not be effectually guarded. In a few
instances, however, the saws were mounted well back from the edge
of the bench beyond the reach of the operator. In these installations
the meat was pushed up to the saw on a sliding section of the table.
This procedure affords some protection in that it normally keeps the
operator’s hands away from the blade and makes it impossible for him
to fall against the blade if his feet should slip on the grease around the
bench. It does not, however, constitute complete guarding.
At the trimming benches the workers handle smaller pieces of meat,
and most of their operations consist of trimming off fat. As this is
lighter work, considerable numbers of women are employed. The
chief hazard lies in the possibility of knife cuts.
Sausage departments.—Scraps of meat salvaged from the various
cutting rooms are routed to the sausage department, where they are
ground, mixed with spices or other ingredients, cooked or cured, and
stuffed into casings to form sausages.
The grinding machines are frequently very hazardous, in that the
hand of the operator may be drawn in as he forces the meat into the
hopper. Practically all plants have rules prohibiting the use of hands
to force the meat into) the grinder and requiring that a stamper be
used for this purpose. The rule is frequently ignored, however, and
grinder accidents are rather common. A more effective procedure
used in some plants to safeguard grinder operators is to mount the
grinder at the back of a wide feeding table, so that the operator can
not reach across to place his hand inside the throat of the machine.
Another method is to extend the hopper so that the grinding mechan
ism is beyond arm’s reach, thus making it impossible for anyone to get
his hand caught.
Stuffing machines, driven by compressed air, are generally used to
fill the casings. Several instances were reported in which these
machines had exploded because of excessive pressure. Such accidents
must be considered as evidence of improper design or of inadequate
maintenance, because the required working pressure in such operations
should always be well below the capacity of any metal parts, and safety
valves should be provided in the line to release automatically any
abnormal pressure which might be built up through mishandling or
through the misfunctioning of the machine.
The filled casings are passed from the stuffer to a bench where they
are twisted into links and tied by hand with string or rope. Finger
cuts, which frequently become infected, are quite common in this
operation, particularly when bare knives are used to cut the string.
After tying, the sausage is hung on racks, or “trees,” and carried
on the overhead conveyor to the cooler or to the curing rooms. The
use of these trees involves some hazard, in that it is not uncommon
for them to fall from the conveyor rail.
Smoked-meat processing.—In this department hams and bacon are
cured, trimmed, and packed for shipment. The cuts are first trimmed
and then placed on racks in the smokehouse for curing. After removal
from the smokehouse, the hams are packed in paper or stockinette
and tied with rope or string. Bacon is usually sliced in automatic
slicing machines and then weighed and wrapped automatically. The
slicing machines normally are well guarded, but occasionally the finger
6 7 0 1 1 9 — 45 ------- 9

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M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW----NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

of an employee comes into contact with the revolving blade. Such
contact usually results in a permanent injury.
Record of Plants Participating in Special Study
D E P A R T M E N T A L IN J U R Y R ECO RD S

Dressing departments.—The killing and dressing departments gen
erally reported much higher injury-frequency rates than prevailed in
any of the other departments. In the integrated slaughtering and
packing plants the beef-dressing departments had an average of 93.6
disabling injuries for every million employee-hours worked. In the
same type of plants the hog-dressing departments had an average
frequency rate of 82.1. These rates, which indicate that nearly 20
percent of all the workers engaged in killing and dressing operations
experienced some kind of disabling injuries in a single year, are exceed
ingly high by any standard of evaluation. In view of this record,
there can be little question as to the urgent need for intensified safety
activities in these departments.
In the abattoirs, the frequency of injuries in hog-dressing opera
tions was even higher, averaging 113.9 disabling injuries per million
employee-hours worked. For beef-dressing operations, however, the
average frequency rate of the abattoirs, 76.0, was somewhat lower
than that of the integrated plants.
Among the 1,632 disabling injuries reported for the hog-dressing
departments of the integrated plants, there were 21 cases of permanent
impairment and 1 fatality. In the beef-dressing units, the proportion
of serious injuries, as indicated by 27 permanent impairments and 1
fatality among 921 disabling injuries, was substantially higher.
Similarly, the average amount of time lost per case of temporary
disability was somewhat higher in the beef-dressing departments (12
days) than in the hog-dressing departments (11 days). In each of
these two departmental groups, the time lost during the year because
of temporary disabilities alone amounted to more than 2 days for every
employee.
Cutting and trimming departments.—In the integrated plants, the
average injury-frequency rate for the beef cutting and boning de
partments was 70.9 disabling injuries per million employee-hours
worked; the hog-cutting department’s rate was 70.7. Although these
rates represent a substantially lower incidence of injuries than pre
vailed in the dressing departments, they are, nevertheless, very high
and should be interpreted as calling for stringent safety measures in
these departments.
In the plants which perfoim no slaughtering operations, the beef
cutting and boning departments ranked as the most hazardous of the
various departmental units. The frequency rate for these depart
ments, 57.8, was nearly double the general average for the packing
plants. The hog-cutting units of these plants had a better record,
but, even so, their average of 44.4 disabling injuries per million em
ployee-hours was 50 percent higher than the average for all packing
house departments. It is apparent, therefore, that the cutting and
trimming departments deserve first attention in any effort to eliminate
packing-house accidents.

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Sausage departments.—The sausage departments of the integrated
slaughtering and meat-packing plants had an average injury-frequency
rate of 47.5; similar departments in strictly packing plants had an
average rate of 28.8. Each of these rates is just slightly below the
average for all departments in their respective groups.
In evaluating the injury record of the sausage departments, it is
pertinent to note that these departments reported a disproportionately
large number of fatalities. Of the 10 fatalities reported by the
integrated plants, 3 were sausage-department cases. In contrast, the
total number of sausage-department injuries represented only about 8
percent of the total number of cases reported by the integrated plants,
Similarly, in the packing plants the sausage-department injuries rep
resented only 24 percent of the injuries reported for all departments,
but 1 of the 7 fatalities and 1 of the 2 permanent total disabilities re
ported for the group were sausage-department cases.
Smoked-meat processing.—The smoked-meat processing departments
of the integrated plants had an average frequency rate of 38.2. This
rate was considerably below the average for all departments in the
integrated plants, but it is nevertheless too high to be accepted as
indicating the existence of good safety practices or safe working condi
tions.
In the plants engaged exclusively in packing, on the other hand, the
smoked-meat processing departments had an average frequencv rate
of 19.4 which was the lowest average recorded for any of the major
departmental groups.
Other production departments.—Among the miscellaneous production
departments reported by the integrated plants in sufficient volume to
permit the computation of separate average frequency rates, the small
stock-dressing departments had an average rate of 91.3; the oleo
oil-house and tallow-rendering departments had an average of 73.0;
and the inedible-rendering departments had an average of 70.0. The
averages of 32.2 for the canning departments and 32.0 for the livestock
departments were the lowest among the average rates of the operating
departments of the integrated plants.
In the packing plants the curing cellars had the high average fre
quency rate of 51.7 and the canning departments an average rate of
34.7.
Service departments.— The integrated plants reported a substantial
volume of accident experience for a number of service departments,
such as boiler and engine-room departments, cooperage and box de
partments, maintenance departments, shipping departments, and
watchmen’s departments. Among these groups the cooperage and
box departments had by far the highest average injury-frequencv
rate 74.2. Despite the fact that woodworking activities aregenerally
recognized as being more hazardous than most other types of indus
trial operations, this rate must be characterized as extremely high.
The maintenance and shipping departments also had high average
frequency rates of 49.8 and 47.7 respectively. In respect to the main
tenance workers, this high rate reflects the fact that a large part of
their assignment consists of working on defective equipment, with the
result that they are frequently exposed to hazards which other workers
meet only rarely. In the shipping departments, overlifting and mis
handling of heavy materials account in large measure for the high
injury-frequency rate.

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M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

In the other service departments of the integrated plants, the fre
quency rates were reasonably low. For the boiler- and engine-room
units, the average rate was 24.1 and for the watchmen’s department
15.8.
.
.
In the packing-house group, the shipping departments were the only
service units for which a separate average could be computed. These
departments had an average frequency rate of 26.6.
REGIONAL AND STATE DIFFERENCES IN INJURY FREQUENCY

Many factors contribute to the wide differences in the injuryfrequencv rates prevailing in the various States and regions, and in
particular instances it may be difficult to specify which is the con
trolling factor. Variations in the types of operations carried on by
the reporting establishments may have a direct bearing upon the
level of frequency rates when the number of reporting units is small.
When the groups to be compared are reasonably large and the com
parisons are limited to groups of establishments engaged in similar
activities, however, the differences in the average injury-frequency
rates may be considered as reflecting primarily variations in safety
activities rather than variations in inherent hazards. Differences in
State safety requirements and in the degree to which the requirements
are enforced exert a direct influence upon the frequency-rate levels in
different States. Similarly, safety activities, or the lack of such
activities, on the part of trade associations or other organizations
may have considerable effect upon the accident record of an area.
The average size of the plants in different areas and the availability
or the lack of experienced personnel are also factors which may
influence the inj ury-frequency rate levels.
The plants participating in the survey were distributed among 47
States and the District of Columbia. However, in a number of States
the coverage was insufficient to permit the computation of represen
tative averages for the various types of operations. For purposes of
general comparison the reports were combined into regional groups
corresponding to the 9 regions used in the tabulations of the United
States Bureau of the Census.3 On this basis average frequency rates
for integrated slaughtering and meat-packing plants were computed
for each of the 9 regions; averages for plants engaged only in packing
operations were computed for 7 regions; and averages based upon the
experience of abattoirs were computed for 5 regions.
In addition, it was possible to compute separate State averages
covering the operations of integrated plants in 24 States. Only 12
State averages could be computed for packing plants, and only 2 for
abattoirs. No State rates were computed unless the data included the
experience of at least 3 establishments with a combined exposure of
over 900,000 employee-hours worked.
The regional groupings and the States included in each region are as follows: New England— Connecticut,
Maine, Massachusetts, N ew Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. Middle A tlantic—N ew Jersey,
New York, and Pennsylvania. East North Central.—Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin.
West North Central—low a, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota.
South A tlantic—Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, and
West Virginia. East South Central—Alabama, Kentucky, Mississippi, and Tennessee. West South
Central —Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas. M ountain—Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Montana,
Nevada, N ew Mexico, Utah, and W yoming. Pacific—California, Oregon, and Washington.

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INDUSTRIAL INJURIES

967

Integrated Plants

The highest of the regional average frequency rates for the inte
grated plants was that of the 34 establishments reporting from the
South Atlantic States. These plants reported an average of 75.7
disabling injuries for every million employee-hours worked. In
large measure, this high regional rate reflects the unfavorable rates
reported by plants in Georgia and Maryland. The Georgia average,
based upon the experience of 3 plants, was 128.4—nearly 40 percent
higher than the average for any other State. The Maryland aver
age, covering 8 plants, was 74.3, which was exceeded by the averages
of only 4 other States. In contrast, the Virginia average of 44.4 for
4 plants was well below the middle of the range of State rates.
The lowest of the regional averages was that of the East North
Central States—44.8. This average was based upon the records of
112 plants, the largest number included in any single region. With
this volume of reports it was possible to compute separate averages
for each of the five States comprising the area. Ohio’s average of
36.1, covering the experience of 50 establishments, was the lowest
State rate in the region, although the Indiana average of 38.6, covering
23 plants, was only slightly higher. Six plants in Wisconsin had an
average rate of 42.6, and 20 plants in Illinois an average of 46.0.
The Michigan average of 66.8, based upon the records of 13 plants,
was the only State rate in this region which ranked above the middle
of the range of State rates.
Reports were received from 18 integrated plants in the East South
Central region. These plants had the high average frequency rate
of 67.8, which was exceeded only by the average of the South At
lantic region. The Tennessee average of 75.1, based upon the records
of 8 of these establishments, was the third highest of the various
State rates, while the Kentucky average of 51.0 was the median in
the range of State rates.
The 12 plants reporting from the Mountain region had an average
injury-frequency rate of 58.7. These plants included 3 establish
ments in Utah, for which the average rate was 74.6.
In the New England region, 12 reporting plants had an average
frequency rate of 57.0. This rate reflects primaiily the experience of
8 plants in Massachusetts, which had an average rate of 57.8.
The West South Central region had an average rate of 50.4, based
upon the combined experience of 29 integrated plants. Again, the
regional average in this area reflects primaiily the experience of
plants within a single State. Fifteen of these plants were in Texas;
their average rate was 53.2.
In the Middle Atlantic region, the average frequency rate for the
84 participating establishments was 50.1. Sixty-four of these plants
were in Pennsylvania, 17 were in New York, and 3 in New Jersey.
The State average frequency rates were 66.7 for New York; 45.6 for
Pennsylvania; and 22.5 for New Jersey. The New Jersey rate was
the lowest average recorded for any State.
The Pacific Coast States were represented in the survey by 36
integrated plants, with an average frequency rate of 48.9. Twentyfour of these establishments, in California, had an average injuryfrequency rate of 40.4, while 8 others, in Oregon, had an average rate
of 91.8. The Oregon rate was the second highest State rate recorded.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

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M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 194 5

In the West North Central region, reports from 52 establishments
yielded an average injury-frequency rate of 45.7. Within this region
4 plants in Nebraska had an average rate of 62.3; 14 plants in Mis
souri had an average of 57.4; 5 plants in Minnesota had an average
rate of 47.5; 13 plants in Iowa had an average rate of 41.7; 12 es
tablishments in Kansas had a rate of 38.1; and 3 plants in South
Dakota had an average rate of 24.0.
Packing Plants

The 7 regional average injury-frequency rates for plants which en
gage in meat packing, but which perform no slaughtering operations,
ranged from a high of 54.7 for 30 plants in the South Atlantic region
to a low of 20.0 for 36 plants in the Pacific region. The high average
in the South Atlantic region was largely due to the experience of 9
Maryland plants, which had a combined frequency rate of 71.6.
The low average for the West Coast States resulted primarily from
the excellent record of the 29 plants reporting from California. These
California plants had an average rate of 13.8, which was next to the
lowest among the 12 State rates recorded.
In the New England region, 49 packing plants reported an average
frequency rate of 32.8. Thirty-one of these plants were in Massa
chusetts and 5 were in Maine. The average rate for the Massachu
setts plants was 27.0, while the Maine average was 22.6.
The Middle Atlantic States had a regional frequency rate of 28.6,
based upon the experience of 120 packing plants. The New York
frequency rate of 40.1, representing the combined experience of 47
of these plants, was the second highest of the 12 State rates recorded.
In Pennsylvania 55 packing plants had an average frequency rate of
28.6, and in New Jersey 18 plants had an average rate of 18.0.
The East North Central region had an average of 26.9, based upon
the reports of 106 packing establishments. Within this group there
were 48 Illinois plants, with an average frequency rate of 29.5; 24
Wisconsin plants, with an average of 29.6; 14 Ohio plants, with a
combined rate of 23.5; and 16 Michigan plants, with an average of
11.6. The Michigan rate was the lowest State rate computed for the
packing-house group.
The West South Central region’s average frequency rate of 26.9
was identical with that of the East North Central region. Only 14
packing plants reported from this region, and as a result the only
State in the area for which an average rate could be computed was
Louisiana. In that State there were 7 plants which together had an
average frequency rate of 16.1.
In the West North Central region, 29 packing plants reported an
average frequency rate of 25.7. Many of these plants were quite
small, however, and the limited volume of exposure reported in the
separate States precluded the computation of any State averages in
this area.
Abattoirs

The five regional average frequency rates computed from the
reports of plants engaged only in slaughtering operations ranged from
a high rate of 92.3, covering 23 plants in the West North Central
region, to a low rate of 35.6 for 6 establishments in the West South
Central region. In the Pacific region, 26 abattoirs had an average

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INDUSTRIAL IN JU R IE S

969

frequency rate of 74.4; 46 establishments in the East North Central
region an average of 52.9; and 43 others in the Middle Atlantic region
had an average rate of 50.0.
The only States for which separate rates covering slaughtering
operations could be presented were California and Illinois. In Cali
fornia the 23 reporting abattoirs had an average frequency rate of
81.5, and in Illinois 5 plants had an average of 31.7.
I N J U R I E S , B Y SIZ E O F P L A N T -

In general, the very small plants and the large plants had better
injury records than the plants in the medium-size group. This was
true for all three types of plants, even though there were wide differ
ences in the size distribution within the three major groups.
Although group averages constitute an effective basis for the evalu
ation of a safety record, they have one weakness from the viewpoint
of the management and the employees of any particular establishment.
In the averages all variations among the different plants are obscured
and no clue is offered as to the relative standing of any individual
plant in respect to other competing establishments. However, com
parisons based upon individual plant frequency rates can be enlighten
ing on this point. It is a matter of considerable interest, for example,
that, among all the reporting plants, there were none employing over
250 workers which had a zero frequency rate in 1943, but that among
the plants employing less than 250, about 55 percent reported
that their employees had worked the entire year without a single
disabling injury. Similarly, it is pertinent that some plants reported
frequency rates of over 200, but that none of those plants had as many
as 100 employees.
Without regard to the size of the reporting units, the grouping of
the plant frequency rates for establishments engaged in both slaughter
ing and meat packing in 1943 was as follows: 34 percent had a rate
of zero; 19 percent had rates between 0 and 30; 20 percent had rates
between 30 and 60; 11 percent had rates between 60 and 90; and 16
percent had rates of over 90. Among the plants engaged exclusively
in slaughtering, 61 percent had rates of zero; 5 percent had rates
between 0 and 30; 11 percent had rates between 30 and 60; 5 percent
had rates between 60 and 90; and 18 percent had rates of over 90. In
the packing-house group, 62 percent of the plants had rates of zero;
14 percent had rates between 0 and 30; 12 percent had rates between
30 and 60; 6 percent had rates between 60 and 90; and 6 percent had
rates of over 90. From these data, it appears that reasonably safe
working conditions prevailed in 2 of every 3 slaughtering and meat
packing plants and that the unfavorable injury record of the industry
was due primarily to the poor experience of about a third of the plants
comprising the industry. Unfortunately, the group of high-rate
plants included about two-thirds of the establishments which employ
over 250 workers and represented nearly half of the employment in
the entire industry.
The extremely wide variations in the frequency rates among the
individual plants indicate that in single establishments the injury
record may be influenced but not controlled by the factor of plant size.
For example, among the 9 largest integrated plants for which reports
were received, 2 had frequency rates of under 20 and 2 others had rates

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

970

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

of over 60. Similarly, among the 323 integrated plants employing
less than 250 workers, there were 134 which had frequency rates of
zero and 34 others with rates of over 100.
The formulation of positive conclusions as to how and why varia
tions in the size of plant influence frequency-rate levels must be some
what subjective, as there are no clear-cut differences in the types of
operations or in specific hazards which can be directly related to plant
size. The fact that studies in other industries have almost uniformly
produced a similar pattern in respect to plant size and general fre
quency-rate levels, however, indicates that this is a phenomenon of
fairly general occurrence, rather than a significant characteristic of the
slaughtering and meat-packing industry.
The evidence available seems to indicate that small plants tend to
have good safety records because they usually operate under the close
personal supervision of the owner or plant manager. This close asso
ciation with plant activities enables the owner or plant manager to see
unsafe conditions and practices as they develop and permits him to
take immediate precautions to eliminate incipient hazards.
In medium-size plants the problem of safety is complicated by the
fact that the responsible head of the establishment seldom can devote
much of his time to observing the routine plant operations and, there
fore, must delegate much of the responsibility for safety to others.
Unfortunately, few such plants can afford to employ a safety specialist
and, as a result, safety becomes merely an added responsibility of the
operating foremen or supervisors, who rarely have had safety training
and who frequently feel that their production responsibilities are of
much greater importance than continuous attention to safety.
In large plants, on the other hand, the volume of production
generally makes it possible to give special attention to safety. These
plants can usually afford to employ a safety engineer to carry on a
scientific accident-prevention program, and to provide all guards and
safety equipment known to be available. Large plants also have the
advantage of professionally engineered plant lay-out and work processes,
and are usually in a position to utilize mechanical equipment more
extensively than are the smaller plants. This is of particular impor
tance in connection with material-handling operations, in which the
provision of mechanical equipment can do much to minimize many of
the hazards connected with the manual performance of such
operations.
Injury Record, by Type of Plant

Among the integrated slaughtering and packing plants, those which
employed fewer than 25 workers had an average injury-frequency rate
of 31.5, which was lower than the rate for any other size group. Plants
with employment ranging between 750 and 1,000 workers had the
second lowest rate—30.8—which was followed closely by the average
of 40.7 for plants which employed 2,500 or more workers. In the
intervening size groups the average frequency rates were generally
much higher, reaching a peak of 76.2 in the group composed of plants
employing from 500 to 750 workers.
Among the plants which perform no slaughtering operations, those
employing fewer than 10 workers had an average injury-frequency rate
of 8.6; those employing from 10 to 25 workers had an average of 18.8;
and those employing from 25 to 50 workers had an average of 23.0.

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INDUSTRIAL IN JU R IE S

971

Next in line were the large plants employing 500 or more workers,
which had an average frequency rate of 26.4. In the intermediate
size groups the average frequency rates ranged upward to an average
of 40.5 for plants employing between 50 and 100 workers.
The abattoirs covered a much narrower size range than was the case
in respect to the integrated and packing-house groups. Nevertheless,
within this narrow range the frequency rates for the different size
groups formed a pattern very similar to that of the other plants. The
abattoirs employing fewer than 25 workers had the lowest average
frequency rate—39.0—which was followed by the rate of 57.1 for the
plants employing 100 or more workers. The highest average rate
among the abattoirs was 89.5, for the plants employing between 50 and
100 workers.

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Industrial Relations

G overnm ent Collective A greem ent W ith Civil Servants
in Saskatchew an1
ON August 2, 1945, the Government of the Province of Saskatchewan
and the Saskatchewan Civil Servants Association, an affiliate of the
Canadian Trades and Labor Congress, signed an agreement establish
ing the terms of employment of approximately 3,500 Provincial em
ployees. The Saskatchewan Civil Servants Association wTas named as
the sole bargaining agent and representative of employees in all
departments, boards, and commissions of the Provincial government.
It was agreed that the Government is to negotiate with the association
or its designated bargaining representatives in any and all matters
affecting] the employment relationship between the employees and
the Government.
Employment Conditions

Provision was made for the formulation of a position-classification
plan by reputable technical consultants. Upon its completion to the
mutual satisfaction of the parties, the Government will adopt the
plan. The principle of equal pay for equal work, without regard to
sex, was recognized. A pay plan is to be worked out by the experts
classifying the positions, fixing a minimum and a maximum rate with
intermediate rates in each class of positions (the cost-of-living bonus
being included). The pay plan is to be subject to negotiation by the
two parties before it is finally adopted.
Payment for overtime work will commence after 44 hours in any
week, and be at the rate of time and a half.
If for a period exceeding 30 days an employee temporarily performs
duties of a position higher than that which he holds, he is to be paid
at the minimum rate for the higher position. Should the pay in his
own position exceed that of the position on which he is substituting,
his rate of pay is to remain unchanged.
One month’s notice of dismissal must be given, in writing, or, in
lieu thereof, 1 month’s salary. The requirements for probationers is
7 days’ notice or pay for a like period. Likewise, a permanent em
ployee must give 1 month’s notice of resignation or forfeit his pay for
every day of absence in the period of notice. Seven days’ notice or
forfeiture of pay for days not worked is required from probationers.
The Provincial government recognized the principle of the 8-hour
day and 44-hour week in places other than offices. In offices, the
workday was limited to 6% hours each day from Monday to Friday,
and 3 hours on Saturday. Paid vacations of 18 working days are to
1Information is from Trades and Labor Congress Journal (Montreal), August 1945.
972

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INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS

973

be granted after every period of 1 year’s continuous service from the
date of the last vacation. Sick leave is also to be granted for 18 days
for each year of service. Arrangements were made for adjusting both
paid vacations and sick leave for employees with shorter periods of
service.
Handling of Disputes
Grievance procedure is provided in the agreement, which requires
that the government shall meet with a committee on grievances within
48 hours after receiving a request for an appointment, or as soon as
circumstances permit. An employee who has a grievance is to submit
it to the chairman of his or her grievance committee for adjustment,
who refers it first to the employee’s immediate supervisor. If it is
not settled within 7 days, the matter is then sent to the permanent
head concerned, who adjusts it or sends it on to the Commission.
If adjustment is not arrived at within 7 days, the case is referred to a
joint council, which makes recommendations to the Executive Council
for consideration and appropriate action, such action to take place
within 30 days. If the Executive Council’s action is disputed by the
Civil Servant’s Association, either party may apply for a board of
conciliation as provided for in the Trade-Union Act.
Disputes arising out of the interpretation of the terms of the agree
ment, which cannot be settled between the parties, are to be referred
to a board of arbitration whose decisions are final and binding upon
both parties. The board’s membership is to include one person each
nominated by the Provincial government and by the Civil Servants
Association, and a third person who is acceptable to both parties.
Provision for Check-Off

The check-off is provided for in a clause stating that the Govern
ment agrees to continue its practice, upon signed authorization by
members of the association, of deducting all dues, initiations, assess
ments, or levies authorized by the secretary-treasurer of the associa
tion, and to pay the moneys over to the secretary-treasurer.

C onciliation Service of G overnm ent of India
A MEMORANDUM issued by the Department of Labor in India,1
on April 9, 1945, stated that machinery was to be established for
conciliation and for welfare, and to deal with operation of labor laws
insofar as this was within the jurisdiction of the National Government.
Industries and enterprises subject to such jurisdiction are those publicly
owned or controlled, the Federal railways, mines, and oilfields, and
major ports as defined in the Indian Ports Act of 1908. In general,
with respect to industrial disputes in mines and oilfields and in major
ports, authority is to continue to be vested in the Provincial govern
ments under the Trade Disputes Act of 1929, until the latter law is
amended.
1 Government of India, Department of Labor. Memorandum No. L. R. 12 (3), N ew Delhi, April 9,1945.

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974

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

Industrial Relations Organization
Under a chief labor commissioner having headquarters at New
Delhi, three regional labor commissioners are to operate from head
quarters at Bombay, Calcutta, and Lahore, respectively. Eight
conciliation officers and 24 inspectors of railway labor are to be sta
tioned at various centers throughout India. A single central inspector
of industrial canteens completes the administrative organization.
Powers of the Administrative Personnel
The functions and powers of these officers were described as cover
ing (1) conciliation, (2) welfare activities (excluding welfare in coal
mines, for which a separate organization existed under the coal mines
welfare commissioner), and (3) insuring that the labor laws are
enforced—to the extent to which their administration is a responsi
bility of the Indian Government—except in instances in which sep
arate machinery exists, as for the control of emigrant labor.
In connection with conciliation and welfare, the main functions
were stated to be (1) assistance in the formation and maintenance of
voluntary machinery for settling differences, (2) the prevention and
settlement of industrial disputes, (3) maintenance of information
regarding wage rates and conditions of work, (4) keeping in touch with
relations existing between employees and employers, and (5) examina
tion of welfare measures, and advice to employers and governments
on such matters. The central inspector of industrial canteens is to
inspect and advise on the creation of canteens in enterprises under the
control of the Indian Government.
It was intended to give the various officials concerned with con
ciliation and welfare as broad powers for dealing with disputes as
is possible under existing legislation. The Provincial governments were
being requested to take the necessary action.
Relation to Existing Machinery
Responsibility for conciliation and administration of wage and hour
legislation applying to the Federal railways is to be taken over in its
entirety; the staff that formerly dealt with problems in certain of these
railroad systems will cease to exist separately. The assistant labor
welfare advisers are to be designated conciliation officers, and are to
work under the regional labor commissioners already mentioned.
However, the labor welfare adviser will continue to advise the Gov
ernment independently on all matters of labor welfare and to maintain
contact with labor organizations. Labor welfare officers, etc., in
individual establishments, are to retain their responsibilities. The
chief labor commissioner and his officers are to maintain close liaison
with the administrators of various departments and establishments.
If a dispute cannot be settled by the chief labor commissioner and liis
staff, it is to be referred by him to the Department of Labor, provided
that the chief commissioner is of the opinion that the Government
should take further steps for the settlement of the dispute. The
Labor Department will, in turn, refer the matter to the appropriate
administrative department, with advice as to further action. Diffi
culties arising in connection with the administration of wage and hour
laws applying to the Federal railways, and proposed amendments, are
also to be referred to the Department of Labor for further action.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

Industrial Disputes

Strikes and Lock-Outs in Septem ber 1945
PRELIMINARY estimates of the Bureau of Labor Statistics show
550 strikes and lock-outs in September 1945, with 455,000 workers
involved and about 3,650,000 man-days of idleness. The idleness is
estimated as amounting to approximately six-tenths of 1 percent of
the available working time with due consideration given to cut-backs
and the reduction of the workweek. The comparatively high level
of strike activity in September reflects the impact of postwar problems
on industrial relations, as many of the disputes involved questions
of reduced take-home pay resulting from shorter weekly hours, and
resistance to lay-offs and downgrading of workers.
Figures below include all known work stoppages which involved six
or more workers and lasted as long as a full day or shift. They include
all workers in any plant who were made idle because of a strike or
lock-out in that plant, regardless of whether or not they were all
directly involved in the dispute.
T able

1.— Strikes and Lock-Outs in September 1945, with Comparable Figures for
Earlier Periods
Strikes and lock-outs
beginning in month

Man-days idle in
month

M onth
Number

Workers
involved

Number

Percent of
available
working
time

September 1945 i ___________________ ____ __________
August 1945 i---------------------- ---------- ------------------------

550
410

455,000

3, 650,000
1,350, 000

0. 61

September
September
September
September

408
237
274
470

207, 000
67,000

786,000

.10

1944----------------------------------------------1943----------------------------------------- — - .........
1942------------------------------ --------- - - ................
1941-------- .......................................... .................

220,000
88,000

295, 000

.19

210,000

.03
.06
.30

387, 000
1,953, 000

i Preliminary estimates.

M ajor Stoppages During September
Bituminous-coal mines, supervisory dispute.—The bituminous-coal
mining stoppage which eventually involved over 200,000 workers
began about September 21 at a few mines in western Pennsylvania
where mine foremen and other supervisory workers sought recogni
tion of the United Clerical, Technical and Supervisory Workers
Union (affiliated with the United Mine Workers of America) as their
collective-bargaining agency. With supervisory workers idle, and
operations not properly inspected, the mines were forced to close

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975

976

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

down and production employees also became idle. The stoppage soon
spread to mines in West Virginia and Kentucky and by the end of
September, it is estimated, nearly 45,000 mine workers were involved.
Additional idleness resulted in steel mills, which curtailed production
for lack of coal.
The stoppage spread further in October after company representa
tives refused to meet union officials in Washington to negotiate the
issues. Operators insisted that the men should return to work before
negotiations were undertaken. Over 200,000 mine workers in
Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, Virginia, Alabama, and Indiana
were idle before the stoppage was finally called off. After conferences
between company and union representatives with the Secretary of
Labor in Washington yielded no specific settlement of the issues,
union officials suddenly terminated the stoppage on October 17.
Simultaneously, President John L. Lewis of the United Mine Workers
declared that “future efforts to abate this controversy will be resumed
at a later, more appropriate date.” Work was resumed in most mines
on Monday, October 22.
Oil-industry stoppage.—Approximately 35,000 workers were involved
in the oil-industry stoppage which began September 17 in the Chicago
and Detroit areas and later spread to include oil workers in about 20
States. The principal demand of the Oil Workers International
Union (CIO) was for 52 hours’ pay for 40 hours of work, the equivalent
of a 30-percent wage increase to prevent a reduction in the take-home
pay when the workweek was reduced. Efforts of Government con
ciliators were not successful in preventing the spread of the stoppage;
and arbitration, proposed by the Secretary of Labor, was not accepted
by the companies although favored by the union. At least one-third
of the Nation’s gasoline supply was cut off by the stoppage and, as
shortages became acute, President Truman on October 4 ordered the
seizure of the major oil operations by the Navy Department. Pro
duction was resumed shortly thereafter with the same wage rates and
hours in effect as prevailed before the dispute.
Westinghouse Electric Corp.—Approximately 10,000 white-collar
employees, members of the Federation of Westinghouse Independent
Salaried Employees Unions, stopped work on September 10, at plants
in Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, and
Pennsylvania, demanding an incentive bonus similar to that paid to
production workers. The National War Labor Board had denied a
request for such a bonus on August 8. A large majority of the
workers approved strike action in a vote conducted September 6
under terms of the War Labor Disputes Act. Production workers
were soon made idle and a total of nearly 40,000 employees were in
volved. The dispute was settled September 29 with an agreement
to negotiate the issues further after the workers returned to their
jobs and upon the consent of the War Labor Board to review its
previous decision on the incentive bonus. Work was resumed on
October 1.
Textile dyeing and printing companies.—A demand for a wage
increase of 15 cents per hour was the principal issue in a stoppage
involving about 40,000 members of the Federation of Dyers, Finishers,
Printers and Bleachers of America (CIO) employed in textile dyeing
and finishing plants in New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

IN D U S T R IA L

D IS P U T E S

977

The stoppage began September 27 at Paterson, N. J., area plants
and spread within a few days to about 300 plants in the three States.
A compromise settlement on October 9 provided increases of 10 cents
per hour for men and 5 cents per hour for women.
New York elevator operators.—About 15,000 elevator operators and
building-maintenance workers, members of the Building Service
Employees International Union (AFL) were directly involved in a
stoppage in New York City from September 24 until October 1, and
many thousands of other workers were kept from work because of
inability to reach their offices and workplaces. The major issue
involved a reduction in take-home pay upon shortening the workweek
to 40 hours. Work was resumed on October 1, under agreement to
arbitrate the matter, the arbitrator to be selected by the Governor
of New York.
Northwest lumber stoppage.—Seeking a minimum wage of $1.10 per
hour and an industry-wide contract, about 30,000 logging-camp and
sawmill workers, members of the Lumber and Sawmill Workers Union
(AFL), stopped work about September 24, following a strike vote
under the War Labor Disputes Act. Despite continuing efforts of
Federal conciliators, the stoppage was still in effect at the end of the
month and continued through October.
B. F. Goodrich Co.—Lay-offs and downgrading of foremen, allegedly
without regard to seniority, and refusal of the company to bargain
with officials of the Foremen's Association of America resulted in a
stoppage of about 800 foremen at six plants of the B. F. Goodrich Co.
in Akron from September 4 to 25. Approximately 14,000 workers
were made idle. A union petition for certification as collective
bargaining agency for the foremen was pending before the National
Labor Relations Board. After 3 weeks of negotiating, with the aid of
Federal conciliators and local civic groups, the company agreed to
rehire the striking foremen without discrimination because of the
strike and the foremen voted to return to work and await action of the
National Labor Relations Board.
Other large stoppages.—Other disputes involving large numbers of
workers included (1) a 4-day stoppage involving 16,000 workers at
the New York Shipbuilding Corp., Camden, N. J., where members of
the Industrial Union of Marine & Shipbuilding Workers (CIO) pro
tested the discharge of union members for alleged loafing on the job;
(2) a 1-day strike of 10,000 workers at the Consolidated Steel Corpora
tion, Shipbuilding Division, at Orange, Tex., where AFL craft unions
protested the alleged discrimination against union pipe fitters; and
(3) a 2-day stoppage of 7,000 International Harvester Co. employees,
members of the United Farm Equipment and Metal Workers Union
(CIO), protesting the disciplinary lay-offs of a few workers.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

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M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

Activities of U. S. Conciliation Service, A ugust 1945
DURING the month of August 1945, the U. S. Conciliation Service
disposed of 1,735 situations as compared with 1,935 situations in July.
During August 1944, 2,487 situations were closed.
Of the 279 strikes and lock-outs handled, 256 were settled success
fully; 23 cases were certified to the National War Labor Board in
which strikes occurred duiing negotiations, but in 17 cases a Commis
sioner of Conciliation had effected a return-to-work agreement prior
to certification of the case. The records indicate that 190 situations
were threatened strikes and 1,036 were controversies in which the
employer, employees, or other interested parties asked for the assign
ment of a Commissioner of Conciliation to assist in the adjustment of
disputes. During the month 241 disputes were certified to the
National War Labor Board. The remaining 230 situations included
101 arbitrations, 12 technical services, 39 investigations, and 78 re
quests for information, consultations, and special services.
Cases Closed by U. S. Conciliation Service in August 1945, by Type of Situation and
Method of Handling
Method of handling

Total

Strikes
and
lock-outs

Threat
ened
strikes

Contro
versies

All methods__________ ____________

1,735

279

190

1,036

Settled by conciliation__________ . . . . . .
Certified to National War Labor Board . . .
Decisions rendered in arbitration... . . .
Technical services completed___ _
Investigations, special services_______ ____

1,294
'241

256
i 23

177
13

831
205

1 Of these, 17 were settled prior to referral.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

101
12

117

Other
situa
tions
230

101
12
117

Labor O rganizations and Conventions

U nderground Trade-U nion Activity in Norway D uring
the W ar 1
Initial Organization

UNDERGROUND trade-union activity in Norway began with the
formation of various union-membership groups, almost immediately
after the invasion of the country in April 1940, and even before the
German authorities began to interfere with the appointment of union
representatives and to use other means of forcing the trade-union
organization and the union workers into the German pattern. Secret
opposition to Nazi authority by trade-union members, planned outside
the meetings of the trade-union secretariat, began when the Germans
denied the president and vice president of the Federation of Trade
Unions (Konrad Nordahl and Lars Evensen) the right to resume their
positions within the union organization upon their return from northern
Norway after the initial conflict on Norwegian territory was ended
and the German occupation was in force.
After the Norwegian political parties had been abolished and the
Nazis had taken over the administrative council of the Federation of
Trade Unions (October 1, 1940), it became the objective of the Nor
wegian underground trade-union movement to form an independent
trade-union organization in close affiliation with the entire Home Front
opposition. This was achieved through the leadership of the TradeUnion Committee (Faglige TJtvalg) which was organized early in 1941.
During this period the underground trade-union movement began
the issuance of a publication, Fri Fagbevegelse (Free Trade Unions),
to serve as a link between the various trade-union groups and to resume
the connections with Stockholm and London which had been broken
when the Germans seized the Norwegian radio apparatus. The
publication, in mimeographed form, was first issued on January 4,
1941. At first only a few copies appeared, but soon there was a fairly
extensive circulation; the largest edition (over 20,000 copies) was
issued near the end of 1943. Thereafter the circulation was smaller
because of the paper shortage and the increased difficulties of pro
ducing and distributing the periodical in secret. In 1945 the editions
varied from 12,000 to 15,000 copies. Fri Fagbevegelse was produced
both in Oslo and in outside districts, by use of distributed stencils.
Its staff was twice seized by the Gestapo—in 1942 and in 1944—but
i Data are from an address by Frank Hansen, who at the time of the liberation of Norway served as chair
man of the Norwegian underground Trade Union Committee (reported by Royal Norwegian Information
Service, an agency of the Royal Norwegian Government, Washington, D . C., in News of Norway, August
10, 1945, and in its Norwegian language release of August 30,1945): also from telegrams from Stockholm via
London, June 28, 1945 (No. 2298, reporting interview by Konrad Nordahl printed in Aftontidningen, June
27, 1945), and June 25, 1945 (No. 2249).

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6 7 0 1 1 9 — 45 ------- 10

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its publication was never stopped, as other trade-union members
carried on the work.
Growth and Activities of the Underground Movement

The Nazi attack on the Federation of Trade Unions in September
1941, which placed the Federation under guardianship of the Nazi
leaders, affected the entire trade-union activity. In order to coordinate
home resistance with free Norwegian activities abroad, a trade-union
secretariat was formed in London with a committee in Stockholm.
Lars Evensen (who had served as chairman of the Trade Union
Committee until he was forced to flee because of the Nazi attack) and
Konrad Nordahl became the respective heads of the Stockholm and
London organizations, and the Trade Union Committee in Norway
maintained close communication with the two groups abroad.
Five members of the Trade Union Committee then formed a working
committee in Norway, which met once a week. The postal system
could at first be used as a means of communication between the Trade
Union Committee and the local groups, but later both letter and
parcel censorship became so stringent that any special directives had
to be sent by messenger.
The Gestapo, meanwhile, had been organized in Norway according
to the German model, and the Nazis were greatly annoyed by the
growing opposition movement. Toward the end of 1941 the Germans
were preparing the Norwegian people for the so-called “Act of State”
of February 1942, whereby Quisling was to be named “Minister
President.” In January 1942, as a result of the extensive opposition
to this measure, the main part of which flowed through the channels
of the Trade Union Committee, police raided the committee head
quarters, arresting both the chairman and the secretary, and discov
ering both the location and staff of Fri Fagbevegelse. The under
ground trade-union activity, nevertheless, was soon resumed on a
larger scale, even under sharpened police pursuit and continued arrests.
In the autumn of 1942 the “National Council” (Rikstinget) pro
posed by Quisling was opposed by the underground trade-union move
ment through written protests and withdrawals from trade-unions
in which compulsory membership had been instituted by the Nazis.
There was too little time for organization of concerted action through
out the whole of Norway; nevertheless, in Oslo and a number of other
places opposition was extensive, and the planned council was
given up. The Trade Union Committee kept itself constantly occu
pied with thwarting the Nazi Labor Office leaders and the confer
ences which they organized; it wholeheartedly supported the Home
Front Coordination Committee and aided in distribution of its
directives.
Three successive chairmen of the Trade Union Committee were
forced to flee from Norway early in 1944 at the threat of the Gestapo,
one of them after serving as chairman for only a few days. To lessen
the risk of arrest, the committee was reduced from five to three
members.
Alf Andersen then became chairman of the Trade Union Committee,
and the office of the Textile Workers Union, of which he was a repre
sentative, became the center for the reorganized underground tradeunion activity. Fri Fagbevegelse which had again been raided by the

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police in February 1944, resumed publication in Drammen through
connections of the underground newspaper, Vart Lands (Our Country).
Broken underground communications throughout Norway were re
established, and the entire underground trade-union activity was
reorganized.
Plans for Postliberation9Action
The Trade Union Committee had been especially interested in ob
taining an agreement for a general addition to wage rates, to be
announced simultaneously with the liberation of Norway. In the
autumn of 1943 a negotiating conference to this end was held between
representatives of the trade-unions and the Employers’ Association.
The Committee, in cooperation with the trade-union secretariats in
London and Stockholm, also considered the postwar reconstruction
of the entire trade-union organization.
Directives were prepared by the Committee for a general strike
to hamper German defense activities when the Allies landed in Nor
way. The committee also worked closely with the trade-union
secretariats in Stockholm and London regarding measures to be put
into operation during the transition from occupation to freedom.
To coordinate this transition program, a conference was held in
Gothenburg, Sweden, at the end of March 1945. The conference
revealed entire accord among the Stockholm, London, and Oslo
leaderships of the trade-union movement, and it was planned that the
union representatives in London and Sweden should be prepared to
return to Norway as soon after the liberation of Norway as it was
possible to cross the border.
After the liberation of Norway the underground trade-union move
ment resumed its leadership of the Federation of Trade Unions.
Konrad Nordahl and Lars Evensen were reelected to their respective
prewar offices of president and vice president of the federation.

Trade-U nion Growth and Intern atio n al Policy in
Switzerland 1
MEMBERSHIP in the Swiss Federation of Trade-Unions increased
26 percent from 1940 to 1945, reaching 267,805 at the opening of
1945. At the same time, total trade-union membership in Switzer
land amounted to about 370,800, in a gainfully occupied popu
lation estimated at 2,070,000. Recent congresses of trade-union
federations adopted resolutions which emphasized the need for tradeunion participation in world organization.
Trade-Union Membership

Total membership in the Federation of Swiss Trade-Unions (Union
Syndicale Suisse) increased with fair uniformity throughout the years
of World War II, as is indicated in the accompanying table. Among
the affiliated groups, only home workers in the textile industry lost
members, and only to the number of 40. The Federation of Swiss
1Data are from M idmonthly Labor Report of Dorothy M . Sells, labor attache, July 15, 1945, United

States Legation, Bern.

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Protestant Workers (Union Suisse d’Ouvriers et Employés Évangél
iques) gained slightly in membership in the same period, and the
Federation of Catholic Trade-Unions (Fédération Suisse des Syndi
cats Chrétiens-Nationaux) had 17 percent more members in 1943 than
in 1941.
Membership in Federations of Trade-Unions in Switzerland, 1940-44 1
Membership in federations of—
Year
Swiss tradeunions
1940________________
1941____________________
1942____________________
1943__________________
1944__________________

212, 582
217,251
231,277
250, 198
267,805

Catholic
trade-unions
36, 787
36, 118
38,188
42,348
(2)

Swiss Protes
tant workers
11,462
11, 557
12,025
11,982
(2)

1 Membership in smaller federations not listed here was 48,677 in 1943.
2 Data not available.

Statements on International Policy

Federation of Swiss Railway Workers.—With a membership of
34,436, including all the workers employed by the Swiss Federal rail
way system in 1944, the Federation of Swiss Railway Workers repre
sented the only completely organized industry in the country. At
the annual congress held in Bern on May 25-26, 1945, the general
secretary of the federation stated that Swiss labor did not intend to
go through again such a period of deflation as followed the last war.
After advocating higher wages to meet the increased cost of living2
and improvements in the social-insurance system, he outlined the
federation’s stand on international issues as follows:
F a r from abandoning democracy now, they [the trade-unions] desire the right
to express their opinion at the time of structural reforms. This task, however, is
too big to be accomplished by one country alone. Fascism has been beaten by
the Allied arm ies; but the spirit of fascism is not dead, even in Switzerland. All
the nations should participate in the new international organizations, both the
new United Nations Organization constituted at San Francisco, and the World
Trade-Union Congress inaugurated at London.

Federation of Clothing, Leather, and Wearing-Apparel Workers.—
At a biennial meeting held in Saint Gall, June 23-24, 1945, this federa
tion reported an increase of 100 percent in local trade-union member
ship in French and Italian Switzerland. In 1943, the federation had
5,166 members. A resolution adopted at the meeting requested that
wages be raised to the level of real wages in 1939 and that old-age and
survivors’ insurance be established. The resolution on interna
tional policy read as follows:
The delegates hope that an international trade-union movement will be created
on a democratic basis, in behalf of the workers of all the world, and they approve
of the efforts towards that aim. They likewise hope that the new world organ
ization for the security of people, the basis of which was laid at San Francisco,
will be able to strengthen democracy in the world, that it will be conscious of the
importance of social questions and of their democratic solution (the International
Labor Office could play an important part in that).

2For details, see M onthly Labor Review, September 1945 (p. 533).

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Federation of Postal, Telephone, and Telegraph Employees.—Although
it is an organization of only about 1,857 members, this federation of
Government workers is described as a powerful union. Resolutions
regarding international relations adopted at the federation’s annual
meeting at Lugano early in July 1945 stated that—
Trade unions must play a role of first importance in the entire world, if a dura
ble peace is to be created, and to that end [the federation] recommends participa
tion in a new world trade-union congress which embraces the U SSR .

Federation of Workers in Commerce, Transport, and the Food Trades.—
The annual meeting of this federation (membership some 22,000 in
1940) was held in Geneva June 2-4, 1945. An outstanding event at
the meeting was the speech of the secretary of the International
Transport Workers’ Federation, London, in which the following
statement on international policy occurred:
The little countries must see that international ideas succeed first at home and
then in the world. It is important that, in all countries, workers be educated
with regard to the possibilities of the World Organization of Trade Union[s] which
will open up new horizons to the workers and permit them to work for the unifica
tion of the entire world.

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Labor Laws and Decisions

State Legislation on Labor R elations and D iscrim ina
tion in Em ploym ent, 1945 1
ALL but 6 of the 44 State legislatures meeting in 1945 considered bills
in the field of industrial relations. In contrast to the large number of
restrictive State laws passed in 1943,2 only 3 legislatures approved
laws of this type in 1945. This resulted despite the fact that the
majority of industrial relations bills introduced this year followed the
trend of previous legislative proposals to regulate or restrict labor
unions and their activities. South Dakota passed a “right to work”
law and proposed a constitutional amendment, similar to the Florida
“right to work” amendment of 1944, for submission to the next
general election. Hawaii and Puerto Rico adopted comprehensive
labor-relations laws which detail unfair labor practices of labor or
ganizations as well as of employers. The Hawaii law is modeled after
the Wisconsin Employment Peace Act of 1939. The Puerto Rico
law also prescribes stringent arbitration provisions, including com
pulsory arbitration during the war period in some industries, and
requires registration of unions and of collective-bargaining agreements.
Connecticut was the first State since 1941 to adopt “ a little Wagner
Act,” and a few States amended existing labor-relations laws. Several
States enacted laws in the field of conciliation and arbitration. North
Carolina established an arbitration service in its Labor Department,
Connecticut and New Jersey expanded their boards of mediation and
arbitration, and other States amended their arbitration and concilia
tion statutes.
Legislation designed to eliminate discriminatory employment prac
tices with regard to race, creed, color, or ancestry was introduced in
nearly half the States, and 5 States adopted laws in this field. New
York outlawed specified discriminatory employment practices of
employers, unions, and employment agencies, and became the first
State to establish a permanent full-time Commission Against Discrim
ination to administer its new act. A similar law approved in New
J ersey is administered by the Commissioner of Education with the
advice of a part-time council. Laws against discrimination adopted
in Indiana and Wisconsin empower the State Labor Departments to
hear cases of discrimination in employment and to make recommenda
tions to the parties or publicize their findings. A Utah law establishes
a legislative committee to investigate discrimination because of race,
creed, and color, and to recommend legislation.
1 Prepared by Ruth S. Spitz, Division of Labor Standards.
For a summary of 1943 legislation restricting or regulating union activities adopted in Alabama, Ar
kansas, Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, South Dakota, and
Texas, see M onthly Labor Review, M ay 1943 (p. 941) and October 1943 (p. 778),

984

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Labor Relations Acts
CONNECTICUT ACT

The Connecticut Labor Relations Act is modeled after the National
Labor Relations Act and generally follows the pattern of the “ little
Wagner Acts” of New York, Rhode Island, and Utah. The law
establishes a three-man Board of Labor Relations in the Department
of Labor and Factory Inspection to administer the act. The board is
appointed on a per diem basis, and selects an agent to act in its beha f
in investigation of complaints under the act.
The Connecticut law guarantees the rights of employees to organize
and bargain collectively, free from interference or coercion by em
ployers, and lists 10 unfair labor practices of employers. In addition
to the unfair practices specified in the National Labor Relations Act
the Connecticut law prohibits spying on employees, blacklisting,
requiring an employee to join a company union or to refrain from
joining a labor organization, and refusing to discuss grievances with
employee representatives. The State law also prescribes in greater
detail the affirmative action which it may require of employers found
to have committed an unfair labor practice, such as awarding back
pay and withdrawing recognition from any company union.
The procedures laid down in the National Labor Relations Act in
conducting elections for the determination of collective-bargaining
representatives are generally followed in the Connecticut law. How
ever, the State board is required to receive petitions for elections from
employers as well as from employees, although it need not conduct an
election solely on the request of an employer. The Connecticut act
also provides that company unions may not be placed on an election
ballot, and strikebreakers are forbidden from voting in elections. Like
the National Board, the State Labor Relations Board is authorized to
determine the appropriate collective-bargaining unit, but the State
act directs the board to designate a craft unit as appropriate if a
majority of the craft so requests. Excluded from coverage of the act
are persons subject to the National Labor Relations Act and the
Federal Railway Labor Act, employees of the State and of nonprofit
organizations, and persons in domestic and agricultural employment.
AMENDMENTS TO STATE LABOR RELATIONS LAWS

Several States amended their labor-relations acts in 1945. Wis
consin redefined “all-union agreement” in the State Employment
Peace Act to mean a collective-bargaining agreement in which all
or any of the employees are required to be members of a single labor
organization (thus covering maintenance of membership, whicii had
previously been excluded). Requirements for an all-union agreement
were changed from a three-fourths to a two-thirds vote, provided that
this vote constitutes a majority of the employees in the collective
bargaining unit. The State Employment Relations Board is also
authorized to establish collective-bargaining units covering employees
of more than one employer. Another amendment forbids the board
to entertain a petition for a referendum for an all-union agreement
unless the contracting parties have agreed to include such an agree
ment in their collective-bargaining contract.

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The Pennsylvania Labor Relations Act, as amended, provides that
if the majority ;of the employees of a particular craft, rather than a
majority of a craft union, desire a craft unit for collective-bargaining
purposes, the State Labor Relations Board shall designate that unit as
appropriate. Pennsylvania also modified the procedure for judicial
review of board orders, and Massachusetts redefined the coverage of
the State Labor Relations Act. New York increased the salaries of
members of the State Labor Relations Board from $7,500 to $10,000
per year.
The amendment to the Minnesota Labor Relations Act prohibits
any strike, boycott, or picketing during the certification period of a
collective-bargaining agency.
HAWAII ACT

The new Hawaii Employment Relations Act is modeled after the
Wisconsin Employment Peace Act of 1939, regulating the activities of
both employers and employees in collective bargaining and providing
controls on other union functions. A three-man Employment Rela
tions Board to administer the act is created, composed of representa
tives of industry, labor, and the public and paid on a per diem basis.
The act recognizes equally the right of employees to organize and bar
gain collectively and to refrain from such activities; it lists 11 unfair
labor practices of employers and 10 unfair practices of employees.
In addition to specifying a number of unfair practices of employers
listed in the National Labor Relations Act, the Hawaii act outlaws
entrance into an all-union agreement unless voted for by three-fourths
of the employees in the collective-bargaining unit, bargaining with less
than a majority of the employees in a bargaining unit, checking off
union dues or assessments without an individually signed order of the
employee, hiring labor spies, and blacklisting. The law authorizes
employers to permit employee organizational activities on company
premises, and the board is directed to terminate any all-union agree
ment not supported by the required three-fourths vote, or if it finds
that the union has unreasonably refused to admit any employee of the
employer as a member.
Among the prohibited employee practices are coercing an employee
in the enjoyment of his guaranteed rights, coercing an employer to
interfere with his employees’ rights or to engage in an unfair labor
practice, promoting picketing or boycotting unless a majority of the
employees in the collective-bargaining unit have voted by secret
ballot to call a strike, mass picketing, secondary boycotting, sit-down
strikes, and failure of employees in agriculture or dairying to give the
board 10 days’ notice of intent to strike.
Employees and employers are equally forbidden to violate the terms
of a collective-bargaining agreement and to refuse to accept the final
determination of any controversial employment-relations issue by the
Employment Relations Board or any tribunal with jurisdiction.
Additional controls on labor organizations include the requirement
that every employee collective-bargaining representative shall keep a
record of his financial transactions and present the members of his
organization with an annual detailed written financial report. All
labor organizations must file with the board their names, officers, and
affiliations.

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LABOR LAWS AND DECISIONS

987

Unlike the National Labor Relations Board, the Hawaii board, is
authorized to conduct elections for the determination of collectivebargaining representatives on petition either of employers or employ
ees; it may exclude from the ballot the name of any person deprived
of his rights under the act for having engaged in an unfair labor prac
tice; and it is also required to designate a craft unit as appropriate if
the majority of the employees of that craft so desire. In addition to
the usual penalties for violation of labor-relations laws, persons found
guilty of having committed an unfair labor practice may be deprived
of their rights and privileges under the act. The Hawaii law excludes
employers of less than eight employees, and domestic, supervisory,
executive, and some dairying employees.
PUERTO RICO ACT

The Puerto Rico Labor Relations Act similarly regulates the col
lective-bargaining activities of both employees and employers, re
quires registration of labor organizations and agreements, and includes
rigid arbitration provisions. A three-man Labor Relations Board
is" established, with a full-time chairman. Rights of employees to
organize and bargain collectively are recognized.
Among the 12 listed unfair labor practices of employers are those
forbidden in the National Labor Relations Act and also bargaining
with representatives of less than a majority of the employees in a
bargaining unit, checking off union dues or assessments without an
individually signed order of the employee which shall be terminable
annually on 30 days’ notice by the employee, hiring labor spies, and
blacklisting.
Employees, labor organizations, and employers are equally for
bidden to violate the terms of a collective-bargaining agreement, in
cluding an agreement to accept an arbitration award, to refuse to
accept as conclusive of any controversial employment relations issue
the final determination of any tribunal having jurisdiction, and to fail
to comply with the mediation and arbitration provisions of the act.
All labor organizations are required to register with the board their
names, officers, and affiliations, and to file with the board a certified
copy of every collective-bargaining contract entered into. Any labor
organization failing to comply may forfeit its right to petition or file
a complaint under the act. The board may terminate any all-union
agreement if it finds that the labor organization involved has unrea
sonably excluded from membership or hindered membership of any
employeee of the employer.
The Puerto Rico board conducts elections for the determination of
collective-bargaining representatives on petition of either employers
or employees, and the act specifies that the holding of one election
shall not be construed as preventing the conduct of another among
the same employees. The board may exclude from the ballot the
name of anjT- person deprived of his rights under the act for haying
engaged in an unfair labor practice, and may require representatives
of labor or management to prove their right to act in that capacity.
The Puerto Rico board, like the Hawaii board, may deprive a person,
found guilty of committing an unfair labor practice, of his rights and
privileges under the act for not more than 1 year. The act also pro
vides penalties for employers found guilty of failing to comply with an

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L A B O R R E V IE W — N O V E M B E R

1945

order of the National Labor Relations Act. The law applies to all
nonsupervisory and nonexecutive employees, with the exception of
domestics and employees of the Puerto Rican Government.
Conciliation , M ediation , and Arbitration Laws

North Carolina established an Arbitration Service in the State De
partment of Labor, to be administered by the Labor Commissioner.
Controversies regarding wages, hours, or working conditions may be
submitted voluntarily by both parties to an arbitrator appointed by
the commissioner, or to a five-man arbitration panel composed of two
members chosen by the empioyees, two chosen by the employer, and
the remaining member selected by the commissioner. The act makes
detailed provision for submission of the dispute, hearings, and issuance
of the arbitration report, and authorizes the commissioner to make the
report public.
New Jersey increased the membership of the State Board of Medi
ation from five to seven members, with two members representing
employers, two representing employees, and three representing the
public. Members of the board are to be paid on a per diem basis,
and the compensation of any one member is limited to $5,000 per year.
Each member of the board is required to represent the same group in
all proceedings of this or any other public board dealing with indus
trial relations.
Connecticut amended its arbitration and mediation law to provide
for the appointment of an alternate for each member of the Board of
Mediation and Arbitration. The labor alternate must be a member
of a different national labor organization from the organization to
which the labor member belongs. The law authorizes the board to
require alternate members to sit with it in hearings and deciding dis
putes, and provides that the alternate shall sit in place of the member
if so requested by the party to the dispute representing the same
interest.
An amendment to the Maine law requires that the chairman of
the State Board of Arbitration and Conciliation shall represent the
public. The board is authorized to subpena parties to a dispute,
and its arbitration decision is to be binding only if the parties agree to
abide by it. The New Hampshire arbitration law was amended to
provide that the law shall apply only to those labor arbitration agree
ments which specifically state that they are subject to the law.
The new Puerto Rico Labor Relations Act includes a plan of compul
sory conciliation and compulsory arbitration in certain industries. In
any electric-power or water-supply utility, or enterprise engaged in the
care of the sick, for the duration of the war and 6 months thereafter, notice
of any labor dispute not settled by collective bargaining must be served
on the Director of Conciliation of the Department of Labor. If after
20 days from the date of notice the Director of Conciliation has been
unable to secure a settlement, the parties have the alternative of
selecting an arbitrator who shall make a binding decision. If the
parties are unable to agree upon the designation of an arbitrator, the
director notifies the Labor Relations Board, and the board appoints
a three-man arbitration panel representing labor, management, and
the public. The arbitration panel is required to hold a public hearing
and issue a majority decision within 30 days, which is binding.

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The Puerto Rico Labor Relations Board is also empowered to hold
public hearings and promulgate rules for conciliation, mediation, and
voluntary arbitration for any other industries, enterprises, and services.
Such rules have the effect of law until disapproved by the Puerto Rico
Legislature. Failure to comply with any of the above provisions is an
unfair labor practice under the act.
The new Employment Relations Act of Hawaii creates the office of
conciliator in the Employment Relations Board. Upon receipt of any
notice of a dispute, the board is required to refer it to the conciliator
who shall endeavor to conciliate and settle the disagreement. If after
10 days, or an additional 10 days if agreed to by the parties, the con
ciliator is unable to settle the dispute, he must certify it back to the
board.
"Right to Work ” Legislation

So-called “right to work” legislation, introduced in almost identical
pattern in at least 11 States this year, in the form either of a proposed
law or of a constitutional amendment, was adopted in South Dakota.
The act bans virtually every type of union-security clause—closed,
union, or maintenance-of-membership shop—under the provision that
“no person shall be denied employment because of membership in or
affiliation with or resignation from a labor union, or because of refusal
to join or affiliate with a labor union; nor shall any corporation or
individual or association of any kind enter into any contract written
or oral, to exclude from employment members of a labor union or
persons who refuse to join a labor union or because of resignation from
a labor union.” Violation is a misdemeanor, punishable by possible
$300 fine, 90-day imprisonment, or both.
The South Dakota Legislature also approved a proposed constitu
tional amendment, similar to the Florida amendment of 1944. The
amendment, which will be submitted to the next general election,
reads: “ The right of persons to work shall not be denied or abridged
on account of membership or nonmembership in any labor union, or
labor organization.”
Seniority of Veterans

A new Rhode Island law greatly extends the seniority rights of hon
orably discharged veterans of World War II in reemployment, and in
employment on a new job. Veterans applying for new employment
within 1 year after discharge shall possess and be given credit for
seniority rights equal to the time in the armed forces. The act also
increases to 1 year the 90-day period provided in the Selective Service
Act as the period after discharge in which a veteran upon reemploy
ment by a prior employer, shall be given seniority rights equal to the
time served in the armed forces, in addition to the seniority rights
held when he left that employment for the service. Veterans of other
wars are the only persons exempt from the effects of such preference,
although the law authorizes any World War II veteran to waive any
of his rights granted in the act.
Violation of the law is a misdemeanor, punishable by fine of not
more than $1,000.

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1945

Legislation Against Discrimination in Employment
NEW YORK LAW

New York was the first State to approve a comprehensive act
prohibiting discrimination in employment. Similar in form and
administration to the State “little Wagner Act” but with added
emphasis on education and conciliation as a means of remedying
discriminatory practices, the act creates a five-man full-time Com
mission Against Discrimination. The law asserts the right of oppor
tunity for employment without discrimination because of race, creed,
color, or national origin, and lists a series of unlawful employment
practices applying to employers, labor organizations, and employ
ment agencies. “National origin” is defined to include ancestry.
Employers are forbidden to discharge or discriminate against any
person in compensation, terms, or privileges of employment, because
of race, creed, color, or national origin. Labor organizations are
prohibited from excluding or expelling from membership or from
discriminating against any of their members, any employer or any
of his employees, for these reasons. Printing or circulating any state
ment or advertisement, inquiry, or the use of any form of application
which expresses any limitation or discrimination unless based on a
bona fide occupational qualification, is forbidden to employers and
employment agencies. Employers, labor organizations, and employ
ment agencies are also prohibited from discriminating against any
person for opposing practices forbidden by the act or for filing a
complaint or testifying under the act. Outlawed also is the attempt
by any person to aid, compel, or coerce performance of any acts
forbidden by the law.
The commission is authorized to create advisory agencies and con
ciliation councils to study the problems of discrimination and to
recommend policies and educational programs, and the commission
itself is empowered to issue publications and research reports for the
promotion of good will and the elimination of discrimination. It
is also directed to utilize the services of other government agencies.
Complaints of unlawful employment practices are received and
investigated by the commission, and if it determines that the com
plaint may be justified it endeavors to eliminate the unlawful em
ployment practice by confidential conference and conciliation. If
the unlawful practice cannot be eliminated in this manner, the com
mission may hold hearings, issue cease-and-desist orders, and require
the person complained of to take affirmative action to eliminate
the practice. Review and enforcement of commission orders by the
courts are provided through procedure similar to that under the State
Labor Relations Act. Willful violation of the commission’s orders
is a misdemeanor, punishable by fine, imprisonment, or both. The
act applies to employers of six or more employees, but excludes var
ious educational, social, and nonprofit organizations, and domestic
employees.
NEW JERSEY LAW

A similar statute adopted in New Jersey declares that the oppor
tunity to obtain employment without discrimination because of race,
creed, color, national origin, or ancestry is a civil right. Adminis
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LABOR LAWS AND DECISIONS

991

tration of the law is placed in a new Division Against Discrimination
in the State Department of Education. The division is composed
of the Commissioner of Education and a seven-man advisory council.
The law also creates the full-time position of Assistant Commissioner
of Education who is to act for the commissioner in the division.
The council is directed to create advisory agencies and concilia
tion councils to study the problems of discrimination and to recom
mend policies and educational programs for their elimination. The
Commissioner of Education is empowered to issue such publications
and research reports for the promotion of good will and the elimina
tion of discrimination as the council may direct. He is also directed
to maintain liaison with other local, State, and Federal agencies
concerned with the work of the division.
The New Jersey law specifies unlawful employment practices of
employers, labor organizations, and employment agencies similar
to those listed above in the New York statute. Procedure for the
receipt and investigation of complaints of such practices, their elimi
nation by conciliation, and the holding of hearings and issuance of
orders by the commissioner is also like that outlined for the New
York law. The New Jersey law provides for enforcement of the
commissioner’s orders by court injunction. Willful violation of
orders of the commissioner is a misdemeanor, and penalties are pro
vided. The law applies to employers of six or more employees, but
exempts domestic workers and nonprofit organizations.
INDIANA AND WISCONSIN LAWS

Indiana and Wisconsin also passed laws against discrimination,
which stress voluntary compliance with the purpose of the legisla
tion and elimination of discriminatory practices and their causes by
educational measures. The Indiana law declares the right of oppor
tunity to obtain employment without discrimination because of
race, creed, color, national origin, or ancestry. The Commissioner
of Labor of Indiana (with the advice of a legislative board) and the
Wisconsin Industrial Commission (with the advice of a committee
representing labor, industry, and the public) are directed to study
discrimination with regard to race, creed, color, national origin, or
ancestry, and to publish reports, formulate programs, ^ and inake
recommendations to the legislatures for its elimination. These
agencies are also empowered to provide technical assistance to per
sons and agencies for the elimination of discrimination, to receive
and investigate complaints of discriminatory practices, to hold hear
ings and to make recommendations to the parties. The Wisconsin
law authorizes the Industrial Commission to publicize its findings
in complaint cases. Both acts exempt nonprofit organizations.
W W W #

Legislative Sessions in 1946
IN 1946 regular legislative sessions will be held in only 8 Slates
(Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, New York, Rhode Island, South
Carolina and Virginia) and in Puerto Rico. Most of the States, as
well as Alaska and Hawaii, hold biennial sessions and meet m oddnumbered years. The second session of the 79th Congress will con
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992

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

vene on January 3, 1946, unless the date of meeting is previously
changed by act of Congress.
The length of the legislative sessions meeting in 1946 is limited to
60 days in Kentucky, Louisiana, and Virginia. In Virginia, however,
the session may be extended for 30 additional days, but the legislators
are not paid for the additional service. In other States there is no
limit on the length of the session. All these State legislatures will
assemble in January, with the exception of the Louisiana legislature
which meets in May.
The following table shows the State legislatures meeting in regular
session in 1946 as well as the date of convening and the length of the
session.
Dates Set by Law for Convening of State Legislatures

State

Kentucky____
Louisiana____
Mississippi___
New Jersey___
New York____
Rhode Island . _
South Carolina
Virginia______

Time of assembly

Tuesday after first M onday in January__
Second M onday in M ay
Tuesday after first Monday in January__
Second Tuesday in January __
First Wednesday in January
First Tuesday in January
Second Tuesday in January
Second Wednesday in January. . .

Date of
conven Length of
ing 1946 session
session
Jan.
M ay
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.

8
13
8
8
9
1
8
9

60 days.
Do.
No limit
Do.
Do.
D o.1
D o.2
60 days.3

1
2

Pay of legislators limited to 60 days.
Pay of legislators limited to 40 days.
O0 d*ayiT
ex^cn^e^
days by a three-fifths vote in each house, but pay of legislators is limited to

R ecent Decisions of In terest to Labor 1
National War Labor Board Decisions

SICK-LEAVE plan in hazardous industry denied.—The National
\\a r Labor Board, in In re J-M Service Corp. (Kansas Ordnance
riant, Case No. 111-6983-D, August 5, 1945), reversed one of its
regional boards and denied a sick-leave plan, even though such plans
were the general practice in other ordnance plants. The National
Board based its decision on the fact that the company already had
a sick-leave plan which provided for two-thirds pay, up to 6 days’
time lost because of industrial accidents, and also paid part of the
cost of group insurance which covered nonindustrial illness.
Compromise back pay where both parties at fault.—-An employee was
discharged for refusing to leave one job, to which her seniority entitled
her, and take over another job, when rates on the other job were al
ready being negotiated between the company and the union. The
Regional Labor Relations Board held that both sides were at fault.2
The employee should have accepted the transfer and then filed a
grievance through the usual procedure. On the other hand, the com1Prepared in the Office of the Solicitor, Department of Labor. The cases covered in this article represent
alfrecen^b/dipfal1In)?0 1 V.clslons believed to be of special interest. No attempt has been made toPreflect
nrHm u ! . - f
^'bpynjstrative developments in the field of labor law nor to indicate the effect of
provisions dfh l
'?lctl,ons 111 Ahltch contraly results may be reached, based upon local statutory
provisions, the existence of local precedents, or a different approach by the courts to the issue presented
In re Champion Spark Plug Co., Cases Nos. 1 1 1 -1 2 3 5 5 -D and 1 1 1 - 1 2 2 4 8 -D , July 27, 1945.

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LABOR

LAW S

AND

D E C IS IO N S

993

pany should not have insisted on a transfer when negotiations over
rates were being carried on. As a result, the regional board issued an
order directing that the employee be reinstated with full seniority but
only “one-half of the difference between the amount she would nor
mally have earned during such period and the amount she actually
did earn at other employment.” This order was affirmed by the
National Board.
National Labor Relations Board Decisions

Strikers eligible to vote, even though temporarily employed elsewhere.—
The National Labor Relations Board ruled that employees who went
on strike and were temporarily employed elsewhere were still eligible
to vote in the plant where the strike was being carried on.3 The com
pany contended that the employees, to get other employment, would
first have to quit, but the Board took the position that the employees,
using the U. S. Employment Service referral system, had applied in
each case for temporary employment. Thus, the employees neither
abandoned the strike nor lost their status as employees of the company.
Individual dealings on subjects being negotiated by union.—The Na
tional Labor Relations Board ruled that an employer cannot insist
that employees see him personally concerning matters which are
already being negotiated through a union committee.4 The Board
further held that the employer must reinstate, with back wages, an
employee discharged for insubordination because he refused to appear
individually. The employer contested the payment of back wages,
stating that the employee had been offered—but refused—a job in
another department. The Board, however, held that the offer did
not constitute reinstatement in an equivalent job and was conditioned
on the union’s agreeing that the discharge had been justified; such
limitations invalidated a reinstatement offer, as they were merely a
means of avoiding the payment of back wages.
Discharge of employee unable to live on salary is discrimination.—The National Labor Relations Board, in In re Chase National Bank,
63 NLRB 101, upon determining that the bank’s operations affect
commerce within the meaning of the National Labor Relations Act,
held that the bank had been guilty of unfair labor practices. Not
only had it interfered with efforts to unionize its employees and urged
them to withdraw from the union, but it had also discharged a union
organizer when he complained he could not live on his salary. De
spite the bank’s defense that it was against its policy to retain an em
ployee who lived beyond his means, the records showed that the bank
was aware of this employee’s leadership in organizing other em
ployees and failed to show similar discharges for the reason claimed
as its defense.
Veterans’ Rights
Superseniority upheld in court.—In a recent case5 the Brooklyn
Federal Court in effect upheld the rule of “superseniority” of veterans
having reemployment rights under the Selective Training and Service
Act, announced by Selective Service officials. The court ruled that
3 In re Norris, Inc. & Bakery & Confectionery Workers International Union of America, 63 N L R B 78.
* Ross Gear & Tool Co., 63 N L R B 158, Sept. 20, 1945.
6 Fishgold v. Sullivan Drydock & Repair Corp., U . S. D ist. Ct., E. D . N . Y ., Aug. 30, 1945.

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994

M ONTHLY

L A B O R R E V IE W — N O V E M B E R

1945

the act gives veterans an absolute right to their former jobs, even
though it may mean displacement of nonveterans with greater senior
ity rights, in violation of contract seniority provisions.
The court refused to take into consideration the employment con
tract, saying that the veterans’ rights are based not on collective bar
gaining but on the Selective Training and Service Act.
The union involved, Industrial Union of Marine & Shipbuilding
Workers of America (CIO), has asked for an appeal.
Two court rulings on veterans' job rights.—The District Court for the
Western District of Washington ruled 6that an employee who made an
application within 90 days of his release from a civilian job which he
had held while subject to being recalled into the service, was entitled
to reinstatement in the job he had held before entering the armed
services. The court based its ruling on the ground that the 90-day
requirement in the Selective Training and Service Act requires the
veteran to apply for his former job within 90 days of his final dis
charge from the armed services and not 90 days after discharge from
active duty while remaining subject to recall.
The second decision, handed down by the District Court of Mas
sachusetts,7held that when two veterans apply for the same job they
both held before induction, the employer is obligated only to the first
holder of the job and does not have to reemploy the sec'ond applicant.
Veterans denied greater rights than those given by Selective Service
Act.—-The National War Labor Board, following recommendations
of its panel, in In re New York, New Jersey Milk Distributors (Case
No. 111-11797-D, July 25, 1945), denied the union’s request for
inclusion of the following: “Any returning veteran may have his old
job back. If this job has been eliminated he shall be entitled to dis
place any man junior to him in the same craft.” The Board ruled
that it was undesirable to direct one employer to make certain com
mitments not required of others by law.
In a decision on a similar case, J. H. Williams <& Co. (Case No.
111-12858-D (1659), Sept. 5, 1945) a regional board overruled a
recommendation of its panel and permitted a union clause providing
that honorably discharged veterans who had not been employed by
the company prior to entering the service are to be credited with senior
ity equivalent to their service time after a 30-day trial period with the
company.
In both cases the panel had been of the opinion that the requests
went beyond the intent and requirements of the Selective Training
and Service Act.
Decisions on Fair Labor Standards Act

Agreement in ^settlement oj overtime pay due held invalid.—-The
Circuit Court of Appeals, Third Circuit, held that a wage increase,
granted under a collective-bargaining agreement to employees in “full
settlement and satisfaction of all their claims, if any, for overtime,”
is not a settlement of the employees’ claims to unpaid overtime and
liquidated damages under the Fair Labor Standards Act.8 The court
based its decision on the U. S. Supreme Court’s decisions in Brooklyn
J Tipper v. Northern Pacific Railway Co., Dist Ct., W. D . Wash., Aug. 17, 1945.
‘ bolymon v. London Coat of Boston, Inc., Dist. Ct. of Mass., Sept. 25,1945.
8Watkins v. Hudson Coal Co., 8 Wage Hour Rept. 918 (C. C. A. 3, 1945).

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LA B O R L A W S A N D

D E C IS IO N S

995

Dime Savings Bank v. O'Neil and its companion cases; it held that a
waiver by an employee, even by a release under seal, of his rights against
an employer under the act is not effective to bar him from subsequent
assertion of those rights. The court observed that under such an
agreement, the employee would have to remain in the company’s
employ an indefinite time in order to recover pay justly due. The
right to recover such pay is an individual right to be exercised by the
individual employee and cannot be settled, compromised, or enforced
through collective bargaining.
Changing time records without employee's knowledge held illegal.—The
Circuit of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit ruled that office employees
of a “ drive-it-yourself ” company, which services and repairs trucks
and automobiles in connection with renting them for interstate use,
are covered by the Fair Labor Standards Act.9 The company was
held to be guilty of maintaining false records because a branch manager
changed the hours recorded on time cards solely on a supervisor’s
opinion that the employees involved had not actually worked the
hours recorded. This, said the court, was capricious and sufficient to
warrant the charge of keeping false records, even though there was no
intent on the part of the company to cheat the employee and the com
pany fully intended to pay for all hours actually worked. The court
further held that the branch manager as well as the company was
subject to the penalty, as the branch manager came within the terms
“ employer” and the company was liable for the acts of its agents.
Burden oj proof of exemption is on employer.—The Circuit Court,
reversing the decision of the District Court, held that a chain-store
system, selling musical instruments in several States and Canada
and fed by a single wholesale establishment, cannot be considered
‘retail” in its entirety and thus exempted from the wage and hour
provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act.10 The court based its
decision on the case of Phillips v. Walling, 65 Sup. Ct. 807 11 in which
chain stores were held to be hybrid retail-wholesale organizations
possessing the essential characteristics of both wholesaler and retailer.
Where it is necessary to construe the act, “ the court must assume
that all employees in interstate commerce,” within reason, should be
made subject to the statute unless expressly excluded, and employers
claiming exemption for themselves or their employees must support
their claim within the letter and spirit of the exemptions provided
by the act. These exemptions are to be strictly construed.
Right offree speech does not include picketing employers' customers—In
Gulf OH Co. v. International Brotherhood of Teamsters, et al. 57 N. Y . S.
(2d) 24, the court held that in a case in which a collective-bargaining
agreement, properly certified, had never been modified, the certified
union represented the majority, and any picketing by the unsuccessful
union could not be termed a “ labor dispute.” The unsuccessful union
might picket the employer; but it had no right to picket customers of
the employer, carrying signs containing untrue accusations that he
was unfair to organized labor.
9 Hertz Drivurself Stations, Inc. v. United States, 8 Wage Hour Rept. 900 (C. C. A. 8, 1945).
i° Fletcher v. Grinnell Bros. 150 Fed. (2d) 337.
n Discussed in M onthly Review, M ay 1945 (p. 1048).

6 7 0 1 1 9 - 45 -

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E m ployed Youth

Student W orkers in New Y ork State 1
IN May 1944, in 9 up-State cities in New York, approximately 40
percent of the high-school children under 18 years of age were gain
fully employed and were also attending school, as shown in the accom
panying table. They had taken all kinds of jobs, frequently “with
more zeal than judgment, more ambition than aptitude, and with
too little consideration of the amount of time that should be spent on
their education.”
Proportion of High-School Students Employed, by Sex and Age, in 9 Up-State New York
Cities, M ay 1944
High-school students
surveyed
Age

Boys

Employed
Total

Girls

Employed
Total

N um
ber

Per
cent

6,179

2,584

41.8

2,983

1,490

49.9

3,196

1,094

34.2

Under 18 years____________________ 5,627
Under 14 years________________
80
14 and 15 y e a r s _______________ 2, 381
16 years__________ __ _______ 1,741
17 years_________________ _____ 1,425
18 years and over_________________
530

2,295
21
702
809
763
278

40.8
26.3
29.5
46.5
53.5
52.5

2,741
31
1,115
899
696
227

1,360
12
471
466
411
120

49.6
38.7
42.2
51.8
59.1
52.9

2,886
49
1, 266
842
729
303

935
9
231
343
352
158

32.4
18.4
18.2
40.7
48.3
52.1

All ages 1____ _____________ _______

N um
ber

Employed
Total

Per
cent

N um
ber

Per
cent

1 Includes 22 who did not report age.

The average hours of work for the 16- and 17-year-olds were ap
proximately 20 per week, but about 15 percent of the youngsters in
this age group were employed more than 28 hours per week—the
maximum standard for these ages, recommended by the U. S. Chil
dren’s Bureau, the U. S. Office of Education, the War Manpower
Commission, the War and Navy Departments, the Maritime Com
mission, and the War Production Board. Over 30 percent of the
high-school students 14 and 15 years of age worked beyond the 18hour standard established for them, and almost 50 percent of the
children under 18 had over 48 hours of school and work combined.
The standards specify that daily hours of employment on school days should
not exceed 4 for students 16 and 17 years of age, and should not exceed 3 for
students aged 14 and 15. B ut a third of these 16- and 17-year-olds in New York
State' work from 5 to 9 hours ?on 1 or more school days, and 30 percent of the
14- and 15-year-old children spend more than 3 hours at work on school days.
i
Data are from Student Workers in New York State (Albany, N ew York Department of Labor, Division
of Women, Child Labor and Minimum Wage, 1945).

996

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EMPLOYED YOUTH

997

Large numbers were employed until 10, 11, and 12 o’clock at
night—a few even after midnight. Some worked 7 days per week,
which is against the law. Many apparently held jobs that in some
way violated the State’s protective laws.
These young persons were to a great extent employed in stores,
although over a third of the older boys were reported as working in
factories. The younger girls were frequently engaged as “ baby
sitters.”
About 66 percent of the young persons earned less than $10 a week,
and more than 25 percent less than $5. (However, a considerable
number of the older boys received $30, $40, or more per week in
full-time employment.) In hourly rates, 5 percent received under 25
cents per hour, and 60 percent under 50 cents. Median wages for the
boys were 54 cents and for the girls 38 cents per hour.
The students are beginning now to stop and consider the situation a little more
carefully before taking on outside work. They are recognizing somewhat more
clearly the importance of their school education and so are showing a tendency
to continue in school rather than to drop out, and to take on less-heavy jobs.
High-school enrollment is now holding its own somewhat better and school
attendance is improving in some small degree.

It seems to be generally agreed that many times health has been
adversely affected by the school-plus-job load, although this is no
easy matter to measure. Grades are very obviously affected when the
student is employed for a long period in addition to his school duties.
Although the number of high-school students working in the fall of
1944 appeared to be approximately the same as in the spring of that
year, records of the offices issuing certificates showed a decline in the
number of “ working papers” distributed, which indicated a definite
slowing down of student employment.

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W age and Hour Statistics

T rend of Factory Earnings, 1939 to A ugust 1945
THE published average earnings of factory workers are summarized
in the accompanying table for selected months from January 1939 to
August 1945.1 The earnings shown in this table are on a gross basis
(i. e., before deductions for social security, income and victory taxes,
bond purchases, etc.).
Weekly earnings in all manufacturing averaged $41.81 in August
1945—80.3 percent above the average in January 1939 and 56.9
percent above January 1941. Weekly pay for August 1945 was at a
relatively low level as compared with the same month of 1944, since
the average workweek was shortened by 4}£ hours as a result of a
2-day observance of the Japanese surrender. With the ending of the
war, hours of work are gradually being reduced. However, the
average earnings of factory workers in August were still higher than
before the war, as a result of such wartime factors as changing com
position of the labor force within plants, shifts in the distribution of
workers among plants and among industries, as well as wage-rate
increases.
Gross hourly earnings in all manufacturing averaged 102.5 cents in
August 1945; this was 62.2 percent above the average in January
1939, 50.1 percent above January 1941, and 14.8 percent above
October 1942.
Straight-time average hourly earnings, as shown in columns 7 to
9, are weighted by man-hours of employment in the major divisions
of manufacturing for January 1941. These earnings are estimated to
exclude premium pay at time and a half for work in excess of 40 hours.
However, the effect of extra pay for work on supplementary shifts
and on holidays is included. For this reason, straight time earnings
data are not presented for August 1945 when the hourly earnings were
inflated by premium payments for work on the double holiday,
celebrating the Japanese surrender.
1 Compare Trends in Factory Wages, 1939-43, in M onthly Labor Review, November 1943 (pp. 869-884),
especially table 4 (p. 879). For detailed data regarding weekly earnings, see Detailed Reports for Industrial
and Business Employment, July 1945, table 6 (p. 1045), in this issue.

998

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999

WAGE AND HOUR STATISTICS
Earnings of Factory Workers in Selected Months, 1939 to August 1945

Average weekly
earnings

Estimated straight-time
average hourly earn
ings 1 weighted by
January 1941 employ
ment

Average hourly
earnings

M onth and year
All
manu
factur
ing

Dura
ble
goods

Non
dura
ble
goods

All
manu
factur
ing

Dura
ble
goods

N on
dura
ble
goods

All
manu
factur
ing

Dura
ble
goods

N on
dura
ble
goods

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

1939: January_____ _____
1940: January— _ ________
1941: January____ ___

$23.19
24. 56
26.64

$25. 33
27.39
30.48

$21. 57
22.01
22. 75

$0. 632
.655
.683

$0. 696
.717
.749

$0. 583
.598
.610

$0. 641
.652
.664

$0. 702
. 708
.722

$0. 575
.589
.601

1942: January.. _____ .
J u ly ............. ... ..............
October..
. . ___

33. 40
36. 43
38.89

38. 98
42.51
45. 31

26.97
28.94
30. 66

.801
.856
.893

.890
.949
.990

.688
.725
.751

.751
.783
.807

.826
.863
.888

.668
.696
.718

1943: January.. .
. ____
A pril.................. ..... .
July________________
October . . . . .
. _
D ecem b er__________

40. 62
42.48
42.76
44. 86
44.58

46. 68
48.67
48. 76
51. 26
50. 50

32.10
33. 58
34.01
35. 18
35.61

.919
.944
.963
.988
.995

1.017
1.040
1.060
1.086
1. 093

.768
.790
.806
.824
.832

.819
.833
.850
.863
.873

.905
.916
.939
.950
.962

.726
.742
.753
.768
.775

1944: January . .
A p ril... .
_______
July________________
October.. . . .
... .
December___ .

45.29
45. 55
45. 43
46.94
47.44

51. 21
51. 67
51.07
53.18
53.68

36.03
36.16
37.05
37.97
38.39

1. 002
1.013
1.018
1.031
1. 040

1.099
1.110
1. 116
1.129
1.140

.838
.850
.862
.878
.883

.877
.889
.901
.908
.912

.965
.976
.993
.991
.997

.780
.794
.802
.817
.820

1945: January — . . .
April .. . _________
June_____ _________
J u ly 2_______________
A u gu st2____ ________

47. 50
47.12
46. 32
45. 42
41.81

53. 54
52.90
51.74
50. 60
45.89

38.66
38.80
38.95
38.58
36.61

1.046
1.044
1.038
1.032
1. 025

1.144
1.138
1.130
1.126
1.114

.891
.899
.904
.902
.908

.920
.925
.931
.933
(3)

1. 005
1.007
1.012
1.017
(3)

.827
.836
.842
.842
(3)

1 Average hourly earnings, excluding premium pay for overtime, weighted by man-hours of employment
in the major divisions of the manufacturing industry for January 1941.
2 Preliminary.
3 Straight-time average hourly earnings will not be available for August 1945 inasmuch as the adjustment
factor used to estimate these figures is not applicable when the pay-roll period includes holidays.

H ours and E arnings in the U nited Kingdom , January
1945 1
THE tenth in a series of studies covering 16 manufacturing and nonmanufacturing industries in the United Kingdom shows that the
first wartime decline in average weekly earnings of manual workers
occurred during January 1945. This was entirely the result of a
reduction in working time, as average hourly earnings remained the
same as in July 1944. Returns suitable for tabulation were furnished
by 53,300 establishments and covered over 5y2 million wage earners,
excluding those in agriculture, coal mining, railway service, shipping,
dock labor, the distributive trades, catering, entertainment, commerce
and banking, and domestic service.
Average weekly earnings at the time of the 10 investigations are
shown in table 1, covering the period from October 1938 to January
1945. Where available, averages are given for hours worked per
week and hourly earnings. Statistics cover all workers combined,
and also adult males and females and youths and boys and girls
separately. For purposes of analysis, the Ministry of Labor counted
i Information is from Great Britain, M inistry of Labor Gazette (London), August 1945 (p. 130).

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1000

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1945

two part-time women, each of whom worked not more than 30 hours
a week and entered the employment of the firms after July 1941, as
one full-time-worker.
T able 1.—Hours and Earnings in 16 Manufacturing and Nonmanufacturing Industries
in the United Kingdom in Selected Periods
Month

All work Men (21 Youths Women Girls (un
and boys (18 and
ers
and over) (under
der 18)
21) over)
Average weekly hours worked

October 1938...................... ........................... .......................
July 1943_______________________________________
January 1944. _______ ______
_____________
July 1 9 4 4 . ____________________________ _____ _
January 1945____________________________________

46.5
50.0
49.2
48.6
47.0

47.7
52.9
52.0
51.2
49.4

46.2
48.0
47.1
46.7
45.2

43.5
45.9
45.2
44.6
43.1

44.6
45.1
44.6
44.2
43.0

Average hourly earnings 1

October 1938______________ ____ ___ ______
____
July 1943_______________________________________
January 1944____________________________________
July 1944__________________________________ ____
January 1945____________________________________

s.
1
1
1
1
1

d.
1.7
10.5
11.3
11.9
11.9

s.
1
2
2
2
2

d.
5.4
3.5
4.5
5.1
5.0

d.
6.8
11.8
11.9
1
.2
11.7

s.
1
1
1
1

d.
9.0
4.3
4.9
5.3
5.6

Average weekly earnings 1

October 1938_____ _______________________________
July 1940________ ______________________ _______
July 1941___________ ____ _ ____________________
January 1942
______ _______________________
July 1942__________________________ _____ ________
January 1943 __________ ______________________
July 1943____________ _____________ ____ _________
January 1944____________________________________
July 1944______________ _________________________
January 1945 - __________________________________

s. d.
53 3
69 2
75 10
77 9
85 2
87 11
93 7
95 7
96 8
93 9

s.
69
89
99
102
111
113
121
123
124
119

d.
—
—
5
—
5
9
3
8
4
3

s. d.
26 1
35 1
41 11
42 6
46 2
45 1
47 2
46 10
47 4
44 1

s. d.
32 6
38 11
43 11
47 6
54 2
58 6
62 2
63 9
64 3
63 2

d.
5.0
9.0
9.2
9.5
9.4

*
s.
18
22
25
26
30
32
33
34
34
33

d.
6
4
—
10
3
1
10
3
11
8

1 E a r n i n g s a r e s h o w n i n B r i t i s h c u r r e n c y , t h e o f fic ia l e x c h a n g e r a t e o f t h e p o u n d b e i n g $4 ,0 3 5 i n U . S .
m o n e y ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 20 c e n t s t o t h e s h i l l i n g a n d 1.6 7 c e n t s t o t h e p e n n y ) . A l t h o u g h t h e e x c h a n g e r a te
d o e s n o t a c c u r a t e l y m e a s u r e t h e r e l a t i v e p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r i n t h e t w o c o u n t r ie s n o o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n
is a v a ila b le s h o w in g t h e r e la t iv e l iv in g c o s ts .

Between October 1938 and January 1945, the rise in average weekly
earnings for all age classes of workers increased by 76 percent, or
from 53s. 3d. to 93s. 9d.2 Factors in the advance were the changes
which took place in the relative proportions of men, boys, women,
and girls employed in each of the various groups of industries. The
proportion of men declined from between 61 and 62 percent of the
total in October 1938 to approximately 60 percent in January 1945;
that of boys from 12 to 9 percent; and that of girls from 7 to 4 y2 per
cent; while the proportion of women increased from 20 percent to
about 27. If the distribution had remained as it was on the earlier
date, the percentage increase in weekly earnings for all groups taken
together would have been greater. According to the Ministry of
Labor, the wage rise reflects a number of other influences, including
higher rates of pay, fuller employment with longer working hours
and more night shifts, and the extension of piece work and bonus
payments with increased output by the workers affected. Changes
2 T h e a v e r a g e s fo r “ a ll w o r k e r s ” w e r e c a lc u l a t e d b y a p p l y i n g t h e t o t a l n u m b e r s e m p l o y e d i n e a c h i n d u s t r y
t o t h e a v e r a g e e a r n in g s o f a l l t h e w o r k e r s c o v e r e d b y t h e r e t u r n s r e c e i v e d fo r t h a t i n d u s t r y ; t h o s e fo r m e n
( i n t a b l e s 1 a n d 2) b y a p p l y i n g t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f m e n e m p l o y e d t o t h e a v e r a g e e a r n in g s o f t h e m e n c o v
e r e d b y t h e r e t u r n s r e c e i v e d ; t h e s a m e m e t h o d w a s u s e d fo r y o u t h s , b o y s , w o m e n , a n d g ir ls .

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1001

WAGE AND HOUR STATISTICS

in wage rates alone were estimated to be responsible for a 38- to
39-percent rise.
During the periods for which information is available regarding
hours worked per week, the January 1945 average of 47 hours is
lower than for any other wartime week. The result of the reduction
of 1.6 hours between July 1944 and January 1945 was that weekly
earnings dropped nearly 3s.; average hourly earnings remained at
the highest recorded level of Is. 11.9d.
Hours of work and hourly and weekly earnings are shown in table 2
for each of the 16 industry groups in January 1945, by sex and age
groups. Average hours worked ranged from 43.0 in the clothing in
dustry to 49.7 in transport, storage, etc. (excluding railways). Hourly
and weekly earnings were also lowest in the clothing industry (Is. 4.3d.
and 58s. 6d., respectively), and highest in Government industrial
establishments (2s. 3.5d. and Ills. 9d., respectively). For adult males,
hours of work and weekly earnings were highest in Government in
dustrial establishments (51.7s and 131s. 6d., respectively), but the
highest hourly earnings (2s. 8d.) were paid to men in the metal,
engineering, and shipbuilding industry.
T

ab le

2 . —Hours and Earnings in 16 Manufacturing and Nonmanufacturing Industries

in the United Kingdom, January 1945
Industry group

Youths Women
Girls
All
Men (21 and
boys (18 and (under
18)
workers and over) (under
21) over)

A v e r a g e w e e k l y h o u r s w o r k e d _______________ _________

47.0

49.4

45.2

I r o n , s t o n e , e t c . , m i n i n g a n d q u a r r y i n g _______ ________
T r e a t m e n t of n o n m e t a l l if e r o u s m i n e a n d q u a r r y
p r o d u c t s ---------------------------------- ------------ -----------------------B r i c k , p o t t e r y , a n d g l a s s . .........................................- .................
C h e m i c a l s , p a i n t , o i l, e t c .................................... .........................
M e t a l , e n g in e e r in g , a n d s h i p b u i l d i n g . . . . - — .................
T e x t i l e s . . ........................................................................ ............. ..........
L e a t h e r , fu r , e t c ...................................................................................
C l o t h i n g ....................... ........................................................ ..............
F o o d , d r i n k , a n d t o b a c c o ------ ------------ -------------------------- W o o d w o r k i n g ................................................ ......................................
P a p e r , p r i n t i n g , s t a t i o n e r y , e t c ...............................................
B u i l d i n g , c o n t r a c t in g , e t c --------- --------- -------------------------M i s c e l l a n e o u s m a n u f a c t u r i n g --------- ------------------------ T r a n s p o r t , s t o r a g e , e t c . ( e x c l u d i n g r a i l w a y s ) -----------P u b l i c u t i l i t y s e r v i c e s ..........................................— .................. ..
G o v e r n m e n t i n d u s t r i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s ----------------------

44.9

45.1

43.9

48.2
46.5
48.0
47.2
46.2
46.0
43.0
47.2
44.8
45.9
48.2
46.4
49.7
47.8
48.7

49.2
49.1
51.4
49.2
49.9
48.6
46.0
50.8
47.0
48.3
48.7
50.0
51.0
49.6
51.7

44.9
44.4
44.6
45.2
46.2
44.8
44.5
44.9
43.6
44.8
45.4
45.3
47.2
45.8
47.0

Average hourly earnings....................................... ...........

1 11.9

Iron, stone, etc., mining, and quarrying..................... .
Treatment of nonmetalliferous mine and quarry
products— .......................................... ..........................
Brick, pottery, and glass.................................. .........—
Chemicals, paint, oil, etc....................... ......................... .
Metal, engineering, and shipbuilding...........................
Textiles.......... .....................................................—...........
Leather, fur, e tc ............................... ...................- ............
Clothing............ ..................................................... .............
Food, drink, and tobacco................... —................ ..........
Woodworking........ ............................................................
Paper, printing, stationery, etc............—______ ____
Building, contracting, etc-----------------------------------Miscellaneous manufacturing......................................
Transport, storage, etc. (excluding railways)— ........ .
Public utility services................................ .....................
Government industrial establishments............ ............

See footnote at end of table.

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11.7

5.0

1 11 7

1. 9

2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
2

2 2.6
2 1.9
2 3.5
2 8.0
.1
2
2 2.0
2 3.8
2 1.2
2 2.5
2 5.9
2 1.7
2 6.0
2 2.1
1 11.8
2 6.5

1.5
11.8
11.8
.3
11.0
11.1
10.7
11.1
10.0
9.2
10.8

.6
8.5
11.1
2.9
5.2
8.5
4.3
7.7
9.3
10.2
11.7
11.1
.5
10.2
3.5

i
ï

11.8
10.1
1.1

43.1

43.0

(>)

(')

43.2
42.5
43.2
43.3
44.3
42.2
42.1
43.4
40.4
43.0
42.0
43.0
44.5
39.4
43.5

d.
5.6

1 4.9
1 2.0
1 5.2
1 7.5
1 2.6
1 3.0
1 3.1
1 3.1
1 5.1
1 2.9
1 5.0
1 5.7
1 9.2
1 3.4
1 11.4

43.8
42.3
42.9
44.4
42 9
42.4
43.2
41.4
43.3
(‘)
42.7
0)
42.6
43.4

..
..
..
..

9.4

8.2
9.1
10.6
9.7
8.4
8.8
8.9
9 9
7.9

9.9

..
„

8.6
11.4

1002

M ONTHLY

L A B O R R E V IE W — N O V E M B E R

1945

T a b l e 2 . — Hours and Earnings in 16 Manufacturing and Nonmanufacturing Industries

in the United Kingdom, January 1945— Continued.
All
workers

Industry group

Women
Youths
Men (21) and
Girle
boys (18 and (under
18)
and over (under
21) over)

119

Iron, stone, etc., mining and quarrying _
___
88
Treatment of iionmetalliferous mine and quarry
products .
__
__ _ _ _
_ _______
99
Brick, pottery, and glass
79
_______
92
Chemicals, paint, oil, etc
_ _
Metal, engineering, and shipbuilding___
_ _
106
Textiles. _ ______ ____________ _ _____________ 66
Leather, fur, e t c ________ _ __ _ ___ _____ _ 78
Clothing. ____
___ _
58
Food drink, and tobacco.. __ . __ . . . .
___ 77
Woodworking.__
..
__
__ . . .
79
Paper, printing, stationery, etc
_. _ __ ________
85
Building, contracting, e tc ... __ ___ _ ___ ___
95
Miscellaneous manufacturing__ _
89
101
Transport, storage, etc. (excluding railways) . . .
_______ 88
Public utility services. _
Government industrial establishm ents.___________ 111

108
106
US
131
100
105
106
106
103
120
104
124
110
98
131

11
2
0
2
4
2
5
7
11
5
5
11
10
3
6

50
43
43
46
42
41
39
41
36
34
40
45
46
38
51

6
9
9
3
5
7
10
8
5
5
11
4
6
7
4

Average weekly earnings___________

_________

6
3
1
8
6
4
5
1
3
6
3
9

1 Insufficient number reported to provide a satisfactory basis for an average.

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(9
60
49
62
70
53
52
53
54
57
53
59
63
78
50
84

(9
9
9
1
4
9
7
8
6
4
6
5
7
6
10

(9
1
30
1
32
37
9
35
10
2
30
1
31
32
2
34
28
6
(9
35
4
(9
30
7
1
41

Prices and Cost o f Living

Indexes of C onsum ers’ Prices1in Large Cities, Septem ber
1945
RETAIL prices for consumer goods in large cities declined 0.3 percent
between August 15 and September 15. Lower prices for fresh vege
tables and reductions in fuel-oil prices more than offset higher prices
for furnishings and fall clothing. The Bureau of Labor Statistics
index of consumers’ prices for moderate-income families in large cities
for September 15, 1945, was 128.9 percent of the 1935-39 average
and about 28 percent higher than on January 1, 1941.
During the month retail food prices dropped 1.1 percent. A 13percent decline in prices for most fresh vegetables was due mainly to
unusually large crops. Largest declines were in the prices of sweetpotatoes (25 percent), potatoes and green beans (16 percent), cabbage
and spinach (15 percent), and onions (14 percent). Eggs advanced
seasonally 7.3 percent, while meat prices were lower in some stores as
supplies of beef and veal improved greatly.
Substantial price-ceiling reductions for fuel oil, owing to the
restoration of tankers to coastwise service, were made by some dealers
on the Atlantic Coast several days before the effective date of the
OPA order, September 17. The relative importance of gasoline, fuel
oil, and motor oil in the index was increased to reflect expanded
consumption following removal of rationing.
Clothing prices rose 1.2 percent between August and September, as
low and moderate priced garments were increasingly scarce. Stocks
of men’s clothing were at a low for the war period, resulting in higher
costs for men’s suits, topcoats, overcoats, and most work clothing.
However, men’s cotton pajamas reappeared in many stores at lower
prices as fixed by manufacturers. In most cities women’s fur-trimmed
dress coats and women’s wool dresses retailed at generally higher
levels than last season. Shoes for men and children advanced with
the relaxation of WPB price-line production controls and the substitu
tion of a new method of determining prices under OPA regulation.
The end of the war period brought no relief in the housing situation
as returning veterans increased the demand for homes. Average
i This index, formerly called the cost-of-living index, represents average changes in retail prices of selected
goods, rents, and services, weighted by quantities bought by families of wage earners and moderate-income
workers in large cities in 1934-36. The items priced for the index constituted about 70 percent of the expendi
tures of city families whose incomes averaged $1,524 in 1934-36.
The index does not show the full effect of such factors as changes in quality and the availability of goods.
During the war the quality of civilian goods has been lowered. The Bureau has attempted to account for
the disappearance of low-priced merchandise by pricing the most similar article available. The President’s
Committee on the Cost of Living has estimated that such factors, together with certain others not fully
measured by the index, would add a maximum of 3 to 4 points to the average price rise shown for large cities
between January 1941 and September 1944. If small cities were included in the national average, an ad
ditional onc-half of a percentage point would be added to the index.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1003

1004

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1945

rents showed only slight changes since the last rent survey. The
largest changes—0.6 percent increase between March and September—
was reported in Seattle.
Housefurnishings costs advanced 0.5 percent during the month, as
lower-priced articles continued to be scarce. Prices of miscellaneous
goods and services continued to edge upward (0.1 percent) as charges
for beauty-shop services increased in 10 cities, and scattered changes
were reported in the cost of medical care.
The indexes in the accompanying tables are based on time-to-time
changes in the cost of goods and services purchased by wage earners
and lower-salaried workers in large cities. They do not indicate
whether it costs more to live in one city than in another. The data
relate to the 15th of each month, except those for January 1941.
For that month they were estimated for January 1 (the date
used in the “Little Steel” decision of the National War Labor
Board), by assuming an even rate of change from December 15, 1940,
to the next pricing date. The President’s “hold-the-line” order was
issued April 8, 1943. The peak of the rise which led to that order
was reached in May, which is, therefore, used for this comparison.
Table 1.— Indexes of Consumers' Prices for Moderate-Income Families and Percent
oj Change, September 1945 as Compared with Earlier Months 1
Sept.
1945

Aug.
1945

Sept.
1944

M ay
1943

M ay
1942

Jan.
1941

Aug.
1939

This
month

Last
month

Last
year

Holdthe-line
order

Gen.
Max.
Price
Reg.

“Little
steel’’
decision

Month
before
war in
Europe

Group

Indexes (1935-39=100)
All items________________
Food........... ...............
Clothing_______________
R ent_______ _________
Fuel, electricity, and ice__
Gas and electricity........
Other fuels and ice____
Housefurnishings_______
Miscellaneous.................. .

128.9
139.4
148.2
108.3
110.7
95.2
125.7
146.8
124.6

129.3
140.9
146.4
111.4
95.2
127.2
146.0
124.5

126.5
137.0
141.4
108.2
109.8
95.8
123.4
140.7
122.4

125.1
143.0
127.9
108.0
107.6
96.1
118.7
125.1
115.3

116.0
121.6
126.2
109.9
104.9
96.6
112.9
122.2
110.9

100.8
97.6
101.2
105.0
100.8
97.5
104.0
100.2
101.8

98.6
93.5
100.3
104. 3
97.5
99.0
96.3
100.6
100.4

+27.9
+42.8
+46. 4
+3.1
+ 9.8
- 2 .4
+20.9
+ 46.5
+22.4

+30.7
+49.1
+47.8
+ 3.8
+13.5
- 3 .8
+30.5
+45.9
+24.1

Percent of change to September 1945
All item s.................... ............. .
Food...................................
Clothing______________
R ent_______ _____ _____
Fuel, electricity, and ice.
Gas and electricity...
Other fuels and ice...
Housefurnishings______
Miscellaneous__________

- 0 .3
- 1 .1
+ 1 .2
-.6
0
-1 .2
+ .5
+ .1

+ 1 .9
+ 1.8
+ 4 .8
+ .1
+ .8
-.6
+ 1 .9
+ 4 .3
+ 1 .8

+ 3 .0
- 2 .5
+15.9
+. 3
+ 2.9
- .9
+ 5.9
+17.3
+8.1

+11.1
+14.6
+ 17.4
- 1 .5
+ 5 .5
- 1 .4
+11.3
+23.1
+12.4

r 1.ForT,bri(;f explanation of the coverage of the index and periods of collection of price data, see M onthly
Labor Review, October 1945 (pp. 781, 782).

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

P R IC E S A N D

1005

C O ST O F L I V I N G

T a b l e 2 . — Indexes of Consumers’ Prices for Moderate-Income Families in Large Cities,

1935 to September 1945
Indexes 1 (1935-39=100) of cost of—
Year and month
All items

1935_______________________
1936_______________________
1937_______________________
1938_______________________
1939_______________________
1940_______________________
1941________________ ______
1942_______________________
1943_______________________
1944_______________________
1945:
Jan. 15________________
Feb. 15________________
Mar. 15____ ___________
Apr. 15________________
M ay 15________________
June 15________________
July 15________________
Aug. 15______ ________
Sept. 15_______________

Food

Clothing

Fuel, elec Housefur- Miscella
tricity,
nishings
neous
and ice

Rent

98.1
99. 1
102.7
100.8
99.4
100.2
105.2
116.5
123.6
125.5

100.4
101.3
105.3
97.8
95.2
96.6
105.5
123.9
138.0
136.1

96.8
97.6
102.8
102.2
100.5
101.7
106.3
124.2
129.7
138.8

94.2
96.4
100.9
104.1
104.3
104.6
106.2
108.5
108.0
108.2

100.7
100.2
100.2
99.9
99.0
99.7
102.2
105.4
107.7
109.8

94.8
96.3
104.3
103.3
101.3
100.5
107.3
122.2
125.6
136.4

98.1
98.7
101.0
101.5
100.7
101.1
104.0
110.9
115.8
121.3

127.1
126.9
126.8
127.1
128.1
129.0
129.4
129.3
128.9

137.3
136.5
135.9
136.6
138.8
141.1
141.7
140.9
139.4

143.0
143.3
143.7
144.1
144.6
145.4
145.9
146.4
148.2

(2)
(2)
108.3
(2)
(2)
108.3
(2)
(2)
108.3

109.7
110.0
110.0
109.8
110.0
110.0
111.2
111.4
110.7

143.6
144.0
144.5
144.9
145.4
145.8
145.6
146.0
146.8

123.3
123.4
123.6
123.8
123.9
124.0
124.3
124.5
124.6

1 Based on changes in cost of goods purchased by wage earners and lower-salaried workers.
2 Rents not surveyed in this month.

R etail Prices of Food in Septem ber 1945
PERCENTAGE changes in retail food costs on September 18, 1945,
as compared with costs in the previous month and in September 1944,
are shown in table 1.
T a b l e 1. —Percent of Change in Retail Costs of Food in 56 Large Cities Combinedf by

Commodity Groups, in Specified Periods
M ay 18,
1943, to
Sept. 18,
1945

Jan. 14,
1941, to
Sept. 18,
1945

Aug. 15,
1939, to
Sept. 18,
1945

Aug. 14,
1945, to
Sept. 18,
1945

Sept. 12,
1944, to
Sept. 18,
1945

All foods. ___________ _________________

- 1 .1

+ 1 .8

- 2 .5

+42.5

+49.1

Cereals and bakery products__ ____ _____
Meats
__________________________
Beef and veal_______ _ ___________
Pork______________________________
L am b .. _________ ____ _ __________
Chickens ________ _____ __________
Fish, fresh and canned
.
_____
Dairy products_________________________
E g g s.. __________ ____ _____ __________
Fruits and vegetables___ _______________
Fresh. __________ _________ ______
Canned____________________________
Dried . . _________________________
Beverages_____________________________
Fats and oils__ ________________________
Sugar and sweets
_________________

0
-.2
-. 1
0
0
- .9
+ .9
0
+ 7 .3
- 6 .0
- 7 .1
+. 1
+ .1
0
+• 1
-.1

+ .5
+ 2 .0
+ .1
+ .4
+ 1 .3
+ 4 .4
+ 9 .7
-. 1
+ 9 .5
+ 1 .5
+ 1 .6
+ .8
+2.1
+ .3
+ .9
+ .2

+ 1 .4
- 4 .8
- 9 .8
-1 0 .3
- 3 .7
+ 5 .6
+ 9.6
- 2 .6
+29.4
- 9 .6
-1 1 .4
-.5
+ 6 .8
+ .2
- 1 .7
-.9

+15.0
+30.2
+ 8 .2
+30.8
+38.2
+60.4
+85.2
+26.9
+88.8
+84.9
+95.2
+42.7
+69.5
+37.2
+54.5
+32.7

+16.8
+37.5
+18.9
+28. 0
+38.1
+64.8
+120. 7
+43.3
+102.8
+86.7
+96.4
+42.4
+86.9
+31.4
+46.9
+32.3

Commodity group

i The number of cities included in the index was changed from 51 to 56 in March 1943, with the necessary
adjustments for maintaining comparability. At the same time the number of foods in the index was in
creased from 54 to 61.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

o
o05

RETAIL PRICES OF FOOD TO CITY WORKERS
AVERAGE FOR LARGE CITIES
index

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1 9 3 5 -3 9 = 1 0 0

,ndex

CD
Or

P R IC E S

AND

1007

C O ST O F L I V I N G

R E T A IL PRICES FOR GROUPS OF FOOD
AVERAGE

FOR LARGE C IT IE S
1935-39

100

in d e x

DAIRY PRODUCTS

1929

1930

1931

1932

1933

1934

1935

1936

1937

1938

1939

19 40

1941

1942

1943

19 44

UN ITED S T A T E S D E PAR TM EN T OF LABO R
BU REAU OF LA BO R S T A T IS T IC S
_________________________________________________________________________

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1945

1946

1008

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 194 5

T a b l e 2 . —Indexes of Retail Costs of Food in 56 1 Large Cities Combined,* by Commodity

Groups, on Specified Dates
[1935-39=100]
1945

1944

1943

1941

1939

Sept. 182 Aug. 14

Sept. 12

M ay 18

J a n .14

Aug. 15

Commodity group

All foods............... ............................. ...........

139.4

140.9

137.0

143.0

97.8

93.5

Cereals and bakery products____________
M eats_____________________________ .
Beef and veal______________________
Pork_________________________
L a m b ___ _________ .
Chickens__________ . . . . . .
Pish, fresh and canned_____ ._ ____
Dairy products____ ____ _______________
Eggs--------------------------------------------------Fruits and vegetables______ ___________
Fresh___________ ____ _____________
Canned_______________________ _
Dried_________________ . ...............
Beverages_____________ .
Fats and oils_____ _________ . . . . .
Sugar and sweets_____ _____ ___________

109.1
131.6
118.4
112.6
136.4
155.9
219.8
133.4
183.9
172.5
182.3
130.4
168.8
124.7
124.1
126.5

109.1
131.8
118.5
112.6
136.4
157. 3
217.8
133.4
171.4
183.5
196.2
130.3
168.6
124.7
124.0
126.6

108.6
129.0
118.3
112.2
134.6
149.3
200.4
133.6
168.0
169.9
179.4
129.4
165.3
124.3
123.0
126.3

107.6
138.3
131.2
125.5
141.6
147.6
200.5
136.9
142. 1
190.8
205.8
131.1
158. 0
124.5
126.3
127.6

94.9
101. 1
109.4
86.1
98.7
97.2
118.7
105.1
97.4
93.3
93.4
91.4
99.6
90.9
80.3
95.3

93.4
95.7
99.6
88.0
98.8
94.6
99.6
93.1
90.7
92.4
92.8
91.6
90.3
94.9
84.5
95.6

1 Indexes based on 51 cities combined prior to March 1943.
2 Aggregate costs of 61 foods (54 foods prior to March 1943) in each city, weighted to represent total pur
chases by families of wage earners and lower-salaried workers, have been combined with the use of population
weights.
2 Preliminary.

T a b l e 3 . —Average Retail Prices of 78 Foods in 56 Large Cities Combined,l September

1945, Compared With Earlier Months
1945

1944

1941

1939

Sept. 182 Aug. 14

Sept. 12

Jan. 14

Aug. 15

Article

Cereals and bakery products:
Cereals:
Flour, w h ea t.................. . _____ 10 pounds..
Macaroni____________ . _________ pound..
Wheat cereal2_____ ____ ______ 28 ounces..
Corn flakes..... .................... ----------- 8 ounces..
Corn m e a l..___________ ________ pound..
Rice 2 __________ ______ ..................... do___
Rolled o a ts........................ ----------------do___
Flour, pancake 2. . . .......... ______ 20 ounces..
Bakery products:
Bread, white______ ____ ........ .........pound..
Bread, whole-wheat____ ................... _do___
Bread, rye_____________ .....................do___
Vanilla cookies_________ ..................... do___
Soda crackers__________ ................... .d o___
Meats:
Beef:
Round steak___________ ...... ........._._do___
Rib roast______________ --------------- do___
Chuck roast____________ ----------------do___
Stew m ea t2.................
----------------do___
Liver________________ . __________ do___
Hamburger........ ................ ........ ........... do___
Veal:
Cutlets_________________ ........ .........._do___
Roast, boned and rolled 2_ .....................do___
Pork:
Chops....... ............................ ----------------do___
Bacon, sliced_______
.....................do___
Ham, sliced_____________ ----------------do___
Ham, whole____________ --------------- do___
Salt pork_______________ __________ do___
L iv er2___________ _____ ------- ------ -do___
Sausage2 ......................... ..................... do___
Bologna, big 2___________ ................... _do___
Lamb:
Leg----------- ------ ----------- ...... ............._do___
Rib ch o p s............................ ...... .............. do___
See footnotes at end of table.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

Cents
64.2
15.7
23.5
6.7
6.5
12.8
10.4
12.4

Cents
64.3
15.8
23.4
6.7
6.4
13.0
10.4
12.4

Cents
64.4
15.7
23.2
6.5
6.3
12.8
10.0
12.2

Cents
41.4
13.8
23.5
7.1
4.2
7.9
7.1
«

Cents
35.8
14.0
24.2
7.0
4.0
7.5
7.1
(0

8.8
9.6
9.9
28.7
18.9

8.8
9.7
9.9
28.6
18.9

8.8
9.6
9.9
27.8
18.9

7.8
8.7
9.0
25.1
15.0

7.8
8.8
9.2

41.0
33.1
28.3
29.8
37.1
27.4

40.9
33.0
28.4
30.0
36.9
27.4

40.9
32.9
28.5
30.6
37.2
27.5

38.6
31.5
25.2
«
(5)
«

36.4
28.9
22.5
(4)
(»)
(4)

44.4
34.7

44.4
34.3

44.7
35.4

45.2
(*)

37.2
41.2
49.4
34.4
22.0
22.2
38.7
34.0

37.2
41.2
49.4
34.4
22.0
22.1
38.7
33.9

37.3
40.9
50.3
35.3
22.1
21.9
38.2
34.1

29.1
30.1
45.1
26.2
16.7

40.5
45.8

40.5
46.0

39.9
45.1

«
w
27.8
35.0

(»)
14.8

42.5
30.9
30.4
46.4
27.4
15.4
m
(*)
«
27.6
36.7

1009

PRICES AND COST OF LIVING

T a b l e 3 . —Average Retail Prices of 78 Foods in 56 Large Cities Combined,1 September

1945, Compared With Earlier Months— Continued
1945

1944

1941

1939
Aug. 15

Article

Meats—Continued.
Poultry: Roasting chickens___ _______ pound..
Fish:
Fish (fresh, frozen)_______ ________ do___
Salmon, pink_______ ____ ____ 16-oz. can..
Salmon, red1...... ................... ................... do___
Dairy products:
B utter___ _______ ___________ ...................do___
Cheese_____________ _ _ _ _ _ _ __________do_
M ilk, fresh (delivered)_______ ________ quart..
M ilk, fresh (store).................... ________ do___
Milk evaporated__________ _ ___14^-oz. can..
Eggs: Eggs, fresh_______ ____ __
_______ dozen__
Fruits and vegetables:
Fresh fruits:
A p p le s___________ ______ _______ pound..
Bananas_________________ ________ do___
Oranges____ _____________ ___ ..-d o zen ..
Grapefruit3______________ _________ each..
Fresh vegetables:
Beans, green_____________ _______ pound..
Cabbage_________________ ____ ___ do___
Carrots_______ _________ _____..b u n ch ..
Lettuce_________________ ________ head..
Onions........... ....................... ..............p o u n d ..
Potatoes_________________ ____15 pounds..
Spinach_______ ________ _______ pound..
Sweetpotatoes____________ _________ do___
Beets 3__. _______________ ............... bunch..
Canned fruits:
Peaches_________ ________ ___No. 2H can..
_________ do___
Pineapple.. _ .
Grapefruit iuice__________ ____ No. 2 can..
Canned vegetables:
Beans, g r e e n ___
. . . ___ ..................do___
Corn____________________ _________ do___
Peas____________________ _________ do___
Tomatoes. _ _____________ _________ do___
Soup, vegetable 3__............. . _____ll-oz can..
Dried fruits: Prunes_____ _ __________ pound..
Dried vegetables:
N a v y beans________ _____ _________ do___
Soup, dehydrated, chicken noodle 3__ounce._
Beverages:
Coffee______ _______________ _ _____ pound..
T ea_________________ ______ _____14 pound..
Cocoa 3_ ___ _________
_____Vi pound..
Fats and oils:
Lard_______ _______________ ______ pound..
Shortening other than lard—
In cartons____ _________ _________ do___
In other containers........... ____ ___do___
Salad dressing_______________ ...................p in t..
_____ _______ pound..
Oleomargarine_______
Peanut butter_______________ _________ do___
Oil, cooking or salad 3___ _____ _________ p in t..
Sugar and sweets:
Sugar_____________ ________ _______ pound..
Corn sirup_________ ______ _____24 ounces..
Molasses 3______ ____________ _____18 ounces..
Apple butter 3_______________ _____16 ounces..

;Sept. 18»

Aug. 14

Sept. 12

Jan. 14

Cents
47.0

Cents
47.6

Cents
44.6

Cents
31.1

Cents
30.9

(«)
23.3
39.9

(9)
23.4
39.7

(9)
22.9
40.4

(6)
15.7
26.4

(«)
12.8
23.1

50.0
35.6
15.6
14.5
10.0
65.2

49.9
35.7
15.6
14.5
10.1
. 60.6

50.0
36.1
15.6
14.5
10.0
59.6

38.0
27.0
13.0
11.9
7.1
34.9

30.7
24.7
12.0
11.0
6.7
32.0

13.3
10.5
51.6
11.3

13.1
10.5
51.3
11.0

9.7
11. 1
50.6
11.0

5.2
6.6
27.3
0

4.4
6.1
31.5
0

15.8
5.1
8.9
12.1
6.8
61.9
9.9
8.6
8.1

18.7
6.0
9.1
12.5
7.9
73.8
11.6
11.4
8.4

17.2
5.0
8.9
12.2
5.5
72.4
12.9
8.7
7.7

14.0
3.4
6.0
8.4
3.6
29.2
7.3
5.0
6)

7.2
3.9
4.6
8.4
3.6
34.4
7.8
5.5
(9)

27.3
26.3
14.5

27.2
26.3
14.4

28.0
27.3
14.3

16.5
20.9
0

13.1
14.8
13.2
12.1
13.2
17.5

13.2
14.8
13. 2
12.2
13.2
17.4

13. 1
14.5
13.2
12.0
13.4
17.3

10.0
10.7
13.2
8.4
0
9.6

10.0
10.4
13.6
8.6
(9)
8.8

11.5
3.8

10.9
3.6

6.5
(‘)

(9)

30.6
24. 2
10.4

30.5
24.2
10.4

30.2
23.9
10.4

20.7
17.6
9.1

5.8
22.3
17.2
8.6

18.8

18.7

9.3

9.9

20.0
24.5
24.0
24.3
28.6
30.0

20.0
24.5
24. 2
23.9
28.6
30.5

20.2
24.8
25.8
24.0
28.4
30.6

11.3
18.3
20.1
15.6
17.9
(9)

11.7
20.2
(9)
16.5
17.9
(9)

6.7
15.8
15.8
14.2

6.7
15.8
15.8
14.1

6.7
15.8
15.8
13.4

5.1
13.6
13.4
(4)

5.2
13.7
13.6
(9)

1 Data are based on 51 cities combined prior to January 1943.
2 Preliminary.
2 N ot included in index.
* First priced in February 1943.
2 Not priced.
« Composite price not computed.
i First priced in October 1941.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

17.1
21.0

1010

M ONTHLY

L A B O R R E V IE W -----N O V E M B E R

1945

T a b l e 4 . — Indexes of Average Retail Costs of A ll Foods, by Cities,1 on Specified Dates
[1935-39 = 100]
1945

1944

1941

1939

Sept. 12

Jan. 15

Aug. 15

City
Sept. 18 2

Aug. 14

United States______________________

139.4

140.9

137.0

97.8

93.5

Atlanta, Qa.
____ ____ .
Baltimore, Md_ _ . . .
Birmingham, Ala__________
Boston, M ass__________ . .
Bridgeport, Conn__________ .
Buffalo, N . Y ___ _______
Butte, M ont_________

141.5
148.1
144.1
133.4
136.0
135.3
137.7

142. 1
149. 1
147.5
135.7
137.4
138.4
138.7

137.8
140.7
140.3
132.9
135.1
134.8
133.1

94. 3
97.9
96.0
95. 2
96.5
100. 2
98.7

92 5
94 7
90 7
92 5
93 2
94. 5
94.1

Cedar Rapids, Iowa 3__
Charleston, S. C.
Chicago, 111____ ___________
Cincinnati, Ohio_____ . .
Cleveland, Ohio___ . . . . .
Columbus, Ohio______
Dallas, Tex___ ______

142.9
139.5
137.5
138.2
142.7
132.5
137.6

145.3
139.7
139.2
140.0
145.6
134.0
138.9

139.0
134.7
137.3
135.8
142.8
129.4
132.9

95 9
95.9
98. 2
96. 5
99. 2
93. 4
92.6

95 1
92 3
90 4
93 6
88 1
91.7

Denver, C o lo .._____
Detroit, M ich____ ____
Fall River, Mass
___
Houston, T e x _______
Indianapolis, Ind_______
Jackson, M iss.3____
Jacksonville, Fla_______

136.1
136.8
132.4
140.5
136.0
151. 2
151.9

139.3
138.4
134.1
141.2
137.7
151.2
152.0

136.4
134.0
132.4
137.5
134.3
150. 7
148.1

94.8
97. 0
97. 5
102.6
98. 2
105 2
98.8

92
90
95
97
90

Kansas City, M o__
Knoxville, Tenn.3__ . .
Little. Rock, Ark___
Los Angeles, C alif.. . . . .
Louisville, K y __ _
Manchester, N . H
Memphis, Tenn_______ .

132.8
160.8
139.3
147.2
133.5
134.9
148.1

135. 4
160. 6
140.4
145.9
135.0
136.4
150.9

130.9
157. 9
137.4
141.4
131.7
134.2
146.5

92.4
97 1
95. 6
101.8
95. 5
96.6
94.2

91 5
94 0
94 6
92 1
94 9
89.7

Milwaukee, W is_____
Minneapolis, Minn .
Mobile, A l a . . . .
Newark, N . J ____
New Haven, Conn.
New Orleans, La. . .
New York, N . Y

137.8
132.6
148.9
140.7
135.7
155.7
139. 7

139.4
133.2
152.3
143.4
137.2
156.5
141.7

135.5
129.7
146.6
138.5
136. 3
153.1
■137.3

95.9
99.0
97.9
98. 8
95. 7
101. 9
99.5

91 1
95 0
95 5
95 6
93 7
97 6
95.8

Norfolk, Va
Omaha, N ebr____
Peoria, 111____ . .
Philadelphia, Pa
Pittsburgh, Pa
Portland, M aine..
Portland, Oreg

144.1
131.1
145.6
137.6
139.6
133. 1
149.3

146.1
131.8
145. 9
138.9
141.3
135.7
150.9

141.1
129.9
140.6
134.7
138.0
133.6
144.8

95. 8
97.9
99.0
95.0
98.0
95.3
101.7

93 6
92. 3
93 4
93.0
92 5
95.9
96.1

Providence, R. I .
Richmond, Va .
Rochester, N . Y_
St. Louis, M o_____
St. Paul, M inn..
Salt Lake City, Utah
San Francisco, Calif

140.0
138.5
134.9
141.4
131.5
143. 4
147.3

141.6
138.3
137.8
144.0
132.1
143.9
147.1

135.9
134.1
133.8
139.8
127.9
140.3
143.3

96.3
93.7
99.9
99.2
98. 6
97. 5
99.6

93. 7
92. 2
92. 3
93.8
94 3
94.6
93.8

Savannah, G a ...
Scranton, P a ____
Seattle, W ash. _
Springfield, 111__
Washington, D. C
Wichita, Kans.3 .
Winston-Salem, N . C.3

157.2
139.3
144. 2
144.7
141.5
148. 7
142.0

157.5
141.3
145.8
146.1
141.7
149.8
143.4

152.8
138.1
141.7
142.5
135.2
147.0
137.4

100.5
97.5
101.0
96.2
97.7
97 2
93.7

96.7
92.1
94. 5
94.1
94.1

7
6
4
8
7

95.8

1 Aggregate costs of 61 foods in each city (54 foods prior to March 1943) weighted to represent total pur
chases by wage earners and lower-salaried workers, have been combined for the United States with the use
°f PoPBlation weights. Primary use is for time-to-time comparisons rather than plaee-to-plaee comparisons.
2 Preliminary.
3 June 1940=100.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

P R IC E S

AND

1011

C O ST O F L I V I N G

T a b l e 5. — Indexes of Retail Food Costs in 56 Large Cities C o m b in e d 1913 to

September 1945
[1935-39 = 100]
Year
1913_________
1914_________
1915_________
1916_________
1917_________
1918_________
1919, ______
1920_________
1921_________
1922_________
1923_________
1924 ________
1925_________
1926_________
1927_________
1928_________

All-foods
index

Year

79.9
81.8
80.9
90.8
116.9
134.4
149.8
168.8
128.3
119.9
124.0
122.8
132.9
137.4
132.3
130.8

1929_______
1930_______
1931_______
1932_______
1933_______
1934______
1935____
1936...............
1937_______
1938_______
1939_______
1940_______
1941_______
1942_______
1943_______
1944_______

All-foods
index
132.5
126.0
103.9
86.5
84.1
93.7
100.4
101.3
105.3
97.8
95.2
96.6
105. 5
123.9
138.0
136.1

Year and
month

All-foods
index

1945

19U
January.
February. .
March___
April__
M ay .
June__ ____
July_______
A ugust..
Septem ber..
October____
N ovem ber..
December

Year and
month

136.1
134.5
134.1
134. 6
135. 5
135.7
137.4
137.7
137.0
136. 4
136.5
137.4

January___
February. _
March_____
April
M ay
June . . _
July___
August ..
Septem ber..

137.3
136. 5
135.9
136. 6
138.8
141.1
141.7
140.9
139.4

i Indexes based on 51 cities combined prior to March 1943.

Supplies of Food in Independent R etail Stores,
Septem ber 1945
MEATS were much more plentiful in mid-September than in midAugust, according to reports to the Bureau of Labor Statistics by its
representatives who visited independent retail stores in 56 large
cities. Beef was more widely available than at any time since May
1944 and supplies of veal and lamb were the highest since early in
1945. Pork was still unobtainable in more than 7 out of 10 stores.
Butter was on hand in most stores, but cooking and salad oils were
more difficult to obtain than in August.
The number of retailers having beef steaks and roasts increased
from 60 percent to 86 percent during the month and those having other
cuts of beef from 56 percent to 84 percent. Veal was in stock in 52
percent of the stores, an increase from 25 percent in mid-August.
Practically all dealers had frankfurters and bologna.
The increase in supply of beef, veal, and lamb was reported from all
sections of the country, but the Middle Atlantic region was the only
one in which more stores had pork in September than in August.
The southeast still had less pork than other regions and supplies
decreased in Newr England, the Midwest, and the Rocky Mountain
States.
Butter and margarine were plentiful with over 90 percent of the
grocers supplied, but about a third of the stores still had no lard or
shortening. Cooking and salad oils were available in 66 percent of
the groceries, compared to 71 percent in the previous month, with all
regions except New England and the Rocky Mountain States
showing a decrease in supply.

6 7 0 1 1 9 - 45 -

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1012

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

Independent Retail Stores Without Supplies of Specified Foods on August 14 and
September 18, 1945, in 56 Large Cities
Percent of stores without supplies of specified foods 1

Commodity

Meats:
Beef, steaks and roasts______ . .
Beef, all other______ _________
Veal, steaks, chops, and roasts. . .
Veal, all other_____________ ____
Lamb________________________
Pork, loins and ham s__________
Pork, bacon___________ ______
Frankfurters and bologna........
Fats and oils:
B utter_____ ___________________
Margarine______ ______________
Shortening____________________
Lard_________ _
_________
Cooking and salad o ils ........... .......

Au
gust
14,1945

September 18,1945

Region 2

56
large
cities

40
44
74
76
57
77
76
15

14
16
48
48
43
71
73
5

16
18
78
78
58
79
79
6

13
16
56
56
48
69
74
9

8
11
50
48
42
69
77
4

30
27
66
63
69
< 90
87
2

5
9
35
35
29

3
7
37
34
34

3
4
14
14
27

6
10
52
48
33

4
30
35
22
42

3
2
47
33
78

III

VII

28
33
28
29
56
82
67
4

12
10
28
29
32
68
67
3

10
10
50
52
7
59
57
4

30
30
38
40
7
56
74
2

30
30
22
55
43

30
30
25
11
20

30
30
2
7
8

30
5
23
29
23

V III

1 Data are weighted by the number of independent food stores in each city, to derive regional and all
region percentages.
2 Regions consist of the following cities: Region / . —Boston, Bridgeport, Pall River, Manchester, N ew
Haven, Portland, M e., Providence. Region / / . —Baltimore, Buffalo, Newark, N ew York, Philadelphia,
Pittsburgh, Rochester, Scranton, Washington, D . C. Region / / / . —Cincinnati, Cleveland, Columbus.
Detroit, Indianapolis, Louisville. Region I V .—Atlanta, Birmingham, Charleston, S. C., Jackson, Miss.,
Jacksonville, Knoxville, Memphis, Mobile, Norfolk, Richmond, Savannah, Winston-Salem. Region V —
Dallas, Houston, Kansas City, Mo., Little Rock, New Orleans, St. Louis, Wichita. Region VI —Cedar
Rapids, Chicago. Milwaukee, Minneapolis, Omaha, Peoria, St. Paul, Springfield, 111. Region VII.—Butte,
Denver, Salt Lake City. Region V III.—Los Angeles, Portland, Oreg., San Frar.cisco, Seattle.
2 Some size, quality, or variety of the commodity was available in all stores surveyed.
* Over 90 percent out of stock.

W holesale Prices in Septem ber 1945
CONTINUED price declines for agricultural commodities and lower
prices for petroleum products, which more than offset advances for
a number of industrial goods, resulted in a decline of 0.5 percent in
the primary-market1 commodity price index for September 1945.
This drop, the largest monthly change in the index in more than
2 years and the third consecutive monthly decline, brought the index
to 105.2 percent of the 1926 average, the lowest level since February
1945. This was 1.2 percent above September 1944 and 40.3 percent
above the level of August 1939.
Average market prices for farm products dropped 2 percent, food
prices declined 1.4 percent, and average prices for fuel and lighting
materials were down 0.8 percent. The group index for hides and
leather products advanced 0.6 percent and that for textile products
0.5 percent. Group indexes for metals and metal products and build
ing materials each rose 0.2 percent and prices for housefurnishing
goods were up 0.1 percent. Group indexes for chemicals and allied
products and miscellaneous commodities remained at the August level.
1 The Bureau of Labor Statistics’ wholesale price data for the most part represent prices prevailing in
the “first commercial transaction.” They are prices quoted in primary markets, at principal distribution
points.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

PRICES AND COST OF LIVING

1013

Average prices for raw materials declined 1.3 percent, while semi
manufactured articles advanced 1.0 percent and the group index for
manufactured articles declined 0.1 percent.
The decline of 2 percent in average market prices for farm products
was the result of lower prices for livestock and poultry, eggs, apples,
and fresh vegetables. The increased movement of grass-fed animals
to market, the temporary suspension of government set-asides with
the end of the war and termination of lend-lease shipments, and the
removal of slaughtering restrictions caused declines in prices for
calves, cows, steers, and sheep. The decline for good to choice steers
was smaller than for fair to good qualities because of continued heavy
demand for better grades. The demand for sheepskins limited the
price decline for lambs in comparison with declines for ewes and
wethers. Live poultry prices were seasonally lower. Quotations for
lower quality eggs dropped substantially with the end of government
contracts for dried eggs, while high quality eggs continued to advance
in price with heavy demand for better grades. Prices for western
apples were generally lower in accordance with their usual seasonal
movement, but prices advanced in eastern markets under increased
ceilings. Quotations for white potatoes were down sharply, with a
near record crop and the movement of poorer qualities to market.
Sweetpotato and onion prices were lower seasonally. Quotations for
lemons rose sharply from their low summer price. Grains were high
er over the month, advancing an average of 0.2 percent.
A decline of more than 5 percent in average prices for fruits and
vegetables was chiefly responsible for the 1.4 percent decline for foods.
In addition, primary-market prices for powdered milk dropped with
reduced demand, while flour prices were generally higher, reflecting
the lower subsidy to millers during the month.
Hides and leather products generally were unchanged in price over
the month. Shearling prices again advanced as the range of prices
narrowed with continued demand for sheepskins by manufacturers of
coats and house slippers.
Price increases for a wide range of cotton goods followed ceiling
adjustments made under the Bankhead amendment to the Stabiliza
tion Extension Act of 1944. The group index for textile products
advanced 0.5 percent during September. Commodities for which
higher prices were permitted by OPA included cotton yarns, sheeting,
print cloth, denim, osnaburg, and cotton twine. Prices for other
fabrics and for clothing showed no change.
The cancellation of price increases granted by OPA for petroleum
products on the eastern coast to offset higher shipping costs during the
war caused a price drop during the month for gasoline, fuel oil, and
kerosene. Refinery prices for gasoline in midwestern fields advanced
during September with an increase in octane ratings. Quotations for
anthracite and for coke rose with adjustments by producers to higher
ceilings granted in earlier months.
Farm machinery prices advanced during September, continuing the
small advances which began early in the year under OPA’s program
of allowing ceiling increases for individual manufacturers. Gray-iron
castings rose in price following OPA ceiling adjustments to bring
castings priced on a fixed base in line with castings priced on a formula
basis. A further decline in mercury quotations placed the average
monthly price at the lowest level since August 1939.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1014

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

Average prices for building materials were up 0.2 percent with
higher prices for a number of products. Quotations for common
brick advanced 3 percent following a ceiling increase granted all
brick producers east of the Rocky Mountains, to encourage production.
Portland cement prices were fractionally higher under an interim
ceiling adjustment which allowed prices to rise 20 cents per barrel
above March 1942 levels. Quotations for rosin continued to advance
following a ceiling adjustment in August. Turpentine prices were
higher while butyl acetate continued to decline. Manufacturers’
prices for lavatories again advanced in September and were generally
at ceiling levels for the first time in nearly 2 years. Quotations for
radiators were up, following ceiling increases for cast-iron radiators.
Prices for plasterboard, plaster, and lime moved upward under higher
ceilings permitted by OPA to cover higher production costs. Mill
prices for Douglas fir boards dropped nearly 10 percent during the
month, following the revocation late in August of premium prices
allowed for military production. This decline more than offset
price increases for yellow pine and higher mill realizations for Western
pine, which resulted in lowering average lumber prices by 0.2 percent
during the month.
Quotations for silver nitrate rose sharply, reflecting higher ceiling
prices for foreign silver while prices for toluene fell as demands for
munitions, the principal use for this chemical, dropped with the end
of the war. Prices for ergot and nux vomica rose with continued
tight supply.
Higher mill prices for cotton goods under the Bankhead amendment
were reflected in September price advances of more than 9 percent for
pillow cases and sheets. Some types of furniture also were higher
following ceiling adjustments by OPA. These changes raised the
group index for housefurnishing goods by 0.1 percent.
Boxboard rose fractionally with higher quotations for liner per
mitted by OPA to cover increased production costs. Prices for
other commodities, including soap, rubber and rubber products,
cattle feed, and paper, remained unchanged at August levels’.
T able

1. — Indexes of Wholesale Prices by Groups and Subgroups of Commodities,
September 1945, Compared with Previous Months
Percent of change to
September 1945 from—

Indexes (1926=100)
Groups and subgroups

Sep
Sep August August Sep August
tember August
1945 tember
1939
1945 tember
1939
1945
1944
1944
All commodities., .

105.2

105.7

104.0

75.0

- 0 .5

+L2

+40.3

Farm products_____ _______ _
Grains. . . . _
.. .
Livestock and poultry
_____
Other farm products__________

124.3
126.6
128.5
120.3

126.9
126.4
130.7
123.7

122.7
121.7
127.6
119.2

61.0
51.5
66.0
60.1

- 2 .0
+ .2
- 1 .7
- 2 .7

+ 1.3
+ 4 .0
+ .7
+ .9

+103.8
+145.8
+94.7
+100.2

Foods______ _ ____
Dairy products.. __________
Cereal products. _________
Fruits and vegetables______
M ea ts..
_____________
Other fo o d s... ______

104.9
110.3
95.1
117.5
107.9
94.9

106.4
110.6
95. 1
124.3
107.9
96.8

104.2
110.7
94.4
115.9
106.0
95.5

67.2
67.9
71.9
58.5
73.7
60.3

- 1 .4
-.3
0
-5 .5
0
- 2 .0

+ .7
- .4
+ .7
+ 1 .4
+ 1 .8
-.6

+56.1
+62.4
+32.3
+100.9
+46.4
+57.4

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1015

PRICES AND COST OF LIVING

Table 1.— Indexes of Wholesale Prices by Groups and Subgroups of Commodities,
September 1945, Compared with Previous Months— Continued
Percent of change to
September 1945 from—

Indexes (1926=100)
Groups and subgroups

Sep
Sep August August Sep
August
tember August
1945 tember
1939
1945 tember
1939
1945
1944
1944
Hides and leather products.. _____________
Shoes________________________________
Hides and skins. _____________________
Leather. . . _______ _________________
Other leather products___________ _____

118.7
126.3
118.1
103.8
115.2

118.0
126.3
117.8
101.3
115.2

116.0
126.3
106.1
101.3
115.2

92.7
100.8
77.2
84.0
97.1

+ 0 .6
0
+ .3
+ 2 .5
0

+ 2 .3
0
+11.3
+ 2 .5
0

+28.0
+25.3
+53.0
+23.6
+18.6

Textile products. ________________________
Clothing______ ______ _______________
Cotton goods______ ____ ______ ________
Hosiery and underwear________________
Rayon_______ . _________ - ________
Silk__________________________________
Woolen and worsted goods_____________
Other textile products_____ ______ ____

100.1
107.4
121.3
71.5
30.2

99.6
107.4
119.7
71.5
30.2

99.2
107.0
118.7
70.8
30.3

+ .5
0
+ 1 .3
0
0

+ .9
+■ 4
+ 2 .2
+ 1 .0
-.3

+47.6
+31.8
+85.2
+16.3
+ 6 .0

112.7
101.3

112.7
100.9

112.9
100.9

67.8
81.5
65.5
61.5
28.5
44.3
75.5
63.7

0
+ .4

-.2
+ .4

+49.3
+59.0

Fuel and lighting m aterials.. . . .
___ . . .
84.1
Anthracite------------------------------------------ 102.2
Bituminous coal. ____________________
124.7
Coke_________________________________ 134. 9
Electricity________________ __________ • (0
(1)
G a s . __ . . _________________________
Petroleum and products. _____________
62.6

84.8
101.8
124.7
134.0
(i)
78.0
64.2

83.0
95.4
120.6
130.7
60.3
76.8
63.8

72.6
72.1
96.0
104.2
75.8
86.7
51.7

- .8
+ .4
0
+ .7

+ 1.3
+ 7.1
+ 3 .4
+ 3 .2

+15.8
+41.7
+29.9
+29.5

- 2 .5

- 1 .9

+21.1

Metals and metal products _ ______________
Agricultural implements_____________
Farm machinery______________________
Iron and steel___________ _______ . . .
Motor vehicles________________________
Nonferrous metals_____________________
Plumbing and heating________ _____ _

104.9
97.9
98.9
99.6
112.8
85.7
95.0

104.7
97.8
98.8
99.1
112.8
85.8
93.4

103.8
97.5
98.6
97.2
112.8
85.8
92.4

93.2
93.5
94.7
95.1
92. 5
74.6
79.3

+ .2
+ .1
+ .1
+ .5
0
-.1
+ 1 .7

+ 1.1
+ .4
+ .3
+ 2 .5
0
-.1
+ 2.8

+12.6
+ 4 .7
+ 4 .4
+ 4 .7
+21.9
+14.9
+19.8

Building materials________________________
Brick and tile_________________________
Cement______________________________
Lumber___ _______________ ________
Paint and paint m aterials______ . . . .
Plumbing and heating- ..............- ___
Structural steel. _
......
Other building materials_______________

118.0
112.4
99.6
155.0
107.6
95.0
107.3
104.5

117.8
111.6
99.4
155.3
107.3
93.4
107.3
104.3

116.0
101.5
96.9
154.5
105.5
92.4
107.3
103.3

89.6
90.5
91.3
90.1
82.1
79.3
107.3
89.5

+ .2
+ .7
+ .2
-.2
+ .3
+ 1 .7
0
+ .2

+L7
+10.7
+ 2 .8
+ .3
+ 2 .0
+ 2 .8
0
+1-2

+31.7
+24.2
+ 9.1
+72.0
+31.1
+19.8
0
+16.8

Chemicals and allied products.. __________
C hemicals.. . . .
. . . _________ . . .
Drugs and pharmaceuticals____________
Fertilizer materials.. _________ ______
Mixed fertilizers. ____________________
Oils and fats_________________________

95.3
96.1
110.2
81.1
86.6
102.0

94.9
96.0
106.9
81.2
86.6
102.0

74.2
83.8
77.1
65.$
73. i
40.6

0
0
0
0
0
0

+ .4
+3.1
-.1
0
0

+28.4
+14.7
+42.9
+23.8
4-18.5
+151.2

Housefurnishing goods____________________
Furnishings______________________
Furniture____________________________

104.6
107.7
101.5

104.5
107.5
101.5

104.4
107.4
101.4

85.6
90.0
81.1

+ .1
+ .2
0

+ .2
+ .3
+ .1

+22.2
+19.7
+25.2

Miscellaneous______________________ ____
Automobile tires and tubes. __________
Cattle feed___________________________
Paper and p u lp .. . _____________ ______
Rubber, crude-------------------------------- ..
Other miscellaneous__________________

94.8
73.0
159.6
109.3
46.2
98.9

93.6
73.0
159.6
107.2
46.2
97.0

73.3
60.5
68.4
80.0
34.9
81.3

0
0
0
0
0
0

+ 1.3
0
0
+ 2 .0
0
+ 2 .0

+29.3
+20.7
+133. 3
+36.6
+32.4
+21.6

Raw materials . . .
--------------------------Semimanufactured articles------------------------Manufactured products---- -- . . . . . . --------All commodities other than farm products__
All commodities other than farm products
and foods. _______ __________________

114.8
96.5
101.7
100.9

116.3
95.5
101.8
100.9

112.8
94.7
100.9
99.7

66.5
74.5
79.1
77.9

- 1 .3
+ 1 .0
-.1
0

+ 1.8
+ 1 .9
+. 8
+ 1 .2

+72.6
+29.5
+28.6
+29.5

99.8

99.9

98.6

80.1

-.1

+ 1 .2

+24.6

1 No quotation.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1016

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 19 45

Index Numbers by Commodity Groups, 1926 to September 1945

Index numbers of wholesale prices by commodity groups for
selected years from 1926 to 1944, and by months from September 1944
to September 1945, are shown in table 2.
T a b l e 2 . — Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices by Groups of Commodities
[1926=1001

Year and month

Chem
Fuel Metals
Hides Tex
MisBuild icals Houseand
furand
and
Farm
celand
ing
light
tile
nish- lanemetal mate allied
prod Foods leather prod
ing
ing
prod ucts mate prod rials prod
ucts
ous
ucts
ucts
ucts goods
rials

All
com
modi
ties

100.0
104.9
48.2
51.4
80.9
86.4
68.5

100.0
99.9
61.0
60.5
82.1
85.5
73.6

100.0
109.1
72.9
80.9
95.4
104.6
92.8

100.0
90.4
54.9
64.8
71.5
76.3
66.7

100.0
83.0
70.3
66.3
76.2
77.6
76.5

100.0
100.5
80.2
79.8
87.0
95.7
95.7

100.0
95.4
71.4
77.0
86.7
95.2
90.3

100.0
94.0
73.9
72.1
78.7
82.6
77.0

100.0
94.3
75.1
75.8
81.7
89.7
86.8

100.0
82.6
64.4
62.5
70.5
77.8
73.3

100.0
95. 3
64.8
65.9
80.8
86.3
78.6

1939
_____________ 65.3
67.7
1940
- __________
1941 ______________ 82.4
1942 _______________ 105.9
_____________ 122.6
1943
1944________________ 123.3

70.4
71.3
82.7
99.6
106.6
104.9

95.6
100.8
108.3
117.7
117.5
116.7

69.7
73.8
84.8
96.9
97.4
98.4

73.1
71.7
76.2
78.5
80.8
83.0

94.4
95.8
99.4
103.8
103.8
103.8

90.5
94.8
103.2
110.2
111.4
115.5

76.0
77.0
84.4
95.5
94.9
95.2

86.3
88.5
94.3
102. 4
102.7
104.3

74.8
77.3
82.0
89.7
92.2
93.6

77.1
78.6
87.3
98.8
103.1
104.0

122.7
123.4
124.4
125.5

104.2
104.2
105.1
105.5

116.0
116.2
116.2
117.4

99.2
99.4
99.4
99.5

83.0
82.9
83.1
83.1

103.8
103.7
103.7
103.8

116.0
116.3
116.4
116.4

94.9
95.0
94.8
94.8

104.4
104.4
104.4
104.4

93.6
93.6
94.0
94.2

104.0
104.1
104.4
104.7

January____________
February___________
March____________
April___
________
M’ay _______________

126.2
127.0
127.2
129.0
129.9

104.7
104.7
104.6
105.8
107.0

117. 5
117.6
117.8
117.9
117.9

99.6
99.7
99.7
99.6
99.6

83.3
83.3
83.4
83.5
83.7

104.0
104.2
104.2
104.2
104.3

116.8
117.0
117.1
117.1
117.4

94.9
94.9
94.9
94.9
94.9

104.5
104.5
104.5
104.5
104.5

94.2
94.6
94.6
94.8
94.8

104.9
105.2
105.3
105.7
106.0

June_______________
J u lv ._______________
August_____________
September___ ______

130.4
129.0
126.9
124.3

107.5
106. 9
106.4
104.9

118.0
118.0
118.0
118.7

99.6
99.6
99.6
100.1

83.9
84.3
84.8
84.1

104.7
104.7
104.7
104.9

117.4
117.5
117.8
118.0

95.0
95.3
95.3
95.3

104.5
104.5
104.5
104.6

94.8
94.8
94.8
94.8

106.1
105.9
105.7
105.2

1926
_____ --1929
____________
1932
__________
1933
__________
__________
1936
______
1937
1938________________

19U
Septem ber_________
October . . ________
November__________
December_______
1945

The price trend for specified years and months since 1926 is shown
in table 3 for the following groups of commodities: Raw materials,
semimanufactured articles, manufactured products, commodities
other than farm products, and commodities other than farm products
and foods. The list of commodities included under the classifications
“Raw materials,” “Semimanufactured articles,” and “Manufactured
products” was shown on pages 10 and 11 of Wholesale Prices, JulyDecember and Year 1943 (Bulletin No. 785).

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1017

PRICES AND COST OF LIVING
T a l b e 3 . — Index

Numbers of Wholesale Prices by Special Groups of Commodities
[1926=100]

Raw
Year and month mate
rials

1926____________
1929____________
1932_____ ____ _
1933____ ________
1936____________
1937____________

Semimanufactured
arti
cles

M an
ufac
tured
prod
ucts

All
com
modi
ties
other
than
farm
prod
ucts

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
97.5 93.9 94.5 93.3
55.1 59.3 70.3 68.3
56.5 65.4 70.5 69.0
79.9 75.9 82.0 80.7
84.8 85.3 87.2 86.2

1938____________ 72.0
1939____________ 70.2
1940........ ............
71.9
1941____________ 83.5
1942........ ............... 100.6
1943____________ 112.1
1944____________ 113.2

75.4 82.2
77.0 80.4
79. 1 81.6
86.9 89.1
92.6 98.6
92.9 100.1
94. 1 100.8

80.6
79.5
80.8
88.3
97.0
98.7
99.6

All
com
modi
ties
other
than
farm
prod
ucts
and
foods
100.0
91. 6
70.2
71.2
79.6
85.3
81.7
81.3
83.0
89.0
95.5
96.9
98.5

Year and month

19U
September______
October_________
November______
December_______
19iB
January________
February_______
March__________
A pril.__ _ ______
M'ay______ _____
J u n e ___________
July-------- --------August_________
Septem ber...........

All
com
modi
ties
other
than
farm
prod
ucts

All
com
modi
ties
other
than
farm
prod
ucts
and
foods

Raw
mate
rials

Semimanufactured
arti
cles

Man
ufac
tured
prod
ucts

112.8
113.2
113.8
114.6

94.7
94.8
94.8
94.8

100.9 99.7
101.0 99.8
101.1 99.9
101.1 100.0

98.6
98.7
98.8
98.9

115.1
115.6
115.7
116.8
117.7
118.2
117.5
116.3
114.8

94.9
95.0
95.0
95.0
95.0
95.4
95.3
95.5
96.5

101.3
101. 5
101.6
101.8
101.8
101.8
101.8
101.8
101.7

99.1
99.2
99.2
99.3
99.4
99.6
99.7
99.9
99.8

100.1
100.2
100.4
100.5
100.6
100.7
100.7
100.9
100.9

Weekly Fluctuations

Weekly changes in wholesale prices by groups of commodities
during August and September 1945 are shown by the index numbers
in table 4. These indexes are not averaged to obtain an index for the
month but are computed only to indicate the fluctuations from
week to week.
T a b l e 4 . — Weekly Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices by Commodity Groups, Augus

and September 1945
[1926 = 1001
Commodity group

Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug.
29
22
15
8
1
25
18
11
4

All commodities___________________________ 105.0 104.9 104.7 105.0 105.2 105.5 105.5 105.7

105.7

Farm products._____ _____________________
F o o d s...________ ___ _ __________________
Hides and leather products________________
Textile products________ __________________
Fuel and lighting materials.................................

124.7 124.5 123.6 124.3 125.1 126. 7 127.0 128.3
104.7 105.1 104.6 105.1 105.5 106.6 106.3 106.9
118.6 118.6 118.6 118.6 118.6 118.5 118.5 118.5
99.9 99.6 99.4 99.4 99.1 99.1 99.1 99.1
84.4 84.5 84.4 85.3 85.5 85.3 85.3 85.2

129.1
107.0
118.5
99.1
84.8

Metals and metal products_______ __________
Building materials_______________ ________
Chemicals and allied products______________
Housefurnishing goods__________ _________
Miscellaneous____________________ ____ ____

104.8 104.8 104.8 104.8 104.8 104.8 104.8 104.8
117.8 117.7 117.7 117.6 117.6 117.8 117.8 117.3
95.3 95. 3 95.3 95.3 95.3 95.3 95.3 95.2
106.3 106.3 106.3 106.3 1C6.2 106.2 106. 2 106.2
94.6 94.6 94.6 94.6 91.6 94.6 94.6 94.6

104.8
117.3
95.2
106.2
94.6

Raw materials........ ................. ............................
Semimanufactured articles_________________
Manufactured products____________________
All commodities other than farm products___
All commodities other than farm products and
foods_____________ _____________________

115.7 115.5 115.0 115.3 115.8 116.9 116.9 117.7
95.9 95.7 95.7 95.7 95.4 95.4 95.4 95.3
101.8 101.8 101.8 102.0 102.1 102. 1 102. 1 102.0
100.6 100.6 100.6 100.8 100.8 100.8 100.8 100.7

118.1
95.2
101.9
100.6

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

99.9

99.8 100.1 100.1 100.1 100.1

99.9

1018

M O N TH LY LABOR REVIEW----NOVEMBER 19 45

Indexes of Strategic and C ritical M aterials
AMONG the special indexes calculated during the war by the Bureau
of Labor Statistics of the U. S. Department of Labor are two showing
changes in the market prices of strategic materials and of critical
materials. These indexes were developed in 1940 for the use of the
Army and Navy Munitions Board and other defense agencies and
have been issued regularly since March 1941. With the end of the
war they have ceased to serve their major purpose and accordingly
have been discontinued, effective September 1, 1945.
The commodities included in the indexes are those announced on
January 30, 1940, by the Army and Navy Munitions Board as being
strategic and critical. Strategic materials, as defined by the Board,
were “ those essential to national defense, for the supply of which in
war dependence must be placed in whole, or in substantial part, on
sources outside the continental limits of the United States; and for
which strict conservation and distribution control measures will be
necessary.” Critical materials were those “ essential to national de
fense, the procurement problems of which in war would be less difficult
than, those of strategic materials either because they have a lesser
degree of essentiality or are obtainable in more adequate quantities
from domestic sources; and for which some degree of conservation and
distribution control will be necessary.” The indexes contain all of
the commodities included in the ANMB list except optical glass,
which was classified as a critical material.
Subsequently the list was changed by the Board from time to time
as supply situations changed, but the indexes were based on the
original list in the interest of uniformity.
During the war period the indexes were computed weekly. They
are unweighted geometric means of the individual price quotations
and are based on the average for the month of August 1939 as 100.
A description of the commodities included and copies of the indexes
for the period August 5, 1939, to September 1, 1945, may be obtained
from the Bureau upon request.

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Building Operations

B uilding C onstruction in U rban Areas, Septem ber 1945
CONTINUING the upward trend which started last February, the
value of urban building started in September 1945 approximated 186
million dollars—8 percent above the volume of the preceding month
and more than double the amount reported in September 1944. The
entire gain during the month is attributable to the 12-percent increase
in non-Federally financed work, which reached the highest monthly
level since the attack on Pearl Harbor. Conversely, Federal contract
awards for building in urban areas dropped to the lowest figure re
ported in any month since the Pearl Harbor attack, falling off by 67
percent from August.
All classes of urban building construction shared in both the monthly
increase and the gain over the year. Of the urban building financed
with other than Federal money, new residential construction increased
from 20 million dollars in September 1944 to 60 million dollars in
September 1945, new nonresidential building rose from 12 million to
72 million dollars, and additions, alterations, and repairs from 28
million to 51 million dollars. On the other hand, new Federal non
residential building dropped from 21 million to 2 million dollars;
additions, alterations, and repairs from 2 million to 1 million dollars,
and although 3 million dollars worth of Federally financed new resi
dential construction was started in September 1944, none was begun
this September.
T able

1.— Value of Building Construction Started in A ll Urban Areas, by Class of
Construction and by Source of Funds, September 1945 1
Value (in millions)
Total

Class of construction

All construction

Federal

Other than Federal

Percent of
Percent of
Percent of
Septem change from— Septem change from— Septem change from—
ber
ber
ber
1945
August Septem 1945 August Septem
August Septem 1945
1945 ber 1944
1945 ber 1944
1945 ber 1944
...

$186

+ 7.6 +116.2

-8 7 .3

$183

+12.1

+202.1

N ew residential-- ----------N ew nonresidential______
Additions, alterations, and
repairs__________ _______

60
74

+5.5 +157. 8
+8.3 +124. 6

0 -1 00.0 -100.0
2 -6 8 .6 -8 9 .4

60
72

+ 8 .8
+17.0

+197.9
+484.8

+9.0

+ 9.7

+81.3

+74.7

-6 7 .3

-1 6 .4

-3 7 .0

i Percentage changes computed before rounding.

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1019

1020

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

The number of new family dwelling units put under construction
during the month was 10 percent greater than in August, in spite of
the fact that in September there was no new Federal residential build
ing whatsoever. The total for September 1945 was 14,315 units, as
compared with 13,059 in August and 7,758 in September 1944.
T a b l e 2 . —Number and Value of New Dwelling Units Started in all Urban Areas, by

Source of Funds and by Type of Dwelling, September 1945
Number of dwelling units

Value (in thousands)

Percent of
change from—

Source of funds and type of dwelling
September
1945

Sep
August tember
1945
1944

All dwellings---------------------------------------------

14,315

Privately financed______________ ______
1family_____ . ____________
2fam ily*__
________
M ultifamily 2____ .
. . . ______ ______
Federally financed_________________________

14,315 +10.8 +129. 8
12,459 +11.2 +151.8
839 +34.0 +45.9
1,017
- 6 .1 +44.3
0 -100.0 -1 0 0.0

+ 9 .6

Percent of
change from—
September
1945

+84.5

$58,318

Sep
August tember
1945
1944
+ 6.4

+160.2

+ 7 .5
58, 318
51,871
+ 7 .6
3,173 +48.4
3,274 -1 6 .6
0 -100.0

+195.8
+236.0
+56.2
+45.6
-100.0

* Includes 1- and 2-family dwellings with stores.
* Includes multifamily dwellings with stores.

Comparison of First 9 Months of 1944 and 1945
The cumulative value of urban building construction started during
the first 9 months of the year exceeded the billion-doliar mark for the
first time since 1942. Valuations by the end of September 1945
totaled 1,188 million dollars, 42 percent more than the aggregate of
834 million dollars reported for the corresponding period of 1944.
Non-Fcderal work gained nearly two-thirds, while Federal activity
fell off one-tenth. All types of non-Federally financed construction
advanced materially, with new nonresidential building increasing al
most one and a half times, and new residential construction and addi
tions, alterations, and repairs showing gains of 46 and 44 percent, re
spectively. The only class of Federal work that did not decline was
additions, alterations, and repairs, which rose from 11 million to 24
million dollars. Federal contracts for new nonresidential construction
dropped from 202 million to 174 million dollars and for new residential
building from 40 million to 30 million dollars.
T a b l e 3 . — Value of Building Construction Started in A ll Urban Areas, by Class o f

Construction and by Source of Funds, First 9 Months of 1944 and 1945
Value (in millions)
Total

Federal

Other than Federal

Class of construction
First 9 months
1945

1944

Per
cent
of
change

First 9 months
1945

1944

Per
cent
of
change

First 9 months
1945

1944

Per
cent
of
change

All construction____ ______

$1,188

$834

+42.4

$228

$253

- 9 .9

$960

$581

+65.2

N ew residential___________
New nonresidential...............
Additions, alterations, and
repairs....................................

379
468

279
324

+35.8
+44.4

30
174

40
202

-2 5 .0
-1 3 .9

349
294

239
122

+46.0
+141.0

341

231

+47.6

11 +118.2

317

220

+44.1

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1021

BUILDING OPERATIONS

T a b l e 4 . —Number and Value of New Dwelling Units Started in A ll Urban Areas, by

Source of Funds and by Type of Dwelling, First 9 Months of 1944 and 1945
Number'of dwelling units
Source of funds and type of
dwelling

First 9 months of—
1915

All dwellings-..................... ..............

101,233

1944

Value (in thousands)

Percent
of
change

First 9 months of—
1945

Percent
of
change

1944

90,868

+11.4

$372,464

$275, 260

+35.3

Privately financed.................. .........
91,239
74,961
1family................................75,890
...................... 57, 160
2family >....... ..........
6,075
7,993
M ultifam ily8______________
9, 274
9,808
Federally financed______________
9,994
15,907

+21.7
+32.8
-2 4 .0
- 5 .4
-3 7 .2

345,307
297,172
19, 745
28,390
27,157

236,003
180,038
27,148
28,817
39,257

+46.3
+65.1
-2 7 .3
-1 .5
-3 0 .8

1 Includes 1- and 2-family dwellings with stores.
* Includes multifamily dwellings with stores.

Construction from Public Funds , September 1945

The value of contracts awarded and force-account work started
during September and August 1945 and September 1944 on all con
struction projects financed wholly or partially from Federal funds
and reported to the Bureau of Labor Statistics is shown in table 5.
This table includes all types of construction both inside and outside
the corporate limits of cities in urban areas of the United States.
The contracts awarded and force-account work started on Fed
erally financed building construction inside the corporate limits of
cities in urban areas were valued at $3,251,000 in September 1945,
$9,940,000 in August 1945, and $25,567,000 in September 1944.
T a b l e 5. — Total Value of Contracts Awarded and Force-Account Work Started on

Federally Financed Construction, by Type of Project, September 1945 1
Value (in thousands)
Type of project

All types______________________ ___________ _____________
Airports * ...____________ ____ _______ _____ _______________
Building:
Residential............................................. .............. .........................
Nonresidcntial______ ________________________________
Electrification 5______________ ___ _ . ___________________
Public roads 8___________________________________________
Reclamation_______________ _________ ____ ____ ________
River, harbor, and flood control......................................................
Streets and roads 7_____________________ _______ ___________
Water and sewerage ______________________ _______ _______
M iseellaneous_____ ______ _______________ ___________ ____

September
19458

August
1945 8

September
1944 8

$43,027

$68,714

$94,479

1,983

3,355

9,161

0
26,888
1,486
6,903
1,000
3,008
150
502
1,107

1,886
13,959
16, 788
16,958
538
5,908
537
5,164
3,621

2,423
53,834
989
12,211
3,976
3,223
1,799
2,408
4,455

1 Continental United States only.
2 Preliminary; subject to revision.

8 Revised.
* Exclusive of hangars and other buildings which are included under building construction.
8 Includes the value of loan agreements made for Rural Electrification Administration projects.
• Grade-crossing eliminations and roads.
2 Other than those for which contracts were awarded by the Public Roads Administration.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1022

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW----NOVEMBER 194 5

Coverage and Method

Figures on building construction in this report cover the entire
urban area of the United States which by Census definition includes
all incorporated places with a 1940 population of 2,500 or more and,
by special rule, a small number of unincorporated civil divisions.
Valuation figures, the basis for statements concerning value, are
derived from estimates of construction cost made by prospective
private builders when applying for permits to build, and the value
of contracts awarded by Federal and State governments. No land
costs are included. Unless otherwise indicated, only building con
struction within the corporate limits of cities in urban areas is included
in the tabulations.
Reports of building permits which were received in September 1945
for cities containing between 80 and 85 percent of the urban population
of the country provide the basis for estimating the total number of
buildings and dwelling units and the valuation of private urban
building construction. Similar data for Federally financed urban
building construction are compiled directly from notifications of
construction contracts awarded, as furnished by Federal agencies.

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Labor Turn-Over

Labor T urn-O ver in M anufacturing, M ining, and P ublic
U tilities, A ugust 1945
THE sudden termination of the war raised separation rates abruptly.
For every 1,000 workers on factory pay rolls in August, 176 were
separated from their jobs; of these 62 quit, 7 were discharged, 104 were
laid off, and 3 left to enter the armed services. These rates are even
more striking when it is recalled that the end of the war came in the
middle of August, and that most of these separations took place in the
2-week period following the Japanese surrender.
The lay-off rate for all manufacturing reflected unparalleled re
ductions in the munitions division, in which workers were laid off at a
rate of 167 per 1,000. Moreover, the nonmunitions rate, although
only 22 lay-offs per 1,000, was over 4 times the July rate. Every
major group except tobacco manufactures showed an increase in lay
offs. Even in industries generally producing civilian goods, some
companies, notably in the apparel and textiles groups, were working
on Army or Navy orders which were canceled after VJ-day. In all,
fewer than a dozen industries failed to show a rise in the lay-off rate.
The highest lay-off rate for all major manufacturing groups oc
curred in ordnance. An unprecedented rise in this rate, from 49 per
1,000 in July to 399 in August, reflects drastic production cuts in
every single industry comprising the ordnance group. Sudden termi
nation of contracts for the building of planes and ships accounted for
the laying off of 284 workers per 1,000 in the transportation-equipment
group in August as against 30 in July.
Lay-off rates of over 1 out of 10 occurred also in the chemical,
electrical-machinery, nonferrous-metal, and automobile groups. Mass
lay-offs in the small-arms ammunition and explosives industries were
wholly responsible for the high rate in the chemical group, 158 per
1,000; lay-offs reached 142 per 1,000 in the electrical-machinery group,
chiefly because of termination of radar contracts.
The August quit rate of 62 per 1,000 was considerably above the
July rate of 52. This resulted mainly from the usual exodus from
industry to school by teachers and students during this particular
month, but in part may be attributed to quits in anticipation of lay
offs by war plants.
The military and miscellaneous separation rate, after remaining at
4 per 1,000 for 5 months, dropped to 3 in August. The rubber group
was the only one to show a higher rate, from 4 to 5 per 1,000, and this
may reflect the return to duty of soldiers who were furloughed to work
in tire and tube factories.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1023

1024

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

Despite decreases in the accession rate for the munitions division,
manufacturing as a whole continued to hire workers at the same rate
as in July, 57 per 1,000. The hiring rate for the nonmunitions divi
sion, however, rose from 71 per 1,000 in July to 78 in August. This
was due largely to the availability of workers laid off from war in
industries, and to the relaxation of manpower controls. Only the
leather and miscellaneous groups of this division showed declines
from July levels. Although the hiring rate for the munitions division
dropped from 47 per 1,000 in July to 41 in August, there was increased
hiring in the iron and steel and rubber groups, where manufacturing
processes could be easily adjusted to peacetime production.
Some industries and even some individual plants with high lay-off
rates showed increases in their accession rates. It is probable that
in some cases hiring continued up to VJ-day, with lay-offs occurring
later; in others the speed with which reconversion was accomplished
made possible call-backs after VJ-day lay-offs.
In bituminous-coal mining, total separations remained unchanged
during the month, in spite of an increase in the rate of quits. Total
accessions for metal mining and both coal-mining industries increased
between July and August.
Involuntary separations, including discharges, lay-offs, and military
and miscellaneous separations, were 175 per 1,000 for women in August
as against 92 for men, indicating that women are being laid off at
almost twice the rate for men. The accession rate for men is slightly
above that for women for the first time since December 1944.
T able

1.— M onthly Labor Turn-Over Rates (p e r 100 Em ployees ) in M anufacturing 1

C lass of turn-over a n d year

T o t a l separation:
1945
19 44 ________________
1943 ________________
1939 ________________
Q uit:
1945
19 44 ________________
1 94 3 ____ ___________
1939 ________________
D ischarge:
1945
19 44 ________________
1943 ___________
1939 ________________
Lay-off: *
1945 ______________
1944 ________________
1943________________
1939________________
M ilita r y a n d m iscellan eou s:4
1945
__________
1944 ________________
1943 ________________
A ccessio n :
1945
...............
1 9 4 4 ________________
1943 ________________
1939 ________________

Jan.

Feb.

M ar.

Apr.

M ay

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

O ct.

Nov.

6.2
6.7
7.1
3.2

6.0
6.6
7.1
2.6

6.8
7.4
7.7
3.1

6.6
6.8
7.5
3.5

7.0
7.1
6.7
3.5

7.9
7.1
7.1
3.3

7.7
6.6
7.6
3.3

3 17. 6
7.8
8.3
3.0

7.6
8.1
2.8

6.4
7.0
2.9

6.0
6.4
3.0

5.7
6.6
3.5

4 6
4.6
4.5
.9

4.3
4.6
4.7
.6

5.0
5.0
5.4
.8

4.8
4.9
5.4
.8

4.8
5.3
4.8
.7

5.1
5.4
5.2
.7

5.2
5.0
5.6
.7

2 6.2
6.2
6.3
.8

6.1
6.3
1.1

5.0
5.2
.9

4.6
4.5
.8

4.3
4.4
.7

.7
.7
.5
.1

.7
.6
.5
. 1

.7
.7
.6
.1

.6
.6
.5
.1

.6
.6
.6
.1

2.7

.7
.6
. 1

.7
.1

.7
. i

.6
.6
. 1

.6
.6
.2

.6
.6
. 1

.6
.8
.7
2.2

.7
.8
.5
1.9

.7
.9
.5
2.2

.6
.6
2.6

1.2
.5
.5
2.7

1.7
.5
.5
2.5

1.5
.5
.5
2.5

2 10.4
.5
.5
2.1

.6
.5
1.6

.5
.5
1. 8

.5
.7
2.0

.5
1.0
2.7

.3
.6
1.4

.8
1.2

.4
.7

.4
.5

.4
.4

2.3
.4

.3
.7

7.0
6.5
8.3
4.1

7.9
3.1

5.0

5.5

4.9
5.8
8.3

3.3

.4
.7

1.0
4.7
5.5
7.4
2.9

.8
5.0
6.4
7.2

3.3

5.9
7.6
8.4
3.9

5.7
6.3
7.8
4.2

2 5.7
6.3
7.6

7.7

5.1

6.2

6 .1

6.0
7.2
5.9

.6
6.1
6.6
4.1

Dec.

.6
5.1
5.2
2.8

1 Month-to-month employment changes as indicated by labor turn-over rates are not precisely comparable
to those shown by the Bureau’s employment and pay-roll reports, as the former are based on data for the
entire month while the latter refer, for the most part, to a one-week period ending nearest the middle of the
month. In addition, labor turn-over data, beginning in January 1943, refer to all employees, whereas the
employment and pay-roll reports relate only to wage earners. The labor turn-over sample is not so extensive
as that of the employment and pay-roll survey—proportionately fewer small plants are included; printing
and publishing, and certain seasonal industries, such as canning and preserving, are not covered.
2 Preliminary.
3 Including temporary, indeterminate, and permanent lay-oifs.
* Miscellaneous separations comprise not more than 0.1 in these figures. In 1939 these data w jro included
with
Quits.
for FRASER

Digitized
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1025

LABOR TURN-OVER

T a b l e 2 . — Monthly Labor Turn-Over Rates (per 100 Employees) in Selected Groups

and Industries,1 August 1945 2

Group and industry

Total
separa
tion

Quit

Discharge

Lay-off

Military
Total
and mis
cellaneous accession

Aug. July Aug. July Aug. July Aug. July Aug. July Aug. July
Manufacturing
M unitions 3................................................ 23.4
Nonmunitions 3—...................................... 9.9
Ordnance......... . ........................................
Guns, howitzers, mortars, and related equipm ent..
_______
Ammunition, except for small
arms________________ ________
Tanks-------------------- -----------------Sighting and fire-control equipm ent............................. ....................
Iron and steel and their products.........
Blast furnaces, steel works, and
rolling mills........... . ........................
Gray-iron castings-.........................
Malleable-iron castings_____ ____
Steel castings............ ........ ..............
Cast-iron pipe and fittings--..........
Tin cans and other tinware______
Wire products. ..................................
Cutlery and edge tools.________
Tools (except edge tools, machine
tools, file s, and saws). . .................
Hardware______________________
Stoves, oil burners, and heating
equipment___________________
Steam and hot-water heating apparatus and steam fittings_____
Stamped and enameled ware and
galvanizing........ .........................
Fabricated structural-metal products_____________________
Bolts, nuts, washers, and rivets__
Forgings, iron and steel_________
Firearms (60 caliber and under)...
Electrical machinery..... .........................
Electrical equipment for industrial use......... ..................................
Radios, radio equipment, and
phonographs.................................
Communication equipment, except radios......................................
Machinery, except electrical.................
Engines and turbines.......................
Agricultural machinery and tractors_______ ____ _____________
Machine tools.............................. .
Machine-tool accessories________
Metalworking machinery and
equipment, not elsewhere classified________________________
General industrial machinery,
except pumps________________
Pumps and pumping equipment.
Transportation equipment, except
automobiles_________ ______ ______
A ircraft..._________________
Aircraft parts, including engines..
Shipbuilding and repairs_______

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5.6
7.0

4.6
6.1

0.8
.5

0.7 16.7
.4 2.2

2.2
.5

0.3
.2

0.4
.3

4.1
7.8

4.7
7.1

46.5 12.3

5.5

6.0

1.0 39.9

4.9

3.4

4.9

31.5

8.1

6.3

4.1

.6 24.5

3.0

3.5

5.5

50.8 13.6
42.4 18.0

5.9
3.8

6.9
6.0

1.0
.4

1.2 43.6 5.1
1.2 38.0 10.3

.3
.2

.4
.5

3.4
4.4

5.2
4.7

39.2

3.8

2.9

1.9

.4 35.8

1.3

2.0

1.5

11.1

5.7

4.7

3.8

5.6

1.1

4.8

4.3

7.4 3.9
12.5 7.7
8.6 6.2
12.4 9.7
14.8 7.4
20.7 14.6
7.6 3.5
7.7 6.2

4.0
7.0
6.0
6.2
4.5
9.2
2.7
4.8

3.0
5.9
4.3
5.6
4.3
8.8
2.7
4.4

.2
1.2
.5
1.0
.4
3.2
.3
1.6

.2
.9
.4
.7
.8
2.9
.2
.6

3.0
4.1
1.5
4.8
8.8
8.1
4.4
1.1

4.4
.3
1.0
3.0
1.4
2.1
.2
1.0

.2
.2
.6
.4
1.1
.2
.2
.2

.3 4.0
.6 9.4
.5 5.8
.4 3.9
.9 7.6
.8 11.3
.4
3.6
.2 3.6

3.3
7.3
4.5
3.9
7.3
11.9
4.2
6.4

5.4
5.4

4.5
4.4

.5
.5

3.2
.5

.7
.2

.1
.3

9.2
6.7

6.0
5.4

.3
.3

4.3
7.2

4.9
5.7

13.1

9.0

6.8

6.2

5.2

1.5

.4 12.3

8.9

9.6

5.2

3.6

2.9

5.3

1.5

3.5

19.8

3.1

8.4

7.1

6.8

1.3

.8 11.2

9.3

8.6

22.1 12.6
12.0 4.5
17.2 6.3
39.4 8.0

6.0
4.1
4.2
1.7

4.7
3.3
3.9
2.2

.6
.6
.6
.3

.7 15.0
.6 7.0
.4 12.2
.5 37.2

6.7
.3
1.6
5.0

.5
.3
.2
.2

.5
.3
.4
.3

7.0
3.4
3. 0
2.8

7.2
3.2
2.8
3.4

19.6

5.3

4.5

3.7

.5 14.2

3.3

4.0

10.6

4.6

4.4

3.3

5.5

3.0

3.8

25.9

5.3

4.2

3.7

.5 20.8

2.7

3.7

23.0

5.8

4.4

3.8

.8 17.5

2.2

3.9

13.0
24.6

5.2
5.5

4.7
5.1

3.5
3.7

.9
.9

.6 7.1
.8 18.3

.6
.5

.3
.3

.5
.5

3. 7
3.0

4. 2
4.0

12.6
10.0
13.3

5.8
3.9
4.6

5.2
3.5
4.0

4.1
2.4
2.8

1.0
.9
.8

.4
.5
.5

.7
.7
.8

.5
.3
.3

.6
.3
.5

4.6
2.1
2.9

3.8
2.3
3.0

7.5 4.3

5.9
5.3
8.2

4.0

3.1

2.7

4.5

4.3

4.7
5.4

3.8
4.2

.6
1.6

.6
.8

8.0
9.5

.5
1.6

.3
.3

.4
.5

3.5
4.1

3.9
6.0

37.4 10.1 7.5
49.9 9.4 5.7
43.9 6.8 3.8
30.2 12.8 10.1

5.5
5.8
3.5
6.6

1.2
.5
.4
2.0

1.1
.6
.5
1.8

28.4
43.4
39.5
17.8

3.0
2.4
2.4
3.9

.3
.3
.2
.3

.5
.6
.4
.5

4.1
1.7
3.7
5.5

5.2
3.3
3.8
7.5

13.6
16.8

Automobiles.................... ..................... 14.5
Motor vehicles, bodies, and trailers. 6.9
Motor-vehicle parts and accessor i e s .................................................................... 27.0
S e e f o o t n o t e s a t e n d o f t a b le .

7.9
7.3

5.3
7.1

7.4
7.2

3.1
2.3

4.6
3.8

.3
.2

.6 10.9
.6 4.2

1.8
2.4

.2
.2

4.8
3.2

5.6
4.9

7.6

4.5

5.2

.6 1

21.7

1.4

¿ 7 .3

6.1

1026

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW----NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

T a b l e 2 . —Monthly Labor Turn-Over Rates (per 100 Employees) in Selected Groups and

Industries,1 August 1945 2— Continued

Group and industry

Total
separa
tion

Quit

Discharge

Lay-off

Military
Total
and mis
cellaneous accession

Aug. July Aug. July Aug. July Aug. July Aug. July Aug. July
Manufacturing—Continued
Nonferrous metals and their products.4 18.1 7.8
Primary smelting and refining,
except aluminum and magne
sium________________________ 4.1 3.8
Aluminum and magnesium smelt
ing and refining______________
0) 12.7
Rolling and drawing of copper
6.7
4.6
and copper a llo y s ..._________
Aluminum and magnesium pro
d u c ts... __________ . ---------- (5) 9.2
Lighting equipment-------------- __ 11.6 8.3
Nonferrous-metal foundries, ex
cept aluminum and magnesium. 18.0 7.9
Lumber and timber basic products... 12.7 9.9
Sawmills_______________________ 11.4 10.1
Planing and plywood m ills--------- 14.8 8.1
Furniture and finished lumber pro-

13.5 10.1
Furniture, including mattresses
and bedsprings_______________ 12.7 9.3

5.5

5.3

1.1

3.5

3.0

(5)

9.9

(5)

1.0

4.4

3.4

(5)
7.9

6.0
6.9

(5)
.9

.7
.7

0.7 11.2

1. 2

0.3

0.6

5.4

4.1

3.7

(5)

1.5

(5)

12.9

1.4

3.5

3.3

(5)
2. 7

1.9
.3

(5)
.1

.6
0)
.4 11.6

5.5
10.0

5.7

5.6

4.6

.9 11.3

5.3

5.7

9.7
9.5
8.7

8.6
8.9
6.3

.4
.3
.7

.4
.4
.5

2.5
1.4
5.3

.6
.5
1.0

.1
.2
.1

.3 10.2
.3 9.7
.3 9.5

9.5
9.6
6.7

8.4

8.6

4.0

8.2

8.1

1.1

1.8

9.6

9.0

3.1

.2 10.1

9.1

4 6.4
4 6.5
.3 10.8
.6 9.8
.4 6.9

5.6
5.6
7.2
6.8
6.1

Stone, clay, and glass products---------- 8.2
Glass and glass products_______ 7.9
5.7
. .
C em ent... _ . ---- . . .
Brick, tile, and terra cotta_______ 7.8
Pottery and related products____ 7.0

5.5
5.7
4.6
6.3
5.5

5.4
5.0
4.8
6.6
6.0

4.3
4.2
3.7
5.3
4.6

.5
.4
.5
.6
.3

.4
.4
.3
.3
.4

2.0
2.2
.2
.3
.4

.3
.1
.1

.3
.3
.2
.3
.3

7.6
8.2
7.3

6.2
7.0
5.7

5.9
7.0
5.9

5.3
6.2
4.9

.5
.6
.6

.4
.5
.4

1.0
.4
.6

.3
.1
.2

.2
.2
.2

6.3
7.5
7.1

5.7
6.9
5.9

5.0
4. 1
6.6
7.5

4.7
4.6
6.6
5.3

3.8
3.5
5.8
5.6

3.4
3.8
5.2
4.8

.3
.1
.2
.4

.3
.1
.3
.3

.6
.4
.5
1.4

.8
.6
.9
.1

.3
.1
.1
.1

.2 4.1
. 1 4.7
.2 ' 6.0
. 1 4.6

3.4
3.5
4.9
5.2

5.9

4.0

3.7

3.0

1.5

4.3

3.9

8.5

5.9

5.6

5. 2

2.5

5.7

5.0

6.0

4.7

4.2

4.0

1.6

3.7

3.5

8.0

6.2

6.0

5.4

1.6

6.3

5.1

.4
.1
.4

.3
.3
.3

.3
.2
.2

6.0
4.8
6. 2

9.7
3.7
10.8

.2
.3
.3

.3 10.7
.4 10.0
.5 16.7

8.9
6.8
16.0

Textile-mill products_______________
Cotton. ---- ------ ---------------------Silk and rayon goods____________
Woolen and worsted, except dye
ing and fin ish ing...---------------Hosiery, full-fashioned________
Hosiery, seamless_______________
Knitted underwear_____________
Dyeing and finishing textiles, in
cluding woolen and worsted___
Apparel and other finished textile
products-------- ----------- . . . -----M en’s and boys’ suits, coats, and
overcoats
_________________
M en’s and boys’ furnishings, work
clothing, and allied garments__

4.6
3.8
4.7

.3
.2
.4

.3
.2
.3

.7
.5
.7

Food and kindred products................ 10.8 8.9 9. 1 7.5
M eat products_________________ 9.8 7. 2 8.5 6.0
Grain-mill products........................ . 15.9 12.7 13. 5 10.6

.7
.5
1.4

.6
.5
1.1

.8
.5
.7

.5
.3
.5

Leather and leather products________
Leather___________ _ _________
Boots and shoes________________

6.8
4. 2
7.3

8.0

7.3

. 1 12.3

7.6

7.0
6.2
8.9

7.2
6.4
9.2

5.8
5.1
7.5

.7
.7
.9

.5
.4
.7

.6
.6
.5

.3
.2
.3

.3
.4
.3

.4 8.4
.5 7.9
.4 10.8

7.3
6.3
9. 2

21.9 11.1
4.7 3.5
5.7 4.2

5.2
3.7
4.9

4.6
2.6
3.4

.6
.7
.4

.7 15.8
.1
.5
.1
.3

5.5
.1
.2

.3
.2
.3

.3
.3
.3

4.0
5.0
5.4

4.0
4. 4
4.4

6.5 4.6
39.5 13.7
54.4 27.0

4.6
7.6
4. 2

3.5
7.2
5.1

.7
1.0
.5

.2
.6
.9
1.2 30.5 5.0
49.4
20.8
.8

.3
.4
.3

.3
.3
.3

5.5
2.0
1.3

4.8
4.6
1.8

3.3
3.2

2.5
2.4

.3
.3

.2
.2

•3
.3

4.1
4.0

4.1
4.1

Paper and allied products___________ 8.8
Paper and pulp________________ 8.1
Paper boxes_______ _______ _____ 10.9

Products of petroleum and coal____ .
Petroleum refining........................
See footnotes at end of table.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

5.5
3.2
5.9

8.0

Tobacco manufactures_______ _____ _ 8.8

Chemicals and allied products _____
Paints, varnishes, and colors... .
Rayon and allied products.. ___
Industrial chemicals, except ex
plosives______________________
Explosives.. _______ . . . _____
Small-arms ammunition________

5.6
4.3
5.7

4.6
4.5

3.3
3. 2

.3
.3

.8
.8

1027

LABOR TURN-OVER

T able 2.—Monthly Labor Turn-Over Rates (per 100 Employees) in Selected Groups and
Industries,1 August 1945 2—Continued

Group and industry

Total
separa
tion

Quit

Discharge

Lay-off

Military
Total
and mis
cellaneous accession

Aug. July Aug. July Aug. July Aug. July Aug. July Aug. July
Manufacturing—Continued
Rubber products___________________
Rubber tires and inner tubes____
Rubber footwear and related
products ____
_ __
Miscellaneous rubber industries...

11.6
9.6

6.2
6.4

6.7
6.6

4.6
4.5

0.5
.4

3.9
2.0

0.7
1.0

0.5
.6

0.4
.5

5.9
6.3

5.4
5.0

11.5
15.2

6.4
5.6

8.5
6.1

5.8
4.2

.2
.9

.3
.6

2.6
8.0

«
.5

.2
.2

.3
.3

5.0
5.5

7.7
5.3

Miscellaneous industries____________ 14.3

5.2

3.8

3.5

9.9

1.0

4.0

4.4

6.9
2.8
8.4
8.3

5.7
2.7
7.3
5.7

5.8
2.3
7.4
7.1

4.4
1.9
6.1
4.6

.3
.1
.3
.3

.5
.2
.3
.5

.3
.1
(6)
.4

.1
.1
.1
.1

.5
.3
.7
.5

.7
.6
.8
.5

4.7
2.0
5.0
5.8

4.2
2. 2
4. 2
4.5

Nonmanufacturing
M etal mining______________________
Iron ore ...................
Copper o r e ...._________________
Lead and zinc ore_______________
M etal mining, not elsewhere
classified, including aluminum
ore___ ___________ ______ .

(5)

9.9

(5)

7.1

(5)

1.8

(5)

9.5

Coal m ining___ ____ . . .
Anthracite mining_______
1.7
Bituminous-coal mining_________ 4.6

1.8
4.6

1.2
4.2

1.3
3.8

(«)
.2

"(6)
.3

.4
.1

.3
.3

.1
.1

.2
.2

1. 6
4.8

1.3
3.9

Public utilities________ ____
Telephone________
T eleg ra p h __ ___

3.2
4.0

3.1
(5)

2.9
3.6

.2
(5)

.1
.1

.2
(5)

.1
.1

.1
(5)

.1
.1

4.1
(5)

4.8
4.8

3.6
(5)

1 Since January 1943 manufacturing firms reporting labor turn-over have been assigned industry codes on
the basis of current products. M ost plants in the employment and pay-roll sample, comprising those which
were m operation in 1939, are classified according to their major activity at that time, regardless of any sub
sequent change in major products.
2 Preliminary figures.
2 The munitions division which replaces the selected war industries group, includes the following major
industry groups: Ordnance; iron and steel; electrical machinery; machinery, except electrical; automobiles;
transportation equipment, except automobiles; nonferrous metals; chemicals; products of petroleum and
coal; rubber. The nonmunitions division includes lumber; furniture and finished lumber products; stone,
clay, and glass; textile-mill products; apparel and finished textile products; leather; food and kindred prod
ucts; tobacco; paper and pulp; miscellaneous industries. Comparable data for 1943 and 1944 are presented
in the July issue of the M onthly Labor Review.
4 August figures based on incomplete returns.
5 N ot available.
Less than 0.05.

6 7 0 1 1 9 - 45 -

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

-13

1028

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

T a b l e 3 . — Monthly Labor Turn-Over Rates (per 100 Employees) 1for Men and Women

in Selected Industries Engaged in War Production, August 1945 2
Total separa
tion

Quit

Total accession

Industry group and industry
Men

Women

Men

Women

Men

Women

----------------------------------------

14.9

24.3

5.7

6.8

5.7

5.6

Ordnance------ --------------------------- -- - --------------Guns, howitzers, mortars, and related equipm ent..
Ammunition, except for small arms.. . ---------- -T a n k s.. . ----------------------- -----------------------------Sighting and fire-control equipment-------------------

36.9
29.5
39.5
37.0
29.7

66.0
43.7
68.9
65.6
58.4

5.8
6.0
6.4
3.1
2.8

5.1
9.6
5.0
4.8
3.2

3.3
2.6
3.8
1.7
1.9

2.7
3.5
2.7
2.6
2.0

Iron and steel and their products____ .
---------Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling mills_____
Gray-iron eastings. __________________ ______
Malleable-iron castings------------------------------------Steel castings____
________________________
Cast-iron pipe and fittings..................................... .
Firearms (60 caliber and under)________________

9.9
6.5
12.1
8.5
12.5
13.0
43.8

19.3
15.1
17.1
8.7
11.0
38.0
50.4

4.5
3.8
7.0
5.9
6.2
4.4
1.7

6.4
5.9
6.0
6.4
5.7
6.1
2.4

4.9
4.1
9.7
5.7
4.0
7.8
3.9

5.2
3.2
5.4
6.3
2.1
4.2
1.4

Electrical machinery____ ________________________
Electrical equipment for industrial use--------------Radios, radio equipment, and phonographs...
Communication equipment, except radios----------

11.4
6.1
15.2
16.1

29.1
18.3
34.6
29.0

3.6
3.3
3.2
3.9

5.5
6.1
5.1
4.8

2.7
2.1
1.7
2.2

3.9
4.1
3.6
2.2

Machinery, except electrical_______________________
Engines and turbines._______ _______________
Machine tools_________________
.. . . . .. .
Machine-tool accessories_________
_____ ____
Metalworking machinery and equipment, not
elsewhere classified_____ _____________ . _ .
General industrial machinery, except pumps____
Pumps and pumping equipment___ ___________

11.4
23.3
8.3
12.3

18.6
28.3
20. 1
16.1

4.3
4.8
3.4
3.8

6.2
5.9
5.4
5.0

3.8
2.9
2.2
3.0

3.6
3.4
2.8
2.6

6.4
11.1
13.3

13.5
20.5
27.6

3.5
4.2
5.2

6.7
6.2
5.9

4.4
3.3
4.3

5.5
3.8
3.5

Transportation equipment, except automobiles______
Aircraft__________________________________
Aircraft parts, including engines________________
Shipbuilding and repairs____ _ ________________

34.2
44.2
39.3
30.0

51.6
59.5
53.0
41.4

7.8
5.7
3.3
10.5

6.6
5.5
4.8
10.6

4.5
1.6
3.8
6.0

3.2
2.1
2.8
5.2

Nonferrous metals and their products 3_____________
Primary smelting and refining, except aluminum
and magnesium_____ _. ______ _____ ______
Aluminum and magnesium smelting and refining.
Rolling and drawing of copper and copper alloys..
Aluminum and magnesium products___________
Nonferrous-metal foundries, except aluminum
and magnesium_________________________ . . .

15.2

27.5

5.3

6.3

5.2

6.0

4.1

3.7

3.5

2.9

4.2

All manufacturing-----

Chemicals and allied products____________________
Industrial chemicals, except explosives__________
Explosives_______ __________________________
Small-arms ammunition____________________ _

3.8

5.9

12.1
(9

(9
4.2
(9

13.2

28.5

5.1

6.8

5.8

4.2

17.6
6.1
34.6
46.4

31.8
7.8
51.1
64.0

4.6
4.5
6.8
3.5

6.5
4.9
9.5
5.0

4.2
5.7
1.9
1.5

3.5
4.4
2.4
1.1

5.7

3.4

4.1

i
T h e s e f ig u r e s a r e p r e s e n t e d t o s h o w c o m p a r a t i v e t u r n - o v e r r a t e s a n d s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d t o e s t i m a t e
e m p lo y m e n t.
3
T h e s e f ig u r e s a r e b a s e d o n a s l i g h t l y s m a l l e r s a m p l e t h a n t h a t fo r a l l e m p l o y e e s , a s s o m e f ir m s d o n o t
r e p o r t s e p a r a t e d a t a fo r w o m e n .
3 A u g u s t f ig u r e s b a s e d o n i n c o m p l e t e r e t u r n s .
* N o t a v a i la b l e .

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Trend o f Em ploym ent Earnings, and Hours

Sum m ary of Em ploym ent R eports for Septem ber 1945
THE total number of employees in nonagricultural establishments
was 35,268,000 in September, over 1% million fewer than in midAugust when Japan surrendered, and almost 3% million fewer than in
September 1944. The net decline over the month reflects almost
wholly the loss of 1,688,000 employees from the manufacturing division.
Industrial and Business Em ploym ent

Production-worker employment for manufacturing as a whole
decreased by a little over 1% million between mid-August and midSeptember, the munitions group accounting for almost all of the drop.
A special survey of manufacturing plants for the period September
1-30 indicated that toward the end of the month there was a sub
stantial slowing of the rate of curtailment in employment, and signs of
stabilization for the near future.
A loss of 635,000 workers, the largest for any major manufacturing
group from mid-August to mid-September, occurred in the transpor
tation-equipment group. While there are indications that the bulk of
the cut-backs for transportation equipment took place during this
period, further employment reductions can be expected as some
plants are still engaged in the completion of aircraft and shipbuilding
contracts.
Employment declines, while large, were not so extensive in those
munitions groups in which many plants were engaged in producing
basic products like iron and steel and machinery. Employers in those
munitions industries other than aircraft, shipbuilding, and ordnance
predicted in mid-September a large absorption of workers in the next
few months.
Among the nonmunitions groups, only the miscellaneous showed any
appreciable decline—this drop occurred in those plants making such
war products as professional and scientific instruments. The food,
apparel, and textile groups all showed the usual seasonal gains.
The number of bituminous-coal miners increased slightly over the
month—the first increase since June. Employment in this industry
is still 24,000 below the level of a year ago.

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1029

1030

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 19 4 5

T a b l e 1. — E s tim a te d N u m b e r o f P ro d u c tio n W o rk e rs a n d I n d e x e s o f P r o d u c tio n -W o r k e r
E m p lo y m e n t in M a n u f a c tu r in g I n d u s tr ie s , b y M a jo r I n d u s tr y G ro u p 1
Estimated number of produc
tion workers (in thousands)

Productionworker indexes
(1939=100)

Industry group
Au
gust
1945

July
1945

All manufacturing-. --------_ . . . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ------ 10,121
------- -------- . . . -- 5,112
Durable goods. . _ -----Nondurable goods____ ___ _ _ -------------------- 5,009

11, 670
6,539
5,131

11,928
6, 782
5,146

Iron and steel and their products— .. _ _ ------------Electrical machinery -------------- - - - - - -----Machinery, except electrical- . . . . Transportation equinment, except automobiles. .
- - ------------- Automobiles____. ------ . . .
Nonferrous metals and their products
Lumber and timber basic products
. . - ------- -------Furniture and finished lumber products------------------Stone, clay, and glass products -----------------------

1,204
452
887
804
387
333
443
292
310

1,444
615
1,039
1, 439
545
367
452
317
321

1, 503
636
1,069
1, 526
582
371
453
321
321

Textile-mill products and other fiber manufactures.—
Apparel and other finished textile products------ . . . Leather and leather products . . . .
--------- - - - Food . ____ _ ------ -- -------- ------- -- -... . . . ...
Tobacco manufactures. _ ---Paper and allied products---------------------- .
--------Printing, publishing, and allied industries.. . _ -----Chemicals and allied products ---------. -----------Products of petroleum and coal . . . . . ---------- .
Rubber products. . . . .
. --------- ----------Miscellaneous industries. ------- . . ----------- . .

1,035
787
303
1,121
84
303
318
438
133
170
317

1,031
781
308
1,065
79
303
321
548
135
179
381

1, 034
761
307
1,054
78
302
317
587
135
183
388

Sep
tember
1945 2

Sep
Sep
tember tember
1944
1945 2
13, 602
8,100
5, 502

Au
gust
1945

123.5
141.6
109.3

142.5
181.1
112.0

1, 686
739 ”
1,189
2,216
703
412
487
339
329

121.5
174.4
167.9
506.6
96.2
145.3
105.4
89.0
105.7

145.6
237.5
196.7
906.6
135.4
160.1
107.5
96.6
109.3

1,091
871
313
1,184
82
310
319
593
133
194
412

90.5
99.7
87.4
131.2
90.0
114.1
97.0
151.9
125.8
140.6
129.5

90.2
98.9
88.6
124.6
84.2
114.2
98.0
190.0
127.3
148.4
155.8

1 The estimates and indexes presented in this table have been adjusted to levels indicated by the Anal
1943 data made available by the Bureau of Employment Security of the Federal Security Agency. Data
for 15 major groups are not comparable with data published in mimeographed releases dated prior to Sep
tember 1945 or the October 1945 issue of the M onthly Labor Review. Comparable data from January 1939
are available upon request. Five major groups, Furniture and finished lumber products, Stone, clay and
glass products, Tobacco manufactures, Chemicals and allied products, and Products of petroleum and
coal, needed no further adjustment and are therefore comparable with the data previously published.
Preliminary.

Public Employment

During the month in which the Japanese surrender occurred, Fed
eral war agencies dropped 105,000 employees who had been stationed
within continental United States. The War and Navy Departments
cut their employment by 98,000, and, of the emergency war agencies,
the Office of Censorship and the OPA showed the largest declines.
Although war-agency employment was cut within continental United
States as early as August 1943 and has been fluctuating upwards and
downwards ever since, the September 1945 drop was the largest
occurring in any single month, with the exception of September 1943
when the cut amounted to 115,000.
The end of the war meant not only reduced Federal employment,
but also, to most of the remaining employees, a shorter workweek.
On July 1, 1945, the hours had been reduced in most agencies from
48 to 44 per week. (Exceptions were the Navy, War, and Treasury
Departments, The Panama Canal, Veterans Administration, and
TVA.) During the week of the Japanese surrender, the Navy De
partment took the lead by cutting the hours of its employees in the
field from 48 to 40, and in the departmental service from 48 to 44.
Simultaneously, the War Department cut hours from 48 to 44, and
the following week the Office of Censorship reduced its workweek to
40 hours.

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TREND OF EMPLOYMENT, EARNINGS, AND HOURS

1031

Following an order of the President, dated August 23, to reduce
working hours to 40 a week unless exempted by the Bureau of the
Budget, most agencies adopted the 5-day 40-hour week during the
last week in August, that is, at the beginning of the first September
pay period. The Agriculture Department, National Housing Agency,
Securities and Exchange Commission, Office of Inter-American
Affairs, National War Labor Board, and Foreign Economic Ad
ministration complied with the order at the beginning of the second
September pay period, September 10. Certain installations or divi
sions of several of the agencies received temporary exemp don from the
40-hour-week order—for example, the hospitals and separation centers
of the War Department and the Bureau of Engraving and Printing of
the Treasury Department. The Government Printing Office and
Veterans’ Administration were the only two agencies in September
which as a whole were on the 48-hour week.
The drop of $48,000,000 in the August 1945 pay roll of the Federal
Government and of $124,000,000 in the September pay roll, therefore,
reflects both the changed employment levels and the shorter workweek.
Source oj data.—Data for the Federal executive service are reported
through the Civil Service Commission, whereas data for the legislative
and judicial services and Government corporations are reported to the
Bureau of Labor Statistics. Force-account employment is also in
cluded in construction employment (table 5), and navy-yard employ
ment is also included in employment on shipbuilding and repair
proj ects (table 4). The revised pay-roll series showing, monthly figures
from 1943 to date is available upon request.
T a b l e 2 . — E m p lo y m e n t a n d P a y R o lls f o r R e g u la r F e d e ra l S erv ic e s a n d f o r G o vern m en t
C o r p o ra tio n s in S elected M o n th s

Year and month

Total

Executive 1 Legislative

Judicial

Govern
ment cor
porations 2

E m ploym ent3
September
September
September
September
September
September

1939___________ _ _ _ _ _ ___
1940___ ___________
__ _
1941____ ________ ___ _____
1942 __________ _____ _
___
1943___________ __ ___ ___
______
___
1944_________

987, 283
1,107,053
1,547,779
2,593,252
3, 230,958
3,375,279

954,018
1, 072,173
1,508,554
2 ,550,823
3,186,181
3,331,179

5,532
6, Oil
6,048
6,517
6,221
6, 272

2,162
2,482
2, 578
2,662
2,651
2,641

25, 571
26,387
30,599
33, 250
35,905
35,187

July 1945__________ ____ _______________
August 1945 4________ _________ _ _ __
September 1945 4_____ _ ___ __ _ _ . . .

3,806,005
3,830, 702
3,713,491

3,762,107
3, 787,027
3,670,026

6,444
6,412
6,445

2,706
2,866
2,883

34,748
34,397
34,137

Pay rolls (in thousands) 5
September 1943__ ______ _______________
September 1944______________________ __

$660,657
683, 744

$652,896
675,875

$1, 502
1,522

$768
755

$5,491
5,592

July 1945 4_____
______ _
_____
August 1945 4 _________________ _____ _
September 19454_________________

718, 595
670,818
547,088

710,494
662,637
538,982

1,771
1,779
1,788

842
857
865

5,488
5,545
5,453

1 Includes employees in United States navy yards who are also included under shipbuilding (table 4)
and employees on force-account construction who are also included under construction projects (table 5).
Includes employees stationed outside continental United States.
2 Data are for employees of the Panama Railroad Co., the Federal Reserve banks, and banks of the Farm
Credit Administration, who are paid out of operating revenues and not out of Federal appropriations.
Data for other Government corporations are included under the executive service.
3 Figures are as of the first of the calendar month,
4 Preliminary.
5 Pay rolls are from the revised series. M onthly figures are available upon request for the period from
January 1943 to date. Revised data for 1939-42 w ill be available shortly. Data are for all pay periods
ending within the calendar month.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1032

M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

T a b l e 3 . — E m p lo y m e n t a n d P a y R o lls f o r th e E x e c u tiv e B r a n c h o f th e F e d e ra l G o vern
m e n t, b y W a r a n d O th e r A g e n c ie s , in S e le c te d M o n th s 1
War agencies2
Year and month

Total
All areas

Other agencies

Outside
Continen continen
tal
tal
United
United
States
States 3

All areas

Continen Outside
continen
tal
tal
United
United
States
States 3

E m ploym ent4
September
September
September
September
September
September

1939________
1940________
1941________
1942____ . . .
1943.._ ____
1944___ _ _

July 1945____ ________
August 1945 5_____ ____
September 1945 3______

954,018
1,072,173
1,508. 554
2, 550. 823
3,186,181
3,331,179

218,966
310, 229
686,889
1,690, 437
2, 367, 260
2,483,878

187,707
257, 532
593,278
1,491,058
2,046,044
2,076,989

31, 259
52,697
93, 611
199.379
321, 216
406,889

735,052
761, 944
821,665
860,3S6
818,921
847, 301

725,145
749,971
808,193
845,966
802,006
831, 509

9,907
11,973
13,472
14, 420
16,915
15, 792

3,762,107
3, 787,027
3,670,026

2,848, 405
2,882, 728
2,761,519

2,020, 240
2,014, 272
1,909, 342

828,165
868, 456
852,177

913,702
904, 299
908, 507

895,180
885,293
889,018

18, 522
19,006
19,489

Pay rolls (in thousands) 3
September 1943________
September 1944________

$652,896
675,875

$491,580
505,154

$442,788
455,901

$48,792
49,253^

$161,316
170,721

$157,582
167,315

$3, 734
3,406

July 1945 3_____________
August 1945 3__________
September 1945 3_______

710,494
662,637
538,982

537,016
48S, 506
382,251

470,818
421,720
316,497

66,198
66, 786
65,754

173,478
174,131
156,731

169,275
169, 592
152,314

4,203
4, 539
4,417

1 Includes employees in United States navy yards who are also included under shipbuilding (table 4) and
employees on force-account construction who are also included under construction projects (table 5).
2 Covers War and N avy Departments, Maritime Commission, National Advisory Committee for Aero
nautics, The Panama Canal, and the emergency war agencies.
3 Includes Alaska and the Panama Canal Zone.
4 Figures are as of the first of the calendar month.
3 Preliminary.
3 Pay rolls are from the revised series. M onthly figures are available upon request for the period from
January 1943 to date. Revised data for 1939-42 will be available shortly. Data are for all pay periods ending
within the calendar month.

Employment in Shipyards

Reflecting the drastic cuts in employment that were made in most
shipyards immediately following VJ-day, total employment in ship
yards declined 259,300 during the month August 15 to September 15,
1945, leaving 762,300 workers employed in private shipyards and
United States navy yards as of September 15, 1945.
Telegraphic surveys made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics re
vealed that employment in shipyards continued to drop during the
last 2 weeks of September. As of September 30, total employment
in all shipyards had declined to 715,000. This was the lowest em
ployment figure for the industry since February 1942, and was
1,008,000 less than the total for the peak month of December 1943.
From August 15 to September 15, the greatest percentage loss in
employment was in Inland and Great Lakes shipyards which had
decreases of 42.7 and 37.9 percent, respectively. Pacific Coast ship
yards had the greatest numerical loss, 113,800, while Atlantic Coast
yards were second with a loss of 92,600.
Pay rolls of shipyard workers amounted to $198,464,000 for Septem
ber as compared with $290,825,000 for August.
Data on employment and pay rolls are received monthly by the
Bureau of Labor Statistics directly from private shipyards. Data

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TREND OF EMPLOYMENT, EARNINGS, AND HOURS

1033

for United States navy yards are received monthly from the Navy
Department. Employees in the navy yards are also included in
data for the Federal executive service (tables 2 and 3).
T a b l e 4 . — T o ta l E m p lo y m e n t a n d P a y R o lls in U n ite d S ta te s N a v y Y a r d s a n d P r iv a te
S h ip y a r d s , b y

S h ip b u ild in g R e g io n ,

S e p te m b e r 1 9 4 5

Employment (in thousands)
Shipbuilding region

Pay rolls (in thousands)

Septem Septem August
ber 1944 ber 19451
1945

Septem
ber 1944

Septem
ber 1945 i

August
1945

All regions .
..
.............................
United States navy yards2 ________
Private shipyards__________________

762.3
261.2
501.1

1,021.6
298.8
722.8

1,499. 3
ij 321.8
1,177. 5

$198,464
76,316
122,148

$290,825
87, 208
203,617

$440,090
93. 200
346,890

North Atlantic_______________________ South Atlantic_________________ ______ _
Gulf__________________________________
Pacific________________________________
Great Lakes____ ______________________
Inland___________________ ____ ________

316 2
80.2
83. 7
262.2
11.8
8.2

391.8
97.2
123.3
376.0
19.0
14.3

539.9
132.0
198.2
513.2
56.4
59.6

89,765
19,659
19,684
64, 293
3,238
1,825

114,037
28,272
32,211
107,662
5,288
3,355

158, 796
37,851
60, 762
151,034
16,360
15, 287

1 Preliminary.
2 Includes all navy yards constructing or repairing ships, including the Curtis Bay (Maryland) Coast
Guard yard. Data are also included in the Federal executive service (tables 2 and 3).

Construction Employment

Employment on construction in continental United States continued
to climb in September 1945, reaching a total of 1,100,800—35,900
above August and 260,400 above September a year ago. Gains for
the month and over the year were entirely on non-Federally financed
projects, Federal construction employment having dropped to 137,800
from 186,600 in the preceding month and from 216,200 in September
1944.
More than eight-tenths of the 78,600 increase during the month
in employment on non-Federal projects occurred on new nonresidential
building, which rose from 246,700 in August to 313,100 in September.
Employment on private residential construction experienced the next
greatest gain, rising from 166,500 to 183,100. The only types of
non-Federally financed construction which showed employment de
creases were farm dwellings and service buildings, State highways,
and public utility projects.
September was the fourth consecutive month in which most of
the decrease in Federal construction employment was on new non
residential building. The drop on Federal nonresidential building in
September was 42,400, or 36 percent. Federal residential construc
tion and river, harbor, and flood control work showed slight employ
ment gains; all other types of Federal construction experienced
decreases.
Changes over the year in construction employment were very
similar to the variations during the month. There were more than
three times as many persons employed this September as last on
non-Federally financed nonresidential building; at the same time
employment on new Federal nonresidential building dropped 34
percent. In spite of the slight drop during the month, non-Federal
public utility projects showed an employment gain of 30,500 over the
year. Almost all other types of construction employment followed
the same trend both during the month and over the year.

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1034

M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW----NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

T a b l e 5 . — E s tim a te d E m p lo y m e n t a n d P a y R o lls o n C o n s tru c tio n W ith in C o n tin e n ta l
U n ite d S ta te s, S e p te m b e r 1 9 4 5
Employment
(in thousands)

Pay rolls
(in thousands)

Type of project
Sep
tember
1945 i

August
1945

Sep
tember
1944

Sep
tember
1945 i

August
1945

New construction to ta l3______ _ _ _ _ _
1,100.8
At the construction site_______________ ___
953.1
Federal projects 4_______ _ _ __ _ ___
137.8
Airports___________
_ ______
6.9
Buildings ______
_ _
86.0
Residential____________ ______
9.6
Nonresidential3_____ _
____
76.4
Electrification
_____ __
.7
Reclamation
_____
6.1
River, harbor, and flood control___
16.5
Streets and highways__________ _
10.9
Water and sewer systems ______
2.5
Miscellaneous___ _____________ .
8.2
Non-Federal projects_________________
815.3
Buildings..
_ _____________ ._
496.2
183.1
Residential. _ ________________
Nonresidential _____ . . .
313.1
Farm dwellings and service buildmgs----------------------------------------135.5
121.1
Public utilities___________________
34.5
Streets and highways_____________
State_____ _____ . . .
________
17.0
17.5
County and municipal___ ____
28.0
Miscellaneous__ __. ___ _____ _.
Other 3_____
__ ______ __ _ _________
147.7
93.0
Maintenance of State roads 7____ _ .__ ______

1,064. 9
923.3
186.6
10.6
128.0
9.2
118.8
.9
6.5
15.1
11.5
3.2
10.8
736.7
413.2
166.5
246.7

840.4
694.7
216.2
15.0
133.8
17.7
116.1
.6
12.6
19.4
16.3
5.6
12.9
478.5
199.7
98.1
101.6

(3)
(3)
$30,011
1, 374
19,850
2,130
17, 720
126
1,350
3,313
2,138
423
1,437
(3)
112,141
(3)
(3)

(3)
(3)
$41,788
1,995
30,456
2,129
28,327
148
1,471
2,945
2, 255
553
1,965
(3)
100,408
(3)
(3)

142.0
124.3
34.7
17.2
17.5
22.5
141.6
92.8

134.7
90.6
36.1
17.6
18.5
17.4
145.7
92.0

(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)

Sep
tember
1944
(3)
(3)
$43, 569
2,989
27, 244
3,673
23, 571
96
2, 848
3, 698
3, 307
927
2,460
(3)
46, 730
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)

1 Preliminary.
3 Data are for all construction workers (contract and force-account) engaged on new construction, additions
and alterations, and on repair work of the type usually covered by building permits. (Force-account em
ployees are workers hired directly by the owner and utilized as a separate work force to perform construction
work of the type usually chargeable to capital account.) The construction figure included in the Bureau’s
nonagricultural employment series covers only employees of construction contractors and on Federal forceaccount and excludes force-account workers of State and local governments, public utilities, and private
firms.
3 Data not available.
* Includes the following force-account employees, hired directly by the Federal Government, and their
payrolls: September 1944,28,377, $5,626,000; August 1945,17,927, $3,345,000; September 1945,17,807, $3,344,000.
These employees are also included under the Federal executive service (tables 2 and 3); all other workers
were employed by contractors and subcontractors.
1 Employees and pay rolls for Defense Plant Corporation projects are included, but those for projects
financed from RFC loans are excluded. The latter are considered non-Federal projects.
3 Includes central office force of construction contractors, shop employees of special trades contractors,
such as bench sheet-metal workers, etc., and site employees engaged on projects which, for security reasons,
cannot be shown above.
7 Data for other types of maintenance not available.

Source of data.—For construction projects financed wholly or
partially from Federal funds, the Bureau of Labor Statistics receives
monthly reports on employment and pay rolls at the construction
site directly from the contractors or from the F ederal agency sponsor
ing the project. Force-account employees hired directly by the
Federal Government are also included in tables 2 and 3 under Federal
executive service.
Estimates of employment on non-Federal construction projects
(except State roads) are obtained by converting the value of work
started (compiled from reports on building permits issued, priorities
granted, and from certain special reports) into monthly expenditures
and employment by means of factors which have been developed from
special studies and adjusted to current conditions. For State roads
projects, data represent estimates of the Public Koads Administration,

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

TREND OF EMPLOYMENT, EARNINGS, AND HOURS

1035

D etailed Reports for In d u strial and Business
Em ploym ent, August 1945
Nonagricultural Employment

ESTIMATES of employment in nonagricultural establishments are
shown in table 1. The estimates are based on reports of employers
to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, on unemployment-compensation
data made available by the Bureau of Employment Security of the
Federal Security Agency, and on information supplied by other
Government agencies, such as the Interstate Commerce Commission,
Civil Service Commission, Bureau of the Census, and the Bureau of
Old-Age and Survivors Insurance. The estimates include all wage
and salaried workers in nonagricultural establishments but exclude
military personnel, proprietors, self-employed persons, and domestic
servants.
Estimates of employees in nonagricultural establishments, by States,
are published each month in a detailed report on employment and
pay rolls.
T able

1. — E s tim a te d N u m b e r o f E m p lo y e e s in N o n a g r ic u ltu r a l E s ta b lis h m e n ts , b y
I n d u s tr y D iv is io n
Estimated number of employees (in
thousands)
Industry division
August
1945

July 1945 June 1945 August
1944

Total estimated employment 1 _ ___

36,894

37, 229

37, 549

38, 744

Manufacturing 2
M ining _
Contract construction and Federal force-account construction
Transportation and public utilities.
Trade., ____________
Finance, service, and miscellaneous.
Federal, State, and local government, excluding Federal forceaccount construction _ _. _

13,837
784
951
3,838
6,963
4,605

14,130
784
911
3,836
6,975
4, 672

14, 534
794
845
3,830
7, 004
4,589

16,023
834
700
3,818
6,918
4,582

5,916

5,921

5,953

5,869

1 Estimates include all full- and part-time wage and salary workers in nonagricultural establishments who
are employed during the pay period ending nearest the 15th of the month. Proprietors, self-emploved
persons, domestic servants, and personnel of the armed forces are excluded.
2 Estimates for manufacturing have been adjusted to levels indicated by final 1942 data made available bv
the Bureau of Employment Security of the Federal Security Agency. Since the estimated number of pro
duction workers m manufacturing industries have been further adjusted to final 1943 data, subsequent to
December 1942, the two sets of estimates are not comparable.

Industrial and Business Employment

Monthly reports on employment and pay rolls are available for 154
manufacturing industries and for 27 nonmanufacturing industries,
including water transportation and class I steam railroads. The
reports for the first 2 of these groups—manufacturing and nonmanu
facturing—are based on sample surveys by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics. The figures on water transportation are based on esti
mates prepared by the Maritime Commission, and those on class I
steam railroads are compiled by the Interstate Commerce Commission.

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1036

MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

The employment, pay roll, hours, and earnings figures for manu
facturing, mining, laundries, and cleaning and dyeing, cover produc
tion workers only; but the figures for public utilities, brokerage, insur
ance, and hotels relate to all employees except corporation officers and
executives, while for trade they relate to all employees except cor
poration officers, executives, and other employees whose duties are
mainly supervisory. For crude-petroleum production they cover
production workers and clerical field force. The coverage of the
reporting samples for the various nonmanufacturing industries ranges
from about 25 percent for wholesale and retail trade, cleaning and
dyeing, and insurance, to about 80 percent for public utilities and 90
percent for mining.
The general manufacturing indexes are computed from reports
supplied by representative establishments in the 154 manufacturing
industries surveyed. These reports cover more than 65 percent of
the total production workers in all manufacturing industries of the
country and about 80 percent of the production workers in the 154
industries covered.
Data for both manufacturing and nonmanufacturing industries are
based on reports of the number of employees and the amount of pay
rolls for the period ending nearest the 15th of the month.
INDEXES OF EMPLOYMENT AND PAY ROLLS

Employment and pay-roll indexes, for both manufacturing and
nonmanufacturing industries, for June, July, and August 1945, and
for August 1944, are presented in tables 3 and 5.
The figures relating to all manufacturing industries combined, to
the durable- and nondurable-goods divisions, and to the major in
dustry groups, have been adjusted to levels indicated by final data for
1943 made available by the Bureau of Employment Security of the
Federal Security Agency. The Bureau of Employment Security data
referred to are (a) employment totals reported by employers under
State unemployment-compensation programs and (6) estimates of
the number of employees not reported under the programs of some
of these States, which do not cover small establishments. The latter
estimates were obtained from tabulations prepared by the Bureau of
Old-Age and Survivors Insurance, which obtains reports from all
employers, regardless of size of establishment.
Not all industries in each major industry group are represented in
the tables since minor industries are not canvassed by the Bureau.
Furthermore, no attempt has been made to allocate among the
separate industries the adjustments to unemployment-compensation
data. Hence, the estimates for individual industries within a group
do not in general add to the total for that group.

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EMPLOYMENT AND PAY ROLLS
TREND OF EMPLOYMENT, EARNINGS, AND HOURS

ALL MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

1919 ¡9 2 0 ¡921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

____________________________________________________________________________

WAGE EARNERS AND WAGE EARNER PAY R O L L

1037

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

1038

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW----NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

T a b l e 2 . — E s tim a te d N u m b e r o f P r o d u c tio n W o rk e rs in M a n u f a c tu r in g I n d u s tr ie s
Estimated number of production work
ers (in thousands)
Industry

__ _ _______
All manufacturing
_ . ________
Durable goods1 __________
___ ______
Nondurable goods L_ _______ __________________________

August
1945

July 1945 June 1945 August
1944

11,670
6,539
5,131

11,928
6,782
5,146

12,326
7,109
5, 217

13, 758
8, 238
5, 520

Durable goods
Iron and steel and their products 1 .
_
.
_____
Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling mills_____________
Gray-iron and semisteel castings. . _ __________
Malleable-iron castings...
______
_____
Steel castings------------- -- ------------------------ ---------Cast-iron pipe and fittings
. . . ___________ ____
T in cans and other tinware. _ ________
Wire drawn from purchased rods . . _.
______________
Wirework.. __ _____ __ ____ ____
_ ____
Cutlery and edge tools______ _
________
Tools (except edge tools, machine tools,.files, and s a w s )...
Hardware.
... .
______ . . .
______
Plumbers’ supplies . . . . __________________
Stoves, oil burners, and heating equipment, not elsewhere
classified. _________ _______
___ . . .
Steam and hot-water heating apparatus and steam fittings.
Stamped and enameled ware and galvanizing
_ . ___
Fabricated structural and ornamental metalwork . . . . .
Metal doors, sash, frames, molding, and trim__
Bolts, nuts, washers, and rivets________
Forgings, iron and steel.
_ ...
Wrought pipe, welded and heavy riveted . . . _
Screw-machine products and wood screw s... _
Steel barrels, kegs, and drums . . . .
____
_____
Firearms._ _ _

1, 444
456. 8
68.7
22.8
58.0
14.7
40.3
29.5
29.8
22.1
24.5
41.6
20.9

1,503
461.7
70.0
23.1
60.6
15.1
42.3
29.3
30.1
21.7
25.3
42.4
21.8

1,577
470.0
71.4
24.2
64.2
16.0
42.3
31.1
31.8
22.9
26.2
44.5
22.2

1, 703
' 482.0
73.0
24. 7
73.5
15. 5
42.0
32. 5
35.3
22. 7
27.2
46 2
23.0

55.8
45.4
76.6
50.1
7.7
21.7
30.1
21.9
35.8
8.3
16.8

57.0
47.9
80.4
55.1
8.7
22.3
30.5
21.6
37.5
8.2
19.3

58.4
50.1
83.5
59. 7
8.8
23.1
33.0
22.6
39. 7
8.5
24.0

64.0
55.5
89.6
74 5
13. 5
26. 2
35. 5
25. 8
44 2
7. 4
43.7

615
375.1
98.4
92.4

636
385. 3
105.4
94.5

668
403.1
110.3
101.1

745
449 6
124. 5
110.4

Machinery, except electrical C . ______ _
Machinery and machine-shop products
Engines and turbines__________
Tractors_____ ______ .
Agricultural machinery,excluding tractors
Machine tools . . ____
Machine-tool accessories
Textile machinery
Pumps and pumping equipment . _
Typewriters
Cash registers, adding and calculating machines
Washing machines, wringers and driers, domestic
Sewing machines, domestic and industrial
Refrigerators and refrigeration equipment

1,039
398.9
57.5
51.4
39.5
66.6
57.8
24.5
62.5
12.8
26.9
10.9
9.6
43.8

1,069
410.1
59.7
53.3
40.8
68.8
58.6
24.9
64.3
12.8
26.8
11.1
10.0
45.8

1,106
424.1
61.9
54.2
41.6
71.5
61.3
25.8
66.4
13.0
28.3
11. 5
10.3
47.6

1,204
460. 6
70.3
58. 7
44. 5
76.0
66 5
26.6
77.0
11. 4
32. 2
13 2
9. 5
52.9

Transportation equipment, except automobiles 1
Locomotives___________
Cars, electric- and steam-railroad
Aircraft and parts, excluding aircraft engines
Aircraft engines.
Shipbuilding and boatbuilding
Motorcycles, bicycles, and parts.

1,439
30.5
55.4
444.7
149.9
656.3
8.4

1,526
30.9
57.9
472.8
166.2
691.0
9.2

1,628
32.3
58.2
509.3
173. 4
738 7
9.5

2, 273
35.8
57.8
687.6
240 8
1,092.0
9.3

Electrical machinery 1
_ ________________
Electrical equipment . . . . . .
_ ...
Radios and phonographs._ __
Communication e q u ip m e n t...______

Automobiles

____

545

582

621

709

Nonferrous metals and their products 1
Smelting and refining, primary, of nonferrous metals
Alloying and rolling and drawing of nonferrous metals, except aluminum . _
Clocks and watches.
Jewelry (precious metals) and jewelers’ findings
Silverware and plated ware
Lighting equipment. . . ___
Aluminum manufactures
Sheet-metal work, not elsewhere classified

367
37.9

371
38.2

396
38.9

421
47.2

62.8
22.7
13.0
10. 5
21.8
59.2
30.8

63.1
22.6
12.9
10. 5
23.1
61.2
29.9

68.1
24.3
13.2
10.9
25.4
66. 8
31.1

69. 5
25.9
13.8
10. 7
27.1
69. 6
32.8

Lumber and timber basic products 1
Sawmills and logging camps .. . .
Planing and plywood mills
See footnote at end of table.

452
215.1
66.3

453
215.1
67.4

458
217.1
67.9

500
240.1
71.0

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

TREND OF EMPLOYMENT, EARNINGS, AND HOURS
T able

2 . — E s tim a te d N u m b e r o f P r o d u c tio n

1039

W o rk e rs in M a n u f a c tu r in g I n d u s t r i e s 1—

Continued
Estimated number of production work
ers (in thousands)
Industry
August
1945

July 1945 June 1945 August
1944

Durable goods—Continued
Furniture and finished lumber products L .
Mattresses and bedsprings______________
F u r n itu r e ..._____ __ . ___________
Wooden boxes, other than cigar__ ____
Caskets and other morticians’ goods.
Wood preserving..
_ . . . _ . ___
Wood, turned and sh a p e d ._____ _____ _

317
17.4
141.1
24.9
11.6
10.0
21.0

321
16.9
143.9
25.7
11.8
10.0
20.8

329
17.7
147.5
26.1
11.8
10.0
21.2

348
17.4
157.2
28.1
12.7
10.4
22.0

Stone, clay, and glass products 1___________ ______ . . .
. _
Glass and glassware.
_ ______ ______
Glass products made from purchased glass
____
Cement______________ ________________ _
Brick, tile, and terra cotta_____________
Pottery and related products_______________
______
Gypsum . _____ . . ______
Wallboard, plaster (except gypsum), and mineral wool. .
Lime____
_______
_____ .
Marble, granite, slate, and other products_________
A brasives... __________ ________ _______ . . .
Asbestos products__________ ___________________ . _

321
87.2
10.0
18.3
41.6
37.7
4.1
9.1
7.5
13.1
19.8
18.8

321
86.3
10.7
17.5
41.7
37.5
4.0
9.3
7.5
13.1
20.5
19.1

326
88.4
11.0
16.9
41.5
38.6
4.0
9.3
7.6
13.1
21.2
19.3

335
90.0
10.2
17.5
43.0
41.1
4.0
9.9
8.3
13.5
21.1
20.5

Textile-mill products and other fiber manufactures L .
Cotton manufactures, except smallwares _ ________
Cotton smallwares.. .
______ _ __ _______ .
________ __ ______ _
Silk and rayon goods . . .
Woolen and worsted manufactures, except dyeing and finishing__ __ _ _ _ __ ___ _ __ _________ _ _ __
H osiery.. __________ . . . _______
________
Knitted cloth_____ __________ ____ _ _____
Knitted outerwear and knitted gloves_________________
Knitted underwear. ______
_______
. . . _____
Dyeing and finishing textiles, including woolen and worsted
Carpets and rugs, wool____
_______ _ ______
Hats, fur-felt.
.
___ _
_____ . . .
___
Jute goods, except felts____
_________ ________
Cordage and tw ine__________ _ . . . . . .
_ _______

1,031
407.3
13.0
85.0

1,034
408.9
13.0
84.5

1,055
413.8
13.4
86.4

1,098
431.4
13.0
88.7

134.3
95.5
9.7
25.9
32.7
55.8
18.8
9.0
3.2
14.3

135.1
94.8
9.9
26.1
33.2
56.5
19.0
8.6
3.2
14.2

140.4
97.0
10.1
27.4
33.6
57.2
19.5
8.9
3.2
14.3

144.8
104.4
10.3
28.5
35.2
59. 5
20.2
9.1
3.3
15.1

Apparel and other finished textile products 1_________. . . ____
M en’s clothing, not elsewhere classified _. . . _______ . .
Shirts, collars, and nightwear___ _ . . . _____ _ _______
Underwear and neckwear, men’s . ______________ _______
____
Work s h ir t s .______ . ______ _____
W omen’s clothing, not elsewhere classified...
_ ___ _.
Corsets and allied garments..
................. .
. . _
M illinery___ ____ _________
. . __________ ________
Handkerchiefs . . . .
. . .
____ __
...
Curtains, draperies, and bedspreads . . ___ . . . . ____ _
. ..
Housefurnishings, other than curtains, etc_________
Textile bags___ ______ _____________________ . . . _____

781
185.9
47.5
11.3
14.0
190.4
13.3
17.4
2.5
10.2
10.7
14.5

761
188.0
48.0
11.6
14.2
175.4
13.3
16.3
2.5
10.2
10.8
14.6

807
196.3
48.5
11.9
14.5
193.8
14.0
16.0
2.4
10.7
11.2
14.9

873
210.5
52.1
12.0
15.0
214.6
14.5
19.0
2.8
13.3
10.8
14.2

Leather and leather p r o d u c t s . . . ____________________ __
Leather____ _ __ ._ ___________________ . . . _________
Boot and shoe cut stock and findings______ _.
_____
Boots and shoes. . .
___. . . ________
Leather gloves and mittens_____ _________ . . .
_ ...
Trunks and suitcases___ _______
______ ___ _ _

308
38.2
16.3
169.1
» 11-3
13.0

307
38.4
16.1
169.3
11.3
12.8

312
39.1
16.2
171.5
11.7
12.7

316
40.0
16.0
173.8
12.6
12.3

F o o d 1. ____________________________________
Slaughtering and meat packing__________
_____ . . .
B utter.
---- ----------------- _ _________ _ _ ____ . . . . . .
Condensed and evaporated m i l k __ . _
Ice cream. ___
______
_
_____ .
Flour___ .
. . ______
___ __ . .
Feeds, prepared— _____ _______ _ _ ____________ . . .
Cereal preparations___ .
...
._ __________
Baking_____ ._
___ . . . __________ _
Sugar refining, cane_______________________________ . .
Sugar, beet____________________
....
. . .
. _
Confectionery___________ ____
_____________________
Beverages, nonalcoholic___________________
______
M alt liquors__ . . . ________ . . _____
....
Canning and preserving.. _______ _ ___________________

1,065
124.3
24.6
15.8
17.3
30. 6
22.2
9.5
248.9
13.0
5.0
50.2
26.2
53.8
179.1

1,051
127.4
25.4
16.2
17.7
30.1
22.2
9.3
250.1
13.2
4.4
49.0
26.5
52.9
166.4

997
127.7
25.3
16.4
16.9
29. 6
22.4
9.3
254.7
14.0
4.3
53.7
26.4
51.6
106.0

1,177
156.3
24.0
15.1
17.3
28. 3
20.3
9.1
258.5
15.4
4. 8
56.6
31.6
53.5
219.7

Nondurable goods

See footnote at end of table.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1040

M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

T a b l e 2 . — E s tim a te d N u m b e r o f P r o d u c tio n W o rk e rs in M a n u f a c tu r in g I n d u s t r i e s 1—

Continued
Estimated number of production workers (in thousands)
August
1945

July 1945 June 1945 August
1944

Nondurable goods—Continued
Tobacco manufactures1____________ ________
Cigarettes______ . . ____ _________________
Cigars___ _________________________ .
Tobacco (chewing and smoking) and s n u ff ...........

79
33.9
31.4
8.4

78
33.9
30.5
8.4

80
33.9
33.0
8.3

82
34.9
34.4
7.9

Paper and allied products1_____
Paper and p u lp .. ______
Paper goods, other_____________
Envelopes___ _____
Paper bags_______________
Paper boxes________ ___ _

303
143.1
42.1
9.2
11.7
75.8

302
142.1
41.9
9.2
12.3
75.3

308
144.2
43.4
9.4
12.7
76.7

315
146.8
44.8
9.5
13.6
78.5

Printing, publishing, and allied industries 1_____________
Newspapers and periodicals_____________________ .
Printing, book and job_____________'.. . .
Lithographing___ ______ .
Bookbinding___________

321
110.0
132.5
24.1
26.7

317
107.4
131.1
24.2
26.7

320
109.4
131.1
24.1
27.3

324
110.2
133.3
24.8
27.9

Chemicals and allied products 1_____
Paints, varnishes, and colors________
Drugs, medicines, and insecticides___ _
Perfumes and cosmetics. _. .
Soap_________
_____
Rayon and allied products__________
Chemicals, not elsewhere classified.. .
Explosives and safety fuses..
Compressed and liquefied gases......... ..............
Ammunition, small-arms... .
Fireworks____________
Cottonseed oil_____ ._
Fertilizers___________________

548
29.0
49.6
12.5
12.9
53.1
112.2
80.2
5.9
35.8
16.6
11.6
19.9

587
28.9
50.0
12.4
13 0
53.7
113.0
87.6
5.9
57.4
17.5
11.6
19.6

612
29.0
50.2
12.3
13.1
53.8
114.7
94.6
6.0
64.3
20.0
12.0
20.9

589
30.0
50.0
12.1
13.5
53.1
118.3
81.2
6.1
47. 3
29.1
12.4
19.1

Products of petroleum and coal L .
Petroleum refining.
Coke and byproducts______
Paving materials_______
Roofing materials........ ............ ...........

135
92.9
22.0
1.7
9.3

135
93.0
21.8
1.8
9.4

134
92.7
21.8
1.7
• 9.4

135
91.4
23.2
1.8
9.6

Rubber products >______
Rubber tires and inner tubes____
Rubber boots and shoes________
Rubber goods, other____________

179
86.3
16.7
64.4

183
87.7
16.8
66.2

188
90.2
17.0
67.9

195
91.2
19.5
71.2

Miscellaneous industries 1
Instruments (professional and scientific), and fire-control
equipment____
Photographic apparatus___________
Optical instruments and ophthalmic goods
Pianos, organs, and parts____
Games, toys, and dolls____
Buttons___ .
Fire extinguishers.,___

381

388

404

416

49.7
26.7
21.2
7.4
14.0
8.9
4.1

52.3
26.8
20.8
7.7
14.4
9.0
4.2

56.6
27.0
22.7
8.0
15.1
9.2
4.3

61.6
28.8
23.8
6.3
17.0
9.1
5.6

1
Estimates for the major industry groups have been adjusted to levels indicated by the final 1943 data
made available by the Bureau of Employment Security of the Federal Security Agency and should not be
compared with the manufacturing employment estimates of production workers plus salaried employees
appearing in table 1. Data for 15 major groups are not comparable with data published in mimeographed
releases dated prior to September 1945 or the October 1945 issue of the M onthly Labor Review. Comparable
data from January 1939 are available upon request. Five major groups, Furniture and finished lumber
products, Stone, clay and glass products, Tobacco manufactures, Chemicals and allied products, and Prod
ucts of petroleum and coal, needed no further adjustment and are therefore comparable with the data
Pre^Jously published. Estimates for individual industries have been adjusted to levels indicated by the
1939 Census of Manufactures, but not to Federal Security Agency data. For this reason, together with
the fact that this Bureau has not prepared estimates for certain industries, the sum of the individual
industry estimates will not agree with totals shown for the major industry groups.

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1041

TREND OF EMPLOYMENT, EARNINGS, AND HOURS

T a b l e 3 . — I n d e x e s o f P r o d u c tio n -W o r k e r E m p lo y m e n t a n d P a y R o lls in M a n u f a c tu r in g
I n d u s tr ie s
Employment indexes
(1939 average=100)

Pay-roll indexes
(1939 average=100)

Industry
Aug.
1945
All manufacturing 1___________ __________
Durable goods 1 _____________________
Nondurable goods1___________________

July
1945

June
1945

142.5
181.1
112.0

145.6
187.8
112.3

150.5
196.9
113.9

Aug.
1944

Aug.
1945

167.9
228.1
120.5

257.5
325.5
191.0

July
1945
286.5
372.7
202.2

June
1945

Aug.
1944

302.5
399.8
207.3

335.0
465.4
207.5

Durable goods
Iron and steel and their products '_________
Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling
m ills__________
. _______________
Gray-iron and semisteel castings_______
Malleable-iron castings____________ . . .
Steel castings__________________ ______
Cast-iron pipe and fittings_____ _______
T in cans and other tinware____________
Wire drawn from purchased rods______
Wire work___________________________
Cutlery and edge tools______ _____. . .
Tools (except edge tools, machine tools,
files, and saw s)-.
_______
- Hardware___________________________
Plumbers’ supplies___________________
Stoves, oil burners, and heating equipment, not elsewhere classified________
Steam and hot-water heating apparatus
and steam fittings - _____________
Stamped and enameled ware and galvanizing___ ___ ___ _ ___ _______
Fabricated structural and ornamental
metalwork____________ _____ ___
Metal doors, sash, frames, molding, and
trim _ _ - - .
.......................
Bolts, nuts, washers, and rivets__
Forgings, iron and steel______________
Wrought pipe, welded and heavy
riveted-.- ___________ _______
Screw-machine products and wood
screws___________ ____ ____ _________
Steel barrels, kegs, and drums_________
F irea rm s___________________________

145.6

151.6

159.1

171.7

247.0

279.2

298.5

316.5

117.6
117.5
126.5
192.7
89.1
126.9
134.4
98.0
143.5

118.9
119.8
127.9
201.3
91.4
133.0
133.2
99.1
140.8

121.0
122.2
134.0
213.3
96.7
133.2
141.6
104.6
148.7

124.1
125.0
136.7
244.4
93.7
132.1
148.1
116.1
147.5

197.3
216.9
213.5
311.4
160.2
206.7
208.4
176.1
260.7

215.3
239.9
249.5
349.3
183.6
231.8
217.4
196.0
291.5

222.8
250.0
277.7
386.9
198.5
229.8
231.4
204.2
306.4

222.7
245.4
279.7
455.9
178.4
221.5
243.5
231.5
304.6

160.3
116.7
84.7

165.2
119.0
88.4

171.4
124.9
90.1

177.4
129.7
93.3

282.0
212.7
136.2

311.9
242.3
159.7

326.4
261.3
164.0

331.4
261.8
170.3

Electrical machinery '_ ________ _________
Electrical equipm ent.- _________ .
Radios and phonographs___ __________
Communication equipment___________

237.5
207.5
226.1
287.8

Machinery, except electrical '_____________
Machinery and machine-shop products..
Engines and turbines_________________
Tractors.._______________
________
Agricultural machinery, excluding tractors_____ ______________ _________
Machine tools____ .
. . . _ ______
Machine-tool accessories______ ________
Textile machinery. - _.
............. ...
Pumps and pumping equipm ent_____ .
Typewriters____ ______ . . . _________
Cash registers, adding and calculating
machines____________
. . . ______
Washing machines, wringers and driers,
domestic_____ _ . ________________
Sewing machines, domestic and industrial____________ ___ ____ - _____
Refrigerators and refrigeration equipm ent______ ______
. . ___

196.7
197.1
308.1
164.4
142.1
181.8
229.6
111.7
257.9
78.8

121.1

123.6

126.6

138.7

202.4

231.9

242.3

256. 2

149.7

158.0

165.2

183.2

257.7

292.2

320.4

344.9

137.8

144.8

150.4

161.3

245.3

282.3

304.1

324.4

141.1

155.0

168.0

209.8

239.7

278.8

317.8

411.2

99.8
151.5
195.9

113.0
156.2
198.5

113.4
161.7
214.9

173.9
182.8
231.2

169.6
287.9
314.3

217.0
293.8
374.9

222.2
326.7
422.4

319.6
354.3
441.0

261.4

258.0

270.1

308.3

551.0 ■565. 5

593.6

604.1

211.7
136.9
336.8

221.8
135.2
385.8

234.5
139.2
479.3

261.1
121.2
873.5

375.4
237.3
662.8

427.3 463.5 512.1
288.0 308.5 238.6
847.0 1057.0 1995.6

245.6
213.2
242.2
294.2

257.9
223.0
253.5
314.9

287.3
248.7
286.2
343.7

396.6
344.6
390.0
478.2

445.0
387.0
463.4
507.3

474.0
415.1
486.3
532.2

515.3
455.6
534.1
551.9

202.2
202.7
319.8
170.6

209.3
209.6
332.0
173.2

227.9
227.7
376.8
187.5

327.7
323.6
531.8
249.9

371.6
365.9
640.6
271.9

393.9
386.4
679.9
278.2

424.5
415.1
786.3
291.0

146.9
187.7
233.1
113.8
265.1
78.7

149.5
195.2
243.7
118.0
274.0
80.4

160.1
207.4
264.2
121.3
317.9
70.5

259.4
303.9
336. 4
191.3
512.3
132.1

297.5
328.8
388.3
210.9
542.8
159.4

306.3
353.4
421.5
227.7
584.7
167.7

319.1
369.2
449.8
220.6
669.3
140.1

136.4

136.0

143.9

163.4

231.1

266.4

278.5

319.6

146.6

148.7

153.6

177.4

242.9

259.6

281.8

310.7

122.3

127.0

131.1

120.8

235.4

262.6

271.4

249.4

124.4

130.3

135.3

150.5

168.8

228.7

242.6

276.7

Transportation equipment, except automob iles'______ _________ ______ __________
906.6 961.1
Locomotives.. ____ __________ .
471.6 477.7
Cars, electric- and steam-railroad.
. . 226.0 236.1
Aircraft and parts, excluding aircraft
engines____ _______ ______________ 1120.9 1191.7
Aircraft engines__________________ ___ 1685.6 1869. 5
Shipbuilding and boatbuilding.. . . . . .
947.9 997.9
Motorcycles, bicycles, and parts_______
120.2 131.8
A utom obiles'____________
See footnote at end of table.

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

. . . _________

135.4

144.6

1025.4 1432. 3 1713.8 1999.9 2152.8 2982,1
499.7 552.8 856.3 1017.1 1086. 4 1279. 0
237.3 235.7 396.1 450.9 472.0 458.3
1283. 6 1733.1 1917.2 2310.4 2546.2 3334.4
1949. 7 2708. 5 2359. 5 3042. 5 3231. 9 4819. 7
1066.8 1577.1 1952. 4 2193.4 2327.7 3379.1
135.9 133.8 216.6 251.3 257.6 242.7
154.3

176.2

178.1

243.7

272.6

319.0

1042

M ONTHLY

L A B O R R E V IE W — N O V E M B E R

194 5

T a b l e 3 . — I n d e x e s o f P r o d u c tio n -W o r k e r E m p lo y m e n t a n d P a y R o lls in M a n u fa c tu r in g
I n d u s tr ie s — C o n tin u e d
Employment indexes
(1939 average=100)

Pay-roll indexes
(1939 average=100)

Industry
Aug.
1945

July
1945

June
1945

Aug.
1944

Aug.
1945

July
1945

June
1945

Aug.
1944

Durable goods—Continued
Nonferrous metals and their products 1_____
Smelting and refining, primary, of nonferrous m etals_______________ _______
Alloying and rolling and drawing of nonferrous metals, except aluminum_____
Clocks and watches___________________
Jewelry (precious metals) and jewelers’
fin d in g s..__________________________
Silverware and plated ware____________
Lighting equipment__________________
Aluminum manufactures______________
Sheet-metal work, not elsewhere classified

160.1

162.0

172.7

183.6

282.7

302.7

327.0

137.1

138.3

140.6

170.8

257.1

267.5

262.1

315.1

161. 6
111.9

162.6
111.5

175.5
119.9

179.0
127.7

292. 3
209.9

293.8
234.2

328.4
251.7

336. 6
265.8

90.2
86.8
106.2
251.3
164.2

89.6
86.7
112.7
260. 0
159.4

91.2
90.0
124.2
283.5
166.0

95.2
88. 5
132. 6
295.6
175.2

147.0
151.4
139. 0
416.8
284.4

149.5
152.9
204.0
449.9
306.7

162.6
162.1
232.2
497. 4
323.8

149.0
157.8
234.0
521.9
321.7

342.9

Lumber and timber basic products1_______
Sawmills and logging camps_____________
Planing and plywood m ills______________

107.5
74.7
91.3

107.9
74.7
92.7

108.9
75.4
93.4

118.8
83.4
97.7

189.0
133. 8
148.4

192.9
133.9
160.0

209.6
147.6
167.4

227.1
164.8
165.2

Furniture and finished lumber products i . . .
Mattresses and bedsprings____________
Furniture______________ _____________
Wooden boxes, other than cigar________
Caskets and other morticians’ goods____
Wood preserving_____________________
Wood, turned and shaped____- ________

96.6
94.8
88.6
98.1
93.3
88.8
95.6

98.0
92.2
90.4
101.3
94.6
88.5
94.7

100.2
96.3
92.7
102.9
95.0
88.7
96.5

106. 0
94.8
98.8
110.9
1C2. 0
92.8
99.8

165.6
158.7
150.4
186.7
133.9
187.5
165.3

181.3
163.9
165.7
205.5
164. 3
194.2
173.6

189.1
176.1
173. 3
212.4
165.0
197.5
180.3

194.7
161.3
181.0
220.1
177.8
201.0
180.6

Stone, clay, and glass products i___________ 109.3
Glass and glassware___________________ 124.9
Glass products made from purchased
glass_______________________________ 99.8
Cement_________________ _____ ...___
76.9
Brick, tile, and terra cotta______ ______
73.2
Pottery and related products____ ____
113.9
Gypsum_______ ._____________________
82.1
Wallboard, plaster (except gypsum ), and
mineral wool_______________________ 112.3
Lime________________________________
79.0
Marble, granite, slate, and other prod
u c ts .-:____________________________
70.6
Abrasives____________________________ 255.8
Asbestos p ro d u cts..._________________ 118.4

109.3
123. 6

111.0
126.6

114.1
129.0

181.7
192.0

187.7
193.5

192.0
200.8

191.1
204.3

106.6
73.4
73.4
113.2
80.9

109.7
71.1
73.0
116.5
81.9

101.4
73.4
75.7
124.1
80.0

166.6
128.4
118.2
173.3
136.7

180.9
127. 5
127.4
176.3
141.2

190.2
120.8
126.2
186.1
142.8

168.9
117.8
124.1
193. 0
140.7

114.6
78.9

114.1
80.2

121.9
87.2

200.1
158.7

221.3
163.0

213.8
164.3

218.8
171.1

70.7
265. 4
120.0

70.7
273. 5
121.3

72.9
273.0
128.7

102.4
443.6
242.5

114.1
458.1
252.8

114.4
492.0
254.8

112.2
453.4
253.1

Nondurable goods
Textile-mill products and other fiber manu
factures i ______________________________
90.2
Cotton manufactures, except smallwares__________ ____________________ 102.9
Cotton smallwares____________________ 97.9
Silk and rayon goods__________________ 70.9
Woolen and worsted manufactures, ex
cept dyeing and finishing_________ ....
90.0
Hosiery______________________________ 60.0
Knitted cloth__ ______________________ 89.0
Knitted outerwear and knitted gloves. _. 92.2
Knitted underwear___________________
85.0
Dyeing and finishing textiles, including
woolen and worsted_________________ 83.5
Carpets and rugs, wool________________ 73.6
Hats, fur-felt______________________ . . .
61.9
Jute goods, except felts___________ ____
90.1
Cordage and tw ine___________________ 118.3
Apparel and other finished textile products L .
M en’s clothing, not elsewhere classified..
Shirts, collars, and nightwear___________
Underwear and neckwear, men’s_______
Work shirts__________________________
Women’s clothing, not elsewhere classi
fied________________________________
Corsets and allied garments____________
M illinery____________________________
Handkerchiefs________________________
Curtains, draperies, and bedspreads.___
Housefurnishings, other than curtains,
etc________________________________
Textile bags___________ ______________
See fo o tn o te a t end o f table.

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

90.4

92.2

96.0

159.4

169.9

174.6

170.4

103.3
97.8
70.5

104.5
100. 6
72.1

108.9
97.3
74.1

193.5
182.3
133.9

209.8
187.2
138.4

210.3
198.4
142.1

203.7
173.9
133.7

90.5
59.6
90.4
92.7
86.0

94.1
61.0
92.1
97.6
87.2

97.0
65.7
94.1
101. 5
91.3

167.2
89.0
155.0
161.5
153.1

177.2
93.7
163.6
172.3
162.0

186.7
100.0
168.6
189.4
166.4

181.1
105.5
160.0
181.9
163.3

84.4
74.1
59.2
88.9
117.5

85.6
76.2
61.3
89.4
118.0

88.9
78.9
62.7
92.5
124.9

139.6
111.6
113.6
174.4
217.2

145.0
131.1
109.6
171. 5
227.5

147.3
137.4
112.5
176.0
230.4

146.2
134.5
116.1
173. 7
229.3

98.9
85.0
67.5
70.1
103.9

96.4
86.0
68.2
71.6
105.4

102.2
89.8
68.9
73.4
107.8

110.5
96.3
74.0
74.3
111.8

157. 3
135.0
110.7
124. 1
187.2

167.5
151.5
123.7
145. 5
197.2

183.1
164. 2
125.8
153. 7
208.0

190.9
160.6
127. 5
142.1
208.5

70.1
71.0
71.5
51.2
60.5

64.6
71. 0
66.9
50.7
60.6

71.3
74.5
65.9
50.5
63.3

79.0
77.1
78.1
58.8
78.5

108. 4
116.7
109. 6
94.3
117.2

109.2
122.6
106.3
93.2
121.2

125.1
134.6
91.4
96.2
135. 8

139.6
129.8
129.3
103.8
142.3

100.8
121.3

102.1
122.0

105.7
124.3

101.6
118.2

175.6
193.6

183.7
207.7

195.6
212.9

185.1
195.3

TREND

T a b l e 3.

OF E M P L O Y M E N T , E A R N IN G S , A N D

1043

HOURS

I n d e x e s o f P r o d u c tio n -W o r k e r E m p lo y m e n t a n d P a y R o lls in M a n u fa c tu r in g
I n d u s tr ie s — C o n tin u e d
Employment indexes
(1939 average=100)

Pay-roll indexes
(1939 average=100)

Industry
Aug.
1945
Nondurable goods—Continued
Leather and leather products1
Leather
Boot and shoe cut stock and findings
Boots and shoes. __
Leather gloves and m ittens_____
Trunks and suitcases. .
Food i______ . . .
Slaughtering and meat packing
Butter______ _
Condensed and evaporated milk
Ice cream_______
Flour_________
Feeds, prepared...
Cereal preparations__
Baking_______
Sugar refining, ca n e.. . .
Sugar, beet______
Confectionery___
Beverages, nonalcoholic_____
M alt liquors_____
Canning and preserving.. _
Tobacco manufactures 1 .
C igarettes... . . .
Cigars______
Tobacco (chewing and smoking) and
snuff______
Paper and allied products 1______
Paper and pulp____
Paper goods, o t h e r ______
Envelopes_______
Paper bags__________ ____
Paper boxes____ . . . _
Printing, publishing, and allied industries L
Newspapers and periodicals________
Printing, book and job_______________
Lithographing_______________
B o o k b in d in g ..._____
Chemicals and allied products L.......
Paints, varnishes, and colors__________
Drugs, medicines, and insecticides
Perfumes and cosmetics____________
Soap________
Rayon and allied products__________
Chemicals, not elsewhere classified_____
Explosives and safety fuses______
Compressed and liquefied gases________
Ammunition, small-arms____________
Fireworks___________
Cottonseed oil______
Fertilizers_________
Products of petroleum and c o a l1____
Petroleum refining________ . .
Coke and byp rod ucts_________
Paving materials_____
Roofing materials_____ . . . . . . ___
Rubber products L „
___ .
Rubber tires and inner tubes. ___
Rubber boots and shoes__
.. ... .
Rubber goods, other______
Miscellaneous industries 1______
Instruments (professional and scientific)
and fire-control equipment____
___
Photographic apparatus._.
Optical instruments and ophthalmic
goods________ _ ______ . . ___
Pianos, organs, and p arts... _____ _
Games, toys, and dolls______ . ____
B uttons____ ______________________
Fire extin guishers. . . . . . .

88.6
80. f
86.3
77.6
113. E
156.4
124.6
103.2
137.1
162.6
109.9
123.7
144.3
126.8
107.9
92.1
48.2
101.0
123.0
149.1
133.2
84.2
123.5
61.6

July
1945

June
1945

Aug.
1944

88.5
81.2
85.5
77.7
113.3
153.3
123. 3
105.7
141.4
166.7
112.9
121.4
144.0
124.4
108.4
93.3
41.9
98.6
124.8
146.7
123.7
83.2
123.5
59.9

89.8
82.7
86.0
78.7
116.8
152.2
116.7
106.0
141.2
169.2
107.9
119.3
145.1
124.7
110.4
99.1
41.6
108.0
124.4
143.1
78.8
85.9
123.5
64.8

91.0 157.0
84.6 141.2
85. 1 141.8
79.7 141.2
125.7 181.9
147.7 240.5
137.7 198.6
129.7 158.2
133.5 226.3
155. 7 280.5
110.1 161.5
114.1 210.1
132.0 244.6
122.0 225. 6
112.0 170.9
108.9 139.2
45.7
72.8
113.8 165.7
148.8 166.6
148.2 224.2
163.4 248.0
88.2 150.3
127.2 197.6
67.6 114.6

Aug.
1945

July
1945

June
1945

Aug.
1944

165.0
146. 6
147.7
149.0
201.8
245.5
205.8
175.0
236.4
296.5
169.0
218.3
259.4
225.9
174.6
145.1
65.8
164.2
177.7
230.7
249.9
151.4
200. 5
114.6

170.3
149. 3
152.5
154.1
211.9
255.9
196.4
177.9
231. 1
302.2
156. 0
211.0
258.4
231.0
174.1
155.1
65.1
187. 4
169.7
219.9
156. 9
164.1
204.4
136.8

158.2
146. 2
140.4
140. 2
221. 8
230.6
215. 5
210. 7
205. 2
255.3
157.9
190.2
221. 5
208.3
167.5
172.5
64.9
188. 3
206.4
223.9
306.2
157.5
195.9
133.4

91.5
91.3
90.5
86.0 149.0 148.8 150.2 135. 6
114.2 113.7 116.0 118.8 184.6 193.5 197.7 194.0
104.1 103.4 104.9 106.8 171.7 180.7 183.8 180.6
111.9 111.4 115.2 119.0 179.7 181.8 192.5 187.3
105.4 105.8 108.3 109.5 160.4 165.5 172.0 165.4
105.2 110.7 115.0 122.4 180.2 198.5 198.2 199.6
109.6 108.9 110.9 113.5 171.1 180.6 182.8 178.8
98.0
96.8
97.5
98.9 140.0 137.8 139.6 135. 0
92.7
90.5
92.2
92.9 128.1 119.7 121.7 118.4
104.9 103.8 103.8 105.5 153.0 155.1 155.6 149.4
92.8
93.2
92.6
95.2 130.6 134.6 137.5 132.3
103.5 103. 5 106.0 108.4 173.5 178.3 1S6.3 182.9
190.0 203.7 212.5 204.3 325.7 363.0 381.3 356.6
103.0 102.9 103.1 106.4 163.0 168.8 171.2 169.1
181.1 182.5 183.1 182.4 270.7 272.6 283.7 265.2
120.5 119.8 118.4 116.9 164.9 176.9 171.4 161.6
95.3
95.5
96.6
99.5 160.1 157.8 163.1 165.8
110.0 111.2 111.4 110.0 181.6 184.3 185.5 175.7
161.2 162.4 164.8 170.0 288.2 291.8 298.5 295.1
1105. 4 1207. 2 1304.3 1119.1 1607.4 1879.8 1984. 3 1725.0
148.2 148.4 150.3 153.8 266.6 270.2 264.6 271.7
839.7 1345. 7 1507.7 1109.6 1345.0 2636.2 3037.4 2224.8
1437. 7 1510.1 1729. 8 2516.4 3698.2 4070. 7 4789.5 6578.7
76.3
76.2
79.3
81.4 145.1 150.8 164.3 153.7
106.2 104.4 111.5 101.5 241.8 247.4 258.8 226.6
127.3 127.4 126.8 127.4 226.9 233.4 229.5 220.9
127.6 127.6 127.3 125.5 223.6 227.7 224.4 214.0
101.5 100.5 100.3 107.0 184.4 190.8 189.9 186.8
70.4
72.4
69.8
74.3 135.9 149.5 144.3 152.5
116.0 117.2 116.3 119.7 205. 5 216.9 218.3 218.0
148.4 151.1 155.2 161.2 249.5 281.3 287.3 291.0
159.3 162.1 166.7 168.5 249.7 286.8 293.8 294.3
113.0 113.1 114.5 131.4 211.6 214.9 217.1 233.4
124.4 127.8 131.2 137.5 212.8 237.5 242.7 247.1
155.8 158.5 165.0 170.0 280.3 300.9 323.8 319.9
449.4
154.6

473.3
154.9

511.7
156.5

557.1
166.6

797.9
250.1

835.0
259.6

987.6 1031.9
262.5 270.8

182.1
96.7
74.9
80.8
411.3

178.8
101.7
77.2
82.4
420.7

195.6
105.2
81.1
83.5
435.5

205.2
83.4
91.2
82.7
560.0

283.0
164.2
119.0
147.0
786.8

294.0
197.9
151.2
166.0
910.5

335.6 341.3
207.4 158.5
161.9 181.5
171.0 153.8
988.6 1076. 2

1
Indexes for the major industry groups have been adjusted to levels indicated by the final 1943 data made
available by the Bureau of Employment Security of the Federal Security Agency. Indexes for 15 major
groups are not comparable with those published in mimeographed releases dated prior to September 1945 or
the October 1945 issue of the M onthly Labor Review. Comparable indexes from January 1939 available
upon request. Five major groups, Furniture and finished lumber products, Stone, clay and glass products,
Tobacco manufactures, Chemicals and allied products, and Products of petroleum and coal, needed no
further adjustment and are therefore comparable with the data previously published.
6 7 0 1 1 9 — 45—
14

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1044

M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

T a b l e 4.— E s tim a te d N u m b e r o f P r o d u c tio n W o r k e r s in S e le c te d N o n m a n u fa c tu r in g
I n d u s tr ie s
Estimated number of production workers
(in thousands)
Industry

August
1945

Mining:
Anthracite
- ___ - _____ -Bituminous coal
______________ _
M etal ________
_ ____________
Iron __ _____ ____ ___ _____ _________ _
Copper
Lead and z in c __
___ _
___________ ___
Gold and silver __
_
_
___
Miscellaneous,
_
_ __
_ ________
Telephone A ________
_ ___ _
_
Telegraph 3__ ______
_ _
________ _
Electric light and power i _ _ .............................................
Street railways and busses 1___
_________ ____
Hotels (year-round)1___
__ __
Power laundries, ______ __ _ _______ _
Cleaning and dyeing
_
___ _
Class I steam railroads 3___ ___ ________ ,
Water transportation9................... _
_ __

June 1945

July 1945
64.3
323
65.8
24.1
20.2
13.6
5.2
2.7
(2)
44.9
204
226
353

64.1
323
64.5
24.1
19.4
13.2
5.2
2. 6

45.0
205
227
354
«

65.3
331
67.0
24.2
20.9
14.0
5.2
2.7

64.5
352
75.4
27.1
23.8
15.4
5.6
3.5

(9
(9

44.4
202
227
353

(9
(9

46.2
203
230
353

1,449
134

1,454
' 159

1,451
163

1,449
' 164

August
1944

1 Data include salaried personnel.
2 N ot available.
3 Excludes messengers, and approximately 6,000 employees of general and divisional headquarters, and
of cable companies. Data include salaried personnel.
4 The change in definition from “wage earner” to “production worker” in the power laundries and clean*
ing and dyeing industries results in the omission of driver-salesmen. This causes a significant difference in
the data. N ew series are being prepared.
8 Source: Interstate Commerce Commission. Data include salaried personnel.
6 Based on estimates prepared by the U. S. Maritime Commission covering employment on active deepsea American-flag steam and motor merchant vessels of 1,000 gross tons and over. Excludes vessels under
bareboat charter to or owned by the Army or N avy.

T a b l e 5 . — I n d e x e s o f E m p lo y m e n t a n d P a y

R o lls

S e le c te d

N o n m a n u fa c tu r in g

I n d u s tr ie s
Employment indexes (1939
average=100)
Industry

Mining:
Anthracite, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __________
Bituminous coal __ __
M etal____________ ___
_ _
Iron ___________ __ _
_ _
Copper, _ __
______
_ __ __
Lead and zinc_ ________ _
_ ___
Gold and silver________ _
Miscellaneous. _ __ ___
___
Quarrying and nonmetallic_____ _ __
Crude-petroleum production1_________
Public utilities:
Telephone
_ __ __
Telegraph.
___ _
_ __
_ __ ___
Electric light and power
Street railways and b u sses ____________
Wholesale trade___________ _____ ___ _
Retail trade_______ ________ _
Food, ____ ___ ._
General merchandise..
Apparel____
Furniture and housefurnishings
A utom otive..
.
_ _
___. . _
Lumber and building materials________
Hotels (year-round)3__ ________ _
Power laundries_______ ___ _
Cleaning and dyeing
_____ __
Class I steam railroads 4 _
. ._ _
Water transportation 8_______ _________ _

Pay-roll indexes (1939
average=100)

Aug.
1945

July
1945

June
1945

Aug.
1944

Aug.
1945

July
1945

June
1945

77.4
87.1
73.1
119.4
81.3
85.0
21.2
66.8
81.7
84.1

77.6
87.1
74.6
119.6
84.9
87.2
21.0
69.0
81.3
83.8

78.9
89.2
76.0
120.3
87.7
90.3
21. 2
67.7
80. 5
83.6

77.9
95.0
85. 5
134.6
100.0
98 9
22.7
87.6
86.7
84.1

148.0
188.0
114.2
200.8
120.8
157.2
26.1
106.1
155.9
137.2

142.7
190.7
121.1
201.6
141.7
161.1
26.0
114.1
161.9
135.7

145.4
227.6
128.5
215.6
151.0
171.0
27.1
113.4
158.8
136.1

145.8
215.6
136.6
219.9
161.5
182.8
29.9
148.6
165.3
132.7

129.6
122.8
83.2
118.9
95.5
94.1
104.6
102. 4
97. 6
62.8
66.9
92.6
109.4
109.0
118.4
146.7
255.3

200.4
120.7
178.7
141.3
132 1
144. 8
141.3
139.6
88. 5
104.6
133.4
172.0
160. 5
179.9

175.0
119.6
177.1
144.7
136.4
145. 5
148. 0
150.0
90.8
108.3
138.7
171.2
169. 7
197.7

175.3
119. 2
178.2
141.9
134.2
142.8
148.3
152.8
89.9
105.3
137.9
171.5
166. 3
199.8

156.6
177.9
115.4
171.5
136.3
126.8
141.7
132.7
133. 3
86.9
98. 2
133.9
158.8
159.8
178.6

664.0

755.5

744.5

585.2

119.4
84.1
117.3
95.8
93.8
99.9
104.7
96.7
61.9
69.6
91.8
109.9
106.1
117.3
146.7
313.4

119.3
83.6
116.8
94.9
94.9
100. 0
107.9
99. 8
62.0
69.4
92.2
109.4
108. 3
121.2
146.9
310.0

117.9
82.8
117.3
94.4
96. 2
101.0
111. 2
106. 6
62. 2
68.3
92.4
109. 5
107. 2
122.0
147. 2
303.0

Aug.
1944

1 Does not include well drilling or rig building.
2 N ot available.
3 Cash payments only; additional value of board, room, and tips, not included.
4 Source: Interstate Commerce Commission.
* Based on estimates prepared by the U . S. Maritime Commission covering employment on active deepsea American-flag steam and motor merchants vessels of 1,000 gross tons and over. Excludes vessels under
bareboat charter to or owned by the Army or N avy.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

TREND OF EM PLO Y M EN T, EARNINGS, AND HOURS

1045

AVERAGE EARNINGS AND HOURS

Average weekly earnings and hours and average hourly earnings
for June, July, and August, 1945, where available, are given in table 6
for both manufacturing and nonmanufacturing industries. (For
trend of factory earnings since 1939, see page 998 of this issue.)
The average weekly earnings for individual industries are computed
by dividing the weekly pay rolls in the reporting establishments by
the total number of full- and part-time employees reported. As not
all reporting establishments supply information on man-hours, the
average hours worked per week and average hourly earnings shown in
this table are necessarily based on data furnished by a slightly smaller
number of reporting firms. Because of variation in the size and com
position of the reporting sample, the average hours per week, average
hourly earnings, and average weekly earnings shown may not be
strictly comparable from month to month. The sample, however, is
believed to be sufficiently adequate in virtually all instances to indi
cate the general movement of earnings and hours over the period
shown. The average weekly hours and hourly earnings for the manu
facturing groups are weighted arithmetic means of the averages for
the individual industries, estimated employment being used as weights
for weekly hours and estimated aggregate hours as weights for hourly
earnings. The average weekly earnings for these groups are com
puted by multiplying the average weekly hours by the corresponding
average hourly earnings.
T able

6 . — E a r n in g s a n d H o u r s in M a n u f a c tu r in g a n d N o n m a n u fa c tu r in g I n d u s tr ie s

MANUFACTURING
Average weekly
earnings 1

Average weekly
hours 1

Average hourly
earnings 1

Industry
Aug. July
1945 1945

June Aug.
1945 1945

All manufacturing___________________ ____ $41.81 $45.42 $46.32
Durable goods___ ____ _________________ 45.89 50.60 51.74
Nondurable goods_____________________ 36.61 38.58 38.95

40.8
41.2
40.3

July June Aug. July June
1945 1945 1945 1945 1945

44.0
44.9
42.8

Cents Cents Cents
44.6 102.5 103.2 103.8
45.8 111.4 112.6 113.0
43.1 90.8 90.2 90.4

Durable goods
Iron and steel and their products_______
Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling
mills______ ____________ . . . ______
Gray-iron and semisteel eastings________
Malleable-iron castings ..............................
Steel castings________ ________________
Cast-iron pipe and fittings_________ ____
Tin cans and other tinware_____________
Wirework_______ _________________ ..
Cutlery and edge tools_________________
Tools (except edge tools, machine tools,
files, and saws) _____________________
Hardware______ ____________________
Plumbers’ s u p p lie s ___ ______________
Stoves, oil burners, and heating equip
ment, not elsewhere classified_________
Steam and hot-water heating apparatus
and steam fittin g s...__________ _______
Stamped and enameled ware and galvaniz
ing--------- ----------------------------------------Fabricated structural and ornamental
metalwork---------- ---------------- . . . . .
M etal doors, sash, frames, molding, and
trim __________________ . . _________
Bolts, nuts, washers, and rivets............... .
Forgings, iron and s t e e l________________
Screw-machine products and wood screws.
Steel barrels, kegs, and drum s. .............
Firearms.________ _____________________
See footnotes at end of table.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

46.14 50.22 51.14

41.6

45.2

46.0 110.9 111.0 111.2

50.61
47.17
42. 33
45.34
37.74
38.83
45.09
38.94

55.39
52.38
51.47
50.97
43.47
41.07
49.03
44.12

41.9
42.8
38.3
39.9
42.2
43.1
42.8
40.9

44.9
46.5
45.0
43.0
47.1
45.9
46.6
45.6

45.6
47.6
47.1
44.3
47.5
45.2
46.1
45.4

42.83 45.95 46.04
40.48 45.20 46.46
41.98 47.20 47.57

43.6
41.3
40.2

46.6
45.4
44.5

46.5 98.3 98.6 100.0
46.4 98.1 99.4 100.2
44.7 104.4 106.0 106.4

54.64
51.22
48.84
48.69
42.19
41.48
49.64
44.35

120.0
110.2
109.6
113.4
90.0
90.2
105.3
95.3

121.1
110.2
107.9
113.2
90.2
90.7
106.7
97.4

121.4
110.0
109.2
115.2
91.5
91.0
106.4
97.2

41.67 46. 77 47.71

40.1

44.4

45.6 103.4 105.3 104.7

44.26 47.56 49.89

42.3

45.4

47.3 104.7 104.8 105.5

40.86 44.78 46.37

40.1

43.5

44.8 101.5 102.8 103.4

47.26 50.23 52.79

43.3

45.8

47.6 109.1 109.7 110.9

52.79
50.96
59.07
50.87
48.01
58.15

42.9
44.8
38.8
43.1
36.6
42.1

45.9
44.8
45.0
46.5
45.0
46.1

46.2
47.6
46.5
47.6
46.9
46.1

45.80
47.88
48.00
45. 61
37.55
52.19

51.77
47.42
56. 77
49.54
46.12
57.88

106.7
106.5
124.3
105.7
101.1
123.1

112.7
106.0
126.1
106.5
102.4
125.4

114.2
107.2
127.1
106.9
103.0
126.0

1046

M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW----NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

T a b l e 6 . — Earnings

and Hours in Manufacturing and Nonmanufacturing Industries—
Continued
M A N U FA C TU R E G—Continued
Average weekly
earnings i

Average weekly
hours i

Average hourly
earnings 1

Industry
Aug.
1945

July June Aug. July June Aug. July June
1945 1945 1945 1945 1945 1945 1945 1945

Durable goods—Continued
42.0
41.9
41.3
43.2

45.4
45.4
45.2
45.4

Cents Cents Cents
45.7 105.0 105. 7 106.1
46.1 108.4 109.5 110.3
45.1 91.2 92.5 92.6
45.0 105.6 105.1 103.6

54.91
53. 78
57. 44
54. 09

42.7
42.7
40.3
44.0

46.6
46.6
45.5
46.0

47.7
47.8
46.5
46.4

113.6
111.8
121.5
116.2

114.8
112.8
123.8
116.7

115.0
112.6
123.8
116.7

54. 35
58. 23
59. 25
50.13
50. 21

42.9
45.5
42.2
43.6
39.3

46.9
47.7
46.4
46.9
47.2

47.5
48.9
47.8
48.7
48.4

112.3
117.9
120.1
101.6
102.1

114. 5
118. 2
123.8
102.8
103.2

114.5
119.1
124. 2
103.0
103.8

51.44 59.38 58.72

43.4

48.3

47.8 118.8 123.9 123.6

43.70 46. 08 48. 39
52.13 55. 80 55. 87
39.05 50. 53 51.62

42.8
47.4
35.5

44.9
49.6
45.6

46.5 102.0 102. 7 104.0
49.8 110.7 113.0 112.8
45.8 110.4 111. 2 112.6

54. 28 59. 64 60. 03
51.56 60.45 61.73
46.04 50.32 52. 35

41.9
40.9
40.4

45.8
45.6
43.5

46.2 129.6 130.2 130.0
46.7 126. 2 132. 4 132.2
44.3 113.9 115.6 118.2

48. 58
48. 30
60. 53
49.88

40.8
38.1
43.7
46. 7

45.8
43.6
46. 5
47.6

46.9
44.2
46.3
47.4

Electrical machinery__________ ______
Electrical equipment .Radios and phonographs_____
_____
Communication equipment_____________

$44.11
45.54
37.65
46.01

Machinery, except electrical. - _____
Machinery and machine-shop products. _
Engines and turbines____
_____
Tractors__________
Agricultural machinery, excluding tractors.. ____ _
Machine to o ls.__
Machine-tool accessories .
Textile machinery. _
Typewriters___ _
Cash registers, adding and calculating
m achines.. _
Washing machines, wringers, and driers,
dom estic..
___ . . .
Sewing machines, domestic and industrial.
Refrigerators and refrigeration equipment-

48. 55
47.81
48. 46
51.15

53. 54
52. 57
56.24
53. 71

48.16
53. 81
50. 33
44.34
40.13

53. 69
56.37
57.24
48. 22
48. 74

Transportation equipment, except automobiles
Locomotives
Cars, electric- and steam-railroad
Aircraft and parts, excluding aircraft engines. _ ___
Aircraft engines...
Shipbuilding and boatbuilding
Motorcycles, bicycles, and parts___ _____
Automobiles. . . . .

....

$47.95 $48.53
49. 80 50.83
41. 75 41.79
47. 83 46.88

54. 93
56.16
64. 56
52. 77

56. 07
57.16
64.15
52.46

119.0
126.9
138.6
106.8

119.8
128.7
138. 9
110.9

119.6
129.3
138. 5
110.7

41.42 53.05 55. 55

33.5

42.4

43.8 123.6 125.2 126.8

46.01 48.81 49. 55

43.2

45.7

46.2 106.5 106.8 107.2

Nonferrous metals and their products
Smelting and refining, primary, of nonferrous m etals.. . ._
Alloying and rolling and drawing of nonferrous metals, except aluminum
Clocks and watches _
Jewelry (precious metals) and jewelers’
findings..
_____
Silverware and plated ware
Lighting equipm ent.. _
Aluminum manufactures .

50.05 51.64 49. 76

45.6

47.0

46.2 109.7 109.7 107.7

51.82 51.79 53. 51
39.00 43. 64 43. 82

46.7
41.3

46.3
45.7

47.3 111.4 111.9 113.2
45.6 94.5 95.7 96.2

41.43
46. 05
34.04
45. 93

45. 49
47. 54
48.60
48.58

42.3
45.0
32.7
43.2

43.4
45.4
44.4
45.0

45.4 97.3 97.4 99.5
46.3 102.1 102. 6 102.6
45.2 104.0 106.0 107.5
45.6 106.3 106.4 106.5

Lumber and timber basic products
Sawmills and logging camps. _.
Planing and plywood m ills. . . .

33.07 33. 64 36.20
32. 32 32.31 35. 22
35. 78 37. 78 39.41

40.5
40.3
41.3

41. 5
40.7
44.0

44.0
43.5
45.6

81.6
80.2
85.9

81.0
79.4
86.0

82.2
80.9
86.2

Furniture and finished lumber products
Furniture_________
Caskets and other morticians’ goods.
Wood preserving__ _

34.11
34.55
33.01
33.92

36.89
37. 35
39.94
35.07

37.54
38.01
39.95
35.45

40.6
40.3
38.1
42.4

43.3
42.8
44.7
44.3

44.1
43.7
44.8
44.8

84.1
85.8
86.5
79.1

85.2
87.4
90.1
78.7

85.2
87.2
89.5
79.2

Stone, clay, and glass products___
Glass and glassware. . . .
Glass products made from purchased glass
C em ent...
Brick, tile, and terra co tta ..
Pottery and related products___
____ _
Gypsum___
Lim e________
Marble, granite, slate, and other products _
Abrasives___ ___
Asbestos products______ _

38.96
38.96
34.42
44.29
33.47
35.11
43. 83
39. 54
37.64
48. 75
47.40

40.32
39.53
35.01
46.43
35.79
36.13
45.97
40.65
41.96
48.40
48.91

40.69
40.04
35.79
45.41
35.60
37.09
45. 70
40.05
41.90
50. 55
48.75

41.6
39.4
41.2
46.6
40.4
39.0
46.7
48.1
39.9
45.1
46.8

43.3
40.6
42.5
48.0
42.7
40.0
49.0
48.9
44.1
47.6
47.9

43.8 93.7 93.1 92.9
41.1 98.4 97.4 97.5
43.5 82.8 82.2 82.3
47.8 96.0 96.6 94.9
43.4 82.3 82.8 81.5
41.5 91.0 90.9 90.8
48.9 93.8 93.9 93.5
48.7 81.3 82.0 80.8
44.6 94.0 95.6 93.6
48.3 108.1 101.8 104.6
48.0 101.2 102.2 101.6

See footnotes at end of table.

https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

42.24
46. 58
47. 06
47. 92

TREND OF EMPLOYMENT, EARNINGS, AND HOURS
T a b l e 6 . — Earnings

1047

and Hours in Manufacturing and Nonmanufacturing Industries—
Continued
MANUFACTURING—Continued
Average weekly
earnings 1

Average weekly
hours 1

Average hourly
earnings i

Industry
Aug. July
1945 1945

June Aug. July
1945 1945 1945

June Aug. July June
1945 1945 1945 1945

Nondurable goods
Textile-mill products and other fiber manufactures... _ . _ ___
_ ..
______
$29. 64 $31..50
Cotton manufactures, except smallwares 2_ 27. 22 29.38
Cotton smallwares__________ _____
34.62 35.60
Silk and rayon goods____
___ ______ 30. 07 31.26
Woolen and worsted manufactures, except dyeing and finishing____________ 34.59 36.39
Hosiery_______
27.29 28.81
Knitted cloth 2_______________ _____
32. 32 33.77
Knitted outerwear and knitted gloves___ 28.96 30.81
Knitted underwear.. .
..
_ _ . 26.65 27.77
Dyeing and finishing textiles, including
woolen and worsted_____ . . . ........ _ 34.49 35.44
Carpets and rugs, wool___ _____ ____
35.00 40. 82
Hats, fur-felt_______ ______ _________
42.86 43.24
Jute goods, except fe lts... .
____
34. 60 34.50
Cordage and tw ine________________
32.63 34.42

Cents Cents
77.1 76.3
71.2 70.5
82.2 81.4
76.6 75. 2

$31. 67
29.01
36. 58
31.38

38.4
38.2
42.1
39.3

41.3
41.7
43.9
41.5

41.8
42.0
43.9
42.0

36.93
30.13
34.06
32.25
28.05

39.5
34.2
41.4
37.0
37.3

41.9
36.5
43.2
39.3
39.6

42.3
38.1
43.6
39.5
40.5

35.64
41.70
42.91
35.21
34.75

41.8
38.2
39.3
44.0
42.5

44.2
42.8
41.2
43.9
44.6

44.9 82.5 80.1 79 4
43.6 91.8 95. 5 96. 0
38.9 110.6 108.2 109. 3
44.5 78.7 78. 5 79.1
45.1 76.6 77.0 76.8

87.7
79.4
78.0
78.4
71.0

86.9
78. 9
77.6
78.1
69. 6

75.9
69 2
83. 5
74 7
87. 3
79.1
77 6
81. 3
69 0

Apparel and other finished textile products. __
M en’s clothing, not elsewhere classified . .
Shirts, collars, and nightwear ______ . .
Underwear and neckwear, men’s . . ___ _
Work shirts._ ________ _
... _
W omen’s clothing, not elsewhere classified.
Corsets and allied garments___________ _
Millinery . . ___ _ _________ ____ _
Handkerchiefs
_________________
Curtains, draperies, and bedspreads____
Housefurnishings other than curtains, etc.
Textile bags ___________________ _

27.93
30. 00
22.92
23. 65
19.46
33. 67
28. 56
37.57
24.09
25. 88
30.47
28. 07

30.38
33.32
25. 35
27.16
20. 27
36.75
29. 99
38.88
24. 21
26. 76
31.47
29.94

31.26
34.38
25. 60
27. 98
20. 93
38.15
31.48
33.99
25.03
28. 69
32.10
30.12

33.1
33.3
33.4
31.3
33.5
31.6
36.5
30.7
35.3
35.6
37.7
39.3

36.7
37.2
36.8
36.7
35.6
35.2
40.1
32.4
36.1
37.1
39.5
41.0

37.2 84.4 82.9 83. 9
38.4 90.0 89.1 89 4
36.9 69.8 68. 8 69. 5
37.8 75.4 73.9 74. 0
36.3 57.9 56. 9 57. 5
35.7 104.1 102. 4 104. 3
40.7 78.7 74.9 77. 5
29.7 99.9 99.0 94. 4
37.5 68.2 66.8 66. 7
37.0 72.6 72.0 76. 7
40.5 79.8 78.8 79.1
41.3 71.9 73.0 73.0

Leather and leather products ____
....
Leather_______ .
___ _
_____ _
Boot and shoe cut stock and findings
Boots and s h o e s __ _______ _______
Leather gloves and m ittens___________ _
Trunks and suitcases______________

33.62
43.18
33. 01
32.24
27. 48
32. 29

35. 47
44. 91
34. 72
34. 00
30. 39
33. 62

36.12
45.11
35.64
34. 74
31.04
35. 24

39.3
44.1
39.8
38.5
34.4
39.1

41.7
46.1
42.2
41.1
36.8
40.0

42.1
46.2
42.8
41. 5
37.8
41.0

Food.
.
____
.....
Slaughtering and meat packing_________
___ _
. . . . .
Butter. ______
Condensed and evaporated m ilk________
Ice cream . . .
___ . . .
Flour_______ _______ _ _____________
Cereal preparations _________ _______
Baking______
______
___________
Sugar refining, cane._____ ______ . . .
Sugar, b e e t.___ _____
. . __________
Confectionery__ ______ _________
___
Beverages, nonalcoholic.. . . . .
. . .
Malt liquors_____
______
_______
Canning and preserving________________

38.13
41.57
36.68
39. 97
40. 50
43.14
45. 20
39.36
36.12
37.87
30.18
35. 77
53.14
30.11

39.98
45.08
37.09
41.18
41.24
45. 26
46.15
40. 27
37. 20
39. 47
30. 75
37. 31
55. 47
32.62

40. 01
45.68
36. 36
41.24
39.88
44. 59
47. 08
39. 37
37. 41
39. 25
31.85
35.92
54.20
32.29

43.3
44.4
48.2
52.0
47.7
48.4
45.4
45.4
42.0
38.4
39.4
43.3
45.2
36.9

45.8
47.7
48.8
53.3
49.0
50.9
47.2
46.3
43.3
37.9
40.6
45.3
47.3
41.9

45.6 88.2 87.4 87.7
48.0 94.0 94.6 95.3
48.6 75.6 75.4 73.6
53.7 76.8 77.2 76.8
46.8 82.3 81.8 82.2
50.5 88.2 89.0 88.5
47.5 99.5 97.8 99.0
45.8 87.6 87.1 86.1
43.5 86.2 85.8 85.9
39.3 98.7 104.2 99.9
41.7 76.6 75.9 76. 4
44.3 83.3 83.0 81. 4
46.7 116.5 117.1 115.9
40.4 82.2 78.2 79.7

Tobacco manufactures
. . .
Cigarettes
. .
______ _ . . . ______
Cigars. _
. ________
__________
Tobacco (chewing and smoking) and
snuff___ _ . . _ _ . ____ _________

30.15 30. 73 32.36
34.10 34.62 35.18
26. 49 27.18 30.31

39.6
42.1
37.1

41.0
42.9
39.2

42.8
43.6
42.3

28. 63 28.53 28. 90

38.9

40.2

41.1

73.0

70.4

70.3

Paper and allied products._. _____
... _
Paper and pulp. .
. . _______ ___
Envelopes. . .
_ . . . . . ________ _
Paper bags____ _____
. . . . . __ . . . . .
Paper boxes____ . . . .
.
_ ______

38.70
41.77
36.44
35.17
34.44

40.78
44.26
37. 44
36.49
36. 70

40.74
44.30
38.04
35.07
36.35

44.0
45.8
43.4
43.2
41.4

46.3
48.5
44.6
44.3
43.9

46.4
48.8
44.8
42.9
43.4

87.9
91.1
84.0
80.9
83.3

88.1
91.3
83.9
82.9
83.7

87.9
90.6
84.9
82.0
83.7

Printing, publishing, and allied industries._.
Newspapers and periodicals. _ . _ _____
Printing, book and job_________________
Lithographing. _____
___

46. 70
52. 93
44.14
47.30

46. 62
50. 64
45. 00
48. 57

46.93
50.53
45.18
50.13

40.9
39.7
41.3
43.0

41.5
38.6
42.9
44.4

41.6
38.7
42.9
45.2

114.2
131.1
106.6
109.6

112.4
129. 2
105.2
109.3

112.8
128.7
105.8
110.8

See footnotes at end of table.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

85.7
97.9
83.5
83.2
80.5
83.0

76.1
81.1
71.0

85.1
97.7
83.0
82.3
82.4
84.0

74.9
80.7
69.1

85.7
97. 6
84. 3
83. 2
82.0
84.1

75. 7
80.7
71.6

1048

M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

T a b l e 6 . — Earnings

and Hours in Manufacturing and Nonmanufacturing Industries—
Continued
M ANUFACTURING— Continued
Average weekly
earnings 1

Average weekly
hours 1

Average hourly
earnings 4

Industry
Aug. July June Aug.
1945 1945 1945 1945

July June Aug. July June
1945 1945 1945 1945 1945

Nondurable poods—Continued

Cents Cents Cents
100.3 99.9 99.7
99.8 99.8 100.8
85.6 84.4 85.4
100.8 98.1 100.3
95.3 94.1 94.2
116. 0 114.9 114.9
105.9 106.9 105.5
97.6 98.9 99.4
57.8 57.5 58.2
74.5 72.9 71.6

$43.41 $44. 99 $45. 24
46.34 48.06 48.54
35. 25 35.40 36. 78
47. 98 47.02 48. 21
40.33 40.46 40.71
53.96 54.11 54. 23
44. 83 48. 00 46. 92
36. 22 44. 29 45. 55
26.18 27.09 28.35
32. 51 33. 66 32. 42

43.3
46.6
41.3
47.6
42.3
46.5
42.3
37.1
45.0
43.6

45.1
48.2
41.9
48.1
43.0
47.1
44.9
44.8
47.1
46.2

45.4
48.3
43.2
48.1
43.2
47.2
44.5
45.8
48.7
45.3

Products of petroleum and coal. . .
------ 56.97
Petroleum refining.
_ -------------- . . . 59. 27
49. 80
Coke and byproducts
. -----45. 55
Roofing materials_____ . . .
---------

58.01
60. 57
51.99
47. 56

57. 72
59. 89
51.57
48.28

46.8
47.1
46.0
46.6

47.7
47.3
48.3
49.2

47.8 121.6 121.7 120.7
47.6 127.1 127.7 126.6
47.9 109.6 109.0 107.9
49.7 97.7 96.6 97.2

46.76
52. 81
42. 21
40. 02

51.81
59. 59
42. 70
43. 62

51.45
59.20
42.60
43.37

41.8
41.5
45.1
41.3

45.5
46.0
45.4
44.8

45.2 111.9 113.8 114.0
45.3 126.9 129.6 130.7
45.5 93.7 94.1 93.7
44.9 96.9 97.4 96.7

Miscellaneous industries---------------- . 40. 94 43. 24 44.83
Instruments (professional and scientific)
and fire-control equipment____________ 51.39 51.12 56.02
41.34 47.19 47.81
Pianos, organs, and parts.
--------------

41.9

44.0

45.2

44.4
40.8

44.0
45.8

47.5 116.2 116.5 118.2
46.5 101.7 103.6 103.3

$47.48
59.11
47.43
42.38
54.84

37.0
40.1
41.9
46.6
46.0

39.4
40.8
43.9
48.0
45.0

41.1
46.2
45.4
48.2
46.3

(3)
(3)
(3)
43.44 37.98 38.49
50.71 50. 34 50.59
51.59 51.21 51.34

(3)
48.2
44.3
52.3

(3)
46.0
43.4
51.6

(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
46.2 90.1 82.6 83.3
44.4 113.9 114.6 113.6
52.2 97.4 97.9 97.0

44. 92
29.40
34.89
24.09
31.55
40. 21
44. 05
38.86
24.40
29.06
33.37
64.23
48.11
55.57

42.4
41.2
42.6
38.0
37.5
43.2
45.7
42.0
43.7
42.5
41.6
(3)
(3)
40.3

43.1
41.9
43.0
38.4
38.4
43.9
46.6
43.7
44.0
44.0
44.2
(3)
(3)
40.1

42.8 101.3 103.7 102.7
40.7 77.2 77.5 76.9
41.8 77.4 76.5 76.1
36.7 63.4 63.6 63.8
37.2 81.9 83.1 82.0
43.9 91.7 93.0 91.1
46.4 93.8 95.0 94.6
43.4 90.4 90.8 90.5
44.4 54.8 54.4 53.9
43.4 66.4 66.5 66.6
43.8 75.5 76.6 77.3
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(3)
40.4 138.3 138.7 137.4

Chemicals and allied products-------------- . .
Paints, varnishes, and colors. __ ----------Drugs, medicines, and insecticides---------Soap.__________ -- --------------------------Rayon and allied products______________
Chemicals, not elsewhere classified------ .
Explosives and safety fu se s.-...................
Ammunition, small-arms. -----------------Cottonseed o i l . . .
----------- --------- Fertilizers____________ ____ . . ------

Rubber products.- . ------------------------- -----Rubber tires and inner tubes----------------Rubber boots and shoes — -------------- .
Rubber goods, other------- --------------------

97.7

98.3

99.2

NONMANUFACTURING
Mining:
Anthracite____________________________
Bituminous coal_______________________
M e t a l___________ -- ------- -Quarrying and nonmetallic_____________
Crude-petroleum production____________
Public utilities:
Telephone-----------------------------------------Telegraph 4_________________ ________
Electric light and p o w e r ........ ............ .........
Street railways and busses______________
Trade:
Wholesale_____________________________
Retail________ _ _ ---------- --- - --------F o o d ____ _
_ -- _ ___________
General merchandise_______________
Apparel--------- --------. . . ----------------Furniture and housefurnishings_____
Automotive_______________________
Lumber and building materials______
Hotels (year-round)5 ____ ________________
Power laundries___________________________
Cleaning and dyeing_______________________
Brokerage_____________________ ____ ______
Insurance.. __________ _______________
Private building construction.............................

$49.44
49.89
43.97
41.25
54.77

43.27
29.01
34.68
23.91
29. 99
39.49
42.58
37.66
24.37
28.05
31.14
59.10
46. 73
55.79

$47.47
50.70
45.64
42.91
54.40

44.13
28.46
33.59
23.60
29. 73
39. 52
43.43
38.64
24.43
28.76
33. 50
66.15
47.66
55.50

Cents
133.1
124.8
104.9
88.5
118.7

Cents
121.9
125.5
103.9
89.5
120.9

Cents
117.0
128.5
104.5
87.9
118.4

1 These figures are based on reports from cooperating establishments covering both full- and part-time
employees who worked during any part of one pay period ending nearest the 15th of the month. As not all
reporting firms furnish man-hour data, average hours and average hourly earnings for individual industries
are based on a slightly smaller sample than are weekly earnings. Data for the current and immediately
preceding months are subject to revision.
2 Revisions have been made as follows in the data for earlier months:
Cotton manufactures, except smallwares.—M ay 1945 to $27.52 and 66.7 cents.
Knitted cloth.—M ay 1945 to $32.64.
3 N ot available.
4 Excludes messengers and approximately 6,000 employees of general and divisional headquarters, and of
cable companies.
5 Cash payments only; additional value of board, room, and tips, not included.

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1049

TREND OF EMPLOYMENT, EARNINGS, AND HOURS

Labor Force, Septem ber 1945
UNEMPLOYMENT doubled between August and September 1945
to reach a total of 1,650,000, according to the Bureau of the Census
Monthly Report on the Labor Force. Employment dropped by
2,270,000 and the civilian labor force declined by 1,450,000 to a level
of 52,900,000.
During the month after the Japanese surrender, mass lay-offs in war
industries caused the volume of unemployment to rise sharply. Ap
proximately 500,000 men and 300,000 women were added to the un
employment total. It should be noted that workers involved in
strikes or laid off with definite instructions to report to work within
30 days are not included in the unemployed.
A decline of 2,020,000 in nonagricultural employment not only re
flected postwar releases from war plants, but also the seasonal with
drawal from the labor force of youngsters returning to school. The
fact that the census week this September included Labor Day ac
counts for the large shift of workers during the month from the
“ worked 35 hours or more” category to the “ worked 15-34 hours”
group.
Agricultural employment continued to decline from the July
seasonal peak; about 8,800,000 persons were employed on farms in
September.
Total Labor Force in the United States, Classified by Employment Status, Hours
Worked, and Sex, August and September 1945
[Source: TJ. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census]
Estimated number (in thousands) of persons 14 years of age
and over 1

Item

Total, both sexes
August

Septem
ber

Male
August

Female

Septem
ber

August

Septem
ber

Total labor force 2______________________

66,510

64, 790

46, 910

45, 870

19, 600

18,920

Civilian labor force____ _______

54,350
830
53,520
44, 470
36,910
3,290
1,090
3,180
9,050
6,770
1,790
240
250

52,900
1,650
51,250
42, 450
29,890
9,070
1,250
2, 240
8, 800
6,550
1,810

35,020
»430
34, 590
27, 700
24, 300
1,520
370
1,510
6,890
5,880
690
130
190

34,250
930
33,320
26, 660
20, 490
4,460
450
1,260
6, 660
5, 570
810
130
150

19, 330
400
18, 930
16, 770
12, 610
1,770
720
1,670
2,160
890
1,100

18, 650
720
17,930
15, 790
9, 400
4, 610
800
980
2,140
980
1, 000
(*)
(*)

_____
Unemployment________ _ . ______
Employm ent_____ ____ ____________
Nonagricultural-. _____________
Worked 35 hours or more____
Worked 15-34 h o u rs________
Worked 1-14 hours 3____ ____
W ith a job but not at work A.
A g r ic u ltu r a l-..____ _____ ___
Worked 35 hours or more____
Worked 15-34 hours_________
Worked 1-14 hours 3________
W ith a job but not at work A.

220
220

110

(*)

1 Estimates are subject to sampling variation which may be large in cases where the quantities shown are
relatively small. Therefore, the smaller estimates should be used with caution; those under 100,000 are not
presented in the tables but are indicated by an asterisk (*). All data exclude persons in institutions.
2 Total labor force consists of the civilian labor force and the armed forces. Estimates of the armed
forces during the census week are projected from data on net strength as of the first of the month.
3 Excludes persons engaged only in incidental unpaid family work (less than 15 hours); these persons are
classified as not in the laborforce.
4 Includes persons who had a job or business, but who did not work during the census week because of
illness, bad weather, vacation, labor dispute, or because of temporary lay-off with definite instructions to
return to work within 30 days of lay-off. Does not include unpaid family workers.

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Recent Publications o f Labor Interest

Novem ber 1945
Cost and Standards of Living
A n a n a ly s is o f the in c o m e a n d p la n e s o f liv in g o f the M e th o d is t m in is te r s i n S o u th
C a r o lin a (w h ite m in is te r s i n f u l l c o n n e c tio n ). B y M arvin Leslie Infinger.

(In Rural Church, Evanston, 111., A pril-M ay 1945, pp. 1 —6; mimeographed.)
D ata on average income and average expenditures of 100 ministers in 1943-44.
T h e B r a d d o c k steelw o rker. Pittsburgh, United Steelworkers of America, Research
Department, 1945. 60 pp., illus. 25 cents.
This income and expenditure study for Jan u ary 1945 of steelworkers interviewed
in Braddock (including Rankin and North Braddock), Pa., indicates that real
wage standards have declined 1 0 percent during the war and that deferred pur
chasing power is relatively small. The report includes a description of the
community, and statistics of monthly, weekly, and hourly earnings; sources and
amounts of fam ily income; savings; and income of the steelworkers in relation
to their expenditures in Jan u ary 1945 and after elimination of the 48-hour week.
Washington, U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1945.
26 pp. (Bull. No. 838; reprinted from M onthly Labor Review, June 1945,
with additional data.) 10 cents, Superintendent of Documents, Washington.
L iv in g a n d o ffic e-o p e ra tin g costs i n C o lo m b ia . B y Sylvia P. Bernstein. Washington,
U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce,
1945. 10 1pp. (International Reference Service, Vol. 2 , No. 7.){ 5 cents,
Superintendent of Documents, Washington.
W a r tim e fo o d p u rc h a se s.

Economic and Social Problems
B y M arshall Field. Chicago, University of Chicago
^Press, 1945. 190 pp. $2.50.
Concerned mainly with freedom of expression, but contains discussions of the
place of labor organizations, cooperatives, and minority groups in a “ society of
free men.”

F re ed o m i s m o re th a n a w ord.

B y Basil Rauch. New York, Creative Age
Press, Inc., 1944. 368 pp. $2.50.
A historian discusses the evolution of policies during the first 6 years of the New
Deal, which he divides into two periods, the first phase being an effort to bring
about “ recovery” (to 1935), and the second dealing with measures fundamentally
designed to reconstruct Federal policies. The first, it is stated, was chiefly bene
ficial to big business and large farmers, while the second was more beneficial to
small farmers and to labor. Emphasis is given to struggles to obtain principles
incorporated within the Social Security Act, Wagner Labor Relations Act, and
Fair Labor Standards Act. These measures and their history, the author main
tains, sum up the most significant contributions of the New Deal to the permanent
institutions of the Nation.
T h e h is to r y o f the N e w D ea l, 1 9 3 3 —38 .

O ne A m e r ic a : T h e h is to r y , c o n tr ib u tio n s , a n d p re se n t p ro b le m s o f o u r ra c ia l a n d
n a tio n a l m in o r itie s . Edited by Francis J . Brown and Joseph Slabey Roucek.

New York, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1945.
$5 ($3.75 to schools).

7 17 pp., bibliography.

R ev. ed.

E ditor ’s N ote .—Correspondence regarding the publications to which reference is made in this list should
be addressed to the respective publishing agencies mentioned. Where data on prices were readily available,
they have been shown with the title entries.

1050

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RECENT PUBLICATIONS OP LABOR INTEREST

1051

B y C. Bettelheim. (In International
Labor Review, Montreal, June 1945, pp. 722—740. 50 cents. Distributed
in United States by Washington branch of ILO)
Shows the effects of war destruction and obsolescence of industrial equipment
and describes the measures already taken to restore the country. Special em
phasis is given to labor conditions.
E c o n o m ic a n d so c ia l p o lic y i n F ra n c e.

co lo n ia l e ssa y s. Edited by R ita Hinden. London, George Allen &
Unwin, Ltd., 1945. 261 pp. 8 s. 6 d. net.
Collection of essays dealing with economic and social problems in British colo
nial areas.
F a b ia n

B y Raymond F. Mikesell. (In Journal
of Political Economy, Chicago, June 1945, pp. 16 4 -176 . $ 1 .)
Analysis of conditions accompanying the rise in prices and expansion of note
circulation and bank deposits in countries of the Middle E ast which have been
caused, since the beginning of World War II, chiefly by an increase in purchasing
power (resulting from Allied m ilitary expenditures) and a coincident scarcity of
consumption goods. Prices and cost of living and the foreign exchange and
currency situation in the various countries are described and also compared. A
closing section deals with implications for the postwar period.
F in a n c i a l p ro b le m s o f the M id d le E a s t.

Education and Training
By
H arry S. Belman. (In Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, Milwau
kee, Wis., M ay 1945, pp. 19 1-19 4 . 50 cents.)

I n flu e n c e o f p re se n t tr a in in g p ro g r a m o n o u r f u tu r e e d u c a tio n a l a c tiv itie s .

B y George H. Fern. New York, M cGraw188 pp., bibliography. $2.
s

T r a in i n g f o r s u p e r v is io n i n in d u s tr y .

Hill Book Co., Inc., 1945.
W a r tim e

d e ve lo p m en ts

w o rk e rs’ e d u c a tio n [in

U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1945. 18 pp.
from M onthly Labor Review, August 1945.)

Washington,
(Serial No. R . 1768; reprinted
Free.

U n ite d S ta te s] ,

Ottawa, Department
of Labor, 1945. 3 1 pp. (Supplement to Labor Gazette, August 1945.)
Treats Dominion-Provincial war training of different kinds and outlines postwar
training projects.
C a n a d ia n v o c a tio n a l tr a in in g — a n n u a l rep o rt f o r 1 9 4 4 .-4 5 .

New York, British Information Services, Infor
mation Division, 1945. 22 pp. (I. D. 579.)
Covers the different kinds of adult education and the facilities provided for
training teachers and students alike.
A d u l t e d u c a tio n i n B r i ta i n .

Employment and Readjustment of Veterans
(In Adult Education Journal, New
York, Ju ly 1945, pp. 89-106.)
Three articles describing, respectively, a community, a university, and a
general educational approach to the problem of returning the war veteran to
civilian life.

A d j u s t i n g the c o m m u n ity to the w a r vetera n .

B y Low ry Nelson. Washington, National Planning Associa
tion, 1945. 20 pp. (Planning pamphlet No. 47.) 25 cents.
This report presents some of the m ajor factors to be considered in developing a
policy of assistance to those veterans desiring to enter agriculture, with some
suggestions as to how the policy m ay be implemented. The pamphlet also con
tains the joint statement in this connection by the agriculture, business, and labor
committees on national policy of the N ational Planning Association.
F a r m s f o r vetera n s.

New York, Crowell-Collier Publishing Co., 1945. 52 pp.,
bibliography. (Veterans report No. 2.) 10 cents.
A study of what various communities are doing to help demobilized service
men and women reestablish themselves in civilian life.
H o m e to w n p la n s .

M a n u a l o f a d v is e m e n t a n d g u id a n ce , p r e p a r e d i n accordance w ith the a p p ro v e d
p o lic ie s o f the V e te r a n s ’ A d m i n is tr a ti o n .
B y Ira D. Scott. Washington,

[U. S. Veterans’ Administration], 1945. 233 pp., bibliography. $1.2 5.
Designed to effect uniformity of understanding and application of procedures
to be observed under legislation providing for advisement and guidance services
for veterans.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1052

M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

B y D ’ Alton B. M yers. (In Law and Contemporary
Problems, Durham, N. C., Vol. X I, No. 2, summer-autumn 1945, pp. 344-360.

S m a l l b u s in e s s f o r vetera n s.
$

1.)

Summarizes business-ownership plans of servicemen, kinds of assistance
available to veterans in developing such plans, and problems facing those who
desire to start businesses.
New York, Research Institute of America.
Inc., 1945. 34 pp.
D ata and observations designed to acquaint the employer with his legal duties
and rights, and with the over-all personnel adjustments which will be required,
in connection with the rehiring of veterans.
R e h ir in g y o u r c o m p a n y ’s vetera n s.

Employment and Unemployment (General)
B y Albert H alasi. New York, American
Labor Conference on International Affairs, 1945. 59 pp. $ 1 . (Occasional
papers, M onetary series No. 5.)
The role of the International M onetary Fund and the International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development in furthering full employment is interpreted
as that of reducing transitional unemployment and relatively unproductive em
ployment arising from changes in foreign trade. These changes occur either from
adverse changes in consumer taste or in production techniques, or for cyclical
reasons, or in consequence of unneighborly commercial policies. R eal income is
expected to increase as these difficulties are overcome. Stress is placed on the need
for effective employment policies in member countries to insure the success of the
Bank and the Fund.
B r e tto n W o o d s a n d f u l l e m p lo y m e n t.

P o s tw a r jo b s : A g u id e to c u r r e n t p ro b le m s a n d f u t u r e o p p o r tu n itie s . B y Press Re
search, Inc. Washington, Public Affairs Press, 1945. 2 1 1 pp. $2.50.

The authors recommend legislative and other measures aimed at full employ
ment and attem pt to analyze the trends of thought in Congress and among various
private groups on m ajor issues affecting postwar jobs. Some of the topics dis
cussed are reconversion, taxation, jobs for veterans, social security, public works,
and housing.
T h e p ro b le m o f ch a n geover u n e m p lo y m e n t: A sta te m e n t o n n a tio n a l p o lic y b y the
resea rch c o m m itte e o f the C o m m itte e f o r E c o n o m ic D e v e lo p m e n t. New York,
Committee for Economic Development, 1945. 2 2 p p.; mimeographed.

B y Henry A. Wallace. New York, R eynal & Hitchcock, 1945.
2 16 pp., charts. $ 2 ($ 1 , paper cover, Simon & Schuster, New York).
Using 60 million jobs and a two hundred billion dollar annual national income
by 1950 as goals, the author sets forth the conditions under which he believes
American political and economic democracy can be reconciled to achieve these
objectives. Stress is placed on the com paratively low cost of full employment
and the common interest of all groups in its attainment. Points of action deemed
essential to the achievement of full employment without disastrous inflation,
without a regimented economy, and without an unbalanced budget include (1 )
“ assigning responsibility to government for preparing and keeping a current
accounting of the N ation’s budget of job and investment opportunities,” (2 )
reducing taxes so as to stimulate private initiative and increase consumption, (3 )
maintaining wages to protect take-home pay and raising minimum wages to pro
vide a minimum living standard, (4) maintaining farm prices and adjusting indus
trial prices to promote consumption, (5) promoting resource development, (6)
eliminating trade barriers, (7) promoting a housing program to be coordinated
under a government housing agency, (8 ) extending social security and health
insurance to universal coverage, (9) promoting educational equality by Federal
grants in aid, and (1 0 ) “ guaranteeing security at home and abroad by fostering
conditions that make for racial and religious tolerance and international good
will and cooperation.”
S i x t y m illio n jo b s .

F ir s t re p o rt, F a ir E m p lo y m e n t P ra c tic e C o m m itte e , J u l y 1 9 j S ~ D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 4 .

Washington, 1945. 15 2 pp., map, charts. 25 cents, Superintendent of
Documents, Washington.
The Fair Em ploym ent Practice Committee was created to 'deal with employ
ment discrimination against any minority group because of race, color, etc., but
as four-fifths of the cases docketed by the Committee involved complaints from
nonwhites, the report deals largely with discrimination against Negroes.

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RECENT PUBLICATIONS OF LABOR IN TER EST

1053

Ottawa, Department
of Trade and Commerce, Dominion Bureau of Statistics, 1945. 79 pp.„
charts; processed.

A n n u a l review o f e m p lo y m e n t a n d p a y ro lls i n C a n a d a , 1944-

(In International Labor Review, Montreal,
Ju ly 1945, pp. 29-39. 50 cents. Distributed in United States by Washing
ton branch of ILO.)
This study is devoted to the manpower situation, showing the uneven distribu
tion of labor which results in unemployment in certain areas while others experi
ence labor shortages. Measures for amelioration are described.
T h e e m p lo y m e n t s itu a tio n i n F ra n c e .

Housing
B y Catherine Bauer. (In
International Labor Review, Montreal, Ju ly 1945, pp. 1-2 8 . Reprints of
article are available at 10 cents each. Distributed in United States by
Washington branch of ILO.)
Considers the social, economic, and civic aspects of housing and the policies
required to reestablish the population after the need subsides for abnormal popu
lation concentration in war-production centers.
H o u s in g i n th e U n ite d S ta te s — p ro b le m s a n d p o lic y .

F P H A r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r u r b a n lo w -re n t h o u s in g a n d s lu m clea ra n ce, d eveloped u n d e r
U . S . H o u s in g A c t o f 1 9 3 7 as a m e n d e d (P u b lic L a w 4 1 3 , 7 5 th C o n g re ss). Wash

ington, N ational Housing Agency, Federal Public Housing Authority, 1945.
39 pp. 10 cents, Superintendent of Documents, Washington.

A report by the joint commitee on housing and welfare
on the proposal to substitute public assistance rent relief grants to low-income
families in place of providing low-rent housing by public agencies. Chicago,
N ational Association of Housing Officials, 1944. 16 pp. (Publication No.
N204.) 15 cents.
B r i t a i n fa c e s its h o u s in g e m erg en cy. Prelim inary report of N ational Committee on
Housing mission to Great Britain. New York, N ational Committee on
Housing, Inc., 1945. 27 pp.; mimeographed. 25 cents.
T h e r e h o u sin g o f B r i ta i n . B y John Madge. London, Pilot Press, Ltd., 1945.
64 pp., charts, illus. (Target for tomorrow, No. 9.) 4s. 6d. ($1.50, Trans
atlantic, Forest Hills, N. Y .).
Deals with housing already provided and the m ajor problems that must be
dealt with to insure more adequate facilities.
T h e r e n t certifica te p la n .

Industrial Accidents and Accident Prevention
A c c id e n t sta tis tic s a s a n a id to p r e v e n tio n o f a c cid en ts i n b itu m in o u s -c o a l m in e s .

Washington, U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, 1945. 39
pp., map, charts. (Miners circular No. 47; Coal-mine accident-prevention
course, section 1.) 10 cents, Superintendent of Documents, Washington.
C o a l-m in e e x p lo sio n s a n d coal- a n d m e ta l-m in e fir e s i n the U n ite d S ta te s d u r in g the
fis c a l y e a r e n d ed J u n e 30, 1944• B y D. Harrington and W. J . Fene. Wash

ington, U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, 1945. 35 pp.,
chart; mimeographed. (Information circular No. 7330.)
H a z a r d s o f the tro lley-lo co m o tive h a u la g e s y ste m i n coal m in e s . B y D . Harrington
and R . G. Warncke. Washington, U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau
of Mines, 1945. 38 pp.; mimeographed. (Information circular No. 7328.)
K a n s a s a c c id en ta l d e a th report, 1 9 4 5 e d itio n . Topeka, Kansas State Board of
Health, 1945. 22 pp., chart, illus.
Fatal accidents are grouped as occupational, home, motor vehicle, public, and
m ilitary personnel, and various statistics are given for 1944 and other years. Oc
cupational fatalities, so-called, numbered 203 (of a total of 1,446),. 83 of which
were in agriculture.
I s th is tr ip n e c e ssa r y ? Washington, U. S. Department of Labor, Division of
Labor Standards, 1945. 12 pp. 5 cents, Superintendent of Documents,
Washington.
Safety suggestions for office workers.

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1054

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW----NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

S a f e -practices a r o u n d d r ill p resses. S a f e p ra c tic e s a r o u n d c ir c u la r sa w s. O perate
p o w e r tr u c k s s a fe ly . S a f e p ra c tic es a r o u n d e n g in e la th es.
U se w o o d c u ttin g
h a n d sa w s s a fe ly . S a f e t y a r o u n d g r in d in g w heels. S a f e o p e ra tio n o f m eta l
sh a p e rs .
U se la d d ers sa fe ly .
Washington, U. S. Department of Labor,

Division of Labor Standards, 1945. (Industrial safety charts, series A -H .)
5 cents each, Superintendent of Documents, Washington.

Industrial Hygiene
D e r m a titis f r o m w e a rin g a p p a r e l. B y Louis Schwartz,

M .D ., and Samuel M.
Peck, M .D . (In Journal of the American Medical Association, Chicago,
August 25, 1945, pp. 12 0 9 - 12 17 ; bibliographical footnotes. 25 cents.)
Considers especially the newer types and treatments of fabrics and other ma
terials as causative factors in dermatitis, and outlines diagnostic and testing
procedures.
M e r c u r y p o is o n in g i n tu n g s te n -m o ly b d e n u m rod a n d w ire m a n u fa c tu r in g i n d u s tr y .

B y Leon Lewis. (In Journal of the American Medical Association, Chicago,
September 8, 1945, pp. 12 3 -12 9 . 25 cents.)
F ir s t a id services f o r fa c to r ie s . London, M inistry of Labor and National Service,
1945. 24 pp., plans, illus. 5th ed. (Welfare pamphlet No. 4.) Is. net,
H is M ajesty’s Stationery Office, London.
Guide for the assistance of factory management in establishing first-aid services.
P e n e tr a tin g eye. B y George Singer.

(In National Safety News, Chicago, August
1945, pp. 18, *19, 60 et seq.; illus. 40 cents.)
Considers the rapid wartime growth of the industrial use of X -rays and the
limited awareness of radiation hazards to both immediate worker and other per
sons in the neighborhood. Also outlines the scope of part 1 of the safety code
(Z54) covering the industrial use of X -rays, developed by a war committee of the
American Standards Association (see following reference).
S a f e t y code f o r th e i n d u s tr ia l u se o f X - r a y s , P a r t 1, a p p ro v e d M a y 31 , 19 4 5 .
New
York, American Standards Association, 1945. 1 1 pp. (Z54, 1.) 25 cents.
This first part of the code covers safety standards for the installation, operation,
use, and maintenance of industrial X -ray equipment. I t applies to all X -ra y ap
paratus except that used for medical or dental purposes; it does not apply to
radium apparatus. Methods of determining radiation hazards and controlling
personnel, and general health provisions, are included.

Industrial Relations
B a s ic g u id e f o r la b o r-m a n a g e m e n t c o m m itte es: W a y s o f o p e r a tin g a la b o r-m a n a g e
m e n t p r o d u c tio n c o m m itte e . Washington, U. S. War Production Board, War

Production D rive Headquarters, 1945.

3 1 pp.

New
59 pp. $1.5 0 to nonmembers.
I n d u s t r i a l o r g a n iz a tio n a n d m a n a g e m e n t.
B y Lawrence L. Bethel and others.
New York, M cGraw-H ill Book Co., Inc., 1945. 798 pp., charts, illus.
$4.50.
General textbook, including an extensive section on the administration of
industrial relations. The authors discuss the role of labor organizations and state,
for example, that in the field of incentive wages management should proceed only
with the cooperation of union leaders and workers.

H o w to h a n d le y o u r N L R B [U . S . N a tio n a l L a b o r R e la tio n s B oa rd ] case.

York, Labor Relations Institute, 1945.

B y Leonard B. Boudin. (In
Law yers Guild Review, New York and Washington, M ay -Ju n e 1945,
pp. Î92-200. 50 cents.)
Reviews results of the N ational Industrial Recovery Act and the work of the
N ational Labor Relations Board, the National Defense Mediation Board, and the
National War Labor Board.
L a b o r r e la tio n s a n d the R oosevelt a d m in is tr a tio n .

Prepared by M ay
E . Jamieson. Pasadena, Calif., California Institute of Technology, In
dustrial Relations Section, June 1945. 4 pp.

S e le c te d r e a d in g o n p r o v is io n s i n collective b a r g a in in g co n tra cts.

T e ste d c la u ses f o r u n i o n co n tra cts.

58 pp.

$2.25.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

New York, Labor Relations Institute, 1945.

1055

RECENT PUBLICATIONS OF LABOR INTEREST

Industry Reports
(In International Textiles, No. 4,
pp. C - E ; No. 5, pp. B, C; No. 6, pp. E - G ; No. 7, pp. F, G. London, 1945.)
The articles include production, machinery, and labor statistics for the cottontextile industry in both countries.
C o tto n tex tiles i n B r i t a i n a n d the U . S . A .

T h e gem d ia m o n d c u ttin g i n d u s tr y i n c o n tin e n ta l U n ite d S ta te s a n d P u e r to R ic o .

New York, U. S. Department of Labor, Wage and Hour and Public Contracts
Divisions, 1945. 22 pp., chart; mimeographed. (Supplement to “ Memoran
dum to special industry committee No. 4 for Puerto R ico,” June 1945.)
Free.
Includes information on unionization of workers; piece rates of pay for polishing
brilliants, M ay 1945; average hourly earnings in the industry in Puerto Rico,
April 1945; and estimated number of workers in Puerto Rico who would be
affected by establishment of specified minimum hourly wage rates.
A n n u a l re p o rt o f the S h ip b u ild e r s C o u n c il o f A m e r ic a , [for the fis c a l y e a r e n d in g
A p r i l 1, 1945], New York, 1945. 47 pp.; mimeographed.

Contains summaries of data on employment, working hours, and earnings, and
information on the work of the Shipbuilding Commission of the U. S. National
War Labor Board with respect to wages and other matters.
London, M inistry of Fuel and Power, 1945. 88 pp.
(Cmd. 6639.) Is. 6d. net, His M ajesty’s Stationery Office, London.
Comprehensive statistical analysis of the coal industry, giving production,
distribution, and labor information. Output per man shift is shown and also the
extent of mine mechanization.
S t a tis tic a l d ig est, 1944•

London,
M inistry of Fuel and Power, 1945. 67 pp. 2s. net, His M ajesty’s Stationery
Office, London.
Description of the fields and their present position and future prospects, in
cluding possibilities of raising output through mechanization.
Similar reports have also been issued on the coal fields of K ent and the North
Midland region.
T h e coal fie ld s o f th e M id la n d reg io n , [E ngland]-— re g io n a l su r v e y rep o rt.

Labor and Social Legislation
A c o m p ila tio n o f g en era l labor la w s o f L o u is ia n a , w ith c ita tio n s .

Louisiana Departm ent of Labor, 1945.

541 pp.

Baton Rouge,

By
M aris M . Proffitt and D avid Segel. Washington, Federal Security Agency,
Office of Education, 1945. 200 pp. (Bulletin, 1945, No. 1.) 30 cents, Su
perintendent of Documents, Washington.
S u m m a r y o f la w s a n d o rd in a n c e s a ffe c tin g y o u th . Los Angeles, Los Angeles County
War Services, Youth Committee, Janu ary 1945. 14 pp.
Summ ary of the most important laws and ordinances affecting youth in the
State of California and in the city and county of Los Angeles.
W a g e -h o u r a n d c h ild -la b o r le g isla tio n i n th e R oosevelt a d m in is tr a tio n . B y Donald
M urtha. (In Law yers Guild Review, New York and Washington, M ay-Ju n e
1945, pp. 18 5 - 19 1. 50 cents.)
Gives the background and traces the efforts of the Roosevelt administration to
“ conserve our prim ary resources of manpower” through Government “ control
over maximum hours, minimum wages, the evil of child labor, and the exploitation
of unorganized labor.”
S c h o o l c e n su s, c o m p u ls o r y ed u ca tio n , c h ild labor— S ta te la w s a n d re g u la tio n s.

R e c o p ila c ió n de le y e s, decretos y re so lu cio n es re la tiv a s a l tra b a jo , vig en tes en la
P r o v in c ia de M e n d o z a , [A rg e n tin a ].
Mendoza, Secretaría de Trabajo y

Previsión, Delegación Regional, 1945. 566 pp.
Compilation of national and provincial laws, decrees, and resolutions relating
to labor in effect in the Argentine Province of Mendoza, including national legisla
tion of as recent a date as April 1945 and provincial legislation through February
6, 1945, classified under such topics as employment agencies, hours of work, wage
protection, compensation for industrial accidents and diseases, work of women and
minors, etc»

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1056

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

R e s o lu c io n e s, a cu erd o s, rec o m en d a c io n es y d ecla ra c io n e s de c o n fe re n c ia s in te r n a
c io n a le s A m e r ic a n a s sobre p ro b le m a s so cia les. Washington, Pan American

Union, Division of Labor and Social Information, 1945. 23 pp.; mimeo
graphed.
Collection of the resolutions, agreements, recommendations, and declarations
of the fifth to eighth international American conferences, 1923 to 1938, and of
the In ter-American Conference on Problems of War and Peace in 1945, covering
such topics as unemployment, immigration, the labor contract, labor of women
and minors, and m aternity leave.

Labor Organizations and Congresses
U n io n s e c u r ity p la n s — ■m a in te n a n c e o f m e m b e r s h ip a n d .ih e c h e c k -o ff [in C a n a d a a n d
the U n ite d S ta te s ]. Kingston, Ontario, Queen’s U niversity, Department of

Industrial Relations, 1945. 59 pp. (Bull. No. 10.) $ 1.
A suggested maintenance-of-membership provision for a union agreement is
included.
B r i ti s h tra d e u n i o n s a n d the w a r. B y John Price. London, M inistry of Inform a
tion, [1945]. 55 pp. Distributed in United States by British Information
Services, New York,
Reviews the history of the trade-union movement in Britain and the conditions
under which labor operated and worked with the Government in wartime.
F o r ty -e ig h th a n n u a l re p o rt o f the S c o ttis h T r a d e s U n io n C ongress, 1 9 4 5 .
Glasgow,
[Scottish Trades Union Congress], 1945. 129 pp. ls .n e t.
Includes statistics of membership of affiliates.

Nutrition
Detroit, Chil
dren’s Fund of M ichigan, [1945?]. 206 pp., charts, illus.
Proceedings of a conference held in Detroit, November 3, 1944, under the
sponsorship of the Research Laboratory of the Children’s Fund of Michigan.
I m p l i c a t i o n s o f n u t r i ti o n a n d p u b lic h ea lth i n the p o s tw a r p e rio d .

N u t r i ti o n a l s ta tu s o f a ir c r a ft w o rk e rs i n s o u th e rn C a lifo r n ia : I I I , E ffe c ts o f v ita m in
s u p p le m e n ta tio n o n a b se n te e is m , tu rn -o v er, a n d p e r s o n n e l r a tin g s . B y Henry

Borsook, M .D . (In M ilbank Memorial Fund Quarterly, New York, April
1945, pp. 113 - 16 0 . 25 cents.)
I t is estimated that a production gain of 10.5 working days per man per year was
made during the survey period (March 1, 1942, to February 28, 1943), as meas
ured by absenteeism, turn-over, and general work performance, after the addition
of vitamins, 5 days a week, to the diets of the workers studied.
T h e w a r tim e n u t r i ti o n p ro g r a m s f o r w o rk e rs i n the U n ite d S ta te s a n d C a n a d a . B y
Robert S. Goodhart, M .D ., and L. B. Pett, M .D . (In M ilbank Memorial
Fund Quarterly, New York, April 1945, pp. 16 2 -17 9 ; charts. 25 cents.)
Discussion of the official nutrition programs for workers in war plants of the two
countries, with particular reference to in-plant feeding. Administration, methods
of operation, accomplishments, and possible utilization during peacetime are
treated.
F ir s t re p o rt o n the a c tiv itie s o f the N a tio n a l N u t r i ti o n C o u n c il, [ U n io n o f S o u th
A fr ic a ] , fo r the p e rio d J u n e 2 7 , 1 9 4 0 , to D ecem ber 3 1 , 1 9 4 3 . Pretoria, Depart

ment of Public Health, 1944. 22 pp. 2s. 6d.
Summarizes the findings of nutrition surveys made in South Africa and recom
mends dietary standards.

Postwar Reconstruction
B y G. H. Aull and
J . M. Stepp. Clemson, S. C., Clemson Agricultural College, Agricultural
Experim ent Station, 1945. 43 pp., charts. (Bull. No. 355.)
Study of the impact of the war on employment in the city and county of Ander
son, S. C., and of the postwar business and employment outlook. Statistics in
clude estimates of prewar, wartime, and postwar employment and of prewar and
postwar consumer demand for selected products, by race, and, in the case of
employment, also by sex.
T h e p o stw a r e c o n o m ic o u tlo o k i n a n a g r ic u ltu r a l- in d u s tr ia l area.

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RECENT PUBLICATIONS OF LABOR IN TER EST

1057

H is to r y a n d d i s p o s itio n o f a p o w d e r p la n t p ro ject, N itr o , W e s t V ir g in i a , 1 9 1 7 -4 2 .

Washington, U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1945.
mimeographed. (Historical study No. 78.) Free.

80 pp., bibliography*
'

D o m in io n P r o v in c ia l C o n feren ce o n R e c o n s tr u c tio n — p r o p o s a ls o f the G o v ern m e n t
o f C a n a d a . Ottawa, [Edmond Cloutier, K in g’s Printer?], August 1945.

52 pp.
Statem ent of national problems and objectives, measures required during the
transition from war to peace, and the Government’s proposals for a public invest
ment policy, social security, and financial arrangements.
F r a m e w o r k o f a fo u r - y e a r p l a n [for G reat B r i ta i n ].

(In Planning, London, June 8,
1945, pp. 1-20 . Reprints available, 25 cents each, from New Republic, 40
E . 49th Street, New York City.)
. Cites need for planning and estimates possibilities for raising output and effi
ciency. Priority is given to investment in building and industrial equipment
during the first postwar years. The estimates are for 1946-49, assuming an end
to the war with Jap an in 1946.
P o v e rty a n d so c ia l ch a nge: A s tu d y i n the eco n o m ic r e o r g a n iz a tio n o f I n d i a n r u r a l
so c iety. B y Tarlok Singh. New York, Longmans, Green & Co., Ltd., 1945.

200 pp. 3s. 6d.
Offers a program for raising the level of the rural economy.

Washington, U. S. Bureau
(Serial No. R . 1750; reprinted from
Free.

P o s tw a r re c o n stru c tio n i n the U n io n o f S o u th A fr ic a .

of Labor Statistics, 1945. 10 pp.
Monthly Labor Review, June 1945.)

Prices and Price Control
a n d i ts p r ic in g p o lic ies. B y Alfred Auerbach. New York, Fairchild
Publishing Co., 1945. 76 pp., charts. $1.50.
A. former chief of the consumer durable goods branch of the U. S. Office of
Price Administration attempts to give an intimate insight into the formulation
of the agency’s policies, its legal powers and restrictions, its day-to-day operations,
and its achievements. Some of the m ajor difficulties discussed include those
affecting pricing of new goods, price adjustments, rewriting of the General M axi
mum Price Regulation, enforcement of regulations, and reconversion policies.
OPA

P r ic e co n tro l a n d b u s in e s s : F ie ld s tu d ie s a m o n g p ro d u c e rs a n d d is tr ib u to r s o f co n
s u m e r goods i n the C hicago area, 1942-4-4. B y George Katona. Bloomington,

Ind., Principia Press, Inc., 1945. 246 pp., charts.
Research in Economics monograph No. 9.) $3.

P r ic e s o f c o n stru c tio n m a c h in e r y , A u g u s t 1 9 3 9 - J u n e 1 9 4 5 .

Washington, U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1945.
Free.

(Cowles Commission for
B y Carter M. Bowen.
24 pp.; mimeographed.

Wages and Hours of Labor
Washington,
U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1945. 17 pp., charts; processed. Free.
This occupational wage relationship study of the machinery industry, whose
occupational structure has been affected during the war by new techniques and
methods of organization, is the first in a series intended to assist in wage adminis
tration, collective bargaining, and the placement of veterans and dislocated war
workers. The indexes of wage rates in key occupations were designed to show
the spread between the wages of the various key occupations and wages of
unskilled occupations, used as a base. It is also possible to measure from these
figures the wage differential among any of the key occupations.
O c c u p a tio n a l w a g e re la tio n s h ip s , S e r ie s 1, N o . 1: M a c h in e r y , 1 9 4 5 .

W a g e ra tes p e r h o u r f o r b u ild in g tra d e s i n the p r i n c ip a l c ities, 1 9 4 5 .

Builders Association of Chicago, Ju ly 1, 1945.

1 sheet.

Chicago,

Ottawa, Department of Labor,
(Report No. 26; supplement to Labor Gazette, June 1945.)
D o c k la b o rers’ w ages [in L o n d o n ], 1 8 8 8 to 1 9 4 5 . B y A. L. Bowley.
(In London
& Cambridge Economic Service, London, Ju ly 1945, p. 55.)
Shows hourly wages and for some periods the hours worked and weekly earnings.
W a g e ra tes a n d h o u rs o f labor i n C a n a d a , 1 9 4 3 .

1945.

94 pp.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1058

M O N T H LY LABOR REVIEW— NOVEMBER 1 9 4 5

Women in Industry
T h e o u tlo o k fo r w o m e n i n o c c u p a tio n s i n the m e d ic a l services: W o m e n p h y s ic ia n s ;
X - r a y te c h n ic ia n s .
Washington, U. S. Department of Labor, Women’s

Bureau*, 1945. 28 and 14 pp., bibliographies. (Bull. No. 203, Nos. 7 and 8.)
10 cents each, Superintendent of Documents, Washington.

S t a tu s o f w o m e n i n u n io n s i n w a r p la n ts — s e n io r ity . R a te fo r the jo b . U n io n
p r o v is io n s fo r m a te r n ity leave fo r w o m e n m em b ers. Washington, U. S. D epart

ment of Labor, Women’s Bureau, 1945. Folders. (Union series Nos. 1, 2,
3.) Free,
W o m e n i n a v ia tio n . B y B etty Peckham. New York, Thomas Nelson & Sons,
1945. 164 pp., illus. $2.50.
The four parts of this volume deal, respectively, with the women’s m ilitary
services in aviation, aircraft production, women in civil aviation, and women as
teachers in aviation.
W o r k in ju r ie s to w o m e n i n s h ip y a r d s , 1 9 4 3 -4 4 Washington, U. S. Bureau of
Labor Statistics, 1945. 10 pp. (Serial No. R . 17 37 ; reprinted from Monthly
Labor Review, March 1945.) Free.

General Reports
Washington, U. S.
Department of Labor, Division of Labor Standards, 1945. 28 pp. (Bull.
No. 74.) 10 cents, Superintendent of Documents, Washington.

L a b o r offices i n th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d i n C a n a d a , J u l y 1, 1 9 4 5 ,

M e m o r a n d u m to s p e c ia l i n d u s t r y c o m m itte e N o . 4 [of W a g e a n d H o u r a n d P u b lic
C o n tra c ts D iv is io n s , U . S . D e p a r tm e n t o f Labor], fo r P u e r to R ic o . New York,

U. S. Department of Labor, Wage and Hour and Public Contracts Divisions,
1945. 99 p p .; mimeographed. Free.
Contains statistical data for Puerto Rico on employment in various industries,
1939; average hourly earnings, 19 37-38 to 19 4 1-4 2 ; cost of living (indexes),
December 19 41 to December 1944; and minimum-wage regulations.
B e lg iu m . Edited by Jan-A lbert Goris. Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of
California Press, 1945. 478 pp., bibliography, maps, illus. (United Nations
series.) $5.
General book on Belgium and the Belgian Congo, by American, Belgian, and
Dutch authors. One chapter (B y M ax Gottschalk) dealing with social legislation
in Belgium gives brief histories of the labor movement, development of fam ily
allowances, national benefit and unemployment-insurance funds, old-age pen
sions, workmen’s compensation for industrial accidents and diseases, and settle
ment of labor disputes, up to 1939-40. Another chapter (by George W. Carpen
ter) discusses health, education, and social welfare in the Belgian Congo.
(In Commercial Pan America, Pan American Union, Wash
ington, August-Septem ber 1945; 1 1 0 pp., mimeographed.)
Compilation of data on production and related subjects, by industry, for various
years down to 1944, including estimates of the total number of workers in Brazilian
industries and of factory workers separately.
E m p lo y m e n t o f U n ite d S ta te s c itiz e n s i n L a t i n A m e r ic a .
Washington, Pan
American Union, Division of Labor and Social Information, 1945. 18 pp.,
bibliography; mimeographed.
Contains a summary, by country, of legislation restricting employment of
aliens in the Latin American Republics; discussion of immigration policies and
technical and vocational education; data on wages and living standards in selected
countries; information on requirements for employment; an analysis of employ
ment possibilities in 1 1 fields; and other pertinent data for Latin America.
T h e e x p lo ita tio n o f f o r e ig n labor by G e rm a n y .
Montreal, International Labor
Office, 1945. 286 pp. (Studies and reports, series C, No. 25.) $1.50.
Distributed in United States by Washington branch of ILO .
This volume (written before the surrender of Germany) describes all phases
of the exploitation of foreign labor by Germany to increase productive capacity
during World War II.
I n d u s t r i a l B r a z il.

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RECENT PUBLICATIONS OF LABOR IN TEREST

1059

B y Dorothy Woodman. London, Pilot Press,
1944 48 pp., charts, map, illus. (“ March of tim e” series, No. 16.) Is
B rief description of development of Japan in relation to Germany, China
and other regions. In addition to information on the growth of industry and the
war machine, the pamphlet contains data on the organization and extent of the
labor movement.
J a p a n , th e p ro b le m o f A s ia .

(In International Labor Review, Montreal June
1945, pp. 749-753. 50 cents. Distributed in United States by Washington
branch of ILO .)
Sum m ary data from a survey of conditions of employment among 10 544
commercial and clerical employees in Arab, Jewish, and mixed establishments
made by the Palestine Department of Labor in August and September 1943and from an inquiry regarding the earnings of 14 ,1 2 1 industrial workers in
Jew ish industry, made by the Economic Research Institute and the Statistical
Department of the Jew ish Agency for Palestine in June-Septem ber 1943.
L a b o r c o n d itio n s i n P a le s tin e .

Washington, U. S. Bureau of Labor Sta
tistics, 1945. 14 pp. (Serial No. R . 17 4 1; reprinted from M onthly Labor
Review, April 1945.) Free.

L a b o r c o n d itio n s i n the P h il i p p in e s .

R o rk e rs i n S t a l i n s R u s s ia . B y M. L. Berneri. London, Freedom Press 1945
88 pp. Is.
Description of the Soviet system with its rigid state control of trade-unions
and factories.^ The writer discusses the standard of living of the workers the
us®
con®crÎPted and forced labor, the preferential status of certain workers,
and what he considers the inequitable and unsatisfactory condition of workingclass women.
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6

U- S.
670119- 45-

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GOVERNMENT PRINTING O FF IC E: I94S

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