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MONTHLY REVIEW
OF TH E
U. S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS
vol.
m —n o . 5
WASHINGTON
No v e m b e r ,
me
CONFERENCE ON SOCIAL INSURANCE, DECEMBER 5 TO 9, 1916,
W ASHINGTON, D. C., CALLED BY THE INTERNATIONAL ASSO
CIATION OF IN DUSTRIAL ACCIDENT BOARDS A ND COMMIS
SIONS.
O R IG IN O F T H E C O N F E R E N C E ON SO C IA L IN S U R A N C E .
This Conference on Social Insurance has been called by the Inter
national Association of Industrial Accident Boards and Commis
sions, a quasi official organization of the official bodies charged with
the duties of administering compensation laws in the States of the
Union and the Provinces of Canada. The paid membership up to
date includes the Province of Ontario, Canada, and the following
States: California, Iowa, Illinois, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michi
gan, Minnesota, Montana, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma,
Oregon, Texas, Washington, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
The character of this association gives to the forthcoming Confer
ence on Social Insurance a peculiar importance and a more than semi
official sanction. America has lagged behind Europe in the field of
social insurance. The eyes of our reformers have gazed Europeward in search of guidance in this and other fields of social activity.
The Ninth International Congress on Social Insurance was to
have been held in Washington, D. C., September 27 to October 2,
1915. The war has not only prevented the holding of this muchneeded congress for considering social insurance problems, but it is
now wholly unlikely that conferences and congresses can be arranged
for under the direction of this organization for many years to come.
Meanwhile our problems of administration and legislation clamor
for consideration. We can not wait for the ending of the European
war before we give consideration to these problems which press for
solution. The International Association of Industrial Accident
Boards and Commissions has therefore authorized this Conference
on Social Insurance.
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M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
PU R PO SE.
At this conference will be considered the merits, demerits, defects,
and shortcomings in our workmen’s compensation laws; needed
amendments extending the scope and adequacy of these laws; sick
ness insurance, existing and proposed, in all its aspects; invalidity
and old-age insurance, pensions, and retirement allowances ; mothers’
pensions and maternity benefits ; unemployment insurance ; and other
matters relating to social insurance.
It is not the purpose of this conference to adopt resolutions com
mitting the conference to particular policies or methods. The rules
governing international congresses heretofore held under the auspices
of the International Permanent Committee on Social Insurance did
not under any circumstances permit the presentation of resolutions
committing such congresses to the advocacy of particular policies and
methods for attaining desired ends. This rule should be stringently
followed in this conference. Much time and consideration are needed
to work out the best policies and methods. What is best for one
State or section may not be the best for another State or section. It will
be a sufficient accomplishment if the problems considered can be clearly
defined and definitely stated for the information of legislators and
administrators. If this desirable object is to be accomplished, the
conference must avoid all resolutions prescribing particular ways and
means of securing adequate protection to workers against the hazards
of accident, sickness, invalidity, old age, and unemployment.
M E M B E R S H IP .
Membership in the Conference on Social Insurance is quite distinct
from membership in the International Association of Industrial Ac
cident Boards and Commissions. All members of State delegations,
representatives of participating organizations, and individuals who
register for the conference will be members of this Conference on
Social Insurance. The governors of all the States and Territories in
the Union have been invited to send delegates to represent the States
and Territories, and in those States having industrial accident boards
or commissions to send delegates to represent such bodies. A large
number of governors have responded to this invitation and will send
delegates.
All organizations, both public and private, which are interested
in social insurance may join the conference by paying $25 toward
defraying the expenses of the conference. This fee entitles an
organization to send delegates to the conference to participate in the
discussions. In addition to the membership fee for organizations,
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an individual membership fee of $2 will be charged to all persons
not members of State delegations or representing organizations who
register as members of the Conference on Social Insurance.
PROCEEDINGS.
IP
The proceedings of the conference will be published by the United
States Bureau of Labor Statistics as a bulletin of that bureau. All
who desire can secure this report by so indicating when they register
or by writing directly to the United States Commissioner of Labor
Statistics.
D ISC U SS IO N S.
It is important that as many as possible participate in the open
discussions from the floor on the various topics to be considered. If
members and delegates would come to the conference fully prepared
to discuss intelligently and constructively the topics included in the
program, no formal papers would be necessary. The shortness of
the time of preparation for this conference makes it impossible to
have the papers printed and distributed in advance of the meeting.
However, each writer of a principal paper has been required to
present a summary of his paper within 15 or 20 minutes. Each
person scheduled for discussion will be limited to 10 minutes. Those
who participate in the open discussions will be limited to 5 minutes.
With these time limits rigidly enforced by the chairmen of the
different sessions, considerable discussion from the floor should be
forthcoming.
In order to avoid the possibility of any clique or faction monopo
lizing the time, those who wish to discuss a topic should send their
names and connection to the chairman of the session during the
meeting.
O F F IC E R S
OF
THE
IN T E R N A T IO N A L A SSO C IA T IO N O F
BO A R D S A N D CO M M ISSIO N S.
IN D U S T R IA L
A C CID E N T
D udley M. H olman, President, Winter Building, Boston, Mass.
F eed. M. W ilcox , Vice President, Member, Wisconsin Industrial Commission,
Madison, Wis.
R o y a l M eeker , Secretary-Treasurer. United States Commissioner o f Labor
Statistics, Washington, D. C.
C O M M ITTEE ON SO C IA L IN S U R A N C E .
Royal Meeker, Chairman, United States Commissioner of Labor Statistics.
Dudley M. Holman.
.T. B. Vaughn, Chairman, Industrial Board of Illinois.
Fred. M. Wilcox, Member, Wisconsin Industrial Commission.
Wallace I). Yaple, Chairman, Ohio Industrial Commission.
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M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
A D V ISO R S TO T H E C O M M ITTEE ON SO C IA L IN S U R A N C E .
John B. Andrews, Secretary, American Association for Labor Legislation.
William C. Archer, Deputy Commissioner, New York Bureau of Workmen's
Compensation.
F. Spencer Baldwin, Manager, New York State Insurance Fund.
W. S. Barnaby, Editor, The Spectator, New York.
Ralph M. Easley, Chairman, Executive Committee, The National Civic Feder
ation.
Henry W. Farnam, Yale University.
A. Lincoln Filene, Wm. Filene Sons Company, Boston, Mass.
Irving Fisher, Yale University.
Lee K. Frankel, Sixth Vice President, Metropolitan Life Insurance Company.
Samuel Gompers, President, American Federation of Labor.
William J. Graham, Superintendent of Group Insurance, Equitable Life Assur
ance Society.
Frederick L. Hoffman, Statistician, Prudential Insurance Company of America.
Florence Kelley, General Secretary, National Consumers’ League.
Bruno Lasker, Assistant Secretary, New York Mayor’s Committee on Unem
ployment.
Julia C. Lathrop, Chief, United States Children’s Bureau.
John Mitchell, Chairman, New York State Industrial Commission.
Henry R. Seager, Columbia University.
Ida M. Tarbell, Writer, New York.
William H. Tolman, Director, American Museum of Safety.
Lillian D. Wald, President and Head Worker, Henry Street Settlement.
Mary Van Kleeck, Secretary, Committee on Women’s Work, Russell Sage
Foundation.
Albert W. Whitney, General Manager, National Workmen’s Compensation
Service Bureau.
LO C A L C O M M ITTEE ON A R R A N G EM EN T S.
H enry J. H arris, Chairman, Chief, Document Division, Library of Congress.
E thelbert S tewart, Chief Statistician, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Depart
m ent of Labor.
W alter S. U fford, Secretary, Associated Charities, D istrict of Columbia.
C h a s . H. T errill, Editor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, D epartment of Labor.
E rnest P. B icknell , Director General, D epartm ent of Civilian Relief, Ameri
can National Red Cross.
H erbert D. B rown, Chief, United States Bureau of Efficiency.
J ohn J oy E dson, President, Board of Charities, D istrict o f Columbia.
Mrs. A rchibald H opkins , Chairman, D istrict of Columbia Section of the
'Woman’s D epartment, Rational Civic Federation.
Miss J ulia C. L athrop, Chief, Children’s Bureau, D epartm ent of Labor.
Charles F. N esbit , Superintendent of Insurance, D istrict of Columbia.
Miss H elen L. S umner , A ssistant Chief, Children’s Bureau, Department of
Labor.
B en ja m in S. W arren, Surgeon, Public Health Service.
George S. W ilson , Secretary, Board of Charities, D istrict of Columbia.
H E A D Q U A R T E R S.
The conference headquarters and registration office will be on the
tenth floor of the Hotel Raleigh, Pennsylvania Avenue and Twelfth
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Street NW. The office will be open from 9 a. m. to 8 p. m. Members
and others attending the conference are requested to register as soon
as possible after arrival.
H O T E L S.
•Members should reserve hotel accommodations as early as possible.
This is imperative, because several conventions will be in session in
Washington at the time of the conference. Requests for reservations
should be addressed directly to the manager of the hotel selected.
A selected list of boarding houses and smaller hotels will be on file
at the registration office. The city, congressional, and other di
rectories will also be available. Mail and telegrams, however, should
be directed in the care of the hotel at which members are stopping.
T R A N S P O R T A T IO N .
All trains arrive at the Union Station, where street cars may be
taken which will pass directly by the principal hotels. The car
starter at the station will give directions as to the best way of
reaching the hotels.
TENTATIVE PROGRAM.
WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION.
Tuesday , December 5.
10 A. M.
Chairman, D udley M. H olman,
President I. A. I. A. B. C.
I. Merits and demerits of different forms of administration :
1. The industrial commission system_______________________ J. D. Beck
Chairman, Industrial Commission of Wisconsin.
2. The industrial accident board system_________ ___Frank J. Donahue
Chairman, Industrial Accident Board of Massachusetts.
3. The district system--------------------------------------------- George B. Chandler
Member, Workmen’s Compensation Commission of Connecticut.
4. The Pennsylvania system________________________ Harry A. Mackey
Chairman, Workmen’s Compensation Board of Pennsylvania.
5. The Canadian system---------- :------------------------------- George A. Kingston
Commissioner, Workmen’s Compensation Board of Ontario.
Discussion-----------------------------------------------------------------------Wallace D. Yaple
Chairman, Industrial Commission of Ohio.
2 P. M.
Chairman, .T. D. B eck,
Chairman, Industrial Commission of Wisconsin.
II. Merits and demerits of different methods of carrying workmen’s compensa
tion insurance:
1. Casualty companies—
,T. Scofield Rowe, Vice President, Aetna Life Insurance Co.,
Edson S. Lott, President, United States Casualty Co.
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M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
2. Self insurance------------------- ------------------------------------ Dudley Kennedy
Director of labor department, B. F. Goodrich Co., Akron, Ohio.
3. Employers’ mutual associations__________________ Walter S. Bucklin
President, Massachusetts Employees’ Insurance Association.
4. Competitive State funds------------------------------------- F. Spencer Baldwin
Manager, New York State Insurance Fund.
5. State monopoly :
T. J. Duffy, Member, Industrial Commission of Ohio.
’’William A. Marshall, Chairman, Industrial Accident Commission
of Oregon.
*E. W. Olson, Chairman, Industrial Insurance Commission of Wash
ington.
6. Shortcomings of competitive plan of State insurance in workmen’s
compensation--------------------------------------------------------- W. W. Greene'
Actuary, Industrial Commission of Colorado.
Discussion :
C. H. Crownliart, former Chairman, Industrial Commission of Wisconsin.
A. L. Allen, Assistant Manager, Pennsylvania Workmen’s Insurance Fund.
8 P. M.
Chairman, George A. K ingston ,
Commissioner, Workmen’s Compensation Board of Ontario.
III.
Compensation schedules of awards:
A. J. Pillsbury, Chairman, Industrial Accident Commission of California.
P. Tecumseh Sherman, Attorney, New York, N. Y.
Albert W. Whitney, General Manager, National Workmen’s Compensation
Service Bureau.
Discussion--------------------------------------------------------------------- S. Herbert Wolfe
Consulting Actuary, New York, N. Y.
It'. Lump-sum settlements :
William C. Archer, Deputy Commissioner, New York State Bureau of
Workmen’s Compensation.
* Robert E. Grandfield, Secretary, Industrial Accident Board of Massa
chusetts.
Discussion.
Wednesday, December G.
9.30
A. 31.
Chairman, F rank J. D onahue ,
Chairman, Massachusetts Industrial Accident Board.
Y. Basic principles of rate making:
Walter G. Cowles, Vice President, Travelers’ Insurance Co.
Leon W. Senior, Manager, New York Compensation Rating Board.
“ Experience ” or “ morale ” rating as compared with merit rating, David S.
Beyer, Massachusetts Employees’ Insurance Association.
Discussion.
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VI. Accident prevention in connection with workmen’s compensation :
Will J. French, Member, Industrial Accident Commission of California.
H. M. Wilson, Department of Inspection and Safety, The Associated
Companies, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Discussion :
Victor T. Noonan, Director of Safety, Industrial Commission of Ohio.
Lewis T. Bryant, Commissioner of Labor, New Jersey.
2 P. M.
Chairman, Hon. W illiam B. W ilson ,
Secretary of Labor.
IVII. Medical services and medical and hospital fees under workmen’s compen
sation :
F. M. Williams, Chairman, Workmen’s Compensation Commission of
Connecticut.
Dr. Francis D. Donogliue, Medical Adviser, Industrial Accident Board of
Massachusetts.
,VIII. Physical examination and medical supervision of employees:
J. P. White, President, United Mine Workers of America.
Dr. W. Irving Clark, Norton Co., Worcester, Mass.
Dr. W. H. White, Chief Medical Examiner, Industrial Commission of
Ohio.
Discussion___________________________________ Surg. J. W. Schereschewsky
United States Public Health Service.
IX. Permanently disabled workers :
The problem of the handicapped man_______________ Dudley M. Holman
President I. A. I. A. B. C.
Discussion______________________________________________ Fred C. Croxton
Ohio Institute for Public Efficiency.
8 P. 31.
Chairman, F. M. W illiam s ,
Workmen’s Compensation Commission of Connecticut.
X. Defects and suggested changes in workmen’s compensation laws:
I. Railroad employees.
2. Excluded employments.
(1) Agriculture.
(2) Domestic service.
(3) Nonhazardous employments.
(4) Numerical exemptions.
3. Waiting time.
4. Permanent disabilities.
Prof. Willard C. Fisher, New York University.
Discussion :
Prof. John R. Commons, University of Wisconsin.
W. S. Carter, President, Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen.
F. H. Bolden, Attorney, Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry.
XI. Occupational diseases :
Frederick I,. Hoffman, Statistician, Prudential Insurance Co.
Dr. George E. Tucker, Riverside (Cal.) Portland Cement Works.
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S IC K N E S S (H E A L T H ) B E N E F IT S A N D IN S U R A N C E .
Thursday , December 7.
0.30 A. M.
Chairman, Dr. W illiam J. Iverby,
Professor of Sociology, Catholic University.
I. Existing agencies------------------------------------------------------- Edgar Sydenstricker
United States Public Health Service.
• 1. Trade-unions—
George W. Perkins, President, Cigarmakers’ International Union.
John P. Frey, Editor, International Molders’ Journal.
2. Establishment funds—
*George A. Hanney, International Harvester Co.
E. B. Hunt, Pennsylvania Railroad Co.
3. Mutual-benefit funds------------------------------------------------- ___Abb Landis
National Fraternal Congress.
4. Health insurance—
Rufus M. Potts, Insurance Superintendent of Illinois.
W. G. Curtis, President, National Casualty Co.
Discussion.
2 P. M.
Chairman, Dr. C harles P. N eill,
Manager, Bureau of Information, Southeastern Railv^iys.
II. Proposed legislation for sickness (health) insurance.
Dr. John B. Andrews, Secretary, American Association for Labor Legis
lation.
III. Some problems of sickness insurance for women_______ Mary Van Xvleeck
Russell Sage Foundation.
IV. How should the State deal with existing systems of sickness (health)
insurance?------------------------------------------------------------------ Lee K. FrankeJ
Sixth Vice President, Metropolitan Life Insurance Co.
Discussion :
Paul Scharrenberg, Secretary, California Federation of Labor.
Prof. J. P. Chamberlain, Columbia University.
Mrs. Florence Kelley, General Secretary, National Consumers’ League.
8 P. M.
Chairman, H arry A. Mackey,
Chairman, Workmen’s Compensation Board of Pennsylvania.
V. Medical benefits (services) under proposed sickness (health) insurance
legislation.
Dr. Michael M. Davis, Director, Boston Free Dispensary.
Discussion :
Dr. Richard C. Cabot, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Mass.
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IN V A L ID IT Y A N D OLD A G E IN S U R A N C E , P E N S IO N S , A N D R E T IR E M E N T
A LL O W A N C E S.
Friday , December 8.
9.30
A. M.
Chairman, Dr. E dward T. D evine ,
Columbia University.
I. Existing agencies:
1. Public employees____________ ____________________Herbert D. Brown
Chief, United States Efficiency Bureau, Washington, D. C.
2. Trade-union benefit funds________________________ Marsden G. Scott
President, International Typographical Union.
3. Transportation and other private employers—
Miles M. Dawson, Consulting Actuary, New York, N. Y.
*J. B. Erskine, Manager, United States Steel and Carnegie Pension
Fund.
Discussion___________________________________________________ Wm. Green
Secretary-Treasurer, United Mine Workers of America.
II. Compulsory invalidity and old-age insurance, pensions, and retirement
allowances____________________________________ Magnus W. Alexander
General Electric Co.
Discussion.
SO C IA L IN S U R A N C E A P P L Y IN G E S P E C IA L L Y TO W O M EN .
2 P. M.
Chairman, E rnest P. B icknell,
Director of Civilian Relief, American Red Cross.
I. Mothers’ pensions:
1. The theory of mothers’ pension legislation_____ Sherman C. Kingsley
City Club, Chicago, 111.
2. Experiences in administration:
Mrs. H. Otto Wittpen, President, New Jersey State Board of
Children’s Guardians.
William H. Matthews, Director, New York Department of Family
Welfare.
Judge E. E. Porterfield, Juvenile Court, Kansas City, Mo.
Discussion_________________________________________ Mrs. Davis R. Dewey
Member, Massachusetts Board of Labor and Industry.
II. Maternity benefits__________________________________ Dr. Henry J. Harris
Library of Congress, Washington, D. C.
Discussion.
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M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
8 P. M.
Chairman, D udley M. H olman,
President, I. x\. I. A. B. C.
Address by President Woodrow Wilson.
Address by Hon. William B. Wilson, Secretary of Labor.
Address by Samuel Gompers, President, American Federation of Labor.
Saturday , December 0.
9.30 A. M.
Chairman, W allace D. Y aple,
Chairman, Industrial Commission of Ohio.
I. Unemployment insurance:
Bruno Lasker, Assistant Secretary, Mayor’s Committee on Unemploy
ment, New York City.
Miss Olga Halsey, American Association for Labor Legislation.
II. Group insurance_______________________________________ William A. Day
President, Equitable Life Assurance Society.
III. Massachusetts savings bank life insurance system_______ Miss A. H. Grady
Financial Secretary, Massachusetts Savings Insurance League.
Discussion.
REPORT OF WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION COMMITTEE OF
BRITISH COLUMBIA.1
A committee was appointed on September 27, 1915, for the pur
pose of investigating in the United States and eastern Canada, on
behalf of the Government of British Columbia, “ the operations of
modern systems of workmen’s compensation laws.” This commit
tee made its report on March 1, 1916,'after having visited the States
of Washington, Oregon, California, Wisconsin, Ohio, New York,
and Massachusetts, and the Provinces of Ontario and Nova Scotia.
A number of hearings were held and much evidence was taken, in
addition to interviews had with the members and officials of the com
missions or boards charged with the administration of the compensa
tion laws in the several States visited. Hearings were also held at
Vancouver, B. C.
I t is interesting to note that prior to 1911 a number of the Cana
dian Provinces had compensation laws, the type and method of the
law being clearly modeled after the British pattern. In 1914, how
ever, the Province of Ontario passed a law much more closely re1 British Columbia. Report of the Committee of Investigation on Workmen’s Compen
sation Laws. Victoria, B. C., 1916. 21 pp.
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sembling tlie legislation of the United States on this subject, Nova
Scotia following in 1915. It is this fact that gives significance to
the visits of this committee to these two Provinces only. The report
of the committee of British Columbia is very brief and compact, being
printed on some 18 or 20 quarto pages.
The first item taken up is that of the exceptions in the treatment
of railway industries found in the Ontario law, that law having
retained for such industries the principle of individual liability as
distinct from the main system provided for compensation of in
jured employees in industry generally. It was noted that the later
law of Nova Scotia rejected this distinction, and this step was ap
proved by the present committee, both because of the resultant
uniformity and the belief, based on its own investigations both in
Ontario and in the States visited, “ that any such departure from
the general principle adopted by the bill would sooner or later lead
to unsatisfactory results,” The railroads were found to be willing
to accept the same treatment as other industries, provided there
should be a schedule classification for the determination of premium
rates that would allow the better equipped and inspected roads such
advantages as might accrue to them from these facts.
Considerable emphasis is placed upon the importance of medical
aid. The 1915 legislature of British Columbia had had before it the
draft of a bill based on the provisions; of the Ontario act, which was
in turn largely an adaptation of the statute of the State of Washing
ton. Of this it was said that after four years’ experience “ both em
ployers and employees concur in saying that it has, with one excep
tion, generally proved to be a most satisfactory piece of legislation,”
That exception is the omission of any medical-aid provision as such,
said to be due to disagreement between employers and labor interests
as to satisfactory terms. The laws of the Provinces visited are like
wise defective, but all the States, except Washington, to which the
commission went “ have medical-aid provisions, most of them very
adequate provisions, and operating with a great degree of satisfaction
both to employers and workmen. * * * It was everywhere im
pressed upon the minds of the members of the committee the very
great value of this service,” chiefly by way of preventing trifling
injuries from developing into serious disabilities and infections, even
resulting in the amputation of members. The committee therefore
recommended medical, surgical, and hospital treatment without limi
tation, but directed that employers retain 1 cent per working day
from the wages of all employees as a contribution to the cost of this
service. Coupled with this provision is one for a waiting period of
three days for which no compensation is to be paid at any time,
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M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
though medical benefits are to be paid in all cases from the time
of the accident. As to the length of this waiting period it was said
that “ Experience covering a large number of cases in different coun
tries has shown that only about 30 per cent of all accidents result in
a disability of over 14 days. It is thus quite apparent to anyone who
considers this fact that a waiting period of two weeks, or even of
seven days, withholds a very large amount of money in the aggregate
from injured workmen and must result in a distinct hardship to the
lower-waged workmen.” The committee also rejected the method of
the two-week waiting period, compensating for the full time if the
disability extends beyond the fourteenth day. Great satisfaction was
expressed on account of the unanimity with which the recommenda
tions of the committee on these points were approved by representa
tives of employers and workmen.
The next item taken up by the report is the subject of safety and
accident prevention. It was felt that this subject should be given a
very prominent place as an essential element in an adequate compen
sation system, in order that conditions may be brought about which
would tend to the reduction of industrial accidents. “ Laws which
provide for the taxation of industry to furnish compensation for the
victims of industrial accidents irrespective of fault are commendable
and desirable, but laws which will prevent the happening of such
accidents are of more vital importance.” The system that met the
most cordial approval of the committee was that in use in the State:
of Wisconsin, by which a commission charged with the administra
tion of the workmen's compensation law also has power to make
safety orders or accident-prevention rules and see that they are car
ried into practice. It was recommended therefore that the admin
istrative commission for the proposed compensation act be granted
similar authority, centralizing inspection and accident-prevention
work with the beneficial activities of relief work.
The subject most fully discussed in the report is that of insurance,
and specifically the question of “ State-administered insurance versus
casualty companies.” “ For the purpose of ascertaining at first hand
the actual experience on this subject which might be helpful in
forming a correct conclusion, we not only visited States having an
exclusive State insurance fund, but included in our investigations
States where the law as enacted gave casualty insurance companies
a free field, as well as States where these companies have been per
mitted to operate in competition with the State insurance fund, or
in competition with mutual companies which have been encouraged
or fostered more or less by the State.” The exclusive State insurance
system of Washington “ has been in operation four years, and the
total cost of its administration has averaged T.8 per cent of the total
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contributions. We found that representative employers and the
representatives of organized labor in Washington concur in express
ing satisfaction with this system of administration.” The reason for
the failure of other States to accept this method of insurance was
found largely to be “ in the strenuous opposition of casualty insur
ance companies,” which “ by bringing their enormous influence to
bear succeeded in most instances in preventing the enactment of an
exclusive law.” In Ohio it was found that the operation of the State
fund was practically exclusive, while the efforts of the stock compa
nies to secure a wider range of activities were “ unanimously opposed
by the Ohio Manufacturers’ Association and by the representatives of
organized labor before the Ohio Legislature, and the insurance com
panies failed to secure the amendment of the law. * * * The
rates of premium under the State fund are only about one-third
as much as those charged by the casualty companies in their Ohio
manual of rates. * * * The representatives of organized labor
who appeared before us in Ohio stated that the satisfaction to them
of the operation of the present system is a marked contrast to their
experience when casualty companies were an active element in the
industrial system. In view of these facts, the joint and vigorous
opposition of employers and employees to the proposed amendment
of the Ohio law is readily understood.”
The experience under the elective law of Oregon was likewise held
to be an ample justification of the method of State-administered
insurance. “ In comparing this experience with that of the State of
Wisconsin, where free competition of insurance companies is per
mitted, we are told that it cost Wisconsin employers insuring in stock
companies in 191-1 an average of $2.07 to place $1 of benefits in the
hands of injured workmen, while in Oregon it only cost $1.13; a
total saving on the year’s business in Oregon of $351,522.44 as com
pared with the Wisconsin method.”
It was said that “ in California, where the competition of casualty
insurance companies with the State fund has been encouraged rather
than otherwise,” it had been found that this competition saddled a
great amount of expense on the business, and ultimately on the
employer.
The Wisconsin statute made no provision for a State-administered
system, but competition with the stock companies is offered by the
mutual insurance companies of the State. On the enactment of the
compensation law in 1911, the stock companies “ advanced their rates
for compensation insurance on an average more than two and a half
times those of the ‘liability’ insurance for employers who rejected
the act,” the statute being elective in form. The report states that
“ Out of every dollar contributed to mutual insurance in Wisconsin
65847°—16
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
o
[557]
14
M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
75 cents goes to the injured workman, while in the stock companies
only 48 cents of every dollar paid by the employer reaches the work
man, the balance being consumed in acquisition costs, overhead
expenses, and profits to shareholders. * * * If the premiums at
present paid by employers in Wisconsin were administered at an
expense not exceeding the average of the exclusive State funds, the
workmen would receive $22.50 for every $12.59 he gets now. The
element of private profit in this branch of insurance has been found
in Wisconsin to be not only an economic evil, but an obstruction also
to the proper administration of the law.”
The committee considered also the State insurance fund of New
York and the Massachusetts Employees’ Insurance Association, both
of which are operated in competition with stock companies. The
chairman of the committee summed up the results of the investigation
in the following language: u I believe that the ultimate solution of
the troubles and evils of compensation insurance is for the State to take
over the business, either directly through a State fund or indirectly
by participating membership in a company like the Massachusetts
Employees’ Insurance Association.” The committee was therefore
unanimous in its recommendation for an exclusive State-administered
fund.
Such a system would in our opinion not only save the em
ployers of this Province an immense amount of money, but would con
tribute greatly to the success of the act as a whole by eliminating many
undesirable features usually attendant on the competitive company
system.”
Ih e next subject discussed is that of the scale of compensation,
which the committee felt must be adequate to support dependents in
the Province without allowing them to become objects of charity.
1 he committee recommended a flat-rate scale for death benefits and
that u a minimum be fixed of at least $5 per week payable to workmen
who are totally disabled.” I t also recommended that provision for
compensation for industrial diseases be made on the basis of the
provisions of the English Workmen’s Compensation Act.
An administrative commission or board was strongly recommended
for the sake of competent and economical administration, and for
these reasons also a continuing body with long individual terms of
service was urged. The term of service recommended was 10 years,
appointments being arranged so that at least two experienced members
should be on the board. It may be noted that in Nova Scotia and
Ontario appointments are for service during good behavior, subject
to the provision that members retire automatically on reaching the
age of 75 years. These extended terms of service naturally provide
for continuity of policy and the development of experienced admin
istration a suggestive fact, especially in view of the statement by
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
£558]
M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
15
the Louisiana commission (1911) to the effect that it “ has not
thought it safe to advise the adoption of any State insurance, for the
reason that the intricacies of insurance business require a permanence
of management and a degree of skill inconsistent with the changes
inherently a part of our political system.”
Brief attention was given to the question of placing the cost of
administration. The employers were practically unanimous in asking
that this be paid by the Government from the consolidated revenue
fund of the Province, the only opposition noted being that of the
insurance companies. It was stated that throughout the United
States administrative costs were generally paid by the State, and in
view of the widely distributed benefits anticipated, it was recom
mended “ that a substantial portion of the cost of administration be
assumed by the Government.” The law as enacted authorizes annual
appropriations as directed by the lieutenant governor in council in
amounts not exceeding $50,000 as a contribution to administration
costs.
Other matters of subordinate interest are discussed, of which per
haps but one need be noted; that is, the recommendation that no
right of appeal to the courts be allowed from the rulings of the work
men’s compensation board. It was thought that while a limited
appeal would probably result in no serious disadvantage the com
mittee was “ equally convinced from a consideration of the evidence
before us that an appeal is not necessary for the proper administra
tion of the act.”
The bill which received approval as a law on May 31, 1916, was in
substantial accord with the recommendations of the committee.
WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION LAW OF BRITISH COLUMBIA, 1916.
As stated in the foregoing report of the activities and conclusions
of the investigative commission, the legislature of British Columbia
enacted a law, approved May 31, 1916, establishing a “ modern sys
tem ” of compensation for the Province. The act provides that it
shall be in effect January 1, 1917.
An earlier act, bearing date of June 21, 1902, was repealed. This
act was on the well-known pattern of the British law, of rather
restricted application, and limiting payments to a sum equal to three
years’ earnings in case of death, while weekly payments for dis
ability were not to exceed an aggregate of $1,500. The present ant
resembles the statute of Ontario in following quite closely the law
of the State of Washington in a number of important features.
It departs from the Washington statute, however, in providing
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[559]
16
M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TILE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
medical benefits, and incorporates also the safety and accident-pre
vention provisions which were specially impressed upon the com
mission during its visit to Wisconsin. The act is of very general in
clusiveness, is compulsory in form, and requires all employers affected
by it to insure in a provincial accident fund.
That the Province proposes to make its system of compensation
entirely complete within itself is further evidenced by the fact that
the entire determination of disputes is vested in the board provided
for by the act, without any appeal whatever to the courts. A three
days’ waiting time is provided, for which no payment is to be
alloAved at any time, industrial diseases are compensated for, classi
fications of industries are made by the act, A\dth authority in the
board to create neAv classes, determine assessments, modify rates,
make special assessments in case of deficit, etc. The entire cost of
compensation is on the employer, but he is required to deduct from
the Avages of his employees 1 cent for each day’s work, this amount to
go to the medical-aid fund.
Death benefits are in fixed monthly sums, $20 for a widoAV or in
valid widower and $5 each for children under 16 years of age, the
total not to exceed $10. Orphan children receive $10 each, with the
same limitation as to the total. Other dependents are also provided
for, either in connection with the foregoing or standing alone, but
no monthly aggregate may exceed $40. Total disability is compen
sated during its continuance by the payment of 55 per cent of the
workman’s earnings, but not less than $5 per week, unless the earnings
Avere less, when the compensation shall equal the amount of the earn
ings. Partial disability is compensated on the basis of the wage
loss. Payments to a widow or inA^alid widower cease on remarriage,
the former being entitled to tAvo years’ benefits as a lump-sum pay
ment. Payments to children cease on their attaining the age of 16
J^ears, except in case of invalidity.
The board of three members is to be appointed for terms of 10
years, and has power to inspect premises, determine upon safety
devices and methods, make rules and regulations, establish safety
museums, etc.
CONCILIATION WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR,
SEPTEMBER 16 TO OCTOBER 15, 1916.
The organic act of the Department giATes the Secretary of Labor
the authority to mediate in labor disputes through the appointment,
in his discretion, of commissioners of conciliation. During the month
September 16 to October 15, 1916, the Secretary exercised his good
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[560]
17
M O NTHLY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
offices in nine labor disputes. The companies involved, the number
of employees affected, and the results secured, so far as information
is available, were as follows :
NUMBER OF LABOR DISPUTES HANDLED BY TIIE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
THROUGH ITS COMMISSIONERS OF CONCILIATION, SEPT. 16 TO OCT. lu,
1910.
W orkm en affected.
Name.
. 1
Directly. ! Indirectly.
!
I
Strike of p o ttery workers, E a s t Liverpool, Ohio.........................................
Controversy, m iners and sm elters, D ucktow n, T e n n ................................
Strike of m achinists, 5 shops, Greenfield, M ass................... ........................
Strike of cigar m akers, D etroit, M ich..............................................................
Strike of p a tte rn m akers, D etroit, M ieh.........................................................
Strike, Alva Carpet Mills, P h ilad elp h ia.........................................................
Strike of m etal polishers, Colts F ire A rm s Co., H artford, Conn, (reopened)
..........................................................................................................
Lockout, Southern Saddlery Co., Chattanooga, T en n ...............................
Threatened strik e of shopm en, New Y ork, O ntario & W estern K. K.,
Afid dietow n. N_ Y
______ ____ ___. ______________
734
1 ,2 0 0
500
50
0 .0 0 0
203
08
•
45
!
Result.
Pending.
Do.
A djusted.
Pending.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
1
Cases noted as pending in statement of September 15 have been
disposed of as follows:
Controversy between the Cincinnati, Indianapolis & Western Railway and
the Brotherhood of Railway Carmen, Cincinnati, Ohio ; adjusted.
Textile controversy, Shamokin, Pa. ; adjusted.
Lockout of freight handlers, Chicago, 111. ; adjusted.
WORK OF STATE AND M UNICIPAL EMPLOYMENT BUREAUS IN
THE U NITED STATES AND OF PROVINCIAL EMPLOYMENT
BUREAUS IN CANADA.
In the following table data are presented for September, 1915,
and September, 1916, relative to the operations of public employ
ment offices. Information is furnished for the United States for
State employment bureaus in 14 States, municipal employment bu
reaus in 7 States, a State-city employment bureau in 1 State, and a
city-private employment bureau in 1 State. Data are also furnished
for 2 Canadian provincial employment bureaus.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1561]
18
M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAtT OF LABOR STATISTICS.
O P E R A T IO N S O F PU B L IC E M P L O Y M E N T O F F IC E S , S E P T E M B E R , 1915 AN D 1916.
U N ITED STA TES.
S ta te a n d city .
California (m unicipal):
Berkeley—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
Sacram ento—
Septem ber, 1915...................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
California (State):
O akland—
Septem ber, 1916...... ...........................
Sacram ento—
Septem ber, 1916......................... .........
San Francisco—
Septem ber, 1916..................................
Total:
Persons applying
for Vi ork.
A pplica Persons
tions from asked for
em ploy b y em
ployers. New reg Renew
ers.
istrations.
als.
Persons
referred
to posi
tions.
Positions
filled.
445
287
166
198
166
198
)
)
342
332
342
332
139
1S7
)
(!)
0
Illinois (m unicipal):
Chicago—
Septem ber, 1916..................................
In d ia n a (State):
E vansville—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1910..................................
F o rt W avne—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916...................................
S outh B end—
Septem ber, 1915................... '..............
Septem ber, 1916..................................
Total:
Sftptp.mber, 1915.......................
85
57
342
332
78
67
0
0
801
846
1,285
536
0
)
1 ,1 2 1
655
1,583
944
0
)
1,4.50
1,322
1,513
3,735
2,764
(!)
3,207
2,572
508
26,308
50S
25,225
C onnecticut (State):
B ridgeport—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1910..................................
H artford—
Septem ber, 1915...................................
Septem ber, 1916...............................*New H aven—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916....................... ...........
N orw ich—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
W aterb u ry —
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
Total:
Colorado (S tate):
Colorado Springs—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
D enver No. 1—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
D enver No. 2—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916...................................
P ueblo—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
Total:
166
207
0
(l)
)
0
0
)
)
C1)
C1)
417
852
)
)
0 )
(!)
0
0
)
)
0
C1)
)
508
725
)
)
(r)
C1)
0
)
0
C)
)
357
7(35
)
)
0
)
)
)
)
0 )
(!)
448
973
(!)
0 )
644
941
0
0
478
918
0
0
119
217
0
)
(»)
0
0
214
207
(■)
0 )
0
0
«
0
0
0
105
)
)
202
154
140
(!)
C1)
1,541
2, (390
(B
0 )
857
135(5
(D
610
0
0
)
)
0
D)
0 )
3
90
612
(>)
410
(!)
«
0
)
)
0
0
)
)
254
462
(>)
370
0
0
0
0
)
)
200
(>)
944
0
0
983
)
(!)
803
)
582
«
)
385
(D
)
263
0
)
(*)
862
0
)
302
212
203
(i)
2,092
1,520
(»>
580
232
200
18
580
900
161
453
161
453
80
90
42
40
502
161
453
288
359
468
520
374
380
81
43
455
420
447
381
211
457
707
598
349
91
43
401
361
367
311
1,056
1,283
1,145
237
(»)
1 N o t reported.
2 In clu d in g d a ta for S tate em ploym ent offices, w hich were n o t e stablished u n til J a n u a ry , 1916.
s N o t rep o rted for males.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[562]
M O N TH LY REVIEW OE TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
19
O P E R A T IO N S O F P U B L IC E M P L O Y M E N T O F F IC E S , S E P T E M B E R , 1915 AN D 1916— Contd.
U N ITED STA TES—Continued.
S tate a n d city .
Persons applying
for w ork.
A pplica Persons
tions from asked for
em ploy b y em
ployers. New reg R enew
ers.
als.
istrations.
Persons
referred
to posi
tions.
Positions
filled.
37
123
93
Iow a (S tate):
Des Moines—
Septem ber, 1916..................................
K ansas (S tate):
T opeka—
Septem ber, 1915................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
36
C)
(l)
113
737
T otal:
Septem ber, 1915.......................
Septem ber, 1916.......................
8
3
18
36
13
27
132
290
595
373
1,057
595
186
243
109
109
113
737
324
904
113
737
113
737
299
980
222
Q)
3 3,706
3 3,519
1,663
1,450
2 12
18
C)
(l )
3 78
3 116
67
107
2
4SI
691
(l )
(l)
3
3
1,391
1,824
884
1,135
2
2
537
594
(*)
(')
3
3
1,150
1,443
655
744
3 6,325
3 6,902
3,269
3,436
(')
135
135
C1)
81
81
91
136
93
146
809
1,182
1,052
1,601
2
752
1,064
929
1,419
i
M ichigan (S tate):
B attle Creek—
Septem ber, 1916.................................
B ay C ity—
Septem ber, 1916..................................
D e tr o itSeptem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
F lin t—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
Grand" R apids—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
Jackson—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
Kalam azoo—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
Lansing—
Septem ber, 1916.................................
Muskegon—
Septem ber, 1916..................................
Saginaw —
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
(')
2,275
2,783
2
I
78
228
43
163
C1)
602
I 1)
5,216
)
404
O)
806
0
2
2
1
146
4
81
4
4
846
1,240
1,259
1.910
2,543
T o tal:
Septem ber, 1915.......................
Septem ber, 1916.......................
(’)
5,549
0
)
(')
I 1)
4,680
3,620
4,080
C1)
4 778
C1)
(l )
0
)
778
398
778
I 1)
457
0
)
993
4
4
884
874
(!)
0 )
0
)
852
867
852
)
396
0
)
898
4
612
768
0 )
(■)
0
4
)
755
564
749
I 1)
350
0
)
514
4
4
398
490
(l )
O)
C1)
490
39S
490
69
270
4
233
<‘)
217
217
64
285
4
214
0
)
212
201
4
4
761
741
I 1)
0 )
)
741
701
741
(>)
8,941
0,008
8,924
0
0
)
(')
171
1 ,0 1 2
0
I
. - . . . . ..................
1
1 Not reported.
2 Number who were registered.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
12
35
...............
M assachusetts (S tate):
B oston—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
F a ll R iver—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
Springfield—
Septem ber. 1915..................................
Septem ber J 1916..................................
W orcester—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
Total:
Septem ber, 1915.......................
Septem ber, 1916.......................
16
35
15
32
K e n tu ck y (city-private):
Louisville—
Septem ber, 1915
Septem ber, 1916..................................
K e n tu ck y (S tate):
Louisville—■
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
114
220
3 Number of offers of positions.
4 Number applying for work.
[563]
20
M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
O P E R A T IO N S O F PU B L IC E M P L O Y M E N T O F F IC E S , S E P T E M B E R , 191.5 A N D 1916— Contd.
U N ITED ST A TES—C ontinued.
S tate a n d city .
M innesota (S tate):
D u lu th —
Septem ber,
Septem ber,
M inneapolis—
Septem ber,
September)
St. P au l—
Septem ber,
Septem ber,
Persons applying
for w ork.
Applica- Persons
tionsfrom asked for
employ- b y emers.
ployers. New reg- Renewistrations
als.
1915..................................
1916..............................
0
0
)
)
0
0
)
)
1915..................................
1916..........................
(>)
(')
0
6
)
)
1915...
1916..................................
0
Total:
Septem ber, 1915.......................
Septem ber, 1916.......................
N ew Y ork (m unicipal):
N ew Y ork City—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
September) 1916............................
New Y ork (S tate):
A lbany—
Septem ber, 1915.................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
B rooklyn—
Septem ber, 1915..........................
Septem ber) 1916..................................
Buffalo—
Septem ber, 1915..............................
Septem ber, 1916............
Rochester—
Septem ber, 1915............
Septem ber, 1916..........
Syracuse—
Septem ber, 1915.. .
Septem ber, 1916............
0
)
)
1,246
(')
(l)
4,586
4,547
)
(>)
v;
C1)
C1)
0
)
)
C1)
(*)
0
0
0
0
250
300
336
513
560
700
2,167
944
2,530
1,996
2,163
246
597
336
864
605
536
663
1,335
1,149
1,911
531
982
0
)
)
(!)
(*>
300
340
282
298
)
)
1,605
3,486
2 ,053
198
277
477
790
258
435
1,935
1,081
669
504
1,449
2,025
691
1,185
757
1,966
754
1,264
192
72
778
1,831
569
1,421
822
1,058
1.806
1)681
1,093
890
164
343
1,371
1,550
918
9S0
553
1,038
740
1,420
841
713
108
145
843
1,146
594
734
6,583
3,745
6,80S
0
0
1915........
1916...............
0
)
)
1,803
1,853
0
)
)
1,487
1,840
1915.....................
1916...............
0
0
)
)
6,986
7,928
1915...................
1916.......................
0
0
)
)
1,951
2,612
977
924
2,354
2,050
1915.....................
1916.........................
(')
0 )
1,189
1,182
921
670
1,286
1,006
1915..........................
1916......................... .
0
0
)
)
4,001
4,338
2,797
1,362
0
0
)
)
1,107
1,185
878
584
0
Total:
Septem ber, 1915...............
Septem ber, 1916.......................
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
2,369
2,060
)
)
C1)
(l )
0
1
)
)
0
0
1915............
1916.................
1915..............................
1916..................................
0
0
)
C1)
Total:
Septem ber, 1915........
Septem ber, 1916...........
Ohio (State-city):
A kron—
Septem ber,
Septem ber,
C incinnati—
Septem ber,
Septem ber,
Cleveland—
Septem ber.
Septem ber,
Columbus—
Septem ber,
Septem ber,
D ayton —
Septem ber,
Septem ber,
Toledo—
Septem ber,
Septem ber)
Y oungstow n—
Septem ber,
September)
1,029
1,241
0 )
(*)
0
Positions
lilled.
(')
«
(*)
(1)
)
(l)
M ontana (m unicipal):
B u tte —
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916...........................
Persons
referred
to positions.
N o t reported.
[564]
715
1,388
1,797
1,269
1,649
1,574
1,314
1,359
1,317
3,296
2,434
1,589
1,743
1,339
9.j ^
6,311
6 , 744
4,373
1,900
, lo j
1,673
1,839
984
908
925
822
1,754
3,360
2,431
3,068
2,016
927
1,052
1,061
1,141
863
957
16)646
13,319
1 ,2 0 2
2
M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
21
O PE R A T IO N 'S O F PU B L IC E M PL O Y M E N T O F F IC E S , S E P T E M B E R , 1915 A N D 1910— Contd.
U N ITED STA TES—Continued.
S tate a n d c ity .
O klahom a (State):
E n id —
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
Muskogee—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
O klahom a C ity—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
Tulsa—
Septem ber. 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
Total:
Septem ber, 1915.......................
Septem ber, 1916.......................
Oregon (m unicip al):
Portland—
Septem ber, 1916.............................. ..
Pennsylvania (State):
Altoona—
Septem ber, 1916..................................
H arrisburg—
Septem ber, 1916..................................
Johnstow n—
Septem ber, 1916..................................
P hiladelphia—
Septem ber, 1916..................................
P ittsb u rg h —
Septem ber, 1916.........................-........
Persons applying
for i cork.
A pplica Persons
tions from asked for
em ploy b y em
ers.
ployers. New reg Renew
istrations.
als.
Positions
filled.
(>)
)
286
119
255
135
0 )
(*)
0 )
C1)
)
)
163
336
159
187
0 )
( 1)
( 1)
(t)
0
)
(l)
388
839
406
515
(1 )
(’)
( 1)
(0
287
451
(!)
(l)
260
850
264
658
(l)
(>)
( 1)
0 )
209
658
0
0
0
238
109
122
153
m
)
fyjfi
1,371
c)
3,214
0
5,177
C)
84
C1)
(!)
52
62
1
35
28
(!)
356
216
94
226
176
(!)
178
57
14
63
47
)
1,158
635
815
1,123
996
(')
765
692
137
528
0
Total:
Septem ber, 1916.......................
R hode Island (State):
Providence—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
Texas (m unicipal):
Dallas—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
F o rt W orth—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
1,975
324
274
291
236
0
173
227
383
313
209
153
)
630
110
580
834
53
2
1,311
442
160
203
0
0
)
Virginia (m unicipal):
R ichm ond—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
288
293
(’)
672
)
2,690
0
Total:
Septem ber, 1915.......................
Septem ber, 1916.......................
558
485
(')
)
015
463
0
)
)
0
0
)
3,572
(>)
0
0
0
)
(*)
0
)
1,730
383
313
6
(1)
642
443
606
27
740
427
405
400
(l)
1 069
£48
1,006
393
555
181
231
)
199
459
0
0
)
)
0
483’
)
)
)
Total:
Septem ber, 1915.......................
Septem ber, 1916.......................
W ash ington ( Federal-m unicipal):
T aco m a3—
W ashington (m unicipal):
E v e re tt—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
Spokane—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
Persons
referred
to posi
tions.
0
(0
1,071
3,882
935
3,822
(!)
C1)
1 134
4 281
N ot reported.
N um ber applying for w ork.
Figures for th is office are carried regularly in th e R e v ie w un d er th e subject “ Federal em ploym ent
Work of th e D epartm ent of L abor,” to w hich th e reader is referred.
1
2
3
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[5651
22
M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
O PE R A T IO N S O F P U B L IC E M P L O Y M E N T O F F IC E S , S E P T E M B E R , 1015 AN D 1916— Concld.
U N ITE D STA TES—Concluded.
Persons applying
for w ork.
Applica- Persons
tionsfrom asked for
em ploy b y em
e rs/
ployers. New reg Renew
istrations.
als.
S ta te a n d city .
W isconsin (State):
La Crosse—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 191G..................................
M ilwaukee—
September, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
Oshkosh—
September, 1915..................................
September , 1916..................................
Superior—
Septem ber, 1915..................................
September, 1916..................................
(2)
(2)
145
152
64
74
1 3,173
2,892
(2)
(2)
3,122
3,169
2 , 289
1316
157
(2)
(2)
210
3
151
116
90
1 743
943
(2)
(2)
711
926
449
604
4,188
4; 398
2,799
3,057
Persons
referred
to posi
tions.
Positions
idled.
454
374
149
187
219
1,442
1,880
2,924
3,770
153
165
217
249
493
391
720
1,116
3
122
Persons
referred Positions
to posi
filled.
tions.
1
3
320
179 '
3
Total:
Septem ber, 1915......................
Septem ber, 1916......................
2,170
CANADIAN PROVINCIAL E M PL O Y M EN T BUREAUS.
Persons applying
for w ork.
A pplica Persons
tions from asked for
em ploy b y em
ers.
ployers. New reg R enew
als.
istrations.
Province and City.
Q uebec (Province):
M o n tre a lSeptem ber, 1916..................................
Q uebecS eptem ber, 1915..................................
Septem ber, 1916..................................
954
(2)
(2)
(2)
101
291
Total:
Septem ber, 1915.......................
Septem ber, 1916.......................
1
R egistrations.
2
340
(2)
233
117
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
63
84
(2)
63
458
C-)
N ot reported.
3
N um ber applying for w ork.
EMPLOYMENT IN SELECTED IN D USTR IES IN SEPTEMBER, 1916.
For nearly a year tlie Bureau of Labor Statistics lias been collect
ing and publishing in the M onthly R eview figures indicating the
change in the volume of employment in the United States each month
as compared with the same month a year before and with the pre
ceding month.
Four tables containing data obtained by correspondence from rep
resentative manufacturing establishments in 10 industries are here
given, 2 comparing the state of employment in September, 1915, and
September, 1916, and 2 comparing August, 1916, and September,
1916.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[566]
M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
23
As in the preceding months of this year, employment in the manu
facturing industries as a whole in September was in a better state than
in the corresponding month a year preceding. The following table
shows that in 8 of the 10 industries listed the number of em
ployees on the pay roll was greater in September, 1916, than in Sep
tember, 1915. The industries showing a reduction in the number on
the pay roll are cotton manufacturing and cigar manufacturing.
The greatest increase shown (23.5 per cent) is for the iron and steel
industry. The amount of money paid to employees was greater in
September, 1916, than in September, 1915, in all of the 10 industries
listed. The greatest increase shown is 50.4 per cent for the iron and
steel industry.
C O M PA RISO N OF E M PL O Y M E N T IN ID E N T IC A L E S T A B L IS H M E N T S IN S E P T E M B E R ,
1915, AN D S E P T E M B E R , 1916.
In d u stry .
Boots a nd shoes..............
C otton m anufacturing _.
C otton finishing..............
H osiery a n d underw ear.
W oolen.....................
S ilk ....................................
M en’s ready-m ade clothmg.
Iron a nd ste e l..................
Car trailding and repairmgCigar m anufacturing__
E stab
lish
m ents
to
whicl?
in q u i
ries
were
sent.
85
89
19
82
56
64
83
N um ber on pay
E stab
A m ount of p ay roll P er
Per
roll in Septem
lish
in Septem ber—
c en t
cent
ber—
m en ts
of inof inre p o rt Period of
in g for p a y roll.
(+ )
Sep
(+>
or de
or de
tem ber,
1915
1916
1915
crease
1916
crease
both
(-)(-)•
years. _
(56 1 w eek ..
52 .. .d o .......
15 .. .d o .......
55 . . .d o .......
do .
43
51 2 w eeks.
31 1 w eek ..
46,705
53,09:7
10,392
27,674
39,443
19,903
18,366
55,572
52,459
11,078
29,238
40,091
21,466
21,323
+ 19.0
- 1 .2
+ 6 .6
+ 5.7
-f 1 ft
+ 7.8
+ 16.1
$550,397
459,103
104,686
232,791
389,509
393,688
221,858
$709,840
519,717
131,062
283,542
481,301
472,049
299,081
+29.0
+ 13.2
+ 25.2
+ 2 1 .8
+ 23.6
+ 19.9
+34.8
142
80
100
Vm onth. 140,545 173,533
37 . . .d o ....... 48,840 57,912
+23.5 4,435,177 6,669,870
+18.6 1,357,469 1,795,747
+50.4
+32.3
107
54
-
+ 13.0
1
w eek .. 19,182
18,486
3.6
190,030
214,814
In the letter to the establishments asking for data an inquiry was
included as to the number of employees that actually were at work
on the last full day of the pay period reported, as distinguished
from the number on the pay roll, that is, the number who worked the
whole or some part of the pay period. Only a part of the firms re
ported this item, but the figures returned are here given. While the
percentages of increase or decrease differ from those in the precedingtable, in a general way they follow the same trend.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[567]
24
M O N TH LY REVIEW OF T H E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
C O M PA R ISO N O F E M P L O Y M E N T IN ID E N T IC A L E S T A B L IS H M E N T S ON LA ST F I L L
D A Y ’S O P E R A T IO N IN S E P T E M B E R , 1915, A N D S E P T E M B E R , 1916.
E sta b
lish
m ents
reporting
for Sep
tem ber,
b o th
years.
In d u stry .
B oots and shoes........
C otton m an u factu rin g ......................................
C otton finishing...............................
H osiery a n d underw ear........................................
W oolen.....................................................
S ilk .......................................................
Men’s ready-m ade clo th in g .................................
Iron and steel.................... . .
Car building a n d repairing...................
Cigar m anufacturing........7...................................
31
34
10
13
40
36
5
87
35
34
Period of
pay roll.
N um ber actually w ork
ing on last full day of P e r cent
reported p ay period
of in
in Septem ber—
crease
( + ) or
decrease
(-)•
1915
1916
w eet
d o __
do
d o ..
do
‘2 vvp.uks
1 week
I m onth
.d o . .
1 week
21,312
21,003
6,356
9,513
30.175
11,449
593
112,755
41,803
10,023
1
23,835
21,286
6,731
9,686
30,652
12,620
604
110,321
48,012
9,580
+ 1 1 .8
+ 1.3
+ 5.9
+ 1 .8
+ 1 .6
+ 1 0 .2
+ 1.9
+24.4
+ 14.9
- 4.1
ncrease in the number
of employees on the pay roll in September, 1916, OYer August, 1916,
and 5 report a reduction. In the amount of money paid out to
employees in wages an increase is shown for September over August,
1916, for all the industries except boot and shoe manufacturing,
men’s ready-made clothing, and car building and repairing.
C O M PA R ISO N O F E M P L O Y M E N T IN ID E N T IC A L E S T A B L IS H M E N T S IN A U G U ST, 191C,
A N D S E P T E M B E R , 1916.
In d u stry .
Boots an d shoes..............
C otton m a n u fa c tu rin g ..
C otton finishing..............
H osiery an d underw ear.
W oolen..............................
S ilk ....................................
M en’s ready-m ade clothmg.
Iron and steel..................
Car building and repairmg.
Cigar m anufacturing__
E stab
lish
m ents
to
which
in
quiries
were
sent.
85
89
19
82
56
64
83
142
80
107
N um ber on pay
E sta b
roll in —
lish
m ents
rep o rt Period of
ing for
A ugust p ay roll. A ugust, Sep
and
1916. tem ber,
Sep
1916.
tem ber.
65 1 w eek ..
50 .. .d o .......
. do__
52 . . .d o .......
44 . . .d o .......
48 2 w eeks.
32 1 w e ek . .
54,951
50,863
11,174
27,572
38,971
21,734
21,674
54,509
50,722
11,078
28,030
40,411
21,637
21,347
104 J m o nth. 170,439 173,915
35 .. .d o ....... 54,082 54,644
53
1
w eek . .
18,074
IS ,225
A m ount of pay roll
in —
Per
cent of
increase
(- f)o r
de
crease A ugust, Septem
1916.
ber, 1916.
(-).
- 0 .8
- .3
- .9
+ 1.7
+ 3.7
- .4
-1 .5
$705,647
496,607
128,811
256,545
453,443
479,117
328,222
Per
cent
of in
crease
( + ) or
de
crease
(-).
$704,861
506,552
13+062
272,244
485,328
480,517
299,379
—0 . 1
+ 2 .0
+ 1.7
+ 6 .1
+ 7.0
+ .3
- 8 .8
+ 2 . 0 6,360,915 6,624,769
+ 1 . 0 1,720,3S3 1,686,189
+4.1
- 2 .0
+
.8
197,970
210
, 4S6
+6.3
In the table below an increase in the number of employees actually
working on the last full day of the reported pay period in September,
1916, over August, 1916, is shown for half of the industries listed
and a decline for the other five industries. The greatest reduction
shown in this table is 7.5 per cent for the men’s ready-made clothing
industry.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[568]
M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
25
CO M PA R ISO N O F E M P L O Y M E N T IN ID E N T IC A L E S T A B L IS H M E N T S ON LA ST F U L L
D A Y ’S O P E R A T IO N IN A U G U ST, 1916, A N D S E P T E M B E R , 1916.
E s ta b
lishments
reporting
for Aug
u st and
Septem
ber.
In d u stry .
Boots and shoes...................
C otton m anufactu rin g ........
C otton finishing...................
Hosiery and underw ear___
W oolen....................................
S ilk..........................................
Men’s ready-m ade clothing
Iro n and steel....................
Car building and repairing.
Cigar m anufactu rin g...........
Period of
pay roll.
31 1 w eek ..........
30 ........d o ...........
10
........d o ...........
14 ........d o ...........
41 ........d o ...........
32 2 w eeks........
4 1 w eek ..........
99 1 m o n th .. . .
33 ........d o ...........
34 1 w e ek ..........
N um ber ac tualîy w orking on las t full day of Ter cent
reported p ay period
of in
in—
crease
( + ) or
decrease
August,
Septem ber,
(-)•
1916.
1916.
19, OSO
21,107
6 , 735
9,901
29,674
12,643
559
141,382
45,628
8,679
19,466
21,077
6 ,731
10,028
30,949
12, 519
517
145,891
46,907
9,154
- 1 .1
- .1
- .1
+ 1.3
+ 4 .3
- 1 .0
-7 .5
+3-2
+ 2 .8
+ 5 .5
RECENT CHANGES IN WAGE RATES.
Inquiry was made on the volume of employment schedule sent to
reporting establishments as to changes in wage rates for the period
August 15, 1016, to September 15, 1916. In many instances no
definite reply was received, and it is probably safe to assume in
such cases that there was no change in the wage rates.
In the textile industries—cotton manufacturing, cotton finishing,
hosiery and underwear, woolen and silk—as well as in the boot and
shoe, car building and repairing, and clothing industries, wage rates
are reported as practically stationary, there being only six increases
reported from the establishments rendering reports in these indus
tries. In the industry of cigar manufacturing, one establishment
reports an increase of 10 per cent to half the force, while another
reports an increase of 12 per cent to 65 per cent of the force. An
increase of 12 per cent (on the average) to strippers is reported by
one establishment in this industry.
The greatest number of increases in wage rates is reported for the
iron and steel industry. One establishment in this industry reports
an increase of 2|- per cent to three-fourths of the force. Three estab
lishments report an increase of 3 per cent to from one-half to threefourths of the force. One establishment reports an increase of 5
per cent, but does not specify the class of employees receiving such
increase. An increase of 10 per cent is reported by three establish
ments; in one of these establishments the increase is given to all
employees, in another to three-fourths of the force, and in the third
to a small percentage of the employees.
EMPLOYMENT IN THE STATE OF NEW YORK IN SEPTEMBER, 1916.
A statement of the condition of employment in the State of New
York in September, 1916, as issued by the New York State Indus
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1569]
26
M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
trial Commission, is here reproduced. The figures summarize returns
to tire commission from 1,500 representative firms, with over a half
million employees, or one-third of the factory workers in the State,
and a weekly pay roll of over $8,000,000.
More workers were employed and more wages were paid in New York State
factories in September, 1916, than in any other month since these records have
been kept, dating hack to June, 1914. From August to September there was an
increase of 4 per cent in number of employees and of 6 per cent in amount of
wages.
The increase in the total number of employees in September, 1916, as com
pared with September, 1915, was 15 per cent, and as compared with September,
1914, was 21 per cent. Corresponding increases in amount of wages were 33
per cent and 45 per cent, respectively.
The average weekly earnings of the total number of employees in September,
1916, were $14.86, as compared with $14.46 in August, 1916, and $12.85 in
September, 1915.
The stone, clay, and glass products group reported a 5 per cent increase in
wages from August to September, thus establishing a new high record. There
was a negligible increase in number of employees. The glass industry reported
a marked increase both in number of employees and in wages. The group as
a whole employed one-fifth more workers and paid out two-fifths more wages
than in September, 1915.
The metals, machinery, and conveyances group reported in September 4 per
cent more employees and 7 per cent more wages than in August, thus estab
lishing a new high record for this group in both respects. Seven of the twelve
industries in the group reported increases in employees. Two industries only
reported decreases in wages, the others reporting substantial increases. One
industry only—boat and shipbuilding—reported a decrease both in employees
and wages. The most pronounced increases both in employees and wages were
in the manufacture of firearms, tools, and cutlery, and in automobiles and
parts. Other industries with increased wages of 10 per cent or more as com
pared with August were the manufacture of cooking, heating and ventilating
apparatus, the manufacture of instruments and appliances, and railway rolling
stock and repairs. The group as a whole employed a third more workers and
paid out a half more wages than in September, 1915.
The wood manufactures group employed 12 per cent more workers and
paid out 6 per cent more wages in September than in August, establishing a
new high record in both respects. Each industry in the group reported in
creases both in workers and in wages, the increase in wages exceeding that
number of workers in each industry. As compared with September of last
year, the group as a whole employed one-tenth more workers and paid out onefifth more wages.
In the furs, leather, and rubber goods group there was a recession of
activity in September as compared with August, a decrease in both number of
employees and in wages having been reported. The furs and fur goods in
dustry reported one-tentli more workers and one-fifth more wages. The rubber
goods industry likewise reported increases in both employees and wages. These
increases, along with a wage increase in the pearl, horn, bone, etc., industry,
were offset, however, by decreases in the other industries, notably the mis
cellaneous leather and canvas goods industry. As compared with September,
1915, the group as a whole employed one-sixth more workers and paid out onetliird more wages.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
L570]
MONTHLY BEVIEW OP THE BUBEATJ OF LABOB STATISTICS.
27
The chemicals, oils, and paints group maintained the high level set in August
for wages, but employed 2 per cent fewer workers. The drugs‘and chemicals
industry reported a substantial increase in activity. There was a slight in
crease in the manufacture of animal and mineral oil products. These were
offset, however, by decreases in paints, oils, and colors, and in miscellaneous
chemical products. The group as a whole employed one-fifth more workers
and paid out one-third more wages than in September, 1915.
There was a slight recession of activity in the paper-making industry in
September as compared with August, a strike in one plant and delay in receiv
ing pulp in another being contributing factors. The decrease in employees
was 3 per cent and in wTages 3 per cent. As compared with September one
yea)- ago, one-sixth more workers were employed and one-thircl more wages
were paid.
The printing and paper goods group employed 2 per cent more workers and
paid out 5 per cent more wages than in August, establishing new high levels
in both respects. Each of the three industries in the group reported more
workers and a larger aggregate of wages. As compared with September, 1915,
one-tenth more workers were employed and one-sixth more wrages paid in the
group as a whole.
The textiles group employed 3 per cent more workers than in August and
paid out 2 per cent more wages, establishing a newr high level in the latter
respect. Each of the industries in the group paid out more wages. Two of
the industries—wood manufactures and the manufacture of cotton goods—em
ployed slightly fewer workers. These decreases were more than counter
balanced, however, by increase in other industries, aspecially silk and silk
goods and knit goods. As compared with September, 1915, one-twentieth more
workers were employed and one-fifth more wages were paid.
The clothing, millinery, and laundering group reported an increase of 17
per cent in employees and of 19 per cent in wages as compared with August.
Every industry in the group except two—men’s clothing and laundering, clean
ing and dyeing—reported large increases in both employees and wages. The
advent of the busy season, coupled with the cessation of labor troubles and the
ending of the vacation period account for the marked improvement. Increases
of 81 per cent in wages paid out in men’s shirts and furnishings, 34 per cent
in women’s clothing, and 37 per cent in millinery were the most striking. The
group as a whole employed 7 per cent more workers and paid out 25 per cent
more wages than in September, 1915.
The food, liquors, and tobacco industry reported 1 per cent decrease in em
ployees and 2 per cent increase in wages in September as compared with
August. Bakery products, beverages, and tobacco products reported decreases
in employees and the latter two reported decreases in wages. Wage increases
in excess of 10 per cent were reported by the flour, feed, and cereal industry;
the canning and preserving industry; and the confectionery and ice cream in
dustry. The group as a whole employed 1 per cent fewer workers and paid out
12 per cent more wages than in September, 1915.
The water, light, and power industry employed 10 per cent more workers
and paid out 13 per cent more wages than in August, establishing a new high
record for wages. As compared with September, 1915, the group as a whole
employed one-eighth more workers and paid out one-fifth more wages.
Building activity in September, 1916, wTas 23 per cent less than in August,
1916, and 15 per cent less than in September, 1915. These figures are based
on returns from the first and second class cities in New York State as to
the estimated cost of building work (of which new buildings constituted
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[571]
28
M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
four-fifths) for which permits were issued in the respective months. Each
city, except Syracuse and Utica, reported a decrease as compared with August.
As compared with September, 1915, however, only four cities—Albany, New
York, Troy, and Yonkers—reported a decrease. Each of the remaining six
cities reported a substantial increase.
STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS, JANUARY TO SEPTEMBER, 1916.
According to data compiled from various sources by the United
States Bureau of Labor Statistics, the number of strikes and lock
outs during the first nine months of the year 1916 was 2,584. The
number similarly compiled during the corresponding months of the
year 1915 was 916.
The following table shows the number of strikes and lockouts
begun in each of the months of 1916, together with 236 strikes and
lockouts reported as having occurred during the nine-month period,
although the month in which they began was not reported. The
number of strikes compiled during the corresponding months of the
year 1915 is also given. In comparing these figures it must be borne
in mind that, although the number of strikes in 1916 has undoubtedly
been larger than those in the corresponding months of 1915, the
sources of the bureau in obtaining data in regard to strikes have
also increased, and the difference between the two years is therefore
not so great as the figures would tend to show. The strikes and lock
outs were distributed as follows:
N U M B E R O F S T R IK E S A N D LO C K O U TS B E G IN N IN G IN EA C H M O N T H , JA N U A R Y TO
S E P T E M B E R , IN C L U S IV E , 1916 A N D 1915.
K in d of dispute.
Strikes:
1916............................................
1915............................................
Lockouts:
1916............................................
1915............................................
Total:
1916................................
1915.................................
Jan.
150
50
Feb. Mar. A pr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept.
156
45
111
16
16
2
6
6
14
9
9
15
15
11
513
274
60
260
109
260
147
164
162
236
12
14
13
16
158
63
161
57
226
89
332
107
8
497
254
138
319
91
13
8
5
218
75
122
258
54
258
95
155
147
M onth
not
Total.
stated.
221
2,486
806
98
no
2 ,5S4
'916
The above columns include disputes that began in the month indi
cated only, and are subject to monthly revision. More detailed ac
counts of the disputes reported for each month preceding September
may be found in former numbers of the R eview.
DISPUTES REPORTED DURING SEPTEMBER, 1916.
The number of strikes reported during September shows a decrease
from the number reported during the preceding six months. Probably
the strike that attracted the most attention was that of the street
railway men in New York City. Others of prominence were those
of the miners in Pennsylvania, Indiana, Illinois, Kansas, Ohio, and
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[5721
M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
29
Texas; the machinists in St. Louis, Baltimore, and Connecticut; the
molders in Toledo and Norristown, Pa.; the metal workers in Pitts
field, Mass., and New York City; the cooks and waiters in New York
City and Rochester; the cigar makers in New York City, Detroit,
Springfield, Mass., and Tampa, Fla.; the weavers in Fall River, the
cotton mill workers in Charleston, and the hosiery workers in Phila
delphia ; the oil refiners in Philadelphia; the van movers in St. Louis;
and the barbers, teamsters, milk drivers, grocery clerks, inside car
penters, and ferry boatmen in New York City.
The data in the following tables relate to 275 strikes and lockouts,
concerning which information was received by the bureau during
the month of September. These include, in addition to the 164
strikes and lockouts which began in September, 110 strikes and 1
lockout which were reported during September, but began as fol
lows: 39 strikes in August, 7 strikes in July, 2 strikes in June,
2 strikes in May, 1 strike and 1 lockout in April, and 59 strikes
the dates of commencement of which were not reported, but most of
which probably occurred in August or September. Inasmuch as
strikes which start toward the end of a month frequently do not
come to the attention of the bureau until after the report for the
month has been prepared, it is probable that corrected figures for
September will show an increase over the number of strikes herein
reported for that month.
Of the disputes reported during September, 27 strikes and 1 lock
out occurred east of the Mississippi and south of the Ohio and Po
tomac Rivers, 32 strikes and 3 lockouts west of the Mississippi, and
the remaining 206 strikes and 6 lockouts in the district north of the
Ohio and Potomac Rivers and east of the Mississippi. About onehalf of these strikes occurred in four States.
STATES
IN
W H IC H
4 OR M O R E S T R IK E S AN D LO C K O U TS
D U R IN G S E P T E M B E R , 1916.
Pfiymsyl van in,
.
....................................................................................
N aw Y ork
.......................................................................................................
11
ts
....................................................................................
Ohio
................................................................................................
T'Tqw Jprsfty
................................................................................................
Con rt p.p.f.iui ]t,
................................................................................................
Illinois
...........................................................................................................
In d ian a
........................................................................................
Michigan
. , ....................................................................................
Wisconsin
.
.............................................................................
Missouri
- ............................................................................................
Tftnnftssfifi
...................................................................................................
California.
.......................................................................................................
Alabama
- - - .................................................................................
W est Virginia.
...................................................................................................
M aryland
...........................................................................................................
O klahom a...................... ............................................................................................KhodA Island
, ............................................................................................
17 other States
................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
65847°—1C-----3
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
R EPO RTED
Strikes. Lockouts.
State.
T otal
W ERE
[573]
47
10
30
18
14
13
13
9
7
1
47
41
30
2
20
1
1
t
6
6
Total.
1
1
14
14
14
9
7
7
7
7
6
5
5
5
4
4
4
28
1
1
5
5
5
4
4
29
265
10
275
1
30
MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
The strikers were men in all but 11 strikes which were confined to
women, 8 strikes and 1 lockout which included both men and women,
and 32 strikes in which the sex was not stated.
The industries in which four or more strikes and lockouts were re
ported were as follows:
N U M B E R O F S T R IK E S A N D L O C K O U T S IN S P E C I F I E D IN D U S T R IE S R E P O R T E D
D U R IN G S E P T E M B E R . 101G.
Industry.
Strikes. Lockouts.
Metal trades......................................
Miners...............................
Building trades.............................
Textile workers.....................
Clothing...............................
Bakers...............................
Paper makers.........................
Cigar makers..........................
Teamsters..........................
Glassworkers............................
Railroad men...........................
Iron and steel workers..............................................
Longshoremen...........................
Waiters and cooks............................................
Upholsterers...... ................................
Ail other.........................................
Total.....................................
Total.
r_
2
53
34
33
34
i
20
15
11
10
34
20
15
14
3
5
10
10
(3
5
4
4
4
4
48
3
4
4
4
4
51
265
10
275
1
9
6
Included in the above are 18 strikes of machinists, 9 of molders,
and 6 of carpenters.
In 151 strikes and 8 lockouts the employees were connected with
unions; in 19 strikes and 2 lockouts they were not so connected; in 9
strikes they were not connected with unions at the time of striking,
but became organized during the course of the strike; in the remain
ing 83 strikes it was not stated whether the strikers had union
affiliation or not.
The following table shows the causes of 216 strikes and 7 lock
outs. In 75 per cent of these the questions of wages or hours, or
both, were prominent.
O R T E D D U R IN G
SEP-
T E M B E R , 1016.
Strikes. Lockouts.
F or increase of w ages.......................................
Because of reduction of wages........................
F or decrease of h o u rs................... ...................
F or increase of wages a n d decrease of hours
G eneral conditions.............................................
Conditions a n d wages.......................................
Conditions a n d h o u rs........................................
Conditions, wages, an d h o u rs.........................
R ecognition of th e u n io n .................................
R ecognition a n d w ages...... .............................
R ecognition a n d h o u rs....................................
R ecognition, wages, a n d h o u rs......................
Because of discharge of em ployees................
Because of presence of nonunion m e n ..........
In regard to th e agreem ent.............................
S y m p a th y ............................................................
W a n t foreman discharged...............................
In regard to p o w d er..........................................
M iscellaneous......................................................
N ot re p o rte d .......................................................
71
4
23
36
5
9
1
1
17
8
19
6
3
1
1
5
4
6
5
9
5
4
2
2
3
3
7
4S
265
[ 574 ]
6
1
2
2
6
3
5
72
4
23
37
9
1
2
T o ta l.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
f
Total.
3
10
52
275
MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
31
In 131 of the strikes the number of persons involved was reported
to be 150,025, an average of 1,145 per strike. In 31 strikes, in each of
which the number involved was 1,000 or over, the strikers numbered
120,910, thus leading 20,llo involved in the remaining 100 strikes,
or an average of 201 in each. In 3 lockouts the number reported to
be involved was 158.
In 182 strikes and 7 lockouts only one employer was concerned in
each disturbance; in 8 strikes, 2 employers; in 7 strikes, 3 employers;
in 3 strikes, 4 employers; in 14 strikes, more than 4; in 51 strikes
and 3 lockouts the number of employers was not stated.
In 125 strikes reported as ending in August, 35 were won, 24 lost,
tjS compromised; in 8 the strikers returned to work under promise
of the employer to arbitrate the matter in dispute; in 20 the result
was not reported. Three lockouts were reported as lost to the em
ployer. The duration of 85 of these strikes was given as follows: One
day or less, 10; 2 to 3 days, 22; 4 to 7 days, 12; 1 to 2 weeks, 10; 3
to 4 weeks, 20; 1 to 3 months, 8; over 3 months, 3. The duration of
j the 82 strikes lasting less than 3 months was 1,170 days, or an aver
age of 14 days each.
EIGHT-HOUR DAY IN THE MEN’S CLOTHING INDUSTRY OF CHICAGO.
On October 1, 1010, the members of the Wliolesale Clothiers’ Asso
ciation of Chicago posted the following notice in their respective
[shops:
Beginning December 1, 1916, 48 hours shall constitute a week’s work in this
[shop. Time and a half will be paid for overtime.
This action was stated to be a voluntary concession to their employees
by the members of the association, which is composed of manufacturers
of men’s ready-to-wear clothing, and, as expressed by them was taken
| “ in keeping with our policy to improve working conditions, reduce
; hours, and raise wages as rapidly as business conditions would peri mit.” The association favors the open shop and recognizes no unions.
[ It has no collective agreements with its employees. Some months ago
I it succeeded in defeating a strike of garment workers undertaken
under the auspices of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers’ Union.
The announcement was posted in all the shops of the associa
tion, 15 in number, and employing about 8,000 workers. The
amount of increase in the wages as a result of this action is prob
lematical. About two-thirds of the employees in this industry are
pieceworkers, and the announcement made no promise of any increase
in piece rates. The increase in pay to week workers will be such as resuits from reducing the hours of labor from an average of 50 to 51
per week before December 1 to 48 thereafter and increasing the pay
for overtime, paid for before December 1 at the same rate as regular
time, to a time-and-a-half rate after that date.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[5751
32
MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
MILLINERY AS A TRADE FOR WOMEN.
In a volume of 134 pages, entitled “ Millinery as a trade for
women,” 1 Miss Lorinda Perry, fellow in the department of research
of the Women's Educational and Industrial Union, Boston, gives the
results of a personal investigation of the working conditions, hours
of labor, wages, and opportunities afforded to employees in a trade
involving more than 86,000 women in the United States and which
gives “ opportunity at the top for as high, if not higher, wage than
any other trade for women.” The material for this study was ob
tained during the years 1910, 1911, and 1912, chiefly from personal
interviews with employers and employees in Boston and Philadel
phia, who were questioned concerning apprenticeship, seasons, wages,
the number of employees, hours, overtime, and workroom conditions.
Of 303 firms properly classed as engaged in the millinery trade in
Boston, schedules were secured from 103, the number of persons
employed in 97 of these shops ranging from 143 during the dull sea
son to 1,429 at the height of the busy season. In Philadelphia 104
schedules were obtained from firms employing from 232 workers in
the dull season to 1,959 in the rush season. In addition, schedules
were secured from 140 workers employed in Boston and from 121
employed in Philadelphia. These employees were asked concerning
their experience in and attitude toward the millinery trade, and their
equipment in the way of general education and special trade training.
An attempt was also made to ascertain the economic status of each
worker.
The results of the investigation are assembled in considerable
detail, and the hope is expressed “ that agencies interested in a study
of minimum-wage laws, in other regulation of working conditions by
legislation, in vocational guidance and placement, in industrial edu
cation, and especially in awakening the public conscience, may each
find here data which can be rearranged or grouped so as to form a
basis upon which to act.”
The millinery trade is defined as the designing, manufacturing by
hand, and sale of women’s hats, excluding such trades as flower mak
ing, straw-machine operating, and the making of wire frames by
machinery, which may be classified more accurately as the manufac
ture of millinery supplies.
Among the trades for women no other trade presents such great complexity
as does millinery. As an art it demands high and peculiar ability, called by the
trade millinery sen se; as a handicraft it requires great sk ill; as a trade it intro1 Millinery as a Trade for Women, by Lorinda Perry, Pli. D., Women's Educational and
Industrial Union, Department of Research, 264 Roylston Street, Boston, 1916. 134 pp.
Longmans, Green and Co., New York, publishers. Price, $1.50 net.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[Ó761
MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
33
duces subdivision of labor and supports a department in which the processes
are mechanical and do not necessarily induct the worker into the more skilled
and artistic divisions. As millinery supplies a necessity of life, it is universal
and offers occupation in every community. As it deals with attractive ma
terials and produces beautiful effects, it appeals to young women and induces
large numbers to enter it. As it includes artistic processes it pays high nominal
Avages to one group of Avorkers, and as its mechanical processes are skilled it
pays good nominal Avages to another group. In its origin millinery Avas a home
trade and is usually still so conducted. In smaller communities it is carried on
in dAvellings; in the larger cities many shops are located in the upper stories of
business blocks or in apartments. By far the greater number of shops are
small, many having less than five Avorkers, and the relation betAveen employer
and employee is distinctly personal.
As a fashion trade millinery is seasonal, and as a trade Avith tAvo busy and
tAvo dull seasons it imposes upon the Avorker uncertainty and irregularity of
employment and requires its less Avell-paid and even its highly paid workers to
eke out a living by overtime Avork or by subsidiary or secondary occupations.
It does not yield readily to State regulation. Its hours of labor are oftentimes
not lim ited; overtime is not restricted; sanitation, light, and ventilation are not
insisted upon; the worker is not guaranteed comfort in the workroom as to
seats, tables, and cleanliness; regularity of pay, permanence of contract, and
due notification of dismissal are not required. As a home trade, too, millinery
is unorganized. No correction of the evils attendant upon an unregulated trade
has been successfully attempted through unionization. More than in other
needle trades, its Avorkers are young and immature. It therefore lacks ballast
and reflects instability of purpose on the part of employees.
The main reasons given why workers need sources of income other
than their wages as milliners are (1) the seasonal character of the
trade, varying in length from six to eight months and involving
much overtime work; (2) its tAvo distinct processes, only one of
which employs high-paid Avorkers, and that a small group; and (3)
the oversupply of workers.
The chief source of subsidy is found in the requirement of employers that
their workers live at home. The Avorker may receive sufficient wages to main
tain herself while at Avork, and even to contribute something to the family
budget, but in the event of unemployment or illness she is compelled to rely
upon her family or friends for assistance. Unemployment is a vital question
for all but the trimmer, avIio averages a living Avage throughout the year. If
the maker is unable or unwilling to obtain secondary employment, her Avages
must be subsidized either by her family or from other sources. Employers
often attempt to gloss over the I oav Avages and short seasons of the trade by
explaining that their employees are working for “ pin money ” only. IntervieAVS with Avorkers did not verify this statement.
The study s I io a v s that .Vi.5 per cent of the total number of Boston
workers reporting and 63.6 per cent of the Philadelphia Avorkers
were either Avholly or partially dependent upon their earnings for
support; that 83.4 per cent in Boston and 84 per cent in Philadel
phia liA’ed with their parents or other relatives.
The author makes the folloAving classification of millinery estab
lishments: (1) The private establishment, including private or home
[577]
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
34
MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
millinery and parlor millinery; (2) retail establishments, compris
ing the millinery store and the millinery department of a depart
ment store; (3) wholesale establishments, consisting of wholesale
millinery and manufacturing wholesale millinery. She then enters
into a brief description of each, showing how the classes vary
according to (1) market, (2) amount of capital invested, and (3)
the relation of the employer to customers and to employees, and also
the six stages of industrial evolution indicated by the subclasses.
The seasonal character of the work is brought out in tables show
ing the fluctuations in size of workroom force in the two cities under
consideration. Thus 97 firms in Boston reported a reduction of
92.8 per cent in the dull season, and 102 firms in Philadelphia re
ported a reduction of 88.1 per cent. Based on complete pay rolls
covering 133 Boston workers for the year 1912, 24 per cent were
employed 6 months and less than 8, while, according to information
furnished by 103 workers themselves, 26.2 per cent worked 6 months
and less than 8. In Philadelphia 40 of 100 workers reported having
worked 8 months and less than 10. It appears that in Boston a
majority of workers were employed for a longer period in the
spring than in the fall.
Two general classes of problems connected with the busy and
dull seasons are stated to be an integral part of the question of sea
sonal employment: The problem of the busy season, involving (1)
the taking on of a large force of workers which must be dismissed
as soon as the early rush is over, (2) the nervous strain for both em
ployers and employees incident to the speeding-up process, and (3)
unavoidable overtime which accompanies the filling of rush orders;
and the problem of the dull season, that of unemployment. “ The
solution of the seasonal problem usually attempted is the dove
tailing of millinery with some other business or trade—the employer
combining it with other business, the employee with other occupa
tions.”
The study does not include information as to overtime in Boston
establishments, but in Philadelphia 59 per cent of the total number
of firms visited reported overtime to some extent, while over 51 per
cent of the employees reporting stated that they had worked over
time during the year in which the investigation was made. “ In
the last analysis the blame for the practice of overtime may be laid
squarely upon the shoulders of the customers.” To abolish overtime
various means are suggested: (1) The better organization of the
working force and of the business in general, (2) a campaign of
education among customers to persuade them to be more considerate
in their orders, and (3) legal prohibition.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[ 578]
MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
35
One chapter of the report, containing considerable statistical data, is
devoted to the wages paid. This includes the nominal weekly wages,
that is, the time wage received by a worker as specified in her agree
ment with her employer and the actual earnings of workers. Time
wages appear to be the prevailing method of payment, although some
workers are paid by the piece. According to Boston pay rolls, it
seems that the total annual earnings of makers1 ranged from less
than $50 to less than $475 per year, the median total annual earnings
being. $210.52; the largest number (G3.7 per cent) earned between
$100 and $300 per year. The wages seemed to vary according to the
occupation and type of shop in which the workers were employed
and the length of their experience. Tables are presented showing
that a majority of makers received a nominal weekly wage of less
than $9, the largest number receiving from $6 to $8, while a nominal
weekly wage of $8 to $9 seems to be the highest wage an average
worker may expect. A few received $10 or over per week. Wages
are reduced by occasional absences from work, so that the nominal
wages of makers are docked amounts averaging from 25 cents to
$1 a week. The short season also operates to reduce wages. Thus
it was found that no maker had an average wage throughout the
year of $9 a week, while the majority averaged less than $5. The
following table compares the type of wage return and gives the per
cent of makers in Boston,2 as shown by pay rolls, receiving each
specified amount:
P E R C E N T O F B O STO N H A T M A K E R S (B A SE D ON P A Y R O L L S ) R E C E IV IN G EA CH
S P E C IF IE D W E E K L Y W A G E A CCO R D IN G TO T Y P E O F W A G E R E T U R N .
'
P e r cent of m akers receiving—
T y p e of wage re tu rn .
Less than Less than Less than Less th a n Less th a n
$5.
$7.
$9.
$13.
$1 1 .
N om inal w eekly w a g e ................................ .....................
Average w eekly w age..........................................................
A verage w eekly wage thro u gh o u t th e y e a r...................
9.1
21.4
67.0
42.8
57.8
83.5
75.5
84.4
91.3
96.5
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 “ T h e p ro b le m o f w a g e s p a id to m a k e rs is m o re im p o r ta n t th a n
t h a t o f a n y o th e r
g ro u p sin c e th e y c o n s ti tu te a b o u t th r e e - f o u r th s o f th e to ta l n u m b e r of w o rk e rs in th e
tr a d e . T h e a p p re n tic e s a t o n e e n d o f th e s c a le re c eiv e in s tr u c tio n in p a r t p a y m e n t fo r
se rv ic e s a n d a r e n o t s e lf -s u p p o rtin g . T h e tr im m e r s a t th e o th e r en d re c eiv e h ig h w a g e s
a n d a r e e n tir e ly s e lf -s u p p o rtin g .”
- S im ila r in fo r m a tio n f o r P h ila d e lp h ia w o rk e rs is n o t g iv en .
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[579]
36
MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
I he next table shows the number and per cent of makers in Boston
and Philadelphia receiving each specified nominal weekly wage:
N O M IN A L W E E K L Y W A G E O F B O ST O N AN D P H IL A D E L P H IA H A T M A K E R S B A.SED
ON R E P O R T S FR O M W O R K E R S A N D (IN B O STO N ) O N PA Y R O L L S . ’
N um ber of w orkers receiving specified wage according to
reports from—
N ominal w eekly wage.
$3 and less th a n $ 4 ..
84 and less th a n So. .
85 and less th a n $0 ..
$ 6 and less th a n $ 7 ..
$7 and less th a n $8 ..
8 8 and less th a n S9..
89 and less th a n $10.
$ 1 0 and less th a n $ 1 1
$ 1 1 a nd less th a n $ 1 2
$ 1 2 and less th a n $13
$13 and less th a n $14
$15 and less th a n $16
T o tal................
Boston
w orkers.
N um her.
Per
cent.
3
4.0
10.7
18.7
13.3
8
14
10
0
10
3
11
8
1
1
75
8 .0
13.3
4.0
14.7
10.7
1.3
1.3
1 0 0 .0
Boston
p ay rolls.
N um ber.
12
7
24
46
32
36
19
14
5
13
208
Philadelphia
w orkers.
Total.
Per
cent.
Number.
P er
cent.
5.8
3.4
11.5
8
6
1 0 .2
21
3
5.1
13.6
20.3
16.9
8.5
41
64
50
56
27
29
7
18.7
14.6
16.4
7.9
8.5
22
6.4
2 2 .1
15.4
17.3
9.1
6.7
2.4
0.3
1 0 0 .0
8
12
10
5
4
2
1
59
13.6
6 .8
3.4
1.7
1 0 0 .0
Number.
23
P er
cent.
6.7
6 .1
1 2 .0
2 .0
1
.3
342
1 0 0 .0
The nominal weeldy wage of trimmers appears to range from $10
to $25, the majority receiving between $12 and $20. Here again
the wage is affected by occasional absences from work, the amount
aalying from $1 to $o a week. The comparatively high wage rccei\ed by trimmers apparently offsets their losses on account of the
seasonal character of the trade so that but few instances were found
where the average weekly wage was reduced to $9. While the
average trimmer does not receive more than a nominal weekly wage
of $20, those possessing superior ability may earn as high as $35
or even $50 a week. Workers employed in retail establishments seem
to receive a higher wage than those in wholesale establishments.
A study, based on pay rolls, of the relation between the number of
weeks employed during the year and the nominal wage received
showed that the less highly paid maker was employed for shorter
seasons than the more highly paid, but in most shops it is the trimmer
receiving the medium wage who may be retained for the longest sea
son. The study disclosed the fact that wages for makers are ad
vanced at the rate usually of $1 a week, infrequently of $2, and that
trimmers’ rates are advanced from $1 to $5 per week; wages paid
to makers and trimmers tend to increase with the length of experi
ence, the majority of less than five years’ experience earning nominal
wages of less than $8 and less than $15, respectively.
With comparatively high family standards, it is not surprising that the
millinery workers should turn from factory work and enter a trade where
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[5801
M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
37
they do not lose social caste, and may even advance their own social position.
Many doubtless regard this social prestige as an adequate supplement to the
inferior wages they receive, but the large number of such workers is one ele
ment tending to lower the wages of millinery workers, and exerts almost as
strong an influence as trade conditions themselves. There is no adequate
reason why workers with more than the average education, with sufficient
means to enable them to spend one year in acquiring a trade, should be willing
to work for wages that do not insure a decent standard of living unless supple
mented from other sources. To bring about any permanent cure for the low
wages of millinery, not only the present unregulated, unorganized condition
of the trade, but also the attitude of the workers toward industry in general
must be changed.
The opportunity for advancement does not appear to be very
encouraging since it is shown by the investigation that only one
maker in six or seven has a chance to rise to the artistic division—
that of the trimmers—where the wages received during the busy
season are sufficient to tide a worker over the dull season without aid
from other sources.
The report includes a study of the nationality, ages, and work
ing conditions of millinery workers. It appears that in Boston
about 55 per cent of these workers are American and Irish, and in
Philadelphia by far the greatest number (about 62 per cent) are
Americans. Jews rank next to these in number in both cities. In
Boston 66 per cent of the total number of workers reporting and
in Philadelphia 62 per cent of the total number visited were under
25 years of age; and about 57 per cent in Boston and 54 per cent
ill Philadelphia were over 16 and under 25.1 The highest per cent
of older workers was found among the Americans and Irish, while
most of the younger workers were Jews.
The educational standards of millinery workers were found to be
above the average, although the educational requirements of the
trade are not high. In Boston 33.6 per cent and in Philadelphia
24.8 per cent were graduated from grammar schools, while of those
in the Boston trade school from whom information was received
43.6 per cent had completed the grammar school.
The report concludes with a chapter on ways of learning mil
linery, in which is discussed the apprenticeship system and school
training for millinery in Boston. It appears that a majority of
workers in both cities obtained their training as apprentices, but
from the standpoint of the workers “ the chief objection to the ap
prenticeship system as it now exists is the danger of exploitation
to which the beginner is often exposed,” and also the danger arising
from the fact that “ often the moral atmosphere of the workroom
1 It is explained that the large number of trade school workers visited accounts for the
high per cent of younger Boston workers as well as the small proportion of Boston
workers 25 years of age and over.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
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M O N TH LY REVIEW OE THE BUREAU OE LABOR STATISTICS.
is not desirable." Employers object to the system, it is stated, be
cause (1) apprentices use the time of valuable workers in teaching,
(2) because they waste costly material, and (3) because often by the
time the learner has acquired sufficient knowledge and skill to repay
the time and effort expended in teaching her she demands wages.
On the whole, the apprenticeship system does not seem to be satisfac
tory. * * * For the young girl of 14 to 16, or even 18 years, the trade
school or some place equally removed from the exigencies of the trade affords
a surer road to success. * * *
Under the existing conditions good millinery schools and good trade schools
are necessary if the great mass of milliners are to receive adequate training.
Through the trade school, dealing as it does with young girls, without doubt
much can be done to make the trade as desirable as it is attractive. Not
only should the schools prepare a group of efficient workers but they should
deter those who are unfit from entering the trade. They should also permit
only that number to undertake the training which can be used by the trade
and thus help to correct the oversupply of labor. The trade schools can not
solve all of the problems of the trade, but they can do much for the workers
and much to influence the trade itself through employers. They can also
present to the public the conditions and needs of the trade from the point of
view of both employer and employee, and thus arouse in the consumer a sense
of her responsibility and duty.
RETAIL PRICES OF FOOD IN THE U NITED STATES.
Reports to the Bureau of Labor Statistics from approximately
725 retail dealers in 44 of the principal cities of the United States
show that the retail price of food as a whole increased approxi
mately 3 per cent from July 15 to August 15, and 4 per cent from
August 15 to September 15. From July to September the increase
was approximately 6 per cent.
Beef shows a slight decline in price from July 15 to September
15, pork chops advanced 8 per cent, while lard shows an increase
of 7 per cent. Eggs, butter, cheese, milk, bread, flour, and potatoes
all show an increase in price in the period stated from 3 per cent for
milk to 27 per cent for flour, and 29 per cent for eggs. The two
articles which declined in price are onions, with a decrease of 14
per cent, and sugar, with a drop of 12 per cent, from July 15 to Sep
tember 15.
The table which follows shows the relative retail prices on July
15, August 15, and September 15, 1916, of the 26 articles covered by
the bureau’s reports, together with the average money prices on the
same dates. The plus and minus signs are used to indicate that the
exact figure was slightly more or slightly less than the average
money price carried to three places, or the relative price with the
terminal decimal dropped.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
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39
MONTHLY EE VIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
A V E R A G E M O N E Y R E T A IL P R IC E S A N D R E L A T IV E R E T A IL P R IC E S O F FO O D ON
JU L Y 15, A U G . 15, A N D S E P T . 15, 1916.
[T h e relative price shows th e per cen t th a t th e average price on th e 15th of each m o n th was of th e average
price for th e y ear 1915.]
Average m oney price.
A rticle.
Ju ly 15.
Sirloin stea k .................
R ound stea k .................
R ib ro a st.......................
Chuck ro a s t..................
P la te boiling b e ef.___
P ork chops..................
Smoked b a c o n ............
Smoked h a m ................
L ard, p u re ...................
H e n s...............................
Canned salm o n............
Eggs................................
B u tte r, cream ery........
Cheese............................
M ilk................................
B re ad .............................
F lour..............................
Com m eal.....................
R ice................................
Potatoes........................
O nions...........................
Beans, n a v y .................
P ru n e s___ . ..................
R aisins, seeded............
Sugar..............................
Colice.............................
T ea..................................
R elative price.
U n it.
P o u n d .......... SO. 283+
........do...........
.257+
........do............
.2 2 0
........do...........
.177+
........do ............
.131 +
........do............
.2 3 6 ........do............
. 295
........do............
.291 +
........do............
.1 7 5 ....... do............
.2 1 1 +
........do............
.2 0 2
Dozen...........
.3 1 5 P o u n d ..........
.360+
........do...........
.2 4 3 Q u a rt............
.090
16-oz. lo a f1..
. 056 +
.923 +
¿-barrel b ag.
P o u n d ..........
.031 +
....... do............
.0 9 1 P e c k .............
.346+
P o u n d ..........
.053 +
....... do............
.1 1 6 ___ do............
.131 +
___ do ...........
.128+
___ do............
.0 8 8 ___ do ...........
.3 0 2 .551 +
Aug. 15.
Sept. 15.
$0.283+ $0.281. 255—
.2 5 5 .218
.218
.1 7 6 .1 7 6 .1 2 9 . 130+
.2 3 6 .254 +
.295 +
.3 0 1 .2 9 7 .302+
.176+
.186 +
.2 4 4 .239+
.2 0 2
.204
. 358-1.405 +
.367+
.396 +
.2 1 5 .256+
.0 9 2 .0 9 3 .062 +
.058+
1 .0741.174.0 3 2 .0 3 3 .0 9 2 .0 9 1 .362+
.4 1 5 .045 +
.0 5 0 .119+
.119+
.131 +
.131 +
.128+
. 129 +
.085+
. 077+
. 30 2 .3 0 2 .551 +
.551 +
A ll a rtic le s com bined
1
Ju ly 15.
Aug. 15.
Sept. 15.
111+
313+
+
108+
116108114118116-
Ill112109 +
109106+
116+
108+
115119
115101 +
107102+
106-
+
10 9 10 9 10 7 12 5 110+
11 7 126117102-
110
110
101
94-
100
105
+
99+
92+
100100+
151154150
99102133+
100100+
107101158144 +
155 +
99102129+
100100+
109-
112
100
102
102
102
-
110
112
121
110
111
103
109117+
104
100+
181132+
155+
99+
103117+
100100+
116+
«
16 ounces (w eight of dough).
All articles combined show an advance of 19 per cent in a compari
son with August, 1912, with August, 1915, and each article with prices
given for the five-year period also shows an advance. Sugar shows
the greatest change, an advance of 39 per cent. All fresh meats for
which prices were carried for the five-year period show an increase,
round steak having advanced approximately 22 per cent. Flour ad
vanced 26 per cent. From August 15, 1915, to the same date in 1916
all articles combined show an increase of 13 per cent. The three ar
ticles showing the greatest change are beans, which increased 60 per
cent; onions, 62 per cent; and potatoes, 72 per cent.
The next table shows the average money prices and the relative
prices on August 15 of each year, from 1912 to 1916, as far as data are
available.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
40
M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS,
A V E R A G E M O N E Y R E T A IL P R IC E S A N D R E L A T IV E R E T A IL P R IC E S O F FO O D ON
A U G U ST 15 O F EA C H Y E A R , 1912 TO 1916.
{The relative price shows th e per cen t th a t th e average price on th e 15th of A ugust in each year was of the
average price for th e year 1915.]
R elative price Aug. 15.
Average m oney price Aug. 15.
Article.
U nit.
1912
Sirloin steak...................
R ound s te a k ..................
R ib ro a st............. ...........
Chuck ro a s t....................
P la te boiling beef..........
P ork c h o p s.....................
Smoked bacon...............
Smoked h a m ..................
L ard, p u re ......................
H e n s ................................
Canned salm o n .............
E g g s.................................
B u tte r, cream ery ..........
Cheese..............................
M iik..................................
B re a d ...............................
F lour................................
Corn m e a l.......................
R ice..................................
Potatoes...........................
O nions.............................
Beans, n a v y ...................
P ru n e s .............................
Raisins, seeded..............
S ugar...............................
Coffee...............................
T e a ...................................
Pound.
...d o __
...d o __
...d o __
...d o __
...d o __
...d o .........
. ..d o ...
. ..d o ...
...d o ...
...d o ...
Dozen___
P o u n d ...
. ..d o ...
Q u a rt---16-oz.loaf1
l-bbl.bag.
P ound...
...d o __
P e c k ...
Pound.
...d o __
...d o __
...d o __
...d o __
...d o __
...d o __
1914
245209+
194
.2 6 3 .2 3 0 -
211 +
.220-
249245+
151 —
200-
.2 8 7 .281 +
.161 +
.214+
.278+ 10. 263- SO. 283+ 96+ 103237255- 9 2 - 101 +
.248+
204
97+ 101218
.214
164+
176.1 7 9 123129.130+
218236- 104- 108
.252+
.292+
276295+ 91 + 105261297- 9 5 - 109.2 8 7 142+
176+ 1 0 2 - 109
.1 5 7 206+
239+ 96+ 103+
. 221-
305342+
.325.357-
.328+
.3 6 4 -
088+
.090
853030+
.803.029-
.0 9 1 .0 5 1 .8 4 3 .030+
.202
286+
001 +
.286+
. 056+
.079+
1915
1916
1912 1913 1914 1915 1916
1913
200
202
30233 9 226+
089+
057+
993+
031 +
091-
358+ 9 1 367+ 95+
24510 0 092058+
0748092032092362050119+
131+
128+
085+ 93+ 85+
302551 +
211—
03107 5 133126067+
30 2 551+
109- ld3+ 111 —
109+ 104- 1 1 2 —
107— 102+ 109+
111— 102 109107+ 101- 106+
124- 107- 116+
107- 101- 108+
111 + 101- 115106- 9 6 - 119
106+ 99+ 115—
100- 101 +
9 8 - 9 0 - 107101- 9 4 - 102+
98+ 106101- 99+ 102
89+ 101 + 1029 9 - 10784
9 7 - 100- 102-
+ 101-
100
125+ 9 2 - 15889+ 144+
97+ 155+
100+ 9 9 120-
- 102+ 129+
100+ 100+
100
102
100
100
94+ 99+ 105- 99+ 112-
All a rtic le s co m b in ed
1
16 ounces (w eight of dough).
All articles combined show an increase of 21 per cent, comparing
September, 1912, and September, 191G, while the increase from
September, 1915, to September 1916, was 16 per cent.
As in August, potatoes, beans, and onions show the greatest change,
the increase between September, 1915, and September, 1916, being
103 per cent for potatoes, 58 per cent for beans, and 53 per cent for
onions.
The following table shows the price changes comparing each, Sep
tember, 1912 to 1916:
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[584]
MONTHLY BEVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
A V E R A G E M O N E Y R E T A IL P R IC E S
ON S E P T E M B E R 15
AN D R E L A T IV E R E T A IL P R IC E S
EA C H Y E A R , 1912 TO 1916.
41
OF FOOD
OF
[The relative price shows th e per cent th a t th e average price on th e 15th of Septem ber in each year was
the average price for th e year 1915.]
Average m oney price Sept. 15—
of
R elative price Sept. 15—
U n it.
1912
Sirloin steak .....................
R ound ste a k ....................
R ib ro ast...........................
Chuck r o a s t . . . . . . ............
P la te boiling b e e f ..........
P ork chops.......................
Smoked b a c o n ...............
Smoked h a m ...................
L ard, p u re ........................
H e n s..................................
Canned salm on................
E ggs...................................
B u tter, cream ery............
Cheese................................
M ilk....................................
B re ad .................................
F lo u r..................................
Corn m e a l.........................
R ice....................................
P otatoes............................
O nions...............................
Beans, n a v y .....................
P ru n e s...............................
R aisins, seeded...............
S ugar.................................
Coffee................................
T e a .....................................
Pound...
. .. d o .........
. .. d o .........
. ..d o .........
. ..d o .........
. ..d o .........
. .d o .........
...d o .........
. .d o .........
. .d o .........
. .d o .........
Dozen__
P o u n d ...
. .d o .........
Q u a rt___
16-oz.loaf1
J-bbl.bag.
P o u n d ...
..d o .........
. .d o .........
. .d o .........
. .d o .........
. .d o .........
. .d o .........
. .d o .........
. .d o .........
. .d o .........
242+
205
192
260+
230-
222-
257248155+
204-
228284+
279161 +
216+
342+
360+
372378+
088+
Ó9Ì-
83 3 030+
803—
029+
245+
284+
062+
1915
1913
200
1916
1912 1913 1914 1915 1916
i. 270+ $0. 26 3 - » . 281+ 95 ~f- 1 0 2 +
.2 4 3 - . 234+ . 255— 90+ 1 0 1 +
.204
.208
9 6 - 100
.218
. 176— .1 6 3 - .1 7 6 .130+ . 122.130+
.2 3 8 - .2 2 6 - .254+ 109+ 1 1 2 +
.295+ .273+ .3 0 1 - 94+ 104+
.2 8 7 - ■. 258+ .302+ 96+ 108. 157— .139+ .186+ 105- 109.2 1 9 - .208+ .2 4 4 - 9 8 - 104.2 0 0
.204
."362- .342+ .405+ 1 0 2 + 1 1 1 .378+ . 339- . 396+ 1 0 0 + 105+
.226+ .256+
"Ò9Ì- .090
. 09 3 - 98 1 0 1 . 052— .0 5 7 - .062+
.9 0 3 - . 933+ 1.174- 83+ 8 0 .0 3 2 - .0 3 1 - . 03 3 - 9 6 - 94 +
.0 9 1 - .0 9 1 .270+ .2 0 4 - .4 1 5 - iÔ7— 124.0 3 0 - .045+
. 076- .119+
. 133— .131+
. 126- .129+
.065— .077+ 9 4 - 8 7 . 302- . 302. 551+ . 551+
All a rtic le s com b in ed .
96+
101
106- 103- 1 1 0 +
107+ 103 1 1 2 104 1 0 2 - 109—
109+ 1 0 1 + 109—
107- 1 0 0 + 107—
117- 1 1 1 + 125108- 1 0 0 + 1 1 0 +
1 1 1 + 1 0 0 - 117106- 94+ 126105+ 1 0 0 117100- 102—
108 1 0 2 + 1 2 1
105+ 94 1 1 0 9 8 - 111 —
1 0 1 - 1 0 0 - 103
9 1 - 1 0 0 10990+ 9 3 - 117+
99+ 104
1011 0 0 + 100+
118- 89+ 1818 6 + 132+
9 8 - 155+
99+
100+
1 0 0 - 103121 +
98+ 117+
100- 100—
¡0 0 + 1 0 0 +
- 106-
100
+ 116+
1 16 ounces (w eight of dough).
COMPARISON OF CHANGES IN PRICES OF W HEAT AND FLOUR
AND IN WEIGHT A ND PRICES OF BREAD, MAY TO SEPTEMBER,
1916.
Changes in weights of the principal brands of bread are being re
ported currently to the Bureau of Labor Statistics by leading bakers
in 45 of the principal industrial cities of the United States.
These reports show that while the weight of bread has been con
stantly changing, an unusual reduction occurred between August 15
and the last current report, September 15.
Within the past two months numerous notes have been received
from the bakers stating that owing to the increase in cost of raw ma
terials it has been necessary to decrease the weight of their loaves or
advance the price per loaf.
One western baker, then making a 10-cent loaf weighing 25 ounces
in the dough, and approximately 23 ounces baked, wrote in August
that the State sealer of weights and measures had ruled that bread
must not weigh less than 24 ounces baked, and added that his firm
had already lost $G.000 since January.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[585]
42
MONTHLY REVIEW OE THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
In another city an ordinance prohibiting a 14-ounce loaf (baked
weight) had the effect of eliminating the 5-cent loaf in September,
the bakers substituting a 10-cent loaf. This change actually de
creased the amount of bread for 5 cents from 14§ ounces (before*
baking) on July 15, before the transition to the 10-cent loaf, to I l f
ounces for 5 cents after the transition.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics uses in its publications only the
“ scaling ” weight—that is, the weight of the loaf before baking—
for the reason that the weight after baking varies considerably.
While machines for weighing and dividing the dough into loaves
render it comparatively easy to secure accurate “ scaling ” weights,
the weight of the loaf as baked and cooled, ready for distribution,
varies with the style of loaf, with the formula, and with the tem
perature of the oven—ail this before leaving the bakery. From then
on the weight varies with the time intervening between the removal
of the loaf from the oven and its delivery to the consumer, the con
ditions under which it is kept—that is, whether on open counters or
in closed cases, wrapped or unwrapped, etc.—and by the state of the
atmosphere. This variation renders it impossible for the baker to
label accurately the baked weight of his loaves, and if labeling is
required it necessitates a statement of the minimum instead of the
actual weight.
The customary loss in baking is variously estimated by bakers, but
a loaf weighing 18 ounces in the dough will, when sold, if handled
under ordinary conditions, weigh not far from 16 ounces, and a loaf
weighing 16 ounces in the dough will, when baked and cooled, weigh
about 14^ ounces. The range of loss, however, varies widely.
The recent changes are more often in weight than in price, but in
some cities an increase in price seems to have been general. Fre
quently the change in price has been accompanied by an increase in
weight, but in some cities from which the bureau receives reports
the price was raised 1 cent with no change in weight, while in at
least one city the price was raised with an actual decrease in weight.
The recent striking advance in the cost of flour, together with ad
vances in other ingredients, has caused not only numerous reductions
in bread weights and advances in price, but a number of bakers have
taken other means of meeting the cost advances. Some have dis
continued their wholesale business and now conduct only a retail
business; some have eliminated the brands they have been making
and have substituted others, which are presumably cheaper; and
some have eliminated the return of stale bread.
The bureau has traced the change in weight or price between July
15 and September 15 of 210 brands of bread that retailed at 5
cents per loaf and 74 that retailed at 10 cents per loaf, on July 15.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[ 586]
MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
43
A table is given showing the changes in the 210 brands that retailed
at 5 cents per loaf on July 15.
C H A N G E IN W E IG H T OR P R I C E O F 2 1 0 ID E N T IC A L B R A N D S O F B R E A D O F D I F
F E R E N T W E IG H T S , A L L R E T A IL IN G A T 5 C E N T S P E R L O A F ON J U L Y 15,
1916.
B rands B rands selling on Aug. 15 a t— B rands selling on Sept. 15 a t—
W eight before baking (scaling selling on
Ju
ly 15 a t
w eight).
5 cents
6 cents
5 cents
1 0 cents
5 cents
6 cents
1 0 cents
p er loaf. p er loaf. p er loaf. p e r loaf. per loaf. per loaf. per loaf.
O unces.
U nder 12..........................................
1 2 .......................................................
1 2 } .....................................................
1 2 1 .....................................................
1 2 | .....................................................
13’ .....................................................
13}.....................................................
131.....................................................
133.....................................................
14!....................................................
1 4 '.....................................................
144.....................................................
14§.....................................................
15;.....................................................
154.....................................................
153.....................................................
16.......................................................
17.......................................................
174.....................................................
18!.....................................................
19..................................................... .
234............................................
24.......................................................
28.......................................................
Total ....................................
13
32
1
15
6
1
..........:
: 4
3
23
5
23
2
2
!
2
2
y
9
i
46
4
17
3
53
21
1
2
28
27
5
2
2
45
33
5
50
21
6
3
32
2
4
7
6
3
2
1
4
4
2
i
8
3
1
9
3
2
3
4
3
1
1
2
2
2
1
!*'
3
210
207
3
187
17
6
Bv August 15, 3 brands had been increased in price to 6 cents, and
there had been a reduction in the number of brands of heavier weight
and an increase in the number of brands of lighter weights. By
September 15, IT of the 210 brands had been increased to 6 cents and
6 brands to 10 cents; and the movement toward a reduction of weight
where the price had not been changed bus much more marked. In
July, 6 brands, or 3 per cent of the 210 brands, scaled at 12 ounces
or under, while in September, 45 brands, or 21 per cent, scaled at 12
ounces or under. Comparing the heavier weights, the figures show
that 73 brands, or 35 per cent, scaled at 15 ounces or over in July,
while in September only 14 brands, or 7 per cent, remained at 5 cents
and scaled 15 ounces or over.
While detailed figures are not given showing the changes in the 74
loaves retailing at 10 cents on July 15, summary figures show ma
terial reductions in weight. No 10-cent loaf scaled under 24 ounces
in July, but in August, 1 scaled at 22 ounces, and in September, 10
brands, or 14 per cent, scaled 22 ounces or under. In July onefourth of the seventy-four 10-cent brands scaled at 26 ounces or un
der, while two-thirds of the 10-cent loaves scaled at 26 ounces or
under in September. Seven of the 74 loaves scaled at 30 ounces or
over in July, while but 2 remained in this class in September.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
L5 8 7]
44
MONTHLY EEYIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
A more detailed analysis has been made by the bureau of the larger
July groups in the above table. Such analysis shows that of 23
brands of bread retailing at 5 cents and scaling at 13 ounces on July
15 only 2 brands remained at the same weight and price on Septem
ber 15. One brand remained at 13 ounces, but bad been advanced to
6 cents per loaf. Four brands bad been reduced to 12^ ounces and
10 brands to 12 ounces. All of the other brands had been reduced to
lower weights, 1 as low as 10| ounces.
Of IT brands retailing at 5 cents and scaling at 131 ounces on July
15, 6 remained at the same weight and price on September 15; 4 re
mained at the same weight but had been increased to 6 cents per loaf,
and 2 had been increased to 14 ounces and the price raised to 6 cents
per loaf. The other brands of this group had been reduced in vary
ing amounts, 1 to scale as low as 11 ounces.
Tracing the change in the 53 brands retailing at 5 cents and scal
ing at 14 ounces on July 15, it is found that but 14 brands remained
at the same weight and price; 16 had been reduced to 13 ounces and
9 to 12 ounces; 1 had been reduced in weight to 13 ounces with the
price increased to 6 cents; 4 brands remained at 14 ounces with the
price advanced to 6 cents; 3 brands had been increased to 15 ounces
and retailed at 6 cents; and 3 brands had been changed to a scaling
weight of 28 ounces and retailed at 10 cents. It is interesting to note
that while the scaling weight and price of these 3 brands had been
doubled, thus continuing the same amount of bread for 5 cents, a
saving probably had been effected in the amount of labor required
per pound of product. The remainder of the 53 brands while re
maining at 5 cents had all been reduced in weight, 1 brand to as low
as 121 ounces.
Of 28 brands retailing at 5 cents and scaling at 14| ounces on
July 15, 8 had been reduced by September 15 to 13| ounces and 9 to
13 ounces; 1 had been increased to 15-| ounces and retailed for
6 cents, and 1 had been reduced to 14 ounces and retailed at 6 cents.
The remainder of these 28 brands remained at 5 cents a loaf but
had all been reduced in weight, 3 brands being reduced to as low as
12 ounces.
Of 45 brands retailing at 5 cents and scaling at 15 ounces on
July 15 all except 3 had been reduced in scaling weight or increased
in price; 2 had been reduced to 14f ounces, 14 had been reduced to
14 ounces, 7 to 13| ounces, 15 to 13 ounces, and 3 to 12 ounces;
1 brand had been changed to a 27-ounce loaf to retail at 10 cents.
The bureau, from its current figures on prices of wheat and flour,
has also compiled comparative data for these articles from Septem
ber back to May, and the price of bread on the pound basis has also
been computed for the same period. The prices are for the middle
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
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M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
45
of each month. The table below shows the average price of each
article, and in connection with such figures relative prices are given
indicating the per cent that the price in each succeeding month was
of the price in May. Thus, in September the average price of wheat
was 134 per cent of the price in May; in other words, 34 per cent
higher. The wholesale price of flour was 37 per cent higher than in
May, the retail price 23 per cent higher, and the retail price of bread
11 per cent higher.
AVERAGE WHOLESALE PRICES OF WHEAT AND FLOUR, AND AVERAGE RETxVIL
PRICES OF FLOUR AND BREAD AT TIIE MIDDLE OF EACH MONTH, MAY TO
SEPTEMBER, 1916.
B read.
W h ea t flour.
W heat.
A verage wholesale
price.
Average retail
price.
Average wholesale
price.
Average retail
price.
M onth.
A ctual
A ctual R elative A ctual R elative price per R elative
A ctual
elative price
price per
pound
per
price p er Rprice.
price.
price.
price.
before
i barrel.
barrel.
bushel.
baking.
M ay...............................
J u n e ...............................
J u ly ...............................
A ug u st..........................
S eptem ber...................
11.162
1.046
1.119
1.453
1.559
100
90
96
125
134
*15.48
5.11
5.44
7.07
7.49
100
93
99
129
137
SO. 953
.933
.923
1.074
1.174
100
98
97
113
123
SO.056
. 056
.056
.058
.062
100
100
100
104
111
The next table is of even more interest. It shows the retail margin
of prices each month for flour and bread. At the middle of May
the wholesale price of flour was $5.48 per barrel, while the retail
price was $7.02, leaving a margin of $2.14 to cover railroad trans
portation, cartage, the retailer’s expenses and profits, and usually
a jobber’s expenses and profits between the mill and the retailer. In
September the margin was $1.90 per barrel. These figures are
market margins rather than profits, as retail prices do not always
follow wholesale prices promptly owing to stock on hand, and minor
fluctuations in wholesale prices frequently do not affect retail prices.
PRICE MARGINS OF FLOUR AND BREAD, MAY TO SEPTEMBER, 1916.
M onth.
M ay................................................
J u n e ...............................................
J u ly ................................................
A u g u st...........................................
S e p te m b e r. i ................................
C5847°—16-----4
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
W holesale
price of
flour (per
barrel).
R etail
price of
flour (per
barrel).
Margin of
retail over
wholesale
price of
flour (per
barrel).
$5.48
5.11
5.44
7.07
7.49
S7.62
7.46
7.38
8 .59
9.39
$2.14
2.35
1.94
1.65
1.90
[5891
W holesale
Margin of
price of
retail price
10.45 ounces
of bread
R etail
of flour in
over
1 p ound of
price per
wholesale
bread before pound of
baking, bread before price of
flour in
assum ing
baking.
bread.
300 loaves
to th e
b arrel.
$0,018
.017
.018
.024
.025
$0.056
.056
.056
.058
.062
$0,038
.039
.038
.034
.037
46
MONTHLY REVIEW OE THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
Approximately three hundred 1-pound loaves of dough, weighed
before baking, can be made from one barrel (196 pounds) of flour.
On this assumption 10.45 ounces of flour are required to make 1
pound of dough. With the wholesale price of flour $5.48 in May
the value of 10.45 ounces was 1.8 cents. The average retail price
of bread that weighed 1 pound before baking was 5.6 cents in May,
making a margin of 3.8 cents between the wholesale price of flour
in a 16-ounce loaf of dough* and the retail price of the same loaf
baked. This margin covers the cost of all other material entering
into the bread, as sugar, lard, yeast, milk, etc., bakery wages, and
other expenses of the baker, and his profit. This margin must also
cover the cost of retailing and the retailer’s profit.
A NALYSIS A N D COST OF READY-TO-SERVE FOODS.
In a little volume of 83 pages entitled “Analysis and Cost of
Ready-to-S’erve Foods,’'’1 Prof. F. C. Gephart, chemist of the Rus
sell Sage Institute* of Pathology, in affiliation with the second medi
cal division of Bellevue Hospital, gives the results of his analysis,
conducted during the spring and summer of 1913, of the different
portions or orders of food served in nearly half a hundred restau
rants operated under one management in New York City. The
purpose of this study in food economics was to obtain, if possible,
data concerning the composition and energy content of various kinds
of food that are actually chosen by the people for consumption. In
all, about 350 orders were collected, the analysis representing prac
tically the entire offering of the restaurants.
The author presents a tabulation of 242 of these orders, showing
the constituents of the food; their weight in grams; the cost of the
samples; the number of calories2 present; the number of calories
for each 5 cents of cost; the distribution of heat—that is, the per cent
of protein, fat, and carbohydrate; and the classification of the food—
that is, whether it is meat, pastry and dessert, eggs, sandwiches,
fruit, soup, dairy dishes, beans, oysters, salads, or miscellaneous. A
table of 23 sections is included, showing the constituents and the
1 A n a ly s is a n d C o st o f R e a d y -to -S e rv e F o o d s, by F . C. G e p h a r t, w ith a n in tr o d u c tio n by
G ra h a m L u sk . A m e ric a n M ed ic a l A ss o c ia tio n , 535 N o rth D e a rb o rn S tr e e t, C hicago, 1915.
83 pp.
- I t is e x p la in e d in th e in tr o d u c tio n t h a t in th e o x id a tiv e d e s tr u c tio n o f p ro te in , c a rb o
h y d r a te , a n d f a t in th e fo o d h e a t is lib e r a te d a n d t h a t th e u n i t o f h e a t m e a s u re m e n t__ th e
c a lo rie — is t h a t q u a n tity o f h e a t re q u ire d to r a is e l li t e r o f w a te r ( 1 .0 5 + q u a r ts ) 1° C.
I t is e s tim a te d t h a t th e fu e l re q u ire m e n t o f “ t h a t g re a t c la s s o f h u m a n b e in g s w h o se
b u s in e s s i t is to s it a t t h e ir d e sk s o r to w a tc h m a c h in e r y a n d w h o m a y w a lk to a n d fro m
t h e i r w o rk
is 2 ,5 0 0 c a lo rie s , t h a t in d iv id u a ls w h o s ta n d a t w o rk r e q u ire a b o u t 3 ,0 0 0
c a lo rie s , t h a t fa r m e r s re q u ire 3,5 0 0 , s to n e m a s o n s 4 ,5 0 0 , lu m b e rm e n 5,000 a n d over.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
47
number of calories and total nutritional calories for 5 cents, of certain
samples of food which were repeatedly analyzed; also a table pre
senting for certain foods the cost of 2,500 calories1 as well as the cost
per portion, the estimated wholesale cost of the ingredients per
portion, the nutritional calories per portion, and the nutritional
calories for 5 cents. From this table it is seen that there are 184
dishes yielding 2,500 calories at a maximum cost of $1. A final
table gives a summary of the cost of 2,500 calories with reference to
the kind of food purchased. The following table indicates the foods
containing the highest and lowest nutritional calories for 5 cents
as analyzed by Prof. Gephart:
FO O D S F U R N IS H IN G H IG H E S T A N D L O W E S T N U T R IT IO N A L C A L O R IE S F O R
5
C EN TS.
N u tritio n al calories for 5 cents.
Classification.
N um ber
of orders.
S oups........................
M eats........................
Sandw iches.............
E ggs..........................
B eans.......................
D airy dishes...........
O ysters.....................
P a stry a nd d essert.
Salads.......................
F r u its .......................
Miscellaneous..........
Highest.
Lowest.
Beef s te w ...................................................
L am b croquettes a n d m ashed potatoes
R oast beef sandw ich w ith roll..............
Plain o m elet...... .....................................
Boston baked beans................................
Milk crackers............................................
O yster p ie ..................................................
N apoleon....................................................
Potato salad ..............................................
Baked apple and c ream .....................
Corn m uffins.............................................
Tom ato soup w ith rice.
Deviled crab.
Sliced chicken sandw ich.
2 poached eggs on toast.
Boston beans “ on the side.”
Cream of w heat.
R aw oysters.
S traw berry shortcake.
Crab-meat salad.
Cantaloupe.
Tom atoes a nd lettuce w ith
dressing.
In the table showing the cost of 2,500 calories it appears that eacli
of 34 orders supplied 2,500 calories for 50 cents or less, 18 of the
number being classed as pastry and dessert; each of 157 orders sup
plied 2,500 calories for 50 cents to $1, 60 of which were meat orders;
each of 39 orders supplied 2,500 calories for $1 to $1.50, 10 of which
were meat orders. It also appears that about 35 per cent of the
orders costing $1 or less per 2,500 calories were meat orders. For
50 cents to $1, 2,500 calories were secured in nearly 64 per cent of
all orders.
In view of the fact that 80 per cen t2 of all the orders purchased by us sup
plied 2,500 calories for «$1 or less, and that 35 per cent of this number were
meat orders, it can hardly be argued that we are in the midst of the “ high cost
of living.”
A classified list of portions arranged in groups according to their
caloric value is given for the purpose of furnishing an easy means
of dietary regulation. From this table it is possible to choose the
number of articles to total the desired food value of the meal, noting
1 F o r th e p u rp o s e of th i s s tu d y 2 ,500 c a lo rie s is ta k e n a s th e s ta n d a r d re q u ire m e n t fo r
a m a n le a d in g a s e d e n ta r y life.
2 B a s e d on th e fig u re s in th e ta b le th e p e rc e n ta g e is 77.3.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
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48
M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
in eacli instance the individual food value in round numbers of the
portion, as well as the cost. From this table it appears that a mean
of all orders purchased shows that 13.2 per cent of the total heat is
derived from protein, this being regarded as an excellent physiologic
mean.
The volume contains an extended introduction by Graham Lusk,
professor of physiology of the Cornell University Medical College,
and scientific director of the Russell Sage Institute of Pathology.
Prof. Lusk defines food as a “ well-tasting mixture of foodstuffs of
such a composition that the body is not injured by its use, and of
sufficient quantity to maintain the body in good condition,” and
then proceeds to show the value of the flavor of food, the impor
tance of considering its composition—that is, its protein, carbohy
drate, and fat content—and the importance of regulating the quan
tity consumed. In connection with his discussion of the latter the
writer points out that the daily fuel requirement of a man leading a
sedentary life is about 2,500 calories, and then gives as typical the
composition of a ration containing 1,000 calories, 16 per cent of which
is in protein and 84 per cent nearly equally divided between fat and
carbohydrate. This ration includes—
O unces. C alo rie s.
Cooked beans______ __________________________________7 |
Pork_______________________________________________1
Bread_____________________________ _________________2J
B u tter_____________________________________________
4
M ilk_____________ '___________________ _______________5
Coffee_____________ _________________________________5
400
234
180
103
100
__
The actual cost price of this meal is given as 4] cents, excluding
labor and rent, but including the coal used. Thus the 2,500 calories
required to maintain a man out of work on this diet would cost 10.6
cents a day, or $38.70 a year.
The author presents a table, based on the results of Prof. Gephart’s
analysis, giving the cost of each food if that particular variety were
alone made to furnish 2,500 calories, to which is added the restaurant
price of these 2,500 calories and the number of portions necessary
to furnish them. Selected menus for a week are shown, giving the
cost and caloric content of inexpensive dishes which may be ordered
at a restaurant. These menus represent a total expenditure of $3.90
per week for 2,739 calories per day. The actual cost of a standard
portion is said, to be from one-third to one-half the cost in the
restaurant. Thus an order of ham and eggs, bread, butter, and
potatoes, for which the restaurant charges 25 cents, costs approxi
mately 12.44 cents for material only, and furnishes 800 calories.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
49
RETAIL PRICES IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES.
The relative retail prices (index numbers) published by several
foreign countries have been brought together by this bureau in the
subjoined table after having been reduced to a common base, viz,
prices for the year 1913 equal 100. As indicated in the table some of
these index numbers are weighted and some are not, while the number
of articles for which prices are quoted differ widely. They should
not be considered as closely comparable with one another. The fol
lowing illustration will serve to show the method of reading them:
With prices for 1913 as the base or 100, it is shown that for Aus
tralia the price of 46 foodstuffs, as reported from 30 towns in the
Commonwealth, had increased 1.5 per cent in 1914; 21.7 per cent in
1915; 42.1 per cent in January, 1916; 49 per cent in February, 1916;
48.1 per cent in March, 1916; and 43.6 per cent in April, 1916.
IN D E X N U M B E R S O F R E T A IL P R IC E S IN C E R T A IN F O R E IG N C O U N T R IE S , 1910 TO 1916.
[Prices for 1913=100.0]
Australia:
46 food
Y ear a nd m onth. stuffs; 30
towns;
weighted.
1910.
1911...
1912...
1913.......................
1914.......................
1915. .
1916:
J a n u a ry . . .
F ebruary ..
M arch.
France:
foods;
Great
Canada: 13cities
B ritain:
29 food
over
stuffs; 60
23
food
1 0 ,0 0 0
stuffs;
cities;
weighted.
w eighted. popula
tion;
weighted.
94.8
97.3
107.8
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
101.5
121. 7
105.4
107. 3
142.1
149.0
148.1
143. 6
112.7
114. 6
114. 0
113. 8
114.2
116.1
115.3
117. 6
M ay...............
June
July
1
100.4
.
99. 4
109.5
1 100 0
2
1
Ita ly :
7 food
stuffs;
40
cities.
95. 3
95.3
99.7
102
.2
N eth er
lands:
29 a rti
cles; 40
cities.
99.1
100.9
104.4
95.6
94.8
98.1
1 0 0 .0
1 0 1 .8
105.9
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
101.7
129.4
9S.4
115.0
124.6
127.9
127. 8
128.2
127. 7
128.9
134.2
136.0
138.6
141.2
143.9
147.4
132.3
i F irst quarter.
2
New
Zealand:
59 food
stuffs; 25
towns;
weighted.
1 0 0 .0
119. 2
119.9
120. 3
121. 3
122. 4
123.0
123.0
Nor
way:
27 (24 Sweden:
56 com
foods) modities;
com
modi 44 towns;
ties; 2 1 weighted.
towns.
87.7
94. 7
1 0 0 .0
100
94.0
93.7
99.8
1 0 0 .0
.9
118.4
102.5
123.6
139. 5
142.1
147.4
153. 5
162.3
172.8
136.9
T h ird quarter.
A U S T R A L IA .
The cost of living in Australia, meaning the cost of 46 food articles
of ordinary consumption, based on average prices in 30 towns in
Australia, had increased 31 per cent in May, 1916, as compared with
July, 1914, according to recent statistics of the Commonwealth Bu
reau of Census and Statistics, as contained in the January-March
number of its quarterly labor bulletin. The following table shows
the variations from 1911 in retail prices of food and groceries since
July, 1914, the last month prior to the outbreak of the war, by means
of index numbers of retail prices in 30 towns weighted on the basis of
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
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50
M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
the average expenditure for these commodities in the six capital
towns :
IN D E X N U M B E R S O F R E T A IL P R IC E S O F FO O D A N D G R O C E R IE S (46 IT E M S ) IN 30
TO W N S F O R S P E C IF IE D M O N T H S, 1914 TO 1910.
[W eighted average for
New
South
W ales.
M onth and year.
6
cap ital tow ns in 1911— 1,000.]
Victoria.
Queens
South
W estem
land.
A ustralia. A ustralia.
Tas
m ania.
W eighxed
average
for
Common
w ealth.
1911.
J u ly ...................................................
1,165
1,105
1,082
1,247
1,412
1 ,2 0 1
1,164
1915.
M arch...............................................
A p ril.................................................
M ay ...................................................
1,243
1,265
1,283
1,219
1,285
1,388
1,230
1,313
1,359
1,357
1,427
1,485
1,539
1,556
1,573
1,305
1,372
1,399
1,269
1,318
1,372
1916.
J a n u a ry ............................................
F e b ru a ry .........................................
M arch...............................................
A p ril.................................................
M ay ...................................................
1,535
1,597
1,578
1,523
1,522
1,444
1,542
1,540
1,485
1,488
1,570
1,592
1,556
1,517
1,512
1,511
1,577
1,580
1,557
1,586
1,533
1,596
1,605
1,578
1,608
1,515
1,641
1,613
1,595
1,566
1,504
1,577
1,566
1,520
1,524
Increase for M ay, 1916, over
Ju ly , 1914, in p er c e n t .............
30. 5
34.7
39.9
27.3
14.0
30.4
30.9
CA NADA.
The Canadian Labor Gazette for September, 1916, reports that—
“ In retail prices of foods a substantial increase appeared in the
weekly budget which includes 32 staple foods. For August the cost
was $8.63 as compared with $8.46 in July, $7.78 in August, 1915, and
$7.68 in August, 1914. In fuel and light, anthracite coal averaged
higher and there were slight rises in soft coal, wood, and coal oil.
Rent was also upward in some localities. As compared with prices
last year higher levels appeared in all the foods except milk. Pota
toes were considerably higher than a year ago, but not much higher
than in 1914. Rent averaged nearly the same as in 1915, but lower
than in 1914.”
The table which follows shows the cost of a week’s supply of staple
foods in terms of the average prices in 60 cities in the different Prov
inces of Canada.
COST P E R W E E K O F A FA M IL Y B U D G E T O F S T A P L E FO O D S IN T E R M S O F T H E A V E R
AGE P R IC E S O F T H E C IT IE S IN E A C H P R O V IN C E .
Province.
N ova S co tia...................................
P rince E d w ard Is la n d ................
New B ru n sw ick ............................
Q uebec............................................
O n ta rio ............................................
M anitoba........................................
Saskatch ew an...............................
A lb e rta ............................................
B ritish C olum bia.........................
1910
1912
1913
1914
1915
Aug.,
1914.
Aug.,
1915.
Ju ly , Aug.,
1916. 1916.
■$6 . 817 $6 . 776 $7.166 $7. 289 37.475 $7. 826 $7.494 $7.904 $8.466 $8.513
5.812 5. 795 6.107 6.338 6 . 693 6.617 6 . 543 6.602 7. 367 7.394
6 . 548
6 . S36
7.130 7.041 7.443 7.682 7. 592 7.686 8 . 407 8 . 579
6 . 331
6 . 457
6 . 968
6 . 870
7.158 7. 387 7.192 7. 240 8 . 2 2 1 8.297
6 . 504
6 .666
7. 251 7. 203 7.479 7.676 7.531 7.682 8 . 551 8.722
7.462 7.405 7. 884 7.873 8.149 8.071 7. 997 7.762 8 .345 8 . 424
7. 859 8 . 083 8.164 8 . 250 8.327 8.299 8.024 8.105 8 . 673 8 . 710
7.998 8.081 8.147 8 . 327 8.-266 8 . 209 7. 984 7. 787 8 . 224 8 . 716
8 . 321
8.789 9.028 9.128 7.606 8 . 807 9.355 8.723 9.014 9.201
T o ta l (all P rovinces)........ 6.954
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1911
7.138
7.339
7.337
[594]
7.731
7.866
7.679
7.781
8.457
8.627
MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
51
D EN M A RK .
Ih e Danish statistical office lias made several special inquiries
concerning the increase in the cost of living consequent upon the war.
The most recent inquiry relates to July, 1910. The cost of a house
hold budget of an average workingman’s family, weighted according
to actual consumption, and based upon budgetary studies made by the
statistical office during the year 1910 in the city of Copenhagen, is
expressed in terms of the current prices for any particular month,
and comparisons made for different periods. On this basis the
statistical office calculates that, from the outbreak of the war to July.
1910, the food expenses of an average workingman’s family in
creased approximately 40 per cent and other expenses about 27 per
cent, the total average increase being about 30 per cent. The results
of the five investigations of the increase in the cost of living since
the outbreak of the war are set forth in the following statement:
R E L A T IV E COST O F L IV IN G F O R W O R K IN G M A N ’S FA M IL Y IN C O P E N H A G E N A T
IN D IC A T E D P E R IO D S SIN C E T H E O U T B R E A K O F T H E W A R .
D ate.
Food.
Ju ly , 191-1.................................
Ju ly , 1915............................
October, 1915.........................
F e b ru a ry ,1916.........................
J u l y , 1916.................................
100
12
X
132
134
146
O ther
expendi
tures.
100
100
109
116
127
Total.
100
116
120
124
136
FR A N C E .
The April issue of the official journal of the French statistical
office (Bulletin de la statistique Générale de la France) shows an
increase of 33 per cent in the cost of living in French towns of
over 10,000 inhabitants (not including Paris) during the first
quarter of 1916 as compared with the third quarter of the year 1914
after the war broke out. This estimate is founded upon continued
investigations of the retail prices of 13 commodities of ordinary
consumption as returned from the several cities in question. The
prices obtained for each article are multiplied by the respective
quantities consumed by an average workingman’s family as dis
closed by an investigation in 1910 by the statistical office (see
M o n t h l y R eview , July, 1916, p. 84), and the results added to secure
the total cost of the budget at the desired period of time.
Below are shown the results of these investigations since the first
quarter of 1911, for all of France and for each geographical divi
sion. An index number has been calculated for “All France,” with
the cost of the budget for the third quarter of 1914 as the base or 100.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[ 595]
52
MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
COST P E R Y E A R , IN D O L L A R S, O F A F A M IL Y B U D G E T O F 13 S T A P L E A R T IC L E S O F
FO O D , F U E L , A N D L IG H T IN G IN T E R M S O F T H E A V E R A G E R E T A IL P R IC E S IN
F R E N C H C IT IE S O F O V E R 10,000 IN H A B IT A N T S , E X C E P T P A R IS , B Y G E O G R A P H IC A L
D IV IS IO N S A N D F O R A L L F R A N C E A T IN D IC A T E D P E R IO D S O F T IM E , 1911 TO 1915.
All France.
G eographical divisions.
Period.
A m ount. R elative
cost.
F irst q u arter, 1911.........................
I irst q u arter, 1913.........................
T hird quarter, 1914.......................
F irst q u arter, 1915.........................
T h ird q u arter, 1915.......................
F irst quarter, 1916.........................
1195.70
194.93
193. 77
213.46
238.36
257.85
N orth.
E ast.
South
east.
South.
1 0 1 .0
100 6
$204.39
201.30
1 0 0 .0
1 1 0 .2
2 1 2 .1 1
$193.39
190. 8 8
190. 6 8
213.46
232. 57
246.27
$2 1 2 . 8 8
199. 95
196.47
215.20
237.58
256.11
$195.90
200. 33
190. 6 8
210.37
243.37
267. 8 8
.
123.0
133.1
223.88
246. 85
273.10
W est.
$191.65
190.11
181.81
205. 74
231.02
245.11
GREAT BRITAIN.
On September 1 the average increase in the retail prices of food
in Great Britain since the beginning of the war may be put at
65 per cent, according to the Board of Trade Labor Gazette for
September. This percentage makes allowance for the relative im
portance of the various articles of food in working-class household
expenditures and relates to food only. The estimate must not be
applied to the total family expenditures, therefore, but only to that
proportion which is expended on food.
Summarizing the situation as of September 1, 1916, the Labor
Gazette notes an increase of about 4 per cent in retail prices since
August 1. During the month the price of butter and flour increased
about 10 per cent, of bread 7 per cent, and of bacon 5 per cent.
Slight increases were shown for fish, cheese, granulated sugar, and
milk.
As compared with a year ago (September 1, 1915), the general
level of prices showed an increase of about 22 per cent. Advances
recorded in prices of meats ranged from 15 per cent for ribs of beef
(domestic) to 33 per cent for cold-storage breast of mutton.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[590]
MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
53
P E R C E N T A G E IN C R E A S E IN P R IC E O F FOOT» C O M M O D ITIES IN G R E A T B R IT A IN ON
S E P T E M B E R 1, 1916, O V E R JU L Y , 1914.
Percentage increase from Ju ly ,
1914, to Sept. 1,1916.
A rticle.
Small
Large tow ns
(population tow ns and
over 50,000). villages.
Beef, B ritish:
R ib s ............................. - .............................................................................
T hin fla n k .......................................................................
Beef, chilled or frozen:
R ib s .............................................................................................
T hin fla n k ...................................................................................................
M utton, B ritish:
L egs.................................................................................................
B reast...........................................................................................................
M utton, frozen:
L egs..............................................................................................................
B reast............................................................................................................
Bacon (s tre a k y )............................................................................................
Fish......................................................................................................................
Flour (households)...........................................................................................
B re ad ...................................................................................................................
T e a .......................................................................................................................
Sugar (g ran u la te d )..............................................
M ilk ..7 .................'.................................. ..............................................
B u tte r:
F re s h ................................. ..........................................................................
S a lt................................................................................................................
Cheese..................................................................................................................
O leom argarine.......................................................................................
Eggs (fresh)........................................................................................................
P o ta to e s............................................ ..............................................................
T o ta l 1 ...................................................................
1
.................
U nited
K ingdom .
61
87
72
60
80
S3
76
92
80
97
54
55
80
102
92
68
50
50
160
32
84
117
46
87
62
54
50
163
35
55
49
49
48
17
78
49
48
48
46
18
82
52
68
62
65
89
123
49
103
59
58
51
166
39
48
47
45
20
86
80
111
42
70
W eighted n e t percentage increase.
IT A LY .
The semimonthly Bollettino of the Italian labor office publishes
each month a short table of retail prices of seven articles of ordinary
consumption, showing average prices in a varying number of cities
(40 to 43), as furnished by cooperative stores, local labor unions, and
chambers of commerce. Relative prices of these same commodities
are also shown in parallel columns, the base from which changes are
reckoned being the average prices for the year 1912.
The following table shows the actual and relative prices of the
seven commodities for each of the months March, April, May, and
June in 1915 and 191G:
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[597]
54
M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
A C T U A L A N D R E L A T I V E P R IC E S O E A R T IC L E S O F F O O D B A S E D O N A V E R A G E P R I C E S
IN 43 C I T I E S IN I T A L Y .
A V ER A G E A C T U A L P R IC E S .
M arch.
A rtic le.
A p ril.
M ay .
June.
U n it.
B re a d , w h e a t..............................
F lo u r , w h e a t ...............................
M a c a ro n i, s p a g h e tti, e tc ..........
B e e f................................................
L a r d ...............................................
O il, t a b le .......................................
M ilk ................................................
Pound
. ..d o . . .
- . .d o ...
. . .d o ...
. . .d o ...
Q u a rt
. . .d o ...
1915
1916
1915
1916
1915
1916
1915
1916
Cents.
4.2
4.8
5.7
14.2
18.6
33.8
6.1
V ents.
4. 5
4.9
6.5
21.3
24.1
42.0
6.8
Cents.
4.3
4.7
5.8
14.0
19. 2
34.9
6.0
Cents.
4.3
4.7
6.5
21.0
25.0
42.7
6.6
Cents.
4 .3
4.7
5 .8
14.9
19.6
35.6
6.1
Cents.
4.4
4.8
6 .6
21.5
24.9
43.1
6.7
Cents.
4.1
4 .6
5.9
15. 7
20.3
34.9
6.1
Cents.
4.4
4.8
6 .6
21.3
24.9
42.7
6 .8
R E L A T IV E P R IC E S .
B re a d , w h e a t..............................
F lo u r , w h e a t ..............................
M acaro n i, s p a g h e tti, e t c .........
B e e f................................................
L a r d ...............................................
O il, t a b le .............................. ........
M ilk ................................................
A il c o m m o d ities
Pound
.. .d o ..
. ..d o ..
.. .do
.. do
Q u a rt
...d o ..
A V ER A G E P R IC E S FO R 1912-100.
114.3
123.0
116.9
94.2
102.4
92.5
97.6
120.6
126.2
134. 4
141.3
132.2
115.0
108.4
114.8
121.3
119.9
93.0
105.2
95.5
96.2
117.2
122.6
134.4
139. 5
137.5
117.0
106.1
105.8
125.4
100.5
124.9
119.9
98.8
107.6
97.5
96.8
118.1
124.9
136.0
143.0
137.0
118.0
106.4
111.5
118.0
120.7
104.0
111.5
95.0
97.0
117.3
123.5
135.8
141.3
136.5
117.0
108.7
108.3
126.2
108.2
125. 7
115.0
122.8
N ETH ERLA N D S.
The following table is published in the Journal (Maandschrift) of
the Dutch statistical office for August, 1916, and presents the yearly
relative prices for 1913, 1914, and 1915, based on the average monthly
price for 29 articles of daily consumption, and the relative prices for
the months of January to July, 1916. The basic prices are those re
ported by two cooperative associations—one with branches at Am
sterdam, Haarlem, Arnhem, Utrecht, and Leeuwarden and the other
at The Hague. The average prices reported for 1893 are taken as a
base for calculating the relative prices.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[5 9 8 ]
M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
55
R E L A T IV E R E T A IL P R IC E S IN T H E N E T H E R L A N D S , 1913, 1914, 1915, A N D JA N U A R Y TO
JU L Y , 1916.
[ Average prices, 1893=100.]
Com m odity.
1913
Beans, b ro w n ...............................
Beans, w h i t e ..............................
Peas, c h ic k ..................................
Peas, yellow .................................
Peas, green....................................
B arley, pearl................................
B uckw heat, g ro ats.....................
O atm eal.........................................
Cheese, L e y d e n ...........................
Cheese, full cream .......................
Coffee..............................................
O leom argarine.............................
F lour, ry e ......................................
Flour, w h e at................................
Flour, buck w h eat.......................
B u tte r ............................................
B u tte r, cooking...........................
Oil, ra p e ........................................
R ice................................................
S o d a ...............................................
S ta rc h ............................................
S iru p ..............................................
Sugar, m o ist.................................
Sugar, g ra n u la te d .......................
'Pea.................................................
Vermicelli......................................
Soap, w hite, B ristol...................
Soap, green, soft..........................
Salt".................................................
154
166
150
125
157
113
104
103
140
124
94
127
85
124
105
94
135
130
no
83
103
Average, all commodities
1914
157
17<3
101
139
143
no
117
103
139
125
8S
99
81
129
110
97
142
137
116
83
107
100
100
89
85
112
121
91
89
113
128
100
100
87
80
87
80
114
116
1915
Jan u F eb ru
a ry ,
ary , March, April,
1916. 1916. 1916. 1916.
175
196
204
200
210
210
178
157
160
142
171
137
160
137
91
175
157
207
152
187
140
161
127
96
175
157
213
152
192
140
164
124
97
105
119
153
176
144
223
199
125
233
137
146
115
102
102
115
159
152
130
207
192
128
117
130
125
105
98
116
203
119
119
153
176
144
226
186
125
233
137
132
115
211
221
175
157
213
152
192
140
164
128
99
110
122
153
176
144
228
208
131
250
143
146
115
214
241
175
157
207
155
192
140
■ 164
125
100
111
122
159
181
146
226
212
141
283
150
150
115
Mav,
1916.
June,
1916.
218
255
181
150
207
158
192
147
191
130
104
310
189
157
213
161
196
153
187
133
103
111
122
165
181
147
226
216
156
283
153
150
115
221
July,
1916.
214
314
194
161
213
165
204
153
187
133
103
111
111
130
165
186
149
226
216
141
283
167
154
115
133
165
200
149
226
216
141
300
170
161
115
100
120
100
120
100
120
102
102
90
207
126
129
90
207
123
142
90
207
123
150
90
119
207
123
154
90
207
123
158
90
119
207
126
158
90
119
207
126
158
90
142
153
155
158
161
164
168
170
121
100
100
121
N E W ZE A LA N D .
According to a recent number of the Journal of the New Zealand
Department of Labor, the cost of living as related to family expendi
tures for food had increased 18 per cent in the second quarter of
1916 as compared with the second quarter of the year 1914, and 17
per cent in the first quarter of 1916 as compared with the corre
sponding quarter of the year 1914. In 1915, compared with 1914,
the cost of living was 12 per cent higher during the first quarter and
22 per cent higher in the second quarter.
These percentage increases are based on retail prices of 59 food
products as returned from 25 towns in New Zealand, and are
weighted according to the average consumption of each article as
ascertained by a study of the total average amount consumed in the
country during the 10-year period 1905-1914.
The index number of the department for the earlier years and
down through 1913 was based on prices collected monthly from 50
retailers in the four principal cities, and is weighted according to
the method indicated above. It is found by dividing the aggregate
expenditure for the commodities or group of commodities by the
average aggregate annual expenditure for these same commodities or
groups of commodities during the base period 1909-1913. Begin-
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[5 9 9 ]
56
M O N T H L Y REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
ning with 191-1 the compilation of index numbers of retail prices was
extended to include 25 cities, each city being given its proper impor
tance or weight in affecting the general price level, according to its
population. The results for 1912 and 1913 and for each quarter of
1914, 1915, and 1916 are contained in the following table:
IN D E X N U M B E R O F R E T A IL P R IC E S O F F O O D S T U F F S IN N E W Z E A L A N D , 1912 TO 1916.]
[B ase: Average aggregate an n u al ex penditure in four chief centers, 1909-1913=1,000.]
. Y ear or q u arter.
Groceries.
1912................................................................................................
1913................................................................................................
1914:
F irst q u a rte r.......................................................................
Second q u a rte r....................................................................
T hird q u a rte r......................................................................
Fourth* q u a rte r....................................................................
1915:
F irst q u a rte r........................................................................
Second q u a rte r....................................................................
T hird q u a rte r............................ ........................................
F o u rth q u a rte r...................................................................
1916:
F irst q u a rte r........................................................................
Second q u arter............. .....................................................
D airy
produce.
Meat.
T otal of
three food
groups.
1029
1050
1001
1023
1047
1017
1037
1039
1038
1071
1161
1042
1089
1032
1017
1107
1117
1177
1210
1201
1100
1212
1204
1219
1209
1184
1022
1221
1063
1077
1098
1146
1170
1133
1213
1171
1223
1332
1186
1194
1203
1238
1187
1330
1321
1330
1242
1268
1 T he index num bers for 1912 a n d 1913 relate only to th e 4 principal cities; those for 1914, 1915, and 1916
are based on re tu rn s from 25 principal tow ns. T he n u m b er of articles returned is 59.
N O RW A Y .
Official reports from the Norwegian labor office show that the
general level of prices of 27 different articles, for which prices are
reported from 21 industrial centers, rose 97 per cent in June, 1916,
as compared with the prevailing level of 1911. Compared with 1911
prices were 15 per cent higher in 1914; 35 per cent higher in 1915;
with a continuing increase to 59 per cent in January, 1916; 62 per
cent in February; 68 per cent in March; 75 per cent in April; 85 per
cent in May; and 97 per cent in June. The largest rate of increase
has been shown by meats and by coal and coke.
Compared with prices in July, 1914, the general price level of
June, 1916, for 33 articles of household consumption increased 71 per
cent. In calculating this average percentage increase no account is
taken of the fact that these articles are consumed in greatly varying
quantities. If consideration is given to the quantity of each article
consumed by an average family, of about five persons, whose income
ranges from 1,200 to 1,750 crowns ($321.60 to $469),as ascertained by
an actual study of family budgets by the Norwegian labor office in
1912-13 in six of its principal industrial cities, the increase comes to
61 per cent.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[600]
M O N TH LY EEVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
57
R E L A T IV E P R IC E S IN N O R W A Y O F 9 G R O U P S O F A R T IC L E S O F H O U S E H O L D
C O N S U M P T IO N , A S R E T U R N E D F R O M 21 IN D U S T R IA L C E N T E R S .
[Average prices Ju ly , 1914=100.]
R elative prices in—
Group of articles.
March, 1916. A pril, 1916. M ay, 1916. June, 1916.
Meats (beef, m u tto n — 8 v arieties)........................................
P ork (3 v arieties)......................................................................
D airy products (b u tter, eggs—5 v a rie tie s).........................
Cereals (17 v a rie tie s).................................................................
Coflee (3 v a rie tie s)....................................................................
Sugar (3 v arieties).....................................................................
Petroleum (3 v arieties)............................................................
Coal and coke (2 v a rieties)......................................................
149
154
132
173
106
142
130
199
All com m odities.............................................................
149
161
154
129
175
103
156
145
210
179
162
127
176
103
169
148
229
192
164
133
177
105
183
149
273
155
162
171
SW EDEN.
According to the journal of the Swedish labor office (No. 7, 1916),
the average price of 51 articles of ordinary household consumption
showed an increase of 48 per cent during the second quarter of 1916,
as compared with average prices prevailing in July, 1914. These
prices are based on returns received from 44 industrial centers
throughout the kingdom. Considering commodities separately, in
creases in prices fluctuated very considerably, as from June, 1914, to
June, 1916, imported coal increased 143 per cent in price, beans 133
per cent, and salt herring 121 per cent. Sugar showed the lowest
increase—6 per cent.
In Stockholm the cost of a family budget consisting of those arti
cles included in the returns for retail prices had increased 39 per
cent in June, 1916, as compared with the average cost for the sevenmonth period January to July, 1914.
In this statement consideration is given to the amounts consumed
by an average family of about 4 persons, with income of about 2,000
crowns ($536), as ascertained by a special investigation of the labor
office, 1907-8. The amount of such an annual budget as based on aver
age retail prices, January to July, 1914, was 793.43 crowns ($212.64),
while in June, 1915, it was 1,006.94 crowns ($269.86), and in June,
1916, 1,106.41 crowns ($296.52), increases, respectively, of 213.51
crowns ($57.22) and 312.98 crowns ($83.88).
The table which follows shows the relative cost of 6 groups of
commodities of ordinary household consumption as reported for
the third and fourth quarters of 1914, for each of the quarters of
1915, and the first two quarters of 1916, based on the average monthly
retail prices of 51 commodities as reported from 44 industrial centers
in Sweden.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[601]
58
M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
R E L A T IV E P R IC E S O F G R O U P S O F C O M M O D IT IE S O F H O U S E H O L D C O N S U M P T IO N ,
AS R E P O R T E D FR O M 44 IN D U S T R IA L C E N T E R S IN S W E D E N , T H IR D Q U A R T E R ,
1914, TO SECO N D Q U A R T E R , 1916.
[Average prices J u ly , 1914=100.]
C om m odity.
T hird F o u rth F irst Second T hird F ourth F irst Second
quarter, quarter, quarter, quarter, quarter, quarter, quarter, quarter,
1914.
1914.
1915.
1915.
1915.
1915.
1916..
1916.
D airy p roducts, including eggs and
oleomargarine ( 1 0 com m odities)___
B read, flour, a n d cereals (11 com
m odities) ................................................
M eat ( 8 com m odities).............................
F ish (9 com m odities).............................
O ther foods ( 6 com m odities)................
F uel and lighting (7 com m odities)___
101
110
112
114
124
141
143
146
109
98
118
95
135
102
102
103
107
112
124
106
103
128
108
112
135
119
133
137
118
129
135
124
140
142
130
151
124
144
150
137
159
125
157
152
138
167
All com m odities (51).......................
103
108
114
121
129
138
143
14S
122
102
The following table shows the annual cost of a budget of house
hold commodities required for the needs of an average family, of
about four persons, whose annual income is approximately 2,000
crowns ($536), based on the average monthly retail prices for 44
centers in Sweden, January to July, 191f, June, 1915, and June, 1916,
together with the per cent of increase in June, 1915, and June, 1916,
over the period January to July, 1914:
COST O F A N N U A L B U D G E T O F H O U S E H O L D N E C E S S IT IE S O F A FA M IL Y A V E R A G IN G
4 P E R S O N S B A SE D ON T H E A V E R A G E M O N T H L Y R E T A IL P R IC E S O F 56 COMMOD
IT IE S R E P O R T E D FR O M 44 TO W N S IN S W E D E N , JA N U A R Y TO JU L Y , 1911, A N D F O R
J U N E , 1915, A N D JU N E , 1916.
Per cent of increase
over Jan u ary -Ju ly ,
1914, in —
A m ounts.
G roup of commodities.
Jan u ary to
July, 1914.
June, 1915.
June, 1916.
June, 1915.
D airy products, eggs, and oleom argarine...
B read, flour, a n d cereals..................................
M eats...................................................................
F ish....................................................................
O th e r foods..........................................................
F uel a n d lighting..............................................
$76.12
42.95
41.82
6 . 51
28.39
16.85
$94.17
59.22
59. 23
5.94
31. 46
19.84
$107.05
54.92
67.66
10.90
30.90
25.09
23.7
37.9
41.6
18.8
1 0 .8
8 .8
17.8
48.9
All com m odities......................................
212.64
269.86
296.52
26.9
39.4
1
June, 1916.
40.6
27.9
61.8
67.4
Decrease.
SW IT Z E R L A N D .
The Zeitschrift für schweizerische Statistik und Volkswirtschaft,
Berne, published by the Swiss Statistical Society, in its second num
ber for 1916, presents a table from which it may be gathered that the
cost of living of an average family in Switzerland in June, 1916,
was 39.5 per cent higher than in June, 1914. The cost of 33 food
articles which entered into a family’s budget had increased 40.6 per
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cent during the same period, while other necessities had increased 29
per cent. These results are based on returns of retail prices from 266
cooperative stores, as compiled by the director of the cooperative
league. A true budget is made by multiplying the average retail
prices so reported by the amount of each of the articles consumed
by an average family, consisting of two adults and three children
under 10 years of age.
The following table is a summary of the results of investigations
for the months of June, 1914, 1915, and 1916:
COST O F L IV IN G O F AN A V E R A G E F A M IL Y IN S W IT Z E R L A N D , AS O F T H E M ON TH S
O F J U N E , 1914, 1915, A N D 1916.
A nnual ex penditure of an average
fam ily on th e basis of average
prices in —
Per cent of increase
over June, 1914, in —
•Tune, 1914.
June, 1915.
June, 1916.
June, 1915.
D airy p ro d u c ts...................................................
F a ts......................................................................
Cereals..............................................
Beans, peas, lentils, e tc ....................................
Meats....................................................................
Eggs.......................................................................
Potatoes..............................................................
Sugar a nd h o n e y ................................................
Beverages (tea, coffee, chocolate)..................
$63.86
7.82
41. 52
1.84
38.46
7. 72
6 . 75
7.35
7.03
$67.81
9.35
57.37
2.89
44. 57
1 0 . 81
7. 72
S. 96
7.38
$75. 56
12.87
64. 77
3.17
54.71
13.90
9. 65
13. 59
Total foodstuffs.........................................
Fuel and lighting, and soap............................
182.35
19.03
216. 8 6
21.90
G rand to ta l...................................................
201. 38
238.76
Group of articles.
June, 1916.
19.6
38.2
57. 1
15.9
40.0
14.4
21.9
5.0
18. .3
64.6
56.0
72.3
42.3
SO.O
42.9
84.9
16.6
256.42
21. 56
13.9
15.1
40.6
29.1
230.98
IS. 6
39.5
8 .2 0
6 .2
Official data from the statistical office of the Canton Basel City
were published in the journal referred to above, showing that in
April, 1916, beef was 32 per cent higher than in April, 1914, veal
30 per cent, fresh pork 35, bread 43, and eggs 41. The simple price
level (unweighted) of 8 articles was 29 per cent higher in April,
1916, and 14 per cent higher in April, 1915, than in April, 1914.
These data are based on retail prices of eight food commodities
reported from 30 cities. The table which follows shows the average
prices for each quarter from April, 1914, to April, 1916, inclusive,
and the per cent of increase from April, 1914, to April, 1915 and 1916.
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P R IC E S O F S P E C IF IE D A R T IC L E S O F FO O D B A SE D ON A V E R A G E P R IC E S IN 30 C IT IE S
IN SAVIT Z E R L A N D , JA N U A R Y , 1914, TO A P R IL , 1910, A N D P E R C E N T O F IN C R E A S E IN
A P R IL , 1915 A N D 1916, O V E R A P R IL , 1914.
1914
Article.
1915
P er cent of
increase
over A pr.,
1914,in—
1916
U nit.
Jan. Apr. July. Oct. Jan. Apr. July. Oct. Jan. Apr. A pr., A pr.,
1915. 1916.
Beef (w ith bones’)....................
Veal (w ith bones)....................
P ork, fresh (w ith bones)........
M ilk.........................................
Table b u tte r ..............................
Cheese, E m m entaler, first
quality .
B read (q u ality in common
use).i
Eggs, dom estic.........................
1
Cts.
Cts.
Pound
. ..d o ...
...d o ...
Q uart
Pou n d
.. d o ...
17.3
20.9
21.4
4. 2
32.2
20.3
17.3 17.5
22.1
21.4 21.3
4. 2 4 2
32.0 31.6
20.4 20.3
Cts.
. . . d o ...
3.2
2 0 .2
3.2
3.2
Dozen. 30.8 24.3
2 0 .0
Cts.
Cts.
Cts.
17.5 17.2 18.9
20.7 19.9 22.7
2 0 .2
21.3 24.3
4 1
31.0 33.1 34! 5
19.9 2 0 . 1 21.5
3.5
3.7
4.2
Cts.
Cts.
Cts.
Cts.
2 1 .8
2 1 . 8 21.5 2 2 . 8
24.2 20.3 23.8 26.2
24.9 25.2 26.7 28.9
3408 3W 3 4o! 8 41.7
22.3 22.7 23.3 23.4
4.3
4.0
4.2
9
12
13
8
5
32
30
35
30
15
4.0
31
44
34.5 41.0 33.0 37.1 44.7 45.9 34.3
38
41
Since October, 1914, whole-w heat bread.
2
Decrease.
FIFTH A N NU A L CONFERENCE OF THE NATIONAL HOUSING
ASSOCIATION, OCTOBER 9-11, AT PROVIDENCE, R. I.
The Fifth Annual Conference of the National Housing Associa
tion was held in Providence, IJ. I., on October 9, 10, and 11. This
association is composed of many different interests. There are those
who are trying to improve housing conditions by means of legisla
tion—the adoption of health ordinances, improved tenement-house
codes, city-planning legislation, and State aid in home building.
Closely connected Avith this group are city and State health officers
and tenement-house inspectors. Then there are those whose primary
interest is in the building and care of workingmen’s dwellings—
model tenements, improA'ed housing enterprises, and employers’ hous
ing developments. Due to the pressing need which exists at the
present time for more dwellings in industrial communities, the
sessions ay ere largely devoted to a consideration of the problems of
industrial housing.
One delegate stated that the present house famine was due to the
fact that a sanitary four-room house at a rent within reach of the
average workingman could not be made to yield over 4 or 5 per
cent under present methods of building, and that the average investor
is not satisfied with less than 10 per cent net on his money. The fol
lowing methods for reducing this house famine were discussed:
(1) Reduce the size of house provided; (2) increase the rent; (3)
reduce the cost of construction; (4) induce investors to accept a
reduced percentage of return; (5) discover some other means of
providing houses.
Mr. Perry R. MacNeille, a New York architect, in his paper,
‘‘ Industrial Housing—What Types of Houses to Build,” said: “ In
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designing houses for married men the requirements vary with the
number of children and with their age, but as these conditions are con
tinually changing, average conditions must be met. Under average
conditions two bedrooms, with a parlor so placed that it can be equally
available for a bedroom, may be considered as the proper size for
the majority of the houses. If the houses are for clerks and fore
men, a separate dining room and kitchen are necessary; otherwise a
large kitchen and living room combined are preferable.” As regards
rents the same speaker said: “ If we take the average experience
both in America and England, it will be found, I think, that a fair
average rent for a man to pay is one-fifth of his monthly income;
and if he is purchasing his home on the installment plan, his pay
ments can be increased to one-quarter of his income; that is, a man
receiving $2.50 a day could afford to pay $13 a month rent, or $16 in
monthly installments on the purchase price. We would then have,
in such a case, if we capitalized the yearly rental at 8 per cent,1
which allows for interest, management, taxes, and repairs, a total
desirable investment of $2,000 for house and land complete. At the
present time it is probably not possible in active manufacturing
centers to keep as low as these figures.”
Mr. John Nolen, city planning expert, declared that the minimum
desirable house of four or five rooms can not be provided in the
United States for less than $1,800 or $2,000; that is, for house and
lot, with street improvements, essential public utilities, and neighbor
hood recreation. Such a house must rent for $15 a month, and he
declared that more than one-half of all the fathers of workingmen’s
families earn less than $15 a week, and that unless it is possible to
reduce the accommodations or increase the rent, the construction cost
must be lowered or the per cent of return on capital decreased.
Mr. Grosvenor Atterbury, architect, from New York City, in his
paper “ How to Get Low-Cost Houses,” spoke of the. need of a
scientific building code. He gave illustrations showing where the
present code caused unnecessarily expensive construction. The
major part of his paper dealt with the need of research in economic
home construction. He said: “ It would be difficult to find a practi
cal art which throughout all of the centuries of man’s civilization
1 M r. J o h n N olen, c ity p la n n in g e x p e rt, s a id t h a t h e c o n sid e re d S p e r c e n t g ro s s to be
e n tir e ly in a d e q u a te to r e t u r n a f a i r n e t p ro fit on th e in v e s tm e n t a n d t h a t 1 0 p e r c e n t, o r
w h e re th e ta x e s w e re v e ry low , p o s sib ly 9 p e r c e n t w o u ld be th e m in im u m g ro s s r e n t
t h a t w o u ld r e t u r n a f a i r n e t p ro fit. M r. O w en B r a in a r d , a r c h i t e c t u r a l e n g in e e r a n d a d
v is e r to th e U n ite d S ta te s S te e l C o rp o ra tio n , s ta t e d , “ M a n y re a l e s ta te m a n a g e r s in
i n d u s tr ia l to w n s a llo w a s m u c h a s 5 p e r c e n t p e r a n n u m f o r th e m a in te n a n c e c h a r g e s on
lo w -c o st h o u s in g .” M r. R ice, re a l e s ta te m a n a g e r f o r th e P i t ts b u r g h C ru c ib le S te e l Co.,
s t a t e d t h a t th e m a in te n a n c e c h a rg e s w e re u n u s u a lly h e a v y in a n i n d u s tr ia l to w n , d u e to
th e fr e q u e n t m o v in g o f te n a n ts .
65847 ° — 10-
-o
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M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
lias made slower progress than the art of home building. I t is a
curious fact that scientific and cooperative principles have been
practically applied to the production of almost every other item in
the poor man’s living account but the second largest single one—that
of his housing. His bread, his clothing, and his watch are factory
products, largely guaranteed—sometimes by government. His house
is usually ‘ custom-made ’ and bought at the mercy of a speculative
builder.” Mr. Atterbury then gave an illustrated talk showing the
research work that he had been engaged upon under the auspices of
the Ilussell Sage Foundation during the past seven or eight years.
He showed photographs of the construction of houses out of large
concrete sections which were made in the factory and put in place
by means of a large crane. In conclusion he said, “ While in one
sense we have only scratched the surface of the problem, in another
sense we have passed the experimental stage, and I think are ready
for commercial development.”
Mr. Owen Brainard, architectural engineer and adviser to the
United States Steel Corporation, in his paper “ Types of Construc
tion for Low-Cost Houses,” said: “ I look for the development of
clay production wherever there is a clay deposit adjacent to a con
siderable community; and, indeed, the whole range of building ma
terials and methods will undoubtedly be much affected in the future
by this development of clay manufacture. At the present time the
use of clay products is much restricted by heavy freight charges due
to the limited development of manufacturing.” Later on, speaking
of concrete construction, he said: “ I t seems conservative to assume
that we will finally evolve some system of uniform units which will
greatly reduce the cost of forms, and this will undoubtedly lead to
the general adoption of the poured concrete wall. Thus far there has
been but one method developed which obviates the necessity of fur
ring the inside face of the exterior walls. In a monolithic wall with
out voids such furring is absolutely necessary, and there have been
many disastrous failures due to the attempt to evade this require
ment. Concrete-block construction is excellent and produces eco
nomical results, but the danger here is in the too rapid manufacture
of the blocks, with a necessarily dry mixture, which produces a
porous block highly absorbent of water. The quickly made porous
concrete block can be successfully used as a base for stucco, and as the
voids can be properly arranged, the plastering can be applied di
rectly to the inner surface. Even with this there should be a water
proofed coating on the inside face before the plaster is applied.”
In the discussion following this paper it was brought out that
where concrete or hollow tile blocks were used without stucco there
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was often a leakage through the vertical joints and around the
windows. It was stated by Mr. Perry R. MacNeille, who has made
a study of this form of construction, that this leakage could be
prevented by greater care in laying up the wall or applying a water
proof coating. The leakage around the windows could be stopped
bjr packing with some resilient material. Miss Mead, a New York
architect, spoke of an interlocking brick that would do away with
vertical leakage, and an interlocking hollow tile was spoken of that
was so constructed that it would not have any leakage through the
vertical joints. None of the delegates claimed to have discovered
the solution of the problem of cheap building construction.
In regard to a low per cent of return on capital invested in
housing, Mr. CKven Brainard, in his address referred to on page 62,
stated: “ It is natural and indeed unavoidable that the housing move
ment should be led by philanthropists; nevertheless, no housing can
be considered successful if it does not meet the requirements of the
property owner or investor. I do not include in the philanthropic
manifestations those industrial operations which have been carried
on by manufacturers with a view to providing low-cost housing for
employees, with a very low percentage of return upon invested
capital, or indeed with no return, because these efforts produce real
and substantial returns in the increased efficiency of the operating
staffs and in the reduction of the great economic losses arising from
the constant change in the staff. I recently had occasion to examine
the housing conditions in one of the largest industrial towns in the
country, where the conclusion was unavoidable that the solution of the
problem of permanent employment was to be found in an increased
improvement of the housing facilities.”
Mr. Henry Sterling, secretary of the Massachusetts Homestead
Commission, spoke on State aid in home building. He told of the
passage of an amendment to the State constitution in 1914 permitting
the loaning of State funds for home building. Mr. Arthur C. Comey,
city planner and member of the Massachusetts Homestead Commis
sion, explained that State aid to home ownership would not cost the
taxpayers anything, as the State merely loaned its credit, under
proper safeguards, to those who desired to own a home.
Mr. Andrew1Wright Crawford, secretary of the A rt Jury, Phila
delphia, urged city help in home ownership. He suggested that the
city guarantee loans on home property. He stated that the city
would make money through increased property values by encourag
ing home ownership.
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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
PROPOSED
LEGISLATION IN SW EDEN FOR THE SETTLEMENT
OF IN DUSTRIAL D ISPUTES.
Repeated attempts have been made at legislation for the settle
ment of industrial disputes in Sweden since 1887, which finally re
sulted in the enactment of the law of December 31, 1906, creatinga group of conciliators, one for each district into which the'country
was divided for that purpose. As simple conciliation was, however,
not found adequate, a royal commission was appointed in 1907 (there
had been others appointed prior to this). The report of this com
mission resulted in the draft of a law which proposed giving legal
standing to collective agreements, provided for the creation of a
special arbitration tribunal, and extended the provisions for concilia
tion and the making of collective agreements; but all attempts at
legislation on the subject failed to progress beyond the introduction
of bills in Parliament.
A recent report1 by the labor department is the result of an exiamination of the whole matter of the settlement of industrial dis
putes by the Swedish Government. The report reviews the history
of industrial disputes in Sweden, analyzes the principles involved in
legislation for their settlement, and submits a proposed law cover
ing the whole ground.
The past history of conciliation shows difficulties on the part of
conciliators in getting information of a dispute before it results
in a strike or lockout; thus, from 1907 to 1913, 362 disputes were re
ported, 242 eventuating in strikes, and in 217 instances the concilia
tors failed to get notice until after the occurrence of the strikE.
Although there is need therefore of some amendment in the concilia
tion law, yet the department of labor does not feel warranted in
arriving at any definite conclusion as to the success of compulsory
arbitration in those countries where it has been tried (Norway, Aus
tralia, and New Zealand).
However, there is a demand for the more expeditious and expert
settlement of disputed points in labor contracts; this demand has
grown more insistent, particularly since June, 1915, when the highest
court declared that a collective contract entered into between em
ployers and employees has standing at law.
The new legislation proposed aims to strengthen the hands of the
conciliators and to make possible judicial enforcement in certain
classes of disputes; it affects both ordinary individual labor contracts
(arbetsavtol) and collective agreements (Jcollektivavtal). It is pro
vided that collective agreements must be in writing to have legal
effect and shall not continue in force longer than five years; but for
1 K. Soeialstyrelsen. Underdanigt Utlatande med FSrslag till Lag om vissa Atgiirder till
Framj'ande av Arbetsfred. Stockholm, 1916. 06 pp.
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not less than one year if not otherwise specified in the agreement. A
collective agreement is defined as an agreement between an employer
or an association of employers and a trade-union, trade federation,
or similar association of workmen affecting those conditions of work
which may be made the subject matter of an ordinary contract of
labor. Anything presumed or understood in a collective agreement,
and concerning which disputes may arise, shall at arbitration be
understood as implying what is actually the case in similar occupa
tions or in the same locality for which the agreement is applicable.
Section 6 of the proposed law provides that during the continuance
of the collective agreement, and notwithstanding anything to the
contrary in the agreement, no employer or employee or association of
such who is bound by the agreement, shall attempt a strike or lock
out or similar breach of the agreement the purpose of which is to
secure a change in the agreement, to enforce an interpretation of its
nature or legal effect, or to secure changes in working conditions con
templated to become effective after the stated term of the agreement.
d he proposed law accepts the principle of compulsory investiga
tion by prohibiting a strike unless he has given notice of at least seven
days. The law also prohibits a strike for a period of two days after
notification of the purpose of a conciliator to intervene for the
settlement of the dispute.
The breach of a collective agreement or of the provisions of this
law is apparently not made a criminal offense but is made subject
to a fine, the measure of which is the nature of the fault and the
injury caused. If several persons are involved in the breach of an
agreement, then the amount of the fine is assessed according to the
degree of culpability on the part of each.
A special arbitration tribunal is to be appointed by the Crown,
consisting of seven members and including representatives of both
employers and employees.
If enacted, this law would repeal the existing conciliation act of
December 31, 1906, and become applicable on January 1, 1918.
EXTENSION OF UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE IN GREAT BRITAIN.
The British scheme of insurance against unemployment under
Part I I of the National Insurance Act, 1911, went into effect July 15,
1912. A description of this scheme, as amended by the National In
surance (Part I I Amendment) Act, 1914, appeared in the M onthly
R eview for July, 1916. Its objects as there shown are to provide
compulsory unemployment insurance for workmen in certain speci
fied trades and to encourage voluntary insurance against unemploy
ment by money grants from State funds to associations of persons in
all trades and occupations paying out-of-work benefits.
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The trades compulsorily insured under the act of 1911 are as fol
lows:
1• ByMding trade».—Construction, alteration, repair, decoration,
or demolition of buildings, including manufacture of wood fittings
commonly made in builders’ workshops.
?j. Construction of works.—Construction, reconstruction, or alter
ation of railroads, docks, harbors, canals, embankments, bridges,
piers, or other works of construction.
3. Shipbuilding .—Construction, alteration, repair, or decoration
of ships, boats, or other craft by persons other than members of ship
crews, and manufacture of wood fittings commonly made in ship
yards.
4. Mechanical engineering.— Including manufacture of ordnance
and firearms.
5. Iron founding , whether included under foregoing headings or
not.
6. Construction of vehicles.—Construction, repair, and decoration
of vehicles.
/. Sawmilling (including machine woodwork) carried on in con
nection with any other insured trade or of a kind commonly so car
ried on.
Foremen other than manual workmen, clerks, apprentices, and per
sons under 16 years of age are excluded.
Additional amendments to the principal act materially extending
the scheme for compulsory insurance against unemployment were
passed March 16, 1915, and July 19, 1916.
The amending act of 1915 extends the application of the scheme
to workmen employed abroad during the present war and for one
year thereafter, in the trades insured under the act of 1911, on work
connected with or arising out of the war.
Ihe amending act of 1916, known as the National Insurance (Part
II) (Munition Workers) Act, 1916, provides for temporary insurance
against unemployment of the following additional groups of work
men :
(1) Workmen engaged on or in connection with munitions work
as defined by the Munitions of War Acts, 1915 and 1916, except such
classes of such work as the board of trade may by order exclude.
Munitions woik, according to the definition referred to, may be
briefly described as the manufacture or repair of any articles in
tended oi adapted for use m war, or parts of such articles, and any
materials specified in orders made by the Minister of Munitions.
Tip to July 18, 1916, such orders had included balloon fabric, con
structional steel, fire brick, glass for constructional purposes, glass
for optical purposes, lead compounds, magnesite brick, materials re-
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quired for or for use in tlie manufacture of explosives, silica brick,
worked timber, and card clothing.
(2) All workpeople in the following trades, whether engaged in
munitions work or not :
1. The manufacture of ammunition, fireworks, and explosives.
2. The manufacture of chemicals, including oils, lubricants, soap,
candles, paints, colors, and varnish.
3. The manufacture of metals and the manufacture or repair of
metal goods.
4. The manufacture of rubber and goods made therefrom.
5. The manufacture of leather and leather goods.
6. The manufacture of bricks, cement, and artificial stone and
other artificial building materials.
7. Sawmilling, including machine woodwork, and the manufacture
of wooden cases.
In any establishment where some workmen are insured under the
act of 1916, any other workman may, with his employer’s consent,
be treated as if he were employed in a trade insured under the act.
The Board of Trade may further extend by order the provisions
of the act of 1916 to any other trade or branch of a trade in which
a substantial amount of munitions work or other work for war
purposes is carried on. The extension of the insurance to new
trades and to munitions work by the act of 1916, as has been stated,
is temporary only. Liability of employers and workmen to pay con
tributions is to continue for a period to be determined by the Board
of Trade but not longer than three years from the end of the present
war or five years from September 4, 1916, whichever period is the
longer. The right to receive unemployment benefits is to continue
for a further six months or for such further period as the board
may fix.
Any deficiency in the amount of the unemployment fund when
benefits cease to be payable under the act of 1916 is to be paid from
Government funds. The provisions of the principal act as to con
tributions and unemployment benefits are not subject to modifica
tion in connection with the act of 1916 unless such modification
would have been necessary if the latter act had not been passed.
In determining the question of insurability the nature of the
work in which the workpeople are engaged, rather than the business
of their employer, must be considered. Such questions are deter
mined by an umpire appointed by the Crown.
Workpeople employed in the trades insured against unemploy
ment under the act of 1911 are not affected by the new act.
Under a regulation made in 1912, which also applies to workmen
insured under the act of 1916, where a workman has been employed
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by one employer partly in and partly not in an insured trade and
contributions have, by arrangement between the employer and work
man, been paid as if the whole employment were in an insured
trade, such contributions are deemed as having been duly paid in
respect of employment in an insured trade.
The following provisions applying to employers and workpeople
m the trades insured under the act of' 1911 do not apply to those
insured under the act of 1916:
(1) Kefunds to employers of 3 shillings (73 cents) for each work
man for whom at least do contributions have been paid during the
insurance year; (2) refunds to each workman, who has made 500
contributions and has reached the age of 60, of all his contributions,
less what he may have received as unemployment benefit ; and (3)
exemptions from paying contributions, both for workmen system
atically working short time and their employers, where it appears
to the Boaid of Trade that there is exceptional unemployment.
WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION INVESTIGATION COMMISSION
VIRGINIA.
At its late session (1916) the Virginia Legislature had before it
a bill for a workmen’s compensation haw, but in lieu of its enact
ment the governor was authorized to appoint a commission to inves
tigate and after examining the laws of the various States upon the
subject, - to recommend to the next general assembly such legislation
as, having regard to the peculiar conditions of Virginia, will do jus
tice to both employers and employees.” Thé members are to serve
without compensation and without provision for expenses.
Appointments made by the governor in accordance with this reso
lution are as follows:
Hon. C. O’Connor Goolrick, of Fredericksburg, Va.
Lee Long, general manager of Clinchfield“ Coal Corporation
Dante, Va.
C. H. Perry, of State Federation of Labor, Norfolk, Va.
C. E. Michaels, president Virginia Bridge Co., Roanoke, Va.
R. S. Barbour, manufacturer, South Boston, Va.
Frank Ivruek, treasurer Central Trade and Labor Council Rich
mond, Va,
II. M. Cousins, of Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen, Richmond,
V a.
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RELATION OF RAILROAD EMPLOYEES TO STATE AND FEDERAL
COMPENSATION.
A 16-page pamphlet1 issued on August 18, 1916, by the Pennsyl
vania Workmen’s Compensation Board gives a list of appeals pending
before the board involving the question of interstate commerce which,
together with all subsequent appeals of this nature, are ordered to be
placed upon a “ postponed calendar ” until the Supreme Court of
the United States shall have passed upon the conflict of jurisdiction
between Federal and State tribunals. This confusion, it is stated,
arises from the fact that Congress by the act of 1908 legislated as to
the matter of litigation when both the employer and the injured em
ployee were engaged in interstate commerce, which act applies solely
to employees of railroads, whereas since that date many States have
enacted workmen’s compensation laws the administration of which
necessarily conflicts with the Federal statute. In taking this action
the board enters upon a discussion of the relation of railroad em
ployees to State compensation, the conflict between Federal and State
legislation, the duty of Congress, and the advantage of State regu
lation.
Declaring that there is no question that when Congress, within its
constitutional rights, enters a particular field of legislation it acquires
exclusive jurisdiction; that it is equally certain that although Con
gress may have the power of legislating upon a certain subject, until
it exercises that power, the regulation of that subject can be left to
the legislatures of the States; and that Congress has no constitutional
power to legislate upon purely intrastate matters; the board main
tains that Congress should not enact laws affecting railroad employees
in intrastate commerce. “A man is no less a citizen of his own State
because he is engaged in railroading. The responsibility of the State
toward him is not lessened because of the fact that he is employed by
a carrier of interstate commodities. Therefore, why will not Con
gress allow the State to solve the railroad man’s troubles as she does
those of her citizens engaged in other industrial pursuits? ”
The difficulty of determining whether both the injured man and the
railroad company were engaged in interstate commerce at the time
of the accident is noted as a factor in administering the Federal law,
and court decisions are cited indicating a tendency “ to construe almost
every form of activity on the part of a railroad employee as being in
the nature of interstate commerce,” thereby leading to the conclusion
that u there will be rarely a case where a railroad company can not
avoid a State compensation law by pleading £interstate commerce.’ ”
1 P e n n s y lv a n ia .
D e p a r tm e n t o f L a b o r a n d I n d u s tr y .
W o rk m e n ’s C o m p e n sa tio n B o a rd .
R e la tio n o f r a ilr o a d em p lo y e es to S ta te c o m p e n sa tio n , e tc . [ H a r r i s b u r g , 1 9 1 6 ], 16 pp.
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When it is remembered that no injured railroad employee can recover under
the Federal act of 1908 unless there is evidence of negligence on the part of the
defendant, and when it is further borne in mind that only a small percentage
of such accidents present any evidence of negligence at all, it becomes perfectly
evident that the railroad employees of the United States are, in the main,
deprived of the benefits of workmen’s compensation laws which are extending
their manifold mercies to the wage earners of so many States.
In this connection it is noted that Congress is trying to meet this
difficulty by passing a compensation law for employees engaged in
interstate commerce, but here again the board suggests the difficulty
of determining whether the employee was engaged in interstate
commerce and also the difficulty of determining, with two tribunals
in each jurisdiction to pass upon compensation for injured workmen,
in which forum a given case should be started.
This act would provide very little relief to approximately 2,000.000 men en
gaged in railroading and its allied pursuits, who would be deemed to be under
interstate commerce * * *, for the reason that it places a premium upon
jury trials. The delays then incident to the administration of this act would
be quite as great as those that existed in our common law courts before the
adoption of the compensation laws. This act likewise would place upon the
Government huge expenses of administration.
It is believed that these difficulties would be solved by Congress
repealing the Federal employers’ liability act of 1908.
The happiness, contentment, and welfare of the vast army of railroad workers
of the United States will be more promptly and thoroughly secured by allowing
them to submit their claims for compensation to State tribunals than by any
scheme that can be devised by Congress.
Attention is called to the fact that one railroad system in Pennsyl
vania is solving the difficulty by applying the schedules of the
Pennsylvania workmen’s compensation act to each case of injury.
(1) As to cases which are clearly intrastate, the Pennsylvania act is fol
lowed by effecting an agreement with the claimant for the periodical payments
provided in the act for that particular case.
(2) As to cases' which are clearly interstate, or where there is any doubt as
to the character of the commerce in which the employee was employed at the
time of the accident, (a) where a claim petition has been filed, an agreement
for a lump-sum payment is made, based on the schedule of the act, commuted
by the board under sections 316 and 424, which is paid over to the injured em
ployee, or, in case of death, to his personal representative, who signs a general
release therefor. By this means protection both under the Federal and the
State laws is secured, (b) Where no claim petition has been filed this company
endeavors to effect a settlement on the basis of the schedule provided in the
act, commuted to a lump-sum payment, taking a general release therefor, and
notifying the compensation bureau of such settlement so that a proper record
of the same can be kept by its department.
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STATE INSURANCE COMMISSIONERS AND SOCIAL INSURANCE.
The social insurance problem was much in evidence at the fortyseventh session of the National Convention of Insurance Commis
sioners held in Richmond, Va., September 26 to 29 inclusive. The
discussion of State compulsory social insurance by the insurance
commissioners at an early date was planned in a resolution intro
duced by Rufus M. Potts, State superintendent of insurance for Illi
nois, at the St. Louis convention in December, 1915.
The president, Burton Mansfield, insurance commissioner of Con
necticut, plunged the Richmond convention into the midst of the con
troversy in his opening address, taking as his subject “ The relation
of government to our economic and social interests, with especial
reference to insurance.”
After discussing the question of private insurance companies, State
monopoly of insurance, and State and private competitive insurance,
he took up the topic of social insurance, as follows:
No one matter lias been introduced into the deliberations of this body in
recent years, it seems to me, which is of greater concern and so general in its
extent as the resolution introduced by the superintendent of insurance of the
State of Illinois at our meeting in December last in relation to social insurance.
Whether we agree with him or not, we must admit that the question thus
raised is of tremendous importance. Its foundation rests on a keener un
derstanding of the common welfare—that welfare which has shaped the
course of the workmen’s compensation acts now existing and being enforced
in 35 States. Ten years ago they were scarcely known to the people and
Nation at large; now they are so well established that they seem almost to
have existed from a time when the memory of man runneth not to the con
trary. The time came very rapidly when we realized that the wear and tear
on the human frame in industry was much more entitled to our favorable con
sideration than the wear and tear on the mechanical frame, and we. hastened
to provide a remedy. So, too, without now discussing the many questions on
their merits, shall we hasten quickly to provide against other dangers and mis
fortunes of mankind, such as has been done in Europe for a generation. These
provisions will be insurance against sickness, disablement, unemployment, ma
ternity, old age and dependency among wage earners. Germany led the way
in this respect over 30 years ago, and no other country has pursued so per
sistent a course or so complete a plan as she has, although substantially all
other European countries have followed her example. Naturally, all this has
its effect and influence upon us. Mothers’ pension provisions have been adopted
in a score of States, while old-age pensions, sickness insurance, and unemploy
ment insurance have been agitated in Massachusetts, Wisconsin, New York,
and Ohio, at least, and social insurance commissions have been appointed in
California and Massachusetts.
A study of the whole subject by the members of this convention is most
desirable. We should know and understand fully the scope and character
of social insurance; we should be ready to explain what it means, portray its
weak points and emphasize its good points, .whenever and wherever occasion
may require. This presents a different situation from that which exists by
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virtue of the established order in the fire, life, and regular accident fields. I
do not believe in State insurance here in any way, certainly not to the exclusion
of other methods, but a door is being opened for its admission which has not
hitherto existed. Social insurance is not necessarily State insurance, as some
would think. The mutual-benefit funds of some European countries, found
among the industrial workers, are as much social insurance as the State funds
in some parts of our own country, which are maintained in connection with our
compensation insurance; and the fact that New Zealand sells fire, life, and acci
dent insurance in the same way in which a private company does, does not
make such insurance “ social.”
It does not seem to me that social insurance, when it comes, should be trans
acted by the State alone. Many of the very people who are most concerned in its
adoption, and for whose benefit it will be primarily introduced, are opposed
to it. Mr. Frederick W. Mansfield, counsel for the American Federation of
Labor, is reported to have expressed himself most emphatically in favor of
competitive insurance in casualty cases and opposed to State insurance alone,
which he regards as detrimental to the interests of organized labor. What
is true of casualty insurance is equally true of other forms of insurance, so
far as such other forms may be pertinent and applicable. Competitive insur
ance is far preferable to State insurance alone, and State compulsory insurance,
so frequently advocated in this connection, should come only after all other
plans have failed. The public will consent, as I have said in another connec
tion, to the retention of the old methods and organizations so long as those
methods and those organizations give fair, just, and reasonable treatment.
I have thus tried to introduce a subject which I regard as of great importance.
Here at its inception is an opportunity for concerted action by the States.
They are not hampered by precedents. Except in its application to Federal
employees, the States have the whole matter of social insurance in their own
hands, and there is no warrant or justification for Federal interference here
any more than in those forms of insurance with which we are familiar. It
has been claimed in this connection that the “ general welfare ” clause of the
Constitution offers an opportunity and paves the way for legislation on this
subject by Congress, but except as above indicated I can see no force in such
an argument. The phrase “ general welfare ” can not be taken from its context
and made to perform a duty for which it was not intended or applied to a
condition to which it bears no relation.
I should have been glad if this convention could have devoted a succession
of its meetings to a consideration of this subject in all its bearings. Its be
ginnings, its growth, its history, and its merits might well have been consid
ered by us. In the absence of this, however, I shall be glad if I have contrib
uted anything to your knowledge and consideration of so great a subject, and
I am very sure that when the paper of our fellow member from Illinois is read
we shall be edified and enlightened in a remarkable manner, for he has studied
the subject of social insurance from all the angles and in all its varieties.
Before us looms a mountain of real endeavor. The question is, Shall we
be content to stand beneath it looking upward or shall we try to climb it?
Discussion disclosed that State monopoly of insurance, especially
if it had compulsory features, was not popular with the convention,
the consensus of opinion being that the State that forced upon its
subjects a system of relief -of suffering arising from sickness or
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incapacity of the breadwinners was essentially monarchial if not
despotic, no matter what it called itself.
Mr. Potts’s paper, entitled “ To what extent is social or welfare
insurance feasible in the United States and how should it be done,”
was read at the beginning of the morning session of the convention
on the 28th.
He began by saying:
Being chairman of your committee on social insurance, and also by reason
of the inherent importance of the subject itself, I have become greatly interested
in universal insurance for the purpose of making secure the economic welfare
of every worker and citizen of the United States. I believe it to be the most
weighty problem of our time.
A large part of the paper was devoted to proof of the existence of
unavoidable poverty and suffering through sickness, accident, un
employment, premature deaths of breadwinners, and hence of the
necessity for a system of universal insurance. Mr. Potts showed by
estimates from German experience the enormous economic disturb
ance and financial waste from loss of time alone inflicted by sickness.
Having from his point of view established a need for a general insur
ance which would not select only the healthy and “ preferred risks ”
as a basis of money making, and thus exclude the very ones who were
most in need of protection from a social point of view, he took up
the constructive part of his theme. Below will be found liberal ex
tracts from this part of his address:
Naturally the next question is, “ What is the best way of relieving this
suffering? ”
In former ages the only method was neighborly assistance and wider general
charity, frequently through the church. These still have their field of great
usefulness to-day, but are entirely insufficient to adequately care for all such
suffering. The only other method of relief that has been discovered that I
have any knowledge of is through insurance methods.
Successful insurance against the effect of uncertain contingencies rests on a
certain fundamental fact which was disclosed only after knowledge had ac
cumulated so that a record of the living experiences of large numbers of indi
vidual men under the conditions prevailing in civilized communities had been
made, thus permitting a comparison of these experiences. When this was done
it was found, although the occurrence of disasters and misfortunes was very
uncertain in relation to any particular individual, that, in relation to the total
population of any country of sufficient size, their occurrence was approximately
constant and regular. Some of these were certain to happen to somebody, and
taking considerable periods of time, approximately the same number would
occur in each period. Consequently, if all persons subject to a certain con
tingency contribute a small sum according to the average frequency of such
contingency to a fund held by a trustee and used for the purpose of reimbursing
the pecuniary losses of those to whom the contingency occurs, we have a
financially practicable method of securing the money needed for relieving all the
victims of that kind of misfortune among the contributors to the fund.
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M O N TH LY EE VIEW OF TH E BUBEA U OF LABOE STATISTICS.
It is oil this very simple basis that the vast structure of modern insurance
has been erected. Its development has been possible only through the gradual
accumulation of the experience of millions of men in relation to many different
kinds of calamities. The final result is that insurance against occurrences very
uncertain from the standpoint of any one individual can be carried on as a
business enterprise of stability and financial soundness, so that insurance has
become one of the most reliable and profitable of all modern business enterprises.
We see, then, that in insurance we have an available and adequate method
for relieving the widespread suffering and poverty from the economic effects of
unavoidable accidents, sickness, unemployment, and other misfortunes.
* * * The mere existence of systems of insurance is not sufficient, and
something more than present methods are necessary before the desired result—
the complete relief of undeserved suffering—can be accomplished in the United
States.
I do not think it will require any extended argument to convince this audience
that the systems of accident, sickness, and life insurance now in operation are
wholly inadequate and reach only a small portion of the total population of the
United States. The chief reasons why these do not reach all those needing
insurance are as follow s:
(1) The enormous expense of conducting the business, which, added to the
large amount actually required to be collected to make up the fund to indemnify
the losses resulting from the contingencies insured against, makes the total
cost prohibitive to the larger part of our citizens, particularly wageworkers.
(2) The lack of foresight and improvidence of many, which leads them to
spend all the money they earn for the satisfaction of immediate desires and
fancies. There may be other drawbacks, but these are of controlling im
portance in most cases. What is needed is a plan which will meet both of these
difficulties. Anything less will be incomplete and unsatisfactory.
This brings me to the consideration of the desirability and feasibility of
extending welfare insurance until it is universal, for the purpose of affording
complete relief to all victims of unavoidable misfortune and their families.
It does not seem to me that there should be any difference of opinion among
humane men concerning its desirability. Charity for this purpose is both inade
quate and detrimental. Unless suffering from hunger and cold, and unless lack
of all pleasures and comforts of life, are good and beneficial to the unfortunate,
then the only plan which holds out any promise of preventing such wants and
distress is surely desirable.
The next question is, “ Is universal welfare insurance feasible—that is, prac
ticable—in the United States? ”
That the theory of welfare insurance is sound and its operation practicable
is proven by the fact that it has been and is in extensive use not only in many
other nations, but also in the United States. The existing systems of accident,
sickness, and life insurance in the United States are all welfare insurance.
Their successful operation under very unfavorable conditions proves conclu
sively that some welfare insurance is feasible.
But is universal welfare insurance feasible?
There is absolutely no reason why if partial use is practicable, universal use
will not be also, if the cost can be reduced to the point where every person can
pay the necessary premiums, and means of compulsion are available to make all
those do so who are too improvident or obstinate to do so voluntarily. Those
not able to work should be provided for by charitable methods, and those not
willing to work when they are able to do so, which comprises the great army
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of able-bodied beggars, tramps, criminals, and prostitutes, should be placed and
kept in farm colonies, workhouses, or penal institutions, according to their char
acter, and there compelled to work at least enough to produce what is needed to
sustain their useless existence.
This brings us to the final part of my subject—How can welfare insurance
be best carried on?
I have, I believe, considered and weighed every plan and suggestion that has
been made in this connection, and I am obliged to say that, so far, I have only
found one plan which holds out substantial promise of accomplishing the de
sired purposes. This is the carrying on of a comprehensive system of compulsory
welfare insurance, in all of its branches, by the National Government. While,
of course, some reduction of the expense of conducting the insurance business
under existing systems might be brought about by economy and efficiency, still,
with the excessive acquisition and administration costs by reason of highsalaried officials and a great army of middlemen, the cost will always be exorbi
tant. A compulsory system of welfare insurance carried on by the National
Government will not only reduce the expense of operation to a minimum so
low that it will be negligible, but will render it feasible and proper for the
Nation to contribute in behalf of those earning low wages a part of the dues
necessary on actuarial calculations to pay for complete welfare insurance.
Above all, only by a national system can the compulsion be employed necessary
to force the improvident and obstinate to make provision for their families and
themselves when overtaken by misfortune. The insurance of all of the workers
of the United States would include such enormous numbers that an almost
unvarying law of average would result which would render the business as
stable and certain as agriculture. The Nation would be entirely justified in
paying the expense of conducting the business and of making such contribu
tions of a part of the premiums, should same be found necessary, in case of
those receiving a low income, because of the increase of production through
greater individual and industrial efficiency, and also because it would greatly
diminish the necessity for charitable relief.
There would also be the same justification for the expenditure of funds
raised by taxation for this purpose as for spending such funds to support the
Department of Agriculture, the Fisheries Bureau, the Mining and the Geological
Bureaus, and the maintenance of lighthouses and making of harbor and water
way improvements. They all contribute to the general welfare of the people
of the United States, which justifies their existence.
It is admitted that the compulsory element of a welfare insurance system im
plies that there is a considerable proportion of the people who do not have
sufficient self-control, foresight, and thrift to voluntarily take advantage of the
benefits of welfare insurance, even when the plan includes contributions from
employers and subsidies from the Government. This is unfortunate and dis
creditable but is an unalterable fact of human nature which must be taken
into account in considering social plans, because in modern times even the
thriftless and reckless can not be abandoned to perish by starvation and disease
when unable to earn their own support. Therefore compulsion should be
applied to the thriftless to force them at least to assist in making provision
for the emergencies which will certainly later occur to many of them.
It is coming to be generally admitted by those most competent to judge that
for any branch of welfare insurance to even approximately fulfill its purpose
by furnishing protection to the classes most needing the same it must be made
compulsory on all.
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A general system of welfare insurance would furnish the absolutely secure
institution for receiving the initial deposits and paying out, when the time
came, these old-age annuities, and hence any able-bodied man who had knowl
edge of the extraordinary results of such a plan of providing old-age pensions
and the opportunity of making such provisions by reason of the existence of
a secure institution for that purpose, but nevertheless failed to do so, would
have absolutely no right to complain if compulsion forced him to make such
provision.
While compulsion in general is somewhat objectionable to Americans, it can
not in any sense be as objectionable as the suffering which results from im
providence, and there should not be any reluctance to apply compulsion to those
so reckless, ungrateful, and improvident as not to take advantage of either a
reasonable amount of insurance in an expense-free Government system or too
thriftless to accumulate enough property for protection against accident, sick
ness, old age, unemployment, and premature death.
Compulsion is now used to enforce education, sanitation, tire prevention, food
supervision, traffic regulation, and, in fact, obedience to all laws. Sentimental
objections to the absolutely necessary compulsory feature should not be allowed
to prevent the inestimable benefits of universal welfare insurance.
That a general system of successful welfare insurance is possible only when
carried on by the Nation is, I believe, conclusively proven by the fact that in
all nations where it is in operation it is effected in this way. This is true
of the almost complete systems now in operation in Germany and England, and
also of the less complete systems of other European countries. This method
has been adopted also in Australia, and in the States of Washington and Ohio
in regard to workingmen’s compensation.
An objection certain to be loudly and insistently urged is that a national
system of welfare insurance would interfere with private business. When a
private business which is for the purpose of supplying fundamental needs of
the people has failed to perform its function at a reasonable cost, it then
clearly becomes the duty of the Government to assume the operation of such
business. Temporarily some insurance middlemen may lose employment, .but
no man has a vested right to make an easy living by performing an unneeded
function which increases the expense of a beneficent institution. By reason
of the great extension of insurance to the whole people, which would occur
by creation of a compulsory national system, employment will be given to
many now employed under the private system who are skilled and capable,
although, of course, there would be no $25,000 to $100,000 salaries paid to
agents or officials as at present. The howl about welfare insurance interfering
with private business comes from extravagantly paid men who would be sup
planted by Government officials at moderate salaries and stockholders who
realize they could not get such enormous dividends on their investments in
any other business.
A complete system of welfare insurance by bringing about, as it would, the
collection of accurate and complete statistics concerning the occurrence and
a study of the causes of accidents, sickness, involuntary unemployment, and
other destroyers of human welfare would be an immense incentive to and aid
toward preventive measures against all of these misfortunes. This has oc
curred in connection with accidents insured against by workmen’s compensa
tion, which is one branch of welfare insurance.
Similar preventive benefits will occur in other branches of welfare insurance.
The accumulation of knowledge concerning sickness, premature death, invol-
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untary unemployment, and similar causes of distress would certainly result
in better human conservation and social upbuilding through a Nation-wide
system of sickness prevention, the establishment of a complete national system
of employment bureaus, and similar institutions for increasing human wel
fare. * * *
Welfare insurance is a plan whereby all, through the operation of the law
of average, help without hardship to bear the heavy burdens from misfortune
that befall the few. The community at large, however, has not grasped the
conception or realized the fact that it is possible by means of a proper system
of welfare insurance to distribute the financial effects of all of the misfortunes
which afflict humanity in such a way that they will be easily borne by all.
What is needed is education of the whole people, until each citizen realizes
its benefits and practicability.
In reply to questions from the floor Mr. Potts stated his belief
that the “ general welfare ” clause in the Constitution was adequate
authorization for Congress to legislate along the lines of his paper,
and that no constitutional amendment would be necessary.
A paper which emphasized the danger of State insurance, but
along another line, was read by Mr. E. E. Harper, commissioner of
insurance of Colorado. The title of the paper was, “ How far should
a life insurance company go toward conserving the lives of its policy
holders.” Mr. Harper said in part:
The time was when all that was expected or demanded of insurance was to
meet the loss when the loss came and to have no concern for the safety or wel
fare of the insured in the meantime. But now comes the question, “ How far
should a life insurance company go toward conserving the lives of its policy
holders?”
The industrial enterprise that but a few years ago gave no thought, much less
expenditure of money, to the question of the welfare of its employees, to-day
gives that important question virtually first thought. And what ambitious -wel
fare programs are being carried out by so many of our commercial and indus
trial organizations! The highest expert ability and vast means are being uti
lized along humanitarian and sociological lines, a work which in the light of
ideas obtaining but a few years ago, is most wonderful and at the same time
most interesting.
But why all this? Is it because the influence of social welfare, pure and
simple, has come to control? No; assuredly, no. Is it because of an altruistic
concern for the individual worker’s welfare? I regret that I can not give much
credit to that worthy motive. No. By and large, it is because of the economi
cal factor. This new method has been found to pay, and pay most hand
somely ; and that is the final answer. In fact, it is apparent from almost all
that is written and said on the subject, that in civic and social welfare work,
in the matter of disease and kindred hindrance to community interests, the
questions involved are weighed more than ever with the thought of their
economic quality.
The demand for service is to be greater than ever before upon every dollar
of capital, upon every effort of m an; and it will fall nowhere more insist
ently than upon life insurance, which, if it would measure up to its high call
ing, must take the responsibility and fully qualify. The foolish, futile days of
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the throwing away of values worth preserving have at last gone by, never to
return; and the day of conservation is at hand—conservation of everything of
value, everything worth while. And what is of more value than human life,
the very subject matter of life insurance—especially when that life needlessly
squandered must not only be lost to the world’s upbuilding but must be paid
for?
If it is essential that before insuring aji applicant the life insurance com
pany shall determine that the applicant is in good health, then why is it not
just as essential—yes, far more—that after the applicant has become a policy
holder he be kept in good health, that his life and productive powers be con
served as long as possible, and that the burden of his death upon the company
and upon society be postponed to the utmost? It calls for no argument to show
that the lower the mortality of one or all life insurance companies, the greater
the returns to those interested, and consequently the lower the cost of the
insurance. Then why is it not a wise economical act to expend means toward
conserving life ancl thereby reducing mortality? When properly and efficiently
applied this expenditure will prove one of the most economical factors in the
life insurance business. Moreover, it will have a most salutary effect on public
sentiment and tend largely to increase confidence in the business. And I know
of no one thing much more needed than increased confidence upon the part of
the public in insurance.
Most earnest commendation is properly given fire insurance companies for
their splendid efforts toward the reduction of fire loss and the consequent con
servation of property; and no one thinks of questioning their right to expend
large amounts in their campaigns against fire waste. It is considered as best
possible evidence of efficiency for casualty companies to secure the services of
the best experts and expend freely in the work of preventing accidents.
Why do the fire and casualty companies carry out such campaigns? Not
altogether for altruistic reasons, nor for social welfare reasons; but for the
reason that it pays. The same reason holds good as regards life insurance
even to a greater degree.
It should perhaps be said that the undertaking proposed is .so ambitious and
of such far-reaching consequence that it will be somewhat difficult for many
companies to do the work and do it as thoroughly as it should be done. The
field enlarges so rapidly and the demands are so urgent that but comparatively
few companies can handle the entire plan of life conservation successfully.
Consequently a way should be found whereby all companies, and thereby all
policyholders, can be benefited. That can only be by a combination of all inter
ested, in so far as this feature of life insurance work goes; that is to say, by
the establishment of a general bureau, to the support and operation of which
each life company shall contribute in proportion to its interest—that bureau
to have complete control of the mighty work of life conservation.
Such a bureau should, of course, work in harmony with national, State, and
municipal bodies of like nature. Thus assisted, and properly operated, it would
certainly result in a few brief years in a gratifying increase in the average
length of life, with all the consequent great economical saving in the earning
power of the individual, as well as in a mighty reduction in the loss ratio of life
insurance with a corresponding relative saving in actual dollars required to
be paid out.
Before closing, let me say that there is another feature that should be con
sidered in connection with this important matter, and that is the tendency now
manifesting itself toward State insurance—that fallacious idea of some who
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79
seem to think that if the State does the insurance business they will somehow
or other get something for nothing. The National or State Governments can
never do business—industrial and commercial business, such as even life in
surance after all is—as efficiently and economically as can properly organized
and conducted private organizations. But unless those private organizations
meet what are clearly seen to be the needs and reasonable demands of the
people, the State will surely take up the work, however inefficiently it may do
it. Consequently if the ultimately disastrous movement toward State life
insurance is to be headed off, the life insurance companies must meet the un
doubted demand for greater service along the lines of conservation of life.
RECENT REPORTS RELATING TO WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION
AND ACCIDENT INSURANCE.
C O N N E C T IC U T .
The workmen’s compensation law of Connecticut divides the State
into five districts, each of these being assigned to a commissioner for
the determination of awards under the act. These commissioners act
independently, but constitute a board for certain collective activities.
The publication of a digest of the decisions of these commissioners
is authorized by chapter 288, Acts of 1915, though no provision is
made for a continuation of such an undertaking. Under this author
ity a volume of decisions1 has been compiled, the assumption being
made that further volumes will also be authorized.
- Not all the decisions rendered have been published, but only such as
“ are deemed to be of general interest ” ; furthermore, paragraphs of
subordinate importance have been omitted in order to economize
space. Decisions of the superior court on appealed cases are also
given, together with references to the Connecticut and Atlantic Re
porters for such cases as were passed upon by the supreme court of
errors. The fact that the awards are made by the different commis
sioners independently causes the decisions to “ lack that uniformity
incident to the work of one hand.”
The effort has been made to confine the cases selected to such as covered
doubtful points, construed sections of the act the construction of which might be
involved in uncertainty, or illustrated features of the law, its operation or
procedure, in such a way as to be of practical assistance to those affected by
the act.
Indexes show a list of cases and subjects passed upon. Naturally,
in view of the novelty of the act, a very considerable number of the
cases in this first volume relate to the construction of particular
provisions of the act. The phrases, “ arising out of employment,” and
1
C o n n e c tic u t: C o m p e n d iu m o f A w a rd s o f th e C o m p e n sa tio n C o m m issio n e rs, J a n u a r y ,
1014, to M ay , 101G. 732 p p. H a r tf o r d , 1916.
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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
“ course of employment,” called for discussion in a considerable num
ber of cases. Several decisions also involved a consideration of the
technical procedure as to notice of accident, questions of prejudice
through want of notice, serious and willful misconduct, etc.
M A SSA C H U SET TS.
The Industrial Accident Board of Massachusetts has compiled in
bulletin form reports of cases under the workmen’s compensation act
of the State determined by the supreme court.1 These bulletins are
in continuation of previous publications of the same nature, Nos. T,
8, 10, 11, and 12 being earlier issues in this field. The decisions are
reported in full with syllabi. The value of these bulletins consists
in the convenient form in which they present the authoritative con
struction of the law of the State. Practically all the decisions con
tained therein are to be found in the annual publications of the
United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, and in condensed form in
the forthcoming Bulletin No. 203 on the subject of Workmen’s
Compensation.
M IN N E S O T A .
Bulletin No. 13 of the Department of Labor and Industries of the
State of Minnesota 2 presents the construction of the workmen’s com
pensation law of the State as developed by the various authorities
to whom this work is committed by the act. Previous bulletins pre
senting similar material are Nos. 9 and 11 of the same office, though
there has been some change in both the subject matter and the
method of presentation. The present bulletin contains rulings by
the attorney general and the department of labor and digests of the
decisions of the district courts and of the supreme court of the State,
made between August, 1915, and May, 1916. Material is for the
most part presented in an abridged and compact form and is ar
ranged under topical headings, 12 in number. Court decisions,
where they have been rendered on the subject, are presented first,
followed by opinions of the attorney general and of the labor depart
ment. An alphabetical topical index is announced as being a part
of the bulletin, as is a cumulative index, presenting all opinions and
decisions up to June 10, 1916; these features, however, are not found
in the copy of the bulletin at hand.
1 M a s s a c h u s e t t s : I n d u s t r i a l A c c id e n t B o a rd .
B u lle tin s N os. 15,‘ 16. R e p o r t o f C ases
U n d e r th e W o rk m e n ’s C o m p e n s a tio n A c t D e te rm in e d on A p p e a l to th e S u p re m e J u d ic ia l
C o u rt. M ay 20, 19 1 5 , to D ec. 1, 1915, 19 p p . D ec. 1, 1915, to M a r. 7, 1916, 76 pp.
B o sto n , 1915, 1916.
2 M in n e s o ta : D e p a r tm e n t
o f L a b o r a n d I n d u s tr ie s . C o u rt D ecisio n s, A tto rn e y G en
e ra l s O p in io n s, D e p a r tm e n t o f L a b o r O p in io n s, R e la tiv e to th e W o rk m e n ’s C o m p e n sa tio n
A c t. 57 p p . S t. P a u l, 1916.
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W IS C O N S IN
81
.1
A bulletin of the Industrial Commission of Wisconsin, issued
August 1, 1910, contains information, for the year 1915,2 relative to
the business and accident experience of every insurance company
and the accident and compensation experience of every employer
carrying his own risk, under the workmen’s compensation act. I t
shows the net premiums collected, the earned premiums,3 and all
expenditures incurred, the expense of doing business as well as the
actual amount of compensation paid to injured workmen and their
dependents.
The following facts appear from the report:
During 1915 the insurance companies collected $1,051,0004 in workmen’s
compensation premiums in this State, a decrease of 10 per cent as compared
with the amount collected in 1914.
Of the total business in this State, about 25 per cent was carried by the
six Wisconsin mutual companies. * * * During 1914 only 20 per cent of the
entire business was placed with Wisconsin mutuals. The increase in 1915 seems
to indicate that more employers are availing themselves of the lower cost of
mutual insurance.
The total cost of indemnifying injured workmen and their dependents, in
cluding medical benefits, during 1915, was $954,412 or 58 per cent of the earned
premiums. Of this amount 65 per cent was paid and 37 per cent was outstand
ing at the end of the year.
The report emphasizes the low cost of insurance in Wisconsin
mutuals as compared with stock companies and interinsurers, the
management expense in the first instance being only 20.7 per cent of
the earned premiums, while stock companies and interinsurers each
used approximately 40 per cent for this purpose.
For every 100 cents of compensation received by the injured, insurance car
riers used 01 cents for expenses. It appears that in this form of insurance,
which is practically compulsory and for the benefit of a third party, the over
head cost is too high. The test of a good compensation law is that it actually
carries to injured workmen the maximum proportion of the cost of compensa
tion for industries, and that payments are prompt and certain. Since insurance
is the machinery by which the large proportion of compensation is paid, the
amount which the workmen receive in proportion to the amount paid by em
ployers is a fair test of the economy of the system. In 1915, taking all com
panies together, every 100 cents paid by employers to insurance carriers was
used as follow s: Returned to injured workmen, 58 cen ts; expenses of insur
ance management, 35 ce n ts;5 surplus to insurance companies, 7 cents. Stock
companies returned 56 cents of each dollar to beneficiaries, used 40 cents 5 for
1 I n d u s tr ia l
C o m m issio n . W o rk m e n ’s C o m p e n sa tio n In s u r a n c e . B u lle tin , is su e d A ug.
I , 1916.
[M a d iso n , 1 9 1 6 .]
32 pp.
2 F o r a n a c c o u n t o f th e 1 914 e x p e rie n c e see t h e M o n t h l y R e v ie w fo r J a n u a r y , 1916,
p. 53.
3 B y e a r n e d p re m iu m s is m e a n t th e a c tu a l p re m iu m s e a r n e d d u r in g th e y e a r.
P o lic ie s
a r e is su e d f o r o n e y e a r a n d th e p re m iu m s a re p a id in a d v a n c e . H e n ce , o n a p o lic y is su e d
J u ly 1, o n e -h a lf o f tlie p re m iu m w ill be e a r n e d on D ec. 31, o f th e sam e y e ar.
4 T h is does n o t a g re e w ith th e a m o u n t g iv e n in th e ta b le s on p a g e s 82 a n d 83.
5 A p p ro x im a te ly .
F o r e x a c t fig u re see ta b le on p. 84.
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M O N T H L Y REVIEW OE THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
expenses, and 4 cents went as surplus to stockholders. Wisconsin mutuals re
turned 60 cents to injured workmen, used 21 cents1 for expenses, and 19 cents
remained as surplus to the policyholders. It is gratifying to note that Wisconsin
mutuals are continuing to operate on a very economical basis. * * *
The greatest saving in the management of Wisconsin mutuals was made in
the acquisition cost. Stock companies spent 16 per cent1 of premiums for
agents’ commissions alone, while the total selling cost of the mutuals was 4
per cen t1 of premiums. A considerable saving was also effected in the ad
justment of claims, for which item the stock companies spent 8 per cent1 of
premiums as compared with 2 per cen t1 spent by Wisconsin mutuals.
The following is a condensed statement of the business of insur
ance companies in the State in 1915. It shows the actual compensa
tion incurred during the year but does not include payments made
for accidents occurring prior to 1915. “ Expenses incurred ” means
expenses upon the business represented by the actual earned pre
miums.
S T A T E M E N T O F IN SU R A N C E C O M PA N IES U N D E R T H E W ISC O N SIN W O R K M E N ’S COM
P E N S A T IO N IN SU R A N C E ACT, 1915.
Com pensation a n d expenses incurred.
Compensation.
Insurance
com panies.
N et
E arn ed
p re
m ium . prem ium .
In d em Medi
cal
n ity .! bene
fits . 1
•Expenses.
Per
Per
cent
cent $ Per
1 of
of
of
com
Total. earned A m ount. earned
prem i
prem i pensa
tio n . 2
um s.
um s. 2
W is c o n s in
m u tu a ls ... $413,695 $406,959 $156,584 $8 6 , 8 6 6 $243,450
Interinsu rers
a n d foreign
88,877 42,763 17,142 59,905
m u tu a ls ...
118,708
Stock c o m
panies ........ 1,076,514 1,156,909 444,129 206,928 651,057
T o ta l.. 1,608,977 31,652,745 043,476 310,936 3954,412
00
$84,053
21
Per
cent
of
earned
T otal. prem i
um s.
$0.35 $327,-503
81
68
35,564
40
.60
95,469
108
56
463,973
40
.71 1,115,030
%
58
583,590
35
.0 1
1,538,002
93
1 Includes b o th th e am o u n t p aid a n d th a t outstanding.
2 T he figures in th is colum n do n o t agree w ith those in th e table on page 84 for the reason given in N ote 1
to th a t table.
s These totals do n o t necessarily agree w ith those in th e table on page 83 since th is table is com piled from
reports filed w ith th e commission, w hile th e other table includes only au d ited policies.
A feature of the report is a statement of the reduction in compensa
tion insurance rates which has been made since the enactment of the
workmen’s compensation act in 1911. In September of that year,
when the first manual of rates was filed with the industrial commis
sion, the average rate for unlimited2 coverage on 100 representa
tive industry classes was $1.75 per hundred dollars of pay roll, while
the present average (June 1, 1916) as given in the report is $2.36,
A p p ro x im a te ly . F o r e x a c t fig u re se e ta b le o n p . 84.
“ U n lim ite d ” m e a n s f u ll c o v e ra g e . Som e p o lic ie s s p e c ify a lim it of lia b ility f o r one
p e rs o n a n d o n e a c c id e n t. T h e s ta n d a r d lim its a r e $ 5 ,0 0 0 f o r o n e p e rs o n a n d $ 1 0 ,0 0 0 fo r
one a c c id e n t r e s u ltin g in i n j u r y to s e v e ra l p e rs o n s.
1
2
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83
a reduction of over 50 per cent. In February, 1913, the average rate
was $3.80; in October, 1913, it was $3.51; in September, 1914, it was
$2.72. I t is explained that this reduction is still greater when merit
ratin g 1 is taken into account.
No such system was in use in 1911, but since the la tte r p a rt of 1915 the
base rates have been reduced about 15 per cent by giving credit fo r safeguard
ing and conditions in general which promote safety. Hence, the reduction in
re a lity was from $4.75 to about $2, or 58 per cent. * * * Applying the new
bureau rates to the pay rolls o f policies issued in 1914, the resulting weighted
average rate is $161. The average pure premium on $100.725,0002 pay ro ll
was $0.87. M e rit ra tin g w ill reduce the average rate to about $1.45. This
leaves a m argin of $0.58, or 40 per cent o f net premiums fo r management ex
penses and profit.
The following table gives the pure premium experience on work
men’s compensation insurance policies of 1914 issue for each speci
fied group of industries. In this table the pure premium represents
the actual cost of compensation per $100 of pay roll, and the bureau
base rate is that established by the Workmen’s Compensation Service
Bureau.
P U R E P R E M IU M E X P E R I E N C E O N W O R K M E N ’S C O M P E N S A T IO N IN S U R A N C E P O L I
C IE S O E 1914 I S S U E , B Y S P E C I F I E D I N D U S T R Y C L A S S E S .
I n d u s tr y class.
M in in g a n d q u a rry in g ....................................
C h em ical m a n u fa c tu rin g ...............................
E a r t h a n d s to n e w o rk in g ..............................
F o o d a n d b e v e ra g e s........................................
L e a th e r w o rk in g ...............................................
M eta l w o rk in g ...................................................
P u lp a n d p a p e r m a n u fa c tu rin g ..................
T e x tile m a n u fa c tu rin g ...................................
V eh icle m a n u fa c tu rin g ..................................
M iscellaneous m a n u fa c tu rin g ......................
■Woodworking in d u s trie s . . . 7 ......................
C o n s tru c tio n .............. .......................................
P u b lic u ti lit ie s ..................................................
T r a n s p o r ta tio n ..................................................
T r a d e ....................................................................
M iscellaneous in d u s trie s :
C lerical office fo rce...................................
F a r m i n g ......................................................
H o te l s .........................................................
Ic e h a rv e s tin g ............................................
S ale sm en , o u ts id e ....................................
A u d ite d
p a y roll.
E a rn e d
p re m iu m .
N um
P re
b e r of
m iu m
C om pen com
s a tio n
r a te
in c u rre d . p e n s a
l
b le ac leco
cted .
c id e n ts .
$798,685
548,958
1,426,782
8,436,317
4,073,595
11,444,581
4,357,659
4,122,719
2,304,831
4,209,344
13,294,012
9,605,986
1,073,422
5,887,267
11,711,098
$45,334
7,367
24,094
115,512
26,902
146,194
78,054
17,775
23,742
31,884
332,888
303,933
37,288
137,910
97,435
$27,202
3,427
18,459
60,184
15,145
85,175
66,238
11,050
20,385
11,577
200,398
155,623
14,390
86,014
66,839
146
39
151
577
120
891
682
98
205
147
2,143
1,117
86
654
675
10,320,472
799,540
1,014,893
124,078
2,026,519
17,443
14,518
7,229
5,532
4,466
1,669
7,497
3,687
4, 792
1,138
T o t a l......................................................... » 100,757,224
“ 1,510,152
“ 872,198
P u re B u
p r e re a u
m i b ase
u m . ra te .
$5.68 $3.41
1.35
.62
1.68 1.29
1.37
.71
.66
.37
1.28
.75
1.79 1.52
.43
.27
1.03
.89
$4.54
1.41
1.73
1.56
.81
1.60
2.38
.49
1.01
2.51
3.16
3.47
2.34
.83
1.50
1.62
1.34
1.46
.57
3 .Í6
3.74
2. .80
2.58
.77
27
78
60
56
17
.17
1.89
.7 2
4.45
.22
.016
.94
.36
3.87
.06
.09
1.52
.60
4.80
.14
“ 8,082
1.51
.87
1.61
“ Includes figures for minor industry classes not shown separately.
1 The function of merit rating is to recognize the differences in hazard in establishments
in the same industry class. Instead of having one flat rate for an entire industry the
rate is adjusted according to the hazards of individual establishments, and a regular
schedule of credits and charges is applied for conditions which tend to prevent or pro
duce accidents. The owner of a well-guarded plant receives a reduction in rate, while the
careless employer is penalized.
2 This does not agree with the total pay roll as given in the table following ; the dis
crepancy is not explained in the report.
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M O N T H LY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
D uring 1915 stock companies as a whole used 40 per cent of earned premiums
for overhead cost. From this i t appears th a t the present bureau rates, after
allow ing 10 per cent fo r reduction under m e rit rating, can not be m aterially
reduced unless the management expenses are decreased. Some nonbureau stock
companies w rite at rates considerably below the bureau base, rates, but do not
apply m erit rating, yet this does not w a rra n t a reduction o f more than about 15
per cent, and any reduction beyond this point should be the result of a saving in
management expenses. Due to a low expense ra tio —21 per cent of earned
premiums— the Wisconsin mutuals are able to w rite a t rates considerably
below the stock companies and s till collect sufficient premiums to meet a ll losses.
The following table, adapted from the report, shows the division
of the expenses incurred by insurance companies. It will be seen
that Wisconsin mutuals occupy a favorable position as compared
with other insurance companies operating under the workmen’s com
pensation insurance act.
E X P E N S E S IN C U R R E D B Y IN S U R A N C E C O M P A N IE S U N D E R T H E W IS C O N S IN W O R K
M E N ’S C O M P E N S A T IO N A C T , 1915.
W isc o n sin m u tu a ls .
E x p e n d itu r e for—■
A m o u n t.
In s p e c tio n ...............................................................
A d ju s tm e n t............................................................
A c q u is itio n .............................................................
T axes. .
..............................................
H o m e office............................................................
$10,444
T o t a l .............................................................
In te r in s u r e r s .
P e r c e n t P e r $1 of
P e r c e n t P e r $1 of
of e a rn e d c o m p e n
rn e d
A m o u n t. of ea
co m p en
p re
p re
s a tio n .1
m iu m s .1
m iu m s .1 s a tio n .1
2.6
1.7
4.2
$0.043
.027
.071
«601
8,806
0.7
9.9
$0,010
.147
17^ 259
49,814
12.2
.205
24,403
2.0
27.5
.029
.407
84,053
20.7
. 345
35,564
40.1
.594
S to ck co m p an ies.
E x p e n d itu r e for—
A m o u n t.
A ll co m p an ies.
P er cent
P e r c e n t P e r $1 of
of e a rn e d Per-$1 of
c o m p e n A m o u n t. of ea rn e d c o m p en
p re
p re
s a tio n .1
m iu m s .1
m iu m s .1 s a tio n .1
In s p e c tio n ...............................................................
A d ju s tm e n t............................................................
A c q u is itio n .............................................................
T a x e s ........................................................................
H o m e o ffice............................................................
«36,381
86,147
182,030
23, 444
135,971
3.1
7.4
15.7
2.0
11.8
$0.056
.132
.280
.036
.209
«47,426
101,489
199,289
25,198
210,188
2.9
6.1
12.1
1.5
12.7
« 0 .050
.106
.209
.026
.220
T o t a l .............................................................
463,973
39.9
.712
583,590
35.3
.611
i T h is c o lu m n is n o t ta k e n from th e re p o rt, h u t is c o m p u te d fro m d a ta c o n ta in e d in th is a n d o th e r ta b le s
in t h e re p o rt. T h e figures do n o t agree in som e in s ta n c e s w ith th o se m e n tio n e d in th e te x t or in th e ta b le
o n p ag e 82, a n d th is is d u e to th e fact t h a t th o se figures a re ta k e n fro m th e re p o r t a n d d ec im als h a v e b e e n
d ro p p e d .
The report notes a tendency among insurance companies to under
estimate their outstanding liabilities on compensation claims, which
results in the carrying of insufficient reserves. If unpaid losses are
underestimated the result is an error in the pure premium on industry
classes as well as in the loss ratio 1 of insurance companies. In comB y lo s s r a t i o is m e a n t t h e p e r c e n t t h e c o m p e n s a t i o n i n c u r r e d is to e a r n e d p r e m iu m s .
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85
paring the amount paid in 1915 for accidents occurring in 1911 and
the estimated liability still outstanding with the estimates made at the
end of 1914, it is found that the unpaid losses were considerably under
estimated. For instance, the report shows that instead of $313,539
the estimate should have been $450,885, an increase of $137,346, or 44
per cent of the original amount. Thus the total 1914 losses were in
creased by 14 per cent and the loss ratio was increased from 51 per
cent to 58 per cent of earned premiums.
During 1915, according to the report, about 550 employers carried
their own risk, the total number at any one time not exceeding 500.
The total pay roll expended by these concerns was $55,690,200, and the
total compensation incurred was $280,502, of which amount 39 per
cent was for medical aid. The cost per $100 of pay roll averaged
51 cents as compared to 87 cents, the experience on audited policies.
(See table on page 83.)
The report explains this reduced cost to employers who carry their
own risk by stating that the large part of the pay roll is represented
by a small number of large employers who have done a great deal of
safety work and have reduced accidents to the minimum, and that
when workmen are injured these employers often find lighter em
ployment for the injured and pay them full wages before they are able
to work at their regular occupation, which not only enables a work
man to earn full wages but is cheaper to the employer than to pay
compensation. An insured employer, it is stated, has no such induce
ment and usually does not take the injured employee back to work
until he is able to do his regular work.
The commission offers the following suggestion on how to reduce
insurance cost:
Premiums collected by insurance carriers must be sufficient to meet all com
pensation incurred and to pay fo r the cost of management. Rates are based
on actual experience on a ll classes w hich present a large enough exposure. To
the actual experience is added a loading fo r management expenses. To reduce
rates, either the losses or expenses, or both, must be decreased. To reduce the
compensation cost, by the prevention o f accidents, remains fo r the employer.
Safety appliances and safety organizations not only effect a reduction from the
base rate but tend to a reduction of losses and, ultim ately, a decreased base
rate. To prevent accidents means to reduce your insurance cost.
SYNTHESIS OF RATES FOR WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION.1
In this pamphlet the author considers some of the important fac
tors entering into the calculation of compensation rates, which “ are
the focal points of everything that enters into their calculation ”
1 The Synthesis of Rates for Workmen’s Compensation, by Claude E. Scattergood. The
Fidelity and Casualty Company of New York, 92 to 94 Liberty Street, New York, Febru
ary, 1916. 31 pp.
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M O N T H LY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
and “ should be the focal points of everything that ought to enter
into their calculation.” Just as it is important for a business man
to take everything pertaining to cost into account before quoting his
price, so it is essential that in the calculation of compensation rates
every influence bearing upon the determination of such rates be given
consideration.
The author notes that the first thing to obtain is the pure premium,
which “ is the amount that will be given to injured workmen or their
dependents by reason of accidents occurring during the period which
the pay roll covers, for each $100 of pay roll expended during that
period,” and is determined by dividing the total losses by the amount
of pay roll which represents the exposure.
In order to secure as dependable a pure premium as possible the
Workmen’s Compensation Service Bureau receives from insurance
companies reports of their experience, both as to pay rolls and losses,
by lines of business. By combining this information the bureau ob
tains a large pay roll exposure and loss experience from which, by
dividing the second by the first, it derives an average pure premium
for all lines of business combined, which becomes the basis upon
which manuals of compensation rates are compiled. In fixing the
pure premium the following considerations are deemed essential in
order to avoid increasing rates which are found by experience to be
too low, and to assure the security of insurance carriers as well as
the security of compensation to injured workmen and their depend
ents. In these factors the author traces tlie formation of a manual
of compensation rates for a western State based upon the experience
of an eastern State.
1. Since a beneficiary may become entitled to a, series of payments
occurring at regular intervals, together with the cost of his medical
and surgical attendance, for the period and limitations allowed by
the compensation law, it is essential that the pure premium should
cover not only the losses actually paid, but also the estimate of out
standing losses, which, it is admitted, is difficult to determine and
consequently almost certain to be placed too low unless a loading
factor be added. “ I f the underestimate is considered to be 10 per
cent of the total losses incurred for all lines of industry combined,
the pure premium for each industry must be increased by 10 per
cent.”
2. Another factor to be considered is the law differential ; that is,
the effect upon the proposed rate of the provisions of the compensa
tion law of the State in which the rate is to be applied. Thus the
pure premium, corrected for underestimate of outstanding losses,
must be increased or decreased by a percentage of the difference
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87
between the cost of accidents in the State taken as a basis and the
State in which the rate is to be applied, as expressed in terms of
weeks’ wages.
3. The rate must also reflect the accident frequency or the rate at
which accidents occur among employees exposed to injury. This is
obtained by dividing the accidents by the number of employees, and
since the conditions under which men work in various States or in
various industries in the State influence the accident frequency rate,
it is important that a loading for this factor be included.
4. The increasing cost of the compensation act, arising out of the
fact that as workmen learn of and become educated to its benefits
they will make more claims upon it, is to be considered in fixing the
rate.
5. The loading for profit, if there be such, must not be disregarded.
v 6. To the pure premium also must be added a loading for expenses,
including business getting, service, administration, and taxes. This
percentage will be higher in States whose law gives low loss cost
than where high loss costs are incurred.
7.
Experience has apparently demonstrated that schedule rating
tends to reduce premiums, both when the adjustment in rate was
made from inspection of plants and also when experience under
former liability policies was the basis. Some loading, it is believed,
should be placed upon the pure premium to counteract the effect of
these reductions.
k 8. Where compensation laws cover industrial diseases this fact
must be taken into consideration in establishing the rate.
9. Finally, there must be a loading for catastrophe cost which,
expressed in cents per $100 of pay roll, is not attached to the pure
premium but is added to the rate itself as finally established.
It is explained that when rates for a certain State can be calcu
lated upon the basis of pay roll and loss experience of the State
itself, loadings for law cost and accident frequency will not be
necessary.
ACCIDENT EXPERIENCE OF THE PORTLAND CEMENT ASSOCI
ATION IN 1915.1
i The Study of Accidents for the Year 1915 is a record of the acci
dent experience of the Portland Cement Assciation and is the third
such study to be presented to the member companies. Owing to the
difficulty of collecting accurate figures of the number of employees
in the various companies for different periods of time the accident
I
1 The Study of Accidents for the Year 1915, prepared and copyrighted by the bureau of
accident prevention of the Portland Cement Association, Chicago, September, 1916.
8 charts ; 3 inserts ; 31 pp.
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M O N TH LY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
rates are for the most part on the basis of a million barrels of cement
produced. In the studies of the two previous years, it is stated, no
charge of days lost was made for fatal accidents, so that the most
severe accidents failed to have any weight in the distribution of
time loss. “ While accident frequency is illuminating, accident
severity, which is shown by the days lost chargeable to them, is of
greater importance, and for this reason ” the bureau of accident pre
vention of the association, in the 1915 report, has adopted the plan
in use by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics of making a
charge of 9,000 days for each fatal accident.
The most g ra tify in g and outstanding feature presented by this study is the
fact th a t there were but 35 fa ta litie s reported during 1915, as against 59 in
1914. F iguring upon the m illio n barrels produced basis, this is a reduction of
50 per cent in fa ta l accidents. From this it is evident th a t results are being
accomplished in the saving of human life and lim b and the prevention of pain,
suffering, and misery on the p a rt of injured workmen and th e ir dependents.
It appears from the report that in 1913 there were 3,335 accidents,
causing a loss of 393,986 days; in 1914, 3,786 accidents, causing a loss
of 558,982 days; in 1915, 3,967 accidents, causing a loss of 345,171
days. The following table gives a summary comparison of acci
dents for the three years, showing the total accidents and also the
number per million barrels of cement produced:
N U M B E R O F A C C ID E N T S A N D O F D A Y S L O S T C O M P A R E D W I T H P R O D U C T I O N O F
C E M E N T , B Y C L A S S IF IE D N U M B E R O F D A Y S L O S T , 1913, 1914, A N D 1915.
[T h e a p p ro x im a te p ro d u c tio n w as as follow s: 1913,52,500,000 b a rre ls ; 1914,50,600,000 b a rre ls; 1915,61,200,000
b a rre ls.]
T o ta l n u m b e r
of ac c id e n ts.
D a y s lo st.
N u m b e r of
a c c id e n ts
p e r 1,000,000
b a rre ls of
cem ent
p ro d u c e d .
1
1913 1914 1915 19131914 1915
T o ta l n u m b e r of
d a y s lo st.
D a y s lo st p e r 1,000,000
b a rre ls of ce m e n t
p ro d u c e d .
1913
1914
1915
N o tim e lo s t.................................. 1,138 1,474 1,684 21.7i20.1 27.5
41
47
L ess th a n 1 d a y ..........................
45 .8 .9 .7
1 to 7 d a y s ..................................... 905 1.083 1,073 17. 2 21. 4 17.6
8 to 10 d a y s ................................... 206 261 239 3.9 5.2 3.9
11 to 14 d a y s ................................. 217 219 227 4.1 4.3 3.7
3,415
1.849
2,704
4,017
2,348
2,714
3,848
2,131
2,818
65.1
35.2
51.5
79.4
46.4
53.6
62.9
34.8
46.0
T o ta l, less th a n 15 d a y s . 2,507 3,084 3,268 47.7 60.9 53.4
7,968
9,079
8,797
151.8
179. 4
143.7
1913
1914
1915
15 to 25 d a y s .................................
26 to 40 d a y s .................................
41 to 55 d a y s .................................
56 to i0 d a y s .................................
71 to 85 d a y s .................................
86 to 99 d a y s .................................
100 d a y s a n d o v e r .......................
D e a th ..............................................
232
117
45
21
23
13
14
41
291
139
57
29
13
11
12
59
275 4.4 5.8 4.5 4,483 6,474 5, 272
85.4
128.0
86.1
165 2.2 2.7 2.7 3,918 4,408 5,225
74.6
87.1
85.4
56 .9 1.1 .9 2,390 2,642 2,689
45.5
52.2
43.9
23 .4 .6 .4 1,413 1,824 1,374
26.9
36.1
22.5
17 .4 .3 .3 1,546
982 1,301
29.4
19. 4
21.3
12 .3 .2 .2 1,284
987 1,213
24.5
19.5
19.8
28 .3 .2 .4 1,984 1,586 4,300
37.8
31.3
70.3
35 .8 1.2 .6 369, 000 531,000 315,000 7,028.6 10,494. 0 5,147.0
T o ta l, 15 d a y s a n d o v er.
506
611
611 9.7 12.1 10. 0386,018 549,903 336,374 7y 352. 7 10,867.6 5,496.3
D id n o t r e t u r n to w o rk ..........
N o t g iv e n ......................................
139
183
86
5
60 2.6 1.7 1.0
28 3.5 . 1
4
G ra n d t o t a l ....................... 3,33513, 786 3,967 63.5 74.8.64. 8 393,986 558,982:345,171 7, 504. 511, 047.0 5,640.0
1
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89
Under the totals fo r less than 15 days a considerable drop is shown by 1915
as compared w ith 1914 in both the number of accidents per m illio n barrels
produced and the days lost per m illio n barrels produced. The firs t division
in this table comprises those accidents which, in a m a jo rity of the States,
would be noncompensable on account of the generally prescribed w a itin g
period of 2 weeks, which is found in the greater number of State compensation
laws now effective. In the second division of the table, comprising accidents
on which 15 to 25 days and up were lost, the fa ta lity charge of 9,000 days plays
an im portant part.
R eferring to the columns based on per m illio n barrels produced, a reduction
of practically 50 per cent is shown fo r 1915 as compared w ith 1914 on the days
lost on accidents causing a d isa b ility of more than 14 days, and a reduction of
practically 18 per cent in the number of such accidents per m illio n barrels
produced.
The following table shows for 1915 the number of accidents, the
per cent of total accidents, the per cent of total employees, and the
per cent of total number of days lost for each specified department:
N U M B E R A N D P E R C EN T O F A C C ID E N TS, B Y D E P A R T M E N T S , AN D P E R C EN T O F
T O T A L E M P L O Y E E S , A N D O F T O T A L D A Y S LO ST IN EA C H D E P A R T M E N T , 1915.
A ccid en ts
re p o rte d .
D e p a rt m e n t.
Q u a r r y .............................................. - ............................................. ..
C la y f ie ld ......... .................................................................................
C ru s h in g ............................................................................................
R a w .....................................................................................................
B u r n in g .............................................................................................
C lin k er g r in d in g .............................................................................
Coal g rin d in g ...................................................................................
C em en t s to ra g e ................................................................................
S to n e sto ra g e ....................................................................................
P a c k in g a n d s h ip p in g ..................................................................
P o w e r h o u s e .....................................................................................
M achine s h o p ...................................................................................
C a rp e n te r s h o p ................................................................................
B la c k s m ith s h o p ............................................................................
S to re ro o m ..........................................................................................
R a ilr o a d .........................................................................- .................
Y a r d ....................................................................................................
982
47
302
328
346
318
122
81
14
274
243
342
11
35
44
73
281
O th e r d e p a rtm e n ts ........................................................................
108
T o t a l .......................................................................................
2 3,954
P er cent
P er cent
P er cent
of to ta l
of to ta l
of to ta l
n u m b e r of n u m b e r of n u m b e r of
a c c id e n ts e m p lo y e e s .1 d a y s lo s t.
re p o rte d .
26.02
.1 8
8. 49
8.57
11.12
3.50
13. 44
.18
5.24
3.21
3.01
2.93
.01
.02
. 05
8.10
3.12
2.80
21.24
1.91
3.01
8. 07
5.64
6.94
2.94
. 84
.87
12.66
7. 74
4. 42
1.71
.97
.99
1.69
8.26
4. 21
5.89
100. 00
100. 00
100.00
24.80
1.19
7.60
8. 28
8. 74
8.03
3.08
2. 05
.36
6.92
6.14
8.64
.28
.88
1.11
1. 85
7.10
3
.
2.81
1 A lthough based upo n th e to ta l n u m b er of employees, the re p o rt does not show the num ber em ployed
in each d ep artm en t or th e to ta l n um ber of employees.
T his does n o t include 6 accidents occurring outside of p la n t an d 7 accidents not charged to any one
departm ent.
2
From the above table it would appear that in such departments as
coal grinding and railroad the accident frequency is comparatively
low, while the accident severity is high. On the other hand, depart
ments showing a high per cent of accidents as compared with per
cent of employees and per cent of days lost, as, for instance, machine
shop and clinker grinding, have a greater per cent of minor injuries
occurring in them.
It is shown that during 1915 the commonest causes of accidents
were falling objects, sharp edges or points, flying material, and break-
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M O N T H LY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
ing or slipping of machines, parts or objects; 20.8 per cent were due
to the first-named, 14.7 per cent to the second, 13.G per cent to the
third, and 10.7 per cent to the fourth cause.
Accidents classified by nature of injury and by days lost show 65.8
per cent due to minor cuts, bruises, burns, or sprains, with an average
of 3.3 days lost; 15.4 per cent due to severe cuts, bruises, burns, or
sprains, with an average of 18.2 days lost; 11 per cent to eye injuries
(temporary), with an average of 3.6 days lost; and 4.1 per cent to
breaks or fractures, with an average of 37.9 days lost. Amputations
were responsible for an average of 52.3 days lost and sickness and
infection for an average loss of 10.5 days. It was found that the
greatest number of accidents occurred after more than 4 but less than
5 hours of work; that more accidents (16.2 per cent) happened on
¡Wednesday than on any other day; that in the morning the greatest
number occurred between the hours of 9 and 10 o’clock, and in the
afternoon, between 2 and 3 o’clock; that 792 accidents (20 per cent)
affected men who had been employed 4 weeks or less, which “ clearly
indicates the importance of the proper education of new employees
before allowing them to take up their duties” ; that of 18,554
employees, the highest accident frequency (58.3 accidents per 100
employees) and the highest accident severity (57.7 days lost per
employee) appeared among those of German birth, while the Portu
guese showed the highest fatality rate (0.9 per 100 employees).
It also appears from the report that the age group in which the
greatest number of accidents occurred was 30 to 39 years, inclu
sive, with an average of 45 days lost; that 2,417 (60.9 per cent)
of the accidents occurred to those who spoke good English, while
the highest average days lost was among those not speaking English;
that married men suffered 68 per cent of the accidents and were
charged with 63 per cent of the total time lost; that of 2,610 minor
injuries, only 80 are reported as having received no medical treatment
at all, while 1,179 received first aid and 938 received both first aid and
a doctor’s services; that of the 35 fatal cases, 4 are reported as hav
ing received no medical attention, since death was instantaneous.
The report closes with an estimate of the cost of accidents for the
year 1915, based upon the following specifications, “ which were
determined by arriving at an average value for the various clauses
of compensation laws in effect” :
G e n e r a l.
In ju re d men to be compensated fo r a ll injuries, irrespective of
responsibility, unless w illfu lly inflicted or the result of intoxication.
W a i t i n g p e r i o d .— Compensation sta rtin g on the fifteenth day a fte r injured
leaves work.
S c a l e of c o m p e n s a t i o n .— P a rtia l d is a b ility : 50 per cent of loss o f earning
pow er; maximum period, 300 weeks; maximum amount, $3,000; maximum
per week, $10.
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MONTHLY EEVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
91
Total disa b ility : 50 per cent o f average weekly wages ; maximum $10, m in i
mum $5, weekly, or fu ll wages i f less than $5 weekly ; maximum period, 400
weeks ; maximum amount to be paid, $4,000.
Death : I f no dependents, reasonable expenses o f last sickness and burial,
not to exceed $100; to ta l dependents, 50 per cent of average weekly wages
fo r a period not exceeding 300 weeks from date of in ju ry ; maximum, $10 per
week ; to p a rtia l dependents, such percentage o f above as amount contributed
by deceased to such p a rtia l dependent bore to to ta l wages of deceased.
M e d i c a l a n d s u r g i c a l a i d .— Employers must fu rn ish reasonable medical and
surgical aid and pay hospital expenses as required at tim e of in ju ry and fo r
as much as 40 days follow ing date o f in ju ry . Total amount not to exceed $150.
A v e r a g e m a g e s — l i m a c o m p u t e d .— Average weekly wages to be one fifty second of average yearly earnings ; yearly earnings to be 300 times the average
daily wage.
W h o a r e d e p e n d e n t s .— Dependents lim ite d to members of fa m ily of deceased
as spouse, lineal descendants, ancestors, brothers, or sisters.
Using the above as a basis, the approximate compensation cost of
fatalities and other accidents involving more than Id days lost is
estimated to be as follows:
ESTIMATED COST OF FATAL AND NONFATAL ACCIDENTS FOR THE YEAR 1915.
Ite m .
F a ta litie s .......... >...................................................................................................................
I n ju rie s of m o re t h a n 14 d a y s ’ d u r a t io n .....................................................................
O th e r co sts in v o lv e d :
D a v s lo s t a t SI e a c h ....................................................................................................
rv- M edical a tte n tio n , a t 11.50 p e r d a y ........................................ ..............................
H o s p ita l tre a tm e n t, a t $2.50 p e r d a y ..................................................................
1 L o ss of o u tp u t—co st of h irin g m e n ......................................................................
R e p o rtin g 3,967 a c c id e n ts, a t S3............................................................................
T o ta l
N u m b e r.
N um ber
of d a y s .
C o m p en
s a tio n .
35
1664
315,000
21,374
$39,894
9,814
30,171
25,000
2,800
30,171
3 7 ,50Q
7,ooq
25,000
11,901
.................. ......................... .......................................................................
161,280
1
1 T h e n u m b e r s h o w n in th e ta b le on p . 88 is 611; i t is p ossib le t h a t 53 w ere ca rried o v er from th e p rev io u s
y e a r.
• Accidents in 1914, according to the estimate appearing in the Study of Acei' dents fo r th a t year, cost the association’s members $181,413. From the to ta l
estimate o f $161,280 fo r 1915, the appreciable decrease in the cost of accidents
as compared w ith last year is noticeable. Reducing these two totals to a per
m illio n barrels produced basis, accidents in 1915 cost $2,635 per m illio n bar
rels [2.6 m ills per barrel] produced as against a cost o f $3,585 per m illio n bar
rels [3.6 m ills per b a rre l] produced in 1914. This shows a reduction of almost
26 per cent in the cost o f accidents fo r 1915 as compared w ith the previous
year. Surely this is ground fo r encouragement.
BLACK DAMP IN M INES.1
The United States Bureau of Mines has recently issued a bulletin
entitled “ Black Damp in Mines,” which gives the results of an ex1 Black Damp in Mines, by G. A. Burrell, I. W. Robertson, and G. G. Oberfell.
States Bureau of Mines Bullettai 105, Washington, 1916. 88 pp.
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M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
animation of samples of air in many different coal mines in the
country, showing how atmospheric air after entering a coal mine
loses oxygen and gains carbon dioxide with resulting formation of
the so-called black damp. The report also discusses the effects of the
constituents of the black damp on men, on the burning of oil and
acetylene lamps, and on the explosibility of methane. The term
“ black damp ” has been widely used to designate accumulations of
carbon dioxide, but it is pointed out that a more exact definition
characterizes it as an accumulation of carbon dioxide and nitrogen
in proportions larger than those found in atmospheric air. Pure dry
air, it is stated, contains 20.93 per cent of oxygen, 0.03 per cent of
carbon dioxide, and 79.04 per cent of nitrogen. When it enters a
coal mine it changes in composition according to (1) the velocity
with which it traverses the workings; (2) the amount of coal with
which it comes in contact—that is, the extent of the mine workings
that it traverses; (3) the gaseous nature of the seam; (4) the ten
dency of the coal to absorb oxygen; and (5) the temperature and
wetness of the mine.
The report indicates that miners are not only affected by an in
crease in the amount of carbon dioxide but also by a diminution in
the amount of oxygen. It was found that a man may work for a
long time in an atmosphere containing from 3 to 4 per cent of carbon
dioxide, although his efficiency as a workman will be greatly affected
and he will become quickly fatigued. “ The presence in the air of
as little as 1 or 2 per cent of carbon dioxide is not so much a matter
of safety and comfort to those who breathe it as it is of their effi
ciency as workmen.” The presence of carbon dioxide in proportion
as high as 0.2 per cent is usually a sign of stagnant air and poor ven
tilation. With 12 to 15 per cent the patient soon becomes unconscious,
and death may take place after exposure for several hours to 25 per
cent. As to the effect of a diminution of the oxygen supply the report
states that distress is caused in some people when the oxygen content
falls to less than 13 per cent (normally about 21 per cent). “ The
important point to remember is that rapid breathing caused by car
bon dioxide starts long before there is any serious danger, whereas
rapid breathing caused by a deficiency of oxygen is a grave symptom
and points urgently to serious danger.” In an experiment con
ducted by the authors a man* lost consciousness temporarily when
the oxygen content of an atmosphere he breathed fell to 7 per cent.
I t is explained that the difference between ventilation conditions
in buildings above ground and in coal mines is in the degree of vitia
tion of the air as regards low oxygen and high carbon dioxide;
above ground relatively small oxygen and carbon dioxide changes—•
a few tenths of 1 per cent—usually represent bad air; below
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93
ground these small percentages are insignificant. For instance, it
is stated that in coal mines carbon dioxide arises principally from
the action of the air on the coal, and 0.2 to 0.3 per cent is frequently
found in the cool, swiftly moving air of returns, where 50,000 or
more cubic feet of air is passing per minute and the wet-bulb or
dry-bulb temperature does not exceed 05° F. Likewise the oxygen
content is said to be scarcely ever normal in a coal mine, owing to
the absorption of oxygen by the coal, a diminution of 1 per cent
being not uncommon.
The authors believe that the oxygen content in coal mipes should
not fall below 19 per cent. The maximum percentage of carbon
dioxide allowed in England is 1.25. The principal cause of deple
tion of oxygen in coal-mine air and the increase of carbon dioxide
is said to be the reaction between coal and the oxygen of the air,
some of the oxygen actually being held dissolved in the coal sub
stance, “ Part of the oxygen is converted into water, part into car
bon dioxide, and part (by far the larger part) is retained as com
bined oxygen to give compounds richer in oxygen than the coal itself.
Part of the carbon dioxide is retained by the coal.'’
The report notes the fact that explosive proportions of methane
in air become nonexplosive when the proportion of oxygen in the
atmosphere falls below about 14 per cent, and that carbon dioxide
has only a slightly greater effect in reducing the explosibility of
methane-air mixtures than nitrogen has. Thus when the oxygen is
kept constant at 20 per cent part of the nitrogen must be replaced
by 10 per cent of carbon dioxide to raise the low limit for methane
from 5.8 to 6.2 per cent.
The specific gravity of black damp appears to vary considerably
in certain mixtures, and if methane is present the combined gases
may be lighter than air. For this reason great caution would appear
to be necessary in the presence of black damp of lighter density
than air.
The effects of carbon dioxide and oxygen on men and lights are
discussed and experiments are cited leading to the following con
clusions :
An oil-fed flame becomes extinguished when the oxygen in a ir fa lls to about
17 per ce n t; an acetylene flame is extinguished when the oxygen fa lls to about
12 or 13 per cent.
Lack of oxygen is the im portant factor in extinguishing lights. In some
experiments conducted by the authors the oxygen content fe ll to 16.3 per cent
before the flame became extinguished, but the presence of 10 per cent of carbon
dioxide raised the extinguishing percentage of oxygen to 17.3.
Atmospheres th a t do not contain enough oxygen to support an oil-fed flame
(about 17 per cent) may be explosive when the oxygen content is as low as 14
per cent, i f enough methane is present.
65847°— 10-
-7
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When a burning p a rt of a mine has been successfully sealed the composition
o f the atmosphere w ith in changes. The oxygen decreases to a proportion (prob
ably about 17 per cent) th a t w ill not support flam e; u ltim a te ly the oxygen con
tent becomes so small th a t the rate o f combustion is extremely low, so low th a t
combustion entirely ceases, the embers cool, and the admission o f a ir when the
mine is reopened does not rekindle them.
In 111 samples of gas from 29 mines represented the average percentage of
carbon dioxide in the black damp was 11.5 per cent and the average percentage
o f nitrogen 89.5 per cent.
In 6 mines of 22 examined the temperature was higher than it should he
(75° F., wet bulb) under the best ve n tila ting conditions.
Analyses of a large number of samples show how mine a ir changes as it
traverses the workings. The average composition of the black damp was 9.2 per
cent carbon dioxide and 90.8 per cent nitrogen. Except fo r two or three sam
ples, in w hich carbon dioxide was high and the oxygen low, the q u a lity o f the
a ir was good.
As regards the unfavorable effect o f black damp on men, on lights, and on the
explosibility of methane-air mixtures, the dim inution o f oxygen in the atmos
phere, resulting in the form ation of more nitrogen, is m ainly responsible. Tlie
presence of carbon dioxide is fa r less im p o rta n t; hence the objection to making
the terms “ black damp ” and “ carbon dioxide ” synonymous.
The investigation seemed to show that many of the mines of the
Cripple Creek region are menaced with gas that is loosely held in the
rock strata and that issues at times into the mines, so that workmen
can not enter certain drifts and occasionally a whole mine. The gas
was found to contain about 14 per cent carbon dioxide and 86 per
cent nitrogen. Data regarding ventilation conditions in 15 metal
mines are shown, indicating an average of 2.67 per cent of black
damp, composed of 9.3 per cent carbon dioxide and 90.7 per cent
nitrogen, or about the same as that found in coal mines.
#
SAFE PRACTICE AT BLAST FURNACES.
Technical Paper 136,1 issued in August by the United States Bu
reau of Mines, describes the dangers of the different kinds of work
about blast furnaces, points out how the risk of accident may be
lessened or avoided, and contains suggestions to foremen, master me
chanics, and other officials on the methods of organizing and con
ducting safety work: There are 44 illustrations showing safe and
unsafe practices. The suggestions are presented under five general
heads: Accident prevention, How to attack the accident problem,
Responsibility of the foreman, Precautions to be observed at blast
furnace plants, and Notes on first aid.
1 Safe Practice at Blast Furnaces; a manual for foremen and men, by Frederick IT.
Willcox. United States Bureau of Mines, Technical Paper 13G. Washington, 1916.
73 pp. 44 illustrations.
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In the matter of accident prevention it is pointed ont that the
management should take the leading part, either by employing ex
perts or by having the department heads make a special study of
safety conditions; that it should supply the funds for making nec
essary changes in plant equipment ; that such interest on the part of
the management inspires interest in the rest of the force and makes it
easier for the foremen to organize the workers and train themselves
for the best results in accident reduction. Supplementing the re
sponsibility of the management and of the foremen is the responsi
bility which rests upon the safety inspectors of the plant, who “ are
invaluable for looking after recommendations, investigating acci
dents, pointing out possible improvements in equipment and meth
ods, and organizing safety work,” but whose suggestions “ can no
more eliminate accidents than suggestions can eliminate off-grade
iron, unless his recommendations as well as the foremen’s are fol
lowed by improvements, detailed instructions, cooperation, and per
sonal supervision.”
Accident prevention should be handled in the same way as operating d iffi
culties. I f i t is going to cost more to pay fo r accidents than to prevent them,
i f the prospect is th a t every fou rth , sixth, or tenth man on the plant w ill lose
20 to 35 days’ w ork every year by accident and during th a t tim e be replaced
by a less skilled employee who w ill have to be trained and w ill possibly cause
vexatious delays and mistakes, and i f better and safer w orking conditions
a ttra ct better men, operating methods and instructions should be applied to the
safety problem. The same methods th a t have been developed fo r efficiency may
be used to increase safety.
Two methods are suggested for meeting the accident problem—the
organization of a plant-inspection committee and of a foremen's
committee. The first committee should inspect the plant every month
on a certain date and should give particular attention to the study of
accidents that have occurred during the preceding month, to the ex
istence of improper physical conditions, to unsafe practices, and to
first-aid instruction. It is believed that the cooperation of the men
may be secured and their recommendations for betterment obtained
by the installation of a “ suggestion box ” with a reward for the best
suggestion, and by dividing the various crews under the different fore
men into divisions with the presentation of a prize to the division that
has had no lost-time accidents for one to three months or has reduced
its percentage of accidents in that period. The foremen's committee
should meet with the superintendent or assistant superintendent once
a month for the purpose of discussing the causes of accidents that
have occurred and of considering the recommendations of the plantinspection committee with a view to putting into effect such as appear
to be practicable. “ However,” suggests the report, “ the final respon-
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sibility for safety work can not be placed on committees, gang leaders,
or workmen. * * * To put safety work on a sound and sensible
basis the foreman must give the subject serious observation, study,
planning, and direction, such as is given to operating work. The
safety of the workmen always has been given foremost attention by
foremen, but the reduction in accidents effected by many companies
indicates that this attention has been concerned more with obviously
dangerous factors than with injuries due to hand labor, use of hand
tools, falls, falling objects, and similar causes incident to daily work.
To these causes, however, the greater part of blast-furnace accidents
is due.*’ Thus it is stated that at blast-furnace plants “ hand labor
and hand tools cause over 40 per cent of all accidents; if flying and
falling objects and falls of persons are included, over 60 per cent of
all accidents are represented; and if burns from hot metal and cinder
are added, the total represents approximately 75 per cent of all blast
furnace accidents. This shows where the accident problem lies.
Effective prevention of accident from these causes requires study,
observation, experience, and instruction. No one in the plant is more
capable of doing this than the foreman, no one is in such close contact
with the men, and no one can combine such work with operating super
vision so advantageously and effectively/’
Approximately 50 pages of the bulletin are devoted to precautions
to be observed at blast-furnace plants, in which a great many detailed
suggestions are offered to foremen, the general force, the cast-house
crew, hot-blast men, stove cleaners, dust-catcher men, stock-house
crew, trestle gang and yardmen, pig-machine men, ladle-house men,
slag-dump men, engine-room force, boiler-house force, riggers, mill
wrights and handy men, pipe fitters and tuyere gang, bricklayers,
carpenters, electricians, and crane men. Most of the illustrations
of the bulletin are included in this section.
The importance of ready access to an emergency first-aid box is
emphasized, especially for plants where the continual presence of a
doctor or nurse is not feasible. Such a provision, it is believed, en
courages the workmen to form the habit of seeking immediate first-aid
treatment for slight injuries—a practice which in many cases will
prevent infection or illness. Suggestions are included for treating
eye injuries; cuts, lacerations, and punctures; burns; fractures;
blows on the head or abdomen; bruises and strains; and asphyxiation
or shock. The importance of giving immediate attention to all in
juries is strongly urged in order to avoid infection.
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HEALTH CONSERVATION AT STEEL MILLS.
The United States Bureau of Mines has recently issued a pamphlet
entitled “ Health Conservation at Steel Mills,” 1 in which is set forth
the importance of extending the “ safety first ” idea to include
“ health first,” since in recent years there has been a rapid increase
in the number and seriousness of occupational health hazards. In
asserting that, aside from its humanitarian aspects, the prevention
of conditions productive of ill health is a plain business proposition,
the author asks the following pertinent questions: How many men
in a plant are working hard and conscientiously, yet below their nor
mal capacity, because of harmful or even uncomfortable conditions?
Is not the efficiency of many a man below par because of some physi
cal defect, as, for example, an error in vision, of which no one—not
even himself—is aware? How much could his efficiency be increased
by correcting the defect ? Can not more and better work be accom
plished with the same effort by those working in pleasant and health
ful surroundings than by those working under conditions conducive
to undue fatigue and to disease?
Education of workers which has operated to prevent accidents
can be developed further, it is believed, so as to prevent, disease and
sickness.
As the first step in health conservation the author recommends a
system of medical supervision, including a physical examination of
all candidates for employment and of all men already employed, in
order to prevent the introduction and spread of infectious or con
tagious diseases. From a humanitarian standpoint as well as from
purely business considerations he regards it as highly important
that disease be discovered in its incipiency in order that proper
treatment may be provided and thus prevent the possibility, for in
stance, of a worker developing tuberculosis, which disease has been
found to be the leading cause of death in 110 out of 140 classified
occupations. This system of medical supervision, it is stated, should
aim not only to maintain the health of the working force, but to pro
vide advice for ailments and on “ how to keep well,” and to assist
the management in providing employement for workers partly or
wholly incapacitated by reason of physical infirmity from doing
their accustomed work.
The author recognizes that undue fatigue is one of the most com
mon causes of occupational disability and that fatigue-producing
conditions can not be ignored without seriously affecting the efficiency
of the working force. This fatigue is caused by laborious or fast
1
H e a lth C o n s e rv a tio n a t S te e l M ills, by J . A . W a tk in s , p a s s e d a s s i s t a n t su rg e o n , U. S.
P u b lic H e a lth S e rv ic e .
U n ite d S ta te s B u r e a u o f M in es, T e c h n ic a l P a p e r 102, W a s h
in g to n , 1916. 36 pp.
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work or long periods of work; monotony or complication of muscu
lar movements; constant strain, as when fixed mental or visual at
tention is necessary to the performance of duties; constant standing,
particularly on hard, unyielding floors, such as those of cement; lack
of variation in muscular exertions, or lack of periods of relaxation.
In addition to the amount and character of the work, the conditions
under which it is performed seem to have an important bearing on
fatigue. For instance, exposure to high temperature and high hu
midity, excessively bright or improperly placed lights, loud or con
tinued noise, and constant vibration tend to cause fatigue.
The relation of industrial buildings to the health of employees is
pointed out, emphasis being placed upon the necessity of providing
natural illumination or adequate artificial illumination, ventilation,
ample space for each employee, and proper flooring.
The report attaches considerable importance to the problem of
proper illumination,1 since this is intimately associated with
efficiency, safety, and bodily welfare. In certain mills increased
efficiency varying from 2 to 10 per cent has been reported as a result
of improved lighting conditions. Natural illumination is, of course,
to be preferred, but where impossible to secure a sufficient amount of
this, artificial illumination must be used, in which case it is suggested
that the lights should be placed so as not to shine directly into the
eyes; glare and troublesome shadows should be avoided; reflectors
of a proper design should be chosen; protection of workmen from
intense and harmful light should be provided, the most effective
protection being secured by the wearing of glasses or goggles of
special coloring, according to the character of the light.
Two points of view are suggested in the consideration of adequate
A^entilation—(1) that of air renewal and (2) that of removal of the
products formed in the industrial processes, including fumes,' gases,
or dust, and harmful conditions of temperature or humidity. Much
dust in various forms is generated in a steel mill, and the inhalation
of this dust is given as one of the greatest, occupational hazards.
“ There is probably no condition that should receive more attention,
or should be more speedily and effectively remedied, than that of
suspended matter in the air.” Respirators may be worn, but <£a
perfectly satisfactory respirator is yet to be devised.”
The only effective means of removing dust in workshops is by a carefully
designed and constructed exhaust system. The place to collect and remove dust
is at its source.
The conditions of temperature and humidity should receive atten
tion, since it appears that continued exposure to high temperature
1
A n e x te n d e d d is c u s s io n o f tb e q u e s tio n o f illu m in a tio n a p p e a re d in
R e v ie w fo r J u ly , 1916, p p. 1 0 1 -1 0 7 .
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and high humidity increases the susceptibility to disease and may
cause muscular and joint pains, aches, cramps, and, in extreme cases,
heat exhaustion. Thus it would seem to be important to provide a
free circulation of air, to lower the temperature to which men are
exposed, to reduce the length of exposure to heat, and to provide
ample bathing facilities and plenty of drinking water of about 55°
temperature for those who work in heated rooms.
The report outlines the requirements of proper washing facilities,
including wash and locker rooms, baths, washbasins, and lockers;
suggests the importance of well-illuminated, well-ventilated, and
sanitary water-closets; notes the beneficial results of an adequate
supply of pure drinking water of proper temperature and so dis
tributed as to preclude all possibility of contamination: and empha
sizes the fundamentally important proposition that a workman
should be supplied with ample food of good quality and at a moderate
price, which may be provided by the employer through the estab
lishment of a restaurant in connection with the plant.
Cooperation between employers and employees is stated to be an
essential in securing the conservation of health in any plant. All
provisions for the well-being of the workers are quite likely to be
futile if the latter through ignorance or carelessness fail to observe
the principles of health conservation. Therefore education is neces
sary and this, it is believed, may be brought about through the ac
tivities of the plant physician and by means of plant circulars, in
serted in each pay envelope, forcibly bringing the fundamental prin
ciples of good health and of personal hygiene to the attention of the
employees. By way of suggestion several such circulars are pre
sented under the following captions: Protect your eyes; See the
doctor; Be examined by a doctor; Workmen, take care of your
health; Watch your teeth; Don’t go home dirty; Watch your feet;
Cut out the booze.
INDUSTRIAL DISEASES IN NEW JERSEY.
In New Jersey every physician attending upon or called to visit a
person whom he believes to be suffering from poisoning from lead,
phosphorus, arsenic, or mercury, or its compounds, or from anthrax,
or compressed-air illness, contracted as a result of such person s
occupation or employment, is required within 30 days after his first
visit to report the case to the State board of health, and a penalty of
$25 is imposed for violation of this provision. The State board of
health, which is required to enforce this law, appears to be somewhat
circumscribed in its power. The reason for this, according to the
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thirty-ninth annual report of the board, for the year ending October
31, 1915,1 is that the board, while required to collect statistics of in
dustrial diseases, to do all the clerical work in connection with the
filing records, and then to transmit the data to the commissioner of
labor, is given no supervision over an individual affected with a dis
ease or over the factory in which such disease occurs. It thus finds
itself in the position of obtaining statistics for the use of another
department. The board believes that this work should be placed
under the supervision of the commissioner of labor.
The report referred to states that during the year ending October
31, 1915, reports of industrial diseases were received by the State
department of health, as follows:
C ases.
Lead poisoning______________________________________________50
Anthrax___________________________________________________
G
Mercury poisoning_________
2
Arsenic poisoning__________________________________________
1
T otal_________________________________________________60
Since it is stated that “ this law is not enforced as rigidly as it
should be,” it is probable that the above statement is not a complete
report of the cases of the industrial diseases named which occurred
in the State during the year.
OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES IN THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
An important feature of the fifty-third meeting of the American
Chemical Society, held in New York City September 25 to 30, 1916,
was the attention devoted to occupational diseases in the chemical
trades. The symposium presented in the meeting of the industrial
chemists and chemical engineers’ division consisted of the following
five papers:
Introduction, by Prof. Charles Baskerville, chairman of the com
mittee on occupational diseases in the chemical trades.
The occupational hazard in the chemical industry; the need for
prophylaxis, by Dr. J. W. Schereschewsky, surgeon, United States
Public Health Service, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Industrial poisoning from analine and allied products, by George
P. Adamson, Baker & Adamson Chemical Co., Easton, Pa.
Bureau of Mines’ studies of occupational diseases, by Dr. W. A.
Lynott, United States Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C.
Dangers other than accidents in the manufacture of explosives, by
Dr. Alice Hamilton, United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, Chi
cago, 111.
’ N ew J e r s e y : D e p a r tm e n t o f H e a lth . T h i r ty - n in th A n n u a l R e p o rt, 1915.
d is e a s e s , p. 44. P a te r s o n , 1916. 447 p p .
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One object sought to be achieved in these papers seemed to be
the bringing about of closer cooperation between the chemists and
physicians in the investigation of occupational diseases. A general
discussion followed the reading of the papers, participated in by Dr.
W. Gilman Thompson, professor of medicine, Cornell University
Medical College, New York City; Dr. F. L. Hoffman, statistician,
Prudential Insurance Co. of America, Newark, N. J . ; Dr. Francis
D. Patterson, Department of Labor and Industry of the State of
Pennsylvania; Dr. Lester L. Boos, medical inspector of the division
of industrial hygiene, New York State. Industrial Commission; Mr.
Newell T. Gordon, Department of Labor of New Jersey; Dr. Tracy
II. Clark, medical director, the National LTnion, Chicago; Dr. Boval
Meeker, United States commissioner of labor statistics; Mr. C. I.
Johnson, Goodyear Tire & Eubber Co.; Dr. L. F. Goodwin; Dr.
Johnson,, of Syracuse; Dr. J. S. Millard, plant physician of the
Goodyear Tire & Eubber Co.; and Prof. William P. Mason.
As outlined by Prof. Charles Baskerville, chairman of the com
mittee on occupational diseases in the chemical trades, this com
mittee exists for the purpose of securing “ sane and uniform legisla
tion ” on this subject in all the States and to learn of specific condi
tions m particular chemical trades that might call for improvement,
and to this end its members have sought information, solicited and
offered advice, and cooperated with boards of health and private
corporations. It is noted that some manufacturers are doing much
toward the protection of their laborers, while others, “ relatively
few in numbers,” are “ absolutely inconsiderate.” One of the im
portant questions in connection with industrial diseases, in the opin
ion of Prof. Baskerville, is “ is it possible to draw a distinction be
tween the maladies which are the result of certain occupations and
accidents? ” It is in many cases difficult to ascertain whether a dis
ease is the direct result of the nature of employment, “ but the just
ness of the principle of compensation for so-called industrial dis
eases is generally accepted.” Since the action of some chemicals is
insidious and not always known, it seems to be of prime importance
that the introduction of any novel substance into industrial opera
tions or the introduction of a novel procedure should be studied to
detect possible danger at an early stage, so that due precautions
may be taken. In order to coordinate all lines of endeavor in the
study of industrial hazards and the prevention of industrial dis
eases to the end that legislation founded on technical and scientific
investigation may result, the chairman of the committee urged the
establishment of a safety museum at Washington, where national,
State, and municipal officials and representatives of selected lines
of chemical activity may cooperate by conference and advice.
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Dr. Schereschewsky, in his paper on the “ Occupational hazard
in the chemical industry,” called attention to the necessity for ade
quate protection of workers because of the dangers peculiar to the
industry as a result of the very nature of the substances dealt with.
It appears that the chemical industry, the value of whose products
increased 53 per cent in the period from 1909 to 1911, has received
but little attention from the standpoint of industrial hygiene. The
ordinary hazards of the industry, including inadequate illumina
tion, dampness, stagnant air, exposure to extremes of cold and heat,
long hours, fatigue, and monotony, were reviewed briefly, followed
by a somewhat extended discussion of the specific hazards which
include the effect on the body of irritating or poisonous dusts, fumes,
and gases. Chief among these are the halogens (chlorine, bromine,
and iodine) and their acids; nitrous fumes1; metallic vapors; arseni
cal vapors; gaseous blood poisons; carbon disulphide; fumes of coal
tar and coal-tar products; certain organic compounds; and lead
dust. The effects produced by each of these were discussed in some
detail, and the necessity for exercising great care in order to avoid
unnecessary disease and death was emphasized.
The necessity for such surveillance is further emphasized when we consider
that but a small proportion of the personnel of chemical establishments con
sists of skilled workers, the great majority being unskilled workers of foreign
birth, who, besides having the most rudimentary ideas of personal hygiene, are
ignorant of the nature of the substances which they handle.
Deference was made to the frequency of illness in the chemical
industry, based upon foreign experience, and authorities were
quoted showing that in Germany the number of sick days for each
worker in chemical plants ranged from 6.73 to 10.2, and that only
12 out of 100 workers worked throughout the year without sickness.
The necessity for extreme caution, absolute cleanliness, and special
care of health were emphasized in the paper on “ Industrial poisons
from aniline and allied products,” by George P. Adamson. I t ap
pears that aniline may enter the body by absorption through the
skin, by direct contact, or by saturation of the clothes, through the
digestive organs, and through the respiratory organs as volatile
particles. In mild cases the symptoms are anemia, general weak
ness, slight blueness or cyanosis, and gastric disturbances; jaundice
may appear. In acute cases the symptoms are sudden prostration;
cold, pale skin; blue lips, nose, and ears; diminution and even ex
tinguishing of sensibility; small pulse; death in comatose condition,
sometimes after antecedent convulsions. In the observation of the
1 A b r ie f s ta t e m e n t a s to th i s p o iso n is c o n ta in e d in th e M o n t h l y R e v ie w f o r J u n e
1910, p. 87.
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author, however, working in the fumes of aniline does not lead to
any serious results nor is the poison cumulative. The only serious
cases appeared to be those caused by absorption as a result of the oil
splashing on the body without its immediate removal by washing.
For this purpose dilute acetic acid was found very satisfactory. At
the first symptoms of poisoning immediate removal from the work
room to a cool shady spot, change of clothing, cool effusions, and
the administration of oxygen in connection with artificial respira
tion are suggested. However, the best means of reducing the danger
appear to be the taking of proper precautions to prevent such poison
ing, the most important precaution being cleanliness and the mainte
nance of proper health conditions.
Some facts deduced by the Bureau of Mines from its study of
occupational diseases were set forth in a paper by Dr. TV. A. Lynott,
who reviewed briefly several of the bulletins which have been pub
lished by the bureau on this general subject. The author remarked
that tuberculosis among coal miners is uncommon; that asthma is
rare; that no injurious effects of any kind attend work with radium
during the processes of crystallization. Considerable attention was
given to a synopsis of the bulletin on miners’ nystagmus,1 giving its
causes, symptoms, and prognosis. The paper concludes; with a
review of the Bureau of Mines’ bulletin on Health Conservation at
Steel Mills.2
The concluding paper of the symposium was read by Dr. Alice
Hamilton, the subject being “ Dangers other than accidents in the
manufacture of explosives.” In this paper Dr. Hamilton gave the
results of a personal study of occupational poisons in some 40 fac
tories making high explosives in this country—a study conducted
under the direction of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Of some 30 to 35 poisonous substances which have come to her atten
tion it was pointed out that by far the most important are the gases
which are grouped together as the oxides of nitrogen, or nitrous
fumes,3 their importance arising from the fact that they are formed
in all nitration processes used in the manufacture of explosives. It
is stated that since the fumes are not irritating or corrosive, 'work
men often breathe enough to cause severe, even fatal poisoning,
•without realizing that anything dangerous is happening. The ex
treme danger attending the manufacture of picric acid is noted, the
probable reason ascribed being the “ hastily and poorly constructed
picric-acid plants, put up to fill a single war contract and carried
1 For an extended review of this bulletin see Monthly Review for August, 1916, p. 43.
2 See p. 97 of this issue of the Review for a digest of this bulletin.
3 A brief statement as to this poison is contained in the Monthly Review for June,
1916, p. 87.
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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
on with what looks like reckless haste, and I fear sometimes a good
deal of ignorance, at least of the fundamental laws of hygiene.” In
the manufacture of this acid, besides the nitrogen-oxide poisons, Dr.
Hamilton mentioned phenol, which may cause severe systemic poison
ing. with dizziness, delirium, weakness, and collapse when spilled over
a large surface of the body, and may even cause chronic Bright’s
disease if exposure to small quantities in the air is prolonged.
The dangerous effects of many of the more important poisons
used in the manufacture of explosives are quite fully considered,
special reference being made to benzol and toluene and their nitro
and ainido compounds, which act directly upon the nervous system;
nitroglycerine; fulminate of mercury, which produces skin inflam
mation; ethyl nitrate; and tetrachlorethane,1 used in the varnish for
aeroplane wings. The paper suggests that the details of prevention
must be solved in each instance, since it is a question of fumes and
dust prevention and of proper provision for bodily cleanliness.
The larger number of men are not susceptible to these poisons unless con
ditions are very bad and the exposure excessive, but a minority is susceptible
and a small group is oversusceptible and will suffer unless extraordinary pre
cautions are taken, and unfortunately there is no way of picking out this
group in advance.
In the general discussion which followed the reading of these
papers a number of important points were brought out. Dr. Thomp
son and Dr. Hoffman both favored the establishment of a safety
museum, and the latter expressed the opinion that all industrial dis
eases will eventually be brought under the scope of compensation;
also that all industries should be under direct medical supervision.
Dr. Patterson suggested the necessity for a law requiring physi
cians to report all cases of vocational diseases, and told of the efforts
being made in Pennsylvania to secure legislation providing safety
regulations for the manufacture of explosives, paints, and varnishes,
and also covering the chemical industry.
Dr. Poos referred to the fact that manufacturers complain that
laborers will not use hygienic safety devices provided for them, but
took occasion to refute this by citing a plant in which, as the result
of the installation of a comfort house which the men were required
to use, the amount of poisoning and illness has been considerably
reduced. He noted the fact that in his State there is under considera
tion an amendment to the law to require physicians to report all
cases of occupational diseases.
Mr. Gordon emphasized the importance of an educational cam
paign in order that the men may be informed of the nature of the
materials with which they work.
1
A n a c c o u n t o f th is p o iso n a p p e a rs on p. 105 o f th is is s u e o f th e R e v iew .
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Dr. Clark thought it would help materially to do away with occu
pational hazards if the medical staff of insurance companies might
be directed to cooperate more with plant physicians.
Dr. Meeker declared that the relation of chemists to the workers
deserves all the attention that can be given to it. He mentioned
the necessity of revising the list of industrial poisons contained in
Bulletin 100 of the Bureau of Labor Statistics and to this end urged
the cooperation of every chemist and every industrial physician in
the country. These poisons should be listed by industries and by
occupations.
Mr. Johnson stated that the Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. had
recently changed from a 12-hour to an 8-hour day, resulting in con
siderable reduction in the amount of aniline poisoning. He thought
it would be of advantage to give the extremely susceptible worker
other work so that he might be removed from dangers of infection.
Dr. L. F. Goodwin related his personal experience with trini
trotoluol poisoning and suggested the necessity of finding antidotes
for these industrial poisons.
Mr. Mason believed that the so-called immunities were of little
consequence in considering the treatment of occupational diseases.
Dr. Millard doubted the value of the oxygen treatment in cases
of aniline poisoning.
DOPE POISONING.1
“ Dope ” is a varnish used to cover the wings of aeroplanes to make
them impervious to moisture and air. It consists of powdered
acetate of cellulose dissolved in various organic solvents such as
acetone, amylacetate, benzene, carbon tetrachloride, tetrachlorethane
(acetylene tetrachloride), and others to bring the cellulose to the
needed dilution. Tetrachlorethane is mainly used as an ingredient
of this dope because of its comparatively low cost2 and because it
seems to have the remarkable property of tightening up the fabric
which is stretched to form the wing in a way that nothing so far
tried can do. Experiments conducted by representatives of the Brit
ish factory department have shown conclusively that tetrachlor
ethane is a powerful cumulative liver poison and also that dope vapor
is a liver poison, and that the poisonous property of the dope vapor
is due to tetrachlorethane being present in it.3 This is apparently
true even though it is present in the dope mixture to the extent of
1 G re a t
B r ita in . F a c to r y I n s p e c to r 's Office. D ope P o is o n in g .
[L o n d o n ] J a n u a r y ,
1916. 4 pp.
2 A ceto n e is s a id to be th e b e s t so lv e n t, “ b u t th e c u r r e n t p ric e of i t is a b o u t £ 100
($ 4 8 6 .6 5 ) p e r to n , w h e re a s te tr a c h lo r e th a n e is o n ly £ 2 8 ($ 1 3 6 .2 6 ) p e r to n .”
G re a t B r ita in . A n n u a l re p o r t o f th e c h ie f in s p e c to r o f f a c to rie s a n d w o rk sh o p s, 1914,
p. 110.
3
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only 10 or 12 per cent. The workmen seriously affected by this
poison developed toxic jaundice in a few weeks’ time, the symptoms
being accompanied by little, if any, fever. “ The men complained
first of drowsiness and of nasty taste in the mouth and of the effect
on the throat. There was a sickly feeling and marked distaste for
food. There was, as a rule, very obstinate constipation and in some
cases vomiting. Pain over the region of the liver and stomach was
a prominent symptom in some. In very severe cases hematemesis
or convulsions may occur. Coma generally supervenes and death
results with suppression of the urine.” 1
It should be remembered in this connection that jaundice, which is
a prominent symptom of illness due to the inhalation of tetraclilorethane, has been familiar as following upon, first, the inhalation of
arseniureted hydrogen gas in chemical works; and, secondly, absorp
tion of nitro derivatives of benzol in factories for the manufacture of
explosives. However, it does not appear from any report so far
issued by the factory department of the Home Office that tetracldorethane poisoning results from operations in any other industry than
the manufacture of aeroplanes. It is therefore safe to assume that
the 57 cases of toxic jaundice (14, or 24.56 per cent, of which resulted
in death) noted in the Board of Trade Labor Gazette for August,
1916 (p. 294), as having been reported to the Home Office for the
seven months since January 1, 1916,2 occurred in this one industry,
while the 250 cases of lead poisoning (22, or 8.8 per cent, resulting
fatally), 12 cases of mercurial poisoning (no deaths), 1 of phosphorus
poisoning (not fatal), and 69 cases of anthrax (1-3, or 17.39 per cent,
resulting in death), covering the same period, reported in the same
publication, occurred in 24 specified industries as well as certain other
industries not mentioned by name.3
In the leaflet under review, issued in January, 1916, it is stated that
continued incidence of poisoning in aeroplane factories has led to the
addition of the main symptom caused by tetrachlorethane—toxic
jaundice—to the diseases which, if contracted in a factory, must be
notified to the factory department.4 Even at the date mentioned
1A n n u a l r e p o r t o f th e c h ie f in s p e c to r o f fa c to r ie s a n d w o rk s h o p s, 1914, p. 109.
2P r i o r to J a n . 1, 1 9 16, th is d is e a s e w a s n o t r e p o r te d to th e fa c to r y d e p a r tm e n t.
3A m o re a d e q u a te c o m p a ris o n m ig h t be m a d e i f th e n u m b e r o f em p lo y e es w a s k n o w n ,
b u t n e ith e r th e f a c to r y d e p a r tm e n t n o r th e B o a r d o f T r a d e L a b o r G a z e tte d is c lo se s th is
fa c t. I n a n a r tic le o n te tr a c h lo r e th a n e p o is o n in g a tta c h e d to th e r e p o r t o f th e c h ie f i n
s p e c to r o f f a c to r ie s a n d w o rk s h o p s f o r 1914, s u b m itte d in S e p te m b e r, 1915, th e f a c t is
n o te d t h a t “ th e d e v e lo p m e n t in th e m a n u f a c tu r e o f a e r o p la n e s h a s been ra p id , c a r r ie d o n
a s i t is n o w t h a t is, a t th e e n d o f 1 9 1 4 — in a t le a s t 27 f a c to r ie s e m p lo y in g ro u g h ly 6,500
w o rk e rs . I n one fa c to r y a lo n e 1,500 h a n d s a r e em p lo y ed . P e r h a p s 300 p e rs o n s — m en
a n d w o m a n in e q u a l p ro p o r tio n s — a r e e n g a g e d in d o p in g o p e r a tio n s * *
A m ong
th e s e e m p lo y e es 16 c a se s o f to x ic ja u n d ic e a r e n o te d a s h a v in g o c c u r re d in th e five
m o n th s , J u n e to O c to b er, 1914. T h is g iv e s a s ic k n e s s r a t e o f 2.46 p e r 1 .000 em p lo y ed .
I t sh o u ld be n o te d , h o w e v e r, t h a t a n y illn e s s a t t r i b u t a b l e to th e in g r e d ie n ts o f th e
dope h a s b een a d d e d to th e sc h e d u le o f d is e a s e s co v ered by s e c tio n 8 o f th e w o rk m e n 's
c o m p e n s a tio n a c t o f 1906.
4
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43 cases of jaundice in aeroplane factories had come to the attention
of the department, and of these cases 7 had resulted in death (2 males
and 5 females), the fatal issue generally occurring in about a fortnight
after the apparently slight initial symptoms had shown themselves.
The report emphasizes the importance, since no efficient substitute for
tetrachlorethane has yet been found, of providing adequate means
for proper ventilation by dilution of the air so as to keep down the
tetrachlorethane and other vapors to a nontoxic proportion. The
standard needed for securing this appears to be 30 changes of the air
of the doping room per hour, which, if maintained, has largely re
duced the danger of toxic jaundice.
The means of ventilation must be mechanical, preferably by volume or pro
peller fans, with free discharge to the open air. Owing to the high specific grav
ity of the vapor the fans should be fixed at the floor level, or below this level
where space allows the construction of large ducts under the floor. Air inlets,
of the hopper type, the total area of which should be not less than three times
the discharge area of the fans, should be provided at the side of the room
opposite the fans at a height of about 10 feet above the floor level.
It is stated that exhaust ventilation and separation of the process
of doping from others is now recognized as indispensable in connec
tion with doping the wings, but it seems that insufficient attention has
been paid in some factories to the necessity of exhaust ventilation in
all processes in which tetrachlorethane dope is constantly used. The
process of “ taping,” in which, although a comparatively small
amount of dope is used, the close application required brings the face
right into the fumes, is specifically mentioned. The report notes the
tendency in some factories to make the doping room too small.
Pending the introduction of an efficient substitute for tetrachlor
ethane it is regarded as important that occupiers should (in addition
to provision and maintenance of a high standard of exhaust ventila
tion) consider and apply the following suggestions for safeguarding
the health of workers:
1. Exclusion of other work from the doping room.
2. Alternation of employment. * * * In factories where alternation of
employment has been arranged, e. g., two days doping and two in other work,
or one week in and one week out, improvement in health has resulted. And
when such an arrangement is adopted occasional necessary overtime might, it is
.suggested, be undertaken by those on the outturn, rather than by those who
have already worked a full day in doping.
3. Periodical medical examination. A fortnightly medical examination has
served useful purpose, both in reassuring the workers and also in enabling those
showing premonitory symptoms to be suspended or transferred to other work.
* * * After each visit the surgeon should state in writing the names of
those (if any) whom he considers should be (a) suspended as definitely suffer
ing from dope poisoning, necessitating absence from work until they are quite
well, or ( h) transferred temporarily to other work, as a precautionary measure
on account of equivocal signs.
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m o n t h l y r e v ie w of t h e b u r e a u of labor s t a t is t ic s .
It is suggested that workers suffering from effects of dope should
be excluded from all contact with it until they are well, medical cer
tificates being obtained. Instances are said to be known in which,
premature resumption led to recurrence of symptoms in an aggra
vated form. New workers should be instructed as to how they can
best avoid inhalation of fumes without interfering with work, and to
this end the following suggestions are offered:
1. Doping should be commenced at the end of the wing nearest to the exhaust
fans, and should proceed backward from that point.
2. In some factories the wings, as soon as the doped surface is “ tacky,” are
carried to a drying room or closed chamber (separately ventilated), thus dimin
ishing largely risk from inhalation of fumes. Where no such arrangement
exists the wings should be placed to dry in a position between the workers and
the exhaust draft, but not so as to obstruct the fans.
3. After doping the safest position for the worker is that nearest to the freshair inlets, but frequently men and women are seen standing close to the exhaust,
and therefore breathing the air which is most highly charged with the noxious
vapor; the reason being that either the flat top of the outlet duct has been found
a convenient place to keep dope pots, brushes, etc., or the light is better there
than at the far side. Shortsightedness, unless corrected by glasses, should debar
from taping, if not from doping.
4. "Work should not be commenced on an empty stomach, and where tetrachlorethane is an ingredient of the dope a worker “ must not be allowed to take a
meal or to remain during the times allowed to him for meals in any room in
which such substance is used.”
The report conchfiles with the suggestion that even if an efficient
substitute for tetrachlorethane is found, exhaust ventilation will
still be necessary to prevent the effects from such poisonous solvents
and diluents as benzine, acetone, and methylated spirit, which must
necessarily continue to be used.
ANTHRAX IN LONDON IN 1915.1
During 1915 the following seven cases of human anthrax occurred
in London: (1) On the 19th February, 1915, a man, G. K., aged 52,
developed a boil on the back of the neck. He was removed to the
London Hospital and operated upon there, but died on the day fol
lowing the operation. He had been occupied in making rugs at his
home, from miscellaneous materials mostly said to be derived from
the goat.
(2) On 23d April, 1915, a skin porter employed at the leather
market, Bermondsey, developed a pimple on the cheek. He was
removed to the Great Northern Central Hospital, the ulcer was
1
Q u o te d fro m th e r e p o r t o f th e c o u n ty m e d ic a l officer of h e a lth a n d sch o o l m e d ic al
officer, f o r t h e y e a r 1915. L o n d o n C o u n ty C o u n cil, A u g u st, 1916.
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109
excised immediately, specific serum treatment was applied, and the
patient recovered.
(3) On the 26th June, 1915, J. M., aged 26 years, a tea packer,
developed a boil on the forehead. He was admitted to the Royal
Free Hospital and recovered. The source of infection was not
discovered.
(4) On 8th July, 1915, Mr. Luxmore Drew held an inquest on the
body of a solicitor’s clerk (IT. C.), living in Paddington,-who died
from anthrax at the West London Hospital; the disease began in the
neck. The man (aged 38) had had nothing to do with animals or
hides, wool, or skins, but it was stated at the inquest that his mother
had bought him a new shaving brush at the shop of a local chemist
about a week before his death.
Dr. Elworthy, the pathologist to the hospital, verified the fact that
the man had died of anthrax. He also examined the shaving brush
and found it to be infected with anthrax spores. His experiments
(see Lancet, 1st January, 1916) showed that anthrax spores may
remain dormant in the hairs of brushes throughout the process of
manufacture, and thus the disease may appear after the distribution
of the manufactured article. The brush was one of six obtained by
a chemist in Paddington from a wholesale firm in Finsbury on 11th
May, 1915. It was the only one of the six sold by the chemist. The
others were examined by Dr. Elworthy and found to be infected with
anthrax. Inquiries were then extended into the earlier history of
the brushes. The bristles wea-e found to be largely composed of
mixed hair of Chinese origin, chiefly goat, horse, pig, and human
hair. Before the war such consignments of hair were usually sent
to dealers in Switzerland, who transmitted them to Germany, where
they were graded and cut into lengths after being disinfected, and
returned to Switzerland, from whence they were exported to whole
sale manufacturers in this country. After the outbreak of war,
however, these hairs were imported into this country direct from
China, and, being labeled as “ goats’ hair,” escaped the Home Office
regulations with regard to disinfection.
I t appears that a consignment of these hairs conveyed by a Japa
nese vessel was purchased through certain brokers by a firm in Lon
don in September, 1914, who sent them to manufacturers in the
Midlands for making into shaving brushes. About 1,500 of these
brushes were distributed to various wholesale and retail vendors,
both in this country and in the colonies; amongst these was a firm
which supplied the local chemists with the brush used by H. C.
The matter was reported to the Local Government Board, and it
was arranged that that board would take steps to collect the brushes
in the Provinces, while the London County Council would deal with
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those sold in London. The medical officers of the city corporation
and the metropolitan boroughs in which the brushes had been distiibuted were informed, and where the brushes were unsold they
veie collected and dealt with, but a number had already been dis
posed of to casual customers and could not be traced.
(5) In the course of inquiries another case of human anthrax was
discovered in Deptford in July, and it was found that the patient,
who was a hawker, had obtained a shaving brush from a shop re
ceiving its supply from the suspected assignment. Dr. Ehvorthy
examined the brush used and found it to be infected with anthrax.
It v as also ascertained that three other cases had occurred outside
of London one at Bristol, another at Southall, and a third at
Coventry (see Lancet, Jan. 29, 191G)—and in all three instances the
infected persons had bought shaving brushes shortly before con
tracting the disease. These brushes were obtained by the vendors
from the factory in the Midlands previously referred to.
These cases constitute the first known instances of anthrax being
traced to infection from shaving brushes, and but for the timely
discovery of Dr. Elworthy and the subsequent administrative action
taken an outbreak of more serious dimensions might have occurred.
(6) IV. E., an electrical fitter employed at the war office, was
notified on November 28, 191b, as’suffering from anthrax. Pie was
removed to the Middlesex Hospital, where, after appropriate treat
ment, he recovered. Inquiries were made, but no light could be
thrown upon the source of infection.
(7) E. 31.. aged 29 years, was employed by a firm of hair dealers
and notified ¡it Guy’s Hospital on December 8, 1915, to be suffer
ing from anthrax. The local lesion was excised and the patient
recovered.
INFLUENCE OF OCCUPATION ON HEALTH DURING ADOLES
CENCE.1
In a bulletin setting forth the influence of occupation on health
during adolescence, the United States Public Health Service pre
sents the report of a physical examination of G79 bovs between the
ages of IP and 18 years in the cotton industries of Massachusetts,
a study made in cooperation with the Massachusetts Child Labor
Commission and the State Board of Labor and Industries with a
view to standardizing methods of oversight of such persons to pro
tect their health in the industries. II hile the investigation was
somewhat limited in scope and apparently disclosed no need of any
new industrial legislation, it seems to have shown that the matters
1
In flu e n c e o f o c c u p a tio n o n h e a lth d u r in g a d o le sc e n c e , b y M. V ic to r S ta ffo rd .
S ta te s P u b lic H e a lth S e rv ic e , B u lle tin No. 78. W a s h in g to n , 1910. 52 pp.
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deserving of greater attention are rather matters awaiting the slow
building up of an effective organization for carrying out already
existing provisions of law. The prevention of the defective physical
conditions disclosed by the actual physical examinations of the boys
would seem to be a health problem rather than an industrial prob
lem. “ The defective physical conditions found are to some extent
the results of bad heredity and disease accidents in early life, but
to a greater extent they reflect ignorance and neglect. ”
Under the Massachusetts law no child under 11 years of age is
permitted to be employed in any capacity in an industry like a cotton
factory. No person under 18 can be employed in a cotton factory
without an employment certificate issued by the local school authori
ties certifying that the person lias complied with certain educational
requirements prescribed by law, and if the person be under 16 years
of age he must have, in addition, a certificate from a physician au
thorized by the school authorities declaring him to have been physi
cally examined and found physically fit to perform the particular
kind of work specified in the certificate. A change in the character
of the work calls for a new certificate. Thus “ every boy who was
physically examined in this investigation, and who started to work
before lie was 16, has been examined by a physician under the direc
tion of the local school authorities before he was allowed to go to
work.”
Every cotton-manufacturing center of the State was covered by
the investigation, the mills in each locality being selected so as to
secure physical examinations (1) of boys from mills of both old and
modern construction, (2) of boys employed in the manufacture of
all the different varieties of cotton fabrics represented in the locality,
and (3) of a sufficient number of boys of each nationality or race
represented among mill employees to justify comparisons. These
physical examinations were supplemented by a study of records of
the hospitals in Lowell, Lawrence, and Fall River relative to the
causes of admission of cotton-mill operatives whether as dispensary
or hospital patients. In considering the tabulation of diseases and
defects disclosed by the physical examination of the boys the report
calls attention to the fact that the investigation was made in a State
which has been a pioneer in the matter of industrial legislation; a
State that is free from hookworm infection; practically free from
malaria; with a very low typhoid fever morbidity rate; and where
the prevention of tuberculosis and protection of public health gen
erally lias been given considerable attention.
1 In a brief description of the manufacture of cotton fabrics it is
pointed out that practically all the minors employed were engaged
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MONTHLY EEVIEW OE TILE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
in work requiring very little actual physical exertion at any time
and involving but slight hazard in the way of industrial accidents.
Out of 6^9 boys examined not more than 2 showed permanent results
of injuries possibly received in the cotton industry. However, the
report indicates that there are certain processes which do involve
possible hazards of chemical poisoning, but so few boys were found
employed in these particular occupations that the report devotes
little attention to them. “ So far, therefore, as physical effects of
usual cotton-factory work in the State of Massachusetts on male
minor employees are concerned, the hazards of the industry prac
tically are reduced to the possible effects on the minors of the atmos
pheric conditions of the mills, not merely on the healthy and vigorous,
but on those who may be in some way or other abnormal.”
As indicating that the cotton factory does not appeal to the aver
age boy when it comes to furnishing more than a temporary job,
the report cites the fact that of 679 boys examined, 425 (62.6 per
cent) were over 16, and 198 (29.2 per cent) were over 17 years of
age, yet only 203 (29.9 per cent) had a total of 2 years’ employment
and but 78 (11.5 per cent) a total of three years. The mill employ
ment of 220 boys (32.4 per cent) was of less than 6 months’ duration.
As to the education of these 679 boys, it was found that only 59
(8.7 per cent) had attended high school, and 237 (34.9 per cent)
had not succeeded in reaching the sixth grade of a grammar school
or its equivalent; 11 were illiterate. The report suggests that there
are many good reasons why the education of these 237 boys ended
where it did. It appears from the tabulation of diseases and defects,
shown hereafter, that some had serious unrecognized defects of eye
sight incompatible with progress in school; that some were deaf;
that some evidently had during their school days diseased conditions
of the nose, throat, and mouth, or other neglected physical defects;
that “ others simply lacked the mental capacity to go any further in
school than they did.”
The names of 81 diseases and defects found among these 679 male
cotton-factory employees between 14 and 18 years of age are tabu
lated, with the aggregate length of employment in the cotton-manu
facturing industry. In all, 3,180 cases are recorded, indicating that
many of the boys suffered from more than one defect. In the follow
ing table these diseases and defects are condensed into 14 groups,
showing the number and per cent of cases in each specified group:
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G R O U P I N G O F D IS E A S E S A N D D E F E C T S F O U N D A M O N G M A L E C O T T O N -F A C T O R Y
E M P L O Y E E S B E T W E E N T H E A G E S O F 14 A N D 18, S H O W IN G N U M B E R A N D P E R C E N T
O F C A SES IN E A C H S P E C IF IE D G R O U P .
G ro u p .
P h y sic a lly u n d e v e lo p e d ..............
D efectiv e v is io n ..............................
A c u te e y e d isea se s..........................
D efectiv e h e a rin g ...........................
D efectiv e n a s a l b r e a th in g ...........
H y p e rtro p h ie d to n s ils ..................
D efectiv e t e e t h . ..............................
P u lm o n a ry d ise a se ........................
Cases.
193
188
27
151
383
260
1,153
33
G ro u p .
P e rc e n t.
6.07
5.91
.85
4.75
12.04
8.18
36.26
1.04
Cases.
P e r ce n t.
C ardiac disease............................
D iseased g la n d s ...........................
S k in diseases................................
O rth o p e d ic d e fe c ts.....................
M e n ta l d efec tiv e n ess.................
M iscellaneous defec ts................
22
413
67
39
33
218
0.69
12.99
2.11
1.23
1.04
6.86
T o ta l....................................
3,180
100.00
The report comments on a number of these defects, noting particu
larly the fact that the irritant effect of the atmosphere of the mills
or of gases or chemical vapors on the respiratory tract was compara
tively negligible, since in 499 cases (73 per cent) the mucous mem
brane of the nose and throat was normal; that 388 (57.1 per cent)
of the boys had decayed teeth demanding immediate attention; that
not a single case of tuberculosis of the lungs was found, a fact, how
ever, “ of little value as evidence in tending to indicate whether
cotton-mill work predisposes to pulmonary tuberculosis or not,” since
all the boys examined were under 18 years of age and nearly half
of them had worked less than one year and only a few for more
than four years. The report states that “ the freedom of boys from
skin diseases was remarkable. One boy showed signs of rickets, and
three had chronic nephritis or Bright's disease.
As already indicated, the investigation seemed to show that health
hazards must be sought in the atmospheric conditions of the mills
and it was found that marked differences in the air conditions in
different mills did exist. It is explained that a fairly high percentage
of relative humidity evenly distributed through a room is essential to
the conduct of the industry, and that when the machines are started a
large amount of heat is generated. These factors “ cause a tendency
toward unnecessarily high temperatures and high relative humidity
in cotton mills and a reluctance to admit outside air unless these mat
ters be automatically controlled.” This matter of temperature and
humidity in Massachusetts industries has been made the subject of
statutory regulation.1
I t was found that most of the boys examined in the autumn and
early winter on clear, dry days Avere working in a mill temperature
of about 75 degrees with a relative humidity of probably 70 per cent.
The report suggests that the great danger at present of improperly
issuing employment certificates arises from the fact that those au-
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thorized to make the physical examinations find it impossible to give
sufficient attention to individual cases, and are not themselves in
actual touch with the occupations concerned. The following recom
mendations are made :
For the reasons above stated it is recommended that the authority to issue
a working certificate to a minor he vested exclusively in some central State
agency, a part of whose functions it is to know actual working conditions in
any occupation in the State—such certificate to be issued on a formal prescribed
application, calling for any inform ation deemed desirable regarding the ap
plicant and including the approval of the local school committee and evidence
satisfactory to such central State authority of physical fitness as shown by a
detailed report on a prescribed form o f a physical exam ination of the applicant.
Instead of having an employment certificate practically Irrevocable as at
present and attem pting to safeguard certificates by care in the selection of a
few authorized exam ining physicians, it is recommended that the central State
authority may, if it deem advisable itself and shall as a matter of course on
request of th e-local school committee, lim it the life o f a certificate and make
its reissue dependent on the reapproval o f the local school committee and an
other physical exam ination. It is also recommended that the central State
authority may accept a report on the prescribed form of physical exam ination
of an applicant from any registered physician in the State, approved by the
local school authorities, but that the central State authority shall have power
to require that a report as to the physical condition o f a minor applicant or a
minor at work be furnished in any case or at any tim e by a medical officer in
the employ of the State. It is believed th at changes in the present law to the
effect ju st indicated would result in insuring a much better and highly de
sirable control over the educational interests and physical w elfare of minor
w age earners in the State.
STANDARDS OF HEALTH INSURANCE.
In a volume entitled “ Standards of Health Insurance,” 1 the
author, I. M. Bubinow, outlines the basic principles underlying a
broad system of health insurance, with the expressed hope that it
will be of some assistance to those who are trying to teach it to the
public, or who have gone so far as to prepare drafts of legislative
enactments. For the benefit of those unfamiliar with this subject,
certain essential considerations upon which the propaganda is based
are suggested:
1.
Since “ insurance is a provision made by a group of persons, each singly
in danger of some loss, the incidence of which can not be foreseen, that when
such loss shall occur to any of them, it shall be distributed over the whole
group ” insurance is evidently a method w ell adapted to m itigate the destructive
effects of illness.
1 S ta n d a rd s
1916.
322 pp.
of
H e a lth
I n s u r a n c e , b y I.
M.
R u b in o w .
$1.50, net.
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115
2. The wageworker stands in greater need o f health insurance, because, first,
his economic status depends much more closely up.on preservation of h e a lth ;
second, as a result of the unhygienic or harmful conditions of his life and work
he is very much more susceptible to ill health than the members of the employ
ing or all property-owning classes.
3. The advantages o f health insurance are clearly demonstrated by the rapid
extension of private health insurance of various forms, commercial as w ell as
mutual.
4. The experience of Europe demonstrates that public concern in health
insurance for the wageworking class is alm ost universal in all industrial
countries.
The author discusses the benefit of health insurance; gives an esti
mate of the cost, and suggests the proper way of apportioning it; out
lines the organization of health-insurance associations and of medical
aid; notes the necessity for a compulsory plan; and answers some of
the objections to the system as a whole. The question of constitu
tionality is presented in an appendix by Prof. Joseph P. Chamberlain, of the legislative drafting bureau of Columbia University.
The necessity for health insurance legislation in this country, grow
ing out of the demand for it among the laboring people and those
vitally interested in social insurance of all kinds, is emphasized.
!
I f the harmful effects of the increasing cost of living w ill be counteracted, if
organized society intends to undertake a serious campaign for prevention of
destitution, if, finally, the movement for conservation of the health of the
N ation is to have any meaning at all, then health-insurance legislation becomes
the burning issue of the hour.
Almost all the other benefits of a system of health insurance seem
to depend upon whether a voluntary or compulsory system is con
templated. In arguing for the compulsory plan the author draws
largely from the experience of Denmark, Germany, and Great B rit
ain, representing three distinct tjqpes of health insurance, respec
tively: (1) Voluntary insurance with State subsidies; (2) compulsory
insurance with a practically prescribed insurance carrier; (3) com
pulsory insurance with freedom of choice of insurance carrier.
| European experience has apparently convinced the author that a
compulsory health insurance act should be broad and general in its
application, including agricultural laborers, domestic servants, home
workers, casual and irregular employees, Government employees,
and clerical employees, and that a voluntary system may be operated
: in connection with a compulsory system so as to cover those who, for
one reason or another, do not benefit by the latter.
^ When it comes to determining the scope of health insurance the
; author admits the difficulty of drawing an exact line of demarcation
between disease and industrial injury, but notes that it is the uni: form practice in practically all health-insurance systems to treat
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cases of nonindustrial accidents in the way in which cases of sickness
are treated. So far as industrial accidents are concerned the question
becomes more complicated because in many States these are largely
covered by the provisions of compensation laws.
Health insurance, it is believed, should supplement accident com
pensation also in the medical aid rendered and in its coverage of
occupational diseases, but it is thought unwise to combine it with
invalidity insurance as has been done in Great Britain.
The author devotes several chapters to a discussion of the benefits
derived from health insurance, including medical, money, maternity,
funeral, and optional benefits. The first should include medical
treatment, supplies, and institutional care ; money benefits should not
be uniform, since they would be too high for some workers and too
low for others; and the waiting period should be “ based upon a
priori reasoning rather than precedent,” since standards established
in European countries are found to differ materially. It appears
that practically every existing system of compulsory health insur
ance offers maternity benefits, and the author believes that this phase
of social insurance should be made a part of health insurance instead
of being conducted as a separate system. The established extrava
gance in funerals, especially among the poor, is commented upon,
and it is stated that the “ assumption of this burden by the sickness
benefit would establish one fairly uniform standard the acceptance
of which would not mean loss of caste.”
The author points out that all compulsory health insurance sys
tems (with the exception of those of Roumania and Holland) not
only require employees to insure, but also make it obligatory for
employers to contribute to the cost, although the amount of such
contribution is subject to variation. In Great Britain there is in
addition contribution from the public treasury. It is assumed that
the workmen themselves will contribute to any system of health
insurance, a policy which would give them “ democratic participation
in the administration of the funds, such as would be quite impos
sible under a system of gratuitous pensions. The working class has
amply demonstrated its ability and willingness to develop mutual
insurance.” As to the distribution of the cost among employers,
workmen, and the public treasury, the author suggests an equal divi
sion as the natural and easiest way of solving the problem,1 but
admits that the suggestion lacks a logical foundation and states
that “ the actual distribution will in each case depend more upon
1 “ I n G e r m a n y t h e e m p lo y e r c o n t r i b u t e s a s u m e q u a l t o o n e - h a l f o f t h e e m p lo y e e ’s c o n
tr ib u tio n , o r o n e -th ird o f th e to t a l.
I n t h e i n s u r a n c e s y s t e m o f H u n g a r y a n d S e r b ia t h e
e m p lo y e r a n d e m p lo y e e c o n t r i b u t e e q u a l a m o u n t s . ”
I n G r e a t B r it a in “ th e in s u r e d p a y s
4 d . [ 8 c e n t s ] , ( f e m a le s , 3 d . [ 6 .1 c e n t s ] ) p e r w e e k , t h e e m p lo y e r 3 d . [ 6 .1 c e n t s ] , a n d t h e
S t a t e , in a s o m e w h a t i n d i r e c t w a y , 2 d . [4 .1 c e n t s ] . ”
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117
bargaining power and the interaction of political influences than
upon any definite economic or actuarial reasoning.” 1 The author
recognizes the argument advanced by some that a reduced contribu
tion should be expected from low-paid labor and a correspondingly
higher contribution from employers of such labor.
Since the stated object of social health insurance is to give the
insured as large a return for their contribution as possible, “ prac
tically all social insurance against sickness in Europe is conducted
by institutions or organizations of a public character, with the ele
ment of commercial profit entirely eliminated.” The author warns
against the suggestion that private stock companies, operated for
profit, may be utilized in this branch of social insurance as they
have been in compensation, and deprecates the participation of
mutual private insurance companies. He also doubts the advisa
bility of adopting the method of direct insurance by the State.
Outside of Great Britain “ the entire lesson of history is in favor
of the ‘local’ public fund, wdiether built upon trade lines, where
the number of insured is sufficiently large, or embracing all the
wageworkers of a locality.”
In the administration of these local “ public ” funds both em
ployers and employees should be equally represented in the man
agement of the funds, but “ it seems more desirable that no official
representatives of the State authority be directly concerned in the
administration of these associations.” Every local association should
be subject to a central organization, either the State industrial com
mission or the State labor department.
It is recognized that the amount of the contribution must depend
upon the benefits rendered and that this should bear some relation to
wages, since benefits do. Just how to determine the amount of the
contribution appears to be a very difficult problem, because many
factors enter into the consideration. The conclusion is that “ it is
quite unnecessary and, in fact, very dangerous, to embody any defi
nite rate of contribution in the act. This may be safely left to the
individual insurance carriers to be established by their by-laws, sub
ject to the control of the commission.” The establishment of rates in
relation to wage groups, age, occupation, and hazard is discussed.
Owing to the importance of the organization of medical aid, in
volving its relation to private practice, freedom of choice of phy
sicians, organization and distribution of medical supplies, and admin
istration of institutional treatment, a separate chapter is devoted to
this subject.
1 T h e b a s i s o f d i s t r i b u t i o n a s fix e d i n t h e b il l p r e p a r e d b y t h e A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a ti o n f o r
L a b o r L e g i s l a t i o n is 4 0 p e r c e n t b y e m p lo y e r s , 4 0 p e r c e n t b y e m p lo y e e s , a n d 2 0 p e r c e n t
b y th e S t a t e .
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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
An important feature of the organization of health insurance is its
probable cost, and of this the author gives an estimate, based upon
the fixity of benefits and contributions adjusted to the cost, and con
cludes, on the basis of German experience, that it seems very prob
able that the total cost for the entire system will approximate 4 per
cent [of the wages] on an average, and in a good many localities or
industries will rise even higher. It is doubtful whether anywhere it
will be below 3 per cent. The law might reasonably state the limits
between 3 and 5 per cent. This cost (a maximum rather than a mini
mum or probable cost) the author has distributed as follows:
P e r c e n t.
Money b en efits_____________________________________________
M aternity benefits__________________________________________
Funeral benefits__________________________________________
Medical a i d ________________________________________________
1. 908
. 072
. 432
1. 33S
T o ta l--------------------------------------------------------------------3. 750
Considering all the benefits and the probable cost of a system of
health insurance as herein outlined, the author concludes that “ it is
decidedly worthwhile.” But in order to avoid levying, in its entirety,
upon wage earners the cost of such a system, it is suggested that “ the
distribution of the cost between the employer and employee, with a
substantial contribution from the State, is the only way in which this
large program may be realized.”
P R O P O SE D A M E N D M E N T OF T H E B R IT IS H N A T IO N A L H E A L T H
IN S U R A N C E A CT.1
On January 27, 1916, the British treasury department appointed,
a committee composed of representatives of the department, members
of the National Health Insurance Commission, officials of insurance
companies and of friendly societies, trade-union representatives,
actuaries, and other parties interested, to consider and report upon
amendments to the health insurance act of 1911 so far as relates to its
financial aspect, and to consider how far the work of approved
societies, the carriers of the insurance under the act, may be sim
plified in its administration. On May 11, 1916, a preliminary re
port was filed by the committee, known as the departmental com
mittee on approved society finance and administration. Discussing
merely the financial phase of the work delegated to it, the commit
tee points out that the normal operation of a general scheme of in
surance based on a flat rate of premium—the scheme adopted under
1 G re a t B r ita in .
N a tio n a l H e a lth In s u ra n c e .
I n te r im R e p o rt o f th e D e p a rtm e n ta l
C o m m itt e e o n A p p r o v e d S o c ie ty F i n a n c e a n d A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , M a y , 1 9 1 6 .
L o n d o n , 1916.
39 pp.
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119
the British health insurance act, 1911—rests, of course, upon an
average which when applied to different classes of the population
may show marked deviations, according as the composition of the
particular section conforms to or varies in one direction or the other
from that of the main body or as the conditions influencing claims
on the funds may vary. But the national health insurance scheme,
the committee notes, can not be said to satisfy the usual requirements
of a flat-rate system. Furthermore, Parliament, by leaving the for
mation of the approved societies, the carriers of the insurance, un
restricted and free, contemplated a departure in one fundamental
aspect from the normal working of the flat-rate system. “ Though
prosperous and less fortunate societies must of necessity go to make
up the national aggregation and, on the original assumptions, to pro
duce a solvent position, the prosperous societies were to enjoy the
whole (or a greater part, in certain cases) of their surplus, while the
less fortunate had entirely, or to a great extent, to rest upon their own
resources/’ Thus there was no pooling of the resources or the deficits
in order to balance their losses or surplus and therefore to bring them
within the normal operations of a flat-rate system of insurance.
In order to test the general working of the scheme, the committee
had been supplied with data based upon the experience of societies in
cluding among their membership the great majority of insured per
sons. The committee excluded disability benefit from the compari
son thus made, for the reason that this benefit came into operation
as recently as July, 1914. The expected cost of disability benefit will
increase continuously for a number of years, and while in the first
18 months of its operation the cost had been within the expectation
appropriate to that period in the case of both men and women, ex
perience of its normal working must be gathered before conclusions
can be drawn.
The actual and expected expenditure per member for sickness and
maternity benefits are shown below for both sexes for the years 1913,
1914, and 1915, in pence per week:
A CTUAL AND
E X P E C T E D W E E K L Y E X P E N D IT U R E P E R M E M B E R F O R
A N D M A T E R N IT Y B E N E F I T S , B Y S E X , 1913, 1914, A N D 1915.
A c tu a l
e x p e n d itu re .
M en:
1913..........................
1914..........................
1915..........................
W o m en :
1913..........................
1914..........................
1915..........................
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E x p e c te d
e x p e n d itu re .
2.76d. (5.60 c t s .) . . .
3.03d. (6.15 c t s . ) . . .
2.76d. (5 .6 0 c t s . ) . . .
2.80d. (5.68 c ts .).
3.00d. (6.09 c ts .).
3.00d. (6.09 c ts.).
2.51d. (5 .10c t s . ) . . .
2.60d. (5 .28c t s , ) . . .
2.04d. (4 .1 4 c t s . ) . . .
1.78d. (3.61 c ts .).
1.85d. (3.76 c ts .).
1.85d. (3.7 6 c ts .) .
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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
Taken as a whole, the three years’ experience, in the opinion of the
committee, shows that there is a general sufficiency of contributions
in the case of male members of the societies; and unless post helium
conditions result in a general increase in the rate of sickness claims,
no unfavorable result need be expected. Although this is true of
the general level of contributions, individual societies drawing their
members from particularly hazardous occupations or living in un
healthy surroundings will consistently show a rate of sickness in
excess of the average.
With respect to women members, the working of the insurance act
fell short of the assumption involved in the original basis of the
scheme. The data show a general insufficiency in the income pay
able to the benefit funds. Married women, in particular, appear to
be subject to a greater amount of sickness than women generally, and
this excess is shown in the experience of societies in proportion to
the number of married women included in the membership.
The committee hastens to allay anj^ apprehension as to the financial
stability of the societies under the scheme, since the present law pro
vides means by which societies can regain a position of financial
equilibrium by reducing the benefits or increasing the contributions
of the members. It is none the less true that a number of the societies
will inevitably find a deficit on making evaluation.
Precluded by the instructions in its appointment from seeking a
remedy for these difficulties in the direction of additional State funds
or of an increase in rates of contributions or in a reduction of rates
of benefit, the committee suggested relief of the financial situation
of the approved societies by releasing a part of the contributions to
the sinking fund to meet current needs. The scheme as outlined by
the committee provided (1) an immediate increase in the income
available to societies for the payment of benefits to women generally
(increase of benefit fund) ; (2) special provision for the claims fall
ing upon societies by reason of married women members (creation of
a womens equalization fund) ; (3) accumulation of a special reserve
fund as a measure of precaution, to meet, if necessary, the indirect
but possibly prolonged effects of war service upon the general sick
ness rate of male members; (4) placing in the hands of all societies,
whether composed of men or women, or partly of both, additional
moneys to meet contingent liabilities growing out of excessive claims
for sickness disability or maternity benefits (creation of a contin
gencies fund) ; (5) provision for further deficiency due as special
risks in its societies containing an abnormal number of persons below
the average in health (creation of a special risks fund).
The first four funds mentioned above should be made available
for immediate application in cases of deficiency on valuation. The
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men's special reserve fund and contingencies fund should be credited
to each society in proportion to the contributions of its members, and
the women’s equalization fund and the special risks fund should be
central funds for the whole United Kingdom.
The following statement shows in detail the several allocations of
moneys referred to above from sinking-fund resources :
A LL O CA T IO N O F T I IE R E S O U R C E S O F T H E S IN K IN G F U N D AS P R O P O S E D B Y T H E
C O M M ITT EE .
W omen.
Men.
R ate per
weekly con
trib u tio n .
To hfvnaf.t fund
To w om en’s equaliza
tion fu n d ...
To m en’s special reTo contingencies fu n d .
To special risks fu n d .. .
12d. ($0.24)
35d. ($0. 71)
9d. ($0.18)
T o tal a n n u al am ount.
£250,000 ($1,216,625)
£710,000 ($3,455,215)
£180,000
($875,970)
R ate per
w eekly con T o tal a n n u al am ount.
trib u tio n .
17d. ($0.35)
£145,000
($705,643)
16d. ($0.32)
i £135,000
($656,977)
31d. ($0.69)
8d. ($0.16)
£280,000 ($1,362,620)
£70,000
($340,655)
£030,000 ($3,065,895)
75d. ($1.52)
56d. ($1.13) £1,140,000 ($5,547,810)
T o ta l...
The appro p riatio n of
the
above
item s
w ould leave for in
terest a n d redem p
tio n
of
reserve
values—
f £160,000 ($2,23S, 590)
i £1,500,000 ($7,299,750)
In te re s t....................
| 75d. ($1.52)
R edem ption of re jlOOd. ($2.03)
\
£170,000 ($827,305)
1 £560,000 ($2,725,210)
serve values.........
G rand to ta l..........
15Gd. ($3.16)
£3,200,000 ($15,572,800)
150d. ($3.04)
£1,2G0; 000 ($6,131,790)
1 I t is assumed th a t P arliam en t w ill be asked to provide a g ran t of an equivalent am ount.
Other recommendations of the committee included the following:
(1) A repeal of the provisions of the act requiring branches of
societies (in certain cases, societies) to contribute up to one-third
of their disposable surplus to deficits of other branches or societies;
(2) pooling of the contingencies fund up to 50 per cent thereof of
societies having less than 1.000 members; (3) withdrawal of the
power granted to societies to associate voluntarily for pooling pur
poses, subject, however, to a special reservation in favor of societies
with a common origin or interests, and of employers’ provident
funds; (4) the contingencies funds of societies, so far as not required
to provide against deficiencies, to be available for additional benefits
to members after the second valuation; (5) societies to be enabled,
in view of the modification in their financial position involved in the
foregoing proposals, to reconsider any arrangements as to their
valuation of their members resident in different parts of the United
Kingdom; (6) the rate of interest assumed in the financial basis
of the acts to be maintained at 3 per cent; (7) the valuations of
societies to take place at quinquennial instead of triennial intervals;
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(8) the foregoing scheme to run for a period of 10 years from the
commencement of benefits (with the effect of extending the term of
the sinking fund by about 6 years) and the matter then to be recon
sidered in regard to the amounts to be carried to the contingencies
and special risks funds, the source from which those moneys have
been provided, the provisions governing the women’s equalization
fund, and the position generally in the case of mixed societies; (9)
arrangements to be made for securing full statistical data in regard
to the experience of men and women respectively; (10) compulsory
separation of men’s and women’s funds not to be made, but facilities
for the separation of men’s and women’s funds to be afforded where
desired by a society.
SICKNESS INSURANCE IN AUSTRIA, 1912 AND 1913.
IN T R O D U C T IO N .
The Austrian sickness insurance system in its present form is
based on the law of March 30, 1888, which came into force on August
1, 1889. Sickness and accident insurance in Austria are closely
united by the provision of article 1 of the sickness insurance law,
stating that the persons subject to the compulsory accident insurance
are also subject to the compulsory sickness insurance. The classes
of persons subject to the compulsory sickness insurance are work
men and low-salaried administrative officials in all enterprises regu
larly carried on with some permanency of operations and conducted
for profit. Persons employed in home-working industries, agricul
ture, and forestry are not subject to the compulsory sickness insur
ance, but may insure themselves voluntarily under the provisions of
the law, if their employers agree. Administrative officials earning
2,400 crowns ($487.20) or more are exempt.
The sickness insurance funds established under the law must
provide benefits, first, for cases of sickness causing disability for
more than three days, and, second, for cases of accidental injury
during the first four weeks of disability, if the accident is one which
is entitled to compensation under the accident insurance law. For
female members benefits must be paid for at least four weeks after
childbirth. A funeral benefit must be paid if the disability results
in death.
The benefits provided by a sick fund must not be less than the fol
lowing: From the beginning of the sickness, free medical treatment,
as well as free medicines and therapeutical appliances; in case the
sickness lasts more than 3 days and the sick person is unable to work,
a pecuniary benefit amounting to 60 per cent of the locally current
rate of wages for ordinary day labor for each day of sickness for a
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123
period of 20 weeks; in case of death, a funeral benefit of not less than
20 times the rate of wages mentioned above. Instead of the free med
ical treatment, free medicines, and pecuniary benefit, the sick person
may receive free treatment in a hospital, and in that case, if he has
dependents, these receive at least one-half of the pecuniary benefit.
The law authorizes the sick funds to increase the amount of the
pecuniary benefits, but fixes a maximum for such increases.
The means for the support of the various sick funds are procured
by assessments levied in the form of a percentage of the ’wages of the
insured persons. The latter pay two-thirds and the employers onethird of the rate fixed by the fund. The maximum rate permissible is
3 per cent of the ivages used as a basis for computing the benefits.
No person compelled to insure pays an entrance fee. Persons insur
ing themselves voluntarily, however, must pay such a fee, equal in
amount to 6 weeks’ dues.
The principal carriers of the sickness insurance are the district sick
funds, organized on geographical lines. In addition to these, the law
recognizes as carriers the establishment, building trade, association,
and guild sick funds.
O P E R A T IO N S I N 1912 A N D 1913.
The latest report on statistics of the operations of the Austrian
sickness-insurance system has been published by the ministry of the
interior as a supplement to the June number for 1916 of the “Amtliche Nachrichten des k. k. Ministeriums des Innern betreffend die
Unfall- und Krankenversicherung der Arbeiter,” and deals with the
results for 1912 and 1913. The report states that the data presented
for 1913 are incomplete for various reasons connected with the out
break of the war (occupation of some districts by the enemy, calling
in of fund officers to the army, etc.), and are therefore not quite com
parable with data for preceding years.
The number of sick funds in 1912 shows an increase of 23.6 per
cent over that in 1890, and the membership an increase of 138.5 per
cent. In 1912 the population of Austria vTas estimated to be 28,718,850; the membership of all sick funds being 3,691,111 was, therefore,
12.9 per cent of the population. Of the total average membership for
1912, 2,821,361 were male members and 872,753 female, members. The
corresponding figures for 1913 were 2,550,710 and 832,698.
In 1912 (the data for 1913 are not comparable on account of their
incompleteness) the average number of funds increased by 19, and
the average membership by 90,593, or 2.5 per cent, as compared with
the corresponding data for l^Ll. The district funds formed 17.3
per cent of the total average number of funds; the establishment and
building-trade funds combined formed 36.9 per cent; the guild funds
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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
38.3 per cent, and the association funds 7.5 per cent. These per
centages vary only slightly from the corresponding percentages for
1911, which were 17.3, 37.2, 38.3, and 7.2, respectively. Of each 100
members 43.1 were insured in district funds, 21.8 in establishment
or building-trade funds, 17.1 in guild funds, and IS in association
funds. The corresponding figures for 1911 were 43.3, 22.1, 16.8,
and 17.8. The aA^erage membership per fund increased from 1,078
in 1911 to 1,099 in 1912, and in 1913 decreased again to 1,074.
The number of days of sickness per member of all sick funds
combined varied from 9.13 in 1911 to 8.9 in 1912, and rose again to
9.45 in 1913. There has been a steady decrease in the number of
childbirths, as reported by the sick funds. The mortality rate
among members of sick funds is considerably lower than the general
mortality rate in Austria, explained by the fact that the insurance
system includes only able-bodied and actiATe persons.
The establishment funds sIioav the highest proportion of sickness
or disability cases (Table 4), due to the fact that the members of
these funds are mainly employed in the large industries.
The receipts and expenditures (Table 5) of the sick funds have
increased from year to year, in proportion to the increased member
ship, the figures for 1912 showing an increase over those of 1911.
The decrease of receipts and expenditures in 1913 can not be consid
ered on account of the incompleteness of the returns for this year.
The annual surplus has greatly varied since 1890 and is closely con
nected with the rise or fall of the morbidity rate. It has been as
Ioav as 2.3 per cent of the contributions, in 1899, and in the tAvo years
1891 and 1894 AATas as high as 11.4 per cent. In sickness insurance,
where the maximum period of benefits is restricted, as in Austria, to
20 Aveeks, a large reserve is not required, as all expenditures should
be met from current receipts. Of the total receipts, contributions
formed 93.3 per cent in 1912, and 93.9 per cent in 1913. Insurance
benefits were the largest item among the expenditures, forming 85.6
per cent of the total expenditures in 1912 and 86.7 per cent in 1913,
or 87.1 and 90.2 per cent, respectively, of the total contributions.
The large increase noted in per capita contributions (Table 6)
is offset by a still larger increase in the per capita amount expended
for insurance benefits. The per capita costs of administration were
113 per cent higher in 1912 than in 1890.
The total expenditures of funds for benefits have increased regu
larly since 1890 (Table 7). The pecuniary sick benefit has always been
the largest item in this class of expenditure. The expenditures for the
services of physicians and for medicines, etc., have shown increases.
The expenditures for hospital treatment show a relatively greater
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[ 668]
MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
125
increase than the expenditures for any other item, indicating that
more extensive use of this type of treatment is being made. The
expenses for funeral benefits show relatively the smallest increase of
anjTof the items.
The average expenditures per member for insurance benefits were
$2.65 in 1890, and have gradually increased to $1.67 in 1913, an in
crease of 76 per cent (Table 8). Of the individual items composing
these expenditures per member, the payments for sick benefit or
pecuniary aid increased during the same period 60 per cent, the cost
of medical treatment 106 per cent, the cost of medicines, etc., 64
per cent, the cost of hospital treatment 258 per cent, and the pay
ments for funeral benefit 22 per cent.
The average cost of benefits per day of sickness for all funds com
bined (Table 9) has increased; also the average costs of benefit per
case of sickness and the average cost of funeral benefits.
In 1913 the average cost of benefits per member in all sick funds
combined exceeded the average contribution per member by $1.20, or,
in other words, the members of sick funds received benefits on an
average 35 per cent in excess of their contributions. In the establish
ment funds the average excess of benefits over contributions was
$1.99, or 51 per cent, due to the fact that in this class of funds the
employer is by law obligated to bear all the costs of administration.
The operations of the sick funds are shown in the following tables.
I t must be kept in mind that the term “ sickness,” as here used, means
temporary disability, whether caused by sickness or accident. As
stated, the sick funds provide for cases of accident during the first
four weeks of disability, and since the official reports do not distin
guish between cases of sickness and cases of accident, it is impossible
to show these two classes of disability separately, though it is prob
able that a large part of the cases included in the following tables
are accident cases.
65847°—-16------ 9
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[669]
126
MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU o r LABOR STATISTICS.
T able 1.—D IS T R IB U T IO N O F M E M B E R S H IP O F SICK F U N D S, B Y CLA SSES, 1912 A N D 1913.
N um ber of—
Class of fund a n d year.
A ctive
funds.
D istrict funds:
1912..............................................................................
1913......................................................... ...............
E stab lish m en t funds:
1912..................................................................................
1913..................................................................................
B uilding-trade funds:
1912............................................................................
1913..................................................................................
G uild funds:
1912................................................................................
1913................................................................................
A ssociation funds: i
1912..............................................................................
1913..................................................................................
All sick funds:
1911..............................................................................
1912............................................................................
1913............................................................................
Average n um ber of—
F unds
included
in the
statistics.
Funds.
Members.
Average
m em
bership
per
fund.
582
579
582
517
582
517
1,592, 768
1,343,335
2, 737
2 598
1,204
1,200
1,197
1,147
1,192
1,140
797,529
782,619
669
687
52
52
54
12
50
12
6,542
2,079
131
173
1,307
1,310
1,295
1,250
1,286
1,241
630,510
596,905
490
481
263
271
25S
243
251
239
666,765
658,470
2, 755
3,379
3,408
3, 412
3,369
3,386
3,169
3,342
3,361
3,149
3,603,521
3,694,114
3 ,3S3,408
1,078
1,099
1,074
1 Inclusive of registered aid funds.
T able 2.—N U M B E R O F C O M PE N SA TE D CA SES O F SIC K N ESS A N D C H IL D B IR T H , D A Y S
F O R W H IC H SICK B E N E F IT S W E R E P A ID , AN D N U M B E R O F C O M PE N SA T E D D E A T H S
IN SICK F U N D S , 1890 TO 1913.
Compensated cases
of sickness and
c h ild b irth .
N um ber of days for
w hich sick benefits
were paid.
Y ear.
Total.
1890.................................................................
1895......................................................
1900.................................................................
1905..............................................
1906..............................................
1907.........................................................
1908..................................................
1909..........................................
1910.......................................
1911.....................................
1912..........................................
1913........................................
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
797,683
1,013,599
1,313,148
1,527,657
1,677,838
1,811,869
1,805,594
1,777,514
[670]
Cases of
child
b irth.
26,780
41,846
tp 0 ^ 3
50*696
Total.
12,409,327
17,516,981
22,708,651
26,978,071
Cases of
childbirth.
UO«7, CX>«7
1,399,474
1,
x fo Z
1,502,120
1 , 0 4 1 , U iO
55,511
30,658,569
55,171
56,017
52,288
30,597,796
32,905,047
32,885,695
31,985,800
1,561,412
1,527,418
1,555,076
1,525,174
1,555,675
1,448,850
D eaths
com pen
sated.
15,925
20,094
23,845
27,080
24,858
26,959
27,717
27,820
27,731
29,733
30,304
27,370
MONTHLY REVIEW OE THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
127
IN
T able 3.—R A T E S A N D A V E R A G E D U R A T IO N O F SIC K N ESS, AN D D E A T H R A T E S
SICK F U N D S, 1890 TO 1913.
Cases of
sickness
Cases of
childbirth
per 100
p er 100
m em bers
female
(exclusive
of con
m em bers.
finements).
Y ear.
48.2
49.5
51.9
48.8
53.8
54.2
52.3
49.6
52. 1
50.1
51.8
1895-1899 (average)............................................
1900-1904 (average)............................................
1905 .
' ..........................................................
19Ö6
.........................................................
1907
.......................................................
1908
.............................................................
.........................................................
1909
..................................................................
1910
191 i
.........................................................
1912........................................................................
1913 ...................................................................
Average
Average
num ber
days of
of
days of
duration
of a case of sickness
per
sickness
m em ber
(exclusive (inclusive
of con
of con
finements). finements).
16.4
17.1
17.3
17.3
17.3
17.1
16.6
16.9
16.3
16.7
16.9
17.4
8.56
9. 28
9.02
7.91
8.10
7.98
7. 60
7.28
7.03
6.58
6.42
6. 35
N um ber
of deaths
p e r 1,000
m em bers.
7.98
8.69
9,11
9.49
8.97
9.64
9.46
9. 28
8.82
9.13
8.90
9.45
10.0
9.4
9.2
9.5
8,4
8.9
8.8
8.3
8.0
8.3
8.2
8.1
T able 4.—R A T E S O F SIC K N ESS, A V E R A G E D U R A T IO N O F SIC K N ESS, AN D D E A T H
R A T E S , IN SICK F U N D S , B Y CLA SSES, 1912 AN D 1913.
Cases of
sickness
Cases of
childbirth
p e r 100
m em bers
p e r 100
(exclusive
female
of con
m em bers.
finements).
Class of fu n d a n d year.
D istric t funds:
1912.................................................................
1913.................................................................
E stablishm en t funds:
1912.................................................................
1913.................................................................
B uilding funds;
1912.................................................................
1913.................................................................
G uild funds:
1912.................................................................
1913.................................................................
A ssociation funds:
1912.................................................................
1913.................................................................
Average
Average
num ber
days of
of
days of
duration
of a case of sickness
per
sickness
m em ber
(exclusive (inclusive
of con
of con
finements). finements).
N um ber
of deaths
p e r 1,000
m em bers.
48.7
51.2
6.87
7.05
15.9
16.4
8.15
S. 82
7.7
7.7
67.2
66.9
8.35
8.10
17.1
17.9
12.10
12. 53
7.9
7.6
38.8
36.3
.45
.86
14.6
14.3
5.67
5.20
4.7
G. 7
35.5
37.2
3.46
3. 26
18.0
18.0
6.59
6.93
6.9
6.0
46.8
48.1
6.03
5.71
18.4
18.6
9.09
9.39
11.0
10.8
T able 5.—R E C E IP T S A N D E X P E N D IT U R E S O F T H E SIC K F U N D S , 1890 TO 1913.
Year.
1890
1895..............
1900..............
1905..............
1910..............
1911..............
1912..............
1913..............
C ontri
butions.
All
other.
Total.
$4,664,940
6,677,482
8,973,412
11,447,576
16,259,219
17,454,842
18,634,415
17,496,796
1353,017
445,382
609,609
799,008
1,233,805
1,193,438
1,343,019
1,342,361
$5,017,957
7,122,864
9,583,021
12,246,584
17,493,024
18,648,280
19,977,435
18,839,157
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Surplus.
E x p enditures.
Receipts.
Insurance A dm in
benefits. istration.
$4,099,382
5,784,485
8,129,338
10,368,022
13,894,359
15,439,899
16,229,564
15, 787,706
[671]
All
other.
Total.
P er
cent
of
A m ount. con
trib u
tions.
$364,588 $140,273 $4,604,243 $413,714
553,581
516,838 267,960 6,569,283
326,221
727,349 400,113 9,256,800
410,060
976,836 491,666 11,836,524
1,525,753 764,128 16,184,240 1,308,785
916,201
1,670,154 622,025 17,732,079
1,812,297 917,704 18,959,565 1,017,870
623,697
1,655,951 771,802 18,215,460
8.9
8.3
3.6
3.6
8.0
5.2
5.5
3.6
____
128
MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS,
T able 6 .—A V E R A G E R E C E IP T S A N D E X P E N D IT U R E S P E R M E M B E R O F SICK FU N D S*
1890 TO 1913.
Receipts per m em ber.
E xpenditures per member.
C ontributions of—
Year.
Em
M em bers. ployers.
1890................................
1895................................
1900................................
1905................................
1910..............................
1911................................
1912.............................
1913................................
$2 . 1 0
2.26
2.48
2. 76
3.16
3.24
3.30
3.46
$0.91
.97
1 .1 1
1.27
1.52
1.60
1.67
1.71
All other
receipts.
Total.
$0.23
Insurance A dm in All other
benefits. istration. expenses.
$3.24
3.45
3.83
4.31
5.04
5.17
5.41
5.57
.2 2
.24
.28
.36
’.33
.44
.40
$2.65
2.80
3.25
3.65
4.01
4.29
4.39
4.67
$0.23
.25
.29
.34
.44
.46
.49
.49
$0.09
Total.
$2.97
12
.16
.17
.2 2
.17
.25
.23
3.70
4.16
4.67
4.92
5.13
5.38
T a ble 7. —E X P E N D IT U R E S F O R IN S U R A N C E B E N E F IT S B Y SICK F U N D S , 1890 TO 1913.
Year.
1890............................................
1895...............................................
1900..........................................
1905.................................................
1910.................................................
1911......................................
1912............................................
1913...............................................
T able
8
$2,494,464
3,450,594
4,833,430
6,097,714
7,855,705
8,596,053
8,858,921
8,679,047
$730,800
1,044,638
1,443,127
1,852,781
2,791.964
3,098; 329
3,361,596
3,278,223
$558,047
748,258
1,088,892
1,370,250
1,778,055
2,013,874
2,119,484
2,000,652
Funeral
benefits.
<Ì1 Q “
$180,467
357,077
Affci
183,918
9$i 9 5 7
327,324
397,513
411,496
379,153
310
1 ,14R311
1,334,131
1,478,067
1,450,631
Total.
$4,099,382
5,784,485
8,129,338
13,894,359
15,439,899
16,229,564
15,797,796
.—A V E R A G E E X P E N D IT U R E S P E R M E M B E R F O R IN S U R A N C E B E N E F IT S B Y
SICK F U N D S , 1890 TO 1913.
Year.
1890..
1895..
1900..
1905..
1910..
1911..
1912..
1913..
Pecuniary
Cost of
Cost of
Cost of
sick
m edical
medicines,
hospital
benefits. attendance.
etc.
treatm ent.
..
..
..
..
..
..
.:
..
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Pecuni
a ry sick
benefit.
Cost of
Cost of
Cost of hospital
medical
m edi
a tte n d
tre a t
ance. cines, etc. m ent.
$1.61
1.67
1.93
2.15
2.27
2.39
2.40
2.57
[672]
$0.47
.51
.58
.65
.81
.8 6
.91
.97
$0.36
.36
.44
.48
.51
. 56
.57
.59
$0 . 1 2
.17
.2 1
.27
.33
.37
.40
.43
Funeral
benefits.
$0.09
.09
.09
.1 0
.09
.1 1
.1 1
.1 1
Total.
$2.65
2.80
3.25
3.65
4.01
4.29
4.39
4.67
129
MONTHLY REVIEW OF 1HE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
T able 9.—A V E R A G E COST O F B E N E F IT S P E R CA SE O F S IC K N E S S, P E R D A Y
SIC K N ESS, AN D P E R D E A T H IN SICK F U N D S , B Y C LA SSES, 1890, 1912, AN D 1913.
OF
A verage cost per d ay of sickness.
Average
cost of
a case of
sickness.
Class of fund a n d year.
D istrict funds:
1890...............................................
1 9 i2 ...............................................
1913............................. .................
Medical
a tte n d
ance.
$4.48
7.56
7.68
$0.18
.25
.25
$0.07
$0. 04
.06
4.82
7.83
8.06
.18
.25
.25
.06
.09
.09
.05
.08
.08
6.69
10.47
7.17
.17
.27
.22
.12
.08
.23
.05
.09
.08
6.63
10.80
10.98
.24
.32
.06
.05
.07
.33
.13
.06
5.41
9.16
9.52
.24
.29
.31
.10
.10
.06
.06
.04
.04
4.97
8.30
.2 0
.06
.04
.0 2
.27
.27
.1 0
.07
.06
.04
.04
E stab lish m en t funds:
1890...............................................
1912 .............................................
1913...............................................
B uilding funds:
1890...............................................
19I 2...............................................
1913................................. .............
Guild funds:
1890...............................................
19Î2............................................. .
1913...............................................
Medi
cines,
etc.
Pecuni
a ry sick
benefits.
Association funds:
1890 .............................................
1 9Î2...............................................
1913...............................................
.10
.11
.12
.04
A ll sick funds:
1890 ............................................
1912..............................................
1913...............................................
8.54
H ospital
tre a t
m ent.
$0.02
.05
.05
$0.31
.46
.46
$6.11
10.52
10.51
.30
.45
.45
20.24
20.09
.13
.08
.41
.72
.50
10.04
8.61
8.13
.03
.08
.08
.38
.59
.60
10.93
13.91
14.74
.32
.49
.51
10.38
12.77
.01
.02
.03
.11
.01
.03
.10
Total.
Average
cost per
death.
.32
.48
.48
8.22
13.07
8.51
13.58
13.85
T a b l e 10.— A V E R A G E A N N U A L C O N T R IB U T IO N A N D A V E R A G E COST O F B E N E F IT S
P E R M E M B E R O F SICK F U N D S , B Y C LA SSES, 1911, 1912, A N D 1913.
Average an n u al contrib u tio n p er m em ber.
Average cost of benefits
p er mem ber.
Class of fund.
'
D istrict fu n d s ...........................
E stablish m en t fu n d s ..............
Guild fu n d s ...............................
Association fu n d s ....................
All sick fu n d s ...........................
Excess per m em ber of
benefits over contri
bution.
1911
1912
1913
1911
1912
1913
1911
1912
$ 2.96
$ 3.12
$3.17
$3.75
$ 3.87
$0.75
5/58
4.01
4 . 59
4.39
$ 4.13
0 . 70
$ 0.79
5.46
3.96
4.48
4.28
3.48
2.94
3.96
3.24
3.62
3.00
4.06
3.30
3.71
3.06
4.14
3.46
4.27
4.89
4.67
1.99
1.02
.53
1.04
1.96
1.01
.52
1.10
1913
$0.96
1.99
1.21
.75
1.20
IN D U S T R IA L P E N S IO N S .
The tenth annual report of the president and treasurer of the
Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching1 contains
a section on pensions in which is included a chapter and tabular
statement on industrial and institutional pensions. In the text the
development of industrial pensions is briefly outlined, with a sum
mary of the plans adopted by several of the large business houses,
railroad and street railway companies, and manufacturing plants in
the country. With few exceptions the burden of the pension is
borne by the employers, and where the employees are required to
1 T h e C a rn e g ie F o u n d a tio n f o r th e A d v a n c e m e n t o f T e a c h in g , 5 7 6 F i f t h A v e n u e, N ew
Y o rk C ity . T e n th a n n u a l r e p o r t o f th e p r e s id e n t a n d tr e a s u r e r , O c to b er, 1 915. I n
d u s tr ia l P e n s io n s , p p. 6 8 -8 5 .
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
[673]
130
MONTHLY REVIEW OF TI-IE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
contribute, the amount assessed ranges from 2 per cent to 3 per cent
of the salary up to $5,000.
Although the types of pensions here considered are based on the noncontribu
tory principle, their development is of some significance for general pension
theory, if only from two points of view. The amount of the pensions granted,
i f the instances become sufficiently numerous, will serve to establish some nor
mal or standard ratio between pensions and final wages or salary. The second
point, allowing for differences in occupational risks, is that a normal age of
retirement may become recognized. At present, however, it must be admitted
that the age of retirement is fixed somewhat arbitrarily. But there is every
prospect that in the course of a number of years there will be a sufficient
accumulation of experience in industrial pension development to warrant bet
ter and more accurate adjustments. These can be the more readily made in
this field because the employers in each case reserve to themselves the right to
make such changes in the plans as experience demands.
Thus it is stated that the United States Steel and Carnegie pen
sion fund has availed itself of this provision to revise its pension
system. For example, at the end of four years, after an experience
with 2,000 pensioners, it has found that the average age of retire
ment was 65.56 years, while the regulations permitted retirement at
60; and that the retirement took place on an average after 30 years
of service instead of 25 years permitted by the regulations. Hence,
the age of retirement has been raised from 60 to 65, and the length
of service from 25 to 30 years. Continuity of service has been en
couraged by the adoption of a regulation providing that such con
tinuity of service will not be considered to have been broken in the
case of absence within the following limitations: Six months in the
case of leave of absence or suspension, one year in the event of a
lay off or reduction of force, and two years in the case of illness or
injury.
The tabular statement indicates the lack of uniformity in the pen
sion plans that have been adopted. Fifty-eight corporations are
listed, 17 of which are railroad or street railway companies, 9 are
banks, and 1 an insurance company. The earliest in point of estab
lishment of those described in the report is the pension system of the
American Express Co., inaugurated in 1875. About half (26, or
44.8 per cent) of the plans were started in 1913, 1914, and 1915.
Besides the names of the companies and the date of the estab
lishment of the systems, the table shows in each case the method of
administration; those included in the benefits; source of funds;
retiring allowances, with amount, years of service necessary to merit
pension, and age at retirement; disability allowances; refunds; and
benefits for dependents. Perhaps the greatest lack of uniformity
appears in the amount or method of determining the amount of
retiring allowance. Several concerns, however, have adopted the
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policy of paying 1 per cent of the average or highest annual salary
during the last 10 years of service for each year of service, with
stated minimum and maximum amounts.
C A SU A L L A B O R A T T H E D O C K S IN G REAT B R IT A IN .
“ There is casual labor in a great many trades,” remarks the author
of a recent volume on casual labor at the docks of London,1 “ but
in few is it so pervasive and nowhere are the consequences writ so
large as in the shipping industry.” This condition has prevailed at
the London docks in an acute form since the shipping industry as
sumed considerable proportions, and in the opinion of the author it
will continue and grow even more acute unless remedial measures are
adopted before the influx of labor after the war. The reasons for
this irregularity of employment appear to be the uncertainty attend
ing the coming and going of ships, financial considerations which
make it impracticable in large investments for capital to be idle, and
“ the lack of imagination which, failing to see connections and to
trace consequences, does not trouble to seek remedies.”
It is the purpose of the little volume under review, which forms
one of the publications of the Latan Tata Foundation of the Univer
sity of London for the study of methods of preventing and relieving
poverty and destitution, to analyze the cause and extent of irregu
larity of employment of clock labor, and to suggest remedies for the
abatement of existing evils. The sources of dock labor and methods
of engaging men are described, irregular earnings and their conse
quences are analyzed, attempts at reform are noted, and suggestions
for organizing the hiring and discharging of this class of labor are
submitted.
As explaining why the occupation is badly overstocked and “ ob
viously precarious,” it is stated that those recruited for dock labor
seem largely to be men who have been previously employed but who
are victims of industrial misfortune, of bankruptcy, of the death of
an industry, or of a season of exceptional depression, while some are
boys from “ blind-alley ” occupations and some are ex-army men.
“ The crowd of men competing for work morning after morning is
the detritus of the industrial world.” Since recommendations of
character are not usually asked or given, it is easy for anyone to
enter the occupation; and personal favoritism with the foreman, by
whom men are hired, brings a large number. Sailors who have tired
of the sea, being familiar with ships and cargoes, and proverbially
handy, are considered good dockers. Large numbers are employed
1
C a s u a l L a b o r a t th e D ocks, by II. A. M ess.
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117 pp.
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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
as a result of trade depression, for “ room must be found for the
ejected of other trades in the occupation which of all occupations has
the biggest permanent surplus.” This influence also affects the dock
laborer in that he suffers the direct consequence of a reduced volume
of shipping. Moreover, there appears to be a “ positive lure ” which
brings many recruits, finding expression in the high hourly rate for
dock labor and the fact that, as looked upon by a certain class of
men, a day off now and then is possible, giving them what they con
sider a free life. Thus, in both good and bad times men are at
tracted to the London docks in such numbers that an average daily
surplus of at least 10,000 is said to exist.
The method of engaging dock labor seems to be somewhat hap
hazard and unorganized. Men are taken on at several “ calls ” dur
ing the day—at 7 in the morning, at 7.45, at 8.45, and at 12.45 in
the afternoon, with later calls at 5.45 and 10.45. They are hired
from stands placed at intervals along the docks, and apparently
without adequate intercommunication, an arrangement which seems
to occasion loss of time in hiring men, results in the use of the saloon
as the clearing house of information, and “ increases the surplus of
labor necessary to meet fluctuations in demand.” The men bitterly
complain about the scrambles which frequently occur when calls are
made by the foremen; the intervals between early morning calls, it
is stated, encourage loafing. By this method of employment the
foremen are given excessive power, and suggestions of bribery are
reported to nearly every investigator of casual labor. The author
describes in some detail the corrupting methods of many foremen.
There appears to be considerable difficulty in obtaining precise
information as to the earnings of dock laborers, due to the fact that
they are paid at the end of each day, that the amount varies from
man to man, and that the pay of each man fluctuates from time to
time. However, the record of earnings of a single docker during
a 17-year period (1896 to 1912) was secured by the author, who is
impressed by the “ absolute incalculable nature of the fluctuation.”
The highest earnings of this docker were in 1897, when his income
was £114 7s. 4|d. ($556.58), while his lowest earnings were in 1905,
and amounted to £67 Is. 8d. ($326.46). Even greater irregularity
is shown in the daily earnings of a dock laborer. “A surprising
number of men at the docks do not earn, on an average, 10 shillings
[$2.43] a week, and there are many who are fortunate if they get
as much as a day a week.”
The effect of these low and irregular earnings, in the opinion of
the author, is to produce a class of unemploj^ables constantly in
need of assistance. It creates a tendency also to produce bad hous
ing, which “ is at once an effect of the miserable conditions of his
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133
occupation and a potent destroyer of the energy which might lift
him out of them.” These conditions have apparently not been im
proved by the dockers’ union which was organized as a result of
the strike of 1889, because the union seems to have been ineffective
in meeting the problem of casual engagement. It has succeeded in
raising wages occasionally, but these increases in the rate of pay
have served to increase the competition for work. It is noted, how
ever, that an attempt to regularize employment was made in 1891
by the London & India Docks Co., which, at the suggestion of Mr.
Charles Booth, initiated the “ list ” system, embracing the register
ing of men as “A,” permanent men; “ B,” preference men; and “ C,”
second preference men, who should be engaged in the order named.
The system “ tended therefore steadily to increase the proportion
of men in regular employment, and it paved the way for the creation
of a permanent staff.”
Another method, the so-called tally system, has been tried in
Liverpool. In July, 1912, every longshoreman in Liverpool was
registered and given a tally, and it was agreed that for the future
no one should be employed without a tally. A joint committee, on
which employers and employees were equally represented, was in
trusted with the duty of issuing fresh tallies and also of erecting
surplus stands at certain intervals along the docks, at which men were
to be taken on after the regular morning call (one in Liverpool as
against three in London). A further reform was instituted securing
the payment of wages through the general clearing-house firms
and making it unnecessary for the employee to travel from one firm
to another in collecting his weekly wages.
Although these reforms, the author notes, are aimed at concen
trating the work in a smaller number of hands with the intention
of stopping the influx of newcomers until those already there are
getting a reasonable amount of work, yet they have not realized
all the hopes of their promoters. Much of the failure has been due
to the attitude of the longshoremen themselves, who are responsible
for the need of a large surplus of labor, since “ very many dockers
are content if they can earn 15 shillings [$3.65] a week, and will not
take more work if it is offered them.”
Additional measures of reform suggested by the author aim
either to decrease the sources of supply of dock labor or to regu
larize the demand. They rest upon the principle “ that the burden
of finding the balance of a living ought to be transferred from the
docker to his employers. If the shipping industry must have men
in waiting, then it should pay those men for being in waiting. But
as a matter of fact, if employers had to pay for their men’s time
whether they were actually at work or only in reserve, they would
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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
soon find methods of organization which would prevent any consid
erable wastage of labor. ' Among other reforms the author suggests
making the Liverpool tally scheme compulsory instead of voluntary,
thus removing its weak feature; compelling the union to permit
dockers to engage in every kind of work necessary at the docks, and
thereby preventing too great specialization; dovetailing the seasonal
fluctuations in the shipping trade with those in other trades through
the system of the labor exchanges; and hiring of extra men through a
central body or joint committee of employers and employees or by
draft on the labor exchanges for those men whose names appear on
their books as seeking employment. For “ these men would be
casual, but they would not be a casualizing influence.”
T H E A M E R IC A N L A B O R Y E A R B O O K , 1916.
The volume which has recently appeared under the above title 1
“ represents the first attempt in this country,” declares Morris Hillquit in the introduction, “ to establish a reliable annual chronicle
of the aims, struggles, and achievements of labor throughout the
world.” Those parts of the book more particularly devoted to
international movements are entitled “ The international Socialist
and labor movements ” and “ Government and politics.” The other
four parts of the volume are headed: “ The labor movement in the
United States,” “ Labor and the law,” “ The Socialist movement in
the United States,” and “ Social and economic conditions.” The
two latter topics comprise 140 pages of the total of 382; 93 pages
are given to “ The international Socialist and labor movements,”
50 pages to “ Government and politics,” and 47 to “ The labor move
ment in the United States.”
Attention is called to some of the special articles: “ The American
labor movement,” by Frank MacDonald; “ Teachers’ unions,” by
Benjamin Glassberg; “ The Jewish labor movement in the United
States,” by J. B. Salutsky; “ The National Women’s Trade Union
League of America,” by Alice H enry; “ The Workers’ International
Industrial Union,” by H. Richter; “ The labor secretariat,” by S.
John Block; “ Strikes,” by Chester M. W right; “ The ‘ protocol^ ’ in
the needle industry,” by Morris Hillquit; “ Minimum-wage legisla
tion.” by Florence Kelley; “ Factory inspection,” by George M.
Price; “ Court decisions in 1915,” “ The Kansas labor statute case
and the supreme court,” “Academic freedom,” “ The trend toward
1 T h e A m e ric a n L a b o r Y earb o o k , 19 1 6 .
P r e p a r e d by th e D e p a r tm e n t of L a b o r R e s e a rc h
of th e R-and School o f S o c ia l S cien ce. P u b lis h e d by th e R a n d School of S o c ia l Science
N ew Y ork C ity [ 1 9 1 6 ] . 982 pp.
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135
public ownership,” “ Boycott, blacklist, and injunction,” and “ The
Intercollegiate Socialist Society,” by Harry AY. Laidler; “ Report
of the work in Congress of Meyer London, Representative of the
twelfth New York district,” by Laurence Todd; “ Work in the
Illinois Legislature,” i. e., Socialist accomplishments, by Christian
M. Madsen; “ The work of the Socialist in the New York Assembly,”
by A. I. Shiplacoff; “ Socialist legislation in Pennsylvania,” by
James II. Maurer; “ The Milwaukee municipal administration,” by
Emil Seidel; “ Accomplishments of the Milwaukee administration ”
and “ Facts of public ownership,” by Carl D. Thompson; accounts
of the foreign language federations affiliated with the Socialist
Party, by the different translator-secretaries; “ Woman and child
labor ” and “ Infant mortality,” by Helen L. Sumner; “ Earnings,
standard of living, and property income in the United States,” by
Scott Nearing; “ Social insurance” and “ Workmen’s compensation
(progress during 1915),” by I. M. Rubinow; “ Industrial accidents in
United States,” from statement of Royal Meeker, Commissioner
United States Bureau of Labor Statistics; “ Scientific management
and labor,” by John P. Frey; “ Cooperation in the United States,”
by C. AY. Perky; “ Compulsory education laws ” and “ Arocational edu
cation,” by Benjamin C. Gruenberg; “ The health of school children,”
by Edward F. Brown; “ Federal aid for the common schools” and
“ Graduated income and inheritance taxation,” by AYilliam English
AAralling; “ Democratizing the schools,” by Randolph S. Bourne;
“ Community centers in the United States,” by John Collier; “ Public
ownership of public utilities ” and “ Economic imperialism,” by
Frederic C. Howe; “ Labor and the Democrats,” by AYilliam L. Stod
dard; “ The United States Government,” by Max S. Schonberg;
“ The commission form of government,” by Felix Grendon; “ Pro
portional representation,” by Clarence G. Hoag; “ Public employ
ment offices,” by William M. Leiserson; “ Naturalization,” by I. M.
Sackin; and “ Meaning of the conservation movement,” by Gifford
Pinchot.
Following each article, with few exceptions, there is a brief list of
references.
SIN G L E T A X IN T H E C A L IF O R N IA C O N S T IT U T IO N .
An initiative petition has been perfected providing for the sub
mission to vote at the approaching election of a proposition to incor
porate an amendment in the constitution of the State of California
which will establish the single tax in that State. The amendment
presents an aspect of special interest to labor, in that it makes excep-
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tions from the restriction to the single-tax system by allowing in
comes and inheritances to be assessed to provide funds for old-age
pensions, mothers’ endowments, and workingmen’s insurance cover
ing unemployment and injuries. The number of validated signatures
(o'*er 88,000) was considerably in excess of the number required by
law, while the total number (137,000) was nearly double the legal
requirements. The proposed amendment follows:
Article X III of the constitution is hereby amended to take effect January 1,
1917, by the following section:
The people of the State of California do enact as follow s:
Public revenues, State, county, municipal, and district, shall be raised by
taxation of land values, exclusive, of improvements, and no tax or charge for
revenue shall be imposed on any labor product, occupation, business, or person;
but this shall not prevent the assessment of incomes and inheritances to provide
funds for old-age pensions, mothers’ endowments, and workingmen’s disemploy
ment and disability insurance.
Landholdings shall be equally assessed, according to their value for use or
occupanee without regard to any work of man thereon; this value shall be de
termined in municipalities, and wherever else practicable, by the “ Somers system, ’ or other means of exact computation from central locations.
1 he intent of this provision is to take for public use the rental and site values
of land and to reduce landholding to those only who live on or make pro
ductive use of it.
Conflicting provisions are hereby repealed.
M A N U F A C T U R E S IN T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S , 1914.
A preliminary statement of the general result of the census of man
ufactures of the United States has recently been issued by the Bu
reau of the Census, Department of Commerce. Although there have
been increases in the various items reported in 1914 as compared with
1909, it should nevertheless be noted that December, 1914, for which
the data are shown, was a time of depression, which may account for
some of the unusual developments noted.
The census of 1914, like that of 1909 with reference to manufactures, excluded
the hand trades, the building trades, and the neighborhood industries, and took
account only of establishments conducted under the factory system. In the last
census also, as in that for 1909, statistics were not collected for establishments :
having products for the census year valued at less than .$500, except that reports
were taken for establishments idle during a portion of the census year, or which i
began operation during that year, and whose products for such reason were 1
valued at less than $500.
The v ord “ establishment,” as used in the census reports, may mean more
than one mill or plant, provided they are owned or controlled and operated by
a single individual, partnership, corporation, or other owner or operator, and
are located in the same town or city.
The reports were taken for the calendar year ending December 31, 1914,
wherever the system of bookkeeping permitted figures for that period to be
secured, but when the fiscal year of an establishment differed from the calendar
year a report was obtained for the operations of that establishment for its fiscal
year falling most largely within the calendar year 1914.
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137
PERCENTAGES OF INCREASE.
The population of the United States at the census of 1910 was 91,972,266, and
it is estimated that it was 98,781,000 on July 1, 1914.
The summary shows increases at the census of 1914, as compared with that for
1909, for all items except proprietors and firm members, for which a slight
decrease is shown.
In the order of their importance, from a percentage standpoint, the increases
for the several items rank as follows : Salaries, 37.2 per cent ; capital, 23.7
per cent ; salaried employees, 22 per cent ; primary horsepower, 20.7 per cent ;
wages, 19 per cent ; materials, 18.3 per cent ; value of products, 17.3 per cent ;
value added by manufacture, 15.8 per cent; wage earners, 6.4 per cent; and
number of establishments, 2.7 per cent.
A comparative summary for the United States for 1904, 1909, and
1914 follows:
SUMMARY OF THE CENSUS OF MANUFACTURES, 1904, 1909, AND 1914.
Per cent of increase
in 1914 over—
Census—
Item .
1904
N um ber of e sta b lish m e n ts...
Persons engaged in m anufactures:
Proprietors and firm
m em bers.........................
Salaried em ployees..........
Wage earners (average
num ber em ployed during th e y e a r).................
T o tal............................
Prim ary horsepower...............
C apital'.......................................
Services:
Salaries................................
W ages..................................
1909
1914
1904
1909
216,180
268,491
275, 793
27.6
2.7
226.673
519,556
273,265
790,267
264,872
964,217
17.4
85.6
13.1
5,468,383
6,615,046
7,036,337
28.7
6.4
6,213,612
7,678,578
8,265,426
33.0
7.6
13,487,707
$12,675,580,874
18,675,376
$18,428,270,000
22,537,129
$22, 790,880,000
67.1
79.8
20.7
23.7
$574,439,322
$2,610,444,953
$938,575, 000
$3,427,038,000
$1,287,917,000
$4.079,332,000
124.2
56.3
37.2
19.0
2 2 .0
T o tal............................
$3,184,884,275
$f, 365,613,000
$5,367,249,000
68.5
22.9
M aterials....................................
Value of p ro d u cts....................
Value added by m anufacture
(value of products less cost
of m aterials)...........................
$8,500,207,810
$14,793,902,563
$12,142,791,000
$20,672,052,000
$14,368,089,000
$24,246,323,000
69.0
63.9
18.3
17.3
$6.293,694, 753
$8,529,261,000
$9,87S, 234,000
57.0
15.8
i Decrease.
As to the regularity of employment of wage earners reported by
the census of manufactures, it is noted that in 1914 the largest num
ber (7,242,752) was employed in March, and the lowest number
(6,640,284) in December, the month of the census; while in 1909 the
largest number was employed in November, and in 1904 in October.
The following table shows the number of wage earners engaged in
each of the months at the time of the census of 1904, 1909, and 1914,
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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
and the per cent of the maximum employed in each month at the
same periods:
W A G E E A R N E R S A T T H E C EN SU S O F M A N U F A C T U R E S, 1914, C L A S S IF IE D B Y M O N T H S,
Wage earners in m anufacturing industries.
M onth.
N um ber.
Jan u a ry ..............................
F e b ru a ry ...........................
M arch..................................
A pril....................................
F lay.....................................
J m ie ....................................
J u ly .....................................
A u g u st................................
S eptem b er.........................
O ctober..............................
N o v em b er.......................
D ecem ber...........................
Per cent of m axim um .
1904
1909
1914
5.262. 472
5,330,471
5,450, 736
5,493,343
5,512,373
5.463.804
5,323,966
5,420.618
5,608,412
5,676.920
5,587,028
5.490,453
6,210.063
6,297,627
6,423,517
6,437,633
6,457,279
6.517,469
6,486,676
6,656,933
6,898. 765
6,997.090
7,006,853
6,990,652
7,075,682
7,141,594
7,242, 752
7,217,320
7,148,650
7,100,368
7,018,867
7,020,682
7,086, 801
7,006,342
6,736,699
6,640,284
1904
92.7
93.9
96.0
96.8
97.1
96.2
93.8
95.5
98.8
1 0 0 .0
98.4
96.7
1909
1914
97.7
98.6
8 8 .6
89.9
91.7
91.9
92.2
93.0
92.6
95.0
98.5
99.9
1 0 0 .0
99.6
98.7
98.0
96.9
96.9
97 8
96 7
93.0
91.7
1 0 0 .0
99.8
IMMIGRATION IN AUGUST, 1916.
The number of immigrant aliens admitted into the United States
during the first nine months of 191G has been in excess of the number
admitted during the corresponding months of 1915. There has also
been an increase from month to month during the first five months
of 1916. Compared with the preceding month, June shows a de
crease of 0.8 per cent, July of 18.6 per cent, August an increase of
19.7 per cent over July, and September of 21.1 per cent over August.
These facts are brought out in the statement following.
IM M IG R A N T A L IE N S A D M IT T E D IN T O T H E U N IT E D ST A T E S IN S P E C IF IE D M ON TH S,
1913, 1914, 1915, AN D 1916.
1916
M onth.
1913
1914
1915
N um ber.
J a n u a ry ...................................
F e b ru a ry ...................................................
M arch.....................................................
A p ril.................................................
M ay...................................................
J u n e ......................................................
J u ly ..............................................................
A u g u st.................................................
S eptem b er......................................................
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46,441
59,156
96,958
136,371
137,202
176,261
138,244
126,180
136,247
1
D ecrease.
[682]
44, 708
46,873
92,621
107,796
71,728
60,377
37,706
29,143
19,263
24,532
22,598
21,504
21,949
24,513
17,293
24, 740
27,586
30,560
P er cent
increase
over p re
ceding
m onth.
8.5
43.1
11.5
1 0 .8
15.1
1 .8
29,975
36,398
i 18.6
19.7
21.4
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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
Classified by races, the number of immigrant aliens admitted into
and emigrant aliens departing from the United States during
August, 1915 and 1916, was as follows:
IM M IG R A N T A L IE N S A D M IT T E D A N D E M IG R A N T A L IE N S D E P A R T E D
U N IT E D ST A T E S , A U G U ST, 1915 A N D 1910.
A dm itted.
Race.
1915.
A frican (b lack )..........................................................................
A rm e n ia n ..................................................................................
B ohem ian a n d M oravian........................................................
B ulgarian. Servian M ontenegrin.......................... ..............
Chinese
.
..........................................................
C roatian and Slovenian
...............................................
C u b an ..........
...........................................................
■Dalmatian Unsnian Tle.py.e.govinian
D utch a n d F le m ish ..................................................................
E a s t Indian .
................................ ...............
...............................................
E n g lish __ .
F in n ish ...................
...........................................................
F rench
.
...........................................
G erm an . . . .
..........................................................
G reek...............
..............................................................
H ebrew ........................................................................................
Irish
.
.
..........................................................
Italian (north)
...................................................
Ita lia n (so u th )............................................................................
Japanese. ..
.......................................................
K orean
.................................................
L ith u a n ia n ..................................................................................
M agyar................................................................................... .....
M exican.......................................................................................
Polish
Portuguese ............................................................................
■Roumanian
............................ ..................
[R ussian.......................................................................................
U nth on ian (U.rjssnialr)
...................................................
Scandinavian ............................................................................
.........................................................................
Scotch . .
S lo v a k ........................................................................................
S panish..
............................................................ .............
Spanish-A m erican.....................................................................
S y rian ...........................................................................................
T u r k is h .......................................................................................
W elsh .......................................................................................
W est Indian (except C uban).................................................
O ther peoples.............................................................................
"Mot- speeifi ed
......................................................................
Total
............................................................................
D eparted.
A ugust,
A ugust,
1916.
327
72
301
216
84
493
17
568
6
362
1,050
931
2,180
1,425
1,701
346
1,316
899
13
65
88
1,098
357
522
63
382
201
1,652
1,069
22
505
70
11
71
78
919
21,949
FR O M T H E
606
202
25
110
115
39
488
8
741
13
3,042
452
1,874
912
4,767
1,344
1,502
297
3,964
366
2
38
47
2,222
445
1,084
66
315
197
2,058
1,176
13
208
105
39
A ugust,
29,975
1916.
139
45
8
86
197
4
162
109
39
2
10
192
98
13
963
53
289
112
820
32
218
472
21,636
90
96
2
607
47
256
53
599
. 37
218
144
849
1,732
44
5
13
35
45
86
406
25
727
381
290
6
399
55
18
9
16
55
66
94
138
A ugust,
1915.
2
9
58
32
129
8
576
l
3Si
95
5
201
53
12
2
20
37
78
1,207
127
902
29,293
7,686
SEX OF IMMIGRANTS, 1910 TO AUGUST, 1916.
In order to ascertain whether the period of the war has had any
appreciable effect upon the sex distribution of immigrants entering
the United States or departing, the following table has been com
piled :
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140
MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
IM M IG R A N T A L IE N S A D M IT T E D IN T O A N D E M IG R A N T A L IE N S D E P A R T IN G FR O M
T H E U N IT E D ST A T E S , B Y S E X , 1910 TO 1916.
Im m ig ran t aliens a d m itted .
N um ber.
Y ear or m onth.
Male.
1910.......................
1911.......................
1912.......................
1913.......................
1911.......................
1915.......................
1916:
J a n u a ry ........
F e b ru a ry .. .
M arch...........
A p ril.............
M ay..............
Ju n o .............
J u ly ...............
A u g u st.........
748,056
488,230
674, 555
935,970
439,549
153,428
10,879
15, 719
18,064
19,699
19,058
17,846
13, 777
17,392
Fem ale.
Per cent.
Total.
323,829 1,071, 885
294,315
782,545
351.805 1.026,360
451,348 1,387,318
248,946
6 8 8 ,495
105,250
258,678
6,414
9,021
9,522
10,861
11,963
12,918
11,258
12,583
E m igrant aliens departing.
17,293
24, 740
27,586
30,560
31,021
30, 764
25,035
29,975
N um ber.
Fe
Male. male.
Male.
69.8
62.4
65.7
67.5
63.8
59.3
30.2
37.6
34.3
32.5
36.2
40.7
206,279
290,875
244, 000
219, 064
239,110
134,605
62.9
63.5
65.5
64.5
61.4
58.0
55. 0
58.0
37.1
36.5
34.5
35.5
38.6
42.0
45.0
42.0
4,674
2,859
2,379
2,832
3,439
4,068
3,446
5,570
Per cent.
Total.
Male. Fe
male.
54,160
61,548
55,385
55,145
54,525
26,036
260,439
352,423
299,385
274,209
293,635
160,641
79.2
82.5
81.5
79.9
81.4
83.8
1,241
1,176
1,106
1,250
1,794
2,293
1,983
2,116
5,915
4,035
3,485
4,082
5,233
6,361
5,429
7,686
79.0
70.9
68.3
69.4
65.7
61.0
63.5
72.5
Fem ale.
2 0 .8
17.5
18.5
2 0 .1
18.6
16.2
2 1 .0
29.1
31.7
30.6
34.3
36.0
36.5
27.5
OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS RELATING TO LABOR.
U N IT E D
STA TE S.
State Mine Inspectors. Report of the S tate mine inspectors for the
biennial period ending December 31, 1915. Des Moines, 1916. 112 pp.
This report covers the period of the last half of the calendar year 1914 and
of the full calendar year 1915. During the calendar year 1915 the State pro
duced a total of 7,530,088 tons of coal, in the mining of which there were em
ployed on an average 16,369 men. There were in operation 252 mines. During
the year there were reported 34 fatal and 245 nonfatal accidents, or an average
of 1 fatal accident for each 221,473 tons of coal mined, and 1 nonfatal accident
for each 30,735 tons of coal. The fatality rate per 1,000 employed was 2.07
in 1915, 2.1 in 1914, 1.5 in 1913, and 1.8 in 1912.
I o w a .—
Bureau of Labor. Seventh biennial report, 1914 and 1915. F rank
fort, 1916. 100. Illustrated.
Contains the text of the act providing for labor inspectors, the working
women’s law, the 10-hour law, and the child-labor law as rewritten in March,
1914; notes 33 prosecutions under the child-labor law, 27 of which were dis
missed; and gives the experience of certain companies in providing for the
welfare of their employees.
K e n t u c k y .—
S tate Industrial Accident Commission. W orkm en’s compensation
laic of the State of M aryland (as amended by the acts of the General Assernbly of M aryland of 1916). Baltimore [1916). 55 pp.
Text of the law with footnotes to decisions on claims under the act; con
tains an index.
M a s s a c h u s e t t s .— Directors of the Port of Boston.
The use and benefits to
M assachusetts m anufacturers and mage earners of an American merchant
marine. Boston, 1915. l/f pp. (Bulletin No. 2.)
■
----- Insurance Department. Sixty-first annual report of the insurance com
missioner of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, .January 1, 1916. P art
2: Life, miscellaneous, assessment, and fraternal insurance. Boston, 1916.
Ixxxiii, 303, 368-a, ix pp.
Among other matter, this volume contains two summary statistical tables of
operations under the workmen’s compensation act by private and mutual comM a r y l a n d .—
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MONTHLY EEVIEW OF THE BUEEAU OF LABOE STATISTICS.
141
panies, covering operations up to September 30, 1915. Net loss cost per $100 of
pay roll is shown. The report also contains the insurance commissioner’s state
ment made before the joint judicial committee of the Massachusetts Legisla
ture May 1, 1916, relative to the proposed changes in rates under the compen
sation act.
Montana .— I n d u s t r i a l A c c i d e n t B o a r d .
e n d in g J u n e 30, 1916.
F i r s t a n rm a l r e p o r t f o r th e 12 m o n th s
[ H e le n a , 1 916.]
2 9 4 PP-
Covers first year of operations under the workmen’s compensation act, in
effect July 1, 1915.
N ew Y ork City .— B o a r d o f E s t i m a t e a n d A p p o r t i o n m e n t .
R eport, on m a r k e t
s y s te m fo r N e w Y o rk C ity an d on open m a r k e ts e sta b lish ed in M a n h a tta n ,
b y M a r c u s ill. M a r k s , p r e s i d e n t o f t h e B o r o u g h o f M a n h a t t a n , a n d c h a i r
m a n c o m m itte e on m a rk e ts, B o a r d o f E s tim a te an d A p p o rtio n m e n t.
[N ew
Y o r k , 1916.]
121 pp.
The committee on markets was appointed by the Board of Estimate and Ap
portionment early in January, 1914. in order to develop a plan of market organi
zation for the city with a view to reducing the cost of living. A large share
of the report contains descriptive accounts of the markets in the larger cities
of Great Britain, France, and Germany.
N ew Y ork.— S t a t e E d u c a t i o n D e p a r t m e n t .
d u s tr ia l ed u ca tio n .
in civic tra in in g an d
R e p r in te d fr o m th e
E d u ca tio n .
A lb a n y,
B u lletin , S e p te m b e r
D iv is io n of a g ric u ltu r a l a n d in
C itizen sh ip sy lla b u s: A cou rse of s tu d y an d sy lla b u s
n a t u r a l i z a t i o n f o r a d u l t i m m i g r a n t s in e v e n in g schools.
tw e lf th a n n u al r e p o rt o f th e S ta te D e p a r tm e n t of
1916. 45 pp.
( U n iv e r s ity o f th e S ta te o f N e w Y o r k
1, 1 9 1 6 . )
------------------ S a f e t y
fir s t f o r v o c a tio n a l sc h ools, p r e p a r e d b y L e w i s A . W ilso n ,
s p e c ia lis t i n i n d u s t r i a l schools.
A lb a n y , 1916. 89 pp. illu s.
( U n iversity of
th e S t a t e o f N e w Y o r k B u lle tin , A u g u s t 15, 1916.)
It is stated in the introduction that “ this bulletin has been prepared to help
school boards and vocational teachers safeguard the vocational schools and
to furnish suggestive material for safety-first courses in our day and evening
vocational schools. * * * The material selected has been proved by the ‘ acid
test ’ of experience to be practical and effective. * * * The day and evening
vocational teachers can render a great service to the State by instructing the
pupils enrolled in these schools in the general principles of safety. It is a
cause worthy of the cooperation of every teacher interested in the humani
tarian, economic, or social problems of the day. It is a problem so big and
vital that only by the cooperation of all agencies—the schools, the home, the
church, the employer, and the employee—will it be possible to reduce to a
minimum the preventable loss that is expressed in terms of thousands killed,
millions of men and women injured, and millions of dollars wasted annually.”
----- S t a t e
I n d u s tr ia l C om m ission .
R u l e 4 •' S p e c i f i c a t i o n s o f f i r e e s c a p e s a c
c e p ted as re q u ired m e a n s of ex it.
A lb a n y.
[ 1 9 1 6 , 4 PP-]
( B u l l e t i n 13,
I n d u s tr ia l C o d e .)
Ohio .— I n d u s t r i a l
C om m ission .
D ep a rtm en t
of w orkshops
and
factories.
S ta n d a r d s f o r s a f e t y a n d s a n ita tio n re la tin g to fo u n d r ie s a n d th e e m p lo y
m en t of tco m en in core room s.
C olu m n s, 1916. 12 pp.
U nited S tates.— B o a r d o f M e d i a t i o n a n d C o n c i l i a t i o n .
A
R a ilr o a d la b o r a rb itr a
tio n s : R e p o r t o f th e U n ite d S ta te s B o a r d o f M e d ia tio n a n d C o n c ilia tio n on
th e effe cts o f a r b itr a tio n p ro c e e d in g s u p o n r a te s o f p a y a n d w o r k in g co n d i
tio n s of ra ilr o a d e m p lo yees. P r e p a r e d u n d e r th e d ire c tio n of th e b oard b y
W . J ett Lauck.
W a s h in g to n , 1916. 608 pp.
( 6 4 t h C on g., 1 s t se ss., S e n a t e
D o c . N o . 4 9 3 .)
review of the above appeared in the October, 1916, issue of the Monthly
R eview (pp. 20 to 23).
65847°—16-----10
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[685]
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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
U nited S tates.— Commission on Industrial Relations.
Industrial Relations:
Final report and testim ony subm itted to Congress by the Commission on In
dustrial Relations created by the act of A ugust 23, 1912. Washington, 1916.
11 vols. (GJ/th Cong., 1st sess., Senate Doc. No. 1^15.)
Special authorization was made by Congress on April 28,1916, for the printing
of the testimony before this commission. The final report of the majority and
minority members of the commission and special reports for individual commis
sioners had also been previously published separately by the commission before
its going out of existence. A review of this final report may be consulted in the
M onthly R eview of November, 1915, pages 48-76, 91.
Of the 11 volumes in which this testimony will be printed 5 have thus far
appeared. The testimony before the commission is published chronologically
under cities. Each volume has a separate table of contents, with the names of
the witnesses under each topic dealt with. The final volume will contain a con
solidated index of witnesses and of positions or titles of witnesses, with cross
references.
------ Congress. House. Committee on In terstate and Foreion Commerce. Sa fety
of employees and travelers on railroads: Report to accompany H. R. 16681.
W ashington [1916], 1 1 pp. ( 6 )th Cong., 1st sess., House of Representa
tives, Rept. No. 979.)
A report favorable to the passage of a bill, with amendments submitted, re
quiring common carriers engaged in interstate commerce by railroad to afford a
safe clearance between structures located on their roadways and locomotives
and cars passing over their lines, to require such carriers to equip their passen
ger cars with cinder deflectors, and for other purposes. “ The employees are
asking for the bill in the form recommended by the committee. * * * The
passage of this bill, we believe, will not only save the lives and prevent the
suffering of employees, but it will also result in a saving in dollars and cents
both to the employees and to the railroad company.”
"
Committee on the Judiciary. Lim iting activity of certain
officers and employees of the Government. Hearing before the Committee
on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, S ixty-fo u rth Congress, first
session, on H. R. 9820. Serial 32: Parts 1 and 2, supplement. April 25
and 26, 1916. Wahington, 1916. pp. 59-63.
Statements of George P. Foster, manager of La Moderna Poesia, of Habana,
Cuba, in connection with his employment of plate printers from the United
States Bureau of Engraving and Printing to assist in work in Cuba, to prohibit
which practice legislation was proposed at the recent session of Congress.
*------------------- Committee on Labor. Commission to stu d y social insurance and
unem ploym ent; report to accompany H. J. Res. 250. W ashington [1916].
3 pp. ( 64 th Cong., 1st sess., House of Representatives, Rept. No. 91.].)
A report favorable to the passage of a House joint resolution for the appoint
ment of a commission to study social insurance and unemployment, and appro
priating .$50,000 therefor. “ It is primarily a commission to study a subject
which has engrossed the attention of a majority of the civilized nations of the
world during the last 30 years.”
1------------------- Committee on Labor. National colonization bill. Hearings before
the Committee on Labor, House of Representatives, S ixty-fo u rth Congress,
first session, on H. R. 11329, a bill to authorize the Secretary of Labor to
cooperate w ith other departments of the Government in fostering, promot
ing and developing the ivelfare of the wage earners of the United States by
creating new opportunities for permanent and profitable employment, and
for other purposes. M ay 18, 22, 25, June 5 and 15, 1916. 125 pp.
The bill in question was introduced by Mr. Grosser, of Ohio, for the purpose
indicated in the title. The promoter of the bill called attention to the connec-
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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
143
tion between the purposes to be accomplished by this bill, and the recommenda
tions contained in the annual report of the Secretary of Labor for the fiscal year
1915, the object being to make available certain sections of the public domain
for that class of wage earners for whom jobs can not at any time be found
or who may desire larger opportunities for engaging in agriculture and thereby
assisting in the development of the natural resources of the country.
Among the materials published with these hearings are a series of exhibits
supplied by the Bureau of Labor Statistics on home colonization as practiced
in certain foreign countries: Australia, New Zealand, Brazil, Colombia, Peru,
Uruguay, Germany, Russia (Siberia), Finland, Spain, and the Scandinavian
countries; also a statement of the distribution of homes according to proprietor
ship and encumbrances in cities having in 1910, 100.000 inhabitants or more;
statement as to tendency in ownership of farms in the United States; a dis
cussion of tenants in the United States; and a statement of the distribution of
the public lands in the United States.
----- ------- ------- Subcom m ittee No. 8 of the Committee on the Post Office and Post
Roads. Indefinite leaves of absence to superannuated employees of the
Postal Service. Hearings befoi'e Subcom m ittee No. 8 o f the Committee
on the Post Office and Post Roads, House of Representatives, on H. R. 695.
April 7 and 8 , 1916. W ashington, 1916. 118 pp.
Hearings on a bill providing for what is practically a pension scheme, per
mitting the indefinite retirement of certain superannuated employees of the
Postal Service on an allowance of $600 per annum.
--------------------- Subcom m ittee No. H of the Committee on the Post Office and
Post Roads. R etirem ent of postal employees. Hearings before Subcom
m ittee No.
of the Committee on the Post Office and Post Roads, House of
Representatives, on H. R. 10130. A pril 12, 1916. W ashington, 1916. 67 pp.
Hearings on a bill to retire postal employees after 25 years’ service on an
annuity equivalent to one-half their average annual salary for the past five
years, but not to exceed $600.
------ ------ Senate. Committee on In tersta te Commerce. Hearing before the
Committee on In terstate Commerce, Sixty-fourth Congress, first session,
on proposed bills in connection icith legislation relative to the threatened
strike of railroad employees. ( Tentative print only.) W ashington, 1916.
157 pp. '
------ Department of the Interior (Bureau of M ines). A bstract of current de
cisions on mines and mining, reported from January to April, 1916, by
J. W. Thompson. W ashington, 1916. xi, 90 pp.
This bulletin is the seventh of its kind published by the Bureau of Mines.
The volume consists of a digest of decisions of Federal and State courts of
last resort on questions relating to the mining industry, including ownership
and possession, sale, eminent domain, definitions of mining terms, corporate
actions, claims, patents, liens, taxation of mining property, and statutes relat
ing to mining operations, involving the responsibility of the operator to the
employee in maintaining healthful and safe conditions of work, comparative
negligence, etc.
------ Superintendent of Documents. Price list 33. Labor: Publications relat
ing to child labor, women wage earners, cost of living, employers' liability,
hours of labor, industrial arbitrations, and strikes. For sale by the Super
intendent of Documents. W ashington, 1916. 32 pp.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
cost]
144
MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
F O R E IG N C O U N T R IE S.
A ustria .— A mtliche Naehrichtcn dcs k. k. M inisterium s des Innern, betreffend
die Unfall- und K rankenversicherung der Arbeiter.
August, 1916.
Vienna,
Ju ly and
Current reports relating to the social insurance system in Austria.
B razil.— B oletim do Ministerio da Agricultura. Industria e Commercio.
Rio de
Janeiro. Ju ly to December, 1916 ( vol. 4, No. 3).
Canada .— Commission o f Conservation, Civic Im provem ent League. Report
of the conference held in cooperation w ith the Commission of Conservation,
Ottawa, January 20, 1916. 73 pp.
Contains addresses of welcome; a paper outlining the present scope for prac
tical work in improving civic conditions; discussions by delegates on municipal
government, municipal finance, and unemployment; a paper on civic problems in
Ontario; a further discussion on town planning, housing, and public health;
and immigration and civic development after the Avar.
------D epartm ent of Labor. F ifth annual report on labor organization in Can
ada for the calendar year 1915. Ottawa, 1916. 232 pp.
The serious effect of the Avar in Europe on the activities and general condi
tions of trade-unionism in Canada is the most striking feature of the informa
tion presented in the present volume covering the calendar year 1915. The
preceding report (1914) sliOAved a loss in trade-union membership estimated at
9.636, while 14 trade-union branches or units became extinct. The present
report shows a further decrease of 120 units and a membership loss estimated
at 22,820, the membership figures falling from 166,163 at the close of 1914 to
143,343 at the end of 1915. The report attributes this decline in the first place
to the fact that trade-unions haATe contributed a substantial quota (approxi
mately 12,500 men) to the OA’er-seas forces. Another movement which has
taken from Canada during the past year a considerable number of Avorkmen,
and in all probability a corresponding proportion of trade-union members, is
the employment of Canadian Avorkmen in munitions concerns in Great Britain.
A large part of the membership decline must, hoAvever, be charged to the
economic depression Avliich in the case of certain industries has uoav been
continuous for several years.
The volume contains an account of trade-union developments in Canada
during 1915 and treats of such topics as the war and trade-unionism, some inci
dents of organized labor during 1915, international trade:union organizations,
building-trades organizations, organizations other than international, trades
and labor congress of Canada, federation of trade-unions, district councils,
railroad brotherhood committees, trades and labor councils, trade-union local
units, business agents, trade-unionism in Canada, trade-union beneficiary Avork,
changes in labor bodies during 1915, the labor press, and com’entions to be held
in 1916.
Of the total membership of Canadian trade-unions, 114,722 members were
affiliated Avith international organizations, a decrease of 25.760 from the
figures for 1914. The total disbursements for trade-union benefits for 1915 by
the various international organizations amounted to $14,565,365, an increase of
$1,727,378, as compared with the amount reported for 1914. Of the total
expenditures for benefits the largest portion ($7,628.676) was disbursed for
death benefits and the next largest portion ($3,208,604) for strike benefits.
------ Sixth annual report on wholesale prices, Canada, 1915. Ottawa,
1916. xv (1), 312 pp.
This review of AA'holesale prices in Canada remarks that “ the rise in prices in
1915 brought the general leA'el of AA’holesale prices in Canada much abOAre any
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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
145
point previously indicated since 1890 by the department’s index number, which
includes 272 articles, and possibly higher than at any time during the past
century, though prices were very high at times between 1850 and 1872 during
the Crimean War, the American Civil War, and the Franco-Prussian W ar”
(p. 1). Thus, compared with the level of prices prevailing during the period
1890-1899, prices in 1915 were 48 per cent higher.
“ The rise in price of staples, and of food especially, was greatest where
conditions were most affected by war.” In general, the effect of the war is
characterized by the department in the following paragraph:
“ Owing, therefore, to the predominating influence of war conditions on all
lines of industry and trade, crop conditions had less effect than usual on trade
and prices. The short world crop in 1914 was only of secondary importance in
raising prices of cereals and again the large crops of 1915 did not reduce prices
to anything like normal levels. The war demand for materials more than made
up for any reductions in demand which would have been felt as a result of
short crops in 1914 just as the great capital expenditure in 1912 made up for
the reduced purchasing power due to the short and damaged crops in 1911.
Such immediate results, however, are usually offset to a great extent before
long by reaction inevitable after such an artificial stimulus, as was experienced
(although the effect in lowering prices was only beginning to be felt when war
broke out) in Canada in 1913-14, and will again appear when the demand for
war supplies abates and the readjustment necessary after such expansion of
credit and expenditure of capital tests the industrial structure (with con
siderable liquidation) and makes certain a sound basis before further progress
is possible.”
As a Hill account of this Canadian index number of wholesale prices has
been published in Bulletin 173 of this bureau, there is presented merely the
following table by way of summary of the movement of wholesale prices from
1906 to 1915, inclusive:
IN D E X N U M B E R S O F W H O L E S A L E P R IC E S IN CANADA O F A L L CO M M O D ITIES, B Y
G R O U P S, 1906 TO 1915.
[Source: C anada D epartm ent of Labor.
W holesale prices, Canada, 1914, p. 4.]
[Average prices 1890-1899= 100.]
Y ear.
Class of com m odities.
1
2
3
4.
5
fi
7
8.
Q
10.
H
17
13.
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
D rains and fod der.................
\n im a ls and m eats..............
D airy p roduce........................
F i s h ..........................................
Other foods..............................
T ex tiles
..............................
H ides leather, b o o ts............
M etals and im p lem en ts:
(a) M etals................................
(ft) I m p lem en ts....................
Fuel
......................................
B u ild in g m aterials:
(a) L um ber............................
(ft) Mi seel 1an e o n s .................
(c) P ain ts, oils, glass..........
H ou se fu rn ish in gs................
D r i l l s and ch em ica ls_____
M iscellaneous:
(n.) Furs
..........................
(6) Liquors, to b a cco s.........
(c) S u n d r y .............................
118.5
130.1
120.2
121.8
103.1
123.4
128.1
140.2
133.8
131. 5
129.5
112.5
126.1
125.5
148.3
129.6
136.3
120.5
110.3
111.0
120.0
149.9
148.6
133.6
134.0
107.6
108.3
135.4
140.7
163.6
135.7
145.1
111.3
114.6
135.4
148.4
146.6
136.2
143.6
118.7
119.2
139.6
167.3
160.8
159.0
155. 7
126.0
120.7
152.4
136.8
180.8
154.7
158.0
117.4
130.8
163.9
156.5
192.3
154.4
156.0
118.8
133.5
171.8
186.9
187.2
161.4
149.7
12ô< b
149.2
180.5
128.6
106.0
106.4
134.8
107.1
108.8
106.3
104.2
102.2
101.9
102.4
103.8
97.6
104.5
103.0
108.3
104.5
100.5
117.4
104.7
113.3
119.1
105.6
118.2
113.9
106.8
110.9
152.4
112.1
108.8
152.7
104.7
135.3
113.0
106.3
165.2
108.7
141.2
112.7
108.5
162.6
107.5
136.8
112.8
107.1
154.6
105.7
135.2
110.4
103.9
158.5
109.2
145.5
110.6
109.5
165.4
102.6
154.5
110.4
112.1
166.5
105.4
148.6
114.5
115.5
181.3
112.7
144.8
126. 2
113.3
182.1
111. 4
140.7
129.5
121.6
175.7
115.9
157.1
136.5
181.3
229.2
108.1
120.9
239. 4
125.5
123.0
231.8
118.0
117.6
227.2
117.5
121.6
234.5
132.9
118.0
252.9
151.2
110.3
297.3
155. 2
104.3
307.9
134.7
113.1
205.4
136.9
108.5
161.9
135.6
116.6
T o ta l..............................
120.0
126.2
120.8
121.2
124.2
127.4
134.4
135.5
136.1
148.0
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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OE LABOR STATISTICS.
Canada .— D epartm ent of Labor.
The Labor Gazette, Ottawa.
1916.
Contains the usual current material on industrial conditions, proceedings
under tlie Industrial Disputes Act, trade disputes, reports from employment
bureaus, immigration, wholesale and retail prices, fair-wages schedules in
Government contracts, collective agreements, industrial accidents, and court
decisions affecting labor. There is a special article on Government control of
munition-making establishments in the United Kingdom.
-—— (P eovince of B ritish Columbia ). — A n act to provide compensation to
workm en for injuries sustained and industrial diseases contracted in the
course of their employment. Victoria, 1916. 30 pp.
This is the text of the workmen’s compensation act passed by the legislative
assembly of the Province of British Columbia on May 31, 1916.
•------(P rovince of S askatchew an ). —D epartm ent of Agriculture (Bureau of
Labor). F ifth annual report of the bureau of labor o f the D epartment of
A griculture of the Province of Saskatchew an for the 16 months ended April
30, 1916. Regina, 1916. 30 pp.
This report relates mainly to the development of industry in Saskatchewan.
Among other topics are included: Coal-mines inspection, factory inspection,
employment-agency inspection, industrial accidents, immigration, farm labor,
Government fair wages, industrial disputes, labor legislation, building-trades
wages, statistics of local trade-unions.
Industrial accidents are declared to show “ a gratifying decrease when com
pared with the record for 1914,” a decrease due, however, to the depression of
trade conditions. Accidents are shown merely as fatal and nonfatal, 13 of the
former and 334 of the latter having occurred in 1915, as compared, respec
tively, with 14 and 457 in 1914. These accidents are further classified by the
month, day, or week, hour or day of their occurrence, age and length of expe
rience of persons injured, and number of hours worked per week.
Immigration to the Province declined from 44,543 in 1913 to 20,634 in 1914
and to 5,812 in 1915.
The report shows that in 1912 14 strikes occurred, affecting 226 firms and
1,930 employees; in 1913, 5 strikes, affecting 32 firms and 243 employees; in
1914, 2 strikes, affecting 5 firms and 7S employees; and in 1915, 2 strikes, affect
ing 9 firms and 88 employees.
In the matter of legislation it is noted that the legislature refused to enact
a law making the insurance of employers under the workmen’s compensation
act compulsory. It is remarked, however, by the secretary of the bureau that
“ the coming of State insurance is apparently inevitable,” and an effort will
undoubtedly be made before the next session to secure definite information, as
a large volume of statistics is absolutely necesstry before the advisability of
such a scheme for Saskatchewan can be decided upon.
The war is said to have caused considerable decrease of membership of tradeunions for the year 1915. There are enumerated 91 unions in the Province,
with an estimated membership of 3,505.
C hile .—If inis ferio de Ferrocarriles.
Proyecto de creación de una caja de
retiros y de previsión para el personal de las empresas de los ferrocarriles
del Estado. Santiago de Chile, 1916. 206, [7] pp.
This report and draft of law proposes the establishment of a retirement and
old-age pension fund for the employees of the State railways. A study is
made of the probable cost of such a system on the basis of actuarial investi
gations and analogous legislation and practice in other countries.
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147
D enmark .—Arbejdsl0shedsinspekl0r.
A nerkendte arbefdslpshedskasser : En
Haandbog til brug fo r kassernes ledelser. Copenhagen, 1916. 176 pp.
This is a convenient handbook compiled by the office of the chief unemploy
ment inspector under the unemployment subsidy law of Denmark of April S,
1914. It is meant for the use of the directors of unemployment funds which
come within the provisions of the law for the receipt of a State subsidy for
the relief of unemployment. It explains in simple form and by concrete illus
trations the intent of the different provisions of the law, how the funds shall
conduct their business to comply with it, etc.
—— S ta tistiske E fterretninger udgivet a f det S ta tistiske Department.
hagen. Septem ber 7, 1916 (vol. 8 , No. 14).
Copen
Contains statement of retail prices in August, 191G, and unemployment in
May, 1916.
Germany .— A m tliche Nachrichtcn des Rcichsversichem ngsam ts.
Berlin, A u
gust, 1916.
Current reports on the operation of the German social insurance system.
Great B ritain .—Birmingham.
H ealth Department. Report of the medical
officer of health for the year 1915. Birm ingham , 1916. 72 pp.
This volume, in addition to reports bearing directly upon health and sanitary
conditions in the city of Birmingham, contains data on housing and town
planning and inspections under the factory and workshops act, and also sta
tistics on infant mortality.
------Home D epartment. Factory and workshop orders. (1916 edition.)
___________
don, 1916. [S] 224 pp.
Lon
This volume contains the statutory orders relating to factories and workshops
and other establishments subject to inspection under the factory and workshop
acts, 1901 to 1911, which were in force on January 1, 1916. Since the last
edition of January, 1914, it is noted that two new orders have been added to the
volume, first, an order making toxic jaundice a notifiable disease ; and second,
an order governing the construction and repair of ships in shipbuilding yards.
Toxic jaundice is a disease which has come into prominence in the munition
industry ; it is due to tetraclilorethane or nitro or amido derivatives of benzene
or other poisonous substance.
It may be noted perhaps that the statutory rules and orders contained in
this volume are in the nature of supplementary legislation, power to make
which is delegated to the home department for the purpose of enforcement of
the factory acts. It contains regulations as to special exceptions permitted
in regard to hours of labor and holidays, overtime, employment of women and
young persons, details for the safety and hygiene of workers in dangerous and
unliealthful industries, enumeration of particular establishments and processes
subject to the rules and regulations of the factory laws, and determination of
standards and definition of terms relating to the employment and education of
children.
—
Local Government Board. Alkali, etc., W orks Regulation Act, 1906; fiftysecond annual report on alkali, etc., works, by the chief inspector: Pro
ceedings during the year 1915. London, 1916. 100 pp.
Covers inspection of chemical works for which special regulation is required
by reason of the dangerous processes involved in them.
The number of registered works in England, Ireland, and Wales was 1,372.
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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
Great B ritain ..—London County Council.
Public Education Committee. R e
port of the county medical officer of health and school medical officer for the
year 1915. London, 1916. Jffi pp.
Contains the usual administrative report on the health of the county of
London. A special report on anthrax in London has been reproduced on page
108 in this number of the Review.
------National H ealth Insurance Commission. Reports of decisions on appeals
and applications under section 67 of the national insurance act, 1911, and
section 27 of the national insurance act, 1913. P art I II . London, 1916.
190 pp.
Decisions by the commission in the matter of disputed claims for sickness,
compensation, etc., under the act.
------ R egistrar General. Seventy-seventh annual report of births, deaths, and
marriages in England and Wales, 1914. London, 1916. Ixi, 582 pp.
This is a review of vital statistics of the year 1914, and includes the final
report on the census of 1911, which shows the total population of England and
Wales as of April 3, 1911, to be 36,070,492. The salient features of vital
statistics of 1914 are thus summarized in the report: “ The marriage rate was
15.9 per 1,900, being * * * 0.5 above the average in the 10 years 1904 to
1913; * * * the birth rate in 1914 was 23.8 per 1,000, and was 2.1 below
the average for the preceding decennium; * * * the death rate in 1914 was
14 per 1,000, and was 0.7 below the average for the 10 preceding years. * * *
Infant mortality was 105 per 1,000 births, being 14 per 1,000 below the average
for the preceding decennium. * * * Cancer caused a higher death rate
than in any preceding year, owing to increased mortality among males, and
the rates from phthisis and from tuberculosis as a whole, although well below
the average, showed a slight increase upon those in the preceding year. The
mortality from diseases affecting the lungs was low, but somewhat above that
in 1913.”
*----- S tatutory rules and orders other than those of a local, personal, or tempo
rary character. Issued in the year 1915 in 3 volumes. Volume I I com
prising the title “ National H ealth I n s u r a n c e a n d also table showing effect
of legislation, and index to Volume II. London, 1916. 568 pp.
These statutory rules and orders are in the nature of supplementary legisla
tion necessary for the complete enforcement of the national health insurance act,
1911, and are issued by the health insurance commissioner. They relate to
matters of definition under the act, contributions, organization of medical care
and treatment, organization of recognized societies who are the carriers of
the health insurance, and other matters in relation to the application of the
health insurance act.
------ Treasury D epartment. Report on findings of the select committee on
post-office servants. Second report. London, 1916. 8 pp.
This report relates to the internal administration and organization of a postoffice staff, methods of wage payment, promotions, allowances, etc.
I taly,— Bollettino dell’ Ufficio del Lavoro, H inistero per V Industrie, il Com-
mercio e il Lavoro.
m onthly.)
Rome, A ugust 16 and September 1, 1916.
(Sem i
Current reports on the labor market, labor disputes, employers’ and work
men's organizations, retail prices, labor legislation, court decisions affecting
labor; also several short articles on industrial hygiene.
N etherlands.— Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek.
1915.
The H ague [1916].
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Verslag over het jaar
MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
149
This publication constitutes the administrative report of the Dutch statistical
office and describes the progress of its work during the current year 1915.
Among other statistics it compiles and publishes statistics relating to labor con
ditions, strikes and lockouts, prices, both wholesale and retail, labor exchanges,
wages and hours of labor, and other special matters of that kind. The bureau,
in addition to its reports of special investigations, publishes a yearbook and a
monthly periodical.
N etherlands.— Centrale Commissie voor de Statistiek.
1915.
The Hague \1916].
Versing- over het jaar
72 pp.
This publication is the administratve report
statistics, created by a royal decree January 9,
The purpose of the commission is to advise the
and suggest subjects for investigation, and
therewith.
of the advisory commission on
1899 (Statsblad, 1899, No. 43).
bureau of statistics, to prepare
to issue orders in connection
------M aandschrift van het Centraal Bureau voor de S tatistiek.
August, 1916. ( Vol. 11, No. 8.)
The Hague,
Contains the usual data on the state of the labor market, unemployment
and unemployment insurance, employment exchanges, strikes and lockouts,
organization of employers and employees, wholesale and retail prices; also an
account of the progress of labor legislation through parliament and a review
of labor conditions in foreign countries.
------ Departem ent van Landbouw, N ijverheid en Handel. Centraal verslag der
arbeidsinspectie in het K onihkrijk der Nederlanden over 1914. [The
Hague], 1916. x x xv ii, 473, xiii pp.
This report of the factory inspection department of the Netherlands covers
inspections under the law on health and safety of employees, the general labor
law, the law on noxious or injurious trades, the lawTfor the protection of stone
cutters, the phosphorus-matches law, the accident law, and the law for the
protection of caisson workers. Special chapters are concerned with accidents
and industrial diseases. The report closes with a summary of labor conditions
in the different industries as of January 1, 1915.
The inspection service of the Netherlands covers 72.240 factories and work
shops, and of the number employed in them the law protects 192,421 workers,
while 398,523 are left unprotected by any legislation. During the year 1914 the
inspectors visited 22,868 factories and workshops, which employed 100,620 socalled protected persons and 202,657 unprotected persons. In the course of
inspection 31,156 visits were made.
N ew S outh W ales.— D epartm ent of Labor and Industry.
Sydney.
July, 1916.
Industrial Gazette.
(Vol, 10, No. 3.)
Current reports on" the labor situation, labor legislation, wages boards, ai’bitration awards, factory inspection, labor exchanges, and prices and cost of
living. Labor exchange supplement No. 16.
N ew Zealand.— Court of Arbitration.
Decisions under the workers’’ compensa
tion act, filed for the year 1914, issued under the direction of the m inister
of labor. Vol, 13. Wellington, 1915. 56 pp.
------ Journal of the Department of Labor. Wellington, August, 1916.
Contains current data on the labor market, employment offices, retail prices,
cost of living, trade-union statistics, and legal decisions affecting labor.
------Registrar of Friendly Societies. F riendly societies and trade-unions:
Thirty-ninth annual report by the registrar of friendly societies for the
year ended 31st December, 1915. [ W ellington, 1916.] 37 pp.
Friendly societies as referred to in this report and in British parlance in
general are quite analogous to the fraternal lodges in this country. According
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M O N T H L Y R E V I E W O E T IT E B U R E A U O F L A B O R S T A T I S T I C S ,
to this report there were registered in New Zealand 917 local societies on Decem
ber 31, 1915. Tabulated returns from 72S lodges show a membership of 73,027,
whose total assets amounted to £1,852,355 ($9,014,486). There were 32 tradeunions on the register at the end of the year 1915.
Queensland .— D epartm ent of Labor. The Queensland Industrial Gazette.
Brisbane. August 10, 1916. ( Yol. 1, No. 6.)
Contains current monthly reports on the labor market, employment offices,
retail prices, industrial arbitration, decisions, trade agreements, factory acci
dents, etc.
S outh A frica.— Department of Mines.
M iners’ phthisis prevention committee.
General report of m iners’ phthisis committee. Pretoria, 1916. 206 pp.
Ulus., pi., diag.
Report of a committee to inquire into methods for the prevention of miners’
phthisis in the VYitwatersrand gold mine. A preliminary report was presented
August 1, 1912; an interim report June 13, 1913; and a special report July
28, 1915. In addition to these reports various memoranda have also been issued
by the committee. The report above listed is the general report covering all the
work of the committee and including the subject matter dealt with in the re
ports and memoranda referred to. A summary will appear in a future number
of the R eview .
•
S outh A ustralia .— Statistical Department.
Sum m ary returns of m anufac
tories and works for the year 1915 and the period 1910-1915, and report
thereon. Adelaide [916]. 8 pp. (B ulletin No. lt of 1916.)
S p a in .— B oletín del In stitu to de R eform as Sociales. Madrid. August, 1916.
Current administrative reports of the department—strikes, labor legislation,
court decisions, and reports of trade-union congresses.
S weden.— Social styrelsen. Underdanigt utldtande med fo r slag till lag om
vissa dtgarder till friim jande av arbetsfred. Stockholm , 1916. 63 pp.
Reviewed on page 64, in this number of the R eview .
RECENT UNOFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS RELATING TO LABOR.
Annals. Vol. L X Y II,
New possibilities in education,
A merican A cademy of P olitical and S ocial S cience.
^ Whole No. 156, September, 1916.
Contains articles on vocational education and guidance, manual labor and
national ideals, continuation schools.
I llinois branch . Constitution of the Illi
nois State Federation of Labor, adopted by the 33d annual convention, Oct.
18-22, 1915. 30 pp.
A merican F ederation of L abor.
'
Proceedings of the 33d annual convention of the Illinois S tate Fed
eration of Labor, Alton, Oct. 18-22, 1916. 31,3 pp. '
K entucky branch . Book of laws and proceedings of the K entucky
State Federation of Labor, Louisville, Jan. 10-12, 1916. 63 pp.
------ N ew J ersey branch . Proceedings of the 37th annual convention o f the
New Jersey S tate Federation o f Labor, Jersey City, Aug. 16-18 1915
52 pp.
P ennsylvania branch . Proceedings of the 15th annual convention of the
Pennsylvania Federation of Labor, Beaver Fails, M ay 9-12, 1916. 1.28 pp.
V irginia branch . Proceedings of the 21st annual session of the Virginia
Federation of Labor, Bristol, June 5—7, 1916. (In Union News, vol. 4, No.
23, June 5, 1916, Supplement, pp. 43-69.)
------ W est Virginia branch . Constitution and rules of order of the W est
Virginia S ta te Federation of Labor, revised at 9th annual convention, H u n t
ington, M ay 8-11, 1916. 16 pp.
•
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M O N T H L Y R E V IE W
O F T H E B U R E A U O F LA B O R S T A T IS T IC S .
151
W est V irginia branch .— Proceedings of the
9th annual convention of the W est Virginia State Federation of Labor,
Huntington, Mag 8-11, 1916. 127 pp.
■ ---W isconsin branch .
Labor conditions in Wisconsin. Third report by the
executive board of the W isconsin State Federation of Labor, Milwaukee,
Ju ly 1, 1915. 17 pp., 10 statistical tables.
This report shows the number of unions and their membership as reported for
the principal cities and industries, weekly wages of members, hours of labor,
changes in hours and wages, rates for overtime and Sunday work, unemploy
ment, trade agreements, and monthly rents as compared with annual earnings.
Details are given for 1914, with comparative figures for 1913.
A merican F ederation of L abor.
Proceedings of the tw enty-fourth annual convention
of the Wisconsin State Federation of Labor, Fond du Lac, Ju ly 19-22, 1916.
11,0 pp.
A merican F oundry men 's A ssociation. Proceedings of the tw entieth annual
meeting, A tlantic City, N. J., Sept. 27 to October 1, 1915. Published by the
American Foundrym en’s Association, Cleveland, Ohio, 1915. 672 pp.
Besides a number of technical papers relating to foundry work and processes,
contains papers on scientific management, relation of foreman to employer,
goggles for chippers and other operatives, safety and sanitation, and industrial
education.
------ W isconsin branch .
A merican Labor Y ear B ook for 1916.
Science, New York, 1916.
382 pp.
Published by the Rand School of Social
Price, 50 cents. See p. 134.
W anted, a young woman to do housework. New York, M of
fat, Yard & Co., 1915. 127 pp. Price, $1 net.
A discussion of the servant problem. Treats of the “ present unsatisfactory
condition of domestic labor ” and advocates limiting housework to eight hours
a day six days a week, the observance of legal holidays, extra pay for overtime,
and that servants live outside place of employment. Eight-hour schedules for
one, two, and three employees are given.
B arker, C. H elene.
B ulletin No. 9. A
comprehensive plan of insurance and annuities for college teachers, by
H enry S. Pritchett, president of the Carnegie Foundation. 1916. 67 pp.
■ --- Tenth annual report, 1915. 133 pp.
Part III of this report (pp. 49-100) contains brief articles on the develop
ment of pension systems for teachers, industrial workers, university professors,
and clergy. ( See p. 129 for review of section relating to industrial pensions.)
C arnegie F ottndation for the A dvancement of T eaching .
Carter, IV. S.
W hy the eight-hour day is right. Supplem ent to the Labor
World, Ju ly 21, 1916. Transportation Brotherhood Publicity Bureau, 1311
American Trust Building, Cleveland, Ohio. 12 pp.
An article by the president of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and
Enginemen, aiming to show how safety is menaced by fatigue, the operation of
the 16-hour law, that occupational hazard is greater in the railroad-train service
than in any other industry, and that arbitration is an unsatisfactory method of
settlement.
Consumers ' L eague of Cincinnati (O h io ) {30 Pickering B uilding).
Bulletins.
No. 1. Conditions of saleswomen in Cincinnati mercantile establishm ents.
June, 1915. 16 pp.
No. 2. A study of living conditions in rooming houses. June, 1916. 7 pp.
No. 3. Facts about retail stores. June, 1916. S pp.
An outline of industrial history, w ith special reference to
problems of the present day. London, Macmillan, 1915. 36) pp. Price,
$1.10 net.
C ressy , E dward.
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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
D eutsch -A m ebikanische T ypogeaphia, 1,3 jahresbericht, vom 1. Juli, 1915,
bis 30. June, 1916. India no polis, 1916. i 5.
Forty-third annual report of the German-American Typographia of the In
ternational Typographical Union, July 1, 1915, to June 30, 1916.
D ublin , L ouis I., of the Metropolitan L ife Insurance Co., New York. Factors in
American mortality. Reprinted from the American Economic Review, Vol.
VI, No. 3, September, 1916, pp. 523-51/8.
A study of death rates in the race stocks of New York State, 1910.
F abian S ocietal H o w to pay for the war: being ideas offered to the Chancellor
of the Exchequer by the Fabian Research Departmen t : Sidnay Webb,
editor. London, 1916. 278 pp. Price 6 shillings net.
The main proposition advanced by this work is that instead of taxing produc
tion more than at present, the burdens of war should be met by untaxing it. In
addition to proposals for the development of the post office, the creation of a
public service of railway and canal transport, the nationalization of the coal
supply, and a “ revolution in the income tax,” in order to afford some net
revenue to the exchequer and provide for the eventual redemption of part of the
war debt, it is suggested that the remainder of that debt can be repurchased
from the investors and “ immobilized ” by an ingenious development of a State
insurance department which, having nationalized life assurance and guaranteed
all existing policies and all future bonuses, will replace the “ industrial ” poli
cies for which the poor now pay £18,000,000 ($87,597,000) a year by an abso
lutely universal funeral benefit.
F abnum , C. J. The scope of industrial medicine and surgery. 1916. 5 pp.
A paper read at the meeting of the American Association of Industrial Physi
cians and Surgeons, Detroit, Mich., June 12, 1916.
F leming , A. P. M., and P eaece, J. G. The principles of apprenticeship training,
w ith special reference to the engineering industry. London, Longmans,
Green & Co., 1916. 202 pp.
Discusses the place of the manual worker in industry and the economic im
portance of training, characteristics demanded from a worker and the extent to
which these are developed by the existing educational system, vocational selec
tion and guidance, and apprentice training. An example is given of a system of
training developed by the authors in a large manufacturing organization.
H enby S teeet S ettlement. Committee for vocational scholarships— Directory
of the trades and occupations taught at the day and evening schools in
Greater New York. New York, 1916. 68 pp. Price 15 cents.
I nsubance A lmanac . A n annual of insurance facts for 1916. Published by
the Underwriter P rinting 6 Publishing Co. New York, xvi, 1/12 pp.
Price, $1.
Contains handy information of the insurance business, the officers and man
agers of all classes of companies, insurance department officials, associations
of underwriters, statutory requirements, summary of workmen’s compensation
laws, new companies, current legislation. Also general information concerning
Federal and State officials ; population ; telegraph, cable, and postal rates ; public
debt, and other statistics.
The American experience table of mortality is reproduced, a list of assessment
life organizations in the United States is given, also a list of companies writing
health insurance. A section showing summaries of workmen’s compensation
laws in the United States and in foreign countries, with an analysis of prin
cipal features of the laws, appears to be taken from the bulletins of the United
States Bureau of Labor Statistics, except for a few of the newer acts.
I nteenational I nstitute of A gbicultube. Anna ire international de legisla
tion agricole. 5. année, 1915. Rome, 1916. 11/60 pp.
International yearbook of agricultural legislation.
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31. bericht
fü r das fahr 1915. Berlin, 1916. 44 pp.
Report of directors of the miners’ trade accident association, carrier of the
accident insurance in Germany, for the year 1915.
L aubach , F. C. W hy there are vagrants; a study based upon an exam ination
of 100 men, New York, 1916. 128 pp. Subm itted in partial fulfillm ent of
the requirements for the degree of doctor of philosophy in the faculty of
political science, Columbia University.
An attempt to explain why vagrants do not work long in one place and why
they do not accumulate property. The information was obtained at first hand
from the wanderers themselves or from correspondence with their acquaintances.
The author divides the individual or personal factors making for vagrancy into
four main divisions: Moral, temperamental, mental, and physical. He is of
the opinion that the first of these is the most important.
Mansfield , B urton. L ife insurance in groups. R. L. B ryan Co., Columbia,
S. C. 8 pp.
A discussion by the insurance commissioner of Connecticut of group life in
surance, in which the employer buys life insurance for his employees collec
tively, as contrasted with individual life insurance.
Merchants and Manufacturers of M assachusetts . The m inimum wage a
failing experiment, together w ith some side lights on the M assachusetts
experience, Published by the E xecutive Committee of the Merchants and
M anufacturers of Massachusetts, Boston, 1916. 58 pp.
Reviewed in the Monthly R eview for October, 1916, pp. 76-79.
Mess , H. A. Casual labor at the docks. London, Bell, 1916. 141 pp. See
p. 131.
N ational A malgamated U nion of L abor. Report for quarter ending June 30,
1916. Newcastle-on-Tyne, Richard Mayne, 1916. 73 pp.
K nappschafts berufsgenossen schaff für das deutsche R eicfi.
N ational A ssociation for the S tudy and P revention of T uberculosis.
Pamphlet, No. 105. W orkingmen’s organizations in local antituberculosis
campaigns. New York, May, 1916. 64 PP.
. A study of the types of organizations formed by employers and employees to
participate in the. antituberculosis campaign, designed to help in securing
further cooperation from those engaged in industrial enterprises.
N ational A ssociation of Corporation S chools. Fourth annual convention.
Addresses, r e p o r t s , bibliographies, and discussions. Pittsburgh, May 30June 2, 1916. Press of Andrew H. Kellogg Co., New York, 1916. 804 pp.
Among the subjects covered by committee reports and discussed by the con
vention were safety and health, special training schools, trade apprenticeship
schools, unskilled labor, vocational guidance.
N ational Conference Committee of the R ailways and the B rotherhood of
L ocomotive E ngineers, B rotherhood of L ocomotive F iremen and E n ginemen , Order of R ailway Conductors, and B rotherhood of R ailroad
T rainm en . M inutes of meetings. June 1 to 15, 1916, 551 pp.; A ugust 8
and 9, pp. 552-593. The M artin Reporting Co., 220 W est Forty-second
Street, New York.
At the conference held in June demands of the unions for an eigst-hour
day and time and a half for overtime were refused by the railroads. At the
August conference the vote of the unions was announced favoring a strike and
the conference adjourned without a settlement. The threatened strike was
called off upon the approval by the President, September 3, 1916, of the Fed
eral act entitled “An act to establish an eight-hour day for employees of car
riers engaged in interstate commerce, and for other purposes.”
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M O N T H L Y R E V IE W OE T H E B U R E A U OE L A B O R S T A T IS T IC S .
N ational Consumers ’ L eague (280 Fourth Avenue, New York)..
Bulletins.
Hours of labor series.
No. 1. Hours of labor and realism in constitutional law, by Felix
F rankfurter. 1916. 21 pp. Reprinted from the Harvard Law
Review, Vol. X X I X , No. J¡.
No. 2. Labor, law, and life. 4 pp. A n editorial reprinted from The
Independent, A pril 24, 1916.
No. 3. Building up industrial liberty. .) pp. A n editorial reprinted
from The Outlook, A pril 26, 1916.
M inimum wages series.
No. 9. A substitute for charity, by Constance D. Leupp. 11 pp. R e
printed from Pearson’s Magazine, January, 1915.
No. 11. The case for the m inim um wage. 28 pp. R eprinted from The
Survey, Feb. 6, .1915.
Contains the following articles: Status of legislation in the United
States, by Florence K elley; The Constitution and the minimum wage,
by Louis D. Brandéis; Wages of women in the State of New York, by
H. B. W oolston; The State and the minimum wage, by J. A. Hobson;
Is the minimum wage a menace to industry, by N. I. Stone; The Aus
tralian experience with wages boards, by M. B. Hammond.
No. 12. Meaning of the m inim um wage, by Robert TV. Bruere. 7 pp.
Reprinted from H arper’s Magazine, January, 1916.
No. Uf. A new province for law and order. Industrial peace through
m inim um icage and arbitration, by H. B. Higgins. 1915. 27 pp.
Reprinted from the H arvard L aw Review , Vol. X X IX , No. 1.
S a fe ty at sea series:
No. 4. The La Follette law from the Consumers’ League point o f view,
by Florence Kelley. 7 pp. Reprinted from the Proceedings of
the Academ y of Political Science, October, 1915.
TFomen in industry s o le s :
No. 5. Selected bibliography. February, 1915. 3 pp.
No. 6. Eiglit-hour latos in the United States. 7 pp. Reprinted from
brief in defense of the California eight-hour law for women, sub
m itted to the Supreme Court of the United States, January, 1915,
by Louis D. Brandéis and Josephine Goldmark.
No. 9. A fam ous bad decision reversed. 4 pp. A n editorial reprinted
from The Outlook, Apr. 28, 1915.
No. 10. Twenty-fire years o f the Consumers’ League movement, by
Florence Kelley. 6 pp. Reprinted from The Survey, Nov. 27,1915.
No. 11. Survey of wage-earning girls below 16 years of age in W ilkesbarre, Pa., 1915, by Sarah II. Atherton. 65 pp. Price, 25 cents.
No. 12. Tenem ent home icork and the courts, by Josephine Goldmark.
1916. 3 pp. A n editorial reprinted from The Survey, Feb. 19, 1916.
No. 13. W omen in industry— The eight-hour day and rest at night,
by Florence Kelley. May, 1916. 4 pp.
N ational S afety C ou n cil . Third annual report by the secretary, for the year
ending Ju ly 31, 1916. Chicago, Aug. 1, 1916. 4 pp.
Briefly outlines the activities of the council during the year 1915-16 in car
rying out its purpose of spreading the safety idea throughout the United
States, Canada, and foreign countries.
N ational W indow Glass W orkers. Constitution and by-laws, revised by
special committee, Feb. 3, 19141 reprinted with changes and additional laws,
Feb. 3, 1914, to M ay 27, 1916. Cleveland, Ohio, 1916. 29 pp.
N egro Y ear B ook. A n annual encyclopedia of the Negro. 1916-17. Published
by the Negro Year Book Publishing Co., Tuskegee In stitu te, Ala., 1916.
488 pp. Price, 35.
N ew Y ork (C i t y ) M ayor. The lockout in the cloak and suit industry. The
record of the public hearing before Mayor John Purroy M itchel at the City
Hall, New York, Apr. 26, 1916. New York, 1916. 11 pp.
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M O N T H L Y R E V IE W O F T H E B U R E A U O F LA BO R S T A T IS T IC S .
155
Zur Fors i a rb c i t crfra ge in Mecklenburg, bearbeitct im A uftrage
cler Studienkom mission fiir Erhaltung des Bauernstandcs, fiir Kleinsiedlung
und Landarbeit. Jena, 191). vi, 93 pp. 17 statistical tables.
A study of the need of provisions for obtaining a permanent force of laborers
for forestry work in Mecklenburg, one of the German States where considerable
interior colonization has taken place.
P erry, L ortnda. M illinery as a trade for women. New York, Longmans,
Green & Co., 1916. 13h pp. Price, 31.30. See p. 32.
R ea , S amuel . W hy the principle of arbitration can not be sacrificed. A state
m ent to the Am erican public, issued at Washington, D. C., Aug. 27, 1916,
by the president of the Pennsylvania Railroad System . S pp.
Explains the attitude of the railroad executives of the country with reference
to retaining the principle of arbitration in the adjustment of differences affect
ing interstate commerce.
R oyal E conomic S ociety (9 Adelphi Terrace. Strand, London, IF. C.). B y
laws and list of fellows. Corrected to Sept. 1, 1916. London, 1916. 37 pp.
R ubinow , I. M. Standards of health insurance. New York, Holt, 1916. 322
pp. See p. 114.
S cattergood, Claude E. Cost accounting in casualty insurance. 1916. R e
printed from Proceedings of the Casualty Actuarial and Statistical Society
of America, February, 1916, Vol. II, Part II, No. 5, pp. 253-261.
----- The synthesis of rates for workm en's compensation. l\civ York, 1916. 31
pp. Published by the Fidelity and Casualty Co. of New York. See p. 85.
S herman , P. T ecum seh . W orkm en's compensation law. Personal in ju ry by
accident arising out of and in the course of employment. Published by
W orkm en's Compensation Publicity Bureau, New York, 1916. 67 pp.
S olvay P rocess Co. Profit sharing, pensions, m utual aid, and welfare work.
Syracuse, N. Y., 1915. 8 pp.
T emple, F rederick. W ar finance and the worker. London, Commonwealth
Press. (1916) 16 pp.
U nited T ypothetje and F ranklin Clubs of A merica. Reports of committee
on apprentices. Sept. 21, 1915. 18 pp. Sept. 14, 1916. 20 pp. .
W arns , F. ,T. The tide of im m igration. New York, Appleton, 1916. 388 pp.
Price, $2.50 net.
Treats of the fundamental economic forces behind the movement of popula
tion to and from the United States and the governmental machinery for regu
lating immigration. Discusses the campaign for more restrictive legislation,
probable effects of the European war on immigration, volume and sources of
immigration, its influence on social progress, conflict between immigrant and
native worker for jobs and. wages, and geographical distribution of immigration.
Oertzen, von.
Toward social democracy? A study of social evolution during
the past three-quarters of a century. London. Fabian Society [1916].
48 pp. Price, 1 shilling net.
W ebb, S idney .
H . A . H o w to get workmen. Finding and picking the right man f o r
the work, Chicago, A. IF. Shaw Co., 1913. 64 PPContains chapters on recruiting the working force, personal interviews in
hiring men, hiring unskilled, semiskilled, and skilled workmen, promoting from
the ranks, neighborhood sources of supply, and getting in touch with out-of-town
workmen.
Y oung, A rthur N. The single-tax movement in the United States. Princeton,
N. J., Princeton U niversity Press, 1916. 340 pp.
W
orman,
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