Full text of Monthly Labor Review : February 1938, Vol. 46, No. 2
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MONTHLY
LABOR
REVIEW
FEBRUARY 1938
VOL. 46, NO. 2
HUGH S. HANNA, Editor
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CO NTENTS
Special articles:
MAR 14 1933
— -------------------------- ---- -
A quarter century of Governmental labor activity_________________
Wages, employment conditions, and welfare of sugar-beet laborers.._
Hours of work provided in collective agreements in 1937___________
Composition of labor force in the merchant marine________________
297
322
341
349
Employment conditions:
National unemployment census, 1937_____________________________
Placement of American Indians, 1936-37_________________________
355
363
Social security:
Sickness insurance in Denmark_____________________________
Unemployment-Benefit Act of Union of South Africa______________
364
370
Vacations with pay:
Paid vacations in Latin America_________________________
375
Profit sharing:
Profit sharing for industrial employees____________________________
383
Education and training:
Provisions for education in C. C. C. camps in 1938________________
Employment status of Philadelphia public-school graduates of 1935..
388
389
Cooperation:
Cooperative telephone associations, 1936__________________________
392
Housing conditions:
Housing and housing finance in American cities___________________
414
Safety and health:
Lead poisoning in 1936 and earlier years_________________________
International comparisons of industrial accident statistics___________
420
433
Industrial disputes:
Trend of strikes___________________________________________ _____
Analysis of strikes in October 1937_______________________________
Conciliation work of the Department of Labor, December 1937
.
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437
445
Contents
II
Cost of living:
Expenditures for electrical appliances by workers in 42 cities----------Effect of changes in buying habits in Virginia-------------------------------Cost-of-living inquiry in Great Britain------------------------------------------
Page
447
455
456
Labor turn-over:
Labor turn-over in manufacturing, November 1937------------------------
458
Minimum wages and maximum hours:
Laws limiting hours of employment for men, as of January 1, 1938. _
Wage determinations under public contracts law: Welt shoes, granite,
and handkerchiefs-------------------------------------------------------------------
462
466
¡Cages and hours of labor:
Wages and hours in union bakeries, May 15, 1937-------------------------Overtime work by salaried employees------------------------------------------New York— Earnings of office workers in factories, October 1937----Puerto Rico— Earnings in various industries, 1936-37--------------------Italy— Employment, wages, and hours, 1937---------------------------------Soviet Union—
Earnings of motorcar drivers, 1937-------------------------------- ------Increase of wages of low-paid workers------------------------------------
468
479
480
482
485
488
490
Employment offices:
Operations of United States Employment Service, December 1937—
491
Trend of employment and pay rolls:
Summary of reports for December 1937:
Industrial and business employment--------------------------------------Public employment-------------------------------------------------------------Detailed reports for November 1937—Industrial and business employ
ment________________________________________________________
Unemployment in foreign countries, last quarter of 1937-----------------
497
501
503
517
Building operations:
Summary of building construction in principal cities, December 1937.
523
Retail prices:
Food—Prices in December 1937--------------------------- ---------------------Electricity— Prices on December 15, 1937------------------------------------Gas— Prices on December 15, 1937----------------------------------------------
528
535
539
Wholesale prices:
Wholesale prices, December and year 1937------------------------------------
Recent publications of labor interest--------------------------------------------------
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559
This Issue in B rief
Governmental Labor Activity, 1913-38.
1 HL United States Department of
Labor on March 4, 1938, closes its first
quarter century as an executive de
partment of the United States Govern
ment. It was created at a time when
the activities of governments in the
interest of the workers were shifting
from study of economic conditions to
organizing machinery for regulation
and to laying the ground work for
broad social movements. In the in
tervening 25 years the work of the
Department of Labor has expanded
greatly, and numerous other agencies
of the Federal Government now share
with it the duty of carrying out the
Federal program concerning workers.
Corresponding expansion has taken
place in State governments, through
State departments of labor and indus
trial commissions administering and
enforcing a greatly increased volume
of legislation dealing with working
conditions and industrial relations.
Page 297.
Minimum Wages for Sugar-Beet Work
ers.
WORKING and living conditions
among laborers in the sugar-beet fields
have long been recognized as being
among the worst in industrial employ
ment in the United States. The work
is characterized by extremely low
annual incomes, obtained from inter
mittent periods of intensive labor of
whole families, by scarcity of supple
mentary work during off-seasons, and
by widespread dependence of beet
workers upon public relief during the
winter months. By a Federal act of
September 1937, Government benefits
to growers of sugar beets and sugarcane
were made contingent upon payment
of minimum wage rates to be set by
the Secretary of Agriculture as fair and
reasonable, and on nonemployment of
children. Page 322.
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Hours Provided in Collective Agree
ments.
A 40-HOUR maximum workweek is
provided in a large majority of the
union agreements now in effect in the
United States. In several industries
the maximum set by agreement is less
than 40 hours, namely, the glass in
dustry, with a 36-hour week for all
but continuous processes; coal mining
and fur manufacture, with a general
35-hour maximum; men’s clothing,
with a 36-hour week; women’s cloth
ing, with a prevailing 35-hour week;
and newspaper publishing, where ap
proximately two-thirds of the workers
are on a working week of less than 40
hours. In retail-trade agreements, on
the other hand, the 48-hour week pre
dominates, and in such service indus
tries as hotels and barbering the
agreements frequently permit of a
60-hour and even longer workweek.
Page 341.
Census of the Unemployed.
IN THE National Unemployment
Census of November 16-20, 1937, the
voluntary registration of the unem
ployed totaled 7,822,912, of whom
2,001,877 were emergency relief work
ers. Among the 7,822,912 unem
ployed were 1,996,699 females. The
enumerative test census which fol
lowed the voluntary registration indi
cated that this registration was only
72 percent complete. Allowing for
such a variation would give a maxi
mum total of 10,870,000 who con
sidered themselves as unemployed.
Persons who registered as partly em
ployed and wanting more work num
bered 3,209,211, including 567,551
females. The voluntary registration
of the partly unemployed was only
57 percent complete, according to
the subsequent test census. Page
355.
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Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
Decline in Lead Poisoning.
ONE of the most encouraging signs of
progress in industrial sanitation and
public health is the marked decline
which has taken place in the occur
rence of fatal lead poisoning in this
and other countries. In the United
States, the rate has declined from 2.5
deaths per million of population in
1900-1904 to 1.0 death per million in
1936, or 60 percent. Similar down
ward trends are shown for a number of
other countries. The decline in indus
trial lead poisoning in this country is
largely the result of improvement in
sanitary conditions in factories, but is
also due to the improved economic
condition of the workmen, who receive
higher wages, work shorter hours, and
present a decidedly better type of
physique than the workers of earlier
years. Page 420.
Cooperative Telephones, 1936.
MORE than 460,000 subscribers were
estimated to have utilized the services
of cooperative telephone associations
in 1936. This estimate was reached
in a study by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics in which it was found that
this type of cooperative association
was particularly numerous in the rural
areas of the Middle West.
The
organizations varied widely in size,
ranging from groups of some half
dozen members, owning a single party
line, upward to organizations of sev
eral thousand persons serving a whole
county. Although telephone opera
tion does not appear to be a field of
business offering any great possibility
of much future expansion, coopera
tively, associations now in operation
are rendering a necessary service at
very moderate cost. Page 392.
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Limitations on Hours of Work of Men.
IN 1937, two States— Pennsylvania
and North Carolina—enacted com
prehensive laws regulating the hours
of labor of men in private employment.
Prior to that time, there had been little
legislation of general applicability
except in the case of certain unhealthy
or hazardous trades. The Pennsyl
vania law places the limitations at 44
hours per week, 8 hours a day, and
5 % days per week. It does not apply
to agricultural labor, domestic ser
vants, or persons in higher-paid
executive or professional work. The
North Carolina law limits the hours of
labor of men to 10 per day and 55 per
week. There are, however, a number
of exceptions and the law does not
apply to an employer of 8 or fewer
employees. An article in this issue
(p. 462) reviews all existing legislation
in the United States on the subject of
hours of labor for men.
Paid Vacations in Latin America.
TWELVE of the twenty Latin-American Republics now have in force legis
lation providing annual vacations with
pay for one or more classes of em
ployees. These are Argentina, Brazil,
Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Haiti, Mexico,
Panama, Peru, Salvador, Uruguay, and
Venezuela. In 7 of the countries both
salaried and wage-earning employees
are benefited, while in the remaining 5
countries protection is more restricted.
Domestic servants are specifically
covered in the legislation of Chile and
Peru. Ordinarily the qualifying period
is 1 year. Vcations vary from a mini
mum of 4 to 6 days in Mexico to 30
days or a month in certain instances in
Argentina, Panama, and Peru. Page
378.
MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW
FOR FEBRUARY 1938
A QUARTER CENTURY OF GOVERNMENTAL
LABOR ACTIVITY
By E stelle M. S tewart, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics
ON M ARCH 4, 1913, President Taft, as his last official act as President
of the United States, signed the bill creating the tenth executive
department of the Government, the United States Department of
Labor. The Department was to be under the administration of a
member of the President’s Cabinet, equal in rank and status with other
executive branches of the Federal Government. On March 4, 1938,
the Department of Labor thus closes its first quarter century of
statutory existence, an occasion which makes peculiarly appropriate a
review of the expansion and achievement in the entire field of Govern
mental activity, both State and National, in the interest of the
American worker.
Rather more significance attaches to such a review, however, than
the mere observance of the passing of a milestone that affords a
convenient backward view. To a great degree President Taft’s
signing of the organic act creating a Federal agency devoted to the
interests of American wage earners closed one era and opened another.
Granting the element of arbitrariness in attaching dates to social
movements, 1913 nevertheless stands out clearly in a backward view
as a turning point in the movement to secure, through legislation and
administrative public agencies, recognition of the rights and the needs
of American workers and to take definite steps through those channels
for the progressive improvement of working conditions and industrial
relations.
Prior to 1913 agencies existed within the Federal Government for a
limited degree of regulation and control of working conditions of
specific classes of workers. In the larger industrial States regulatory
labor laws, applying chiefly to women and children, were enforced by
governmental bodies, but in general each type of law came under the
administrative jurisdiction of an independent agency. But a great
deal of the work of Federal and State Governments was in the direction
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Monthly Lahor Review—February 1938
of fact-finding and exploratory trail-blazing through the ever-widening
and increasingly complex social and industrial structure of a rapidly
developing nation. Permanent fact-finding agencies existed in the
bureaus of labor of the Federal Government and a large proportion of
the States. Intensive surveys had been made by the Federal Govern
ment into the extent of employment and the working conditions of
women and children, and into the social, industrial, and economic
status of the immigrant population; and an exhaustive inquiry had
been authorized into the underlying causes of industrial unrest and
unsatisfactory industrial relations. Several States had set up com
missions of inquiry into the problem of industrial accidents which had
grown to proportions that demanded action, and some had enacted
legislation for the compensation of injured workers and better control
of work hazards.
As a social movement, however, all these efforts lacked direction and
cohesiveness, and much of the legislation, particularly that dealing
with workmen’s compensation and minimum wages for women, was
experimental. One of the important functions of the newly created
Federal Department of Labor, as those who were prominent in secur
ing its establishment saw it, was to correct this diffusion of effort and
to coordinate and direct the scattered activities. Before a great deal
could be accomplished, abnormal conditions produced first by the war
in Europe and then by American entry into the World War had to be
met, and governmental agencies to regulate and in some cases to con
trol employment relations were created. Thus the focus of govern
mental activities in relation to the worker shifted from determining
his status to regulating, in a measure, his conditions. The lessons
that grew out of that experience were reflected in specific labor legis
lation and in the increase in the number and the responsibilities of
administrative agencies during the years immediately following the
World War. Successive developments which in their turn also
tended to place upon government more and more concern for the wel
fare of the worker were industrial and technological expansion and
change, the rapid shift from a national economy based on agriculture
to one conditioned largely by industry, and, finally, depression and
nation-wide unemployment and want.
During these 25 years of change the United States Department of
Labor has expanded greatly. With the few antecedent governmental
agencies also devoted to the interests of the worker, it has been joined
by many others in the Federal Government serving the interests
either of a special occupational group or of all groups in limited fields.
Integrated departments of labor and other agencies in practically all
States are now administering and enforcing the rapidly expanding
volume of labor legislation that reflects the purpose of the American
people to keep pace with change.
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Quarter Century of Governmental Labor Activity
299
Governmental Labor Activities Before 1913
The first general demand upon governments by workers was for
unbiased study and presentation of the actual conditions of hours,
wages, safety, and health under which they were employed. This
demand was met by creating bureaus of labor first in State govern
ments, beginning in Massachusetts in 1869, and then in the Federal
Government with the first Bureau of Labor, established in 1884,
which became the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the new Department
of Labor in 1913. This development was the result of an organized
demand on the part of the Knights of Labor, which was successful to
the point that by 1913 legislation had been enacted to create these
fact-finding bodies in nearly three-fourths of the States. In the
industrial States these were active agencies constantly assembling and
presenting facts pertaining to working conditions upon which much of
the early labor legislation was based.
Beginnings of State labor departments.
Enforcement of labor laws, before the movement for integrated
State labor departments began about 1911, was either through exist
ing agencies such as local school boards or police officers, or through
separate agencies created to administer each type of law. Thus the
laws establishing minimum wages for women and minors, for example,
which were in operation in nine States in 1913, were administered by
independent State bodies set up for that specific purpose.
Wisconsin launched the movement to center all State labor activities
in one integrated State agency when it created its industrial com
mission in 1911. Massachusetts followed in 1912, with a statute
establishing the State board of labor and industry which combined
several functions but was still not all-inclusive. In 1913, New York
reorganized its department of labor to include all activities in the
interest of labor that fell within the province of the State at that time,
and similar action was taken in Ohio and Kansas, and on a less com
prehensive scale in Pennsylvania.
Early safety movements.
In certain other early activities of government in which workers’
interests were involved, those interests were in fact incidental to the
main purpose of the agency. In the case of railroad operation, the
purpose was safety of the general public. The Interstate Commerce
Commission was founded in 1887, but its regulatory authority over
physical equipment and safety devices was not established until later,
beginning with the law of 1893 dealing with automatic couplers.
After that its control over safety hazards, hours, and working con
ditions was continuously and greatly extended. But it was not until
1914 that its activities in the interests of safety for the workers as
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Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
well as the traveling public were concentrated into one administrative
unit, the Bureau of Safety.
First mediation board.
In 1898 under the terms of the Erdman Act, the Commissioner of
Labor and the Chairman of the Interstate Commerce Commission
were assigned the additional function of acting as a medium for the
mediation, or in certain cases, the arbitration, of disputes between
carriers and their employees. This ex officio body was the first
permanent agency in the Federal Government to deal with labor
relations. It continued to function in that field when called upon
until the United States Board of Mediation and Conciliation was
created in 1913.
Health service for seamen.
Government had discharged one specific function with regard to
seamen practically from the beginning of the Republic, when the first
step was taken which led ultimately to the establishment of the United
States Public Health Service. The first marine hospital founded,
maintained, and operated by the United States Government, was
opened in Norfolk, Va., in 1800. Seventy years later the many marine
hospitals which followed it were brought under the unified control of
a special agency under the jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Treasury.
This agency later was made responsible also for the medical examina
tion of immigrants. Other governmental activities dealing with
seamen were concerned in a limited way with safety, through the
steamboat inspection service, established in 1838, and with employ
ment contracts and relations through the shipping commissioners
who were placed in the Bureau of Navigation by a law of 1872.
However, a much wider acceptance of governmental responsibility in
the welfare of American seamen came with the passage of the Seaman’s
Act of 1915.
Welfare of miners.
Another special group of workers who have traditionally been the
beneficiaries of governmental intercession in their interests are miners.
Mining safety has been the concern of both State and National
Governments, expressed through State boards for the examination
and licensing of supervisory personnel, and State departments of mines
for the administration and enforcement of laws regulating hours,
working conditions, and safety provisions for miners. In 1910 a
Federal agency, the United States Bureau of Mines, was created for
scientific research, experiment, and education and for the setting up
of safety, health, and operating standards.
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Quarter Century of Governmental Labor Activity
301
Workmen’s compensation movement.
Although apparently quite fortuitously, the year 1913 also marks
a definite change in the character of the movement to compensate
injured victims of industrial accidents. The first phase of that
movement was the appointment of commissions of inquiry. In the
4-year period 1909-12, 24 States created workmen’s compensation
commissions to investigate the extent of the problem and to make
recommendations. Twelve of these were established in 1911. In
that year workmen’s compensation laws were enacted in 10 States,
and in 1912 4 more States took legislative action on the problem.
Thus by 1913, together with two States and the Federal Government
which had passed compensation laws prior to 1911, 17 jurisdictions
had studied the problem and had accepted the principle of compensa
tion for industrial injury. However, up to that point, the movement
seems to have been almost wholly analytical, and the reports of the
investigative commissions dealt with the economics of the question
and the desirability of the regulatory legislation rather than with the
practical application and operation of measures for control. Similarly
the first laws were apparently experimental. Of the 17 laws in
existence in 1913, 13 were either materially changed by amendment
in that year or replaced by new legislation. In 1913 also, seven new
States were placed in the ranks of those dealing with industrial
accidents through legislative enactment and administrative agencies.
Governmental employment agencies.
The task of helping workers to secure employment had been assumed
as a governmental function prior to 1913 in many States, beginning
with Ohio’s pioneering effort in 1890. The Federal Government
created placement machinery in 1907, chiefly for the purpose of
diverting immigrant labor from the port of entry to points where
employment opportunities were greater. While these activities
constituted recognition of placement work as a legitimate govern
mental activity in the interest of the worker, and were a well-meaning
effort, they were neither efficient nor conspicuously successful.
The first steps toward coordination and cooperation among the
various State employment services were made in 1913, when the
officials of the public employment offices in eight States formed an
association. Labor shortage before and during the World War and
marked evolution in the concept of governmental responsibility in
helping workers to find work had produced, by 1938, a public em
ployment service that differed radically from that represented by
the men who organized the International Association of Public Em
ployment Services in 1913.
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Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
Regulation of woman and child labor.
Except for special classes of male workers, labor legislation con
cerned with working hours and other conditions largely affected
women and children. Hence, enforcement agencies were essentially
specialized bureaus for the protection of women and children. Other
functional agencies to promote the economic and industrial welfare
of working women had not yet developed. The United States
Children’s Bureau, now a unit of the Department of Labor, was
created in 1912. One of its first activities was to cooperate in an
educational campaign which materially altered birth registration
policies and procedures, a phase of vital statistics that has an im
portant relation to child labor. It also set in motion the program
of maternity and child welfare and the promotion of child labor
standards, which have since been greatly expanded.
Creation of the United States Department of Labor
“We want a department in the Government of the United States
that shall be distinctively a labor department, dealing with the labor
questions and all that comes directly under that term,” because wage
earners “are the only people in all the country whose special rights
and interests have no voice in the councils of the President.” Thus
Samuel Gompers, president of the American Federation of Labor in
a Congressional hearing upon a bill to establish a department of labor 1
stated the position the organized labor movement had taken for nearly
50 years. “Surely,” he added, “so vast a number of people” ought
to have opportunity to “have the attention of the President of the
United States in his councils for the purpose of determining questions”
of vital concern to them. Organized labor had not been satisfied
with the compromise legislation which, in 1903, created a Department
of Commerce and Labor and made existing Federal labor agencies
subordinate units under that department. In 1908 the Democratic
platform contained a plank which pledged the Democratic Party “to
the enactment of a law creating a Department of Labor represented
by a Secretary in the President’s Cabinet.” The bill introduced in
1908‘and again in 1910 by Representative Sulzer of New York was
enacted into law, with modifying amendments, in 1913 (62d Cong.,
3d sess.), under the leadership of Senator Borah of Idaho, Chairman
of the Senate Committee on Education and Labor, and Representative
William B. Wilson of Pennsylvania, chairman of the House Com
mittee on Labor, without opposition and without a roll-call vote in
either house. It was signed by President Taft on March 4, 1913,
immediately before his term of office expired. A few hours later,
i U. S. House of Representatives, Committee on Labor, Subcommittee No. 2 (61st Cong.): Hearings on
H. R. 3646, to establish Department of Labor. M ay 25,1910, p. 10.
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303
Representative Wilson, a former international secretary of the United
Mine Workers, became the first Secretary of Labor under President
Wilson. The purpose of the newly created governmental agency was
declared in the organic act to be “to foster, promote, and develop the
welfare of the wage earners of the United States, to improve their
working conditions, and to advance their opportunities for profitable
employment.”
The act transferred to the new department all the units of the
Department of Commerce and Labor that concerned workers, together
with their statutory functions. These included the Bureau of Labor,
which became the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the Bureau of Immigra
tion and Naturalization, which was divided into two bureaus, each
discharging its own statutory function, and the Children’s Bureau.
The enabling act specifically conferred power upon the Secretary of
Labor “to act as mediator and to appoint commissioners of concilia
tion in labor disputes whenever in his judgment the interests of indus
trial peace may require it to be done.”
Objectives of sponsors.
No set program of activity or endeavor was outlined in the organic
act, and those who sponsored the creation of the new department made
it clear that from their viewpoint the new agency should be left free
to find its own range and develop its own field of greatest usefulness,
subject to whatever legislative restrictions or mandates might be
imposed by Congress. It is nonetheless interesting to note some of
the fields of possible development that were suggested during the
course of the passage of the bill, and their relation to present activities
of the Department of Labor. Throughout the hearings and the brief
discussions in Congress, and in the report of the House Committee
on Labor the possibilities of the proposed agency as an instrument in
the maintenance of industrial peace were strongly emphasized. At
the hearing held on the earlier bill (H. R. 3646) on May 26, 1910,
Arthur E. Holder, representing the American Federation of Labor,
said that “we believe a department of labor would finally be able to
evolve such a system” of peaceful adjustment of labor disputes “that
we would all feel satisfied with the results.” The House Committee
on Labor stressed that aspect of potential usefulness of the agency it
sought to create. Because “the friendly offices of some one who has
the confidence of both sides to a controversy, when used intelligently
and at the proper moment, can do more to bring contending parties
together upon terms satisfactory to all concerned than any other
policy that can be pursued,” the Committee felt that authority to act
in such a capacity, conferred upon a governmental agency, would be
“of immense value in promoting industrial peace”.2
1 U. S. Senate (62d Cong., 2d sess.), Committee on Education and Labor. Report No. 973 (to accompany
H. R. 22913), July 26, 1912.
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Monthly Labor Revieur—February 1938
The informational needs of workers and legislators specifically, and
the educational value of information gathered to fill those needs, were
also pointed out. Mr. Holder contended that “we should have a
department that would know absolutely at all times what we were
paying for commodities and what was being paid for labor.” He
reminded the Committee that “as legislators you are confronted with
the great problem of the cost of living,” and that, when “the question
of wages comes along in with the cost of living” there was a dearth
of up-to-date information. Moreover, “the productive value of
American labor in comparison with the productive value of labor in
other lands * * * is one of the things we really do not know”
and “is one of the facts that we want a department of this kind to
ascertain so that we will know what we are talking about.”
Another objective outlined at the hearing was that the Department
of Labor should become “one of the influences and one of the means by
which safety devices in factories could be studied and eventually
standardized. * * * We want to standardize factory safety de
vices,” Mr. Holder declared. “Our States are floundering around in
all kinds of ways, some making more headway than others.”
Another witness saw, as “one of the great benefits of a labor de
partment of this kind,” a medium to correct a condition by which “in
nearly all occupations, there is a considerable percentage of men out
of employment at all times.” A third discussed the improvement in the
condition of workers employed on Government contracts that would
follow if a Secretary of Labor, clothed with authority to investigate
infractions of laws dealing with Government regulations, were made
responsible for working conditions on Government work.
Development oj program.
In the quarter century that has passed since the Department of
Labor was founded, none of the objectives of its sponsors has been
wholly lost sight of. Some of them are determining factors in its
present and future program. The Conciliation Service, which grew
out of an activity undertaken as soon as the Department was estab
lished in 1913, has been continuously vigilant in the effort to promote
industrial peace. The Bureau of Labor Statistics pursues regular
studies whose aims are identical with those mentioned 28 years ago
as vital and which are today still vital. The Division of Labor Stand
ards, an administrative unit of the Department of Labor established
in 1934, is charged with stimulating and standardizing the safety and
health activities of State departments of labor. A Nation-wide em
ployment service directed and coordinated through the United States
Employment Service, a statutory unit of the Department of Labor
created in 1933, is of daily benefit to workers of all classes and occupa
tions who are out of work.
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305
Wages paid to building-trades men employed on Federal building
projects were protected by the “prevailing wage rate” law enacted by
Congress in 1931. In case of dispute as to what the prevailing wage
rates in building construction are, the Secretary of Labor is authorized
by the act to determine the rate in the locality where work is being
done for the Government and to make a decision binding upon all
parties. By legislative enactment in 1936 the Secretary of Labor was
given wider powers in relation to employment conditions under Gov
ernment contract for goods and services other than construction.
This function is discharged through the latest functional unit of the
Department, the Division of Public Contracts.
Working women were not represented in the hearings on the
Sulzer bill, and their specific needs were not stressed. But the need
and the value of specialized activities in their interest were demon
strated during the war. Accordingly, a demand arose for the con
tinuance of the functional unit of the emergency war organization in
the Department that was serving the needs of working women.
Responding to that demand, Congress enacted a law in 1920 creating
the Women’s Bureau as the fifth statutory unit of the Department
of Labor.
Governmental Labor Activities During the War
Department of Labor.
The early development of the Department of Labor was materially
affected first by war conditions in Europe and later by American
participation in the World War. The Department had been in
existence just 4 years when the United States entered the war. At
the close of the fiscal year 1918 the Secretary of Labor declared in
his annual report that “had the Department of Labor not existed
at the beginning of the war, Congress would have been obliged to
create such a department.” Coordination of industrial activity on
a war basis and the promulgation and maintenance of a national
labor policy were imperative. Labor problems became the problems
of the Government.
From a small agency consisting of four unrelated bureaus and the
Office of the Secretary, through which conciliation and mediation
activities were discharged, the Department evolved into a War Labor
Administration composed of 13 separate bureaus and services and
two functional boards. The War Labor Policies Board was created
to harmonize administrative labor relations in the various branches
of the Government concerned with production for war use. The
War Labor Board was formed as a court of last resort to provide for
the continuance of governmental intercession, after informal media
tion efforts had failed, in industrial disputes involving war produc
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tion or “other fields of national activity, delays and obstructions in
which might, in the opinion of the national board, affect detrimentally
such production.”
Other functional units of the War Labor Administration dealt
with the special problems, working conditions, and employment rela
tions of the great numbers of women recruited by industry to take
the places of the men called into military service; with the determina
tion and adoption of acceptable working conditions in the essential
industries; with emergency housing and transportation facilities for
Government employees and workers on Government contracts;
and with the recruiting, distribution, and short-term training of
labor.
United States Railroad Administration.
Outside the Department of Labor other governmental agencies
were set up to deal with emergency problems affecting workers. The
most important of^these agencies, at least from the viewpoint of their
measurable influence on postwar and present-day governmental
activity in the interest of the workers, were those created as an adjunct
to railroad operation under Government control. When shortly
after the United States entered the war, the railroads passed into the
control of the Government as represented by the United States
Railroad Administration, a division of labor was created under the
immediate direction of an administrator who had formerly been
president of one of the railroad brotherhoods. Adjustment machinery
was organized for each branch of railroad operation (train movement,
shop, and maintenance and communication) which consisted of bi
partisan boards representing management and'labor in each branch.
Procedure was largely that already in operation under collective
agreements between the railroads and their organized employees,
which provided for successive steps in the adjustment of controversies
from local machinery at the point of origin through designated chan
nels to the final adjustment boards. Under Federal control these
boards became governmental agencies and the proviso was added
that if they failed to reach a decision, final action was to lie with the
Director General of the Railroad Administration whose decision was
to be binding and enforceable. Special machinery was provided,
through an assistant director of the division of labor, to handle dis
putes and grievances of unorganized railroad employees.
A board of railroad wages and working conditions was created to
investigate and to hold hearings on complaints dealing with wages,
working rules, and other conditions imposed by the decrees of the
Railroad Administration. A women’s service section in the division
of labor was assigned the duty of carrying out decrees relating to the
working conditions of the women who, in large numbers, were taking
up wholly new lines of work in railroad operation. Among the policies
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established by decree were those of equal pay for equal work and
careful attention to the safety and health hazards involved in the
occupations which women were entering for the first time.
Other emergency labor agencies.
Machinery similar to that dealing with railroad operation was set
up in the United States Shipping Board for the adjustment of disputes
in shipping. The Emergency Construction Commission was organ
ized to handle labor affairs in the construction of army cantonments.
The Shipbuilding Labor Adjustment Board not only dealt with griev
ances and controversies of various kinds, but undertook to equalize
wage scales in the different shipbuilding centers, and to minimize labor
turn-over and the practice of ‘‘labor stealing” which threatened
production. Just before the armistice this board promulgated a wage
order granting substantial increases in wages on the basis of the ad
vance in the cost of living determined by a survey made at its request
by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Other wartime agencies which
were compelled to deal with wages as part of their function to keep
production moving attempted to equalize rates or maintain uniform
scales, to prevent workers from shifting from job to job to secure
higher wages and employers from offering extravagant wages to entice
workers away from other plants. The Emergency Construction
Commission ordered that union wages, hours of labor, and working
conditions prevailing in each locality under its jurisdiction should be
applied to all war construction jobs in that locality.
The record of achievement of all the emergency organizations hur
riedly created to meet a condition which Government never had had
to face before on so vast a scale was necessarily affected by the pres
sure and tension under which they functioned, and by the fact that
the oldest of them had been in operation less than a year when the
war ended. Some of them were scarcely organized before they were
discontinued. Nevertheless an entirely new tenet of governmental
responsibility toward the Nation’s producers had become generally
accepted, and much of the experience gained in dealing with the condi
tions produced by war was drawn on when the country again faced a
national crisis in the depression.
,
International Labor Conference 1919
One part of the treaty of peace that followed the war called for the
establishment of an international agency devoted to the correction of
conditions of labor in all countries that tended to produce industrial
and social unrest. It provided also that the organization of this
agency should take place at an initial meeting to be held in Washing
ton, D. C., in October 1919.
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This provision of the Versailles Treaty was acceded to and imple
mented by the Congress of the United States in a joint resolution
approved August 15, 1919, authorizing the President “to convene and
make arrangements for the organization of a general international
labor conference to be held in Washington, D. C.” The President
designated the Secretary of Labor as his representative in the discharge
of that obligation. The Secretary of Labor immediately sent a repre
sentative to London to work with representatives of foreign govern
ments in making arrangements and planning the program and pro
cedure for the first conference. Other representatives of the Depart
ment of Labor cooperated with the State Department in the adminis
trative details involved in preparing for the international gathering.
On October 29, 1919, the Secretary of Labor opened the first inter
national labor conference and was elected its president. In his open
ing address Secretary Wilson stressed the fact that “this institution,”
which became the International Labor Organization, “represents the
first concerted effort on the part of the nations of the earth to deal
with the problems of labor in a comprehensive manner.”
Formal establishment of the International Labor Organization,
membership in which was contingent upon ratification of the peace
treaties by individual nations, did not come about until later. As a
nonsignatory power, the United States did not, after the first confer
ence, continue its relations with the International Labor Organization.
By a later modification of the basis of membership, permitting nations
not signatories to the treaties nor members of the League of Nations
to join the International Labor Organization, the United States joined
in 1934, and, as stated by the Secretary of Labor in 1936, “as
sumed through the Department of Labor full responsibility of active
membership.”
Government and Industrial Relations
Outside the field of fact-finding the aspect of labor welfare that was
first recognized as an obligation of government was the maintenance
of industrial stability through intercession in labor disputes. Con
ciliation and mediation, and the promotion of voluntary arbitration
have continued to be major objectives of governmental labor pro
grams. Agencies for the purpose of bringing the weight and prestige
of the State to bear on disturbed industrial relations are numerous
and are steadily increasing in number and effectiveness.
As already pointed out, a conciliation service was organized within
the United States Department of Labor immediately after the De
partment was created. At the close of the first full year of operation
the Secretary of Labor stated in his second annual report (1914) that
“of all the functions of the Department of Labor which it is yet possible
to administer, this one may reasonably be regarded as the most im
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portant.” Throughout the 25 years of the Department’s existence
it has continuously placed at the disposal of workers, employers, and
the public, the impartial service of governmental representatives
equally concerned with safeguarding the rights of all three groups.
The Conciliation Service acts only upon the request of affected per
sons or groups. Its procedure is the simple one of bringing an un
biased viewpoint to bear upon the problem of accommodating con
flicting attitudes. But the fact that its work is constantly expand
ing in response to calls made upon it is evidence of the value of the
service it has, throughout its 25 years of endeavor, been able to per
form.
Similar service is available through the medium of State labor de
partments in most of the industrial States. On the whole the policy
of interceding only upon request is followed by the State agencies.
In some instances, however, the law requires that the State, through
its conciliation machinery, act at once to avert or to settle a strike.
Evidence of the steadily increasing importance and prestige of gov
ernmental intercession in labor disputes is found in the fact that
among recently created State labor departments the function of con
ciliation and mediation is written into the organic acts as being one
of the important reasons for their establishment. The effectiveness
of these agencies, both State and Federal, is indicated by the in
creasing numbers of cases, as shown by official reports, in which these
representatives of government have secured amicable adjustment of
differences before actual stoppage of work occurred.
The Conciliation Service of the Department of Labor and the
machinery of the various State departments function wherever need
arises except in fields covered by special agencies. Railroad operation
is one of these fields, and was in fact the first for which permanent
mediation machinery was devised. While several different forms
have been tried, the purpose of the Government agency is to provide a
medium to which recourse may be had after the adjustment machinery
contained in collective agreements has failed to bring about an under
standing between those directly involved.
Under the National Recovery Administration various mechanisms
for the adjustment of disputes in specific industries were set up. The
Automobile Labor Board, for example, handed down arbitral awards
in disputes in which both sides agreed to refer the case for a decision
which they would accept as binding.
Promotion of Collective Bargaining
A different technique for stabilizing industrial relations through
governmental intercession was developed under the N. R. A. That
was the device of employee elections to determine representation for
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collective bargaining purposes. While legislation declaring and in
effect guaranteeing the right of workers to organize and to enter into
negotiations with employers for the determination of their own work
ing conditions was part of the National Recovery Program of 1933-35,
the concept was not new. In 1918 the President’s Mediation Com
mission, of which the Secretary of Labor was chairman, in its report
to President Wilson declared that “since it is no longer possible to
conduct industry by dealing with employees as individuals,” some
form of “collective relationship between management and men is
indispensable. The recognition of this principle by the Government
should form an accepted part of the labor policy of the Nation.”
Fifteen years later the principle was not only accepted as a policy,
but administrative machinery was provided through the creation of
the National Labor Relations Board, the function of which is to pro
tect the rights of the workers to form and to hold membership in
a labor organization, and to assist them in securing a voice in the
determination of their working conditions “by encouraging the prac
tice and procedure of collective bargaining.” As in conciliation and
mediation, this example thus set by the Federal Government has
already been followed by five States.
Safety and Health
Leadership in the movement for the control and eventual elimination
of industrial accidents had been assumed by the United States Bureau
of Labor before the Department of Labor was created. The same
agency was among the first to direct popular attention to the health
hazards in industry by studying and making public the effect of proces
ses, practices, and substances entering into modern industry on the
health of workers. The Bureau of Labor under the former Depart
ment of Commerce and Labor, with the Bureau of Mines and the
Interstate Commerce Commission, represented the United States
Government at the conference out of which came the National Safety
Council, the organization engaged in Nation-wide accident-prevention
in industry as well as in the whole field of safety practices. Two
State governments, Wisconsin and Minnesota, were also represented.
Governmental responsibility for safe working conditions and the
prevention of industrial accidents rests primarily upon the inspection
staffs of State and Federal agencies charged with the enforcement
of safety laws. In State jurisdictions that duty is discharged by
departments of labor, departments of mines, and industrial boards
and commissions through their factory, mine, boiler, building, and
elevator inspectors. In States where accident prevention has ad
vanced to a high standard of efficiency, specially trained safety
engineers direct the work of the inspectors. Through the authority
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granted the State agency they are able to make rules and regulations
enforceable as law to meet changing conditions. Investigation by
State inspectors of accidents as they occur enables those responsible
for preventive action to determine causes and locate failures. With
this information scientific methods for accident prevention are
constantly being perfected and put in operation. Factory inspectors
and safety experts attached to State agencies are also active mediums
for spreading the gospel of safe practices and accident prevention in
the work places they visit, and the educational value of their work is
probably of far greater importance in reducing accidents and making
work safe than is the actual inspection to insure compliance with laws
and regulations.
Direct responsibility for safety and accident prevention by means
of inspection and law enforcement devolves upon the Federal Gov
ernment only with regard to interstate and ocean transportation.
Safe operation of railroads and motor carriers in the interest of em
ployees as well as the traveling public is a major obligation of the
Interstate Commerce Commission. The inspection work of the
Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation of the Department of
Commerce is directed toward safety at sea for workers as well as
travelers.
Much of the safety work of the Federal Government is, however,
educational and promotional. The research work of the Bureau of
Mines covers continuing studies of mine hazards and special investi
gation of accidents to determine immediate causes and contributing
factors. Its experimental work deals with ventilation and analysis
of explosives and mine equipment. Special educational activities
include conducting classes in first-aid and mine-rescue work through
out mining areas. The mine-rescue section of the Bureau is also an
active agent in handling and directing rescue work when mine dis
asters occur.
The Department of Labor, through its Division of Labor Standards,
is endeavoring to coordinate safety movements and to stimulate the
efforts of State labor agencies in the fields of industrial safety and
health. By disseminating the most scientific information available
as to technical methods of control, and by holding training classes
for the inspectors who are the point of direct contact between workers
and employers and the State agencies, the educational work of the
division is reaching a wide field.
Probably the greatest stimulus to reducing the accident hazard in
industry has come through the adoption of workmen’s compensation
laws, which assess industry for the social cost of accidents and provide
some measure of financial assistance to the injured worker and his
dependents. That movement has been so active in the past quarter
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century that while in 1913 only 17 States had adopted the principle of
compensation for industrial accidents, in 1938 industrial workers in
all but two States are protected by workmen’s compensation laws
administered by specialized governmental machinery.
The theory of compensation to cover occupational disease, which
was only partially accepted in the early compensation laws, is be
coming more widely recognized. Material assistance to the move
ment directed toward analysis and control of occupational-disease
hazards has come through the provision of the Social Security Act,
administered by the United States Public Health Service, which
makes available to States grants-in-aid for research and practical
experiment. Several State labor departments have in the past few
years greatly expanded their safety work to extend the same kind of
organized scientific prevention with which they have, during the past
25 years, attacked the accident hazard to the more sinister hazards of
occupational disease.
Employment and Unemployment
One purpose for which the Department of Labor was created, as
expressed in its organic act, was to advance the opportunities of
American wage earners for profitable employment. Placing a literal
construction upon that declared purpose, the Department has en
deavored, within its capacities, to bring together the worker who
needed a job and the job that needed to be filled. Throughout a large
part of the Department’s history that effort was made against heavy
odds. Inadequate appropriations and personnel drastically reduced
the extensive recruiting and placement machinery that had been set
up to meet war conditions. That machinery was called upon to
function during a period of great demand on one hand and labor short
age on the other. Thus, while it established placement as an accepted
governmental function it provided little in the way of guidance or
experience to apply when conditions were reversed.
The Secretary of Labor called a conference on employment which
met in April 1919, “to define and establish the most effective form of
relationship between National and State employment activities and in
general bring about a definite objective toward which all may work to
the end that a thorough and comprehensive public employment service
may be permanently established.” The plan adopted by this con
ference and approved by the Department of Labor outlined a system
of State employment offices maintained by State governments with
Federal financial aid on a matched-fund basis, to be coordinated and
directed through the United States Employment Service of the De
partment of Labor. The plan was embodied in a bill introduced into
the House of Representatives by Representative Nolan of California
and into the Senate by Senator Kenyon of Iowa.
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The bill, however, was never reported out of committee. The
United States Employment Service continued as a functional unit of
the Secretary’s Office, and did effective work in helping veterans to
find jobs, and in recruiting and obtaining transportation for harvest
workers. At the same time State employment services were function
ing in many States, with varying degrees of success. Practically
always poorly financed, State placement offices as a rule did little ex
cept in the fields of unskilled, casual, and dorpestic employment.
In 1933 Congress passed an act, popularly known as the WagnerPeyser Act, establishing a national system of public employment
offices on essen tially the same pattern as that proposed by the KenyonNolan bill of 1919. Its purpose was to establish and maintain a closely
knit, integrated system of employment offices operating on a Na
tion-wide scale, responsible and responsive to the United States Em
ployment Service created by the act as a bureau of the Department
of Labor. The United States Employment Service is charged with
the duty of developing minimum standards of efficiency, promoting
uniformity in administrative and statistical procedure and maintain
ing a system of clearance of labor. Formal acceptance of the system
and of the general direction of the central agency is required of each
cooperating State to become eligible to Federal grant.
At the close of the fiscal year 1937 all States had passed the legisla
tion necessary to formal identification with the N ational Employment
Service and the system was in operation in all but six. In addition
the United States Employment Service was maintaining special
placement facilities for veterans and farm laborers and was operating
a public employment center for the District of Columbia. The
Service is constantly searching for the best means by which to dis
charge its statutory obligation to develop standards of efficiency and
promote uniformity in administrative and statistical procedure
throughout the system. Research and experiment, using the employ
ment offices under its direct control as a laboratory, are the mediums
to that end. Personal contact between the central coordinating
agency and the State services is maintained through field representa
tives, conferences, and a publication devoted entirely to the service.
A more direct attack on employment was made through govern
mental agencies as part of the national recovery program. This was
the creation of employment through the Public Works Administration,
The Works Program, the Civilian Conservation Corps and the National
Youth Administration. These were emergency measures, adopted to
enable Government to find employment for workers who for the time
being had no place in industry or commerce. They not only furnished
employment to millions, but they were the means of enlarging the
educational, recreational, power, housing, and transportation facilities
of the Nation. From the workers’ viewpoint perhaps more important
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still, they made it possible for vast numbers who otherwise would
probably have remained idle, to retain or acquire needed occupational
skills. These opportunities were not limited to industrial workers;
rather they were extended to professional men and women of many
groups and to young persons who had never had the opportunity to
enter productive employment. The offices of the United States
Employment Service and the National Reemployment Service
assumed a great part of the enormous task of directing workers to
the projects undertaken through the national recovery program to
create employment.
Under the broad program looking toward permanent measures for
establishing economic stability embodied in the Social Security Act of
1935, a system of compensation for unemployment was set up. With
the development and complete functioning of that system, most Ameri
can workers will be insured against having to carry the whole financial
burden of unemployment, as heretofore they have had to do. This
system, like the employment office system, will operate through State
agencies supervised and to a great extent supported by a centralized
Federal agency, the Social Security Board. The United States Em
ployment Service cooperates with the Social Security Board in the
administration of the State unemployment compensation acts,
through the facilities of the State employment services.
Protection of Woman Workers
The first labor legislation in the United States aimed at a measure
of protection for women and children against long working hours and
against the exploitation of very young children. Since then, general
acceptance of the theory that guardianship of the welfare of women
and children is a necessary function of government in the interest of the
State has resulted in much legislative regulation of their working con
ditions. With great increase in the volume of labor laws to be admin
istered and enforced, the special needs of women and children were
more or less submerged. At the same time the number of women
employed in industry was increasing actually and relatively. The
findings of the extensive investigation of working conditions of women
and children made by the Bureau of Labor, then in the Department
of Commerce and Labor, in the years 1907-10, set in motion forces
that produced new regulatory legislation and strengthened the en
forcing machinery. Revelations of the low wages paid to working
women vitalized the minimum-wage movement, and by the end of the
year in which the Department of Labor was created, several States
had made preliminary surveys of wage conditions, through minimum
wage commissions, and nine States had enacted minimum-wage laws.
Great numbers of women became -wage earners during the war,
taking the places of the men formerly employed. Many of these had
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never been employed before. Their sudden entrance into an economic
situation unprepared in many ways to receive them brought with it
serious problems. The Department of Labor created in the Woman
in Industry Service of the War Labor Administration an agency whose
immediate function was to prevent the employment of women on war
work under deleterious conditions, and whose wider task was to
develop standards and policies that would make for acceptable work
ing conditions, and to study and advise upon the problems of women
in industry. The importance and permanent value of the work the
service was doing were such that a demand was voiced by organized
groups of women, with the support of the labor movement and the
Secretary of Labor, that it be made a permanent function of the
Department of Labor. In response to that demand, Congress created
the Women’s Bureau of the Department of Labor in 1920. Its
organic act outlines its functions as the formulation of standards
and policies “which shall promote the welfare of wage-earning women,
improve their working conditions, increase their efficiency, and advance
their opportunities for profitable employment.” It was authorized
to conduct investigations and surveys in connection with the standards
it was charged with formulating. In consequence the Women’s
Bureau has made both extensive and intensive study, from the view
point of women, of the varying social and economic factors affecting
the life, health, and welfare of working women.
Since the Federal Women’s Bureau was established several similar
State agencies have been formed. These in many cases operate
independently of the units enforcing legislation regulating women’s
work, as research and standard-making agencies. Cooperation
between these State agencies and the Federal Bureau is close and
helpful.
The 25 years of the Department’s existence coincided with the
period during which the checkered history of the minimum-wage move
ment was written. In 1913, nine States had enacted laws providing
for a basic minimum below which wages for women could not legally
fall. Within the next decade eight more States passed that type of
regulatory legislation. In some of these States agencies were created
to administer it. Several minimum-wage commissions, in each case a
component part of the State labor agency, successfully administered
the minimum-wage laws. In other States the administrative agency
called for in the law was either not established or it was given no
money with which to work. In still others no special enforcement ma
chinery was created. In 1923 a decision of the Supreme Court of
the United States declared that legislation making mandatory the
payment of a prescribed wage for adult workers was unconstitutional.
For the next 10 years the movement was moribund. Most States
either carried on sharply curtailed activities of a purely advisory or
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persuasive nature, or repealed their laws entirely. The movement
revived in 1933 under leadership in which State labor agencies were
prominent. A new type of law, devised to surmount the constitu
tional obstacle encountered by previous efforts to insure woman work
ers a living wage, was enacted by several States during 1933 and 1934,
and machinery was enacted to administer it. This law, too, met an
adverse decision by the Supreme Court and minimum-wage activities
were again at a standstill. Then a subsequent decision of the United
States Supreme Court, in 1937, reversed the decision of 1923, and
upheld the constitutionality of the older type of minimum-wage law,
which declared for adequate wages based on the cost of living as a
necessary protection of the life and health of women.
Since this latest pronouncement of the high court, machinery for
arriving at, establishing, and maintaining a wage rate below which
working women may not be paid has been either created or revived in
every State which has a minimum-wage law and progress in making
cost-of-living surveys and convening wage boards to determine wage
rates has been rapid. The Federal Women’s Bureau has assumed
leadership in the movement to establish comparable standards and
uniform methods of administration. In the setting up of standards for
determining what constitutes decent and healthful living and what
living actually costs, the Women’s Bureau has the cooperation of the
Bureau of Home Economics of the United States Department of
Agriculture and of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Regulation of Child Labor
During the quarter century, two efforts have been made to regulate
child labor under Federal law. The first of these was the Federal Child
Labor Act of 1916 administered by the Children’s Bureau of the De
partment of Labor. That law closed to interstate and foreign com
merce the product of any mine, quarry, or manufacturing establish
ment on which any child had oeen employed in violation of specific
terms of employment set up by the act. The law did not become
effective until one year after its passage. During that year the
Children’s Bureau and State labor departments were working to
create a coordinated, cooperative mechanism for enforcement of a
law that called for specialized administrative techniques. State
inspectors enforcing State child-labor laws were deputized by the
Federal agency, which however retained supervisory and directory
authority.
This law was declared unconstitutional about nine months after it
went into effect. The personnel used in its enforcement was retained
on similar inspection work on Government orders during the war.
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The second move toward Federal control of child labor was the imposi
tion of a special tax upon all goods manufactured or produced in
establishments in which children were employed in violation of
standards set by the act. Standards under which a child could be
employed were essentially the same as those embodied in the first
Federal Child Labor Act. This provision in the tax law was admin
istered by the child-labor tax division of the Bureau of Internal
Revenue, through inspection and an age-certification system in which
State labor agencies cooperated. This regulatory method lasted 4
years, 1918-22, and then met the same barrier of unconstitutionality
that had ended the previous effort at Federal regulation under the
first child-labor law, enforced by the Department of Labor.
Since the war, the activities of the Children’s Bureau, in their
specific application to working children, have been mainly of a
research, consultative, and educational character, directed toward
improvement of standards and administrative procedures. Many
agencies are involved in the administration of State child-labor laws.
Enforcement through inspection is the function of the State laboi
department in practically all States which make provision for central
administration. The issuance of employment certificates, which are
the basic mediums through which child labor is controlled is the prov
ince of State labor departments in some States, and of school
authorities in others. School officers have some responsibility for
enforcement in some jurisdictions and health officers in others. How
ever, the general trend, which has been clearly marked throughout
the past quarter century, is toward integrated administration of
child-labor laws through State labor departments, and toward the
creation of special units for research and education in the problem of
control and eventual elimination of child labor.
Immigrant Workers
Radical changes have occurred during the life of the Department of
Labor with regard to immigration, over which Federal law gives it
exclusive jurisdiction. During each of the first 2 years of the De
partment’s existence, over 1,400,000 aliens arrived in this country.
Problems of distribution and assimilation had become increasingly
acute. Immigration was abruptly and decisively checked by the
European War, and in 1915 fewer than a third of a million immigrants
entered the United States.
Before the war ended, the United States Congress had passed one
law, the Literacy Act of 1917, the effect of which was to check such
mass movements as had occurred before 1914. In 1924 the quota law
was passed, which imposed even greater restrictions. In consequence
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of rigid laws and world-wide depression, the volume of immigration
admitted in the recent past has been slight.
The carrying out of the new policy of selectivity, as opposed to the
traditional policy of almost unqualified welcome, has called for strict
enforcement and application of the law. Much of the routine work
connected with immigration under quota is done for the Department
of Labor at the point of origin by the consular offices of the State
Department. On the other hand, with bars at the ports of legitimate
entry, constant vigilance and greatly enlarged facilities at the borders
have been necessary to guard against illegal entry. Border patrolling
is now one of the most important functions of the Immigration Service.
Assimilation of our alien population has been materially simplified
by this check of the constant influx. Greater interest in citizenship is
evident in the demand for the Federal Textbook on Citizenship
Training published by the Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization,
and in the increased attendance at Americanization schools, especially
in the Americanization classes conducted under the Federal Emergency
Relief Administration and its successor, the Works Progress Ad
ministration.
The results of this movement are apparent in the increase in appli
cations for citizenship. As reported by the Bureau of Immigration
and Naturalization for the fiscal year 1937, the number of declarations
filed and certificates of naturalization issued during that year exceeded
the record of the preceding 6 years. While depression conditions and
certain policies militating against aliens have perhaps also been
operating to the same end, many aliens who have been in this country
for years without becoming naturalized are now seeking to change
their alien status to that of American citizenship.
Education and Training
From Colonial days governmental authorities of this country have
discharged the duty of providing for the education of its people. The
universal public school system of the United States is due very largely
to the organized, effective demands of American workers of a century
ago. Within the past quarter century a new need has been felt and
again in response to the demands of the workers, efforts have been
made to meet the need for vocational education and training toward
definite occupational ends. Leadership in this movement has been
assumed by the United States Government under an act of Congress
passed in 1917 (the Smith-Hughes law) which created a Federal Board
for Vocational Education. The administrative mechanism devised
to establish and maintain vocational training programs was in fact
the prototype of that later adopted under the Wagner-Peyser act to
establish a Nation-wide employment service. That is, it called for
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the organization of an administering agency within each State, subject
to State control, which would formally accept leadership and guidance
from the Federal Government in carrying out a program based on
minimum standards set by the central agency, for which the Federal
Government accepted a degree of financial obligation.
The objective of the Federal-State cooperative program under the
Smith-Hughes law and subsequent enactments is to provide oppor
tunity, through full-time, part-time, or evening classes for practical
and technical training related directly to earning a living, as con
trasted to the more formal academic education available through the
usual public school systems. The program is in operation in every
State, the Territory of Hawaii, and the District of Columbia. In some
jurisdictions highly organized and specialized agencies are carrying
out plans which far exceed, in scope and method, those fixed as mini
mum standards by the Federal agency. At the same time, the
maintenance of standards by the Government, through supervision
and financial assistance, assures to all students, even in less progressive
communities, opportunities within the limits set as basic.
The creation of opportunities for more specific occupational training
under approved labor standards for those desiring to become skilled
craftsmen by way of apprenticeship is the objective of the Federal
Committee on Apprentice Training which became a statutory unit
of the Department of Labor in 1937, after having been active since
1934 as an administrative agency. The work of the Committee is
solely promotional, advisory, and educational. It cooperates with
authoritative groups to secure the acceptance of a modernized appren
tice system in training craftsmen. The most highly developed method
of governmental stimulation of formal apprenticeship is that of the
Industrial Commission of Wisconsin, which is a party to all legal
indentures executed by apprentices and their employers. It super
vises the training and regulates the working conditions of all appren
tices entering into formal apprenticeship indentures throughout the
State. Laws similar to that of Wisconsin have been enacted recently
in other States, but in such States administrative systems have not
yet been perfected.
Training, reeducation, and rehabilitation of workers injured in
industrial or other accidents, or handicapped in any way, are an
additional function of the Government discharged through the Voca
tional Rehabilitation Division of the Office of Education and the Federal
Board for Vocational Education. This activity operates through the
same type of Federally aided State machinery as that for vocational
education. Restoration of earning capacity is the objective in the
case of disabled workers. This may be accomplished by providing
facilities for physical restoration, through treatment or appliances,
by the retraining of former skills or the development of new ones, or by
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assistance and guidance into avenues of self-employment. This
service, through Federal and State agencies, is the right of all persons
capable of rehabilitation. But the immensity of the undertaking and
the extent of the many human factors involved impose obstacles that
make the rehabilitation program one not easy of realization. Never
theless, in the 17 years that have followed the inauguration of the
work in 1920, thousands of workers have had their earning capacity
restored and have regained or acquired the hold upon economic sta
bility and personal happiness that accident, disease, or congenital
defect had endangered.
A broad program of adult education was carried on as an emergency
relief project through the Workers’ Education Bureau of the Federal
Works Progress Administration. It reached several million persons
and was the instrument through which nearly three-quarters of a
million adult men and women learned to write intelligibly and to
read newspapers understandingly. Cultural and practical subjects
have been made available to adult workers through study groups and
regular class work. Occupational training and opportunities for in
tensive study are offered to boys and young men enrolled in the Ci
vilian Conservation Corps. The aptitudes, needs, and interests of
each enrollee are determined by vocational counsellors, and education
programs are formulated to serve individual ends. The C. C. C.
has been the means of overcoming illiteracy for more than 50,000 boys,
and of completing interrupted school work and obtaining diplomas
for another large group. The Department of Labor has been instru
mental, as an officially designated cooperating agency, in supervising
the selection of young men for the C. C. C.
New Movements
The close of the quarter century finds under way new fields of
governmental activity in the interest of American workers. A farreaching project, affecting workers in all States, will reduce the slum
areas of the country and provide new homes and new housing stand
ards for large numbers. The most comprehensive effort yet under
taken is that provided by the Social Security Act which gives to the
majority of the wage earners of the United States a measure of pro
tection against indigent old age. By contributing to and building up
benefit rights based on their work and earnings, workers eligible to
old-age benefits will, upon retirement from active work after reaching
the age of 65, be assured of some income for the remainder of their
lives. A greater degree of care for the health of mothers and children,
especially in rural areas and districts affected by economic distress, has
been made possible through a cooperative plan between the States and
the Federal Government, through the Children’s Bureau of the De
partment of Labor. Federal aid is extended to States to assist in
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maintaining maternal and child-health services, child welfare pro
grams, and corrective treatment and care for crippled children.
The Department of Labor was given the opportunity, by the
Walsh-Healey Act of 1936 dealing with labor conditions in plants
working on Government contracts, to establish employment standards
enforceable under a law which the Department itself administers.
Within this limited field acceptable standards are being established
and maintained and minimum rates of pay determined. This latest
statutory function of the United States Department of Labor may
conceivably point the way whereby through laboratory methods and
the force of example, the basic obligation of the Department to
“foster, promote, and develop the welfare of the wage earners of the
United States” and “to improve their working conditions” may
advance to a greater degree of fulfillment than was achieved during
its first quarter century.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
WAGES, EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS, AND WELFARE
OF SUGAR-BEET LABORERS
By E lizabeth S. Johnson, Industrial Division, U. S. Children’s Bureau
PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT, in his message to Congress on proposed
sugar legislation on March 1 , 1937, said: “It is also highly desirable
to continue the policy, which was inherent in the Jones-Costigaii Act,
of effectuating the principle that an industry which desires the pro
tection afforded by a quota system or a tariff should be expected to
guarantee that it will be a good employer. I recommend, therefore,
that the prevention of child labor and the payment of wages of not
less than minimum standards be included among the conditions for
receiving a Federal payment.”
On September 1, 1937, the President approved legislation which
provided that benefits to growers of sugar beets and sugarcane are
payable by the Government if the growers, in addition to meeting
other conditions, do not employ any child labor in the production of the
crop and if they have paid all the employed workers in full and at
rates not less than those set by the Secretary of Agriculture as fair
and reasonable.1
Interest in the wage rates to be established under this legislation
makes timely a summary of pertinent data regarding the economic
position and welfare of workers in the sugar-beet fields. This article,
which assembles the findings of various Government inquiries, con
siders the conditions among the hired laborers who perform the hand
work in the sugar-beet fields. It does not discuss the work performed
by the sugar-beet growers themselves, the work performed by the
farm laborers hired by the beet growers for work in the beet fields
other than hand work, or any of the work of sugarcane growing.
Government Benefits to Growers
Conditions among hand laborers in the beet fields are characterized
by extremely low annual incomes obtained from intermittent periods
of intensive work of whole families, by a scarcity of supplementary
work during the off season, and by a widespread dependence of beet
workers upon public relief during the winter months. These condi
tions prevail in an industry which has been developed under tariff
protection and which has recently received assistance under the
quota, tax, and benefit programs of the Jones-Costigan Act of 1934 2
and of the Sugar Act of 1937. The framers of both of these acts
1 Public, No. 414, 75th Cong., 1st sess., ch. 898.
i Public, No. 213, 73d Cong.
322
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Employment Conditions—Sugar-Beet Laborers
323
recognized the desirability of making the payment of benefits to
growers conditional on the observance of certain standards with respect
to wages and the use of child labor. Since the immediate possibility
for improving the condition of sugar-beet workers is dependent to some
extent upon the administration of the benefits to growers, it seems
desirable to review briefly the benefit legislation of the Jones-Costigan
Act and of the Sugar Act of 1937.
The Jones-Costigan Act of 1934 provided for the establishment of
sugar quotas and marketing allotments, for a processing tax on sugar,
and for benefits to growers making production-adjustment contracts
for sugar beets with the Government. In providing for benefit
payments to growers under the production-adjustment contracts, the
act specified that these contracts might contain provisions regulating
child labor and fixing minimum wages. For the year 1935, before
provisions of the act were invalidated by the Supreme Court, childlabor provisions were made effective for the United States as a whole
and minimum-wage rates were fixed for certain areas.
In 1934 under the Jones-Costigan Act the Government benefit
payment (at the rate of $1.75 per ton of beets) was $17.15 per acre for
a crop of average yield in the United States as a whole (9.8 tons per
acre).3 It is of interest to note that in that year the average earnings
of 664 families who were included in the Children’s Bureau survey
of 1935 4 and who reported their beet earnings per acre for 1934, were
$16.40 per acre. In 1935, the Government benefit payment (at the
rate of $1.13 per ton of beets) was $11.75 per acre of average yield
in the United States (10.4 tons per acre).5
The Sugar Act of 1937, enacted after the invalidation of provisions
of the Jones-Costigan Act by the Supreme Court, provides for a
sugar-quota program, for a processing tax on sugar, and for conditional
benefits to growers of sugar beets. The benefits are payable to a
grower under the following conditions : He shall have observed certain
soil-conservation practices; he shall have produced sugar beets not
in excess of the proportionate share assigned to his farm; and he shall
have observed certain standards relating to child labor and to wages.
A benefit rate of 60 cents for every 100 pounds of sugar commercially
recoverable from sugar beets is provided for sugar-beet growers by
3 For rate of benefit see Agricultural Adjustment Administration press release of July 12, 1935.
4 Report in preparation. This is a survey of conditions among families of sugar-beet laborers, based on
interviews with 946 such families in 10 beet-growing areas: Central Michigan, southern Michigan; southern
Minnesota; northern Colorado; Arkansas Valley, Colo.; Western Slope, Colo.; western Nebraska; northern
Wyoming; southern Montana; and Sidney, Mont. Each family included had at least one child under 16
years of age and had done hand work in sugar-beet fields in 1935. The heads of most of the families(81
percent) had a contractual agreement with a beet grower for the performance of the work, some (17 percent)
worked on an acreage basis as extra help with other families having a contract with a grower, and a very
few (2 percent) worked at hand labor in the beet fields as day laborers hired either by contract laborers or
directly by growers.
* For rate of benefit see Agricultural Adjustment Administration press release of October 1,1936.
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the act, except that a reduced rate of benefits on a graduated scale is
provided for growers from whose beets more than 500 short tons of
sugar is commercially recoverable (roughly equivalent to production
from 300 acres of beets). This benefit payment at the 60-cent rate
amounts to $19.42 an acre for a yield of 10.9 tons of beets per acre
and a recovery of 297 pounds of sugar per ton of beets—the average
yield and the average recovery for the United States during the 5-year
period 1931 to 1935. Additional benefits to growers are also provided
by this act in the form of crop insurance in case the acreage planted
in beets is abandoned or in case the yield per acre harvested is less
than 80 percent of the normal yield for the farm.
The establishment of minimum wage rates in connection with con
ditional benefit payments to growers is provided for by the Sugar Act
of 1937 in the following language:
That all persons employed on the farm in the production, cultivation, or har
vesting of sugar beets or sugarcane with respect to which an application for pay
ment is made shall have been paid * * * wages therefor at rates not less
than those that may be determined by the Secretary [of Agriculture] to be fair
and reasonable after investigation and due notice and opportunity for public
hearing; and in making such determinations the Secretary shall take into consider
ation the standards therefor formerly established by him under the Agricultural
Adjustment Act, as amended, and the differences in conditions among various
producing areas.6
The criteria for establishing minimum-wage rates that were formu
lated by the Secretary of Agriculture under the Jones-Costigan amend
ment to the Agricultural Adjustment Act are those set forth in the
production-adjustment contracts for sugar beets as follows:
The Secretary [of Agriculture] shall have the authority (l) after due notice and
opportunity for public hearing at a place accessible to producers and workers in
volved and (2) on the basis of a fair and equitable division among processors, pro
ducers, and workers of the proceeds derived from the growing and marketing of
sugar beets, and the products thereof, to establish minimum wages for this factory
district to be paid by producers to workers * * *.7
The Industry
Sugar beets are a cash crop raised for the most part by farmers
under contract with sugar-manufacturing companies. The beet
raising localities extend from Ohio to California and are concentrated
near the 87 beet-sugar factories in the United States. Colorado
produces tho largest amount of sugar beets, and California and Michi
gan produce the next largest amounts. About three-fourths of the
sugar-beet acreage is in irrigated areas. The 87 beet-sugar factories
are operated by 27 sugar-manufacturing companies. In 1936 these
« Public, No. 414, 75th Cong., 1st sess., ch. 898, sec. 301 (b).
7 Sugar beet production adjustment contract (Form Sugar 3), approved October 16, 1934, p. 2.
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Employment Conditions—Sugar-Beet Laborers
325
factories were supplied with sugar beets by approximately 75,000
growers who harvested 785,000 acres of beets, an average of about 10
acres per grower.
So great are the labor requirements of beet-raising that hand labor
on approximately three-fourths of the acreage is performed by con
tract laborers, in spite of the small average acreage per grower. The
total number of beet laborers working under contracts in 1933 was
estimated to be 110,354.8 The hand labor on the remaining fourth
of the sugar-beet acreage was done by beet growers aided by members
of their families, and in some cases by laborers hired by the day.
All of the hand labor in the beet fields must be concentrated in
brief periods scattered over 6 or 7 months of the year. Hand labor
is used first for thinning the young plants that come up very thickly
from seed planted in rows, then for hoeing and weeding the plants
after thinning, and finally for pulling and topping the beets at harvest
time. There are two periods of 3 to 5 weeks in which most of the
hand work is concentrated, one usually in the latter part of May and
the first of June for thinning, and one usually in October and the
first of November for the harvesting operations.9 Hoeing and weed
ing are done one, two, or three times during the summer. The thin
ning work must be done before the plants become too large and crowded.
The topping work is telescoped into a few weeks in order that the
beets may remain in the ground as long as possible to secure the maxi
mum sugar content and yet be harvested before they are frozen into
the ground. This need for a large amount of labor at scattered, brief
periods has given rise to the practice of hiring special workers who
perform only the hand-labor operations on the crop.
The sugar-beet workers in the United States are largely Spanish
speaking people of either American or Mexican birth. The second
largest racial group is the Russian-German, which comprised 22 percent
of all the heads of beet laborers’ families included in a survey by the
United States Children’s Bureau in 1935. Other American-born
adults rarely contract to do the hand work in the beet fields, however
much they may be in need of employment, partly because the social
status of beet laborers is low and partly because they are unaccus
tomed to the very fatiguing work, much of which is done in a stooping
posture.
The Labor-Contract System
The use of seasonal contracts for the hiring of the hand labor is a
distinctive feature of the sugar-beet industry. This labor contract
is made between the beet grower and the worker after the grower
has made a contract with the processor for the raising and selling of
•A bbott, W. Lewis: Report for the Committee on Labor Conditions in the Growing of Sugar Beets,
Washington, 1934, p. iii. (Mimeographed.)
• In California, these operations are performed earlier in the year.
39873—38------3
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the crop. The employment status of beet workers is thus governed
by a triangular relationship between the laborer, the grower, and the
sugar company. Although the labor contract itself is an agreement
between the grower and the hired worker, its terms are dependent
in various ways, direct and indirect, upon the grower’s agreement
with the sugar company.
The labor contract itself specifies the acreage on which the hand
work is to be performed, the manner in which the work shall be
done, whether housing is to be provided, and the rate of wages per
acre which is to be paid. It also usually specifies the time of payment
in relation to the completion of each process of cultivation (in most
instances, three installments during the year), the conditions under
which store credit may be guaranteed for the worker while waiting
for the payment of his wages, and the portion of earnings for summer
work to be withheld until the harvest is completed ($1 to $2 an acre).
Usually this contract authorizes the grower to hire extra help to be
paid for by the contracting worker and specifies the manner of settling
disputes and the basis of settlement in case the contracted work is
not carried through to completion.
Specific provisions of labor contracts for each district in any given
year are usually embodied in a printed form drawn up either by the
sugar company which operates in that district or by an association
of the beet growers of the district. The provisions of the printed
labor contract become the general pattern of labor relations in each
district, even though the individual worker may be hired under an
oral agreement in place of a signed contract.
The sugar-manufacturing companies, although not legally responsible
for the wages, employment, or social conditions of the beet laborers,
are involved in the labor conditions and labor relations of the industry
in numerous ways. The company, rather than the grower, recruits
beet workers to be hired by the growers and may finance the cost of
their long-distance transportation. It refers beet workers resident
in the locality to the growers who do not find their own workers
independently. The company decides when the grower shall permit
the laborer to start work at each operation and whether the grower
may or should require the hiring of additional labor to speed up the
work on the acreage contracted by the original laborer. In case of
dispute between the contracting laborer and the grower, the sugar
company’s field agent may assume the role of arbiter, either by con
tractual arrangement or by the force of circumstances. In many
localities the sugar company provides dwellings in which beet workers
may live the year round.
Important in determining the terms of the labor contract is the
prior contract between the processing company and the grower. The
price which the company agrees to pay the grower for beets sets a
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Employment Conditions—Sugar-Beet Laborers
327
limit upon the wage which the grower can afford to pay the contract
laborer. For this reason the beet laborers’ union is asking that the
wage rate for 1938 be agreed upon before the processors and the
growers fix the price for the 1938 crop.10 The desirability of estab
lishing the proper wage rate for beet labor prior to the drawing up of
contracts fixing the price to be paid by the processor for the season’s
beet crop, was emphasized by the Industrial Commission of Colorado
which recommended in the spring of 1937 :
That the price of beet-field labor should be determined or given consideration
prior to the time of the establishment of the price for the sale of sugar beets.
The price of beet-field labor should be one of the determining factors in the
establishment of a price for the sale of beets. * * * 11
The principal advantage to the industry of the labor-contract
system is the assurance of a sufficient supply of hand labor during
the growing and harvesting period. However, by favoring the use
of family labor and of a wage level based on family labor, the contract
system has given rise to many of the serious problems which face
the sugar-beet workers. The father of a family who contracts for
beet work often counts on using the labor of his wife and children in
order to earn as much as possible during the short working season.
The recruiting practices of the sugar-manufacturing companies have
encouraged the use of family labor. Even in 1937, one sugar com
pany of the Mountain States pointed out in a handbill addressed to
prospective workers that ‘‘work in beets is very convenient for families
for the reason that they do not have to depend solely upon the wages
of the father, inasmuch as all members 14 years old and over are
able to take part in the work.” 12 The practice of making contracts
with the heads of families is characteristic of the sugar-beet industry
in Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana and in the beet-growing States
to the East. Solo or gang labor of unattached men is more usual in
California and Idaho. Members of the growers’ own families for
the most part perform the hand work on the beet crop of Utah.
The labor-contract system, as it is applied to family labor, is
typically one in which the members of one family perform all the work
on one labor contract, but in many instances the group working under
a contract includes relatives and friends of the contractor’s family,
and sometimes strangers, who share in the wages for the work. Of
the 918 families of beet laborers in the Children’s Bureau survey of
10 In the matter of a hearing (Sugar Hearing 2) before the Secretary of Agriculture w ith respect to wage
rates for persons employed in the production, cultivation, or harvesting of the 1937 sugar-beet crop, in the
session held in Denver, Colo., October 14, 1937, pp. 60-62; in the session held in Billings, M ont., October
25, 1937, pp. 197-201.
» Recommendations by the Industrial Commission of Colorado in the matter of C o l o r a d o C o n f e r e n c e o f
B e e t F i e l d a n d A g r i c u l t u r a l W o r k e r s U n i o n s , e m p l o y e e s , v. T h e G r e a t W e s t e r n S u g a r C o . a n d th e S u g a r B e e t
G r o w e r s o f t h e S t a t e o f C o l o r a d o , e m p l o y e r s , M ay 7, 1937, p. 2.
iJ In the matter of a hearing (Sugar Hearing 2) before the Secretary of Agriculture w ith respect to wage
rates for persons employed in the production, cultivation, or harvesting of the 1937 sugar-beet crop, in the
session held in Scottsbluffs, Nebr., October 21, 1937, pp. 27-29.
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Monthly Lahor Review—February 1938
1935 reporting on the use of extra help, 38 percent had paid persons
outside the immediate family living as a household unit for doing
part of the work for which the family had been paid wages under a
labor contract. This extra help included all the persons working
with the family throughout a process and also the extra help drawn
in to speed up the work at the end. The largest number of persons
outside the immediate family who were hired at any one time by one
family averaged 2.9 for the families using extra help in 1935.
Child Labor and School Attendance
The work of young children has long been characteristic of the
contract system for sugar-beet labor where family groups are used
and continues to be a factor in the problems of beet labor. In 1920
the majority even of the 8- and 9-year old children in beet workers’
families worked in the beet fields, according to a survey made in that
year by the United States Children’s Bureau, which was based on
families where children under 16 or mothers of young children worked
in the beet fields.13
Another survey of beet laborers’ families made by the Children’s
Bureau in 1935 showed that children under 14 years of age were still
to be found at work in the beet fields, although the proportion was
markedly smaller than in the earlier period. In this survey it was
found that 9 percent of the children 6 to 11 years of age and 50 percent
of those 12 and 13 years of age in sugar-beet laborers’ families worked
in the beet fields.14
The decrease in the use of young children is due in large part to
child-labor standards which were made effective in 1935 for the first
time under the Jones-Costigan Act. Under this act the productionadjustment contracts for sugar beets provided that no children under
14 years of age should be employed in beet-field labor and that no
children between 14 and 16 years should be permitted to work longer
than 8 hours a day, exception being made, however, in both cases for
children in growers’ families working on their parents’ own farms.10
It is customary for the children in the beet fields to work for very
long hours at strenuous labor. According to the Children’s Bureau
1935 survey, about half of the child workers under 14 years of age as
well as those 14 or 15 years of age were reported by their parents to
be working in the beet fields usually for 9 or more hours a day. This
long workday was common despite the 8-hour provision in the pro
duction-control contracts under the Jones-Costigan Act.
13 U. S. Children’s Bureau Publication No. 115: Child Labor and the Work of Mothers in the Beet Fields
of Colorado and Michigan, Washington, 1923, pp. 12, 34, 94. (Included owner and tenant families doing
hand labor in the beet fields as well as families of laborers.)
11 U. S. Children’s Bureau. Mimeographed statement, March 28, 1937, p. 1. Washington, 1937.
15 U. S. Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Adjustment Administration. Sugar-beet production
adjustment contract (Form Sugar 3), approved October 16, 1934. Washington, 1934.
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Employment Conditions—Sugar-Beet Laborers
329
The improvement with respect to child labor that was made under
the Jones-Costigan Act was achieved by warnings to growers regarding
the terms of the child-labor standards in the production-adjustment
contracts and by reliance on complaints of violation of these terms.
No systematic provisions for obtaining evidence of age for children or
inspecting beet fields for child labor during the working periods had
been developed before the labor provisions of the Jones-Costigan Act
were invalidated.
Reports from observers indicate that many young children worked
in the beet fields in 1936 and that very probably there was an increase
over 1935.16 Since September 1, 1937, when the Sugar Act of 1937
became effective, growers have been informed of its child-labor
provisions.
The work of young children in the beet fields is a matter of great
concern not only because of the physical tax on the children at work
and because of its depressing effect on wage rates, but also because of
its interference with school attendance and educational progress.
The Children’s Bureau survey of 1935 reported enrollment and school
absence during the school year 1934-35 for children in families who
did beet work both in 1934 and in 1935. It was found not only that
the children who topped beets were out of school during the harvest
period but also that many children did not enter school for the few
weeks in September before topping work began. Likewise, in some
localities it was found that the same children had lost several weeks
of school in the spring before the close of the term on account of work
in the beet fields. During the school year 1934-35, 90 percent of the
children between 6 and 16 years of age had enrolled in school and of
those that were enrolled more than half were absent in the spring,
or the fall, or both, on account of their own work in the beet fields
or that of their families. Of the children under 16 years of age who
missed school because of their own work in the beet fields or that of
their families, more than one-fourth were absent for 45 or more school
days, and the majority were absent for at least 25 school days, counting
only absences attributed to their own work or that of their families.
The longer periods of school absence were found to be more frequent,
naturally, among the children in families that migrated to obtain work
in the beet fields. It has been reported that in areas in New Mexico
from which families are recruited for beet-field labor the number of
pupils in attendance at school drops off 50 percent during the months
The American Child, September 1936, p. 1: The Beet Fields Revisited, by Charles E. Gibbons. See
also Recommendations by Industrial Commission of Colorado in the matter of C o lo r a d o C o n f e r e n c e o f B e e t
F i e l d a n d A g r i c u l t u r a l W o r k e r s U n i o n s , e m p l o y e e s , v. T h e G r e a t W e s t e r n S u g a r C o . , a n d T h e S u g a r B e e t
G r o w e r s o f t h e S t a t e o f C o l o r a d o , e m p l o y e r s , M ay 7, 1937, p. 1; File No. 2684. Also confirmed by a field
survey in Colorado conducted in 1937 by the Works Progress Administration.
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330
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
of September, October, and November and again during the latter part
of May and in June.17
The children of beet laborers, handicapped by extended absence
from school, frequently fail of promotion in their school grades. The
Children’s Bureau survey of 1935 found that more than half of the
children between 10 and 16 years of age who had worked in the beet
fields in 1934 were retarded one or more grades. A fifth of these
children were retarded three or more grades.18 A study of beet
workers on relief in Weld County, which is located in northern Colo
rado, showed that, among the children 14 and 15 years of age in the
families surveyed, half had completed no more than the fifth school
grade, and that among all persons 16 years of age and over, barely
half had completed more than the third grade.19 The Children’s
Bureau 1935 survey found that many parents whose young children
were working in the beet fields and missing school did not want their
children to work in the beet fields, but they felt that it was necessary
to have the children’s help in order that the family might handle as
many acres and thereby earn as much money as possible.
Acreage and Duration of Work
The number of acres that a family or an individual worker can
handle in a season is a major factor limiting the earnings of beet
workers. In 1933 the average amount handled per contract worker
was estimated at 6.94 acres, on the basis of reports from sugar com
panies to the United States Tariff Commission.20 An average of 7.9
acres per worker for the thinning process is shown by the Children’s
Bureau 1935 survey for 1,485 family members who worked full time
while the family group had work in the beet fields.
The condition of each local labor market as well as local conditions
of soil and climate appear to govern the average number of acres
handled by an individual worker. The Children’s Bureau figures for
1935 for family members, referred to above, show average acreages
for the thinning process ranging from 5.3 per worker in the Arkansas
Valley and Western Slope, Colo., to 12.6 per worker in southern
1? Report of Proceedings of Regional Sugar Beet Conference, Denver, Colo., March 19 and 20, 1937, held
by representatives of the Works Progress Administration, the U. S. Employment Service, the Colorado
State Department of Public Welfare, with representatives of sugar companies, growers, and labor organiza
tions, p. 16. Denver, Works Progress Administration, 1937. (Mimeographed.)
i* U. S. Children’s Bureau. Mimeographed statement, March 28, 1937, p. 2. Washington, 1937.
19 Colorado State Agricultural Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colo., and Rural Section, Division of
Social Research, Federal Works Progress Administration. Research Bulletin No. 4; Beet Workers on
Relief in Weld County, Colorado, by Olaf F. Larson. Washington, M ay 1937, pp. 18,19. (Mimeographed.)
so Abbott, W. Lewis: Report for the Committee on Labor Conditions in the Growing of Sugar Beets,
Washington, 1934, p. 8. (Mimeographed.)
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Employment Conditions—Sugar-Beet Laborers
331
Michigan. The area averages reported by the Children’s Bureau
survey in 1935 show the following variations:
A c r e s th in n e d p e r
f u ll- tim e w o rk e r
i
All areas________________ _______ 7.9
Arkansas Valley, Colo_____________
Western Slope, Colo_______________
Northern Colorado________________
Southern Montana________________
Sidney, Mont_____________________
Northern Wyoming________________
Central Michigan__________________
Southern Minnesota_______________
Western Nebraska_________________
Southern Michigan________________
5.
5.
6.
6.
7.
8.
8.
8.
8.
12.
3
3
7
9
9
3
5
8
8
6
1
Based on the number of family members working full time, that is, the number working usually for
at least 7 hours a day and on approximately as many days as any member of the family had work. The
figures on acres handled at other processes vary slightly from these figures for the thinning process, because
the total amount of work obtained by each family was often different at the different processes. Acreages
for the hoeing process average, for those workers doing hoeing work, somewhat higher than acreages for
thinning and for topping, because fewer persons are engaged in the hoeing process.
The long growing season in southern Michigan made possible the
handling of relatively large acreages per worker in that area. How
ever, it is also significant that southern Michigan was the only area
surveyed in which the sugar-beet laborers had a collective agreement
with the beet growers and some control over the number of beet
workers to be hired. At the opposite extreme, the southern Colorado
area, for which the lowest average acreage per worker was reported,
had a very abundant supply of experienced beet laborers.
There are also great variations from area to area in the number of
days that beet workers are engaged at their labor in the beet fields
that closely parallel the variations in the number of acres worked.
The Children’s Bureau survey reports total days worked during the
1935 beet season by the fathers of 405 families in Michigan, Minne
sota, Montana, and Wyoming. A fourth of the fathers of these fami
lies worked in the beet fields for fewer than 40 days in the year. The
average (median) number of days worked by these 405 fathers was 56.
In every area for which this information was obtained there were some
families doing beet work at least 70 days in the year. Total working
days of 80 to 100 for the season were reported not infrequently for
Michigan and Minnesota, although such duration of work was found to
occur very rarely for the beet region of the Mountain States. It
should be noted that these figures from the Children’s Bureau 1935
survey do not include California, where work at the hand-labor
processes is reported to be done during more weeks in the year than
in other regions.
The acreage of beet work handled, considered on a family basis,
depends not only on the availability of work but also on the number of
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workers in the family. The Children’s Bureau study shows that half
of the 746 families reporting the acreage of beets thinned in 1935
handled less than 18 acres per family. The percentage distribution
of these families by total acreage thinned was as follows:
P ercen t
Less than 10 acres_________________
10, but less than 20 acres___________
20, but less than 30 acres___________
30 acres and more_________________
21
35
19
25
The average number of persons 14 years of age and over per family
who worked in the beet fields, as found by the Children’s Bureau 1935
survey, was 2.7, although each person did not in every case work at all
processes for which the family had beet work; the average number, in
cluding workers under 14 years of age, was 3.0 beet workers per family.
Relevant to any consideration of the length of the working season
and its relation to beet earnings is the extremely long working day
characteristic of beet labor. For thinning and topping work when the
pressure is greatest, working hours, as reported for 1935 by families
included in the Children’s Bureau study, were at least 12 a day for half
of the fathers of the families at thinning time and at least 11 hours
a day for half of them at topping time. The working week was 6 and
sometimes 7 days. The great pressure and long hours arise from a
desire of the laborers to earn as much as possible in the short working
periods and are accentuated by the fear that the grower may decide
that it is necessary to hire extra help to finish the work on the acreage
for which the laborer has the contract, and thereby reduce the laborer’s
net earnings.
W age Rates
Wages for contract beet labor are paid according to acreage worked.
The basis is usually a fixed amount per acre for the thinning and hoeing
work and a sliding scale for the topping work depending on yield, with
or without a guaranteed minimum per acre for the topping. The 1937
labor-contract form issued by the Mountain States Beet Growers
Marketing Association and generally used in northern Colorado, the
largest concentrated beet-growing area, provided a basic wage'rate
of $20.50 22 an acre, made up as follows:
P e r a cre
For
For
For
For
blocking and thinning__________ $8. 00
hoeing________________________ 1. 75
weeding_______________________ 1. 25
pulling and topping____________1 9. 50
1 Up to and Including 12 tons per acre harvested; and 65 cents for each additional ton harvested in excess of
12 tons per acre.
22 An alternative option offered in this contract form for the year 1937 was a minimum basic rate of $19.50
to be increased to a point equal to the total price received by the grower for 3 tons of sugar beets, including
United States Government benefits other than soil-conservation payments, if this amounted to more than
$19.50 per acre. This contract form also provided that the basic rate might also be reduced by $1 an acre if
the fields were mechanically blocked.
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Employment Conditions—Sugar-Beet Laborers
333
Wages for beet labor vary from area to area. There is a definite
tendency for wage rates to be higher in northern Wyoming and
southern Montana than in northern Colorado and western Nebraska,
and for rates in northern Colorado to be higher than in southern
Colorado. In 1937 the basic rate per acre for a normal yield of 12
tons was $23 in northern Wyoming and southern Montana, and
$20.50 in northern Colorado and western Nebraska; and for a normal
yield of 10 tons it was $18.10 for the Arkansas Valley, Colo. This
tendency for wage rates to be lower toward the South parallels a
difference in relative abundance of the supply of resident beet laborers,
the lower wage rates being paid where the labor supply is more
plentiful, and to some extent parallels a difference in average sugar
production per acre of beets. Wage rates per acre tend to be lower
in the unirrigated eastern beet region than in the western irrigated
areas where yields tend to be higher. A wage rate often used in central
Michigan in 1937 for a normal yield of 8 tons was $17 per acre. Al
though no single wage-rate figure can be given for California that is
representative of the State as a whole, available data for 1937 indi
cate that the prevailing wage in an important beet-growing district
in northern California was $21.42 an acre for a normal yield of 12
tons and that the prevailing wage in an important beet-growing
district in the southern part of the State was $17.95 for a normal
yield of 11 tons. Prevailing wages, as they are indicated by the
printed labor-contract forms issued by associations of growers or by
sugar companies, are shown in the accompanying table for certain
important producing areas for the 3 years 1935, 1936, and 1937.
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Prevailing Wage Rates for Hand Labor in Sugar-Beet Fields in Selected Producing Areas
in 1935, 1936, and 1937
Producing area, and year
Central Michigan:
1935.________ __________________
1936_______ _______ ____________
1937____________________ _____
Southern Michigan and Ohio:
1935__________ ____ ______ ______
1936.__________________________
1937____________________________
Southern Minnesota:
1935____________________________
1936_____________________ ______
1937.......................... — ____ _______
Northern Colorado and western N e
braska:
1935..____ _____ ____________ _
1936____________________________
1937____________________________
Arkansas Valley, Colorado:
1935__________________ _________
1936___________________________
1937___________________________
Northern Wyoming and southern
Montana:
1935____________________________
1936____________________________
1937____________________________
Northern California: 1937........ ...........
Southern California: 1937. _________
Normal
Prevailing rate of wages per acre 1 for—
yield
(in short
Pulling and topping
tons)
All
Block
per
Rate per ton
ing,
acre, processes
Rate
Minifor
thin
assumed
for
mum
assumed ning,
for
Up
to
Above
assumed guaran assumed
normal
and
rate
assumed
teed
yield
hoeing normal
making
normal
normal
rate
yield
yield
purposes
yield
8
8
8
(6)
$15.00
a 16.00
17.00
$7.50
(4)
10. 00
$7.50
(4)
7.00
$7.50
(4)
6.00
(2)
(4)
5 $1. 00
19. 00
17.20
18.00
10.00
10.00
10. 00
9.00
7. 20
8.00
9.00
5.00
8.00
(6)
.90
1.00
10.00
12.00
7 12. 50
5. 00
6. 00
6.00
5.00
6.00
4.00
(3)
(2)
(8)
.60
.75
8.75
(9)
(9)
9. 50
.75
.75
(12)
.60
.60
.65
(9)
(9)
(9)
.75
.625
>4. 70
.60
is. 50
H.60
(9)
(9)
(9)
6.30
7.50
.75
.75
.80
15.91
15.95
.60
.60
.80
15. 91
15. 95
8
8
8
8
8
15.'00
7 18. 00
7 18. 50
1
12
12
12
19.50
7 19. 50
7 20.50
10
10
44 10
12
12
12
15 12
15 i x
7
7
10. 50
7 10. 50
11.00
11
9.00
9.00
9. 50
17.50
16.25
18.10
10.00
10. 00
11.00
14
7.50
6. 25
7.10
21.50
7 21. 50
7 23.00
is 21.42
15 17.95
12.50
7 12. 50
7 13.40
10. 50
7.50
10
9.00
9.00
9. 60
J510. 92
>5 10.45
11
$1.00
(*)
5 1.00
(»)
.90
1.00
1 The 1935 wage rates given for northern Colorado and western Nebraska, for northern Wyoming and
southern Montana, and for Arkansas Valley, Colo., are the minimum rates which were established by the
Secretary of Agriculture under the Jones-Costigan Act, and are specified in the labor-contract forms used in
these areas in 1935. The wage rates for southern Michigan and Ohio in 1935 are those provided in the agree
ment between the beet laborers’ union and the growers’ association in that year. The other figures given
are the wage rates provided in the suggested labor-contract forms prepared by the growers’ association or
the sugar company dominant in the area. The figures given for Michigan are the rates stated in the con
tract form printed by the leading company of the area; the prevailing wage rates in a number of the factory
districts in central Michigan vary somewhat from the figures given. For northern and for southern
California the figures given are those for 1 large factory district in the northern and 1 in the southern part
of the State; available data do not indicate to what extent these figures are typical for northern or for
southern California.
2 No tonnage rate, because there was a guaranteed minimum rate per acre for the assumed normal yield.
3 Based on informal reports.
4 No information available.
6 $6 per acre for yields of 7 or fewer tons per acre, plus $1 per additional ton up to 12 tons per acre, plus
50 cents per additional ton above 12 tons per acre.
* No assumed normal yield and no tonnage rate, because a fixed wage was paid for topping regardless of
the yield.
7 A reduction of $1 per acre was provided in the rate for summer work (blocking, thinning, and hoeing)
in mechanically blocked fields, except in Minnesota and in some localities in Wyoming. In Minnesota
reductions of more than $1 were provided, and in 1936 and 1937 the labor contract in certain localities in
Wyoming stated that there should be no reduction from the prevailing wage rate because of mechanical
blocking.
s $4 per acre for yields of 4 or fewer tons per acre, plus 50 cents per additional ton up to 8 tons per acre,
plus 75 cents per additional ton above 8 tons per acre, with a maximum rate of $9 per acre.
« No minimum guaranteed rate.
Figures apply only to northern Colorado. In western Nebraska for blocking, thinning, and hoeing
the rate was $11.50 per acre; for topping 75 cents per ton up to 12 tons per acre, plus 65 cents per ton above
12 tons per acre with no guaranteed minimum. See also footnote 7.
11 Figures apply only to northern Colorado. In western Nebraska for blocking, thinning, and hoeing the
rate was $11.50 per acre; for topping, 75 cents per ton up to 12 tons per acre, plus 65 cents per ton above 12
tons per acre with no guaranteed minimum.
12 No tonnage rate, because there was a guaranteed minimum rate per acre for the assumed normal yield.
See also footnote 11.
43 62.5 cents for each ton up to 12 tons per acre, plus 50 cents per ton above 12 tons per acre.
14 For a yield of 12 tons per acre the rate was $8.50 per acre; for a yield of less than 12 tons per acre the
rate was reduced by 70 cents for each ton by which the yield fell below 12 tons per acre; for a yield of more
than 12 tons per acre the rate was increased by 60 cents for each ton by which the yield exceeded 12 tons
per acre.
15 The contract wage rates given for northern California and for southern California for topping are based
on a sliding scale, the rate per ton varying in accordance with the yield per acre. There is no assumed
normal yield in the contracts used. The figures given show the normal yield for the districts represented
and the topping rate for the normal yield stated for each district.
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Employment Conditions—Sugar-Beet Laborers
335
The trend in wage rates for beet labor over the past 3 years has
been toward a slight increase in the rate per acre. The 1937 contract
in northern Colorado at a basic minimum rate of $20.50 an acre for
all processes increased the rate $1 over the basic rate set for that area
by the Secretary of Agriculture for 1935, which provided $19.50 an
acre for all processes for a yield of 12 tons per acre. The 1935 rate
was made up of a flat rate of $10.50 per acre for blocking, thinning,
hoeing, and weeding and 75 cents a ton for pulling and topping for
each ton harvested per acre up to and including 12 tons per acre, and
65 cents for every ton harvested in excess of 12 tons per acre. The
basic rate of $19.50 for 1935 was not, therefore, a guaranteed mini
mum for the season’s work on an acre, as was the rate of $20.50 for
1937. The obtaining in 1937 of a guaranteed minimum rate per acre
for topping in this area was a gain for the laborer that was probably
more important than the increase of $1 in the total rate for a 12-ton
yield. The workers say there is much less variation in the amount
of work required to harvest an acre of beets than in the tons produced
per acre, there being approximately the same number of beets to
handle for a moderately small as for a normal or a large yield.
Actual earnings per acre by families of beet laborers, particularly
where the prevailing rate calls for a sliding scale for topping, vary
from family to family far more than a summary of wage rates will
show. In 1935 earnings received per acre among 305 families in
several areas reporting this information to the Children’s Bureau
showed a range of from $10 to $25 per acre for all hand-work processes.
Within one area the range in earnings per acre was in some instances
as much as $10.
Yearly Earnings
For beet work in 1935, earnings on a family basis have been reported
in two studies. An average of $222 earned per family from beet work
in the year 1935 was reported for the sample group of beet workers
on relief in Weld County, Colo.23 In the Children’s Bureau 1935
survey, which was not limited to families receiving relief, average
(median) annual earnings from hand work in the beet fields, in
northern Wyoming, Montana, Minnesota, and Michigan, were $340
for the 377 families reporting, half of the families earning less than this
amount for beet work done in the year 1935, and half earning more.
However, because of great differences in the number of workers per
family, in the number of acres handled, and in the earnings per acre,
*> Beet Workers on Relief in Weld County, Colo.
(This study is based on 192 cases, of which 12 included
only 1 person and 180 included 2 or more persons. These cases are a 25-percent sample of “Spanish-American
and Mexican” rural cases receiving emergency relief in Weld County (which is in northern Colorado) in
the year ended February 29, 1936. Although the sample includes only relief cases, beet workers receiving
relief nevertheless comprised a large part of the beet-labor population of the county. According to the
Children’s Bureau survey, which also included Weld County, Colo., 73 percent of all beet workers inter
viewed in that county had been on relief during the period of approximately a year ending October 31,1935.)
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the range in earnings per family for beet work was wide. The annual
earnings of these 377 families for beet work were distributed as follows:
Percent
Less than $200______________________ 30
$200, but less than $400--------------------- 28
$400, but less than $600--------------------- 20
$600 and more---------------------------------- 22
The number of persons to a family averaged 6.4 for the families
included in this survey.
The amount of beet earnings on the basis of individual workers
was not more than $130 per worker in half the families reporting
yearly earnings to the Children’s Bureau. A wide variation is also
noticeable in annual earnings per worker as well as per family. In
33 percent of the families reporting in the Children’s Bureau survey
the beet earnings amounted to less than $100 a year per worker; and
a total of $150 or more a year per worker was reported for only the
38 percent having the highest earnings.
Beet workers in the Mountain States and eastern beet regions have,
for the most part, no employment during the 6 winter months and
have only occasional employment during August and September,
when the beet crop requires little or no attention. The concentration
of sugar-beet culture about a limited number of sugar factories, and
the fact that a large part of the sugar-beet industry has been developed
in the sparsely settled Mountain States, accounts in part for this lack
of opportunity for employment in other industries. Although the
Mountain States suffer the greatest handicap in this respect, the
eastern beet region, and to some extent California likewise, is involved
in this lack of year-round work opportunities for beet laborers.
In northern Colorado, among beet workers’ families that were on
relief in 1935 the average income in a year from sources other than
beet labor or public assistance was reported as $42.24
Of the families included in the Children’s Bureau 1935 survey one
family in eight had no cash income whatever in addition to that
from beet work and from relief. Among the families that did receive
some supplementary cash income, the average (median) amount
earned or otherwise received was similar to the figure reported for
the Weld County families—$51 a family in the period of approxi
mately a year ending with the close of the 1935 beet season. This
additional income was usually for agricultural labor on crops other
than beets. Only one-sixth of the families in the Children’s Bureau
study having a supplementary cash income other than relief reported
receiving as much as $200 a year in addition to their beet earnings.
Among the families in Michigan, where some industrial employment
was available, only 30 percent received, in addition to beet earnings
« Beet Workers on Relief in Weld County, Colo.
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Employment Conditions—Sugar-Beet Laborers
and relief, an income of $200 or more in 1935. Area variations in
income supplementary to beet earnings and relief are shown by the
following figures from the Children’s Bureau 1935 survey:
P ercen t of
fa m ilie s r e p o r tin g
s u p p le m e n ta r y
in c o m e
Arkansas Valley, Colo________________________
Northern Colorado___________________________
Southern Montana___________________________
Western Nebraska___________________________
Northern Wyoming__________________________
Central Michigan____________________________
96
91
71
96
89
87
A verage an n u a l
s u p p le m e n ta r y
in c o m e p e r
f a m i l y (m e d i a n )
$31
44
57
72
72
93
The restricted opportunities for employment and the limited occupa
tional background of beet workers are further indicated by the study
of beet workers in Weld County, Colo., which showed that of 192
heads of these families on relief only 13 had been employed in any
occupation other than agricultural work within the past 5 years.24
Although no data on supplementary work are available for Cali
fornia beet workers, the diversified crops and the long agricultural
season of that State, together with the fact that the beet fields are
comparatively near urban centers, make it probable that the employ
ment of beet workers there is more nearly continuous than that
shown in the Children’s Bureau 1935 survey for beet workers in other
beet-growing areas of the United States.
Relief
With such low annual earnings from all sources, relief recipiency
has become widespread among beet workers. The end of the work
ing season and the reckoning with the storekeeper that follows the
harvest pay day find many beet workers with little or no reserve
with which to begin the winter. The Children’s Bureau study
included information on cash on hand at the end of the 1934 working
season after the bills accumulated in providing for the day-to-day
needs of the family had been met. Of the families giving this informa
tion, 38 percent reported that they had no cash left on hand after
paying such bills, 31 percent had less than $60, and only 26 percent
had $60 or more on hand; for the other 4 percent some cash was on
hand but the amount was not reported.
Of the beet laborers’ families interviewed in the Children’s Bureau
1935 study, 63 percent reported receiving either direct or work relief
at some time within the period of approximately a year ending with
the close of the 1935 beet season. In some areas the proportion of
the beet workers’ families that were on relief at some time during the
year was much higher than in other areas, ranging from 37 percent to
97 percent. The highest proportion of families receiving relief (97
» Beet Workers on Relief in Weld County, Colo.
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percent) was for the Arkansas Valley in southern Colorado, where
average beet acreages worked were small, wage rates for other work
were low, and a water shortage had restricted crops the preceding year.
The large amount of public assistance required, under prevailing
wage rates and available opportunities for beet and other work, to
maintain the workers over the winter months is suggested by the
recent report of beet workers on relief in Weld County, Colo. The
average amount of public assistance, including project work of the
Works Progress Administration and other public aid, received by the
192 families included in the sample was $172 a year, nearly as much
as the total beet earnings of these families, which averaged $222 for
the year. The average amount of public assistance received was 39
percent of the total average annual income from all sources ($436) for
the year ended February 29, 1936.24 These Weld County beet
workers received public aid in an average of 5.7 months in this period
of 1 year. Similar findings on the number of months that beet workers
depended on relief are reported for the families of beet laborers
interviewed by the Children’s Bureau in several beet-growing areas.
Among the families receiving relief in the period of approximately 12
months ended October 31, 1935, half had received such relief in at
least 6 calendar months.
Many of the beet laborers’ families that were not supported by
public assistance or private relief during the winter months lived
without cash resources by obtaining the most needed commodities on
credit extended by local stores or the local sugar company against
their next season’s earnings. Such families may have had less to
live on than those on relief. Availability of relief for beet workers
varied to a marked extent from locality to locality; in rural communi
ties particularly there was frequently reluctance to give public assist
ance to such persons.
Living Conditions
The very low plane of living among beet workers is apparent in the
overcrowding of their small houses, which are sometimes not even
weatherproof, in the meagerness of their diet, in the lack of warm
clothing, and in the infrequency of recreational and social activities.
As to housing, the Children’s Bureau found in 1935 that 45 percent
of the families lived in houses of not more than two rooms and that
more than one-sixth of the families were living in houses with four or
more persons to a room.
The actual impoverishment of most beet laborers’ families is sug
gested further by figures on total cash income per person from all
sources. Among the Weld County beet workers on relief the total
annual cash income per person, including relief, averaged $78, and
21 Beet Workers On Relief in Weld County, Colo.
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Employment Conditions—Sugar-Beet Laborers
339
excluding relief it averaged $47.24 For the families of beet laborers
surveyed in the Children’s Bureau study, the amount of cash income
per family member, excluding relief, was $75 or less for a year for half
of the families reporting. The meagerness of such incomes is indicated
by a comparison with the amount of money needed to buy an adequate
diet at minimum cost in 1935, according to the standards of the Bureau
of Home Economics of the United States Department of Agriculture.
Based on average prices in the United States, the cost of food for an
adequate diet at minimum cost, according to this standard, is $110
per family member.25 Although some beet workers receive housing
free of charge from the grower or the sugar company at least during
the working season, the workers need money to pay not only for food
but also for clothing, household sundries, fuel, transportation, doctors’
bills, and other needs. The beet workers do not supplement their
wages to any large extent through raising their own vegetables or
keeping livestock.
Labor Organization Among Beet Workers
A movement among beet workers to improve their conditions of
living through organization into labor unions has arisen in recent
years. The opportunity in 1934 and 1935 to have minimum wages set
for beet labor by the Secretary of the United States Department of
Agriculture was a stimulus to it. Various local groups of beet workers
from the Mountain States’ beet-growing localities held a convention in
January 1935 and drew up a resolution calling for a wage of $23 an
acre for beet labor and urged this rate at hearings held by the Secretary
of Agriculture prior to the establishment of rates for certain areas
under the Jones-Costigan Act.26 A number of local unions of beet
workers became affiliated as Federal locals with the American Fedeiation of Labor in 1935 and 1936, and the Colorado Conference of
Beet Field and Agricultural Unions was then formed. This conference
asked for a wage of at least $23 an acre for beet labor in 1936 and for at
least $25 an acre in 1937. It has also been active in defending claims
of the beet workers to relief and to employment on projects under the
Works Progress Administration and in protesting against the importa
tion of labor into the State to work at wages below those the unions
have attempted to obtain. In southern Michigan and Ohio the beet
workers, organized in federal local unions of the American Federa
tion of Labor, obtained in 1935 a collective agreement providing a rate
of $19 an acre for beet labor,27 which was higher than wages prevailing
21 Beet Workers on Relief in Weld County, Colo.
22 Computed by the Children’s Bureau according to the standards of the Bureau of Home Economics,
U. S. Department of Agriculture, on the basis of the composition of the beet laborers’ families included in
the 1935 study.
s8 International Labour Review, Geneva (January 1936), p. 80: Regulation of Labour Conditions in Sugar
Cultivation under the Agricultural Adjustment Act, by William T. Ham.
« Rural Worker, April 1936, pp. 4, 5.
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in the localities of central Michigan, of which none had collective
agreements. Neither for Michigan nor for several other States had
minimum wage rates for beet labor been established by the Secretary
of Agriculture under the Jones-Costigan Act.
Local organizations of beet workers were included among the unions
of agricultural, cannery, and packing-house workers whose representa
tives met in Denver in July 1937 to organize an international union.
At that time the United Cannery, Agricultural, Packing, and Allied
Workers of America was organized, and a charter was granted the new
organization by the Committee on Industrial Organization. This new
union reported that by November 1, 1937, it had granted charters to 28
local unions of beet workers in Colorado, Nebraska, Wyoming, and
Montana, with a total membership of 3,000 beet workers. Besides
carrying on organizational work among beet workers it is working for
adequate consideration of the interests of the beet laborers under the
Sugar Act of 1937. The demands of the union include a wage rate of
$25 an acre for hand work on the beet crop of 1937, $30 an acre for the
beet crop of 1938, and representation on local boards or committees
which it recommends be formed to determine whether or not individual
beet growers have complied with the conditions specified for eligibility
to receive conditional payments under the Sugar Act of 1937.28
28 In the matter of a hearing (Sugar Hearing 2) before the Secretary of Agriculture with respect to wage rates
for persons employed in the production, cultivation, or harvesting of the 1937 sugar-beet crop, in the session
held in Denver, Colo., October 14, 1937, pp. 51-63; in the session held in Pueblo, Colo., October 18,1937, pp.
336-342; in the session held in Scottsbluff, Nebr., October 21, 1937, pp. 52-60; and in the session held in Bill
ings, M ont., October 25, 1937, pp. 13-19.
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HOURS OF WORK PROVIDED IN COLLECTIVE
AGREEMENTS IN 1937 1
THE 40-HOUR maximum workweek is provided in a large majority
of the union agreements now in effect in the United States. Weekly
hours tend somewhat to be longer in the South, but exceptions to the
40-hour week occur on an industry rather than on an area basis.
The 40-liour maximum is almost invariably established in the
collective agreements in the iron and steel, stone, timber, rubber,
petroleum, metal mining, and aluminum industries, and is predomi
nant in cement manufacturing. Except for stove manufacturing,
the 40-hour week is the rule in metal-fabrication agreements. The
same is true in the furniture and upholstery, jewelry, pulp and paper
products, and pottery industries, in merchant tailoring, and in food
and agricultural processing with the exception of flour and cereal
products. The general weekly maximum in building construction is
40 hours. Except for the manufacture of fur and men’s and women’s
clothing, the 40-hour week is general in agreements in the apparel
industries, as well as hi book and job printing, light and power, and
gas and coke manufacture.
Workweeks Shorter Than 40 Hours
Generally speaking, workweeks shorter than 40 hours are less
common in union agreements than workweeks which are longer.
In the agreements of only five industries is the shorter week the
rule—in the glass industry, with a 36-liour week for all but continu
ous processes; in coal mining and fur manufacture, with a general
35-hour maximum; in men’s clothing, with a 36-hour week; in women’s
clothing, with a prevailing 35-hour week and a few 37%-hour maxima;
and in newspaper publishing, where approximately two-tliirds of the
workers in the industry are on a shorter workweek (and more than
half of these work 37){ hours).
The 36-hour week is fairly general in agreements for motionpicture-machine operators and for about a third of the cement indus
try. The 35-hour week is common in nearly half of the agreements
in hat manufacturing. In the rubber industry the workweek in two
of the largest companies, as well as a few small plants, is 36 hours.
Similarly, one large radio company works 35 hours and another 36.
Less than 10 percent of the organized building-construction workers
• This article is based on a study of approximately 5,000 union agreements in the flies of the Bureau of
Labor Statistics. See pp. 347-348, for a list of the trades and industries covered.
39873— 38-
4
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342
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
have less than a 40-hour week, about half of these working; under
a 30-hour maximum and half a 35-hour maximum. Longshoremen
on the Pacific coast work 30 hours a week. The other short work
weeks are isolated instances, varying from 30 to 39 hours.
Workweeks Longer Than 40 Hours
In petroleum refining, aluminum, textiles, fur, men’s clothing,
women’s clothing, and hat manufacture there are no agreements
providing for workweeks of more than 40 hours. In railroad yards,2
in the flour and cereal products and stove industries, in retail trade,
among butchers, hotel and restaurant workers, in city passengertransportation lines, and in trucking, the prevailing weekly maximum
provided in collective agreements is 48 hours. In longshore work
other than on the Pacific coast and in building service agreements
the maximum week is 44 hours. Maritime workers are most com
monly under 44-hour weekly schedules, although some workweeks
are as high as 54. Some towboat workers have weeks as high as 72
and 80 hours. In agreements in the glass industry 42 hours is the
usual maximum for continuous processes. Although no single
schedule predominates for barbers and taxi drivers, these two have
the longest workweeks—ranging from 48 to 66 and 51 to 72 hours,
respectively.
Although the 48-hour week is the most common in union agree
ments in retail trade, other scheduled hours cover a wide range.
The exceptions from the 48-hour week, more than one-third of which
are higher than 48 hours, vary from 40 to 63. For butchers the
range of exceptions to the 48-hour week goes as high as 74 hours
per week; nearly half of the butchers’ agreements provide for work
weeks longer than 48 hours. In hotels and restaurants, although 48
hours is the maximum provided in a majority of the agreements,
a 54-hour week prevails in about a fourth, the others ranging from
10 to 60 hours.
A small proportion of agreements fix maximum hours as high as
48 per week in the following industries or trades: Iron and steel,
glass, cement, electrical equipment, automobiles and parts, pulp,
furniture, upholstery, jewelry, glassware, building construction, ship
building, baking, tailors, cleaning and dyeing, building service,
motion-picture-machine operation, printing and publishing, and gas
and coke. Maxima ranging as high as 50 are provided in a few
agreements in the timber, rubber, and machinery industries and for
coopers; as high as 54 in the light and power industry; 60 in stove
manufacture and in laundries; and 63 on city passenger-transportation
lines.
8 Railway roadmen, engineers, firemen, conductors, etc., are on a mileage rather than an hourly basis,
and are therefore not included in this discussion.
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Hours of Work in Collective Agreements
343
Normal Hours Per Workday
Eight hours is by far the most common workday provided in
collective agreements. Workdays of 6, 7, and 9 hours—about
equally prevalent—are so much less common as to be relatively
unimportant except in certain industries. In coal mining, the fur
industry, and the manufacture of men’s and women’s clothing, the
7- hour day is the rule, as is the 6-hour day for motion-picture-machine
operators. Short workdays, of limits varying between 6 and 8 hours,
also prevail in newspaper-publishing agreements. The 7-hour maxi
mum is established in union agreements for a major part of the hat
industry and for two of the largest companies in the radio branch
of the electrical-equipment industry. Longshoremen on the Pacific
coast have a 6-hour working day.
Except for barbers and taxi drivers, for whom workdays longer than
8 hours are the rule, the union agreements in no industry provide a
prevailing workday of more than 8 hours. A few exceptions to the
8- hour rule are found in most industries, however; they are fairly
common in retail trade, and among butchers, maritime, and hotel and
restaurant workers. The range of these atypical workdays is from 5
to 14 hours, the extremes being found in a few agreements covering
delivery drivers. The same maximum is generally applied to each
day of the week. Longer Saturday hours, however, are the rule in
retail trade and among butchers, tailors, and barbers.
Normal Days per Workweek
The 5-day week, though less prevalent in union agreements than
the 8-hour day, is more common than the 40-hour week. The 5-day
week is the rule in basic-materials industries, in fabrication (except for
stoves, pottery, and glassware), in construction, in food and agricul
tural processing (except for flour and cereal products), and in the
apparel industries. In anthracite mining, however, a 6-day week is
permissible during 12 weeks of the year. The 5-day week prevails to
a less extent in the agreements in printing and publishing, in the light
and power, gas and coke industries, and for merchant tailors. In
bituminous-coal mining, aluminum, petroleum refining, textiles, furs,
men’s and women’s clothiDg, and hats, the 5-day week is the only
maximum provided in agreements.
The 6-day workweek is usual in agreements for railroad yard
workers, in the bakery, pottery, and flour industries, for hotel and
restaurant and retail-trade employees, for butchers, motion-picturemachine operators, and for the entire transport group with the excep
tion of longshoremen, who commonly work 5% days a week except
on the Pacific coast where the 5-day week is established.
In the building-service and maritime agreements the 5%-day week
is commonly provided. In stone manufacture and glassware no single
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Monthly Labor Review -February 1938
schedule of days per week predominates, while the 5%- and 6-day work
weeks are about equally common for laundry and cleaning and dyeing
workers and for barbers.
Among the exceptions to the 5-day rule in those industries where it
is general, the 5%-day week is found more than twice as frequently as
the 6-day maximum.
The Workday
Particularly concerned with defining the limits of the workday are
agreements in retail stores and in the maritime, butcher, tailor, and
barber trades. Starting time in these agreements varies from 6 to
10 a. in., with 8 a. m. the most common. Finishing time is usually
6 p. m., with instances of both earlier and later closing times. In
these trades the Saturday finishing time is usually several hours later
than that on weekdays, most often falling between 8 and 9 p. m.
A number of agreements did not specify the limits of the working
day, but among those designated the most frequent workday starts
at 8 a. m. and finishes at 5 p. m., with an hour for lunch. The work
day rarely commences before 7 a. m. except for such workers as milk
or delivery drivers, where starting hours may be as early as midnight.
In such cases earlier starting times are sometimes set during the
summer months and, less frequently, Saturday work may start at a
Later hour. The half-hour lunch period was specified in about half as
many cases as the hour period.
Regulation of Shifts
Provisions regulating shifts are not a common feature of union
agreements. In many industries, of course, the single-shift system of
operation is in effect; in others, although there is multiple-shift oper
ation, little or no provision is made in the agreements for the regulation
of working time. Maritime agreements, however, usually provide for
the three-shift system for unlicensed personnel while at sea. Split
shifts are common for licensed seagoing personnel and in ship stewards’
departments. Hotel and restaurant workers also frequently work on a
split-shift basis.
A few agreements prohibit the use of more than one shift or the
addition of a third shift, and others require mutual agreement before a
shift may be added. Some agreements require that shift assignments
be changed every week or 2 weeks. A number of agreements auth
orize persons to work two shifts successively at the time of the shift
change in continuous processes. When a shift partner on such work
fails to appear, the worker is usually required to continue on the job
until the company is able to secure a substitute.
As a substitute for the 1 day of rest in 7, shift workers on continuous
processes frequently receive time off on the basis of a 2-week period—
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Hours of Work in Collective Agreements
345
that is, a 2-day lay-off after 12 days’ work. In the glass industry such
workers are on a 7-day week, with a 6-hour daily maximum, and receive
time off only in the form of an annual vacation.
Some shift workers on continuous processes work more hours than
day workers and some work less. Consequently a differential in hours
of work for such workers is not important in union agreements. A pay
differential is found more frequently, though it is not a general rule.
Overtime
As a general rule overtime work is regulated in detail in union
agreements rather than prohibited outright. The women’s and men’s
clothing industries, however, are instances of an almost industry-wide
prohibition of overtime work. Agreements covering portions of a few
other industries prohibit overtime during designated dull seasons.
In the fur industry overtime is permissible only if there are no unem
ployed union members. Similar provisions occur elsewhere in a few
agreements, but there is no customary practice established in other
industries.
The amount of overtime work is restricted primarily by requiring
a penalty payment on the part of the employer for each hour of such
work. The added cost thus serves as an automatic check on excessive
overtime. Further restriction is placed on the amount of overtime in
a number of agreements by stipulating the maximum amount per
missible in a day, week, or 2-week period. Other agreements attach
a higher penalty rate after a given hour, usually between 9 p. m. and
1 a. m. In a few industries, chiefly petroleum refining and newspaper
printing, the equivalent of the overtime worked must be taken off
later. In other cases such a practice is prohibited and payment for
overtime work at the higher rate is required. The employer must
frequently obtain approval from the union for overtime assignments
before such work can begin.
Overtime is most often paid for at time and a half the regular rate.
The double-time rate is fairly common, particularly in building con
struction, and there are scattered instances of overtime rates varying
from slightly over the regular scale to triple time. In some cases
allowances are permitted over and above the normal hours without
the payment of the overtime penalty rate. This allowance varies
from 2 to 2% hours a day and from 4 to 8 hours a week.
Allowances of a somewhat different nature are those made to care
for peak periods of production. Such allowances occur in agreements
in the glass, machinery, leather, shoes, cleaning and dyeing, and gas
and coke industries, but are common only in retail trade and the tex
tile industry. In the former the allowance applies variously during the
Christmas and Easter seasons and while taking inventory. In the
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Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
textile industry the seasonal allowance can be put into effect only
after securing the consent of the employees. Seasonal allowances vary
from 6 to 20 weeks a year, except in retail trade, where the seasonal
period is restricted to from 2 to 5 weeks. The additional hours per
mitted at straight pay during this period vary from 4 to 12, with 4
the most common allowance.
Other extensions of normal hours which are found occasionally in
collective agreements concern the requirements that operating engi
neers must get up steam in order that work may begin promptly at
the starting time, that delivery-truck drivers must complete their
assigned routes before stopping work, and that the handling of perish
able goods must be completed by longshoremen and truck drivers
regardless of the excess of working time over the usual maximum.
Most agreements provide that extensions of normal hours shall be
put into effect by the employer, in conformity with the pertinent pro
visions of the agreement. In a considerable number of the agree
ments, however, a permit—either written or oral—must be secured
from the union. This device is used chiefly for overtime work. In
a few cases overtime or seasonal allowance can be authorized only by
a joint trade committee or a permanent impartial chairman for the
administration of the agreement.
Holidays
Usual annual holidays are six, although the number provided in
agreements varies from 3 to 14. Barbers, and to a less extent retail
clerks, frequently work half days on certain holidays. The usual six
are New Year’s, Memorial Day, Fourth of July, Labor Day, Thanks
giving, and Christmas. Election Day, Columbus Day, Washington’s
Birthday, and Lincoln’s Birthday are also frequently observed. In
addition there are a number of State, local, and religious holidays, the
observance of which is provided for in some union agreements.
It is not possible to determine, from the provisions of the agree
ments, the prevalence of paid holidays, but certainly the larger pro
portion of workers receive such days off without pay. When emer
gency work is required on holidays, however, a penalty pay rate is
required. This of course does not apply to those whose regularly
scheduled hours fall on holidays. The penalty rate is usually higher
than the overtime rate, the most common being double time. In
addition, a minimum amount of pay is sometimes specified—such as
a half or full day’s pay—even though only a few hours are worked on
a holiday.
Work on Labor Day is generally prohibited or restricted to that
necessary because of an emergency. Overtime work on Saturdays
outside of regularly scheduled hours, and on Sundays, is ordinarily
restricted in the same way as that on holidays.
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Hours of Work in Collective Agreements
347
Vacations
The provision for annual paid vacations is general only in collective
agreements in the rubber, petroleum, and iron and steel industries,
but the practice is fairly common on city passenger-transportation
lines, in retail trade, and in gas and coke manufacture. Such vacations
are occasionally established in agreements in the electrical-equipment,
pulp and paper products, upholstery, flour and cereal products, and
power and light industries and for tailors and building-service em
ployees. Pay is usually on the basis of an average of previous earn
ings. In the glassware industry a general 2-week stoppage is observed
each year, but this period is without pay.
As a usual rule, 1 year of service is required before vacation rights
accrue, but periods varying from 2 to 5 years are also common. A
limited amount of leave with pay, however, is granted in some cases
after as little as 3 months’ service, while other agreements require as
much as 9 or 10 years’ service before paid vacations are granted.
These long-service requirements are especially characteristic of the
rubber industry.
About equal numbers of agreements establish 1- and 2-week vaca
tions. None of the agreements provide for vacations longer than
2 weeks, but several provide for 3-, 8-, or 10-day vacations. In several
agreements the vacation is increased from 1 to 2 weeks after 2 years
of service; in others after longer periods of service. Under two agree
ments 2 weeks’ vacation is not given until after 10 years of employ
ment. In several instances 1 day’s vacation, up to a limit of 1 or 2
weeks, is given for each year of service.
Industries and Trade Groups Covered
The industries and trade groups to which the above data relate
are those in which collective bargaining is extensive enough to warrant
consideration of union conditions as indicative of general conditions.
Inclusion of a specific industry also depended upon the adequacy of
the Bureau of Labor Statistics’ file of union agreements for that
industry. The following list gives the industries and trade groups
covered.
Basic materials:
Aluminum.
Cement.
Coal mining.
Glass.
Iron and steel.
Lumber.
Metal mining.
Petroleum refining.
Rubber.
Stone.
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Fabrication:
Automobiles and parts.
Coopers.
Electrical equipment.
Furniture.
Glassware.
Jewelry.
Machinery and parts.
Pulp and paper products.
Pottery.
Stoves.
Upholstering.
348
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
Distributive and personal service:
Barbers.
Butchers.
Cleaning and dyeing.
Hotel and restaurant.
Laundry.
Merchant tailors.
Retail trade.
Apparel:
Furs.
Hats.
Hosiery.
Leather and leather products.
Men’s clothing.
Shoes.
Textiles.
Women’s clothing.
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Food and agricultural processing:
Baking and confectionery.
Brewing.
Flour and cereal products.
Construction:
Building.
Ships.
Transportation:
City passenger lines.
Longshore.
Maritime.
Railroads.
Taxi.
Trucking.
Miscellaneous:
Building service.
Gas and coke.
Light and power.
Motion-picture machine operators.
Printing and publishing.
COMPOSITION OF LABOR FORCE IN THE MERCHANT
M A R IN E 1
ALIEN SEAMEN today are of relatively minor and rapidly declin
ing importance in American ship personnel. Full citizenship has
long been required of all licensed officers, and the Ocean Mail Act of
1928 required that, of the unlicensed crews of vessels employed in
ocean-mail contract service, at least one-half (two-thirds after 1932)
must be citizens. Later legislation extended this requirement to
include the unlicensed seamen of all American ships. National
legislation passed in 1936 requires that 75 percent of the unlicensed
crew of all vessels flying the United States flag shall be native-born or
naturalized citizens. For vessels subsidized by the Federal Govern
ment the requirements are more stringent; for them the Merchant
Marine Act of 1936 specifies that the entire crew of cargo ships and a
minimum of 90 percent 2 of the crew (including licensed officers) of
passenger vessels must be citizens, and aliens may be employed on
passenger vessels only in the stewards’ department.
The proportion of citizens among unlicensed seamen has thus been
gaining steadily since 1928. In that year, aliens comprised about
44 percent of all those shipped before shipping commissioners. The
proportion declined to 25 percent in 1933, and by the close of 1935
alien seamen formed only 19.4 percent of all seamen, excluding
officers. During 1936, the proportion of aliens, excluding officers,
dropped further to 16.6 percent.3
Seamen of alien birth assume greater importance, however, when
the number of naturalized citizens is considered. Quite naturally,
the number of naturalized citizens has been increasing with the reduc
tion in number of aliens, but to a less extent. The naturalized citizens
comprised 11.0 percent of the unlicensed seamen in 1928, 17.7 percent
in 1933, 19.2 percent in 1935, and 20.5 percent in 1936. Seamen of
alien birth, therefore, formed 37.1 percent of all unlicensed men in
1936; this, however, was a considerable reduction from the 55.2
percent in 1928.3
1 Prepared by Frances Jones, of the Bureau’s Division of Wages, Hours, and Working Conditions.
The data presented in this article were obtained in a survey made by the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
in the winter of 1935-36, primarily for the purpose of ascertaining the wages in the industry. (See M onthly
Labor Review, July 1937, pp. 38-55.) The information was supplemented by data from the annual reports
on merchant-marine statistics published by the Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation, U. S. Depart
ment of Commerce.
1 This is the ultimate minimum provided for.
The act specified a minimum of 80 percent of the crew,
excluding officers, during the first year, after which the percentage should be increased 5 percent each year,
until citizens should comprise 90 percent of the entire crew, including licensed officers.
3 Data in these paragraphs are from U. S. Department of Commerce, Merchant Marine Statistics, 1935
and 1936,
•
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Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
350
The British comprise the largest national group among the alien
seamen. The other groups in order of numerical importance are the
Spanish, Filipinos, Germans, Norwegians, Chinese, Portuguese, South
Americans, Central Americans, Dutch, Swedish, etc. In the coastal
trade, however, the British come after the Spanish and Filipinos.
Chinese are found more extensively in the foreign than in the domestic
trade, particularly on the Pacific coast.
A distribution, made by the United States Bureau of Labor Statis
tics, of employees (including licensed officers) on a single voyage of
296 vessels in 1935, according to citizenship, indicated that the
largest proportion of alien seamen were in the stewards’ department
of passenger vessels (table 1). About 13 percent of the entire crew of
passenger vessels were aliens in the stewards’ department, but only 1
percent were aliens in the deck department and slightly more than 1
percent in the engine room. On cargo vessels, less than 3 percent of
the entire crew were aliens in the stewards’ department, and an addi
tional 4 percent were divided about equally between the deck and
engine departments. Tankers had 3.9 percent alien seamen in the
stewards’ department, with about 1 percent in each of the other
departments. Whereas Chinese predominated among aliens in the
stewards’ department of passenger vessels, Filipinos were the major
group in that department on cargo ships and tankers.
T able 1.—Percentage Distribution of Seamen Aboard 296 Vessels by Citizenship,
Department, Service, and Trade, 1935
Percentage distribution of seamen in—
Service and trade
Total
num
ber of
sea
men
All departments
All
sea
men
Deck depart
ment
Engine de
partment
Stewards’ de»
partment
Citi Aliens Citi Aliens Citi Aliens Citi Aliens
zens
zens
zens
zens
100.0 '88.2
11.8
31.4
1.4
27.1
1.6
29.7
8.8
Passenger service---------------- ----- 11,534
Freight service------------------ ------ 7, 366
Tanker service...... ................ ...
- 1,623
100.0
100.0
100.0
84.4
93.0
93.9
15.6
7.0
6.1
22.8
42.2
43.5
1.0
2.0
1.2
19.9
36.2
37.6
1.3
2.2
1.0
41.7
14.6
12.8
13.3
2.8
3.9
........ -- 11,781
. . . ------- 8,742
100.0
100.0
87.3
89.3
12.7
10.7
29.6
33.7
1.1
1.8
26.4
28.2
1.3
2.1
31.3
27.4
10.3
6.8
Total_____________
Foreign trade........... .
Domestic trade____
________ 20, 523
' These vessels showed a higher total percentage of citizens than was indicated by more complete figures
compiled by the Department of Commerce, as shown in Merchant Marine Statistics, 1935. p. 80.
American Negroes accounted for a little more than 6 percent of all
seamen (including licensed officers), according to data obtained by the
Bureau from the crew lists of 352 vessels in 1935. (See table 2.) They,
too, were more numerous in the stewards’ department of passenger
liners than in any other department or service. They, also, were con
fined to the unlicensed ranks, although a few were petty officers and
several occupied similar positions in the stewards’ department.
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Composition of Merchant Marine Labor Force
T a b l e 2 . —Percentage of American Negroes Among A ll Seamen Aboard 352 Vessels,
by Department and Service, 1935
Department and service
T o ta l.............................................
All sea
men
Percent
age of
Ameri
can
Negroes
23,208
6.2
Deck department................ .
Engine department ........... ............
Stewards’ department..........................
7,726
6, 712
8,770
2.3
1.3
13.3
Passenger service____ ____ _
___
Freight service___________ ___
Tanker service___________________
12,806
8, 779
1,623
8.3
4.1
.0
Age of Seamen
Older men comprised a substantial segment of the deep-water ship
ping personnel. Sixty-two percent of the men in the sample reporting
age were 30 years old or over. Approximately one-fourth (27.5
percent) were 40 years of age or older; these men represented prac
tically all occupational groups aboard ship. The seamen as a group,
however, were relatively young, compared to all men gainfully oc
cupied (table 3).
T a b l e 3 . —Age Distribution of Male Employees on Deep-Sea Vessels, 1935, Compared
With A ll Male Workers, 1930 Census
Cumulative
percentage
Age
Male
All
workers
gainfully on Amerioccupied can-flag
males 1 deep-sea
vessels
Under 16 years........... ...........
Under 18 years_____________
Under 20 years............. ............
Under 25 years_____________
Under 30 years_____ ________
Under 35 years_____________
Under 40 years.. . ______
Under 45 years___ ____ _____
1.2
3.7
7.9
20.5
32.9
44.6
56.6
67.2
0.0
.3
3.9
20.2
38.4
56.0
72 5
84.1
Cumulative
percentage
Age
Male
All
workers
gainfully on Amerioccupied can-flag
males 1 deep-sea
vessels
Q4 8
J 99.1
38,077,804
(3)
17,187
1 Fifteenth census of the United States, 1930.
2 There were Ho of 1 percent 75 years and older, and the age of Ho of 1 percent was unknown.
s Less than Ho of 1 percent were 70 years old and over.
The sample for which age data were compiled by the Bureau cov
ered 17,187 male employees of all ranks who shipped aboard 274
vessels in the foreign and coastwise trade. These ships operated from
the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific seaboards, and they included 162
freight vessels, 77 passenger liners, and 35 tankers. The Pacific coast
steam schooners were not represented, as the company records did not
contain age data; their inclusion would probably have raised the age
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
352
level slightly, as information indicates that they are manned by an
older group of persons than is common in other deep-sea services.
The age range of shipboard employees was extremely wide. The
oldest man was 80, and the youngest was 16. According to table 4,
the average age of the 55 occupational groups of male workers ranged
from 47 years for masters to 20 years for cadets. More than one-half
of the 55 occupational groups had an average age of 35 years or more,
and for only 8 groups was the average below 30 years.
'1'a b l e 'i.—Average Age of Male Employees on Deep-Sea Vessels, by Department and
Occupation, 1935
Department and occupation
All departments_________________
M asters.— ___________
_____
N um Aver
ber of
age
em
ployees age
33.8
17,187
---------- -------==
47.0
228
D e c k o f f ic e r s
Chief officers___________
_____
First mates---------------------------------
42
308
297
289
45
37.9
40.1
37.1
32.8
27.2
290
23
44.9
37.9
293
299
291
226
38.0
36.1
34.0
33.9
265
132
31. 7
28. 5
144
251
366
176
1,946
682
211
79
44.5
37.3
29.8
40.7
33.3
24.5
20.3
21.0
118
37.7
125
272
1,409
33.7
37.8
31.9
E n g i n e o f f ic e r s
First assistant engineers, executive.
First assistant engineers, standing
w atch------------------ ---------------Second assistant engineers-------------
R a d io
U n lic e n s e d m e n , d ec k d e p a r tm e n t
Carpenters____________ ________
Cadets 1____ __________________
Apprentices1 and deck boys______
U n lic e n s e d m e n , e n g in e d e p a r tm e n t
Chief refrigeration engineers and
Second and third refrigeration engineers and electricians........ .
..
Oilers and water tenders__________
Department and occupation
N um Aver
ber of age
em
ployees age
U n lic e n s e d m e n , e n g in e d e p a r tm e n t
—Continued
Firemen.. _ __________ ____ .
Wipers and coal passers ______ —-
1,065
596
32.8
30.0
221
66
73
101
68
64
157
302
79
43.7
38.3
39.3
40.4
40.6
42.1
39.3
36.0
36.1
272
75
40
35.3
37.7
36.1
147
507
458
33.0
31.1
37.9
S te w a r d s ’ d e p a r tm e n t
Chief stewards______ ____________
Second stewards___- _________
Third stewards_______ ________
Chefs___________________________
Chief bakers________ _ _________
Chief butchers _______ ________
Second cooks________________
Third cooks__________ ________
Miscellaneous other cooks, chief
buffet attendants, and chief panOther bakers__ —_ _ — ____ ...
Other butchers.
------- --------- ..
Assistant pantrymen and buffet
attendants_____________________
Waiters, countermen, and salon
stewards---------------------------------Miscellaneous stewards (deck, bar,
lounge, smoking-room, and wine)..
Messmen________ _______________
Deck watchmen, p a tro l..... ..............
Porters, laundryinen, etc______ . . .
Bellboys___ _________ . . _____
1,444
35.5
224
589
455
130
302
220
32.7
31.0
29.2
38.9
32.4
22.9
72
47
61
186
118
36.4
30.3
43.6
31.5
31.6
241
37.4
O th e r
Pursers..--------- -------------- --------Pursers’ assistants-----------------------Surgeons and assistants----- ------Miscellaneous clerks_____________
Musicians_________ ____________
Other miscellaneous employees,
pursers’ and stewards’ departm en ts.. . ________ ________
> Includes a few employees in the engine department.
Within each department, in both licensed and unlicensed groups,
the average age for the occupation generally varied directly with
occupational rank. For example, among the engine officers, chief
engineers averaged 45 years, first assistant engineers 38 years, second
assistant engineers 36 years, and third assistant and junior engineers
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Composition of Merchant Marine Labor Force
353
34 years. Similarly, in the case of unlicensed men in the engine de
partment, chief refrigeration engineers and chief electricians averaged
38 years, their second and third assistants 34 years, oilers, water
tenders, and firemen 32 years, and wipers and coal passers 30 years.
This points to the fact that experience and length of service play an
important part in promotion from one rank to another within each
group. It should be pointed out, however, that the chief petty
officers are considerably older than the third assistant and junior
licensed officers, so that persons promoted to the rank of junior
licensed officers must usually come from the unlicensed grades lower
than that of cldef petty officers.
The ordinary seamen were considerably younger than able seamen,
their respective averages being 25 and 33 years. In view of the fact
that an A. B. certificate may be obtained after a year’s experience as
ordinary seaman, this difference in age is probably due to the high
labor turn-over among ordinary seamen. On the other hand, the
averages were 32 years for oilers and water tenders, 33 years for fire
men, and 30 years for wipers and coal passers, thus pointing to the
fact that the above condition does not exist to the same extent in the
engine department. The average ages of many of the rank and file
occupations in the stewards’ department, such as waiters, cabin stew
ards, and assistant cooks, bakers, and butchers, were higher than the
ages of the rank and fde occupations in both the unlicensed deck and
engine departments. Other occupations in the stewards’ department,
such as assistant pantrymen and buffet attendants, scullions, messmen and messboys, and porters and laundrymen, averaged about the
same as the lower ranks among unlicensed men in the engine depart
ment. The youngest group in the stewards’ department was the
bellboys, with an average of 23 years, somewhat older than cadets.
The male employees 60 years old and over were scattered among
the various ranks, but the largest single occupations were masters
(10 percent of all men 60 years and over), chief engineers (9 percent),
and surgeons (9 percent). Chief stewards comprised 7 percent of
this group, and deck watchmen 6 percent. About 12 percent were
petty officers on deck; 9 percent were licensed deck officers of various
ranks; 7 percent were waiters, messmen, and cabin stewards; 5 percent
were chief cooks, butchers, and bakers; and 5 percent were able seamen.
A comparison of the occupational distribution of workers in various
age groups is shown in table 5, in which the occupations are further
combined into broad skill groups. Only 45 percent of the employees
60 years of age and over were in the lower skilled group, although
this group comprised 77 percent of the total ship’s personnel.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
354
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
T a b l e 5 . —Percentage Distribution of Male Employees on Deep-Sea Vessels According
to Age, by Occupational Groups, 1935
Percentage distribution of workers
Occupational group
Officers and comparable personnel------------------------Licensed men, deck departm ent.............................
Licensed men, engine department-------------------Supervisory personnel, stewards' department
Radio operators and assistants.................. ............
Pursers and assistants---------- ---------- -------------Subordinate personnel----------------------- - ---------Unlicensed men, deck department...................... .
Unlicensed men, engine department----------------Subordinate personnel, stewards’ and pursers’
departments----------------------------- - .....................
Total number of employees---- -----------------------------
All ages
23.0
1.3
5.7
8.2
4.4
2.3
.7
.4
77.0
22.2
21.1
33.7
100.0
17,187
Under 30
years
30 and
under
45 years
45 and
under
60 years
13.3
4.0
4. 1
1.3
3.0
.7
.2
86.7
28.8
23.8
27.2
1.0
6.7
10.9
5.2
2.4
.7
.3
72.8
18.6
20.9
33.8
5.1
7.1
10.6
9.4
.5
.5
.6
66. 2
16.6
15.3
54.7
10.2
9.5
11.7
13.1
.7
.7
8.8
45.3
17.5
5. 1
34.1
100.0
6,604
33.3
100.0
7,853
34.3
100.0
2,593
22.7
100.0
137
(9
60 years
and over
1 Less than Ho of 1 percent.
, , . ,
, . . .
, , ,
chief, second and third stewards, chefs, and chief cooks, butchers, and bakers.
j Includes
Of 17,187 male employees, 1,078 or 6.3 percent were under 21 years
of age. Of these young employees, 3 were 16 years old, 41 were 17,
250 were 18, 374 were 19, and 410 were 20 years old. Only 125 were
cadets and 45 were apprentices and deck boys. Of the remaining
908 minors, 190 were ordinary seamen (or 27.9 percent of all ordinary
seamen and 17.6 percent of all minors), of whom 6 were 17 years of
age, 51 were 18, 75 were 19, and 58 were 20 years old. There were
49 able seamen among the employees of less than 21 years. In the
engine department, 223 minors (19.8 percent of the total) were occu
pied as oilers and water tenders, firemen, and wipers and coal passers,
of whom 3 were 17 years of age, 38 were 18, 75 were 19, and 97 were
20 years of age. The stewards’ department, including miscellaneous
workers, showed 413 employees (38.3 percent of all minors) under
21 years of age, of whom 2 were 16 years, 19 were 17, 115 were 18,
129 were 19, and 148 were 20 years of age. These employees were
occupied as bellboys, messboys, messmen, scullions, waiters, coun
termen, porters, and laundrymen. There were also 33 employees
under 21 years of age scattered among a number of miscellaneous
occupations.
The 316 female workers included were, as a group, older than the
male employees, the former averaging 35.7 as compared with 33.8
years for the latter (who included the older executive officers not
represented among the female workers). The principal group of
woman employees, namely stewardesses, cooks, maids, etc., had an
average of 36 years, as compared with 34 years for the comparable
class of male workers.
No woman employees were younger than 21 years; 70 percent were
30 years old or over; 33 percent were 40 years old or more, and 7
percent were 50 years old or over.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Employment Conditions
NATIONAL UNEMPLOYMENT CENSUS, 1937 1
ACCORDING to the voluntary registration in the National Unem
ployment Census of November 16-20, 1937, the number of totally
unemployed, including persons on emergency relief work, was
7,822,912.
The enumerative test census which followed this voluntary regis
tration, and which actually covered 1,950,000 persons by house-tohouse canvass, indicated that the voluntary census had been 72 percent
complete, so that allowance for this variation would give a projected
maximum total of 10,870,000 who regarded themselves as unemployed,
at the time of the unemployment census. The number of emergency
relief workers included in the voluntary record as unemployed was
2,001,877. The number of females who reported themselves as totally
unemployed or on emergency relief work in the voluntary registration
and who are included in the above totals was 1,996,699.
The number in the 48 States and the District of Columbia regis
tered as totally unemployed and wanting work (not including persons
on emergency work) was 5,821,035. The registration was as low as
3,091 in Nevada and as high as 763,322 in New York. Slightly over
one-half of the 5,821,035 unemployed wanting work (2,925,415) were
in 8 States—New York (763,322), Pennsylvania (566,437), Illinois
(338,055), Ohio (304,682), California (258,005), Massachusetts
(248,484), Texas (229,254), and New Jersey (217,176).
Persons who registered as partly employed and wanting more work
numbered 3,209,211, of whom 2,641,660 were males and 567,551,
females. That the voluntary registration of these partly unemployed
was only 57 percent complete was indicated by the subsequent test
census. The Middle Atlantic States, including New York, New
Jersey, and Pennsylvania, had the largest number partly unemployed,
totalling 715,158, of which number 580,934 were males and 134,224
were females. New York had the highest State total of partly em
ployed who wanted more work, 319,566, including 250,264 males and
69,304 females. Pennsylvania was second with a total of 300,809, of
which 257,945 were males, and 42,864 females.
The above information was conveyed to President Roosevelt by
John D. Biggers, as Administrator of the National Unemployment
* Data are from National Unemployment Census, Washington, press releases of January 2, 3, and 8,1938.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
355
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
356
Census which was taken according to an act of Congress passed at
the last regular session.
The Post Office Department was designated to distribute unem
ployment report cards to every known address in the United States,
Alaska, and Hawaii.
The text of Mr. Diggers’ reports to the President is given below:
Text of Reports
PERSONS TOTALLY UNEM PLOYED
As Administrator of the census of partial employment, unemploy
ment, and occupations, I respectfully submit this preliminary report
on unemployment as revealed by the voluntary unemployment regis
tration, November 16 to 20, 1937, and our subsequent enumerative
test census.
Unemployment is difficult to measure. We approached this task
with an appreciation of the difficulties but with a conviction that a
knowledge of basic facts was a prerequisite to a sound solution of the
unemployment problem.
A voluntary registration of the unemployed was undertaken because
it offered the possibility of getting the essential information more
promptly and at less cost than a Nation-wide enumerative census.
However, as you know, we recognized from the outset that sole reliance
could not be placed upon this or any other voluntary registration.
Therefore, we conducted an enumerative test census of 1,950,000
people, representing a cross section of the United States, in order to
appraise the completeness and accuracy of our voluntary registration.
This combination of voluntary and enumerative methods seemed to
be the best procedure available within the limits of time and cost.
The painstaking care with which the unemployment report cards
were filled out surpassed all expectations. Careful checks in the
field and in the process of tabulation resulted in rejection of less than
6 percent of all the cards sent in, although rejections of 10 to 20 per
cent had been anticipated. The principal reasons for rejection were
inability to work, duplicate registrations, unknown at address given,
and under or over the age limit (15 to 74). Your faith in the willing
ness of the people to cooperate in any undertaking for their own good
and that of the Nation was fully justified.
The voluntary registration of those working for W. P. A., N. Y. A.,
C. C. C., and on other emergency work, who, for the purposes of this
census, were asked to register as unemployed was—
Males_____________________________________________ 1. 662, 444
Females___________________________________________
339, 433
Total emergency workers-------------------------------- 2, 001, 877
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Employment Conditions
357
All others classified as totally unemployed, able to work, and wanting
work numbered—
Males_____________________________________________ 4, 163, 769
Females___________________________________________ 1, 657, 266
Totally unemployed workers_________________ 5, 821, 035
Thus the voluntary registration of totally unemployed, including the
emergency workers, was 7,822,912 of whom 5,826,213 were males and
1,996,699 females.
The enumerative test census heretofore mentioned was taken in
1,864 areas, selected at random and distributed throughout the United
States approximately in proportion to population. This house-tohouse canvass covered more than 1% percent of the population of the
United States and was made by the trained personnel of the Post
Office Department during the week of November 29. The questions,
however, applied to the employment status of those individuals at the
time of the voluntary registration.
The voluntary registrations from the identical areas have been
compared with the results of this test census. According to a prelimi
nary analysis for 1,455 areas, the voluntary registration was 72 percent
of the number reported in the test census as totally unemployed,
including emergency workers. The largest variation was among
females. The percentage for males was 79 percent. These percent
ages of apparent completeness are regarded by the experts as excep
tionally high for any type of voluntary registration, and are attribut
able to the efficiency with which the Post Office Department did its
part of the job and to the exceptional support received from the press,
the radio, the motion-picture industry, and the mayors’ committees
and other cooperating agencies in more than 4,000 cities and towns.
In determining the true measure of unemployment it is important
to consider certain factors brought to light by the variation between
the results of the voluntary census and of the enumerative census.
The unemployed may be divided into two classes. One class
represents those regular workers for wages who always work when
work is available, regardless of their immediate economic status.
Work to them is not only a means of livelihood but a habit of life.
These unemployed are clearly a part of the regular labor market.
There is also a second group consisting of those who are not regular
workers for wages, such as housewives who seek wage jobs only when
the family breadwinner is idle; daughters or sons who take jobs
through choice rather than necessity; unpaid family workers on farms
and in family stores who seek wage jobs only when family income needs
augmenting; retired people who, because savings have been depleted,
decide to enter the labor market again. To this class unemployment
39873— 38—
5
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
358
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
is a status depending on their current inclinations and temporaryeconomic conditions.
This second group, made up of the occasional workers for wages,
might not take the trouble to respond to a voluntary registration but
might readily be reminded to relate to a census enumerator their
current inclination to work. For example, the proportion of women
who reported themselves as unemployed was greater in the enumerative census than in the registration, though both exceed the percentage
of women reporting as unemployed in the 1930 census. It is expected
that our detailed analysis will throw further light on this and similar
questions.
Considering all of those factors, we do not claim provable accuracy
for any one figure. The true number of those who considered them
selves totally unemployed, able to work and wanting work, in our
opinion, lies between 7,822,912, the number who responded to the
registration, and 10,870,000, the number indicated by the enumerative
census.
In formulating any program for reemployment of workers in indus
try, based upon the results of this census, a number of considerations
must be borne in mind. For example, it is not to be assumed that
because a certain number of people are jobless, the same number of
jobs must be created to bring a return to normal conditions. When
the usual family breadwinner is idle, two or perhaps more members of
his family may enter the labor market. Conversely, when the bread
winner is satisfactorily reemployed, other members of the family may
withdraw from the labor market.
Then, too, you recognize—but it should perhaps be emphasized—that
the number of people who reported themselves as unemployed should
not be confused with the number of people who need financial assist
ance or relief. Many people consider themselves unemployed who are
not financially compelled to work. Irrespective of their need when
they seek employment, they enter the labor market and compete with
others who have jobs or vitally need jobs. They are, therefore, a
factor in the unemployment problem though they may never seek
relief.
Our figures reflect the decline in employment during the earlier
stages of the current business recession but not the subsequent trend.
If you desire additional information beyond that obtainable from the
usual statistical sources, it would be possible, with the cooperation
of the Post Office Department, to make at any future date a crosssectional enumeration of our test areas which should be of value to
you and the Congress. This, in addition to all the other work con
templated by us, could be carried through well within the $5,000,000
budgeted for the purposes of this census.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Employment Conditions
359
We will submit to you tomorrow another report showing the dis
tribution, by States, of total unemployment as revealed by the
voluntary census, following which there will be made available a
break-down of this information by counties and by cities of 10,000
and more population, all according to sex. Subsequently, we will
give you a report on the extent of partial unemployment, National,
State, county, and city, likewise according to sex.
As the tabulation progresses we will report additional facts such as
the age groups of the unemployed; their occupational classification; the
kinds of business or industry in which they have worked; and other
related factors.
Fully appreciating the vital importance of a reemployment program
and the contributing value of this information, the Bureau of the
Census has cooperated with us by working three shifts a day, in order
to expedite this work and permit the completion of our report to you
at the earliest possible date, which will be by or before the end of
March 1938.
In concluding this initial and partial report, may I express my
appreciation of the personal consideration which you have given to
this undertaking and of the inestimable value of your counsel and
support? I believe this undertaking will prove worth while not only
because it provides new facts and figures about unemployment but
because the wide popular consideration of this subject has focused the
attention of the Nation upon the immediate necessity of formulating
a long-range program of reemployment.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
360
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
T able 1.—Persons Who Registered in Unemployment Census as Totally Unemployed or
Working on Emergency Work, by States
Persons who, between N ov. 16 and N ov. 20, were—
Totally unemployed and wanted
work
State
Total
United States.............
Alabama............. .........
A rizona...------ -------Arkansas__________
California__________
Colorado---------------Connecticut________
Delaware__________
District of Columbia.
Florida.......................Georgia.......................
Id a h o ....................... Illinois________ ____
In d ia n a ..................
Iowa......... ...................
Kansas.........................
Kentucky_____ ____
Louisiana--------------M aine________ ____
Maryland................ .
M assachusetts...........
Michigan........ ............
Minnesota_________
M ississippi.............. .
Missouri......................
M ontana....................
Nebraska__________
Nevada-----------------New Hampshire----New Jersey........ ........
New M exico..............
New York_________
North Carolina.........
North Dakota_____
Ohio............... ..............
Oklahoma_________
Oregon.........................
Pennsylvania______
Rhode Island______
South Carolina..........
South Dakota______
Tennessee..................
Texas______ _____ _
U tah............................
Vermont.................... .
Virginia....... ...............
Washington............
W est Virginia...........
Wisconsin................ .
Wyoming_________
5.821,035
150,145
12, 948
92,149
258,005
44,272
69, 576
8, 907
37,600
73,479
130,803
18, 641
338,055
133,136
61, 531
64, 575
143,031
97,317
37,814
58, 288
248,484
195,016
98,495
89,584
191,873
28, 390
44,872
3,091
25,311
217,176
21,162
763, 322
94, 711
26,962
304, 682
114,114
58, 557
566,437
43,654
73, 227
26,002
116,142
229,254
18,848
10,197
84,487
89,871
86,449
112, 728
7,665
Male
4,163,769
98,942
10,220
67,832
182,466
33,967
48,183
6,493
19,073
42,924
78, 715
15,819
246,732
97,724
46, 760
49,361
98,240
69,410
27, 534
41, 518
162,052
147,445
75,568
60,654
133, 573
22,867
33,446
2,571
16, 219
156, 371
18, 232
537,007
55, 270
22,340
223, 254
85,596
46, 673
440,692
27,453
44,268
20, 533
76,266
163, 223
14, 959
7,619
53, 372
71,196
69,315
87,467
6.355
I Female
1, 657,266
51, 203
2,728
24,317
75, 539
10,305
21, 393
2,414
18, 527
30, 555
52,088
2,822
91, 323
35,412
14, 771
15, 214
44, 791
27,907
10,280
16, 770
86, 432
47, 571
22,927
28, 930
58,300
5,523
11,426
520
9,092
60, 805
2,930
226,315
39,441
4,622
81,428
28, 518
11, 884
125, 745
16, 201
28,959
5,469
39, 876
66,031
3,889
2, 578
31,115
18,075
17,134
25, 261
1,310
Working at W. P. A., N . Y . A.,
C. C. C., or other emergency work
Total
2,001,877
38, 739
8,476
34, 254
91, 055
20,829
18, 206
2,429
9, 765
33,151
36, 587
7,239
121,688
53,267
23, 765
35,038
54, 352
33,160
6,050
12,947
79,135
54,172
45, 684
29, 377
65,109
20, 203
25,850
1,757
6, 628
70, 354
9, 428
206, 518
31,030
18, 707
105,185
58, 725
14, 634
184,014
14,889
29,401
23, 680
31,956
76, 355
10, 945
4,128
28,112
31,078
34,061
46, 574
3,191
Male
Female
1, 662,444
30, 782
7,176
29,037
68, 674
15, 621
15, 776
1,883
6,960
25,491
27, 573
6,171
106, 270
47,865
20,324
27,926
44,838
27,026
5, 226
11, 237
62,428
47,914
38,937
22,455
55, 333
17, 515
22,044
1,385
5,305
60,155
8,313
178,974
22,471
15, 531
92, 375
48,212
12, 414
157, 882
12,487
20, 694
19,323
27, 609
55, 643
9,223
3, 362
20, 329
26, 574
29,194
40,172
2,335
339,433
7,957
1,300
5,217
22, 381
5,208
2,430
546
2,805
7,660
9,014
1,068
15,418
5,402
3,441
7,112
9, 514
6,134
824
1,710
16,707
6, 258
6,747
6, 922
9, 776
2,688
3,806
372
1,323
10,199
1,115
27,544
8,559
3,176
12,810
10,513
2,220
26,132
2,402
8,707
4,357
4,347
20,712
1, 722
766
7,783
4,504
4, 867
6,402
856
PERSONS PARTLY UNEM PLOYED
The voluntary registration of those partly employed and wanting
more work was—■
Males_____________________________________________ 2, 641, 660
Females___________________________________________
567, 551
Total, partly unemployed-------------------------------- 3, 209, 211
Just as soon as final tabulation of the answers to all of the 14
questions can be completed, we will make available to you and to the
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Employment Conditions
361
Nation a wealth of data which should be helpful in formulating plans
for reemployment. In fact we place much greater value upon such
information than upon the enumeration approximation achieved in
the fields of total and partial unemployment.
This information will include statistics as to age, color, farm or urban
residence, occupational classification, industry, the number of weeks
worked during the past year, the hours of employment during the week
preceding registration, the number of workers in the family of each
registrant and the number of persons dependent upon the registrant.
Questions regarding partial unemployment were included on the
voluntary registration card, as provided by law, but with full realiza
tion of the impracticability of accurately measuring such a variable
quantity. The enumerative test census, conducted over 1,455 postal
routes immediately after the voluntary registration to check its com
pleteness and accuracy, demonstrated that it is more difficult to
measure partial unemployment than total unemployment. The
voluntary registration of the partially unemployed was only 57 per
cent of the number reported in our test census, as compared with the
72-percent registration of the number reported to the enumerators as
totally unemployed.
In our report on total unemployment we pointed out the difficulties
of measuring the marginal group consisting of those who are not
regular workers for wages. In the field of partial unemployment
other factors make the appraisal even more complex. For example, it
is difficult to get people to understand the important distinction
between partial employment and partial unemployment. Many
persons regularly work only part time and do not need or want more
work. They are partially employed. Others are reduced to part-time
work by force of circumstances, not by personal limitations or choice.
They are partly unemployed.
Preliminary analysis indicates that a very considerable number have
registered or reported themselves as partially unemployed when they
clearly belong to the group of partly employed workers and should
not have included themselves in either the voluntary or the test
census.
Attention should also be called to the fact that the volume of partial
unemployment reflects the prevalent share-the-work policy. Em
ployers, oftentimes at the request of the workers, distribute the burden
of unemployment among all of their workers to avoid imposing the
extreme hardships of idleness on those who would otherwise have to
be laid off. This is usually done with the hope that improved condi
tions will make it possible to bring all back to full-time employment,
but during the interim the part-time workers may properly consider
themselves partly unemployed.
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Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
T able 2.—Persons Who Registered in the Unemployment Census as Partly Employed
and Wanting More Work, by Sex, and by States
Estimated
population
July 1,1937
Division and State
Persons who (between N ov. 16 and Nov.
20) registered as partly employed and
wanting more work
Female
Total
Male
129,257,000
3,209,211
2,641,660
567,551
8,597,000
856,000
510,000
383,000
4,426,000
681,000
1,741,000
264,397
29,048
21,462
7,798
135,359
28,225
42,505
194,180
23,695
15,545
6,484
97,626
18,217
32,613
70, 217
5,353
5,917
1,314
37,733
10,008
9,892
M iddle Atlantic_________ ____________ ____
N ew York____________ _____________
27,478,000
12,959,000
4,343,000
10.176.000
715,158
319,566
94,783
300,809
580,934
250,264
72, 725
257,945
134,224
69,302
22,058
42,864
East North Central_________ _ _________
25.841.000
6,733,000
3.474.000
7.878.000
4,830,000
2,926,000
578,835
178,538
86,281
162,606
88,778
62,632
498, 359
154,183
75, 352
137,970
77,044
53,810
80,476
24,355
10,929
24,636
11,734
8,822
13,819,000
2,652,000
2, 552,000
3,989,000
706,000
692,000
1,364,000
1,864,000
306,865
56,197
50,337
104,360
12, 546
15,005
29,526
38,894
262,802
48,355
43,936
86,995
11,257
13,212
25,484
33,563
44,064
7,842
6,401
17,365
1,289
1,793
4,042
5,331
17,260,000
261,000
1,769,000
627,000
2,706,000
1,865,000
3,492,000
1,875,000
3,085,000
1,670,000
405,232
4,317
28,202
12,164
53,108
37,522
79, 369
51,625
88,408
50, 517
314,315
3,501
22,866
7,252
43,437
33,873
58,224
39,461
66,493
39,207
90,918
816
5,336
4,912
9,671
3,649
21,145
12,164
21,915
11,310
10.731,000
2,920,000
2,893,000
2.895.000
2.023.000
300,134
63,528
68,811
102,501
65,294
247,789
53,816
57,215
82, 369
54,389
52,345
9,712
11,596
20,132
10,905
12,900,000
2,048,000
2.132,000
2,548,000
6.172.000
335,679
67,235
60,797
61,487
146,160
285,156
58,396
50,719
53,335
122,706
50,523
8,839
10,078
8,152
23,454
3.792.000
539,000
493,000
235,000
1,071,000
422,000
412,000
519,000
101,000
86,616
13,642
12,698
4,830
25,874
8,100
6,609
13,485
1, 378
75, 319
12,260
11,676
4,361
20,739
7,178
5,730
12,147
1,228
11,297
1, 382
1,022
469
5,135
922
879
1,338
150
8,839,000
1,658,000
1,027,000
6,154,000
216,295
49,476
31,243
135,576
182,806
43, 615
27,284
111,907
33,489
5,861
3,959
23,669
New England................................ ......................
Vermont..".......................................................
Indiana...... ................ .
. _______ _____
West North Central______ ________________
Kansas___ ___________
South Atlantic____________
______________
_ .............
..
V irginia........................................... ................
West Virginia____________ ____ ________
South Carolina.____ ______ ___________
F lorid a...______ ________ _____________
East South Central___________ __________
Tennessee...................
. . ____________
Alabam a.. ________________ ______ ____
M ississippi__________________
______
Idaho__________________________ ______
U ta h ..________ ______ ________________
N evada...... ................................................. .
Pacific.......... ....... .................. .............. ................ .
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Employment Conditions
363
PLACEMENT OF AMERICAN INDIANS, 1936-37
THROUGH the employment offices of the Indian Service some 6,570
Indians were placed in employment (2,654 within the Service and
3,916 in private employment) in the year ending June 30, 1937.
Two-thirds of those placed in private employment obtained permanent
positions, according to the annual report of the Secretary of the In
terior. The types of jobs obtained ranged from household work to
highly technical positions. The follow-up work for Indian place
ments outside the Indian Service indicates that most of these job
holders were able to adjust themselves to city industrial life.
As a general practice, Indian workers are strongly encouraged to
remain on their homelands, and to use their training to solve their
individual economic difficulties and to promote the economic rehabili
tation of their tribes. However, when an Indian manifests a wish to
get employment away from the reservation, all possible assistance is
given to secure work for which he is equipped by training and experi
ence.
Indian Emergency Employment
Over 50,000 Indians were given work by the Indian Emergency
Conservation Work, from its beginning in June 1933 to June 30,1937.1
The daily number of men on the pay rolls for the 4 years was about
8,500, and the number of calendar days worked exceeded 11,500,000.
At certain agencies employment had to be staggered.
Indians when qualified, have been given preference in supervisory
positions. A large number of machine operators, mechanics, group
foremen, assistant foremen, and camp assistants are Indians. For
skilled and supervisory positions the record for the 4-year period is
540 Indians as against 436 whites.
The monthly wages for Indian enrollees have been, as in the camps
for whites, $30 plus board, lodging, and clothing, or a monthly com
mutation of $15 when the enrollee lives at home and provides his
own meals. The popularity of the family camps continued. Reser
vation staffs aided these groups in sanitation, health, and social
problems.
> The Indian Emergency Conservation Work ended its fourth year June 30,1937.
ity will be designated the Civilian Conservation Corps, Indian Division.
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Henceforth this activ
Social Security
SICKNESS INSURANCE IN DENM ARK 1
THE SOCIAL reform law of May 20, 1933, which codified the
numerous social laws passed in Denmark during more than half a
century, included four laws, one of which—the law governing public
insurance (Lov om Folkeforsikring)—dealt with sickness insurance,
invalidity insurance, and old-age pensions. This law, as amended
May 7, 1937, covers practically the entire population but benefits
specifically the workers, and persons of either no means or very
limited resources. The historical background of the national insur
ance system was the voluntary sickness insurance for the poor, which
was carried on with public support. The first law relating to sick
funds was passed April 12, 1892. At that time the country already
possessed an extensive network of mutual-benefit societies. This law
was replaced by a new act in 1915 which was amended in 1921, the
amendment being necessitated by the Invalidity Insurance Act of
May 6, 1921, which provided that every member of a sickness fund
without means should be compulsorily insured against invalidity until
his sixty-second year. The three principles embodied in all these
acts were the voluntary insurance of persons without means, subsidy
from the public authorities, and supervision of the insurance insti
tutions by State departments. The voluntary health insurance
prior to the enactment of the social reform law in 1933 covered about
two-thirds of the population.
Type of System
The national sickness-insurance system is based on the principle of
voluntary insurance, but insurance against invalidity and the right
to an old-age pension are dependent upon membership in a recognized
sick fund. Under the definitions used, a sick fund is an association of
persons without resources who have combined to provide mutual
assistance in case of sickness by means of a specified contribution,
whereas a sick-benefit society is an association of persons who can
not be considered to be without means but who have combined to
provide mutual assistance in case of sickness. The latter class of
1 Based on report by E. Gjessing, American vice consul, Copenhagen; additional data from Interna
tional Labor Office (Geneva), Legislative Series 1933, and Industrial and Labor Information, October 3.
1937.
364
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Social Security
365
societies may, with the consent of the Minister of Social Affairs, be
come subject to the supervision of the Director of Sick Funds, in which
case the association is called a State-inspected sick-benefit society
(continuation sick fund). In order to secure recognition a sick fund
must operate either for a particular trade (commerce, industry, or
handicraft) or for a locality (as a rule, the area of the commune).
Coverage
All citizens of Denmark enjoying civic rights are entitled to be
come members of either a recognized sick fund or a State-inspected
sick-benefit society. Under the laws of May 20, 1933, and May 7,
1937, the members of the sick fund, in order to receive benefits, must
be “unpropertied,” and an order is issued every 3 years by the Minis
ter of Social Affairs fixing the income and property limits for the
beneficiary members. The maximum income ranges, at present, from
4,200 kroner in Copenhagen to 2,800 kroner in the rural districts, and
the property limitation from 14,000 kroner for heads of families to
9,000 kroner for single persons. Only persons of the working classes
without means and men or women in similar economic circumstances,
such as small farmers, handicraft workers, and other persons engaged
in industry, public employees, etc., may become full members of a
sick fund. Orphaned children up to the age of 15 years for whom no
other facilities are provided for obtaining sick benefit under any
legislative provisions may (subject to fulfillment of the usual economic
conditions) become independent full members of a sick fund irrespec
tive of the lower age limit, but they are entitled only to sick benefit
and may not receive cash benefits. If a member’s economic situation
improves to such an extent that he cannot remain in the sick fund as
a full member without means, he may become a contributing member
of the sick fund with means if the fund has a section for such members,
or he may become a member of one of the State-inspected sickbenefit societies. Admission to the sick funds is between the ages of
14 and 60, and a member’s children under the age of 15 are also covered
by the insurance. No person may be admitted to a sick fund as a
full member while suffering from a temporary illness, nor can persons
be admitted who, because of a chronic or incurable disease or a serious
bodily infirmity, cannot be deemed to be capable of work. No
person may be a member of more than one recognized sick fund and no
member of such a fund, who also joins a nonrecognized sick fund, may
secure daily cash benefit exceeding his average earnings.
Irrespective of income and property qualification, all persons be
tween 21 and 60 years of age who are Danish citizens and are residents
in Denmark or employed on a Danish vessel, and who are not full
members of a sick fund or full or contributing members of a sick-
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Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
benefit society, must be contributing members of a recognized sick
fund if they fulfill the required conditions as to health. Application
for membership must be made not more than 3 months after attaining
the age of 21, and other persons were required to apply for admission
within a year after the act became operative (October 1, 1933).
Every person who fails to fulfill the conditions as to health before
reaching the age of 27 years is required to reapply for admission to a
sick fund as a contributing member not less than 3 months before
reaching the age of 30 years. Contributing members are entitled to
be transferred to full membership in a sick fund, irrespective of their
health and age at the time of transference, when their economic cir
cumstances change so that they fulfill the financial requirements for
beneficiary members. However, such members are not entitled to
benefits until the expiration of 6 months (formerly 6 weeks) after their
transference. This extension of waiting period, which was effected
by the 1937 law, was intended to restrain the tendency of insured
persons to remain passive members of the system (because of the small
er contribution) as long as they are young and in good health and
only to move into the class of active members when older and more
exposed to sickness. Not more than one State-inspected sick-benefit
society may be approved for the same area. The operations of such
societies are restricted to the granting of sick benefits, based on the
mutual liability of members. Such societies pay an annual fee to the
State treasury for inspection. Admission to membership in the sickbenefit societies for persons with means is between the ages of 14 and
40 and every such society must provide for the admission of persons
who fulfill the conditions as to age and health. A contributing mem
ber who on account of his age is no longer entitled to obtain full mem
bership rights in the sick-benefit society must be transferred to a recog
nized sick fund as a contributing member.
A sick fund for persons without means must as a rule have at least
200 members in order to receive and retain State recognition. The
number of full members of the sick funds was about 2,100,000 at the
end of 1935.
Nationals of other States residing in Denmark may be admitted to
membership in the funds in cases where reciprocal agreements have
been concluded with the State in question.
Contributions
The contributions of full members of a sick fund are fixed at such
an amount as may be anticipated from the previous experience to be
sufficient when combined with other ordinary receipts of the fund and
the grants from public sources to meet the claims and to form a reserve
which will be equal to the average expenses of the sick fund over the
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Social Security
367
3 preceding financial years. The fee paid by contributing members is
2 kroner per year if 25 years of age and under, and 2.50 kroner per
year thereafter. An annual grant is made to the recognized sick
funds by the Treasury, the amount of which is fixed in the annual
finance act. The grant allocated to the individual sick funds is 2
kroner per year for each person who at the end of the year is a full mem
ber without means, plus one-fourth of the expenditures of the funds for
medical treatment of members, hospitalization, daily cash benefits,
dental care, maternity benefits, home nursing, and treatment in con
valescent homes, etc. An additional State grant is made for persons
who, though suffering from frequently recurring or incurable disease
or bodily infirmity, are nevertheless considered capable of work. The
communes repay to the sick funds expenditures in certain types of
cases. If a full member without means or a contributing member of a
sick fund is wholly or partially unable to pay the membership or in
validity premiums, because of sickness, reduction in working capacity,
unemployment, etc., the commune of residence will pay the premium
as long as circumstances require. The communes are assessed an
amount (which is apportioned among them on the basis of the number
of inhabitants, the total income of the commune, and the total taxable
land value of the commune) to be applied toward payment of the
cost for persons suffering from a chronic or incurable disease and of cash
benefits in maternity cases.
Benefits
In case of sickness, the law specifies that the sick fund shall provide
free medical attendance, free hospital treatment, a daily cash benefit,
maternity care, and three-fourths of the cost of insulin and liver
preparations for patients suffering from diabetes and pernicious ane
mia. Sick benefit may not be granted until 6 weeks after admission
to membership in a fund, except in case of accident, when it is paid
immediately; maternity benefit is payable after 10 months. No cash
benefit may be granted for sickness which does not last more than 3
days. The 6-week qualifying period does not apply to a child who is
registered before he reaches the age of 15. The daily cash benefit may
not be less than 40 0re nor more than 6 kroner, nor exceed four-fifths
of the beneficiary’s average daily earnings prior to sickness. The
benefit period may not exceed 26 weeks in each 12 consecutive months.
A member, whose sickness becomes chronic or incurable, may not
receive more than 3 kroner per day. A member who is in receipt of
an invalidity or old-age pension may receive not more than 1 krone
per day, and his benefit is limited to 13 weeks in any 12 consecutive
months. Children of members may not receive cash benefits. In
maternity cases the daily cash benefit is paid for a fortnight at the
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
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Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
same rate which the person would receive in case of sickness, and after
that the daily benefit is 3 kroner, 2.40 kroner, or 1.80 kroner, accord
ing to the place of residence. The total period for which the benefit
may be granted is 6 weeks. If a member has received sick benefit for
60 weeks during 3 consecutive financial years his right to receive fur
ther benefit lapses and he is transferred to the class of contributing
members. He may regain full membership rights at the expiration of
12 months but must then produce a medical certificate showing that he
is physically fit. A member who receives his full income during sick
ness is not entitled to pecuniary benefit, and if part of the income ceases
the cash benefit granted must be such that the total amount will not
exceed his usual income. This rule does not apply if a member’s
income consists solely of an invalidity or old-age pension.
Free conveyance is provided by the communal authority for per
sons living in the country or more than 1 kilometer outside a market
town for the purpose of taking a member to a medical practitioner or
midwife or to a hospital, or for bringing the doctor or midwife to the
patient. In general, the distance for which conveyance is provided
may not be more than 10 kilometers.
The optional benefits which a sick fund may provide include medi
cines (three-fourths of the cost), dental care, treatment by specialists,
hospitalization in special clinics, and home nursing.
The sick-benefit funds pay the physicians employed on the basis of
collective agreements between the management of the societies and
medical practitioners, dentists, and midwives. The agreements
must be approved by the Minister of Social Affairs. The payments
may be in the form of a fixed amount annually per member, with
additional payments in difficult cases and for visits at night and on
holidays, or payment for each visit. Payment on an annual basis is
the preferred method, as it is considered less expensive. Members are
free to choose a physician within the district of the society to which
they belong. The hospital charges are fixed by agreement between
the sick-benefit funds and the hospitals in the districts in which the
funds are located, and the rates may not exceed those charged to
persons who are not beneficiary members. Such agreements are
subject to the approval of the Minister of Social Affairs.
Disputes and Petialties
Loss of membership rights as a full member may be incurred for
fraud and dishonesty, and repayment to the sick fund of benefits re
ceived as a result of fraudulent statements may be required. An
appeal against the decision of the director in such cases may be lodged,
by the member or the sick-fund committee, with the Minister of
Social Affairs within 1 month.
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Disputes between sick funds and medical practitioners or midwives
are referred to an arbitration council consisting of a chairman and
six members representing the Federation of Central Associations of
Sick Funds and the Danish Medical Association.
Administration
A State sick-benefit insurance department was established in 1933
under the Ministry of Social Affairs. The Director of Sick Funds
who is in charge of the department has general supervision of the
funds but takes no part in their management. He presents an annual
report to the Minister on the operations of the sick funds and arranges
for annual meetings (for the whole country or for each Province) for
the instruction of representatives of the recognized funds. Each
fund may send to the annual meeting one or more representatives,
elected by the governing body of the fund. A sick-fund committee,
consisting of 12 members with the Director as chairman, is elected by
the governing bodies of all the sick funds for a term of 4 years. This
committee is required to meet at least once a year to deal with questions
affecting the system of sick funds, and has power to demand audits of
the accounts of the funds, to regulate the transference of members
from one fund to another, and to recommend withdrawal of State
recognition in cases where it is considered that the management of a
fund is acting toward its members or toward other funds in such a
way as to affect the whole system adversely. Annual reports covering
the financial condition of the funds must be made on forms approved
by the Director of Sick Funds by funds whose membership does not
exceed 5,000; funds with a larger membership must meet the require
ments of the Director as to their system of accounts. The reports
for the year, together with the accounts duly audited and approved,
must be forwarded to the Director by the funds within a time limit
fixed by the Minister of Social Affairs. A thorough local audit of
the accounts of all recognized sick funds must be made every 5
years by accountants belonging to the civil service.
Statistics of Operation
Most of the 1,640 sick-benefit societies are quite small, and about 75
percent have fewer than 1,000 members. Under the circumstances,
the financial standing of the individual societies varies greatly. The
total expenditures, according to officials of the State Sick Benefit
Committee, now average 67,000,000 kroner per annum, and the total
reserve funds in 1937 amounted to 44,000,000 kroner. The demands
made on the funds are increasing and some difficulty is experienced in
increasing the membership contribution. As a result, the reserve
funds have decreased in proportion to expenditures in the past few
years.
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Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
The public contributions to the sick-benefit societies have been as
follows (according to officials of the Ministry of Social Affairs):
1933- 34______
1934- 35______
1935- 36______
State
{kroner)
12, 815, 000
15, 000, 000
17, 742, 000
Communes
{kroner)
1,750,000
6,916,000
7,249,000
Total
{kroner)
14,
565,000
21,
915,000
24,
991,000
The Sick Benefit Societies Committee publishes statements of
income and expenditure of the societies for each calendar year. The
cost of administration of the sick funds amounted to slightly more than
11 percent of the total expenditures in 1934. These costs are higher
in the urban than in the rural districts. The figures for 1934, the
latest year available, are given in the following table:
Receipts and Expenditures of Sick-Benefit Funds in Denmark in 1934
Item
Amount
K ron er
Membership fees______________ ____
Contributions bv passive members........
Voluntary contributions by the com
munes____ _______________________
Interest on assets____________________
Interest on invalid premiums and other
61,804, 539
41,151,035
191,030
916,933
931,217
488,009
1,859,938
Contributions by the State and communes____________________________
Expenditures_____ _____________________
Cash benefits_______________________
Treatment at local hospitals__________
Treatment of tubercular p a t ie n ts ..___
Medical treatment. . . ._ ____________
Treatments by specialists________ . . .
Dental treatment___________________
Medicine___________ _______ _____
Maternity help and treatment________
Treatment at private clinics__________
Bandages, disinfectants and spectacles.
Treatment at insane asylums......... .........
Payments to homes for convalescents..
Insulin and liver m edicines.....................
Massage and medicinal baths________
Administration expenditures_________
Miscellaneous. _____________________
Sick benefits to older members 1______
Benefits to chronically sick m em bers...
16, 266,377
62,282, 569
8,795,166
8,404, 246
766, 792
16,150, 602
2, 308, 229
2, 604, 382
5, 669, 587
2, 371, 512
878,408
892, 039
734, 621
474, 441
663,514
308, 577
464, 747
7, 000, 077
1, 034,008
1, 041, 347
1, 720, 274
1 Persons who had reached the pensionable age at the time the act became operative.
UNEM PLOYM ENT-BENEFIT ACT OF UNION OF
SOUTH AFRICA 1
THE UNEMPLOYMENT benefit plan lately introduced in the
Union of South Africa establishes separate insurance funds for a
selected group of industries. In this respect it differs from the majority
1 Report of Russell M . Brooks, American consul, Johannesburg, October 13,1937; Union of South Africa,
Act No. 25 of 1937 (Unemployment Benefit Act); International Labor Office, Industrial and Labor Infor
mation, August 23, 1937, p. 259; and Great Britain, M inistry of Labor Gazette, July 1937, p. 259.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Social Security
371
of governmental systems of compulsory unemployment insurance
whereby pooled funds are provided. The law of South Africa was
enacted in April 1937 to become effective on a future date to be fixed
by the Governor-General. Adoption of this legislation followed two
unsuccessful attempts on the part of members of Parliament to estab
lish unemployment insurance in 1934 and 1935. The new law places
the supervision of the system under a central authority appointed by
the Minister of Labor and Social Welfare. Employee contributions
in the lower wage brackets are one-third those of employers, increasing
until, in the highest of three wage classes, they equal those of the
employers. The Government is committed to contribute in an
amount equaling one-fourth of the total of employer and employee
payments, but reserves the right to allocate such funds in grants and
loans under its own terms, requiring compliance with the standards
it may fix. Benefits of 10s. to 30s. per week are payable depending
upon the wage class in which the contributor falls. To be eligible
for benefit an employee must have made at least 26 contributions
within the 2 years immediately preceding the period of unemployment.
The waiting period is 1 week and benefits are receivable for 26 weeks
in any 52.
Coverage
Although employees of only eight industries—building, mechanical
and electrical engineering, motor engineering, furniture making, gold
m in in g (within certain areas), leather and footwear manufacture,
printing and newspaper, and clothing—are covered by the terms of
the act, the Governor-General is empowered to abolish funds or add
to them as the need arises. Participation is compulsory for em
ployees under a contract of service or apprenticeship with an employer
to perform work in one of the industries listed or in the areas for which
a fund has been established. Regardless of whether the contract to
work is expressed or implied, oral or written, whether the remunera
tion is on a time- or piece-rate basis, or whether the contract was
entered into before or after setting up of the fund, the members of the
industry affected are obliged to contribute.
The chief categories of labor excluded from the system are laborers;
persons whose earnings exceed £450 per year (with exceptions);
persons performing contract work in a place not under the control of
the employer; those performing work for an employer at irregular
intervals for less than one day in a calendar week; or employed by
more than one employer in a calendar week unless all are operating
in the same scheduled industry; husband or wife of an employer,
when working for such employer; employees of the Government
(including the Railway Administration) or a provincial administra
tion, unless employed in an undertaking within the limits of a sched
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uled industry; persons whose contract of service is regulated under
the Native Labor Regulation Act, 1911; and those employed in
agriculture including horticulture, forestry, and any employment in
or connected with farming.
Contributions
The funds are supported by employers, employees, and the Govern
ment. Rates of contribution depend upon the annual earnings of the
employee in question. For the purposes of the law workers are
divided into three classes. For those with annual earnings of up to
£78 the employer contributes 6d. per week and the employee 2d; in
the earnings class £79 to £130 the respective weekly payments amount
to lOd. and 6d; from £131 to £450 employers and employees make
equal contributions of Is. each.
A person falling in the highest wage class (£131 to £450) is not
disqualified from participation by reason of earnings in any week or
month of more than the maximum if he contributed to the fund
immediately before the week or month when his earnings rose. Such
an employee is permitted to continue under the system until his earn
ings in any week or month are at the rate of more than £500 per year.
To compute annual earnings for the purpose of establishing the
contribution rate, the weekly earnings are multiplied by 52, or for
those paid by the month the monthly rate is multiplied by 12, or the
calculation may be made in such a way as to give the true value of
the earnings of the contributor. In establishing earnings on an annual
basis the law provides that account shall be taken of the value of any
food and quarters supplied by the employer and overtime or other
special remuneration of frequent occurrence for work habitually per
formed. Disputes over the calculation may be referred to the Central
Authority, whose decisions are final.
The contribution of the Government is one-fourth of that of the
aggregate employer and employee payments. Its contributions are
payable to the respective funds, from governmental revenue, at such
times and in such manner as the Minister of Labor may determine
in consultation with the Central Authority and upon receipt of proof
that contributions have been made by employers and workers.
Government contributions are placed in a central fund together with
certain other assets. The Central Authority is given authority to
dispose of Government contributions by aiding a given fund with a
monetary grant or advance. It is further provided that “any such
grant or advance shall be conditional upon the committee effecting
such alteration in the rates of the contributions or benefit or such
variation of the conditions relating to the payment of benefit as may
be deemed necessary by the Central Authority, and in the case of an
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advance upon such terms as to the repayment thereof as the Central
Authority may determine.”
If in the judgment of the Central Authority the assets of any fund
are larger than necessary or are insufficient to meet demands, the
Authority may agree to a change in the rate of contributions, or to a
variation in the benefits, or any combination of these provisions. Such
action must be published by the Central Authority in the Government
Gazette and will apply from a date fixed in the notice of change.
Contributions are not required for any employee who, although
employed, has not worked in a given week; however, if he has worked
for one or more days in a calendar week, contributions are payable
for the whole week. If employment in any calendar week is furnished
by more than one employer in a scheduled industry, the full amount
of the employer contribution is charged to the employer for whom the
employee first worked in that week. The full employee contribution
for that week is also deducted by the first employer.
Benefits
Amount.—The rate of benefits paid to the worker depends upon
the wage classification under which contributions are made toward
the unemployment-benefit fund. Persons in the wage class £78 and
under, are entitled to 10s. per calendar week, those earning £79 to
£130 receive 20s., and persons paid from £131 to £450 per annum
receive 30s. per calendar week. The amount of the benefit payments
is subject to change in the discretion of the Central Authority, just
as are contributions. For any period of less than 1 calendar week the
amount of the benefit is calculated at one-sixth for each of the 6
working days.
Benefits to a person in any earnings class are limited to 1 week’s
payment for each 6 weekly contributions made to a fund, or the amount
of benefit standing to his credit in that class, whichever is less. If
contributions have been made under more than one earnings classifica
tion the payments shall amount to 1 week’s benefit for each 6 weekly
contributions or the total of the benefits credited to him in each such
group, whichever is less. For purposes of this provision the amount
of benefit standing to the employee’s credit is the amount obtained
when the number of weeks of benefit to which he is entitled is multi
plied by the rate of benefit applicable for the period in question.
An employee who ceases to contribute to one fund and becomes a
contributor to another is entitled to unemployment benefit when
earned, under the second fund, subject to the same conditions as if he
had not been a contributor to the first fund. Payments to both
funds are taken into account in computing the benefits due the
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contributor and are to be considered as having been paid into one fund.
If the contributor becomes unemployed within 3 years of the time he
belonged to the first fund he is entitled to benefit from the second fund
until his rights are exhausted and then from the first fund to the
extent his previous payments will cover. In case a worker ceases to con
tribute to one fund and for any reason deemed sufficient by the Central
Authority does not contribute to another in his new employment,
he is entitled within 2 years of the time he leaves his previous
employment to such unemployment benefit as he has earned in
that employment.
Waiting period.—No period of unemployment is deemed to have
commenced under the act until the contributor has applied for benefit.
No benefit is payable for the first week of unemployment, and for this
purpose periods of unemployment separated by less than 9 weeks of
employment are regarded as a continuous period of unemployment.
Conditions of benefit.—In case of a contributor who receives com
pensation for any loss of employment, the committee may consider
him as employed during a part of the period and thus not entitled to
benefits during that interval. Benefits are further limited to those
employees who have made contributions for at least 26 weeks in the
2 years immediately preceding the beginning of unemployment.
Payments may not be made unless the contributor is capable of and
available for work, with the exception that if he becomes ill while
unemployed and the committee is satisfied that such illness is unlikely
to have prejudiced his chance of securing work, benefit may be allowed.
He must make application for benefit in the prescribed manner. If
he is unemployed by reason of a labor dispute he is not entitled to
benefit unless the unemployment follows bona fide employment in
other suitable work after the stoppage occurs. Persons whose unem
ployment is attributable to misconduct or due to voluntary separa
tion are not entitled to benefit for 6 weeks from the date when unem
ployment commenced, unless the committee determines that special
circumstances would make this inequitable, in which case the period
may be reduced. Other causes for withholding benefits include deten
tion in any prison or other institution maintained wholly or partly
with public funds, absence from South Africa, receipt of a pension or
other allowance if the amount is sufficient to make benefits unneces
sary, and refusal to accept or apply for “suitable” work. Suitable
work is defined as employment of a similar class and in the same wage
group for the first 13 weeks of unemployment and thereafter any work
deemed suitable by the committee (but not including work available
because of a labor dispute).
Duration of benefit.—Benefits may be paid for not to exceed 26
weeks in any 52 weeks, commencing with the first day of any period
of unemployment for which benefits are allowed.
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Administration
Personnel and duties— The Minister of Labor 3 has jurisdiction over
the several unemployment funds established by the Unemployment
Benefit Act, 1937, and has the power to reduce or extend the industrial
coverage under the law, either on application from interested groups
or on his own initiative. In establishing a fund the Minister must
give notice in the Government Gazette and define the limits of the
scheduled industry. He may, from time to time, vary the areas
included.
The Minister is further empowered to appoint a body, known as the
Central Authority, consisting of three members one of whom is
entrusted with registration of employers’ organizations and tradeunions under any law relating to such registration; the second must be
a person with sound knowledge of financial matters; and the third
must possess sound knowledge of administration. The Minister may
designate which of these shall act as chairman of the Authority.
Members may in the discretion of the Minister be paid sums not
to exceed £100 per annum for their services, this amount not to form
part of their pensionable salary but to be in addition to other salary
as officers of the public service.
General supervision of the system is vested in the Central Authority
by the terms of the enabling legislation. This body is required to
inform itself on the condition of the several funds and the work of the
special committees established for each fund; to inquire into any
matter relating to a scheduled industry which is likely to affect unem
ployment; to order necessary investigations; and to determine the
financial condition of funds. It is further empowered to report to
the Minister of Labor upon objections, determine appeals, control the
central fund, collect and collate statistics, approve rules, agree to
committee recommendations on the alteration of rates of contributions
and benefits or order such changes, alter rules of a committee, control
a fund on order of the Minister, and perform any other functions
assigned by the Minister. Final determination of questions as to
coverage for any employer or contributor is also a power of the Central
Authority; such decisions are not subject to appeal in any court of
law. A decision by two of the three members of the Authority is
deemed a decision of the Central Authority.
The Central Authority may, in its discretion or on motion of 'a
defendant if he makes request within 90 days of notification of a
decision, refer a case to the Supreme Court. In such cases no appeal
from the Court’s decision is permitted unless the Court is of the
3 When the law was enacted the Union of South Africa had a single department of labor and social
welfare. Effective October 1, 1937, these functions were separated and placed under two departments,
and administration of the unemployment-benefit system was then placed in the Department of Labor.
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opinion that the case involves an important question of law or is of
importance to a large body of persons.
For each fund established, a committee of six persons, consisting of
an equal number of employer and contributor members, is directly
responsible for administration. If a fund is set up on request of mem
bers of an industry the committee representatives are chosen by the
employers’ organizations and the trade-unions concerned, and it is
further provided that if there is more than one organization or union
the selection shall be by a method determined by the Minister of
Labor. If the Minister establishes a fund on his own initiative he is
accorded the right to appoint representatives to the committee. A
seventh impartial member appointed by the Central Authority may
be added in the discretion of the Minister of Labor. As each fund is
a corporate body, capable of suing and being sued under the law,
and is exempt from income taxes and stamp duties, the responsibility
of the management committee is considerable. Alternate members
and persons to fill vacancies for unexpired terms are chosen in the
same manner as members of committees. Terms of office vary from
1 to 3 years.
Committee members may receive salaries out of the funds as de
termined by the Central Authority with the approval of the Minister
of Labor.
The functions of the committees are to receive applications for
benefit; decide whether benefit is due and in what amount; make pay
ments in accordance with their own decision or with the decision of the
Central Authority in cases of appeal; recommend changes in contribu
tions and the conditions of benefit payment; collect the contributions
payable; make required reports; keep accounts; maintain records and
minutes of proceedings; and perform such other duties as may be
required for carrying out the terms of the act. Persons may appeal
decisions of committees to the Central Authority, provided action is
taken in writing within 14 days of the notification of the decision.
For cause, the Minister of Labor may disestablish a committee and
place administration of the fund affected under the Central Authority
for a specified period.
Funds .—The law provides that each fund shall maintain its own
bank account, made up from contributions, and in addition there shall
be a central fund wherein are deposited the Government’s contribu
tions toward maintenance of the unemployment system plus deposits
from the individual funds and interest on investments. Each industry
fund is permitted to keep in its individual account only such sums as
the Central Authority may approve as necessary to cover current
expenses. Amounts in excess of such requirements are placed in the
central fund and together with sums contributed by the Government
and earned by investment must be deposited with the Public Debt
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Commissioners in one account to be known as tbe ‘‘unemploymentbenefit funds account.”
The Central Authority is responsible for keeping accounts of the
moneys of each industry fund and the central fund and must at the
end of each calendar year allocate to each fund the proportionate share
of interest earned from deposits with the Public Debt Commissioners.
In addition the Authority makes money available to the separate
funds as needed, drawing upon Government funds allocated to the
several industry funds as well as upon employer and employee con
tributions. Annual reports on operations are required.
Officials handling money of the fund must give such security as the
committee deems sufficient. Expenditures in connection with admin
istration are a charge against the fund affected and the amounts may
not exceed a sum determined by the Central Authority.
Contributions and benefit procedure.—Employers are required to pay
into the appropriate fund the amount of their own and their em
ployees’ contributions, within 7 days after the calendar month for
which they are due. The committee may, however, agree to another
date of payment. In this connection the employer is obliged to keep
comprehensive records of wages and time worked by employees.
The applicant for benefit must conform with the rules established
by the committee for such payments and is entitled to receive bene
fits only if on investigation it appears that he has met the requirements.
If benefits are paid in error, the recipient is liable for the repayment
of the amount to the proper fund in full. This requirement may be
waived if the committee deems it inequitable to require repayment of
the whole amount or any portion of it.
Any person who is guilty of an offense under the terms of the
unemployment-benefit law is liable to a fine or imprisonment or both.
Employers whose establishments are covered by the system under
any scheduled industry must, within 10 days of establishment of the
fund or of establishment of their respective businesses, notify the
management committee of the fund, giving the address and nature
of operations of their business. Failure to do so constitutes an offense
and is punishable as already stated.
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Vacations with P ay
PAID VACATIONS IN LATIN AMERICA
TWELVE of the Latin American Republics (Argentina, Brazil, Chile,
Colombia, Cuba, Haiti, Mexico, Panama, Peru, Salvador, Uruguay,
and Venezuela) have now (January 1938) legislation in force pro
viding annual vacations with pay for one or more classes of employees.
Both salaried and wage-earning employees in certain types of employ
ment are so benefited in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Cuba, Mexico,
Peru, and Venezuela, but only salaried employees in Colombia, Haiti,
Panama, Salvador, and Uruguay. In Mexico only persons working
under labor contracts are legally entitled to vacations with pay.
Domestic servants are specifically covered in Chile and Peru. Though
several of the Republics bad earlier legislation which has been re
placed, the earliest legislation now in effect governing vacations with
pay in the various countries dates from the following years: Salvador,
1927; Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Panama, 1931; Peru, 1932;
Brazil and Uruguay, 1933; Argentina and Haiti, 1934; Cuba, 1935;
and Venezuela, 1936.
Coverage
Salaried and wage-earning employees in commercial enterprises in
Argentina are legally entitled to earn annual vacations at their work.
In Brazil salaried and wage-earning employees in commercial and
banking enterprises, private relief institutions, and the commercial
departments of industrial establishments, and salaried and wage
earning employees who are members of workers’ associations ap
proved by the Ministry of Labor, Industry, and Commerce and who
are employed in any kind of industrial establishments, newspapers,
land or air communication or transportation, the industrial depart
ments of commercial enterprises, and small-scale workshops, labora
tories, etc., and crews of national vessels of all kinds, are covered by
various legislation authorizing vacations. Chilean legislation em
braces salaried and wage-earning employees, including marine wage
earning employees engaged in coastwise, river, or lake navigation,
persons engaged in aviation, or in submarine or underground work,
and domestic servants. Salaried employees of private firms in
Colombia are entitled to paid vacations. The Cuban vacation legis
lation applies to salaried and wage-earning employees and apprentices
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in commercial and industrial establishments which employ more than
five salaried and wage-earning employees. In Haiti, clerks in com
mercial establishments, shops, and banks are entitled to paid vaca
tions. Mexican legislation accords vacations to persons who render
manual or intellectual services, or both, to another by virtue of a
labor contract. In Panama, salaried employees in commercial or
industrial establishments earn annual vacations with pay. Vacation
legislation in Peru covers salaried and wage-earning employees in
both commercial and industrial establishments, and includes also
domestic servants. The legislation of Salvador includes only com
mercial employees. In Uruguay, salaried employees in commercial
establishments and in private offices and salaried employees and
clerical staffs in the offices of industrial establishments, and workers
in commercial establishments who prepare or arrange merchandise
for the needs of the establishment itself, cleaners, watchmen and
repairers of merchandise, are provided for in the vacation legislation,
but hair-dressing establishments are not included among those which
must grant vacations. The Venezuelan labor law accords annual
vacations to both salaried and wage-earning employees.
Length of Service Required
In most instances, the legislation stipulates that the service which
qualifies for vacation must be in one enterprise, and in some instances
service must be continuous or uninterrupted. In Cuba, 6 months of
service qualifies for a vacation, or in enterprises working irregular
days or hours, the equivalent of 6 months of continuous service. The
legislation of Argentina, Chile (salaried employees and domestic
servants), Colombia, Haiti, Peru (salaried employees), and Salvador,
authorizes a vacation each year. The employee begins to earn his
vacation after a year of service in Mexico, Uruguay, and Venezuela,
and after 2 years in Panama. Service for 12 months qualifies for a
vacation in Brazil, but in industrial establishments the employee must
have worked at least 150 days. Wage-earning employees in Chile
must have worked at least 220 days in a year in order to be entitled
to a vacation. In Peru wage-earning employees and domestic serv
ants must have been employed by the same employer for at least a
year and have worked at least 260 days during that year.
Date of Vacation and Manner of Fixing It
The date of vacation is fixed by the employer in Argentina, Brazil,
Chile (for salaried employees, upon their written request), Colombia,
Cuba, Peru (salaried employees), and Uruguay, but in Uruguay the
schedule of the year’s vacations prepared by the establishments in
January of each year may be changed twice in the year for reasons
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approved by the National Labor Institute. The time is to be suited
to the interests of the establishment, according to the legislation of
Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, and Peru (wage-earning employees and domes
tic servants); but taking into consideration the interests of the estab
lishment, in Peru, wage-earning employees and domestic servants
may take their vacations at any time they wish. If there are more
than five employees in an establishment in Chile, at least four-fifths of
the personnel must be on the job at all times; if there are fewer than
five employees, not more than one person is to be on vacation at a
time. In Cuba, the wishes of the employee are to be taken into con
sideration when possible. The time is to be set 1 month in advance
in Salvador, by agreement between employer and employee. In
Panama the time is to be set by agreement between employer and
employee. In Brazil the employee must be notified in writing at least
a week in advance of his vacation. In Chile the employee is to make
written request for his vacation at least 1 month in advance and
his notification must also be in writing. In Uruguay the schedule
of vacations for the year, when approved by the National Labor
Institute, is to be posted in a visible place in the establishment.
The vacation in Chile is to be taken preferably in spring or sum
mer. In Brazil the vacation must be taken within 12 months follow
ing the qualifying period. Vacations in Cuba are not to be deferred
more than 6 months beyond the qualifying period without the authori
zation of the Department of Labor. Under specified circumstances
vacations are cumulative, but for not more than 2 years in Chile,
Colombia, and Panama, and for 3 years in Salvador. In Panama
the vacation may be taken at the end of the qualifying period or in
any subsequent month; if allowed to accumulate, both months may
be taken at one time. Vacation time in Salvador which has accumu
lated may be taken at any time, provided the time taken does not
exceed that for the 3 years.
Length of Vacation
Length of vacation varies with years of service in Argentina and
Mexico, with days of service during the qualifying period in Brazil
and Chile, and with type of employment in Peru and Venezuela.
Legislation which provides no variation in length of vacation allows
the following periods each year: Colombia, 15 working days; Cuba,
14 days—7 days for 6 months; Haiti, at least 15 days; Panama, 1
month; Salvador, not less than 15 days; and Uruguay, 2 weeks.
Wage-earning employees and domestic servants in Peru are allowed
15 days of vacation each year, and salaried employees, 30 days. In
Venezuela, wage-earning employees receive 7 working days and sal
aried employees 15 days per year. Persons in Argentina who are
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entitled to vacations who have not to exceed 5 years of service to their
credit are allowed 10 days; from 5 to 10 years, 15 days; from 10 to 20
years, 20 days; and over 20 years, 30 days. Employees in Mexico
with more than a year’s service are entitled to not less than 4 work
ing days of vacation; after 2 years of service, at least 6 working days.
In Brazil, employees in commercial and banking and similar enter
prises are entitled to 15 days of vacation each year; employees in
industrial establishments who have worked more than 250 days in
the qualifying period are to have 15 days’ vacation; those who have
worked from 200 to 250 days, 11 days’ vacation; persons who have
worked from 150 to 200 days, 7 days’ vacation; persons who have
worked less than 150 days are not entitled to vacations. Annual
vacations for salaried employees and domestic servants in Chile
amount to 15 days; for wage-earning employees who have been
employed for 288 days in a year, the vacation is 15 days in length,
but if they have worked from 220 to 288 days, they are allowed only
7 days.
Continuity of Vacations
Vacations are to be taken in one period in Argentina, Haiti, and
Peru. In Brazil, employees in commercial and banking and similar
establishments under 18 or over 50 years of age must take their va
cations in one period; other persons may take them in two periods,
one of which must be not less than 7 days in length. In industrial
establishments in Brazil, employees have the option of taking their
vacation in one period or in installments of at least 5 days each, but
members of a family working in the same establishment may take
their vacation at the same time if they so desire.
Remuneration
All vacations discussed in this report are remunerated, and unless
otherwise stated, at regular rate. In Brazil, Cuba, and Salvador,
employees are paid in advance for their vacation time. Pay for em
ployees in commercial and banking and similar establishments in
Brazil is at the regular rate or the average for the last 12 months;
for those in industrial establishments, the average for the last 6 months
of the qualifying period is to be taken. In Brazil workdays missed
without legitimate reason are deducted from the vacation and the pay
for these days from the pay for vacation, but when an employer fails
to provide vacations, he must pay double for the vacation not allowed.
Vacations in Chile are not compensable in cash, unless an employee
is leaving an establishment. In Cuba cash pay for vacations is sup
plemented by the cash equivalent of pay ordinarily received in kind,
and vacation time not taken in the usual manner through no fault of
the employee is carried over to the following year, but for this deferring
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of time, the employee receives at least a third of regular pay. From
vacation time in Mexico may be deducted workdays missed without
legitimate reason. Technical workers in Peru who, because of con
ditions in the business are not able to take their vacations, are paid
three times their usual pay for the time not taken. Overtime worked
in Peru also entitles the worker to additional vacation time.
Loss of Right to Vacation
Acceptance of paid work during vacation period in Brazil and Cuba
causes the forfeiture of the next vacation to which the employee would
otherwise be entitled. Other reasons for forfeiture of vacation are:
In Cuba, dismissal for cause and absence from work for more than 6
months; in Uruguay, serious offense by the employee in connection
with his work, but in this instance the employee has the right to appeal
to the Superior Labor Council, which has final authority.
S o u r c e s .— This
article is based on data from the following sources:
Labor Office, Geneva, Legislative Series, 1934 Argentina 3.
B r a z i l .—International Labor Office, Geneva, Legislative Series, 1933 Brazil 3, and 1934 Brazil 4; Revista
do Trabalho, Rio de Janeiro, July 1936, p. 39, and July 1937, p. 336.
C h i l e .—International Labor Office, Geneva, Legislative Series, 1931 Chile 1, and 1934 Chile 1; Diario Oficial,
Santiago de Chile, June 20,1932, January 24, 1934, and February 10, 1937.
C o l o m b i a .—Boletín de la Oficina Nacional del Trabajo, Bogotá, M ay-June 1931, pp. 838-850; January December 1935, pp. 445-451; October 1936-March 1937, pp. 121-122, 127-128.
C u b a .—International Labor Office, Geneva, Legislative Series, 1935 Cuba 4; Reports of H. Freeman
Matthews, first secretary of American Embassy at Habana, November 6, 1935, and July 16 and August 1,
1936; Gaceta Oficial, Habana, March 11, 1937, pp. 4066-4067, and July 28, 1937, p. 1553; U . S. Bureau of For
eign and Domestic Commerce, Commerce Reports, December 5, 1936, pp. 967-968.
H a i t i .—International Labor Office, Geneva, Legislative Series, 1934 Haiti 1.
M e x i c o . — U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin No. 569: Labor Legislation of Mexico. Washington,
1932.
Panama.—International Labor Office, Geneva, Legislative Series, 1931 Panama 1; Gaceta Oficial, Panama,
October 15 and November 9, 1936.
P e r u .—International Labor Office, Geneva, Legislative Series, 1932 Peru 1, and 1933 Peru 1; Revista de
Economía y Finanzas, Lima, January 1937, p. 31; Report of R . M . de Lambert, secretary of the American
Embassy at Lima, August 24, 1937.
S a l v a d o r . — International Labor Office, Geneva, Legislative Series, 1927 Salvador 1.
C r u g u a y — International Labor Office, Geneva, Legislative Series, 1933 Uruguay 2, and 1934 Uruguay 2;
República Oriental del Uruguay, Ministerio de Industrias y Trabajo, Instituto Nacional del Trabajo y
Servicios Anexados, Licencia Anual y Cierre Uniforme,^Montevideo, 1935, pp. 3-9; Diario Oficial, M ontevideo,
February 21,1936.
V e n e z u e l a .—International Labor Office, Geneva, Legislative Series, 1936 Venezuela 2.
A r g e n t i n a .—International
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Profit Sharing
PROFIT SHARING FOR INDUSTRIAL EMPLOYEES
THE practice by industrial undertakings of sharing profits with em
ployees has been advocated on various social and economic grounds
and, although failing to meet with general success, has been the
subject of periodic interest, particularly during periods of rising
business activity. A recent study1 by the National Industrial
Conference Board is based on the experience with 161 formal plans, of
which 50 were active, 15 inactive, and 96 discontinued. In addition,
32 plans for giving extra compensation which could not be classified
as true profit sharing were included. Of the 50 active plans 5 were
in the electrical-appliance industry; 2 in the food-products industry;
10 in the machinery and machine-tools industry; 9 in other metalproducts industries; 5 in the paper and printing industry; 4 in the
textile industry; 4 in mercantile establishments; 1 in a financial
institution; and 10 in miscellaneous manufacturing establishments.
The extra-compensation plans were distributed among the same in
dustries, with the exception of electrical appliances. The 82 com
panies having the two types of plans employed approximately 200,000
persons, of whom all but 29,724 were covered by the formal profitsharing plans. The study did not include plans which were restricted
to executives or special groups, and covered, therefore, plans in which
most or all of the employees were included in the distribution.
In order to be included in the study as true profit sharing, a plan
had to provide that payments to employees shall bear a definite
relation to the profits of the company. The most important problem
to be settled in establishing a plan, the report states, is the decision
by management as to what constitutes an equitable division of profits
between the employees and the stockholders. There are various
determining factors in the method of apportioning the profits to be
paid to the employees, such as the basic purpose of the plan, the
financial position of the company, the outstanding obligations to
stockholders, and the relative liberality of the management. As a
result of these varying factors, there was no uniformity in the pro
visions of the plans as regards the percentage of profits allocated to
employees or in the manner of their distribution to the individual
1 National Industrial Conference Board, Inc. Profit Sharing and Other Supplementary-Compensation
Plans Covering Wage Earners, by F. Beatrice Brower. New York, 247 Park Ave., 1937.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
383
384
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
workers. However, it was possible to classify the 50 plans broadly
in three groups, i. e., 14 plans in which no deductions were made for
capital earnings before computing the employees’ share of the profits,
19 plans in which a deduction for dividends was made before the
division of profits to the employees, and 9 plans in which profit
sharing was dependent on dividends to stockholders. In eight cases
the percentage of profits paid to employees and the method of com
putation was not reported.
In the first group, in which the employees’ share of the profits was
taken from the net earnings of the companies before deduction of
any earnings on capital investment, the percentage divided among
eligible employees ranged from 5 to 33%. In the second group of
plans, in which the stockholders’ interest was protected before provid
ing for the distribution to employees, 5 to 10 percent was deducted
from net profits for payment of dividends on preferred or com
mon stock by 17 companies, while 2 companies deducted fixed
amounts, varying proportions of the balance being distributed to the
employees. The proportion paid to employees ranged from 12%
percent of the balance to 75 percent in 14 companies, while two com
panies divided among the employees the entire amount left after the
stock dividend, two made the division on the basis of the proportion
of capital invested to the total pay roll, and in one case the proportion
paid to employees was not reported. In the third group of companies
the employees’ share of the profits was based on the amount of divi
dends declared on company stock. In three of these companies an
imaginary block of stock is set up on which the same dividends are
paid as on common stock, in two companies an amount equal to that
paid in dividends on common stock is paid into the employees’ fund
(one of these pays this only on extra dividends), one company pays
the same percentage in wages as stockholders receive in dividends, and
in the remaining companies the employees receive a proportion of
the amount of dividends above a fixed value.
In regard to the amounts distributed, it is stated in the report that
‘The percentage of profits cannot be regarded as an unfailing index of
the relative liberality of the plan, however, as the rate of earnings of
companies differs so widely that what apparently is a small percentage
may in reality represent a liberal contribution from management.”
The profits distributed among employees are frequently in exact
ratio to their earnings, but in a majority of the plans other factors are
included. Twenty-two of the plans provided for distribution in exact
ratio of each worker’s wages to the total pay roll, while various com
binations of earnings, length of service, and rank were the basis of the
allotment in 18 plans; in 2 cases the employees’ share was dependent
on thrift; and varied provisions were featured in the plans of 8 other
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Profit Sharing
385
companies. Only one of the 50 companies paid a flat sum to the
employees, regardless of position, wages, and service.
The managerial group as well as the rank and file employees par
ticipated under the same plan in more than two-thirds of the com
panies. In 25 of the companies the two groups shared alike, although
the managerial group received a larger sum in view of their larger
salaries. In 11 cases this group received a higher percentage of profits
than the employees, while in 6 cases the managerial group did not
participate, and in 6 cases there were different plans for the 2 groups.
In two cases only salaried employees were eligible; in one of these
companies this policy was based upon the belief that the principle of
profit sharing would not be understood by the unskilled group, the
experience under the plan having been such as to decide the company
to restrict participation to the managerial group and the skilled
workers.
Service requirements for participation varied greatly, the extremes
ranging from participation by all persons in the employ of the com
pany at the time the dividend is declared to a service requirement, in
one instance, of 10 years. The usual requirements, however, range
from 3 months to 1 year. In one case only did the profit-sharing plan
provide for the sharing of losses by the employees. In this plan
salaried employees receiving more than $118.75 per month are subject
to a 1 percent reduction in their base rates for every unit of $60,000
by which the company’s monthly net income is below $600,000. No
further deduction is made, however, when the consolidated statement
shows a loss, and wage earners and salaried employees in the lower
brackets are not subject to the loss-sharing provisions.
Profit-sharing plans providing for distribution of earnings on a
monthly or quarterly basis make adjustment for losses more difficult
than when it is on an annual basis. However, in companies which
distribute earnings more frequently than once a year there is usually
some provision for averaging the losses in unprofitable periods against
gains in more prosperous periods.
Profits were distributed in the form of cash in 42 of the 50 plans
studied. In the remaining eight companies, the distribution was in
the form of stock, interest-bearing certificates, or other forms, or part
cash and part securities, largely for the purpose of inducing the
employees to save the extra compensation.
The distribution of the employees’ share of profits, it was found,
was most frequently made at the end of the fiscal year, but although
in some ways it is simpler than more frequent distributions, it is
stated in the report, it has not been entirely successful. One of the
most important objections to the annual distribution is that the
interval between payments is too long to maintain the interest of
the employees, with the result that they lose sight of the primary
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
386
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
purpose of the profit sharing. Twenty-one of the companies followed
the plan of annual distribution of profits and 6 each paid them semi
annually, quarterly, and monthly. In four cases the payments
depended upon stock dividends, four paid wage earners more fre
quently than the supervisory group, and in three cases the distribu
tion period was not reported. It is stated in the report that appar
ently there is a trend toward increasing the frequency of the distribu
tion of profits, for while a study made by the Conference Board in 1920
showed that 32 out of 41 plans, or 78 percent, made distributions
annually, the present study showed that the proportion on an annual
basis had dropped to 21 out of 50 plans, or 42 percent.
Other Extra-Compensation Plans
Information was obtained in the course of the study regarding 32
additional compensation plans, some of which could have been classed
as true profit sharing except for the fact that the proportion of profits
divided among employees was either revised periodically by the
management or distributions were not entirely dependent on the
earnings of the company.
Thirteen companies had plans providing for the payment of bonuses
based on length of service; 15 had informal profit-sharing plans, the
amount of the share in 8 of the plans being determined by individual
merit and worth, and in 7 cases the share consisting of a uniform
percentage of earnings determined by the management; 3 had stock
credit or distribution plans; and 1 company had a merit-rating plan.
In addition to the companies which have adopted such plans, many
companies distribute year-end bonuses in times of prosperity.
Results of Profit-Sharing Plans
The reasons for the adoption of profit-sharing plans, it is said, are
both practical and altruistic. A frequent reason given for the estab
lishment of such plans is the belief that the employees should share
in the profits they have helped to create, while profit sharing has also
been regarded as “a stabilizer of the wage scale by providing a flexible,
supplementary payment that will fluctuate with business conditions
and yet also permit the company to control the wage cost so that it
will bear a definite relation to company income.” Another reason for
the adoption of profit sharing has been to encourage employees to
save and to build up a reserve for old age or emergencies. Under
lying these reasons is said to be the hope that it will result in better
cooperation and interest in the company’s welfare on the part of the
worker.
Some of the results of the operation of the plans, as reported by
different companies, were improvement of employee morale and of
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Profit Sharing
387
the relations between management and the workers, greater effi
ciency, and reduced labor turn-over. The active plans reported on
in this study are in general those which have been successful over a
period of years, as more than half of them were in operation before
the depression. Approximately 43 percent of the discontinued plans
of 96 companies (which were 60 percent of the true profit-sharing
plans surveyed, however) were given up because of dissatisfaction on
the part of management or the unfavorable response of the workers.
An additional 12 percent of the companies did not give the reason for
discontinuance, but it was assumed the experience had been unsatis
factory. The remaining 45 percent of the plans were apparently dis
continued “not because of any fault in the plan itself but because of
extraneous influences.”
The conclusion drawn from this study of both active and discon
tinued plans is that the future of profit sharing is problematical.
“Each rise in the business cycle brings with it plans designed to
reward the workers in some measure for the hardships suffered during
the depression and to give them an opportunity to share in the
returning prosperity, but how large a proportion of all such plans
will survive recurrent depression is an open question.”
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Education and Training
PROVISION FOR EDUCATION IN C. C. C. CAMPS IN
1938
EDUCATIONAL and vocational training of at least 10 hours per
week for the unemployed young men who have enrolled in C. C. C.
camps was specifically provided for in the recent act of Congress
prolonging the life of the Corps. Authority was also given to the
Director of the Corps to allow enrollees to interrupt the period of
enrollment for attendance at school or college, returning to camp at
the termination of the school term. The objectives and general
features of the educational program for 1938 are discussed in an
article in School Life for October 1937 (p. 51), published by the
United States Department of the Interior.
Instruction for the 10 hours per week is to be provided on week
nights and Saturday mornings, and additional opportunities will be
furnished for enrollees who wish further instruction. An increased
expenditure of $4,500,000, which has been approved by the Director,
will allow 2,600 square feet of space for classrooms and shops in every
camp, an educational adviser for each company, and additional funds
for educational supplies and equipment.
An individualized type of education has been found to be peculiarly
adapted to C. C. C. camps, and will be continued. A recent conference
in Washington, D. C., of the Corps area educational advisers, con
sidered plans to make the educational program more effective.
Individual needs and interests as the basis of camp education were
emphasized, and it was felt that for that reason job training and
leisure-time education should be more closely connected. Enrollees
should be placed on work projects for which they have a vocational
aptitude or interest.
Literacy and elementary and higher education are to be continued
as objectives of the educational program. Utilization of nearby
school facilities for instruction of enrollees has been facilitated by
provision by the Director for the expense connected therewith.
Cooperation of schools and colleges in the C. C. C. educational
program has been assured, as over three-fourths of the 120 colleges
requested to give scholarship aid have responded favorably.
388
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
389
Education and Training
EMPLOYMENT STATUS OF PHILADELPHIA PUBLICSCHOOL GRADUATES OF 1935
AN OCCUPATIONAL follow-up study of 5,898 of the graduates of
1935 of the Philadelphia high schools and vocational schools showed
an encouraging percentage of employment stability and a marked
correlation between the jobs held and the training received.1
As table 1 indicates, on April 1, 1937, 59 percent of the 1935
high-school graduates had jobs, over 24 percent were attending
school, 14 percent were seeking employment, and 2 percent were not
seeking gainful work,'- The corresponding percentages for the
graduates of vocational schools were 71, 2, 22, and 5.
T a b l e 1 .—Employment
Status of Philadelphia Public-School Graduates of 1935, as of
A pril 1, 1937
Grand total
Attending day school
Type of school and curriculum
Both
sexes
Grand total________
Male
Female
Both
sexes
Male
Female
____________________
5,898
2,876
3,022
1,356
725
631
High-school graduates ____________________
Academic curriculum__________________
Business curriculum___________________
Industrial curriculum:
Auto mechanics________ __________
Building construction___ __________
Electrical construction______________
Machine construction______________
Mechanic arts_________________________
Home economics............... ............ ............
Vocational art _______ ___ ___________
Vocational music____________ ______
Vocational school graduates___ __________
Dressmaking_____________ ____ ______
M illinery______________ _ . . . . . . . . .
Power operating_____________ ______ . . .
Auto mechanics________________ _______
Electrical construction.____ _____ ___
Machine construction__________________
Mechanical drafting_____ ______________
Textiles__________ ___________
____
Woodwork____________________________
Home economics..
___________ _______
Business curriculum________ _____ ___ _
Vocational art_________ .
____
Vocational music_____ . ______ ___
5, 560
2,423
2,076
2,726
1,376
465
2,834
1,047
1,611
1, 350
1,096
96
719
582
33
631
514
63
153
53
116
143
400
116
73
7
338
53
26
153
53
116
143
400
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
18
2
150
1
0
0
0
35
33
35
33
12
12
16
14
15
16
14
15
22
88
16
7
0
4
15
6
0
116
55
5
188
53
26
-1
0
0
0
0
0
0
22
84
1
1
5
o
1
1
0
5
5
o
o
1
1
81
30
32
3
81
0
0
30
23
2
1
6
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
3
3
o
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
9
o
o
o
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
o
o
o
0
Occupations—The Vocational Guidance Magazine, N ew York, December 1937: A follow-up study of
Philadelphia public-school graduates, by Ann Pavan.
The members of this group were married, keeping house for their families, waiting to return to jobs or
cases) deceased.
8
3 9 8 7 3 — 38-
■7
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
390
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
T able
1.—Employment Status of Philadelphia Public-School Graduates of 1935, as of
A pril 1, 1937—Continued
N ot
seeking
employment
Seeking employment
Employed
Type of school and curriculum
Both
sexes
Grand total........................................- ....................
Industrial curriculum:
3,535
1,769
3,295
1,015
1, 538
1,656
647
339
126
47
91
115
285
49
25
4
240
44
18
126
47
91
115
285
0
27
24
Vocational music—........ - ...............................
Female
Male
0
6
0
113
0
0
0
27
24
11
11
13
9
13
9
12
12
14
54
0
11
11
3
3
3
1,766
1,639
368
1,199
0
0
0
0
0
49
19
4
127
44
18
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
14
51
0
0
Both
sexes
Both
sexes
Male
Female
863
369
494
i 144
787
267
376
340
141
91
447
126
285
128
45
21
21
5
5
0
0
0
0
20
20
26
33
26
13
26
33
0
26
3
0
0
10
0
76
29
47
6
0
0
6
5
1
0
7
5
7
5
0
5
0
0
1
0
0
0
3
5
3
7
28
5
3
5
3
0
0
0
1
1
66
1
0
0
1
1
11
3
0
16
3
3
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
7
27
1
6
4
1
0
1
0
> Of these, only 13 were males.
Of the 1,350 high-school graduates reported as continuing their
education, 67 percent were registered for work in Universities and
colleges, 10 percent in normal schools, and 8 percent in business
schools. Table 1, however, reports only those attending school at
the time of the survey. As a matter of fact, 65 percent of the grad
uates of high schools and 37 percent of the graduates of vocational
schools continued their education after they had graduated.
Stability of employment.—Forty-two percent of the high-school
graduates with jobs had held one position since graduation; 28 percent,
2 positions; and 17 percent, 3 positions. The corresponding percent
ages for the graduates of vocational schools were respectively 45, 30,
and 13.
Unemployment.—-Of the 787 high-school graduates and 76 voca
tional-school graduates who were seeking employment at the time of
the survey, 19 percent of the former and 27 percent of the latter had
had no employment. However, 33 percent of the high-school grad
uates and 23 percent of the vocational-school graduates had had 12
months or more of employment experience since their graduation.
Unemployment among graduates varied from 7 to 27 percent, accord
ing to the location of the school, the higher percentages being for
schools in the poorer and predominantly foreign sections of Phila
delphia. In the judgment of the investigator, this seems “to be
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Education and Training
391
evidence that environmental background acts as a contributing factor
in the successful occupational adjustment of young people after
graduation/’
Relation of jobs held to training received.—Of the 1,538 high-school
graduates of the business curriculum who were employed, 80 percent
had office or sales work jobs for which that curriculum prepares; and
63 percent of the high-school graduates of the industrial curriculum
had employment in which they could utilize their training.
The distribution of graduates of these two curricula, by jobs held,
is given in the following table:
T a b l e 2 . — Percentage Distribution of Graduates Having Positions Related to Curricula
Followed
Percent of
graduates
Position
B u s in e s s c u r r ic u lu m
General office workers
Stenographers______
Salesmen (store)..
T ypists_____________
Bookkeepers____ .
Office machine operators
Stock or shipping clerks___
Office boys or inside messengers . _
Salesmen (outside)
51
20
9
7
4
4
3
1
1
Percent of
graduates
Position
I n d u s tr ia l c u r r ic u lu m
Factory workers (handwork)______
Apprentices in metal trades.. .
Factory workers (machine work) .
Machinists (helper)........
Draftsmen or tracers______
Technical assistants___________
Building trades workers____
Supervisory assistants...............
Chauffeurs or truck drivers___ .
23
19
16
14
9
7
5
4
3
Earnings of employed group.—The weekly rates of pay of the 3,295
high-school and 240 vocational-school graduates who were employed
at the time of the survey are recorded in table 3:
T a b l e 3 .-—Percentage Distribution of Employed Graduates, by Weekly Earnings, A pril 1,
1937
Percent in each classified weekly earnings group
Class and sex
Under
$10
High-school graduates_______
M ales......................
Females__________
Vocational-school graduates...
M ales............
Fem ales..__________
8
7
9
11
3
18
$1 0 —$ 1 2
19
14
24
25
24
26
$13—$15
33
27
39
29
22
37
$16-$18
$19—
$21
$22-$24
$25 and
over
22
10
24
3
14
5
9
20
6
19
25
13
9
13
5
5
9
4
1
0
5
2
Conclusion.—After giving credit to wise guidance and improved
economic conditions as factors in the gratifying situation shown by
this survey, the author emphasizes the fact that these young persons
were withheld from the wage-earning world until they had reached the
age of 18 and suggests that “future educational programs should pro
vide means for keeping adolescents under 18 in school and off the job
market.” The study, it is further stated, has also disclosed “the need
for post-graduate training in the public schools for the purpose of
maintaining or increasing the skills of those graduates who cannot
pay for further schooling,”
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Cooperation
COOPERATIVE TELEPHONE ASSOCIATIONS, 1936 1
By F lorence E. P arker, Bureau of Labor Statistics
COOPERATIVE telephone associations represent one of the older
forms of cooperative enterprise. In the survey just completed by
the Bureau of Labor Statistics it was found that for the group as a
whole the average age was more than a quarter of a century. The
oldest association reporting dated from 1893. The period from 1900
to 1919 was the most fruitful; nearly 88 percent of those making
returns were formed in this 20-year interval.
To judge by the returns in the present study, however, almost no
new associations are being formed in this field. This is probably due
to conditions in this branch of business. Today the entire country
is fairly well covered by the telephone network and there appears to
be comparatively little territory into which to expand.
At the time the early associations were formed, there were few tele
phones in the rural districts. The telephone had been known only for
about two decades and had not yet spread much beyond the cities and
towns. In the country the sparse, widely scattered population made
the installation of service by private companies unprofitable, and the
farmers in many localities were entirely isolated and cut off from com
munication not only with each other but with the outside world. It
was to remedy this situation that the telephone associations began to
be started.
These early associations were generally the product of mutual
effort. The poles were cut from nearby timberland or purchased
collectively, and were erected by the members all working together.
Sometimes the wires were even strung along the fences. Wire,
insulators, batteries, and instruments were bought collectively and the
cost was apportioned among the members. If there was a switchboard
in a nearby village, the association would bargain for connection and
service there; if not, a small switchboard of their own would be
installed, perhaps in some conveniently located farmhouse. The costs
of operation were very small, as any repairs necessary were generally
made by the cooperators themselves.
1 Part of a general survey of cooperative associations being carried on by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Data on cooperative housing associations were given in the M onthly Labor Review for November 1937
(p. 1146), and on cooperative electricity associations, for January 1938 (p. 110).
392
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Cooperation
393
The service in these early organizations usually afforded communi
cation either within the cooperative group only or within the imme
diate locality. The next step would be to obtain connection with
nearby towns and villages and then with long distance. As this
extension took place and as new lines came into existence, some over
lapping of territory and service became inevitable. This led to mutual
agreements between lines and eventually to consolidation of several
lines within given territories, to form larger associations. This process
of consolidation was undoubtedly hastened by the gradual spread of
State regulation of telephone companies of all types.
Whereas the original organizations were largely informal, unin
corporated associations, as they grew larger and extended their field
of operations, more and more of them took corporate form. Some
of the local associations which had no switchboard of their own
formed federated associations for the purchase and operation of a
switchboard which would handle the calls of all of them.
All of these stages of development are represented in the associa
tions which reported to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. With some
minor variation they fall into three main classes, as follows:
(1) The so-called “service line” —the local association, formed
among the subscribers on one or more party lines, which has no
switchboard of its own but connects with other local lines and the
outside world through the switchboard of another company, either
cooperative or private. In these associations the cooperative enter
prise is one of common ownership and maintenance of the telephone
facilities and of bargaining for switchboard service.
(2) The local association, also composed of individual telephone
users, having its own switchboard.
(3) The switchboard association of the federated type, whose mem
bership is composed of local service-line associations.
Extreme variation was found in size of societies. Those reporting
varied from the associations which consisted of only one party line
and some half dozen members to a large organization with a member
ship of 4,025, serving 6,606 families throughout a whole county. Most
of them, however, were small organizations operating in small towns
or rural districts. Nearly 68 percent of those reporting had fewer
than 50 members each, and of the whole number only 19 associations
had 500 members or more.
On the basis of the findings in the Bureau’s study it may be said
that the typical telephone association is a small organization of 60 to
70 members, serving on an average about 90 subscribers (including
members). The association is more likely than not to be incor
porated, and quite likely to be operating its own switchboard. Gen
erally the association owns the poles and wire along the right-of-way,
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
394
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
but the wire and poles necessary to carry the service to the member’s
home must usually be furnished by the member. It is also common
to find that the member must furnish his telephone instrument in the
smaller associations, though in the larger organizations these are
generally owned by the company.
The construction may be either of the single-wire (grounded) type
or double-wire (metallic) type; in the former the ground completes
the circuit, whereas in the latter the entire circuit is carried by wire.
The grounded type is less expensive to maintain but is also said to be
less satisfactory as to clearness of reception and general service.
The existing associations appear to be about evenly divided between
the grounded and metallic types.
Local service for 24 hours a day is quite general and toll connection
is also usually available.
The typical association operates on an assessment basis; about twice
as many associations make assessments as charge flat rates. The cost
of service to the member is very moderate, averaging $7.77 a year in
the assessment associations, and in those charging flat rates 87 cents
a month for rural service and 92 cents a month for service within the
village or town limits.
The financial data obtained in the survey were not entirely satis
factory, owing to lost records, inadequate records, and lack of knowl
edge of business methods on the part of a considerable number of the
reporting associations. On the basis of the returns, however, it
appears that the average gross revenue per association in 1936 was
only $968. This average probably understates the actual amount.
Many of the service-line associations handle almost no cash in the
course of the year. Even the fee paid per telephone to the switch
board company for making switchboard connections may not pass
through the local association but may be paid by the individual
members directly to that company; in such cases, however, where the
amount of the switching fee could be obtained the total amount paid
in such fees was credited as income to the service-line association.
Many of the associations have no employees and make little or no
cash expenditures. If repairs are needed, the members as a whole
either make them themselves (purchasing only the necessary materials)
or hire from a local company the services of a lineman at a fixed
hourly rate.
Taking into consideration the fact that many of the associations
were formed before the passage of cooperative laws, that they are
operating under corporation acts whose requirements are in many
cases in direct contravention of cooperative practice, and that as
public utilities they are in a number of States subject to public regula
tion by State utility commissions, a surprisingly high degree of
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Cooperation
395
conformity with cooperative principle was found among them. It
may be said, however, that few of them have any conception of
themselves as a part of a general cooperative movement. They have
been content with their avowed purpose of furnishing telephone service
in territories which would ordinarily be without such service if they did
not exist. This service they are furnishing through democratic
channels and at extremely low cost.
Scope and Method of Study
From various sources the Bureau assembled a list including not only
associations operating as cooperatives but also those operating as
mutuals. One or more associations of these types were found in 44
States. All of these were circularized one or more times.
Examination of the replies showed that a substantial number of
the so-called “cooperative associations,” while they may have been
cooperative in their early years, were no longer so. A very large
proportion of the “mutuals,” however, although making no pretensions
to being cooperative, nevertheless were conforming to all of the
cooperative principles except possibly that of return of patronage
dividends; and in most instances the same purpose—service without
profit—was being achieved through the medium of rates only high
enough to cover expenses.
In order to be included in the Bureau’s tabulation an association
had to be at least semicooperative. For purposes of this study an
association was regarded as entirely cooperative which conformed to
the principles of open membership, a single vote per member, no
proxy voting, limited return on share capital, and service at cost
(either through the patronage refund or through service rates so low
as to yield no profit). An association was regarded as semicooperative
which allowed voting by shares but limited to a small number the
shares held by any one person, or which allowed proxy voting but only
one vote per member; no association was included in the tabulations
in which both voting by proxy and voting by shares was allowed or in
which the nonmember subscribers outnumbered the members, unless
the organization was clearly a nonprofit association. In evaluating
the cooperative features, consideration was given to requirements of
State cooperative and other laws and to public-utility regulations.
Altogether there were 1,614 associations which furnished usable
reports and which were cooperative on a sufficient number of points
to warrant their inclusion.
The geographic distribution of the known and reporting associations
is given in table 1. As is there shown, more than 80 percent of all the
known associations are in the North Central States.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
396
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
T able 1.—Number of Known and Reporting Cooperative Telephone Associations, by
Geographic Division and State
Total known
associations
Geographic division and
State
United States.........................
N um
ber 1
3, 728
New England__________ _
M aine________________
New Hampshire____ _
.
V e r m o n t...______
34
19
5
9
Middle Atlantic.....................
N ew Y o r k ___________
70
Pennsylvania_________
47
East North Central.. ___
Ohio_________ ______
Indiana______________
Illin o is_________ ____
Michigan_____ _______
_ .
Wisconsin____
493
70
135
170
53
65
1
22
1
West North Central.. _____ 2, 535
Minnesota____________ 1,653
272
I o w a . .. ___________ .
90
Missouri______ . . . . .
162
North Dakota________
143
South Dakota_________
38
Nebraska_____________
177
Kansas...............................
South A tlantic.___________
Maryland................ .........
Virginia______________
W est Virginia_________
Per
cent
.
100 00
.91
.51
. 13
.24
.03
1 .8 8
.59
.03
1.26
13. 23
1 .8 8
3. 62
4.58
1.42
1.74
6 8 .0 0
44. 34
7. 30
2.41
4. 35
3.83
1.02
4. 75
152
4. 08
64
27
1.72
.70
8
.22
N um
ber
fur
nish
ing
usable
reports
1, 614
15
7
Geographic division and
State
Total known N um
ber
associations
furnishing
N um Per usable
ber 1 cent reports
South Atlantic—Con.
North Carolina_______
0. 48
.35
.51
. 10
East South Central____. . .
Kentucky. _________
Tennessee.____________
Alabama_____________
44
17
16
9
1.18
.46
.43
.24
.05
West South Central. _____
Arkansas__________ .
149
4.00
.56
. 11
1.50
1.82
20
2
8
10
2. 58
1.05
.30
.43
.54
. 11
. 11
.05
32
14
4
4.16
.83
3. 06
.27
61
2
6
36
18
18
223
46
52
69
24
32
1,178
765
137
30
81
65
15
85
41
3
24
5
7
18
13
19
3
Georgia_______________
2
21
4
56
Oklahoma_______ . .
Texas____ _____ ______
68
96
39
Mountain ________ . . .
M ontana. __________
Idaho_____ . . . _ ___
Wyoming____________
Colorado . __________
11
16
20
4
4
Utah______ _____ _____
N evada---- --------- -- . . .
Pacific.. _________________
Washington__________
Oregon______ _________
California__ ____ _____
2
155
31
114
10
2
8
4
3
1
6
7
1
20
40
1
1Subject to revision.
Extent of Cooperative Telephone Movement
The Bureau of the Census every 5 years makes a count of the num
ber of telephone companies and telephones in use in the United States.
Its reports classify the companies into two groups—those with annual
gross incomes of $10,000 and over and those whose income is less than
that amount.
Its latest report covered the year 1932. In that year it found that
there were 44,828 telephone systems in the United States, of which
918 (or less than 2%percent) had incomes of $10,000 or over. But the
network of that 2% percent was serving about 93^2 percent of the nearly
17K million telephones in use that year. This was an average of
slightly more than 17,700 telephones for each of the larger systems,
whereas the small companies were averaging only about 26 telephones
each.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
397
Cooperation
T a b l e 2 . —Development of Large and Small Telephone Companies Since 1922 1
Companies with annual gross incomes of—
$1 0 , 0 0 0 or over
Under $10,000
Year
1922_______________ __________________
1927___ ______ ______________ _____ ___
1932________________________________ _
1 Source: U. S. Bureau of the Census.
Washington, 1934.
Number of
telephones
in use
Average
number per
company
Number of
telephones
in use
Average
number
per com
pany
12,295,234
16, 712,495
16,284, 231
9, 293
12, 217
17, 739
2,052,161
1,810,272
1,140,175
37
31
26
Number
of tele
phones
per 1 0 , 0 0 0
popu
lation
130
155
139
Census of Electrical Industries, 1932—Telephones and Telegraphs
The returns in the Bureau of Labor Statistics study indicate that
most of the mutual and cooperative companies would fall within the
small-company classification,2but it cannot be assumed that all of the
small systems are either mutual or cooperative. The reports to the
Bureau show that a substantial proportion of these smaller systems
are owned either by single individuals or by stock companies operat
ing for profit. A further percentage, although calling themselves
mutual or cooperative, are actually not now operating along mutual
or cooperative lines, whatever the}^ may have done in the beginning.
It is not known how many telephone systems there are in the United
States which are functioning cooperatively. A Federal law makes
the individual returns and the mailing lists of the Bureau of the Census
confidential even as regards other Federal offices, and it is therefore
not possible to examine the census files in order to obtain a complete
list of companies which might be cooperative.
In the absence of these data the Bureau of Labor Statistics was able
to build up a list of some 4,400 associations, but nearly 400 of these
proved to have gone out of business and over 300 had to be discarded
because they could not qualify under the Bureau’s definition of
cooperative or semicooperative. That left some 3,700, of which
nearly 45 percent were in Minnesota alone.
It is known that, with two exceptions, this is not a complete list
of associations. The exceptions are Minnesota and North Dakota,
where State-wide cooperative censuses, made as “white-collar” projects
under the W. P. A., resulted in finding almost all if not quite all of the
associations. It is believed, however, that the list does cover at least
70 percent of the total number of the really cooperative or mutualcooperative associations in telephone operation in the United States.
The list is weak mainly in its coverage of the unincorporated service
lines, but many of these are included in the returns from the federated
switchboard associations.
1
Only 5 of the associations included in the present study had gross incomes of $10,000 or over in 1936.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
398
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
Assuming a total of 5,000 associations functioning either entirely
cooperatively or semicooperatively, then on the basis of returns to the
Bureau of Labor Statistics it may be estimated that their total mem
bership in 1936 was in the neighborhood of 330,000 and that some
460,000 persons were served by them in that year.
Types of Associations
Of 1,614 reporting associations, almost two-thirds were of the
service-line type, about a third were local associations with their own
switchboard service, and less than 4 percent were federations of local
associations. In the States from which 25 or more associations
reported, service lines were in the majority in Minnesota, North
Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, and Wisconsin, whereas in Illinois,
Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Ohio it was more common for
the telephone associations to own their own switchboards.
The distribution of the associations by type and by State is shown
in table 3.
T able 3.— Geographic Distribution of Reporting Cooperative Telephone Associations,
by Type, 1936
Geographic division and State
Total
United States_________ _________
Number
Percent
Locals
Locals
Federa
tions
Total
with
W
ith
With
switch
out
switch switch
board
board board
1,614
554
15
7
4
3
999
61
1 0 0 .0
34.3
61.9
26.7
42.9
73.7
57.1
3.8
2
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1
5
1 0 0 .0
16.7
83.3
10
5
5
26
13
13
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
27.8
27.8
27.8
72.2
72.2
72.2
223
46
52
69
24
32
154
42
42
45
13
55
4
7
15
9
12
20
24.7
8.7
13.5
21.7
37.5
62.5
1,178
765
137
30
81
65
15
85
307
78
91
25
26
831
681
27
70.5
89.0
19.7
6.7
67.9
80.0
33.3
1 0 .0
1 0 .6
1 0 .6
41
3
24
5
7
22
1
Virginia................................ ............
G eorgia............................................
2
2
6
36
18
18
East North Central. ---------- -----Indiana............ .................................
I llin o is ............................................
Michigan..........................................
West North Central—..........................
M innesota___________________
Iowa__________ _____________
M issouri. ................................. .
South Dakota________________
Nebraska___ ____________ ____
Kansas...............................................
South A tla n tic ......................................
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
11
9
67
17
3
1
11
Federa
tions
with
W
ith
With
switch
out
switch switch board
board board
4
2
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
69.0
91.3
80.8
65.2
54.2
37.5
40
1 0 0 .0
26.1
6
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
14
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
3
9
2
19
3
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
55
62
5
9
9
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
18
1
1 0 0 .0
2
6
1
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 ,0
2
1 0 0 .0
2
1
7
1 0 0 .0
1
1 0 0 .0
1 0 .2
66.4
83.3
32.1
16.9
60.0
78.8
53.7
33.3
70.8
60.0
43.9
66.7
25.0
40.0
1 0 0 .0
50.0
50.0
6.3
5.7
13.0
8.3
3.4
.8
13.9
3.1
6.7
2.4
4.2
Cooperation
399
T able 3.—Geographic Distribution of Reporting Cooperative Telephone Associations,
by Type, 1936— Continued
Percent
Number
Locals
Geographic division and State
Total
8
4
3
7
3
3
1
1
West South Central_______________
20
15
2
1
Oklahoma------- -----------------------
8
10
32
14
4
1
1
Federa
tions
W
ith
with
With
switch
out
switch switch
board
board board
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
87.5
75.0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
12.5
25.0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
2
1
3
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
15.0
1
2
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
75.0
50.0
62.5
90.0
1 0 .0
5
9
50.0
12.5
25.0
12
20
62.5
64.3
25.0
5
3
6
7
Locals
Federa
tions
with
Total
W
ith
With
switch
out
switch switch board
board board
4
1
Pacific. ..................... .............. ..............
61
1
1
Washington......................................
Oregon..............................................
20
10
40
12
23
1
9
1 0 0 .0
1
1 0 0 .0
37.5
35.7
75.0
6
3
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
57.1
1
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
42.9
1 0 0 .0
35
3
1 0 0 .0
37.7
1
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
9
26
2
1 0 0 .0
50.0
30.0
57.4
4.9
45.0
65.0
5.0
5.0
Age of Associations
The reports received from the telephone associations show that
these associations are one of the oldest forms of cooperative effort
in the United States. The average age for all associations reporting
on this point was 26 years. The following statement shows the
distribution of associations, by length of time in operation:
N u m ber of
a sso c ia tio n s
Less than 1 year_______________________________
1 year and under 3 years________________________________
3 and under 5 years_______ ____________________ _____—
5 and under 10 years___________________________________
10 and under 15 years__________________________________
15 and under 20 years___________________________________
20 and under 25 years__________________________________
25 and under 30 years__________________________________
30 years and over_______________________________________
Total___________________________________________
2
10
9
48
45
147
321
400
492
1,474
The largest groups had been formed in the periods 1900 to 1909
(49.5 percent) and 1910 to 1919 (38.0 percent), but 1.3 percent had
been in operation since before 1900. The, oldest association reporting
was started in 1893. Table 4 shows, by States, the distribution of
the associations according to the year in which they were formed.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
400
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
T able 4.—Distribution of Cooperative Telephone Associations, by Period in Which
Established
State
Total
number of
associ 1890
ations
to
report 1899
ing
All associations__
1,474
Alabama________
Arkansas________
California_______
Colorado________
Georgia.. ______
1
1
1
Idaho___________
Illinois_________ _
Indiana_________
Iow a........................
Kansas__________
Kentucky............. .
M aine__________
Maryland......... .
Michigan________
Minnesota______
19
Number of associations organized in specified period
1900
to
1909
1910
to
1919
1920
to
1924
1925
to
1929
730
560
78
50
1933
1934
1935
1936
10
6
7
2
7
3
2
3
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
5
2
2
1
3
1
122
81
4
7
44
37
76
59
5
9
7
1
2
1
32
14
11
14
309
3
2 326
18
5
9
4
New York_______
North C arolina...
North Dakota___
Ohio ___________
Oklahoma_______
18
6
1
78
44
7
16
34
4
Oregon____ ____ _
Pennsylvania____
South Dakota____
Tennessee_______
Texas___________
37
17
58
3
9
Vermont.............
Virginia..................
W ashington..........
West Virginia____
Wisconsin_______
Wyoming_______
4
2
9
1
1
1
1 2
2
1
2
18
700
1
1
1
15
1
25
14
14
3
8
1
Missouri________
Montana________
Nebraska________
Nevada_________
New H am pshire..
1
7
3
22
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
18
5
30
5
1932
1
2
2
22
1931
1
7
4
61
46
1930
1
1
1
12
3
3
50
9
1
3
11
3
4
31
3
3
2
10
8
2
6
2
2
4
9
6
1
17
1
6
6
22
12
1
3
4
2
3
7
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
3
4
1
1
1
1
4
2
1
1
1 1 reorganized; no information on date first established.
2 1 established in 1911; reorganized in 1936.
Membership and Subscribers Served
The telephone associations ranged in size from 2 to 4,025 but were
generally small. Of the whole group, 48.5 percent had fewer than
25 members each and 67.8 percent had fewer than 50 members each.
Less than one-fifth had more than 100 members and only 1.2 percent
had 500 members or more. (Table 5.)
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
401
Cooperation
T
able
5 . —Distribution of Cooperative Telephone Associations by Number of Members,
1936
Operating switch
boards
N ot operating
switchboards
Both types of
associations
Classified membership
Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent
1.5
7
35
92
123
6 .6
17.3
23.2
37.9
10.4
1.9
1.5
201
55
10
8
531
1 0 0 .0
166
530
.3
173
565
293
187
227
58
1
.1
11
991
1 0 0 .0
1.522
201
64
26
3
16.8
53.5
20.3
6.5
2 .6
8
11.4
37.1
19.3
12.3
14.9
3.8
.7
.5
1 0 0 .0
As would be expected, the service-line associations were the smaller
of the two types of associations shown in table 5. Seventy percent
of these had fewer than 25 members and 90 percent fewer than 50
members. As table 6 indicates, they averaged only 27 members
each, as compared with 161 members in the associations having their
own switchboards. The central, or federated associations, had in
membership an average of 24 local associations each.
The 1,522 local associations reporting as to membership had a com
bined total of 110,981 members at the end of 1936, or an average of
66 persons each. More than three-fourths of these were members
of local associations operating their own switchboards.
Not all of these members were also subscribers at the end of the
year. In some cases shareholders had moved out of the territory
served by the association, and though retaining their stock in the
organization were no longer using its facilities. Reports from other
associations indicated that, low as the rates or assessments were, there
nevertheless were members whose financial condition was such that
they could no longer afford the service. The number of inactive
members was more than counterbalanced by the nonmember patrons,
however, so that the number of active subscribers of the local associa
tions at the end of 1936 exceeded the number of shareholders by 25,185.
T able 6.— Membership and Subscribers of Cooperative Telephone Associations, 1936, by
Type of Association
Membership
Type of association
Local associations............... ........................................ .
Operating switchboards............. ...........................
N ot operating switchboards........... .....................
Federated or central associations operating switchboards.............................................................................
1
Number of member associations.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Subscribers
Number
Number
of associ Members A ver of associ M embers Aver
ations
age
age
ations
reporting
reporting
1,522
529
993
110,981
85,041
25,940
161
27
1,542
549
993
136,166
109,274
26,892
199
27
50
1 1,198
i 24
56
11,641
208
66
88
402
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
Fifty-six associations, composed of 1,198 member associations of the
service-line type, reported a total of 11,641 subscribers. Although
there is a small amount of duplication, in number of subscribers
reported, as between the local service-line associations and the feder
ated central associations, it is safe to say that the reporting associations
were serving over 147,000 families at the end of 1936.
The total and average membership and subscribers are shown, by
geographic divisions and States, in table 7. I t is evident from this
table that 87 percent of the local associations reporting and 81 percent
of the membership were in the North Central States. The largest
associations were in the State of Washington where the average
membership was 339, followed by Idaho with 296. In Minnesota,
which had the largest number of associations, the average member
ship was only 37 but this was because of the unusually large proportion
of the small service lines.
A considerable margin between average membership and average
number of subscribers was shown in some States, notably Iowa,
Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Washington. Undoubtedly this was due
to some extent to requirements by State commissions making it
compulsory upon the associations to serve all applicants (whether
members or not) in the area in which they have license to operate.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
403
Cooperation
T able 7.— Membership and Subscribers, 1936, by Division and State
Subscribers
Membership
Geographic division and State
Type of
associ
ation
Associ
ations
reporting
M em
bers
United States________________ Local___
Central.
1,522
50
110,981
1 1,198
Local__
...d o .......
N ew Hampshire_________ ...d o .......
..d o ___
14
7
5
1,774
1, 554
58
162
...d o .......
...d o ___
...d o ___
36
18
18
Central.
Local__
204
13
45
49
N ew England------- ----------------
O h io ..___________ _______
Central.
Local__
Central.
Michigan________________ Local__
Central.
W isconsin.____ __________ Local__
Illinois__________________
._ do___
Central.
Local__
Central.
Iowa___________ ___ _____ Local__
Central.
Missouri________ ____ ___ Local__
Central.
North Dakota................ ....... L o ca l...
Minnesota. _____________
Nebraska_____ __________
Kansas__________________
Central.
Local__
Central.
L o c a l...
Central.
2
2
59
9
19
2
32
1,115
32
743
5
114
14
26
3
80
63
2
14
1
75
7
Local__
Central.
Local__
40
Central.
West Virginia....................... Local__
North Carolina_____ _____ . ..d o -----
1
South Atlantic___ ____ _______
Maryland_______________
1
3
23
5
7
2
East South Central..................... - ..d o ___
. .. d o ___
__do____
8
4
3
1
14
7
36
42
31
36
18
18
1,683
1,062
621
47
59
35
22, Oil
i 282
5,542
5,151
137
7,152
i 208
1,976
1 37
2,190
108
i 22
123
105
i 19
207
13
46
49
3
59
26,365
2,803
6,482
6,251
'364
9,050
1,889
2,040
550
2,542
127
216
141
128
67,416
1801
27, 744
i 120
16,674
1438
3,608
i 71
3,839
1,938
1 16
2,530
i6
11,083
i 150
60
i 25
37
i 24
146
i 31
139
l 24
48
31
i8
181
i6
148
i 21
1,131
36
756
5
115
18
27
3
81
63
82,399
L 845
32,753
594
21.803
4,358
4,376
760
3,854
2,386
70
3, 734
275
13,493
1, 788
75
218
43
119
190
242
162
253
48
38
70
267
275
180
224
5,725
i 30
277
4,952
i 30
312
149
35
143
i 30
92
215
l 30
62
40
689
185
490
14
32
14
4
2,215
635
1,182
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
127
222
121
i 23
104
i 19
68
8
21
2
32
1
14
1
75
8
148
210
210
352
5,003
1
210
21
5
7
18
2
385
154
40
20
86
8
46
163
14
4
3
726
209
498
19
91
52
166
19
2,448
195
43
1,592
155
813
40
153
65
265
78
2,136
464
1,195
84
383
67
33
299
14
55
100
127
1
16
3
22
2
120
6
2
i 37
105
i7
8
1
32
14
4
100
288
1
10
10
1
10
57
145
i4
33
339
14
55
58
3
12,941
588
33
10,643
1
1
6 ,1 1 0
1
14
2,105
121
153
236
97
275
79
5,934
7
18
188
28
32
1
6
8,248
i4
33
110
3
23
69
45
296
17
41
38
88
208
1,298
' 747
551
Mountain................. ..................... Local__
Number of member associations.
136,166
11, 641
5
8
1
1
1, 542
56
66
1,534
1,316
56
162
1,605
i 81
43
722
174
840
17
. .. d o ___
Central.
California.............................. . L o c a l...
W ashington.......................... . . do___
Central.
Oregon..................................... L o c a l...
Central.
i 24
Average
per asso
ciation
2
16
3
Idaho____ _______________ . ..d o ___
W yom in g... ____________ . .. d o ___
Colorado_________ _______ . ..d o ___
. .. d o ___
M em
bers
29
32
West South Central..................... . ..d o ___
Central.
Arkansas................................. Local__
. ..d o ___
Central.
Texas.......... ............................ Local.
Central.
2
6
2
Average Associ
ations
per asso
ciation reporting
6
7
1
19
1
20
38
2,265
568
2
117
218
210
77
22
22
102
40
10
223
196
33
660
20
60
284
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
404
The associations appear to have been losing ground as regards
membership. Of 1,305 societies which reported number of members
for both 1935 and 1936, the membership in the latter year showed an
increase in 184, a decrease in 218, and remained unchanged in 903.
Some relation between period of operation and membership was
indicated, in the reporting associations. Thus, of 62 associations which
had been in existence for less than 10 years, all but 17 had fewer than
50 members. On the other hand no associations less than 15 years of
age had attained a membership of 500 or more and the only associa
tions with 1,000 or more members were 5 which had all been operating
for 20 years or longer (3 of these, for 30 years or longer).
Legal Status and Cooperative Practice
LEG AL ST A T U S
The so-called ‘‘Rochdale principles” practiced among the dis
tributive and service associations are somewhat modified in the tele
phone associations by conditions in their field of business, by the
wish of the members, or by the terms of the acts under which they
operate. Although unincorporated associations may operate on any
basis they choose, the business procedure of any incorporated organiza
tion is determined to a certain extent by the statute under which it has
been incorporated. Thus, the general corporation acts usually specify
that the stockholder shall have one vote for every share of stock he
owns, that any dividends paid shall be paid on the stock, and that
proxy voting must be permitted—all of which requirements are in
direct contravention of the cooperative principles. Sometimes also
the State constitution contains sections covering such business pro
cedure as voting by shares or by proxy.
The cooperative statutes vary considerably in their requirements
from State to State. The best ones enumerate the cooperative
principles, in defining what constitutes a cooperative, and specify
adherence to these standards as a requirement for operation under
the act. But by no means can all of these cooperative statutes be
said to be adequate in the sense of defining and compelling com
pliance with the Rochdale principles. Wide variations from the
accepted practice, and equally unfortunate omissions, are found in
the provisions of the State acts.
Of the 1,292 telephone associations which reported their legal
status, 787 were incorporated and 505 were unincorporated. The
small service lines appeared to be more likely to remain informal asso
ciations, while the larger organizations giving switchboard service
were generally incorporated. That this distinction was by no means
always true, however, is indicated by the fact that some service-line
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Cooperation
405
associations with as few as half a dozen members were found to be
incorporated. There were, nevertheless, some service-line groups that
not only had not incorporated but had never even had what could be
called an association. One such association reported that there had
never been even a signed agreement among the members. A few
neighbors had assembled, strung their poles and wire, and negotiated
for switching service from the telephone company in the nearest town;
one member acted as secretary in collecting “switching fees” to be
paid to the company and in carrying on any necessary correspondence.
That was all there was to it.
A great many of the telephone associations were formed before
there was any State cooperative law under which they could be
established and they therefore incorporated as stock companies under
the general corporation act; a good many of these, in practice, how
ever, have operated as mutuals. Comparatively few appear to have
been established under the cooperative statutes. In 1933 the Wis
consin Public Service Commission had a check made of the incorpora
tion records in that State. This revealed that, although the State
cooperative statute is broad enough to cover telephone operation,
only four associations had elected to incorporate under it; most of the
others had been formed as mutuals.
Again, telephone companies are in many States regarded as public
utilities or common carriers and, as such, are subject to regulation by
State commissions. A number of States exempt from such regulation
associations operating as pure mutuals (i. e., serving members only
and having no predetermined rates but assessing all members their
pro rata share of the cost of operation); service extended to even one
nonmember subjects the association to regulation by the State com
mission. Some of the regulations imposed by these State commissions
also place obstacles in the way of completely cooperative practice.
Thus, in States where operating territory is apportioned, company by
company, and exclusive rights are given therein, State commissions
generally require the companies to serve all applicants for service
whether they are stockholders or not. And in some cases the com
panies are specifically prohibited from making any distinction in the
rates charged to members and to nonmembers. The result is that
where nonmembers can get the same service as members and at the
same rate, there is little inducement to take out membership in the
cooperative association. Such has been the effect of this that, in
States where this regulation is in force, many associations have a
greater number of nonmember than member subscribers.
As is evident, therefore, the rate of observance of the cooperative
principles among the telephone associations is dependent to a consider
able extent upon these legal and regulatory requirements.
3 9 8 7 3 — 3S------- 8
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
406
Monthly Labor Review-—February 1938
C O O PE R A T IV E P R A C T IC E
In general the practice of open membership is followed by the
telephone associations. Limitation, where found, was generally that
imposed by the capacity of the facilities owned. Thus several asso
ciations reported that membership was limited to 15, 18, or 20—the
load limit of the party line owned by the association. A few associa
tions required that the prospective member must live in the territory
served by the association and thus be in a position to utilize the
telephone facilities. Only four associations were found which im
posed any other restriction. In two of these, membership was open
only to farmers, and in one farmers were specifically excluded. The
fourth association (located in Texas) barred Negroes from membership.
Voting.—Roughly, 80 percent of the reporting associations allowed
only one vote per member, and about 75 percent prohibited voting
by proxy. In the federations, member associations had one vote
each. In one case, however, a number of party lines, all in rural
districts, had federated and bought their own switchboard which
was set up in a village centrally located. At the same time, service was
extended to the villagers. The rural service was still operated on the
assessment basis, and the members continued to provide and maintain
their own telephones and lines, but the village subscribers were renters
and were charged a flat rate. In this association each of the local
member associations (i. e., the party lines) had one vote in the affairs
of the association and the villagers were given one vote for every 10
subscribers.
Share capital.— In the associations with capital stock one of the
conditions of membership was the purchase of at least one share.
The pure mutuals and some of the cooperative associations were
membership organizations without capital stock. In the pure mutuals
the usual practice, at the time the lines were built, had been for the
members to divide the total cost equally among themselves, the pro
rata share being regarded as the cost of “membership.” In at least
one case, the association later issued shares, the par value of which
was based upon the amount of contribution of the original members.
Generally when a member wishes to withdraw from the organiza
tion, he must find a purchaser for his share, but some associations
purchase his share at par value or net worth, whichever is lower.
Analysis of the policies of the associations indicates that less than
5 percent make a practice of paying interest on share capital. In
these associations therefore, although they are organized as capitalstock associations, the share may be regarded as only a membership
certificate. Of 33 associations which make a practice of paying interest
on share capital, 14 limit the rate of return—one to 4 percent, five to
5 percent, three to 6 percent, one to 7 percent, three to 8 percent, and
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Cooperation
407
one to 10 percent. Only 23 made any return on shares in 1936, the
rates ranging from 2 to 8 percent.
Patronage refunds.—The return of surpluses earned on the year’s
operations, in proportion to patronage, is not common among the tele
phone associations. The main reason for this is that there is generally
no surplus to return. About three-fourths of the associations operate
on the assessment basis. The assessment may be levied upon all
members alike, or may be in proportion either to the amount of shares
held or to the telephones in use. Whatever the basis, the total
amount is set only high enough to cover operating expenses. Those
associations which do operate on a predetermined monthly rate usually
aim to fix that rate only high enough to cover the actual cost of service.
In the grocery trade and retail gasoline business there is a “current
price” which is easily known, and which provides for a margin suffi
cient to cover operating expenses plus a profit to the dealer. In other
words, the member of a grocery cooperative voluntarily advances to
his association this difference between actual cost and the current price.
It is from this “overcharge” that he receives his patronage refund at
the end of the operating period. Most of the telephone associations,
however, are operating in a business field and in districts where there
has been no current rate, and their low rates afford little or no surplus.
Among the associations covered by the present study only 29
reported that they had returned a patronage refund for 1936. They
had rebated the sum of $7,168, which was an average of $3.23 for each
of their members. The practice of one additional association was to
divide any surplus equally among the members—a purely mutual
procedure—and it was the custom of another to give free service until
the surplus was exhausted.
Operative and Administrative Procedure
The larger switchboard associations operate like any other tele
phone company, with directors, officers, manager, linemen, and opera
tors. The directors, however, are generally either unpaid or receive
only a small fee for attendance at meetings. Full-time officers and
all employees are on a salary status.
There is little formal procedure in the operation of the service lines.
Generally most of the actual work is carried on by a secretary, elected
from the membership, who may contribute his services or may receive
a small annual amount for his work. In some of the very small
associations the secretary is the only officer and there are no paid
employees.
The associations which have no switchboard of their own naturally
need no operators. In the smaller associations which give switchboard
service, it was found that service may be provided for in one of several
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
408
Monthly Laboi- Review—February 1938
different ways: (1) One or more operators may be hired at a flat
monthly or yearly rate, the association being responsible for the pay
ment of the salary; (2) the operator may be guaranteed a certain sum
per year, each member being directly responsible to the operator for
his share; (3) the operator may be hired on a contingent or commission
basis, receiving either a specified commission on the total business
(calls made) or a flat rate per call; (4) the switchboard may be placed
in the home of one of the members and operated by the family, either
gratuitously or for a small yearly amount. A fifth method had been
resorted to in a few instances, mainly in territories where the economic
situation of the association and its members was desperate; there the
procedure was to turn over the switchboard (though still retaining
ownership) to some person or family willing to take over its operation
for the small amounts receivable in annual switchboard fees or for a
small amount per call; generally such arrangements were undertaken
by a local family simply to obtain some small supplementary income
P R O P E R T IE S A N D E Q U IP M E N T
Data as to miles of lines owned by the associations were available
for only 239 organizations. These had a total of 7,139.8 miles, an
average of 29.9 miles each. If this average can be regarded as repre
sentative of the whole group, then the associations covered in this
report own and operate about 45,000 miles of line.
As already indicated, the associations usually own the poles and
wire along the main right of way. The wire and poles necessary to
carry the service from the highway to the members’ homes, however,
must be furnished by the member in over three-fifths of the service
lines, and in nearly two-fifths of the local associations operating their
own switchboards. In over three-fourths of the service lines, and
three-fifths of the local switchboard associations, the member must
also supply his own telephone instrument. Many of the associations
furnish service only to members; if nonmember subscribers are served,
instruments are furnished by the association, either (1) at a specified
monthly rental for the instrument but with switching service at the
same rate as for members, or (2) at a higher flat service rate than for
members, the difference being in consideration of furnishing instru
ment and maintenance of line.
The larger companies, particularly those which charge a stipulated
monthly rate, utilize part of their revenues for the maintenance and
repair of lines and equipment. In the smaller companies it is the
general practice that a considerable amount of the repair and mainte
nance work on the association’s lines is done by the members them
selves. Of the 1,224 companies reporting on this point, in 692 (57
percent) the members are responsible for the repair of their instru
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Cooperation
409
ments, the replacement of batteries, and the upkeep of their wire as
far as the main line.
In some associations when repairs on the main lines are needed,
either the members all contribute the necessary services or a lineman
(who may be a professional from one of the private companies or
simply one of the cooperative members) is hired. Some associations
permit certain members to pay all or part of their assessment in
services. In at least one association one member is elected as lineman
each year and receives a small sum for his services.
Sometimes the association holds a “bee.” Thus one society reports:
“Every fall the members go out 1 day, in a body, all over the line,
reset poles and insulators and do everything possible to keep expenses
down to a minimum.”
Finances
The associations were asked to supply data on gross and net income,
paid-in share capital, net worth, bills and accounts payable, and total
assets.
The financial data thus obtained were far from complete and not
altogether satisfactory. Most of the switchboard associations (espe
cially the larger ones) had good accounting and bookkeeping. A
large proportion of the service-line associations, however, operate
on an informal basis, and many of them keep few accounts. It was
found that the determination of the associations’ net wTorth, for
instance, was impossible in many cases. It will be noted, in table
11, that the number of organizations reporting varies widely from
point to point. Sometimes early records had been lost. Often no
record had been kept of the value of original installations, equipment
or replacements. Some reported “no net worth,” even though size
able sums had been invested, the plant was still in good operating con
dition, and there were few or no debts outstanding against the or
ganization. It is more than likely therefore that the aggregate net
worth, even of associations reporting, is considerably greater than that
shown in table 8.
R E SO U R C E S
Of 505 associations which reported as to amount of assets, 42 per
cent had total resources of less than $1,000, about 36 percent had
resources of from $1,000 to $5,000, and only a little over 11 percent
had assets of $10,000 or over (table 8). The assets of the service
line associations were small; in about 42 percent they were less than
$500 and in 65 percent were under $1,000.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
410
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
T able 8.—Distribution of Cooperative Associations by Amount of Assets at End of 1936
Number of associations with assets of—
State
All associations______ - Locals operating switchboard_______________
Locals not operating
Federations operating
switchboard________
Total
num
ber
report Under
$500
ing
$500
and
under
$1 , 0 0 0
$1 , 0 0 0
and
under
$2 , 0 0 0
$2 , 0 0 0
and
under
$5,000
$5,000
and
under
$1 0 , 0 0 0
505
125
87
81
99
56
38
14
5
261
29
29
37
67
45
36
13
5
227
95
53
40
30
7
1
1
17
1
5
4
2
4
1
4
1
1
1
1
3
2
1
1
1
2
24
24
32
42
1
2
1
11
Minnesota________________
3
5
10
6
1
2
2
4
4
8
12
10
11
1
8
1
5
5
4
3
2
1
1
3
25
3
3
28
16
2
1
4
1
3
1
1
i
1
5
1
2
43
1
1
2
2
2
25
3
7
2
6
1
16
2
3
4
2
7
2
1
1
1
2
2
4
2
1
1
1
3
2
3
2
4
3
1
6
1
2
10
2
4
7
15
3
1
2
3
2
1
2
1
1
1
u
1
1
2
1
1
6
2
7
1
2
1
20
1
9
1
2
1
3
65
5
14
7
2
3
8
1
1
202
7
7
12
Washington_______ ______ _
$1 0 , 0 0 0 $25,000 $50,000
and
and
and
under under
$25,000 $50,000 over
1
4
1
2
1
For the 505 associations reporting, total assets amounted to $2,719,155. A combined net worth of $2,446,111 was reported by 422 asso
ciations and a paid-in share capital of $2,413,895 by 750 associations
(table 9).
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Cooperation
411
T a b l e 9 . —Resources, and Bills Payable, of Cooperative Telephone Associations, at end
of 1936
Total assets
Type of society
All associations..-............... .
Locals operating switchboard.._____________
L oca ls n o t o p era tin g
switchboard__________
F ederation s operating
switchboard__________
New England______________
M aine_________________
N um
N um
Num
ber of
N um
ber
non
ber
ber
re
Amount
re Amount stock
re Amount
port
port
asso
port
ing
ing
cia
ing
tions
i 422 1 $2,446, 111
750 $2,413,895
230
261 2,379,385
1 227 1 1,970,912
343 1,781,641
87
130
170, 689
545, 780
119
91
17,567
,474
24
7
3,514
20,307
16, 333
2
2
1
1
2
4
7
4
14,725
6 , 625
8
8 ,1 0 0
4
5
377,353
91, 378
68,041
112,877
23,827
81, 230
46
15
48
10
8
12
519 1,691, 617
304
730, 599
70
360, 330
16, 503
7
212,145
46
34
78, 287
86,104
13
45
207, 649
159
85
28
9
9
9
137
19
12
227
288,252
176
240,960
396
17
51,518
19
234, 239
11
3
17,448
17,198
250
4
15,852
15,177
275
400
6
23,585
15,617
7,968
6
2
1
Verm ont..'..............
2
1
1
9
East North Central...................
Ohio___________________
Indiana............... ..................
Illinois............. ......................
M ichigan.______________
Wisconsin_____________ _
82
2
7
12
24
24
11
11
346,011
50,037
98, 609
120, 683
18,087
58, 595
3
3
73
9
19
22
8
15
339 1,724,120
202
1,023,381
194,770
32
14,200
7
84,992
25
20
30,109
11
221,826
42
154,842
288
1 143
46
7
26
18
24,101
10, 306
10, 910
2, 650
235
9
2
1
1,949
400
517
1,032
9
5
4
M ountain. .............................. .
M ontana...............................
Idaho_______________ . .
16
Coloradol............. ................
3
Pacific..........................................
California ............................
Washington. ............... .
O regon................................
30
South Atlantic_____________
M aryland______________
Virginia. ............................
W est Virginia___________
13
1
7
3
2
East South Central____
K entucky______________
Tennessee _____________
4
1
10
38
1
N ot including
1
10
2
1
1
15
14
3
13,448
11,008
2,440
12
310, 994
32,172
79,067
101, 300
29,164
69,291
118
1,621,915
» 697,623
426,125
10, 500
100,487
33,887
214,692
138, 601
21
25
37
11
24
460
460
3, 974
15
3
3
12
7
9
68
16
2
22
12
5
3,233
2,300
933
23,264
5,240
2,645
6,123
3, 706
5,550
88,305
22,610
25,435
695
14,598
4,220
5,634
15,113
1
400
5
1
400
2
2
1
7,244
1,409
4, 540
1, 295
22, 270
7
17,380
6
3
3
10, 707
50
8,369
2 , 288
6
19,720
2, 550
3
3
11,800
5, 580
4
118,348
46,479
65,284
i;527
Si 058
13
18
2
2
114, 928
28,777
63, 399
12i 755
9,997
4
2
87,806
31, 029
49,414
1, 577
5 , 786
2
1
3
441, 323
50
424,139
17,134
21
362,356
46
125,828
7
15
71, 545
9
329,733
32,623
17
29
88,154
37,674
1
9
5
6
70, 232
1,313
2
1
8
2
1
14
3
2
10
4
44, 513
4,300
34,853
4, 710
650
2
20
1
2
3,113
2,482
'561
70
3
1 ,1 1 2
2
1
1,037
75
9
738
84
261
168
225
2
7
2
4
1
2
1
2
3
1
1
12
society which reported a deficit of $6,438.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
3
86
228 $191,770
22,633
7,173
13,235
2,050
' 175
1
5
1
Texas__________ ___ _
N um
ber
re Amount
port
ing
505 $2,719,155
Middle Atlantic____________
N ew York___ . .
Pennsylvania___________
West North C e n tr a l..______
Minnesota______________
Iowa_______ ___________
Missouri_______________
North Dakota__________
South D a k o ta ................
Nebraska______ ____ .
Kansas_________________
Bills and
accounts pay
able
Paid-in share capital
N et worth
412
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
For the associations reporting both amount of share capital and
membership, the average member’s investment (in share capital)
was $36.33.
Bills and accounts payable at the end of 1936 were reported by
228 associations, in an aggregate amount of $191,770. An additional
642 associations stated that they had no debts.
IN C O M E A N D E A R N IN G S
The figures for revenues, given in table 10, can be regarded as only
approximate. In many cases no exact records of income and expenses
are kept. Often the only expense in the service-line associations is
the monthly switching charge and even this may be paid by each
subscriber directly to the company which provides switchboard serv
ice, so that this money may not pass through the hands of the local
treasurer. If repairs are needed for which labor must be hired or
materials bought, each member is assessed his pro rata share. In
the figures of revenues here given, however, the association has been
credited with the total amount of switching fees paid, where this
was known; no estimate could be made of value of repairs.
The 1,536 associations reporting gross revenue in 1936 had an aggre
gate of $1,486,761, of which over three-fourths was reported by the local
associations giving switchboard service, about one-seventh by the
service lines, and the remainder by the federations. There were 495
associations which made a net gain during the year; for the 494
which reported the amount the combined total was $90,030. On
the other hand 163 associations had a loss; in the 153 which reported
the amount this totaled $20,649. Altogether the whole number of
associations furnishing returns on this point had combined net earnings
of $69,381. This small net can be attributed mainly to. the pre
ponderance of associations operating on the assessment basis. These
collect only enough revenue to cover expenses. In the words of one
association: “Our profit is service at cost.”
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
413
Cooperation
T able 10.— Income and Earnings of Cooperative Telephone Associations, 1936, by States
Gross revenue
State
All associations_____________
Locals operating switchboard________________
Locals not o p e r a t in g
switchboard__________
Federations o p e r a t in g
switchboards_________
N um
ber re
porting
Amount
1,536 $1,486, 761
N et gain
N um
N um
ber re Amount ber re
porting
porting
495
$90, 030
3 163
$20, 649
1,164, 263
2 222
71, 929
'84
17,016
941
211, 971
252
9,945
7 68
2,720
56
110, 527
21
8,156
8 11
913
1
1
114
2
4
61
890
3, 709
96
26, 507
108, 435
Indiana______ ______ _______
I o w a ..____________________
Kansas................................. .......
K entucky. ________________
M a in e ........................................
51
127
84
3
7
70, 573
289, 551
142, 937
1,400
17,857
2 22
3,998
38, 304
276,146
35, 341
4, 430
Nebraska................................... .
N evada____________________
N ew Hampshire_______ ____
New York_________________
6
1
2
24
741
30
14
15
1
137
3
762
6,332
20
7,243
1
1
2 114
137
3
24
762
6,237
28
3,106
15, 274
2, 5S3
766
3
766
367
8 , 625
20, 879
2, 581
1
16
232
6
4
5,265
9
« 5,265
94
1
377
3
o 283
8 6
776
1,159
24
25
3
3,062
2,753
129
2,732
217
62
3
9
5
23
26, 463
5,010
5 , 743
3,055
27,428
19
955
20
133,013
, 210
34, 435
612
6
2
9
66
56
1
South Dakota............................
T ennessee.. . _____________
Texas____________________
Vermont_________ _________
4
8
9
1
12 6 8
3
100
7
3
10
li
17
12 300
9
5
3, 838
3,912
129
2,823
436
10
8 20
50
5, 201
250
54
18
19
3
2
li
367
8 , 575
15, 678
2,331
46
45,237
69,770
15, 520
26; 604
6 , 252
6
529
1,911
3,108
7, 225
32
8
1
78
44
7
40
18
2
8 6
17
54,913
320
7
3
North Dakota............. ... ..........
Ohio______________________
Oklahoma_________________
Oregon______ ____ _________
Pennsylvania______________
4
30
95
$69, 381
4
3, 635
17,185
5, 691
7
1
2
6
4
658
«306
49
36
56,826
84
582
6,858
885
Washington________________
West Virginia_____________ _
Wisconsin__________ _______
N um
Amount ber re Amount
porting
539
Alabama__________________
Colorado.. ................................
Georgia... ________________
Idaho___ ____ _____________
Illinois.................................... .
Maryland_________________
Michigan_______ _________
Minnesota_________________
Missouri___ ______________ _
Montana__________________
N et earnings,
all societies 1
N et loss
6
2
10
442
8,166
190
1,975
li
8
3
91
219
12
10
4
355
23
600
2
1
191
127
5
9 181
9 127
442
1
4
4
33
li 10
4
744
13
2
8,133
190
1,231
1N ot including 320 associations which reported “no net earnings” for the year.
2Includes 1 association reporting small gain, amount not stated.
3Includes 10 associations which did not report amount of loss.
4Includes 10 associations reporting loss and 1 reporting gain, amount not stated.
6Includes 5 associations which did not report amount of loss.
6Includes 1 association reporting gain, and 5 reporting loss, amount not stated.
7Includes 4 associations which did not report amount of loss.
8Includes 1 association which did not report amount of loss.
9Loss.
10Includes 1 association reporting gain and 1 reporting loss, amount not stated.
11Includes 2 associations which did not report amount of loss.
12Includes 3 associations which did not report amount of loss.
Only five of the associations included in the present study had gross
revenues in 1936 amounting to $10,000 or over. The revenues of these
ranged from $11,205 to $67,000.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Housing Conditions
HOUSING AND HOUSING FINANCE IN AMERICAN
CITIES
BY COMBINING the results of the Real Property Inventory and
the Financial Survey of Urban Housing, both conducted by the U. S.
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, those interested in the
betterment of living conditions in the United States are furnished
with valuable data for planning purposes.1 Primarily covering
accommodations as they existed in 1933, these reports deal with the
predominant types of housing, including substandard units, and
also show the ratio of owner-occupied to rented dwellings, the propor
tion of income spent on rent, the importance of mortgaged buildings
in housing finance and contract, as well as effective rates of interest
on both owner-occupied and rental properties. Statistics are pre
sented for 64 individual cities included in the inventory of property
and for 61 cities under the financial survey, in addition to country
wide summaries. The date of inauguration of this survey coincided
with the time of the broadening of Federal policy in housing questions,
and the results supply essential economic and financial information
on residential properties which heretofore has been lacking.
Condition of H ousing 2
In investigating 2,633,135 dwelling units in 64 American cities
the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce found that nearly 80
percent of the structures were of the single-family type, 2-family
houses made up 13 percent of the total, and the remaining 8 percent
were of other kinds including apartment houses. The relatively low
proportion of apartment houses is doubtless accounted for by the
omission of the largest cities from the survey.
On the average, owner-occupied dwellings were larger than rented
units. Over 83 percent of the single-family houses occupied by
owners had 5 or more rooms, as compared with 63 percent of the
rented houses. One- and 2-room units represented only 1.7 percent
of the total owner-occupied dwellings and 5.2 percent of those rented.
1 U. S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce.
Real Property Inventory, 1934. Summary and 64
Cities Combined, Washington, 1935, mimeographed; Financial Survey of Urban Housing, Statistics on
Financial Aspects of Urban Housing, Washington, 1937.
2 For a fuller description of the findings from the Real Property Inventory see M onthly Labor Review,
March 1935 (pp. 723-729).
414
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Housing Conditions
415
It was also found that owner-occupied houses had relatively more
conveniences of specified types. For example 90.6 percent of all the
homes investigated had electricity for lighting, but in rented houses
the percentage was 87.5 as compared with 95.4 in the owner-occupied
dwellings. Gas for cooking was available in 69 percent of all the
houses, mechanical refrigeration in 17.0 percent, indoor water-closets
in 82.9 percent, and baths in 76.7 percent. The report reviewed
commented on the large extent to which sanitary plumbing was
absent in residential buildings in the cities surveyed.
On the basis of a standard of occupancy of one person to a room,
17.1 percent of the dwellings were overcrowded. In 379,434 units,
making up 15.6 percent of the total, the number of persons to a room
was 1 to 2; in 29,283 (1.2 percent of the total) it was 2 to 3; and in
6,120 (0.3 percent) it was over 3.
Owner-occupied single-family homes valued at $3,000 to $4,999
represented 29.1 percent of the total on which valuation was reported;
41.6 percent were valued at less than $3,000, and the remaining group
at $5,000 and over. Eight percent fell in the lowest valuation class,
under $1,000, and 1.5 percent were valued at $20,000 and over. The
modal rental for all tenant-occupied units was $20 to $29.99 per month
(25.9 percent of the total). Of single-family tenant dwellings, the
classes at rental under $10, $10 to $14.99, and $20 to $29.99, each
accounted for over 20 percent of the total and together made up 63.2
percent. Multiple-family tenant dwellings brought a modal monthly
rental of $20 to $29.99 (28.5 percent of the total).
Rating the occupied dwellings by their condition, the Department
of Commerce concluded that 39.0 percent were in good condition, 44.5
percent were in need of minor repairs, 14.7 were in need of major
repairs, and 1.7 were unfit for use. No information was obtained on
0.1 percent. Of the occupied units, 83.5 percent were either in good
condition or in need of minor repairs, as compared with 67.7 percent
of those that were vacant.
Financial Status
In choosing cities to be covered in the Financial Survey of Urban
Housing, consideration was given to variety in size and location in
order to make the sample “sufficiently representative to give national
significance to the results.” In the 61 cities covered by the financial
survey, 163,059 families made up the tenant sample. This repre
sented 11.9 percent of the 1,366,443 families scheduled in the realproperty inventory. The number of owner occupants in the sample
was 133,478, or 14.9 percent of the 897,903 families included in the
real-property inventory. Material was tabulated for 52 cities, and
the findings here discussed relate to that sample. A considerable
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
416
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
part of the financial study was devoted to family income, this being
the controlling factor in limiting expenditures for housing. Tenants
tended to spend 25 percent of their income on rent. Those with
higher than average incomes required smaller proportions for rent and
those in the lower brackets spent a substantially higher proportion
for rent. Values of owner-occupied homes averaged 2 to 3 times the
annual family income; and total incomes of owner occupants averaged
nearly one-third above those of tenants in the same city. The
difference in total income was roughly proportionate to the difference
in values of dwellings occupied in the two groups.
In cities located in the same general vicinity, conditions as to values
and rents tended to be similar, with certain exceptions. Differences
between areas are, of course, largely due to differences in climate
between the North and the South. It is more common to find large
dwellings in older, more settled areas of the Northeastern States than
elsewhere. Age of dwellings, also, affects valuations and rents.
Owing to the importance of credit in ownership of real estate and
in the revival of the real-estate market, special attention was given to
the financing of residential buildings. An average of 58.3 percent of
the owner-occupied dwellings covered were mortgaged, the ratio
varying from 24 to 84 percent in the 52 cities. For rented properties
the proportion mortgaged was 42.8 percent. The outstanding debt
on mortgaged properties averaged more than half the value in most
of the cities. The average ratio of mortgage debt to value was 55.6
percent for owner-occupied units and 60.4 for rented dwellings.
These figures indicate the importance of credit in housing and show
further that, where used, credit forms a more substantial part of value
than the owner’s equity.
Contract interest rates on first mortgages averaged nearly 6.5 per
cent on owner-occupied houses; rates were lowest in the Northeast
and highest in the South and West. Effective rates of interest—
that is, the total cost of credit after adding financing charges incident
to loans—averaged about one-third of 1 percent above the contract
rate. In general the interest rates on owner-occupied houses were
lower than on those rented. Considerable differences in rates
charged were noted between financing agencies and between geo
graphical areas. Of the agencies lending money on real estate, indi
viduals made up 19.7 percent, followed by savings banks (17.2 per
cent), commercial banks (16.5 percent), life insurance companies (15
percent), and building and loan associations (13.6 percent). Mort
gage companies, the Home Owners’ Loan Corporation, title and trust
companies, construction companies, and other sources accounted for
the remaining 18 percent of the volume of mortgage loans reported
for owner-occupied dwellings.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Housing Conditions
417
A separate inquiry was made to determine the value of various
furnishings and facilities included in rents. Information was col
lected on items such as electricity, gas, water, heating, garage, and
mechanical refrigeration, in 11 cities. The figures disclosed that
approximately one-fourth of the gross apartment rental was due to
inclusion of such items in the rent. In 1- and 2-family dwellings this
item made up about one-tenth of the rent, notwithstanding that
multifamily dwellings are of smaller average size.
In the accompanying table summary and individual-city data are
given on the principal findings of the financial survey.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
418
Value, Income, Ratio of Rent to Income, Mortgages, and Interest Rates on Dwellings, by Cities
1
Average value of
-family dwellings,
Jan. 1, 1934)
City and geographic area
Owneroccupied
Rented
Total, 52 cities___ _____________________
$4,447
$3,142
$1,465
$1,082
24.2
58.3
42.8
New England_________________________
Portland, M aine__________________
Worcester, Mass......................................
Providence, R. I _____ ____________
Waterbury, Conn__________________
6,214
6,051
6,642
5,903
4,832
4,445
6,133
4, 706
1,171
1,290
1,124
1,223
25.2
25.4
24.9
25.5
24.0
6 8 .6
53.8
41.3
69.3
50.2
8 ,0 0 1
1,710
1,842
1,907
1 , 606
2,073
M iddle Atlantic_____ _______ __________
Binghamton, N . Y . . . ______________
Syracuse, N . Y ____________ ______ __
Trenton, N . J _____________________
Erie, Pa__________________________
5,223
6,163
5,901
4,200
4, 576
5,436
3,135
3,786
1,394
2,019
1, 507
1,174
1,080
1,071
1,408
1 ,082
902
924
27.5
23.4
27.3
30.3
28.6
66.9
45.3
76.9
East North Central____ _____ __________
Cleveland, Ohio______ _______ _____
Indianapolis, Ind__________________
Peoria, 111__________ ____ __________
Lansing, M ich_____________________
Kenosha, W is___ __________________
Racine, W is___________ _______ ____
5,669
6,249
4,890
4,405
3,813
5,069
4,961
4,306
5,464
3,126
3,087
2, 970
4,969
4,342
1,430
1,391
1,821
1,454
1,204
959
918
1,149
1,138
1,289
1,131
966
803
837
25.9
27.2
23.1
24.9
West North Central_______ ___________
Minneapolis, M inn________________
St. Paul, M inn_________ __________
D es Moines, Iowa__________________
St. Joseph, M o____________________
Springfield, M o____ ______
Fargo, N . D ak____________________
Sioux Falls, S. D ak________ ____ ___
Lincoln, Nebr_____________________
Topeka, Kans____ _____ _____ ____
3,662
4, 204
3, 766
3,157
3,276
2,651
4,811
4 , 101
3,548
3,186
2,713
3, 375
3,285
2,486
2,483
1,940
3,291
2, 524
2,258
1,449
1, 530
1,469
1,455
1,473
1,162
1,682
1, 545
1,404
1,373
Wichita, Kans......... ................ ................
2,722
2,066
1,271
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
4,457
1 ,2 2 1
1,141
1 ,2 2 0
1,056
1,174
1,176
899
1,304
Ï , 229
1,153
1, 070
1,035
Average ratio of
mortgage debt to
value of property 5
(percent)
Owneroccupied
Interest rates
Contract rate
(weighted)
6
(percent)
Effective rate
(weighted)
Rented
Owneroccupied
Rented
55.6
60.4
6.18
6.25
6.54
6.76
54.6
50.5
67.1
49.4
60.0
60.6
53.4
69.3
58.7
5. 93
5.88
6.04
5.47
6.17
49.7
55.9
45.9
57.0
58.4
57.7
62.8
67.1
39.8
36.5
62.7
59.7
64.5
65.3
67.0
63.8
54.0
57.4
65.3
67.1
51.2
53.2
51.2
40.3
36.5
48.2
53.5
56.8
57.2
56.2
50.4
59.5
53.8
58.9
64.2
67.7
57.0
52.5
57.0
58.4
59.8
39.4
46.3
41.4
35.4
24.7
25.4
40.8
36.5
26.2
52.0
52.4
50.0
53.2
52.5
52.9
50.4
46.5
53.6
50.4
55.3
56.7
53.7
52.2
54.5
48.2
2 2 .6
51.5
55.9
48.0
49.5
42.9
50.1
58.5
53.4
48.2
44.0
19.3
53.5
38.8
56.8
57.4
2 1 .0
28.1
26.3
24.5
26.0
27.6
24.2
19.9
2 0 .2
25.8
24.3
23.2
46.7
83.6
63.2
81.1
6 8 .8
55.9
48.8
63.3
52.0
6 .0 0
5. 64
6.06
5.90
5.65
5. 80
5.46
5.92
5.94
6.18
6.14
.34
6 . 56
6
6 .2 0
6.09
5.95
6.09
5. 92
5.93
5.91
6 . 21
7.04
6.38
Owneroccupied
6 .1 0
6 .2 0
6 .1 1
5.93
5.71
6 .45
5 84
5.76
6.40
6.06
5. 72
. 35
5.54
5.77
5.95
5.91
6.18
5. 69
6.03
6.36
6.03
6.18
5.83
6.29
6.48
6.15
6.09
. 34
.39
.35
6.24
5.96
6 .45
6.42
6.52
6.46
6 .35
6.76
6 . 76
6 .75
6.69
6 .47
6 .0 0
6
6
6
6
6.08
5.91
5. 94
6.18
6 .8 8
6.41
6.38
6 .34
7.03
6 .8 6
6 .54
6.31
6.46
6.48
6.80
7. 51
6.40
6.57
6.52
7. 51
6.48
6.34
7.11
6 .1 2
6 .2 2
Rented
6 .1 2
7.00
. 64
. 01
6.14
6
6
6.72
6 .6 8
6.50
6 . 64
6.69
7.58
6 92
6 . 71
6.66
6 . 99
7.23
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
Average annual
Percent of prop
family income, 1933 Average
erties mortgaged 4
ratio
rent to
income,
1933 3
Owner(percent) Owneroccu
T enants 3
occupied Rented
pants 2
4,323
4,601
5, 218
3,768
3,807
5,226
5,023
4,779
4,339
3,499
3,128
2,535
3,640
3, 519
3, 234
3,382
2,723
2,907
2,793
East South Central____________________
Paducah, K y--------------------------------Birmingham, Ala__________________
3,213
2,106
3,198
4,462
2,566
1,188
2,703
W est South Central-....................... ..............
Little Rock, Ark--------- -------------
3,643
3,230
3,806
3; 833
3,732
3,695
2,933
2,488
1,794
Oklahoma City, O k la .-------- ----------Austin, Tex_____________________ Dallas, Tex-----------------------------------W ichita Palls. T ex_________________
2,580
2,529
2,796
1,970
1,620
1,315
1,999
1,073
1,393
2 ,0 0 0
1,927
1,737
1,906
1,224
56.6
60.9
59.4
49.4
66.3
61.9
50.3
57.4
57.3
52.2
65.5
67.4
62.6
51.1
79.7
61.2
51.9
62.6
70.0
6.25
5.87
5.97
5.93
5.95
5.97
6.71
6.87
6.40
6 . 78
6.32
5.75
6 . 00
6.05
5.83
5.98
6.42
6.94
6.35
6.80
6.72
6.39
6 .39
6 .35
7.12
7.39
7.25
7.35
6
6
20.3
21.5
19.6
25.4
52.4
30.7
52.4
61.5
22.5
7.1
22.9
59.4
58.7
61.1
50.4
51.1
48.2
52.0
6 .59
5.93
6.63
6.52
6.39
6.16
6.37
6.60
7.09
7.29
7.10
6 . 93
7. 17
6 . 70
7. 19
7. 11
2 1 .8
53.4
43.8
53.3
61.7
39.2
53.3
41.4
37.4
23.9
55.4
62.9
45.0
58.2
46.4
53.5
66.3
56.7
62.2
6.99
6.26
7.17
6.82
7.41
7.22
7.22
7.07
6.32
6.78
7.02
7.59
7.21
7.12
7.45
7. 50
7. 34
7. 61
. 98
9. 16
7. 76
. 02
49.3
24.2
45.1
44.1
40.9
55.6
54.0
39.1
15.1
7.06
7.45
7.64
6.85
7.04
7.39
6.8C
6.60
8.32
7. 91
7.31
7.08
7.60
5.83
50.5
49.2
51.0
54.5
50.6
6.42
6.26
6.92
6.95
6.45
7.14
7.48
24.4
2 0 .6
16.3
24.0
2 2 .8
1,647
1,502
1,532
1,617
1,534
1,712
1,650
1,128
940
1,009
1,096
1,168
1,233
1,048
1,027
986
1,194
1,099
783
1,114
1,094
23.7
1,092
1,125
905
1,344
1,192
22.7
22.5
23.7
23.1
Pueblo, Colo_____________ _______
Phoenix, Ariz______________________
Salt Lake City, Utah_______________
1,503
3,368
2,677
Pacific------- --------- ------------------------------Seattle, W ash____ ____ _____ _______
Portland, Oreg------------------------------Sacramento, Calif................ ....................
San Diego. Calif.__________________
3,231
3,043
3,104
3,995
3,568
2,727
2,587
2,655
3,255
2,872
1,307
1,278
1,218
1,712
1,371
,
34.5
26.2
34.2
21.9
14.5
29.3
23.6
33.7
40.7
6.91
22.7
27.5
50.5
49.6
40.7
35.3
46.9
56.8
32.9
58.4
58.3
47.6
2 2 .2
1,707
1,341
1,155
1,266
1,441
'933
1,590
1,417
2,465
1,719
23.3
25.2
778
680
769
899
1,275
1,134
1 ,2 1 1
2,956
2,355
3,147
2 594
1,830
4,143
3,224
M ountain------- -------- --------------------------Butte, M ont-------------------------- ------
958
920
1,285
925
821
1,217
734
812
979
626
20.3
22.5
22.9
2 2 .0
22.4
14.7
23.3
25.1
24.0
2 0 .0
23,8
2 1 .8
2 2 .8
43.1
30.6
39.6
2 1 .2
55.5
50.9
56.7
72.4
57.5
52.2
22.5
43.6
42.9
55.7
41.3
43.2
56.9
59.2
56.3
58.0
58.9
53.3
59.8
7.02
7.82
6.95
6.93
6.62
7.31
6.97
37.1
36.4
33.8
45.0
38.3
55.9
54.7
56.6
61.8
54.4
57.4
57.2
54.9
64.2
57.6
6.34
6.25
6.09
6.58
6.79
6 .2 0
6.82
6 .8 8
6 .1 2
6 .8 8
7. 55
7.38
7.52
7.63
7.48
7. 25
5. 64
. 83
. 15
6 . 35
7. 75
6 . 87
6 . 72
7. 60
7. 14
6
8
7. 36
. 71
. 17
7. 05
7..16
7. 94
6 ..97
8
8
7..06
6. 79
Housing Conditions
South A tlantic________________ ______
Hagerstown, M d ------------------ --------Richmond, V a------------------------------Wheeling, W. Va---------------------------Asheville, N . O------------ ---------------Greensboro, N . C --------- ---------------Charleston, S. C__________ — —
Columbia, S. C_____ ____ _____ . . .
Atlanta, Ga------- -------------------------
7..10
7. 23
7.,66
1Totals for 52 cities and geographic areas weighted by total number of 1-family dwellings in each city by tenure.
2Totals for52 cities and geographic areas weighted by total number owner-occupant families in each city.
2Totals for52 cities and geographic areas weighted by total number of tenant families in each city.
4Totals for 52 cities and geographic areas weighted by total number of mortgaged properties in each city by tenure.
5Totals for52 cities and geographic areas weighted by total value of mortgaged properties in each city b y tenure.
• Totals for52 cities and geographic areas weighted by total amount of first mortgage debt in each city by tenure.
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Safety and Health
LEAD POISONING IN 1936 AND EARLIER YEARS
B y F r e d e r i c k L. H o f f m a n , LL. D .1
STATISTICS for this and other countries are consistently indicative
of a marked decline in the occurrence of fatal lead poisoning. This
decline is one of the most encouraging signs of progress in the sanitary
administration of modern industry and in public health generally.
For foreign countries the returns are not always precise, because of
their varying practices of including or excluding deaths from nonin
dustrial sources. It would be highly desirable to have uniformity of
procedure in recording occupational deaths from lead poisoning
separately, as is the practice in Great Britain. For the United States
the returns include both occupational and nonoccupational deaths
from lead poisoning; in other words, they include deaths from nonin
dustrial causes, such as contaminated water supplies, the poisoning
of children by lead-painted toys, and other sources.
The incidence of the fatal form of lead poisoning in this country
declined from 2.5 deaths per million of population in 1900-1904 to
1.0 death per million in 1936, or 60 percent. In England and Wales
the occupational death rate from lead poisoning declined from 2.5 per
million in 1911-15 to 0.6 in 1936, or 76.0 percent. In Scotland the
rate declined from 0.6 in 1911-15 to 0.2 in 1936, or 66.7 percent.
Similar downward trends are shown for most of the other countries
included in the present review.
During 1935 there were 130 deaths from lead poisoning in the United
States, 36 of which were of painters, the remainder being scattered
among a wide range of occupations, as well as among women and
among boys and girls under 18 years of age. The decline in industrial
lead poisoning is largely the result of sanitary improvements in factory
conditions, which during the last 20 years have continued on a pro
gressive scale from year to year. Another factor is the improved
economic condition of the workmen, who receive higher wages, work
shorter hours, and represent a decidedly better type of physique than
during earlier years. Chronic intoxication, which was once common
1 Dr. Hoffman is consulting statistician for the Biochemical Research Foundation of the Franklin In
stitute, Philadelphia, Pa. Earlier publications by him on lead poisoning include U. S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics Bulletin No. 427; Health Survey of the Printing Trades, 1922 to 1925; U . S. Bureau of Labor Sta
tistics Bulletin No. 488: Deaths from Lead Poisoning, 1925-27; and papers delivered at Health Congress of
Royal Institute of Public Health, Ghent, Belgium, and at National Convention of American Public Health
Association, 1932.
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among lead workers, has disappeared. Another factor of importance
is the introduction of workmen’s compensation, which places the
financial responsibility for the occurrence of lead poisoning on the
employers in the lead-using industries. Unfortunately, no uniform
statistics of workmen’s compensation for lead poisoning are available.
The physical and clinical statistics of lead workers are indicative of
thoroughly healthy and physically sound bodies of the workers, whose
condition has been materially improved by more widespread practices
of personal hygiene and bodily cleanliness, and the use of improved
respirators in dust-exposing occupations. The increasing practice of
medical supervision of employees and their periodical examination is
proving its value in other directions, as the early recognition of lead
absorption prevents the development of toxic conditions and avoids
the risk of death or permanent disability.
It is regrettable that there are no statistics of lead absorption on a
large scale showing the number of nonfatal cases of lead poisoning in
industry, corresponding to the returns of the factory inspector of
Great Britain. In that country, during the 5 years 1931-35 there were
884 cases reported under the Factory Acts, of which 105, or 11.9 per
cent, terminated fatally. It would be mere blind conjecture to apply
this ratio to our American deaths from lead poisoning, in the absence
of any useful data on the probable number of cases in American
industry at the present time.
Finally, it may be pointed out that there has been considerable
progress in the diagnosis of lead poisoning in both industrial and non
industrial cases, and that treatment is making considerable progress,
with the result that the incidence of fatal forms of lead poisoning is
now decidedly less common than in former years.
Fatal lead poisoning occurs not only in the lead-using industries
but also in the general population, though only to a negligible degree
in the latter case. The situation is somewhat confused by the vary
ing practices of local authorities in reporting the occurrence of fatal
lead poisoning in conformity to the international classification of
causes of death, which, if strictly complied with, records only deaths
from occupational lead poisoning while disregarding deaths occurring
in the population at large from nonoccupational sources. The prac
tice varies for different countries, although general statistics, as a
rule, include both types of the disease, and in most of the discussion
following it is assumed that the term includes all cases of lead poison
ing, whether of industrial or nonindustrial origin. In a special and
extended inquiry for different countries and localities no other pro
cedure is feasible at the present time.
The following discussion is divided into four separate sections:
(1) Statistics of occupational and nonoccupational lead poisoning in
the United States, as derived from the general mortality returns;
39873— 38------------ 9
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(2) statistics of cases of lead poisoning and deaths resulting from the
disease, according to workmen’s compensation practices and other
sources of information utilized for the present purpose; (3) statistics
for foreign countries, limited to those countries for which the returns
are conveniently available; and (4) physical and clinical statistics of
lead workers.
Lead Poisoning in the United States
CASES AMONG GENERAL POPULATION
Statistics for the United States registration area are available since
1900, when the area comprehended 40.5 percent of the total popula
tion. Since 1933 the registration area has included the entire popu
lation. During the 37 years 1900 to 1936, the rate per million for
lead-poisoning deaths has varied from a maximum of 3.1 in 1903
to a minimum of 0.6 in 1932. By quinquennial periods the fluctua
tion in the rate has been as follows:
T able 1.—Deaths From Lead Poisoning in United States Registration Area, 1900 to
1936, by 5-Year Periods
Registration area
Period
Aggregate population
included
Number
1900-1904_____________________________
1905-9________________ _________1910-14______________________________
1915-19______________________________
1920-24______________________________
1925-29______________________________
1930-34______________________________
1935_________________________________
1936 1________________________________
160, 212, 631
216, 713,041
302,388,727
379,929,059
468,499,432
546, 643, 899
610,422, 900
127, 521, 000
128,429, 000
Percent of
total popu
lation
40.4
50.2
64.2
74.8
8 6 .0
93.2
97.8
1 0 0 .0
1 0 0 .0
Total lead-poisoning
deaths
Number
407
457
740
763
682
688
525
130
131
Rate per
million
Estimated
number of
lead-poison
ing deaths
in United
States
2.4
992
918
1,141
2 .0
1 ,0 2 2
2.5
2 .1
1.5
1.3
.9
1 .0
1 .0
824
768
562
130
131
According to preliminary statistics received from the Bureau of Census, the number of deaths from lead
poisoning in Continental United States in 1936 was 131. For certain States the deaths were as follows:
California, 9; Florida, 4; Illinois, 9; Indiana, 4; Maryland, 11; Massachusetts, 7; Michigan, 6 ; Missouri, 4;
N ew Jersey, 8 ; N ew York, 19; Ohio, 6 ; and Pennsylvania, 11. There were no deaths reported in Arizona,
Arkansas, Colorado, Delaware, District of Columbia, Idaho, Louisiana, Montana, Nevada, N ew Mexico,
North Carolina, North Dakota, Oregon, South Carolina, South Dakota, Vermont, and Wyoming. In the
remainder of the States the number of lead-poisoning deaths was from 1 to 3 in each State.
1
The preceding table shows that the death rate from lead poisoning
in the United States has declined from 2.5 per million in 1900-1904 to
0.9 in 1930-34 and 1,0 in 1936. Statistics of lead poisoning for the
United States include both occupational and nonoccupational deaths
from the disease.
There were 130 deaths from lead poisoning in the United States in
1935; these included 36 painters, 6 paint workers, 10 laborers, 7
persons in lead-using industries, 8 farmers, 5 miners, 3 metal workers,
4 printers, 2 electric-storage-battery workers, 1 rubber worker, 1
worker in the automobile industry, and 13 whose occupations were
unknown or miscellaneous. Among the nonoccupational deaths there
were 6 women, and 14 girls and 14 boys under 18 years of age, a total
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Safety and Health
of 34, leaving 96 deaths from lead poisoning strictly chargeable to
industry.
The average age at death in the lead-poisoning cases in 1935 was
42.5 years, the ages ranging from 1 to 90. The average age for paint
ers was 58.9 years and for lead workers, 61.8 years. During the 11
years 1925-35, there were 1,343 deaths from lead poisoning in the
United States registration area, at an average age of 48.5 years. The
average age of 584 painters who died from this cause during this
period was 53.9 years, and for 51 lead workers, 51.8 years. The
number of deaths clearly nonoccupational during this period was 195,
leaving 1,148 in the strictly occupational group, or 85.5 percent of the
total. During this period there were 47 deaths of women from lead
poisoning, at an average age of 49.7 years. These deaths in most
cases were due to contaminated water supplies and in a few other cases,
in all probability, to painting at home. There were 36 deaths of
farmers, at an average age of 55.5 years, most of which were probably
caused by painting at home, but some also by contaminated water
supplies. There were 56 deaths of boys under 18 years of age, 22 of
whom were 1 year of age, 24 were 2 years, 6 were 3 years, 1 was 5
years, 1 was 6 years, and 2 were 17 years of age; the average age for
the group was 2.4 years. There were also 56 deaths of girls under 18,
17 of whom were 1 year of age, 22 were 2 years, 7 were 3 years, 3
were 4 years, 1 was 5 years, 4 were 6 years, 1 was 10 years, and 1 was
16 years; the average age for the group was 2.7 years. Most of the
deaths of the little children were due to sucking paint on lead-painted
toys, furniture, walls, or banisters.
The number and rate of deaths from lead poisoning in four leading
industrial States, by 5-year periods, are shown in table 2.
T able 2.—Fatal Cases of Lead Poisoning in Specified States, by 5-Year Periods
Total deaths
Period
N ew York State:
1921-25..................
1926-30...............
1931-35...................
1936______ _____
N ew Jersey:
1915-20....... ...........
1921-25...................
1926-30 .................
1931-35....... ...........
1936........................
Aggregate
population
54,153, 217
58,766,394
65,894.610
13,345,226
18,007,290
17,107, 645
19, 321,224
20,968,485
4,328,000
Bate
N um per
mil
ber
lion
71
72
55
15
48
36
31
28
7
1.3
1 .2
.8
1 .1
2.7
2 .1
1 .6
1.3
1 .6
Total deaths
Period
Pennsylvania:
1925-29................ .
1930-34...................
1935-36.................
Massachusetts:
1901-5....... ............
1906-10...................
1911-15...................
1916-20...................
1921-25...................
1926-30..................
1931-35_________
1936........................
Aggregate
population
Eate
N um per
m il
ber
lion
46,934,224
49,179,000
20,187,000
61
42
22
1 .1
14, 654,094
16,175,209
17,873,184
19, 212,914
19,938, 649
21,437,990
21, 581,290
4,425,000
30
30
38
43
46
44
29
7
2 .0
1.3
.9
1.9
2 .1
2 .2
2.3
2 .1
1.3
1 .6
A tabulation of deaths from lead poisoning in 18 American cities
in which the lead-using industries are more or less concentrated gives
the following results: In the aggregate there were 179 deaths during
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Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
the period 1929-36, of which 30 occurred in New York City, 29 in
Baltimore, 28 in Philadelphia, 22 in Boston, 16 in Chicago, 15 in
Cleveland, and 10 in Providence. By single years the number of lead
poisoning deaths in these cities has been as follows: 1929, 18; 1930,20;
1931, 24; 1932, 17; 1933, 17; 1934, 24; 1935, 26; 1936, 33.
The Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. has furnished returns of deaths
from lead poisoning in the experience of the industrial department of
that company for the period 1914-36. According to these returns the
death rate from lead poisoning of these policy holders declined from
3.0 per million in 1914-18 to 2.3 in 1919—
23, 1.6 in 1924-28, and 1.1 in
1929-33. It was 1.0 in 1934, 1.4 in 1935, and 1.7 in 1936. For the
entire period the rate was 1.8 per million exposed to risk, ages 1 year
and over, the highest rate, or 4.2, having been reached in 1914, and
the lowest, or 0.7, in 1930. In the aggregate there were 605 deaths
in the experience of the company during the period under review.
Of interest in connection with the foregoing are the statistics of the
Massachusetts General Hospital for the period 1918-36, differentiating
acute and chronic cases. By 5-year periods the figures are as follows:
T able 3.—Lead Poisoning at Massachusetts General Hospital, 1918 to 1936, by 5-1 ear
Periods
1918 22
1928 27
1928 82
1988 8 6
Acute cases
Total cases
Period
.............................. ......................... .........
___________________ ______ __
.......... .................. ......................................
___________ __________________
65
116
37
19
Chronic cases
54
11
14
102
27
14
10
5
The statistics for the United States Navy, for the period 1913—
35,
differentiating acute and chronic cases, show a remarkable decline for
both types of lead poisoning—from 300 cases in 1913-17 to 56 cases
in 1928-32 and 35 cases in 1933-35. The details by 5-year periods
are given in table 4.
T able 4.—Lead Poisoning in the United States Navy, 1913 to 1935, by 5-Year Periods
Period
Average
strength
of N avy
516,016
1,2 l i 326
' 580,308
574,372
328,283
w o r k m e n ’s
c o m p e n s a t io n
Chronic cases
Acute cases
Total
number
169
45
85
42
28
Number
of deaths
1
Total
number
Number
of deaths
131
33
33
14
7
e x p e r ie n c e
Workmen’s compensation statistics for lead poisoning are especially
interesting, in that they afford a view into the financial aspects of the
problem. As a result of new laws passed in 1937, there are now 21
States which compensate for occupational diseases, as compared with
16 a year ago. These States are California, Connecticut, Delaware,
Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota,
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Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, North
Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Washington, West
Virginia, and Wisconsin. Coverage for occupational diseases is also
extended to employees under the workmen’s compensation laws of
the District of Columbia, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the Philippine
Islands, and to employees covered by the Federal Employees’ Com
pensation Act and the Longshoremen’s and Harbor Workers’ Act.
Of the 21 States enumerated above, all but Kentucky and West
Virginia compensate for lead poisoning. Unfortunately, for only a
few of these States are statistics available which are useful for the
present purpose. The most important of these are for the State of
New York, 1935-36, yielding the results shown in the following table:
T able 5.— Workmen’s Compensation for Lead Poisoning in New York State, 1935 and
1936
1935
Type of disability
All types of disability.______ _________
Death or permanent total disability. ________
Permanent partial disability_________
Temporary disability. ............. ............... .......
1936
Total Weeks of Amount of Total Weeks of Amount
compensa cases compen of com
cases compen
sation
tion
sation pensation
99
8,414
3
3
93
3,000
2,321
3,093
1
$141,379
69
6,390
$78,239
37,517
53,272
50, 590
3
3
3,000
1,411
1,979
20,817
21,471
35,951
2
63
1 Includes 1 case of permanent total disability.
s Present value of compensation awarded.
In the State of Ohio the number of cases reported under the work
men’s compensation act since 1928 and amount paid as compensation
were as follows:
C ases
C a ses
1928______ ______ 180 1931_______ ______ 114
1929______ ______ 183 1932_______ ______ 148
1930_______ ______ 134 1933_______ ______ 134
C a ses
1934_______ ______ 162
1935_______ ______ 102
1936_______ ______ 112
As the above statement shows, the total number of cases of lead
poisoning in Ohio during the 9 years, 1928-36, was 1,269. Of these,
77 terminated fatally, equivalent to a rate of 1.3 per million of popula
tion. The statement below lists the lead-poisoning cases in Ohio in
1935 and 1936, classified according to the principal occupation of the
worker:
1935
Painters_________________________________________
Foundry workers_________________________________
Storage-battery factory workers___________________
Sanitary-ware enamelers__________________________
Lead workers____________________________________
Printers, electro typers, and lithographers___________
Potters (clay workers)____________________________
Miscellaneous occupations________________________
16
9
23
13
1936
30
23
18
7
5
12
8
5
6
23
2
14
Total--------------------------------------------------------- 102
112
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In the State of New Jersey, 1929-35, the number of cases of lead
poisoning and amount paid as compensation were as follows:
T able 6.— Cases of Lead Poisoning and Compensation P aid in New Jersey, 1929 to 1935
Compensation paid
Cases of lead poisoning
Year
Total
Per
Per
Tem
ma
ma
nent porary
nent
Deaths total partial
dis
ability
dis
dis
ability ability
T otal. _ ________
962
14
6
1929
1930______________
1931______________
1932________ ______
1933
1934
1935......... ....................
124
169
227
180
128
70
64
4
2
2
1
1
2
3
1
1
1
2
Total
Death or
perma
nent
total dis
ability
Perma
nent
partial
dis
ability
Tempo
rary dis
ability
502
440
$677,468
$53,790
$477,449
$54, 739
40
61
152
78
105
71
56
60
29
41
91,490
105,593
217,814
126,838
60,121
49,358
26,254
11,829
16,946
17, 223
1,500
1,600
4, 692
74,963
188,900
99,790
51,124
44,933
17,739
18,801
11,968
9,825
7,497
2,825
3,823
121
67
40
21
In addition to compensation awarded, there were 242 cases in
New Jersey in the period covered by the above table in which medical
costs, to the amount of $35,295, were incurred. The maximum
amount paid in any of these years on account of medical costs—
$15,981—was reached in 1930. The proportion of compensation to
medical costs indicates a decided decline in lead poisoning during
recent years.
The total number of days lost (weighted) during this period was
429,435, of which 84,000 were for permanent total disability, 250,044
for permanent partial disability, and 23,109 for temporary disability.
According to information furnished by the Connecticut Bureau of
Occupational Diseases, there were in that State 96 cases of lead
poisoning during the 5-year period, 1931-36, as shown in table 7:
T able 7.—Lead Poisoning in Connecticut, 1931-32 to 1935-36
Year
1931-32
1932-33
1933-34
1934-35
1935-36
_________ _____ - ...........—
......................................... ...............
...
....................................... ..................
_____________________- ................
........................................ ..................... .....................
Total cases
Cases re
ported by
physicians
96
42
1
1
26
28
27
14
18
Compen
sated eases
54
8
8
16
19
3
11
12
In Wisconsin the number of lead-poisoning cases for which compen
sation is paid is comparatively small. In 1934, the sum of $8,380 was
paid in compensation for 13 cases of temporary disability and 1 case
of permanent partial disability resulting from this cause. In 1935,
$1,259 was paid in compensation for 13 cases of temporary disability.
There were no compensated cases of death or permanent total disa
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427
bility in either year. The total number of days lost on account of
lead poisoning during these 2 years was 2,287—1,837 in 1934 and only
450 in 1935.
No satisfactory compensation data are available for the State of
Massachusetts. The number of cases of lead poisoning reported to the
State Department of Labor during the 5 years 1931-35 was 175,
with 3 deaths, equivalent to a rate of 0.1 per million of population.
International Statistics of Lead Poisoning
The data for Canada for the period 1931—
35 are suggestive of a
stationary condition in the frequency of lead poisoning. During 1936
there was a marked increase in the rate, or from an average of 0.8 per
million to 1.6, based on 18 deaths for the year. The rates per million
of population for the 5-year periods are shown in the following table:
T able 8.—Fatalities From Lead Poisoning in Canada, 1921 to 1936, by 5 -Year Periods
Total deaths
Aggregate pop
ulation
Period
Rate per
million
Number
1921-25.........................................
1926-30_____________________
1931-35............. ................................
1936._______________ ______
32,833,654
49.096.000
53, 277,000
11.014.000
25
37
44
18
0 .8
.8
.8
1 .6
By Provinces the deaths from lead poisoning in Canada for 1936
were distributed as follows: Ontario, 11; Quebec, 5; Nova Scotia, 1;
British Columbia, 1; and no deaths in Prince Edward Island, New
Brunswick, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta.
For England and Wales data are available since 1911, obtained
from the reports of the Registrar General. These data, amplified by
statistics on lead poisoning under the Factory Acts, derived from the
annual reports of the chief inspector of factories, are shown in table 9.
T able 9.— Cases of Lead Poisoning in England and Wales, by 5-Year Periods
Fatalities among general population
Period
Aggregate pop
ulation
Occupational
Number
1911-15-..................
1916-20________________
1921-25________________
1926-30____________
1931-35_________________
1936___________________
181, 287,000
175,537,000
192,084,000
197, 252,000
201, 506,000
40,600,000
444
251
241
231
148
23
N onoccupational
Rate per
million Number
2.5
1.4
1.3
46
14
13
1 .2
11
.7
13
4
.6
Rate per
million
0.25
.08
.07
.06
.06
.1 0
Cases under Fac
tory Acts
Total
2,617
1,259
1,626
Ï , 424
'884
163
Fatalities
157
102
119
169
105
13
The above statistics do not include cases of lead poisoning in house
painters and plumbers not employed under the acts. These have been
included in the total number of cases given as 1,990 during the first
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428
5-year period, 1,595 during the second, and 914 during the third.
The number of deaths in this group was 201 in 1921-25, 206 in 1926-30,
and 115 in 1931-35, while the respective fatality percentages were
10.1, 12.9, and 12.6. Of interest in connection with the foregoing is
the following tabulation of cases of lead poisoning reported in the
United Kingdom, by industrial groups. These statistics have been
derived from the annual report of the chief inspector of factories for
1935, amplified by a communication from Dr. Bridges, chief medical
inspector of factories, dated February 1, 1937.
T able 10.—Lead Poisoning in the United Kingdom, 1934 to 1936
Deaths
All reported eases
Industrial group)
1935
1934
All groups----------------- ------ -----------------------------------
1934
1936
1936
1935
198
168
163
25
17
20
6
17
3
19
3
1
1
1
24
3
10
11
4
3
13
1
1
1
Pottery------------------------------------
------------------------
10
11
7
26
7
18
8
12
1
10
19
21
8
1
1
11
Painting of buildings______________ ______________ -
41
5
3
2
24
32
5
5
18
5
15
19
7
3
4
19
27
8
7
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
10
1
1
7
7
The annual report of the chief inspector of factories and workshops
of the United Kingdom is an invaluable source of information regard
ing lead poisoning in industry, disclosing a wealth of useful informa
tion not otherwise obtainable. It is a model of its kind, and the
method adopted should be followed by other countries.
The fatalities from lead poisoning, by 5-year periods, are shown for
specified countries in table 11. Considerable variation in the mor
tality rate is evident here, but, as already indicated, the data are not
entirely comparable because of the varying practice in the different
countries with regard to the inclusion or exclusion of nonoccupational
fatalities. All of the countries, however, exhibit a marked decline in
the relative frequency of lead poisoning.
As the table indicates, lead poisoning is comparatively rare in the
Irish Free State and the Netherlands. The statistics are not entirely
satisfactory for certain years, since they include all forms of mineral
poison under No. 77 of the international classification of the causes
of death, but deaths from mineral poisoning other than lead are very
infrequent. On the whole, the statistics can be relied upon as fairly
representative of the whole problem. In Denmark the deaths from
lead poisoning are also rare, the rate having been 0.3 per million for
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429
the period 1931-35, based on 5 deaths. However, during the single
year 1936 there were also 5 deaths from this cause, equivalent to a
rate of 1.3 per million.
T able 11.
Deaths and Death Rate From Lead Poisoning in Specified Countries, by
5-Year Periods
Total deaths
Country and period
Scotland:
1911-15.........
1916-20......... .
1921-25......... .
1926-30......... .
1931-35......... .
1936................
Irish Free State:
1923-25...........
1926-30..........
1931-35.......
Switzerland:
1926-30......... .
1931- 35......
Italy:
1928-31...........
1932- 35......
1
Aggregate
population N um Rate
per
ber
mil
lion
23, 738,306
24,101,793
24,462,722
24, 411,691
24,524,490
4,966,300
9,004,000
14,767,000
14,908,000
15
16
13
5
0 .6
.7
.5
.2
8
.3
1
.2
19
1 11
1 8
19,948,900
20,610,900
23
19
163,345,671
169,279,873
125
123
1 .0
.7
.5
1 .2
.9
Total deaths
Country and period
Aggregate
population N um Rate
per
ber mil
lion
Netherlands:
1921-25........................ 35,732,943
1926-30....................
38,427, 737
1931-34........................
32, 762,152
Australia:
1926-30.......................... 31,408,493
1931-35.................... .
33,138,325
1936..............................
6 , 777, 744
Victoria................ .
1,847,841
N ew South W ales. 2,667,839
Queensland______
987,589
South Australia__
587,549
Western Australia.
450,036
1 6
13
1 3
100
82
10
0 .2
1
1
.
.
3.2
2.5
1.5
2
.8
7
1
7.2
1.7
0
0
.8
.7
Included under N o. 77 (mineral poisoning) of the international classification of the causes of death.
The death rate from lead poisoning in Australia is relatively high
compared with other countries, but there was a gratifying decline
during the last 5 years shown in table 11. Of the 100 deaths during
the first 5 years, 85 were males and 15 were females, while during the
second 5 years, of the 82 deaths, 58 were males and 24 were females.
The Australian situation is interesting, and many of the deaths are
probably of nonindustrial origin, but no definite information is avail
able. Of the 82 deaths during the period 1931—35, 10 were of persons
under 15 years of age and 29 were persons 15 to 29 years. Because of
the high concentration of deaths in Queensland, data, by sex, are
shown for that State for the 2 latest 5-year periods and for 1936, in
table 12.
T able 12.—Lead Poisoning in Queensland, Australia, 1926 to 1936,by 5-Year Periods
Total deaths
Period
1926-30______ ____
1931-35_________
1936_______ ______
Males
Aggregate
popula
tion
N um Rate Aggregate
per
popula
ber
million
tion
4, 420,417
4, 727,636
978,589
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40
47
7
9.0
9.9
7.2
2,323,413
2, 479,421
512,652
Females
Deaths
Deaths
N um Rate
per
ber
million
27
25
3
1 1 .6
1 0 .1
5.9
Aggregate
popula
tion
2,097,004
2,248,215
465,937
N um Rate
per
ber
million
13
22
4
6 2
9. 8
8 .6
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
430
The situation in Queensland has attracted much attention because of
the alleged exceptional frequency of the disease in young children
contracted by sucking painted surfaces, toys, etc. It is also alleged
that contaminated water supplies play an important part at the
present time.
For the Dominion of New Zealand lead-poisoning returns are re
ported under No. 77 of the international classification, for the 7 years,
1929-35. According to these returns there were 9 deaths during this
period, all males, equivalent to a rate of 0.9 per million of population.
For Germany the only data available are the workmen’s compen
sation statistics of lead poisoning for the period 1926-34, based on
information derived from the German Statistical Year Book and
from correspondence with the German Statistical Office. Table 13
gives the total number of cases reported and the total cases compen
sated, as well as the number of deaths.
T able 13.—Lead Poisoning in Germany, 1926 to 1934, by Specified Periods
Total cases com
pensated
Period
Total cases
reported
Number
1926-30..................................................................
1931-34..................................................................
Deaths
16,170
5,630
1,717
787
Percent
1 0 .6
14.0
Number
62
39
Percent of
compen
sated cases
3.6
6 .0
Physical and Clinical Statistics of Lead Workers
To the foregoing discussion of the vital statistics of lead poisoning,
some clinical and physical statistics of employees in lead-using indus
tries are added, based on examinations made during the last 2 years.
The statistics represent examinations in 9 different plants in Brooklyn,
Philadelphia, Chicago, Atlanta, Staten Island, and Oakland, Calif.
In the aggregate there were 1,623 employees, of whom 62.9 percent
were born in the United States, 8.1 percent in Poland, 4.6 percent in
Italy, 3.0 percent in Spain, and the remainder, or 21.4 percent, in 27
different countries.
The average age of 1,621 employees was 38.6 years, the ages ranging
from 16 to 71. The largest group of employees were 24 years of age.
Of the total, 74.6 percent were married, widowed, or divorced, while
25.4 percent were single. For 1,594 employees the average duration
of employment was 88.2 months, or 7.5 years. The range in duration
of employment was from 1 day to 509 months (42.4 years).
Table 14 shows the occupational distribution and certain data re
garding the workers’ previous disease history. The number of work
ers for whom data were obtained on each point is shown in parentheses.
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431
T able 14.—Occupational Distribution and Disease and Injury Experience of Workers in
the Lead Industry
Department, occupation, and number
reporting
Occupational distribution (1,439):
White-lead m ill....................................
Laborers_________ _______ ___
Packers_____________________
Sprinklers______________ ____
Mixers______________ ______
Pulp-machine operators.............
Roll operators...............................
M illwrights________ _________
Operators, not specified.............
Foremen........................................
Cylinder cleaners........................
Washroom workers......................
Dryer operators...........................
Miscellaneous occupations.........
Oxide department......... ......................
Furnacemen____________ ____
Oxide handlers..............................
Packers______________ ______ _
Dumping fum es...........................
Pig-lead handlers..........................
Operators, not specified.............
Laborers.........................................
Foremen........ .................. ...........
Miscellaneous occupations.........
Oil m ill_____________ _____ ______
Pressmen......................................
Laborers.......... ..............................
Floormen............ .............. ............
Coopers........................ .................
Miscellaneous occupations.........
Mechanical department.....................
Mechanics___________ _______
M achinists......................................
Repairmen............... .......................
Carpenters____________ ______ _
Electricians__________________
Miscellaneous occupations..........
Yard...................................................... .
Drawing-lead workers................
Setting-lead workers................... .
Laborers____________ _____ ___
Pig-lead handlers_____________
Crane operators...........................
Miscellaneous occupations..........
Shipping 'and warehouse depart
ments________________ ______ _
Laborers................................... ......
Drivers and chauffeurs.................
Dock laborers..................................
Shipping laborers..........................
Miscellaneous occupations.........
Em
ployees
reporting
N um ber
345
54
47
31
19
18
18
12
12
12
11
11
10
90
233
60
24
Department, occupation, and number
reporting
Occupational distribution—Continued.
Power house________
Firemen______
Engineers____________
Laborers...................
Oil and color department
Laborers________
Fillers________
Grinders______
Mixers___________
Miscellaneous occupations
Metal department..................
Laborers...............
Type pressmen______
Sheet-lead operators____
Sheet-metal operators........
Foreman__________
Metal mixers_________
Em
ployees
reporting
N um ber
57
29
23
5
26
8
4
4
3
7
23
14
3
2
2
1
1
21
19
17
17
16
11
48
217
108
38
16
10
45
198
60
27
25
17
17
52
178
48
41
40
15
13
21
162
44
37
36
28
17
Exposure to lead dust or fumes (1,608):
Exposed______________
N ot exposed___________
Former employment (1,612):
In lead-using industries________
N ot in lead-using industries...
Previous history of lead poisoning
(1,617):
N one...............................
Lead poisonin g____________
Previous other diseases (1,606):
Pneumonia...............................
Rheumatism______________
Appendicitis_______________ .
Scarlet fever________________
Diabetes________________ .
Tuberculosis_________________
Nephritis......................................
Typhoid fever_______________
Other_______________________
None____________________ .
Previous injuries or defects (1,602):
Scars________ _________ ______
Fractures______________________
Fingers injured____________ __
Fingers missing_________________
Abnormal tonsils________
Leg injuries____________________
Toes missing_________________
Miscellaneous defects___________
N o n e _____ . . .
_________
P ercen t
57.8
42.2
11.4
88.6
96.5
3.5
N u m ber
23
23
19
12
2
2
3
9
83
1,430
113
49
35
18
8
8
7
69
1,295
Certain other clinical data are given in table 15.
T able 15.— Clinical Data on Lead Workers
Item and number reporting
Range
Height (1,614)-------------------------------------------------------inches..
Pulse rate (1,424)_________________ ______
Systolic blood pressure (1,462)._____ ____________ _________
Diastolic blood pressure (1,462).................................................
Body temperatures (832)________________________ degrees
Specific gravity (1,027)_________________ _________
Hemoglobin (8 6 8 ) . . . ________ ____________________percent..
Chest inspiration (596)_________ ____________ _____ ‘ inches
Chest expiration (596).............................................
do
52.5- 78.0
40.0- 140.0
86.0- 234.0
30.0- 145.0
94.0- 101.0
1,002.0-1,040. 0
50.0- 140.0
31.0- 55.0
29.5- 53.3
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Average
67.9
78.6
129.6
82.2
98.4
,
1 0 2 1 .0
83.7
38.0
36.0
Largest
group
6 8 .0
72.0
1 2 0 .0
432
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
Of 1,494 employees, 221 or 14.8 percent had shown a gain in weight,
143 or 9.6 percent a loss, while in 1,130 or 75.6 percent the weight
had remained stationary. The average weight of 1,613 employees
was 158 pounds, the weight ranging from 100 pounds in 1 case to 284
pounds in another. The maximum group, 43, had a weight of 149
pounds, while the number of persons weighing 200 pounds or more
was 46.
The condition of the mouth for 1,607 employees was reported clean
in 1,054, or 65.6 percent, while for 300 pyorrhea was reported. In
76 the condition of the mouth was poor, 67 fair, 31 septic, 25 abnormal
tonsils, 24 bad, 23 shrunken, and 3 cleft palate. Of 1,273 employees,
74 or 5.8 percent showed a lead line on the gums. The condition of
the tongue in 1,596 employees was clean in 1,349 or 84.5 percent, and
coated, fissured, or beefy in the remaining 247. The condition of the
teeth in 1,603 employees was clean in 327 or 20.4 percent, satisfactory
in 324 or 20.2 percent, fair in 372 or 23.2 percent, poor in 90 or 5.6
percent, and bad in 249 or 15.5 percent. Artificial teeth were used
by 148 or 9.3 percent.
The condition of the veins in 1,604 employees was indicated as
normal in 1,308 or 81.6 percent and fair in 169 or 10.5 percent. Vari
cose veins were reported for 99, enlarged veins for 19, arteriosclerosis
for 8, and relaxed veins for 1, a total of 7.9 percent.
The condition of the heart in 1,615 employees was reported as
normal in 1,457 or 90.2 percent. In the remainder, or 9.8'percent,
the condition was reported irregular in 45, murmurs in 90, both irreg
ular and murmurs in 8, cardiodegeneration in 5, cardiovascular dis
ease in 2, flabby muscle in 2, poor in 2, and enlarged in 5.
The nervous system in 1,619 employees was reported as normal in
1,558 or 96.2 percent. Neuritis was observed in 24, tremors in 11,
poor reflex in 11, a fair condition in 9, paresthesia in 2, nervousness
in 2, and headache in 2.
The condition of the digestive system was normal in 1,564 cases,
or 96.5 percent of the 1,620 for whom information on this point was
obtained. Constipation was observed in 2.2 percent, hemorrhoids in
0.5 percent, a fair condition in 0.4 percent, gall-bladder trouble in 0.1
percent, and miscellaneous conditions in 0.3 percent.
Of 1,617 employees, no indication of hernia was observed in 1,384
or 85.6 percent. Right inguinal hernia was observed in 15 cases, left
inguinal in 13, double inguinal in 5, not specified inguinal in 5, bilat
eral in 1, and others not specified in 15, a total of 3.3 percent. Vari
cocele was observed in 30 cases and hydrocele in 5, impulse in 124,
large rings in 11, enlarged testes in 2, and miscellaneous conditions
in 7.
The urinary condition of 877 employees was found to be satisfac
tory in 781 or 89.0 percent. Nycturia was observed in 92 cases or
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433
Safety and Health
10.5 percent, nephritis in 2 cases, and miscellaneous conditions in 3
cases. Chemical analysis of the urine of 1,209 employees revealed
that sugar was present in 167 or 13.8 percent, while of 1,215 employees
albumen was present in 76 or 6.3 percent.
Anemia was observed in 75, or 9.6 percent of 779 employees, and
was not present in 704, or 90.4 percent.
The condition of the skin in 1,556 employees was reported negative
in 1,345 or 86.4 percent. The complexion was ruddy in 118 or 7.6
percent, while miscellaneous conditions of minor importance were
observed in the remainder.
Of 1,563 employees, 889 or 56.9 percent used respirators and 674
or 43.1 did not use them. The types of respirators used were Pulmosan 30.4 percent, Cover’s 30.2 percent, Dustite 20.3 percent,
Willson 15.7 percent, Diamond Disk 3.2 percent, and Approved 0.2
percent. Of 1,538 employees, 888 or 57.7 used gloves and 650 or
42.3 percent did not.
The height, weight, and circulatory conditions of the majority of
those examined are shown in table 16, by age groups.
T a b l e 16.—Height, Weight, and Circulatory Conditions of Lead Workers, by Age Groups
Average
height
Age
Average
weight
Relative
weight
Average
pulse
Systolic
blood
pressure
Diastolic
blood
pressure
N um Aver N um Aver
N um Aver N um
N um
N um
ber re- Inches ber re- Pounds ber re- age ber re- Beats ber re- age ber re- age
port- mm. port- mm.
portport- pounds portporting
ing
ing per inch ing
ing
ing
T otal_____
_____ 1,614
Under 30 years........- 445
30-39 years................. 442
397
40-49 years________
50 years and o v er.. . 328
2
N ot specified_____
67.90 1,613
444
69. 02
67.85
440
67. 39
398
67.05
329
2
66.13
158.0 1,612
157.2
444
441
157.8
161.1
397
156.1
328
2
136.0
2.33 1,424
406
2.27
2.32
385
342
2.39
2. 32
289
2
2.06
78.6 1.462
414
80.7
79.2
409
341
76.8
77.1
296
2
80.0
129.6 1,462
414
124.6
125.3
409
130.5
341
141.4
296
2
124.0
82.2
78.3
81.1
83.5
87.8
8 6 .0
INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS OF INDUSTRIAL
ACCIDENT STATISTICS 1
STATISTICS of workmen’s accidents necessarily are based upon the
provisions of the workmen’s compensation laws, no matter whether
the aim of the statistics is to prepare data on the frequency of acci
dents, on the indemnity of insured accidents, or on the prevention of
accidents. And because these laws differ extensively there is a wide
variation in the nature and quality of industrial accident statistics,
ranging from the very best to the most elementary. Even in coun
tries where there are similar laws, many variations are found therein ;
for example, they may not include identical professions, or the same
categories of workers.
i Extracts from a paper by Dr. Alfred Manes, professor of insurance, School of Business Administration,
Indiana University, at a meeting of Federal accident statisticians in October 1937.
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434
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
It is difficult to define a workman’s accident exactly, for this term
may have many different meanings, depending entirely upon the
definitions as stated in the laws of the different countries. Further
influence upon its definition is exercised by the courts through their
decisions and by physicians in their diagnoses.
Various international and world-wide congresses have considered
the problem of a standard international basis for industrial accident
statistics. Among the members of these bodies were statisticians and
actuaries, hygienists, demographers, technicians, and officials of the
International Labor Office. All of the congresses have promoted some
phase of the question and this has been more or less valuable to the
expert. The Eleventh International Congress of Actuaries, which
met in Paris in the summer of 1937, probably brought about the best
understanding of actual facts as they are today. In view of the great
variations in legal provisions already mentioned, it is not surprising
that the Paris congress was also unsuccessful in reaching the muchdesired goal of statistical uniformity. In fact, it may be stated that
it is the opinion of all specialists who have given their attention to the
question that it is generally impossible to make use of international
material. However, in spite of the negative result of all these efforts
from an international point of view, there has come a better under
standing regarding the very narrow and short-lived usefulness of
statistical accident data within a nation, and it is better to know the
limitations of such data than to proceed, ignorant, of them, to make
mistakes by using figures which are not actuarially sound and which
may result in miscalculations in premiums and reserves.
Proof of the limitations in existing statistics may be found in the
material of the Swiss Accident Insurance Institution. One is the fact
that the accident risk is affected by the time factor. Years of depres
sion show much higher figures than normal years. Furthermore,
the transference to other localities of statistical data relating to
specific localities can lead to immense errors. There is perhaps no
better proof of the existence of regional differences in the accident risk
than the fact that in one and the same country, with the same law, the
same interpretation of law, and the same insurance practice, the vari
ous regions of the country may produce entirely different accident
statistics. Thus, an increase in the building industry in Switzerland
during the years 1929, 1930, and 1931 resulted in the following sig
nificant picture: Expenses for cures, including payment until complete
convalescence and payment for working ability lost, amounted to the
following percentage of wages—Entire Switzerland, 21.3; Canton A,
15.3; Canton B, 31.5.
The Swiss representative to the Paris conference made another very
instructive comparison between two countries which seem completely
comparable—the Netherlands and Switzerland. The legal require
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Safety and Health
435
ments of the insurance system covering industrial accidents are very
similar in the two countries and the few deviations which do exist are
negligible. A comparison of the insurance costs of both countries for
the years 1932 to 1934, however, shows the following differences:
Net Cost of Insurance for Industrial Accidents in Netherlands and Switzerland, 1932-34
N et costs (in percent
age of wages)
Industry
Shoe manufacture______________ . . . ___
Paper manufacture_____________________
M ills____ ____ ________________
Breweries______________ _____ . . .
Building______________________________
Generation and distribution of electricity..
Nether
lands
Switzer
land
3.9
5.1
9.3
9.7
19.7
7.0
10,3
23.3
18.7
35.6
23.6
6 .1
In discussing the reasons for such an astounding contrast of statis
tical data, the representative from the Netherlands pointed out that
the importance of medical science cannot be overestimated. The
Netherlands seems to have a most efficient medical service and this
may be the reason that the time of treatment in case of an accident is
comparatively short. Ninety-five percent of all workmen’s accidents
there require less than 6 weeks of medical attention before the worker
is able to return to work. Such a favorable result is probably due to
the fact that in the Netherlands all accidents, even the least serious,
are inspected by official experts, and, if necessary, the injured persons
are attended by specialists.
From the inevitable conclusion that there exists no possibility of any
general application of the accident statistics of one country to another
country, one is forced to depend upon one’s own experience. And
yet even the application of personal material is not possible without
restrictions, since the accident risk is subjected to considerable changes
during the course of time. As a consequence, it is apparent that only
the most recent data may be used and conclusions drawn from a
limited experience are not sound.
In spite of the many reasons which make impossible an international
comparison of statistics on industrial accidents, on the whole, detailed
explanation of the various data available may be useful. One con
clusion has been reached, after employing all possible precautions in
regard to the variations in the basic material in making an analysis
of fatality rates in several occupations; namely, that the United States
has not reached the desired objective of its motto of “Safety First.”
Without any doubt preventive measures have improved the situation
but the same improvement has occurred in many other countries, and
the fact remains that the loss of life and money in America through
avoidable accidents is proportionally much larger than in many other
countries.
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Industrial Disputes
TREND OF STRIKES
THE DOWNWARD trend in number of strikes, which has been
evident since June 1937, took a further and more pronounced drop
in December. This decrease reflects the combined influences of the
usual winter decline in number of strikes as well as the recession in
business which started a few weeks before. Preliminary estimates
indicate 155 new strikes in December in which 30,000 workers were
involved. There were about 650,000 man-days of idleness in De
cember as a result of 320 strikes in progress during the month. These
figures for December are lower than corresponding figures for any
other month in 1937. As compared with November, they indicate
reductions of 38 percent in number of strikes, 57 percent in number
of workers involved, and 28 percent in man-days idle.
Trend of Strikes, 1933 to December 1937 1
Workers involved
in strikes
Number of strikes
Year and month
1933
1934
1935
1936
Continued
from
preceding
month
...................
............ ........
.................
....................
Begin- In progning in
ress
month during month
or year month
In effeet at
end of
month
1,695
1,856
Beginning in
month
or year
Man-days
In prog- idle durress dur- ing month
ing
or year
month
1,168,272
1 , 466| 695
1 ,1 1 7 , 213
' 7 8 8 ,648
2 ,014
2 ,172
16,872,128
19, 591,949
15,456, 337
13 901 956
1936
January.......... ......
February_______
M arch............... .
A pril.................... .
M ay____ ______
June........... ............
J u ly .....................
A ugust................
September........... .
October________
November______
December........ .
1937
J a n u a ry ........... .
February_______
March....... ............
April........ .............
M ay.......................
June...................... .
July........................
August_________
September........... .
October________
N ovem ber 1 ____
December 1_____
84
102
119
130
134
121
151
127
145
143
116
126
100
139
145
246
272
316
342
276
266
234
170
165
167
148
185
183
206
188
173
228
234
192
136
132
251
250
304
313
340
309
324
355
379
335
252
258
172
209
607
523
584
585
436
412
322
278
250
155
272
348
752
769
856
901
778
688
588
512
420
320
149
131
174
179
219
158
197
210
236
219
126
158
133
203
506
497
540
559
502
422
354
342
255
195
100
32,406
63,056
75,191
65.379
72,824
63,429
38, 017
68,752
65, 994
100, 845
70,116
72,639
59,153
89,735
122,162
95, 526
123,030
133,531
125,281
118, 268
130, 875
148,570
157,007
184,859
635,519
748,491
1, 331,162
699,900
1,019,171
1.327,678
1,105,480
911, 216
1,063,100
1,053,878
1, 940, 628
2,065,733
139
145
246
272
316
342
276
266
234
170
165
125
108, 697
112.095
288,083
220, 524
320,095
281, 511
141,992
137, 805
83, 667
61,395
70, 000
30. 000
214, 344
239,109
355,814
390,048
437, 601
473, 650
352,248
234,105
153, 734
116,106
2,720,553
1, 519, 850
3, 281,806
3,351, 721
2,943,226
4,963,441
3, 024,241
2, 236,079
1, 400,855
1,125,515
900,000
650,000
102
119
130
134
121
151
127
145
143
116
126
1 1 0 ,0 0 0
000
60.
Strikes involving fewer than 6 workers or lasting less than 1 day are not included in this table nor in the
following tables. Notices or leads regarding strikes are obtained by the Bureau from more than 650 daily
papers, labor papers, and trade journals, as well as from all Government labor boards. Letters are written
to representatives of parties in the disputes asking for detailed and authentic information. Since answers
to some of these letters have not yet been received, the figures given for the late months are not final. This is
particularly true with regard to figures for the last 2 months, and these should be considered as preliminary
estimates.
1
436
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Industrial Disputes
437
Although strike activity in December represented a significant
decline as compared with other months of 1937, there were more
strikes last December than in any December since 1918. The num
ber of workers involved was exceeded, however, in December 1933
and 1936. Comparisons with December a year ago show an increase
of 17 percent in number of strikes, but reductions of 59 percent in
number of workers involved and 69 percent in man-days of idleness.
The figures given for November and December are merely prelimi
nary estimates and are subject to change as later information is
received. An analysis of strikes in each of these months, based on
detailed and verified information will appear in subsequent issues of
the Monthly Labor Review.
ANALYSIS OF STRIKES IN OCTOBER 1937 1
AS COMPARED with the preceding spring and summer months,
there was a substantial reduction in number of strikes, number of
workers involved, and amount of idleness due to labor disputes during
October 1937. The following analysis is based on information for
278 strikes which began in October, plus 234 which began prior to
but continued into October, making a total of 512 strikes in progress
during the month. These strikes resulted in 1,125,000 man-days of
idleness for 116,000 workers during October—an average of about 9%
working days for each worker involved.
The greatest concentration of new strikes in October was in the
following industry groups: Trade (42), transportation and communi
cation (39), domestic and personal service-(36), textiles, including
clothing (31), and lumber and allied products (21). The strikes in
these five groups accounted for 60 percent of the total. The largest
numbers of man-days of idleness because of strikes were in (1) the
domestic and personal-service industries (183,000), principally a result
of the strike of laundry workers in Cincinnati, Ohio, and northern
Kentucky; (2) the lumber industries (172,000), chiefly because of the
disputes involving logging and sawmill workers in northern Minne
sota and around Portland, Oreg.; (3) textiles (142,000) caused by a
number of medium-sized strikes both in the fabric and clothing indus
tries; and (4) transportation and communication (105,000) resulting
from a strike of longshoremen on the South Atlantic coast in progress
from October 16 to November 5.
1 Detailed information on a few strikes has not yet been received.
Data on missing strikes will be included in the annual report.
39873—38-------------10
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
(See footnote to preceding table.)
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
438
T a b l e 1.— Strikes in October 1937, by Industry
In progress dur
ing October
Beginning in
October
Industry
All industries_______________________________________
Iron and steel and their products, not including machinery.
Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling mills...... .........
Cast-iron pipe and fittings................................................
Hardware...............................................................................
Steam and hot-water heating apparatus and steam
fittings.................................................................................
Stoves_____________ _____ - .................. - .............. - .........
Structural and ornamental metal work.........................
Tin cans and other tinware..............................................
Wirework..............................................................................
Other..... ........................- ............................. .........................
Machinery, not including transportation equipment.
Agricultural implements..............................—........
Electrical machinery, apparatus, and supplies..
Foundry and machine-shop products...................
Radios and phonographs.............. ..........................
O th e r ..........................................................................
N um Workers
involved
ber
Num
ber
Workers
involved
278
61,395
512
116,106
1,125,515
6
1
1,058
311
408
13
2,351
311
408
38
33,619
622
7,750
798
250
393
50
650
126
125
6,250
5,445
250
10,400
344
1,760
3,407
98
448
992
540
1, 329
42,225
294
6,872
7,434
13,500
14,125
10,814
1,388
8 , 266
1,059
73,125
20,820
46, 202
5,295
808
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
169
50
1
1
80
40
3
1
1
2
2
26
3
1,467
98
448
587
3
334
10
13
1
6
1
6
8
1
Transportation equipment--------------A ircra ft..-------------- ---------------Automobiles, bodies and parts...
Cars, electric and steam railroad.
Shipbuilding...................................
9
8,266
12
1
9
8,266
9
Eailroad repair shops.
Electric railroad..
1
1
Konferrous metals and their products. ......... ..............
Brass, bronze, and copper products----------------Clocks and watches and time-recording devices.
Lighting equipment----------------- ------------- -----Silverware and plated ware-------- ------ -----------Other______________________ _______________
3
Lumber and allied products-----Furniture_________________
Millwork and planing--------Sawmills and logging camps.
Other--------- ---------------------Stone, clay, and glass products------- ------ ------Brick, tile, and terra cotta..............................
Cement_______________________ ________
Glass________________________ _____ ____
Marble, granite, slate, and other products.
Pottery................................................................
Other----------------- ------------- ------ - ..............
Textiles and their products...................
Fabrics:
Cotton goods---------------------Dyeing and finishing textiles.
Silk and rayon goods_______
Woolen and worsted goods. . .
Other. -------------------------Wearing apparel:
Clothing, men’s ____________
Clothing, women’s . .......... —
Corsets and allied garm ents..
M en’s furnishings - ..................
Hats, caps, and millinery.......
Shirts and collars----------------Hosiery.......................................
K nit goods________________
Other________________ _____
Leather and its manufactures.
Boots and shoes..................
L ea th e r.............................Other leather goods...........
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Mandays
idle
during
October
1
1
110
2
110
1
1
272
167
9
4
1
1
101
110
110
2,310
2,310
3,623
3, 311
25
74
105
108
51,947
48,634
525
1, 554
1, 050
184
16,376
5,829
1,285
7,285
1, 977
172,137
50,810
8 , 580
85,119
27,628
18, 532
907
8,516
3,216
2,766
540
2,587
105
1
2
5,848
1,405
426
3,874
143
54
23
17
1
513
40
279
31
1
163
3
2,316
129
1,186
518
147
45
291
31
4,516
70
13,691
141,868
4
1 221
2,264
159
475
490
216
23,448
1,341
3,400
5, 580
3,033
50
3,021
1
21
9
3
5
4
4
1
1
8
9
14
2
5
3
2
2
,
6
2
1
159
250
2
74
4
3
5
1
50
1,965
1
22
2
9
1
4
1
8
159
16
1
4
4
1
2
3
1
5
3
1
1
469
98
47
7
5
5
656
64
300
292
10
5
3
2
200
159
2,261
190
1,610
928
1,860
27,928
16
625
22,892
2,280
15,196
17,855
18,074
1,125
234
545
346
12,479
4,102
6,145
2,232
8
439
Industrial Disputes
T a b l e 1.— Strikes in October 1937, by Industry—Continued
Beginning in
October
In progress dur
ing October
Industry
Food and kindred products, ------- . . .
... .
_ ._
Baking------ ------ -------------------------------------------------
N um
ber
Workers
involved
N um
ber
Workers
involved
15
885
519
26
15
1 754
1,185
64
8
1
Canning and preserving........ .........
__ . . .
Confectionery____________________ _____________
Flour and grain mills-------------- ------ ------------ ------ .
Slaughtering and meat packing___
. __________
Other---------------- ------------------------------- -------------Tobacco manufactures__________________________ ____
Cigars------------------------------------------------------- -----Paper and printing_______________ _________________
1
3
1
1
1
75
145
80
24
42
24,670
16,298
1,408
1,412
2
112
3
145
170
24
54
4,180
48
770
770
7,840
7,840
1, 564
298
35
21,228
2 334
70
680
310
241
10,904
5,831
2,089
2
1
2
2
1
640
640
7
187
18
1
Mandays
idle
during
October
2
2
1
1 ,1 0 2
222
Paper and p u l p . . . __________ _____ ___
_____
Printing and publishing:
Book and jo b ... __________ ________________
Newspapers and periodicals__________________
Other------------- ------ ------- -------------- -----------------
3
Chemicals and allied products. _________ _ . . . ------Druggists’ preparations___
. . . . ___ ___
Paint and varnishes___________ _____________ . .
1
9
5
1
9
2
2
561
125
136
300
5,147
750
2,467
1, 930
Rubber products______ ____ _________________________
Other rubber g o o d s--------------------------------------------
2
2
268
268
3
3
369
369
5,831
5,831
11
813
58
20
1
1
3,409
58
750
2,601
30,492
290
750
29,452
64,379
39, 550
23, 695
Miscellaneous manufacturing -----------------------------------Electric light, power, and manufactured gas_______
Other__________________ ________ .
__
__
2
66
2
29
92
1
1
755
18
10
4
9,622
5,650
3,923
1
6
10,239
5,650
4,504
1
1
21
1
2
21
210
28
64
924
16,704
10, 771
4,245
94
1,594
104, 597
59, 063
34,204
1,312
10,018
62
18
44
6,130
1,659
4,471
58,917
14,894
44, 023
54
6
11,142
1,275
1,303
4,830
1,489
183,485
18,877
6,412
92,433
33,087
6
2,245
32,676
4
1
36
36
395
126
269
4,032
780
3,252
15
9
1,967
975
25
17
4,818
3,708
23,268
18, 203
1 ,1 1 0
10
Extraction of minerals_________________________ . . . . . .
Coal mining, anthracite____ _____________ . . . ___
Coal mining, b itu m in o u s_____________ ________
Quarrying and nonmetallic m ining________________
Crude petroleum producing._______ ____________ .
7
Transportation and communication________ _ _______
Water transportatio n _ _______ _
_ _ ____ _ . . .
Motortruck transportation___ _ .
_____ ____
Motorbus transportation.. ________
__________
Taxicabs and miscellaneous______________________
39
14
3
14,290
10,317
2,614
82
1,277
Trade. --------------------------------------------- __ ---------------Wholesale________________________ ____ ___ . . .
R etail____________ ____________ _____________ ___
42
13
29
4,677
1,470
3, 207
Domestic and personal service________ ______ ______
Hotels, restaurants, and boarding houses__________
Personal service, barbers, beauty parlors__________
Laundries_________________________________ . . . .
Dyeing, cleaning, and pressing____
. __________
Elevator and maintenance workers (when not attached to specific industry)_________ _____ ______
36
16
4
4,845
736
803
1,050
156
4
2 ,1 0 0
Professional ser v ic e -------------------------------------- ---------Recreation and a m u sem ent____
___ . . . . ..
Semiprofessional, attendants, and helpers__________
1
Building and construction_____________ _______ _______
Buildings, exclusive of P. W. A . ___
. . . .. . .. _
All other construction (bridges, docks, etc., and
P. W . A. buildings)___________________________
W. P. A., relief, and resettlement projects_____________
Other nonmanufacturing industries ______________ . ._
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
4
5
6
1
20
2
2
10
50
19
22
3
6
20
3
19
2
0
6
992
8
1
158
292
1
20
7
158
4,280
5,065
158
43,229
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
440
The October strikes in New York (71) and Pennsylvania (37)
amounted to about 39 percent of the total for .the entire country.
Another 33 percent of the strikes were in the following seven States:
California (19), Michigan (16), Ohio and Indiana (13 each), Massa
chusetts (12), and Illinois and New Jersey (10 each).
Of the 12 strikes in progress during October which extended across
State lines, as indicated at the end of table 2, the largest was the strike
of East coast longshoremen, referred to above. This strike extended
into North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. The
next largest was the strike of laundry workers in Cincinnati, Ohio,
and northern Kentucky, which began September 28 and was still
in progress at the end of October.
T able 2.— Strikes in October 1937, by States
Beginning in October
In progress during
October
State
Number
W orkers
involved
Number
278
61,395
512
116,106
1,125, 515
5
19
1,729
1,416
48
590
237
23
3,093
3,166
29
11
2,370
5,746
1,953
638
245
447
4,761
6,376
681
15,555
56, 608
8,317
8,428
3, 372
6 ,944
47,177
72,205
1, 192
808
7, 331
3,260
1,791
26,979
42,889
80, 759
4,431
42,125
334
81
48
16,156
152,421
18,109
4,599
33, 291
4,644
51, 898
136,409
3,491
1 1 , 681
4,183
126
10,749
16,115
2
3
5
1
10
13
1
33
7
5
6
4
17
18
7
1
3
16
4
6
2,214
19
1
2
10
2
2
1
10
71
3
1
13
2
2
37
3
4
__________________________________
5
419
412
147
1,486
5,860
4,163
2
2
12
Utah
W orkers
involved
Man-days
idle during
October
1
2
4
1
2
9
5
37
24
642
8 , 797
683
194
1,064
648
93
11,450
845
739
32
36
910
400
168
966
8 , 625
2
3
20
28
8
1
1
19
127
5
3
24
3
7
57
4
5
5
2
5
4
5
25
12
101
570
412
293
2,870
8 , 227
5,716
211
3,865
26
37
24
1.347
16, 999
1. 605
247
138
684
3, 632
16, 254
873
855
284
36
1 ,2 1 0
1,165
674
6,104
15, 530
6 ,1 1 0
78, 337
146, 562
The average number of workers involved in the strikes beginning
in October was 221. About 23 percent of the strikes involved fewer
than 20 workers each and an additional 41 percent involved from 20
to 100 workers each. Only two strikes, as shown in table 3, involved
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
441
Industrial Disputes
as many as 5,000 workers. These were the strike of longshoremen
on the South Atlantic coast, referred to above, and a short strike of
anthracite miners in Pennsylvania from October 5 to 13.
T able 3.— Strikes Beginning in October 1937, Classified by Number of Workers Involved
Number of strikes in which the number of
workers involved was—
Industry group
Total
100
500 1,000 5.000 10,000
6 and 2 0 and
and and and
and
under under under
under
under under and
20
100
500 1,000 5,000 10.000 over
278
All industries.
114
77
12
10
M a n u fa c tu r in g
Iron and steel and their products, not including
machinery...............................................- .................
Machinery, not including transportation equip
m ent____________ _____ - ...........- ................ ............
Transportation equipment...........................................
Railroad repair shops............................- .......................
Nonferrous metals and their products.....................
Lumber and allied products........................................
Stone, clay, and glass products...................................
Textiles and their products......... ..............................
Leather and its manufactures......................................
Food and kindred products.............-■..........................
Tobacco manufactures........................ ...........................
Paper and printing............................ ................ ............
Chemicals and allied products....................................
Rubber products_________ ____ ____ ____ _______
Miscellaneous manufactures.......... .............................
N o n m a n u f a c tu r in g
Extraction of minerals^-.-.............................
Transportation and communication-------T rad e..........................- .............- ....................Domestic and personal service...............
Professional service.........................................
Building and construction______________
W. P. A ., relief, and resettlement projects.
Other nonmanufacturing industries..........
7
39
42
30
1
15
11
12
11
2
1
14
14
13
9
15
3
1 1
1 ........................
10
...
1
1
3
6
3
3
1
7
2
1
--
1
......
1
......
-------
1 ....... .............
1 ______ ___
Nearly 60 percent of the strikes in October were principally over
union organization matters, 25 percent chiefly over wages and hours,
and 15 percent over miscellaneous issues. These are approximately
the same proportions as have been found in the preceding summer and
fall months of 1937. Of the workers involved in the October strikes,
42 percent were concerned principally with union organization issues,
36 percent with wages and hours, and 21 percent with questions of
union rivalry, lay-off policies, or other issues.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
442
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
T able 4.—Major Issues Involved in Strikes Beginning in October 1937
Strikes
Major issues
Percent of
total
Number
278
69
37
4
25
All issues__ _________ _____ _____________________ .
Wages and hours________________________ _____. . .
Wage increase_____ ____________________________
Wage decrease_________________________________
Wage increase, hour decrease... . . . . . . . . _____
Wage decrease, hour increase................ ............. . . .
Hour decrease___________________ _____________
Union organization___________________________ . . . .
Recognition__________ ____ __________________
Recognition and wages______
________ . . . . .
Recognition and hours . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recognition, wages, and hours___
..
.. .
Closed shop___________________________________
Discrimination_____________ __________________
Other___________ ______________________________
Miscellaneous________________________ _ . . . _____
Sym pathy_________________________________ . . .
Rival unions or factions_____
.
....
...
Jurisdiction____________________________ ______
Other_______________ ________________________
1
Workers involved
Number
61, 395
22, 300
11,880
556
9,687
1 0 0 .0
24.8
13.3
1.4
9.0
.4
.7
59.4
11.9
11.5
.4
1
2
165
33
32
1
56
23
14
2 0 .1
6
2 .2
44
5
15.8
8
2.9
2.5
1 0 0 .0
36.3
19.3
.9
15.8
(>)
20
157
25,928
6,909
6 ,0 2 0
175
7, 332
2, 607
2,773
8.3
5.0
4.2
4.5
.2
13,167
274
3, 302
955
8 , 630
8 .6
.3
42.3
11.3
9.8
.3
1 2 .0
112
1 .8
7
24
Percent of
total
21.4
.4
5.4
1 .6
14.0
Less than Ho of 1 percent.
The 342 strikes which were terminated in October are classified in
table 5 according to industry group and duration. About 30 percent
of them lasted less than a week and 50 percent were terminated less
than one-half month after they began. The average duration of the
342 strikes was nearly 27 calendar days. Less than 5 percent (16
strikes) had been in progress three months or more. Practically all
of these strikes were against individual firms and most of them in
volved only a small number of workers.
T able 5.—Duration of Strikes Ending in October 1937
Number of strikes with duration of—
Industry group
Total
342
and
1 week
2 and
H and 1 less
3
Less
less
less less
than
2
than and
than
1
than
3 months
than
H
1 week
month month months months or more
105
66
66
67
22
16
M a n u fa c tu r in g
Iron and steel and their products, not includ*
Machinery,
7
1
2
1
3
17
4
4
2
3
2
6
2
1
2
2
not including transportation
10
Textiles and their products............... ..............
5
38
13
40
2
2
8
2
8
14
4
2
3
6
4
7
2
9
10
2
6
6
1
18
7
3
5
2
2
1
2
3
3
5
4
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
5
1
1
2
1
1
1
14
4
1
2
11
2
1
1
1
N o n m a n u fa c tu r in g
W. P. A., relief, and resettlement projects—
Other nonmanufacturing industries_________
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
6
2
4
35
42
35
4
18
17
16
8
8
20
1
7
13
3
6
10
2
7
5
5
1
1
1
1
4
4
4
1
2
3
4
3
2
2
1
1
443
Industrial Disputes
Government conciliators and labor boards assisted in settling
approximately the same proportion of the strikes ending in October
as were settled directly between the employers and representatives of
organized workers—about 42 percent in each case. About 52 percent
of the total workers involved were in the strikes which the Government
agencies helped to settle and 34 percent were in the strikes settled
directly between the employers and union representatives. About
15 percent of the strikes, including 13 percent of the workers, were
terminated without formal settlements. In most of these cases the
strikers simply went back to work without settlements or they lost
their jobs entirely through replacement or discontinuation of the
employers’ business.
T a b l e 6 . —Methods of Negotiating Settlements of Strikes Ending in October 1937
Strikes
Workers involved
Negotiations toward settlements carried on by—
Number
T o t a l............ ................................................. .......................
Employers and representatives of organized workers
directly_______________________ _____ _____ ____ _
Government conciliators or labor boards___ ____ __
Terminated without formal settlement. . _____. . .
.
342
142
144
C
50
Percent of
total
Number
1 0 0 .0
72,279
41.5
42.1
24,407
37,839
489
9,544
1 .8
14.6
Percent of
total
1 0 0 .0
33.8
52.3
.7
13.2
The workers were successful in obtaining substantially all of their
demands in 42 percent of the strikes ending in October. They
obtained partial gains or compromises m[31 percent and gained little
or nothing in 20 percent. The proportions of workers in these three
groups were approximately 26 percent, 50 percent, and 19 percent,
respectively. (See table 7.)
The data in table 8, which shows the results of strikes ending in
October in relation to the major issues involved, indicate that about the
same proportion of strikes over wages and hours were successful, from
the workers’ viewpoint, as the strikes over union organization matters.
A larger proportion of the wage-and-hour strikes were compromised
and a smaller proportion lost. Three-fourths of the workers in the
wage-and-hour strikes obtained compromises while 19 percent won
their strikes and 6 percent lost. In the strikes over union organiza
tion matters, 41 percent of the workers obtained compromises while
31 percent won and 27 percent lost.
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Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
T able 7.—Results of Strikes Ending in October 1937
Strikes
Workers involved
Results
Percent of
total
Number
T o t a l,.________ _________ _______________
342
Substantial gains to workers ______________
Partial gains or compromises___ ______ __________
Little or no gains to workers ____________ _
Jurisdiction, rival union or faction settlem ents. . .
Indeterminate____ ____________ ____________ .
N ot reported........ ............... .............................. .
145
107
68
18
3
1
Percent of
total
Number
1 0 0 .0
72,279
42.3
31.3
19.9
5.3
.9
.3
18,706
35,830
13, 550
3,972
116
105
1 0 0 .0
.
25.9
49.6
18.7
5.5
.2
.1
T able 8.—Results of Strikes Ending in October 1937, in Relation [to Major Issues Involved
Strikes resulting in—
Substan Partial
tial gains
gains
to work or com
ers
promises
Total
Major issues
Jurisdic
Little or tion, rival
no gains union, or
to work faction
ers
settle
ments
Indeter
minate
N ot re
ported
N u m b e r o f strike*
All issu es..________ ___________
342
Wages and hours---------------------
68
41
5
20
1
145
107
29
18
26
15
2
8
1
10
1
1
Recognition and wages_____
Recognition, wages, and
hours_____ _
_______
Closed shop............................ .
Discrimination.. _________
Other____________________
Miscellaneous___________ _____
S ym pathy.. . .
. ________
105
81
36
16
5
37
15
7
23
3
1
1
1
1
8
2
2
73
5
14
50
18
33
15
4
11
8
3
2
11
1
8
20
22
]
11
6
4
5
18
1
11
Other.........................................
18
13
1
230
45
47
44
3
68
2
1
11
7
10
8
4
1
N u m b e r o f w o rk ers in v o lv e d
A ll issu es.........................................
72, 279
18,706
35,830
13,550
Wages and hours_____ ______ _
Wage increase_____________
Wage decrease____________
Wage increase, hour decrease.
Wage decrease, hour increase.
Hour decrease-____________
15,191
13,057
641
1,466
2,935
1,803
430
682
11,308
loi 544
60
704
948
710
151
80
Union organization_______ _.
Recognition______ _____ _
Recognition and wages_____
Recognition, wages, and
hours.....................................
Closed s h o p ...____________
Discrimination____________
Other_________ ______ ____
43, 698
6 ', 541
6,388
13,494
1,990
1,930
18,073
'226
2,795
11,995
4 ,189
1 ,663
18,043
8,090
4, 563
73
5,935
1,655
1,950
34
10,317
3, 804
892
39
2 ,6 3 1
1 ,721
Miscellaneous_______ ____ ____
Sym pathy________________
Rival unions or factions____
Jurisdiction____________ _
Other____________________
13,390
257
3,531
441
9,161
2,277
215
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20
3,972
116
105
31
105
105
20
7
7
2,062
6
,449
6,449
1, 791
607
32
3,972
3,531
441
575
85
10
75
Industrial Disputes
445
CONCILIATION WORK OF THE DEPARTM ENT OF
LABOR, DECEM BER 1937
DURING December 1937 conciliators of the Department of Labor
handled 116 disputes which involved directly and indirectly about
37,061 workers. This mediation service was requested by either one
or both parties to the disputes. Some of these disputes had already
developed into strikes before the Department of Labor was requested
to intervene. In others, strikes were threatened but had not yet
taken place. In some cases, although no strike was immediately
threatened, a controversy between employer and workers had de
veloped to such a stage that an outside mediator was deemed necessary.
The Department of Labor conciliators were successful in adjusting
62 of these disputes, 35 were pending at the end of the month, 8 were
referred to other services, 6 were settled by the disputants themselves
before the arrival of the conciliator, and 5 could not be adjusted.
The majority of these disputes concerned demands for wage in
creases. Many were due to alleged discrimination against union mem
bers for union activity, others were for union recognition and selection
of sole bargaining agency. Some involved hours, overtime rates of pay,
vacation with pay, seniority rights, and general working conditions.
These 116 disputes were scattered among 29 different States and the
District of Columbia. Workers involved in the disputes are classified
in table 2. There were 40 strikes and 76 controversies.
T a b l e 1.—Disputes Handled by Conciliators, December 1937, in Each State
Total disputes
State
1
1
160
4
16
300
500
835
18
1 558
36
1 228
(i)
1 1, 541
300
3,209
125
806
503
30
1,185
T otal______________________
1
Exact number notlknown.
116
i 37,061
76
i 19,162
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1
4
6
1
7
3
2
5
5
1
1
2
1
2
2
2
3
4
17
3
8
2
18
1
7
2
1
3
Workers
involved
Strikes
Number
1
3
5
5
3
1
4
2
1
86
4,139
1,358
680
1,600
i 880
65
1
1
1
2
1
1
3
(0
1
1
1
2
2
1
3
1
11
2
6
1
9
1
3
2
i
3
1
1
3
6
1
2
1
Workers
involved
75
62
4, 000
75
3,120
138
0
)
306
350
180
o
oo
Number
1
1
Workers
involved
75
148
8,139
75
4,478
680
1,738
i 880
371
0 )
' 350
340
4
16
300
1, 500
835
641
i 2,249
5,175
i 438
i 33
• 2,335
300
3,312
125
806
503
30
1,185
Number
Alabama________ _______________
Arkansas__
. . . _________ ..
California___________ ___________
Colorado_____________ __________
Connecticut___ _______ _____ _____
District of C olum bia___ ________
Illinois___________ . __ ________
Indiana______ ______ ________
Iow a._______
_________________
Kansas__________________ ______
Kentucky . . . . . ________________
Louisiana_________ _______ _____
Maryland_______________________
Massachusetts____ _____________
Michigan________________________
M innesota_______ . __________
Missouri______ _ . . . . .
______
New Jersey___ ________________
N ew York_________ ____ _________
North Carolina__________________
Ohio_____________________ _____
O klahom a..____ ___ _____________
Pennsylvania____________________
Rhode Island______ ______
Tennessee _____________________
Texas____________ ______ _________
Vermont________ ____ __________
Virginia_____________ __________
W est Virginia______ ___________
Wisconsin____ ____ ______________
Threatened strikes
and controversies
623
1,691
5,139
210
9
33
794
4
103
40
i 17, 899
446
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
T able 2.—Disputes Handled by Conciliators, by Craft of Workers Involved, December 1937
Threatened strikes
and controversies
Total disputes
Strikes
Craft
Agriculture____
_ __
Automobile______________________
_ _ _ _
Bakery__________ ___
Brick and clay workers..
_
Broommakers—................................ .
Building__________ . . . ___ ._ ..
Building service_____
__ _
Chemical workers____
_____
Clerks__________________________
Drivers_________ ______ ___ _____
Electrical workers_____ _________
Engineers________________________
Firemen__________ . . . . ____
Fishermen______ .
____
.
Food handlers_____________ . . . ..
Furniture workers _ ______________
Garment workers.
_. . .
Glass workers______________ . . . _
Hotel workers______ _______ . .
Insurance salesmen. _____ . . . _
______
Laundry workers____. . .
Liquor handlers_______ ________
Longshoremen________ .
______
Mechanics______________ _______
Mill carpenters______________ ____
M illinery_________ ________ _ .
Miners— coal____. . . _ __________
Office workers..........
................. ..
Oil workers______________________
Painters_______ _____________ . . .
Paper workers__________________
Printing____________________ ___
Rubber workers__________________
Shipping___ ______
. . .
Steefand iron____________________
Stove workers_________ __ . . . . .
Textiles_________________________
Timber workers ________ . _ ___
W arehousem en... ________ _____
T otal______________________
1
Exact number not known.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
5
10
2
2
1
1
1
5
2
1
2
5
1
7
2
4
10
1
1
1
2
1
Workers
involved
4,000
35
i 11
(l)
125
(')
600
500
165
1416
1 1,298
(0
2
2
11
1
4,000
5
i 11
2
2
414
565
1
1
3
70
112
1
1
17
(0
1 ,0 0 0
' 135
130
280
1
1
1
1
5
1
125
600
500
165
i2
i 733
118
0)
2
’
1
1
1 ,0 0 0
Workers
involved
)
1
i 37,061
2
3
3
(i)
0
70
116
5
1
2
1
1
135
1,366
205
280
24
99
(l)
^ i 467
1,125
103
1 4,274
27
2,900
' 138
1,150
Number
1
30
1
8
2
2
1
Workers
involved
112
1409
30
1 693
i 60
2, 803
3,113
I! 024
433
1 7, 516
305
i 50
5
Number
21
1
(!)
3
’
1
5
1
1,231
75
1
3
4
234
700
103
3, 559
99
233
425
i 715
27
2,900
1
1
4
1
4
5
138
350
1
800
1
i 126
30
693
3
1
1
2
1
4
1
3
3
1
(0
2
2,803
3,113
24
433
i 2,365
305
1 50
76
1 19,162
1
2
9
1
1
1
1
283
(•)
60
oo
o
Number
2
5,151
40
‘ 17,899
Cost o f Living
EXPENDITURES FOR ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES BY
WORKERS IN 42 CITIES 1
FIGURES are now available on expenditures for electrical appliances
and equipment by white and Negro families in cities covered by the
Bureau of Labor Statistics study of the money disbursements of wage
earners and lower-salaried clerical workers.2 Averages for expendi
tures and the percent of families spending for various items of electric
equipment for five regions and New York City show interesting
variations.
The cities with population over 50,000 from which the data for
regional averages presented in this article were secured are as follows:
North Atlantic: Boston, Buffalo, Johnstown, Lancaster, Manchester,
Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Portland, Rochester, Scranton, and Springfield, Mass. East North Central: Cincinnati, Cleveland, Columbus,
Detroit, Grand Rapids, Indianapolis, Lansing, Milwaukee. West
North Central: Denver, Kansas City, Minneapolis, St. Louis, Salt
Lake City. Southern: Baltimore, Birmingham, Dallas, Houston,
Jackson, Jacksonville, Louisville, Memphis, Mobile, New Orleans,
Norfolk, Richmond. Pacific: Los Angeles, Sacramento, San Diego,
San Francisco, Seattle. Groups of Negro families were studied in
Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, New York City, Cincinnati, Indianapolis,
Kansas City, St. Louis, Baltimore, Birmingham, Louisville, Memphis,
New Orleans, Norfolk, Jackson, Mobile, and Richmond. Figures
from New York City have been presented separately because of the
distinctive expenditure patterns which characterize such a metro
politan area.
No Negro families were studied in the Pacific region. Groups of
Mexican families were studied in Houston, Tex., and Los Angeles,
Calif., but the data secured have not been included in the figures
presented here.
The families from which the data here reported were obtained were
surveyed as part of the Nation-wide study conducted by the Bureau
of Labor Statistics for the purpose of revising the cost-of-living indexes
1 Prepared by the Bureau’s Cost of Living Division, Faith M . Williams, chief.
* Other articles on money disbursements of wage earners and lower-salaried clerical workers have appeared
in the following issues of the M onthly Labor Review: March 1936, M ay 1936, June 1936, September 1936,
January 1937, April 1937, June 1937, and September 1937. Radios as an item of expenditure w ill be
covered in an article in a forthcoming number of the M onthly Labor Review.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
447
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
448
which it publishes. The families were selected to represent a crosssection of employed wage earners and lower-salaried clerical workers
in each of the cities studied. In 16 cities, employed Negro workers
were included. All the families scheduled included one or more wage
earners or lower-salaried clerical workers who were employed a
minimum of 1,008 hours in at least 36 weeks in the year. No data
were included from families with incomes of less than $500 a year or
from families which received either direct or work relief. An excep
tion was made in the case of families in which the chief earner was
employed in an industry normally seasonal. Such families were
included if the chief earner had employment for three and one half
8-hour days in each of 30 weeks.
Families have been classified by economic level, on the basis of the
total amount spent per year per expenditure unit, a measure which
takes into account total family expenditure and family size and com
position (table 1). An explanation of this measure was given in the
Monthly Labor Review for March 1936 (pp. 558-559). A total of
12,903 white families and 1,566 Negro families are included.
T a b l e 1.—Average Annual Expenditures for Electrical Appliances and Equipment by-
White and Negro Families, by Economic Levels and Geographic Regions, 1933-36 1
W hite families
Geographic region
All fami
lies
Negro families
Economic level, i. e., families
spending per expenditure
unit—
Under
$400
$400 to
$600
All fami
lies
Economic
level,
i.
e., families
spending per ex
penditure unit—
Under
$400
$600
and over
$400
and over 3
Number of families
N ew York City_______________
East North Central_______ . . .
3,193
897
2,694
1,767
2, 710
1,642
1,285
194
839
618
1.027
408
1,138
331
1,023
649
982
622
770
372
832
500
701
612
198
100
201
209
858
104
25
131
116
676
94
75
70
93
182
$5. 65
$9.08
10. 45
10.37
19.35
9.78
Average annual expenditures
North Atlantic *______________
East North Central...... ................
$17.93
8 . 84
23. 35
22.36
22.36
18.10
$9. 26
2.99
1 1 .0 0
15.20
12.65
8.81
$20. 34
7.78
23. 35
2 2 .0 0
20.83
19.21
$28. 79
12.80
35. 74
31.61
38.72
23. 23
$7.30
8.14
8 .43
13. 33
3.20
1 .2 0
7.41
8.50
1.44
1 For 1 year within the period September 1933 to August 1936. Approximately 52 percent of the data
apply to the year ending February 1935.
3 128 families in this group spent more than $600 per expenditure unit as follows: North Atlantic, 28 fami
lies; N ew York City, 38; East North Central, 10; W est North Central, 29; Southern, 23.
3 Exclusive of N ew York City.
Average annual expenditures by the white families for all types of
electrical appliances and equipment (except radios and electrically
operated musical instruments) varied from $8.84 in New York City
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Cost of Living
449
to $23.35 in the East North Central area. The averages for the
East North Central, the West North Central, and the Southern
regions are strikingly similar; those for the two last named being iden
tical and that for the East North Central $1 higher. The highest
average expenditure per family for electrical apparatus shown for any
group is the $38.72 invested by the southern white families spending
$600 or more per expenditure unit per year for all items. The expend
itures of the southern white families for new electrical apparatus
during the period of the survey may have been influenced by the fact
that reductions in rates charged for electric power occurred during the
year represented by the data, or in the 6 months just previous, in 7
out of the 11 southern cities included in the study for which rates are
obtained by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Average expenditures by Negro families were lower and varied
more widely from region to region than those of the white families.
The average for the West North Central Negroes is four times that
of the southern Negroes, $13.33 as compared with $3.20.
Variations in expenditures for electrical appliances and equipment
from one economic level to another were greater than from one region
to another within each racial group. Within each region and racial
group average expenditures were consistently higher at the higher
economic levels. Within the white group the greatest variation
occurred in the East North Central region where the expenditures of
the families in the highest bracket were three and one-fourth times
those of the families in the lowest. Within the Negro group the
widest variation occurred in the Southern region, where the families
in the higher group showed an average expenditure six times as
great as those in the lower. The number of Negro families at the
level spending $600 or more per expenditure unit did not seem large
enough to justify separate averages. New York City showed a greater
variation than any of the regional groups for both white and Negro
families. Expenditures of white families at the highest level were
four times as large as those of families at the lowest level. Negro
families in the higher group had expenditures nine times those of
families in the lower group.
Expenditures— Regional
The percentage of families purchasing 1 or more of 12 types of
household equipment operated by electricity, and average expendi
tures for all the items and for each item are presented in table 2.
Expenditures for electrical refrigerators were larger than those for
any other item. The amount spent for this single piece of equip
ment represented almost two-thirds of total expenditures for elec
trical appliances and equipment by white families in the Southern
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
450
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
region and approximately half in the North Atlantic, East North
Central, and West North Central areas. Expenditures for washing
machines were next, and for vacuum cleaners third.
T a b l e 2 . —Average
Expenditures 1 by White and Negro Families for Electrical Appliances
and Equipment, by Economic Levels and Geographic Regions, 1933-36 2
N O R T H A T L A N T IC , E X C L U S IV E O F N E W Y O R K C IT Y
W hite families
Type of appliances
All
fami
lies
Negro families
Families spending per
expenditure unit—
Under
$400
$400
to
$600
$600
All
fami
lies
Families spend
ing per expend
iture unit—
Under
$400
and
over
$400
and
over 3
P e r c en t pu rch a sin g sp ecified a p p lia n ces
Vacuum cleaners_____
Refrigerators (electric)________
Electric stoves and hot plates_______
Washing machines______
Irons___________
Iraners and mangles__________
Heaters and fans___
Light bulbs_______ _____
Lamps______
Toasters_______
Sewing machines (electric). .
Other_______
4.4
5.4
.7
1.7
5.2
2 .0
6 .6
.2
.5
5.3
5.5
.1
1 .2
.2
54.3
51.5
.5
7.4
5.5
.3
1.7
54.7
1 0 .2
6 .1
1 0 .6
6 .2
5.8
3.3
.7
5.2
1.9
.3
3.5
.7
2 .1
4 .9
7.9
9.4
1.4
5.8
6.5
.4
.2 . 1
58.6
16.5
5.2
2.5
4.0
2.9
0
0
0
1 .0
1 .1
8
0
0
1 .0
8 .1
0
0
54.5
8 .6
.5
4. 3
5.3
1 .0
7.7
.5
0
0
54.8
1.9
54.3
16.0
1 .2
1 .0
0
1 .0
1 0 .8
4.5
4.8
4.3
$5. 65
.27
2.90
$9.08
. 46
4.81
1 .1
1 .1
A v e r a g e e x p e n d itu re 1
All items_____
Vacuum cleaners__________
Refrigerators (electric)___ _________
Electric stoves and hot p la tes._
Washing machines______
Irons_____________
Iraners and mangles__________
Heaters and fans______ _
Light bulbs. ___________ .
Lamps_________
Toasters___ ___________
Sewing machines (electric) .
Other______ . . .
$17.93
2.14
8 . 79
.43
3.92
.23
.08
.06
.77
.54
.08
.62
.27
$9. 26
.83
3. 41
.17
3.30
.19
.04
$20. 34
2.80
10. 23
.35
4. 29
.24
.07
.0 1
.1 1
.64
.76
.54
.08
.59
.28
.2 1
.04
.32
.1 0
$28. 79
3. 38
15. 64
.96
4.40
. 28
. Ì6
.06
.99
1 .1 0
. 13
1.15
.54
$7. 30
.36
3.81
0
0
.53
.41
0
0
.40
. 38
0
0
0
.53
.43
.0 1
1 .0 2
.2 0
.67
. 43
0
0
.48
.05
0
.58
.85
.0 1
1.15
.8 8
.0 2
.39
N E W Y O R K C IT Y
P e r c en t p u rch a sin g specified a p p lia n ces
Vacuum c l e a n e r s . ............
Refrigerators (electric)____________
Electric stoves and hot p la te s ... .
Washing machines___ ______ _
Irons.________________
Ironers and mangles....................
Heaters and fans______________
Light bulbs____________________
Lamps_______________
Toasters_________
Sewing machines (electric)___ ____ _____
Other____________ ______ .
See fo o tn o tes a t end o f table.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1.9
3.1
0.5
.5
1.5
2.7
3.0
4.8
0
0
0
0
.6
7.1
.2
.7
69.1
7.6
2.9
1 .1
2.3
.9
.5
6 .6
0
8 .6
0
1 .6
0
5.2
0
0
63.4
2 .1
1 .0
1 .0
.5
74.3
5.4
2.4
.5
67.5
12.4
4.3
.6
1 .6
2.4
3.2
1 .0
0
3.0
0
0
1 3
4 0
13
0
0
1 .0
0
8 .0
0
0
4.0
9. 3
0
0
0
0
75.0
76.0
1 0 .0
2 .0
1 2 .0
0
3.0
7.0
0
4.0
74.7
9.3
2.7
4.0
8 .0
Cost of Living
451
1 a b l e 2 . —Average
Expenditures1 by White and Negro Families for Electrical Appliances
and Equipment, by Economic Levels and Geographic Regions, 1933-36 2— Continued
N E W Y O R K C I T Y - C o n t in u e d
W hite families
Type of appliances
All
fami
lies
Negro families
Families spending per
expenditure unit—
Under
$400
$400
to
$600
$600
and
over
All
fami
lies
Under
$400
Average expenditure
All items______________
Vacuum cleaners_________________ .
Refrigerators (electric)_____ ____ ______
Electric stoves and hot plates_________
Washing machines_______________
Irons__________ .
Ironers and mangles___________ . .
Heaters and fans_________________
Light bulbs______ _______________
Lamps_____________________
Toasters__________ __________
Sewing machines (electric)_____
Other________________
$8.84
.87
4.37
$2.99
.40
.59
0
0
.6 6
0
.0 1
0
.8 8
.08
0
.18
0
0
.64
.0 2
.96
.23
.04
1.05
(4)
.03
.1 1
$12.80
1 .2 1
6
. 32
0
.97
.29
0
.29
.06
.91
.65
.06
$7. 78
.75
4.40
.1 1
.73
.35
.13
.03
$1 . 2 0
.1 0
0
5.35
(4)
0
0
0
0
0
.0 1
0
0
0
0
.78
.59
.03
.1 1
1 .0 0
$10.45
. 13
7.14
. 16
.2 0
1 .0 0
$400
and
over *
1
$8.14
1.30
1.46
.16
Families spend
ing per expend
iture unit—
.63
.40
.82
.65
.04
1.33
.0 1
.1 2
0
0
.09
.2 1
0
0
EAST N O R T H CE NT RAL
P e r c en t pu rch a sin g sp ecified a p p lia n ce s
Vacuum cleaners______
Refrigerators (electric)________________
Electric stoves and hot plates ______
Washing machines______ _ ______ .
Irons_______ . . . . . . _____
Ironers and mangles________________
Heaters and fans________ . . . . . . .
Light bulbs____________ ____ . .
L am p s... _____ _______ ..
Toasters___________________
Sewing machines (electric)_______
....
Other___ ____________ _
4 .7
7 .3
.5
8 .6
5 .7
.3
2 .0
5 0 .5
12.5
4 .6
.9
5 .1
3 .0
2 .4
0
8 .3
6 .0
.1
1 .0
51. 5
6 .2
3 .9
.2
3 .6
3 .9
7 .4
.4
8 .3
5 .6
.4
1 .3
4 9 .0
13.3
3 .1
1.0
4 .7
All items_______
$23. 35
Vacuum cleaners... ____________
2. 62
Refrigerators (electric). . . ___________
12.02
Electric stoves and hot p la tes.. _ _____
.2 0
Washing machines_______ _.
5.3 5
Irons________________ _____
.2 4
Ironers and mangles___________________
.1 9
Heaters and fans_____________________
.0 6
Light bulbs_____________ ________
.7 1
Lamps_________ _______ ._ _
.7 8
Toasters _
_____ ____ _
.1 0
Sewing machines (electric) .
_______
.7 4
Other. . __ ______
.3 4
$11. 00
1.35
3 .4 4
0
4. 76
.2 1
.0 6
.0 2
.6 2
.2 4
.0 5
.1 3
$23. 35
2 .8 0
12.02
.1 4
5.61
.2 3
.1 9
.0 3
.7 0
.6 4
.0 6
.6 4
7 .5
12 .3
1.1
9 .3
5 .5
.5
3 .8
51 .4
17.8
7 .1
1 .4
7 .2
1 .0
2 .0
1 .0
3 .0
6 .0
0
.5
39 .3
7 .5
.5
.5
0
A v e r a g e ex p e n d itu re
.29
.1 2
$35.74
3. 66
2 0 .68
.4 6
5 .6 4
.2 6
.3 1
.1 4
.8 1
1.5 0
.1 9
1.4 6
.6 3
0
1 .5
1 .5
3 .1
6 .1
0
0
3 9 .7
9 .2
.8
.8
0
2 .9
2 .9
0
2 .9
5 .7
0
1 .4
3 8 .6
4 .3
0
0
0
$7.41
0
2.11
1.83
2.0 0
.1 7
0
0
.3 2
.4 6
.0 5
.4 7
$10. 37
1.81
5. 68
0
2.1 0
.3 1
0
.0 2
.3 7
.0 8
0
0
1
$8.43
.6 3
3 .3 5
1.19
2.0 4
.2 2
0
(4)
.3 4
.3 3
.0 3
.3 0
0
0
0
W EST N O RTH CENTRAL
P e r c e n t p u rch a sin g sp ecified a p p lia n ce s
Vacuum cleaners......................
Refrigerators (electric)______
Electric stoves and hot plates.
Washing machines...... ............
Irons............................................
Ironers and mangles________
Heaters and fan s......................
Light bu lbs............................ .
Lamps....................................... .
Toasters______________ ____
Sewing machines (electric)__
Other___________ _________
See fo o tn o tes a t end o f table.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
5.4
8 .1
1.5
5.7
8.4
.4
2.7
57.6
11.5
5.4
.9
4.6
3.6
4.2
1 .1
7.3
6 .6
.3
1.9
56.1
7.6
4.0
7.1
8 .2
.9
4.8
9.6
.3
1 .8
57.3
12.3
.6
6 .8
.6
3.9
4.3
5.6
13.0
2 .8
5.0
9.0
.6
4.6
59.8
15.4
5.2
1.4
5.7
2.9
2.9
7.7
0
1.9
43.5
5.7
1.4
0.9
3.4
1.7
2 .6
6 .0
0
0
42.2
3.4
1 .6
0
2 .6
0
6 .0
1.4
1.7
2 .2
8 .6
4.3
3.2
9.7
0
4.3
45.2
8 .6
0
0
1 .1
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
452
T a b l e 2 . —Average
Expenditures1 by White and Negro Families for Electrical Appliances
and Equipment, by Economic Levels and Geographic Regions, 1933-36 2—Continued
W E S T N O R T H C E N T R A L — C o n tin u e d
Negro families
W hite families
Type of appliances
All
fami
lies
Families spending per
expenditure unit—
Under
$400
$400
to
$600
$600
and
over
All
fami
lies
Average expenditure
All items................................ .............
Vacuum cleaners.....................
Refrigerators (electric)--------Electric stoves and hot plates.
Washing machines_________
•Irons_______ ______________
Ironers and m a n g les..............
Heaters and fans.......................
Light bulbs................................
L am ps............................. ...........
Toasters___________________
Sewing machines (electric)...
Other...... .......................... .........
$22.36
2.05
12.99
.80
3.11
.41
.15
$15.20
1.41
7.27
.38
3.69
.27
.04
$2 2 . 0 0
2.56
13.06
.36
2.90
.50
.19
$31. 61
2.16
19.98
1.89
2. 65
.44
.24
.31
Under
$400
$400
and
over 3
1
$13.33
.75
9.70
.03
1.48
.33
$8.50
.34
5.96
.0 1
1.23
.29
0
0
.2 0
.2 0
.1 2
.71
.59
.15
.81
.39
.62
.24
.08
.71
.29
.6 8
.8 6
.65
.17
.50
.31
.93
.42
.41
.2 0
.0 2
1.32
.63
Families spend
ing per expend
iture unit—
.1 0
0
.24
.56
0
.31
.19
.03
0
0
$19.35
1.26
14.36
.05
1 . 80
.38
.6 8
0
0
.14
.09
.0 2
SO U T H ER N
Percent purchasing specified appliances
Vacuum cleaners__________________________
Refrigerators (electric)___ _______ __________
Electric stoves and hot plates______________
Washing machines_______ _____ - ....................
Irons_______ ____ ________________________
Ironers and mangles.............................................
Heaters and fans................... .................................
Light bulbs______________________________
L a m p s ...________________________________
Toasters....................... . ....................................
Sewing machines (electric)____________ _ . . .
Other__________ _________________________
2.7
7.7
.7
4.4
8.7
2.5
7.7
.7
4.5
0 .8
3.9
.4
5.2
8.5
0
.1
1.9
57.7
5.9
.9
•9
1.7
6.3
58.6
9.8
2.7
1.3
3.1
1 0 .1
0
5.7
13.1
0 .1
1 .0
0 .1
.1
1 .0
.8
.6
3.3
7.3
.5
7.0
.4
.4
4.
i.e
.5
9.
6 .2
0
0
.7
36.9
5.2
0
.3
35.2
4.1
1 0 .8
6 .6
60.5
9.3
3.2
57.3
16.1
4.7
1 .0
2 .1
0
0
0
3.1
5.4
1.3
1 .0
.1
0
2.
43.
9.5
0
2 .2
Average expenditure *
All items............................ ............... ...................... $22.36
Vacuum cleaners___________ _________
1.13
14.23
Refrigerators (electric)_________________
.45
Electric stoves and hot plates__________
3.16
Washing machines____________________
.32
Irons____________________________ ____
.06
Ironers and mangles......... .......................... .
.37
Heaters and fans_______ ____ ______ ___
.70
Light bulbs_______ . ________________
.57
L am ps.___________________________ _
.06
Toasters....................... ...................................
1.09
Sewing machines (electric)_____________
.2 2
Other.................................. ...............................
$12. 65
.27
6 . 60
.30
3.36
.29
0
$20.83
.94
13.21
.44
3. 28
.37
0
.0 2
.34
.73
.43
.06
.6 8
.8 8
.05
.15
.2 1
.59
.28
$38. 72
2. 65
26.84
.67
2.70
.30
.25
$3.20
.04
1.65
.2 1
.0 1
.39
.25
.41
.84
1.17
.06
.30
.25
.1 2
.0 2
1.97
.55
.03
Ironers and mangles______________________
1 .8
1 .0
2 .1
2 .1
7.2
7.4
6.9
7.8
.7
8.7
6.9
.3
5.9
7.5
1.3
2.3
.8
1.9
71.0
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
6 .8
1 .0
2 .1
73.8
6.9
4.2
72.0
11.9
9.2
1 .6
1 .2
1 .6
6.5
5.1
5.9
1 1 .2
See fo o tn o tes a t end o f table.
5.9
6.9
4.7
6 .1
6 8 .1
13.9
6.4
2 .0
8 .0
.
4£
.05
.
4£
.51
.0?
0
0
.0 1
P e r c en t pu rch a sin g specified a p p lia n ces
3.9
.7
.8£
.94
.32
0
P A C IF IC
5.7
4. 5
0
6
.06
.26
.18
0
0
$9.75
20
0
0
.6 6
$1.44
.05
.26
.1 1
453
Cost of Living
T able 2.— Average Expenditures1by White and Negro Families for Electrical Appliances
and Equipment, by Economic Levels and Geographic Regions, 1933-362— Continued
P A C I F I C — C o n tin u e d
White families
Type of appliances
All
fami
lies
Negro families
Families spending per
expenditure unit—
Under
$400
$400
to
$600
$8.81
1.14
1.13
.08
3. 43
.23
.47
.04
1.09
.28
.07
.55
.30
$19.21
2. 53
6.90
1. 07
4. 79
$600
and
over
All
fami
lies
Families spend
ing per expend
iture unit—
Under
$400
$400
and
over 3
A v era g e e x p en d itu re 1
All items........... ................. ..............
Vacuum cleaners.............................
Refrigerators (electric)--------Electric stoves and hot plates
Washing machines........ - .........
Irons.............................................
Ironers and mangles................
Heaters and fans..................
Light bulbs........ .......................
Lamps...... ..................................
Toasters___________________
Sewing machines (electric). . .
Other...........................................
$18.10
2.13
6 . 70
.57
4.21
.25
.50
.1 0
1.07
.73
.18
1 .1 2
.54
.2 1
.2 0
.1 2
1.05
.83
.24
.91
.36
$23.23
2.38
1 0 .2 2
.39
4.16
.32
.82
.1 2
1.07
.94
.2 0
1.72
.89
1 Average expenditures were computed by dividing the appropriate aggregate by the total number of
families in the group to which the aggregate applies. Average expenditure per family purchasing can be
readily computed by dividing the average for all families by the percent of families purchasing. For ex
ample, the average expenditure for all white families in the North Atlantic region for vacuum cleaners,
$2.14, m ay be divided by 0.044, giving an average expenditure of $48.64 per family purchasing.
2 For 1 year within the period September 1933 to August 1936. Approximately 52 percent of the data
apply to the year ended February 1935.
3 128 families in this group spent more than $600 per expenditure unit, as follows: North Atlantic, 28;
N ew York City, 38; East North Central, 10; West North Central, 29: Southern, 23.
4 Less than 0.05 cent.
Interesting differences in expenditure patterns between regions
appear when individual items of purchase are considered. As would
be expected, climatic conditions and types of heating equipment
combined to make average expenditures for refrigerators, and for
heaters and fans, highest in the Southern region. The percentage of
families purchasing heaters and fans was also highest in the South,
but the proportion of families purchasing refrigerators was largest in
the West North Central region.
The highest average expenditure by white families for vacuum
cleaners, washing machines, and lamps, and the largest proportion of
families purchasing the two items last mentioned, occurred in the East
North Central region. More families on the average, however, pur
chased vacuum cleaners in the Pacific and West North Central
regions, with the Pacific region leading.
The highest average expenditure for electric stoves and hot plates,
and irons, was recorded for the West North Central region; the pro
portion of families purchasing stoves and hot plates was largest in
the Pacific region, and the proportion of families purchasing irons, in
the Southern region.
Among the Negro families studied, those in the North Atlantic
region had the highest expenditures, on the average, for, and the
largest proportion of families purchasing, irons, light bulbs, lamps,
3 9 8 7 3 — 38 ------ 11
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
454
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
sewing machines, and “other” electrical appliances and equipment.
The largest expenditures for electric stoves and hot plates, washing
machines, and toasters were found in the East North Central region,
but this region was exceeded by the West North Central in the pro
portion of families purchasing stoves and hot plates and toasters.
The West North Central also led in proportion of families purchas
ing and in average expenditures for refrigerators, and heaters and
fans. The proportion of Negro families in this region purchasing elec
tric refrigerators was 5.7 percent, and the average expenditure $9.70,
figures which are larger than those for white families in the North
Atlantic and the Pacific regions; 5.4 percent and $8.79 for the North
Atlantic, and 4.5 percent and $6.70 for the Pacific. Southern Negro
families had the lowest average expenditures reported for vacuum
cleaners, refrigerators, washing machines, light bulbs, lamps, and sew
ing machines. The proportion of Negro families purchasing these
items was also lowest in the South.
Expenditures— New York City
The New York City white families included in this survey spent
considerably less for electrical appliances and equipment than the
families studied in any of the five regions. The total average expendi
ture for white families was $8.84, as compared with $17.93 for the North
Atlantic region, the lowest regional average expenditure. These
relatively low expenditures were probably due in part to the large
proportion of the families studied in New York living in apartments
where space is limited, and where refrigerators are, in many cases, fur
nished by the landlord. They may have been due to larger purchases
in earlier years in New York City as compared with other regions.
The proportion of families buying vacuum cleaners, refrigerators,
electric stoves and hot plates, washing machines, heaters, and fans,
lamps, and “other” electrical appliances and equipment was much
lower for the New York families than those shown for the regions.
Average expenditures for vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, electric stoves,
and hot plates, washing machines, ironers, heaters and fans, and
“other” electrical equipment were lower than regional figures.
The New York Negro families studied had an average expenditure
of $8.14. This figure is higher than the average expenditure for
Negro families for the North Atlantic and Southern regions and only
a little less than that for the East North Central region.
The proportion of Negro families in New York City purchasing light
bulbs, lamps, toasters, sewing machines, and “other” items, and the
average expenditures for light bulbs and lamps were larger than the
regional averages for Negro families. No Negro families in New
York City reported the purchase of washing machines, ironers and
mangles, or heaters and fans.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
455
Cost of Living
EFFECT OF CHANGES IN BUYING HABITS
IN VIRGINIA
BUYING HABITS of the population of Virginia have changed
materially in recent years, the State planning board reports.1 In
order to secure information on the trends in retail trade the board
analyzed census returns for 1929, 1933, and 1935. It was found that
there was a more than normal increase in the amount of business
done by eating and drinking places outside the home, and that the
number of general stores and the volume of trade decreased, in con
trast with an increase for filling stations. Review of the figures
further shows the dependence of certain lines of retail trade on business
from the rural areas, the lag in the sales of building materials and
household furnishings, the failure of lowered prices in the depression
period to compensate for the loss in purchasing power, and the fact
that absorption of unemployed persons did not restore purchasing
power to the level of 1929.
The following table shows a comparison of retail sales in Virginia
by business groups and dollar value in 1929, 1933, and 1935. This
comparison is on a percentage basis, using the volume of business in
1929 as 100. A column is added showing the relation of 1935 sales
to those in 1933.
Indexes of Volume of Retail Sales in Virginia, by Kinds of Business, 1929,1933, and 1935
1935
1933
1935
(1933=100.0)
Classification
(1929=
. )
100 0
All establishments____ - ._ . . _________________________
59.6
78.4
131.6
Filling stations_______ _________ . . . ___ _______ ____: ___
Eating and drinking places (exclusive of liq*uor stores)___ . . . .
Drug stores_________ ____ _ _ ________ ____ __________
Food stores________________________________ ____ _ _____
General merchandise________ ____ _____ ________ _ . . . . .
Apparel group___________ _ _________________
______
General stores with food______________ _______ ______
Other stores (including liquor stores)... __________ _______
Furniture, household, radio, etc_____ . __________________
Automotive group______________
_____
. ............
Lumber, building, hardware, e tc ..______ _________________
105.8
78.2
74.4
73.8
70.0
51.4
50.6
50.1
48.3
45.8
42.2
134.5
125.4
85.2
90.5
78.0
72.3
54.6
83.9
62.8
75.5
54.0
127.0
160.3
114.8
123.3
111.5
140.5
107.8
167.4
130.2
164.7
127.9
The industries shown in the table have been arranged in the order
of dollar value of sales in 1933 in order “to indicate in a general way
the relative rates of the survival of customer demands in the face of
pronounced and general reductions of incomes.” In analyzing the
results the board concludes that moderate economic recovery in 1935
did not serve to bring sales up as uniformly as the depression of 1933
forced them down.
The board sees in the increased business of public eating and drink
ing places a change in living habits with certain social implications.
1
Virginia State Planning Board.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Report, vol. X I, Retail Trade.
1937.
456
Monthly Lahor Review—February 1938
This, it considers, may indicate either a break-up of the old family
dining group; or the creation of family units that do not undertake
the responsibility of housekeeping for all meals; or the increase in
persons living away from their families who are consequently without
home-making services.
The fall in number of stores is regarded as being influenced by the
decline of the “country store” caused by the introduction of changed
merchandising methods. It is thought likely that purchasers of food
are turning from the purchase of bulk food products to packaged
goods at fixed prices. Growth in number of filling stations and volume
of business is accounted for by the changed attitude toward the
automobile. It has passed from the luxury to the necessity class
and is preferred over other articles formerly given precedence as
necessaries. The increase in filling stations accounts for an important
part of the general increase in retail establishments. The depression
also contributed toward the increase in retail establishments; men who
could not obtain jobs sometimes opened stores, as did also some among
those who returned to rural areas because of unemployment.
COST-OF-LIVING INQUIRY IN GREAT BRITAIN 1
LIVING costs of British workers and their families on a present-day
standard of living are the subject of a survey begun in October 1937
by the Ministry of Labor of Great Britain. The main purpose of the
inquiry is to furnish data for a revision of official basic figures from
which indexes of cost of living are determined. Index figures now
in use are derived from a 1918 level of costs and standards of living.
As Ministry of Labor cost-of-living indexes are widely used for wage
determinations, their revision to a level that will more accurately
represent present-day conditions and practices was considered essen
tial. Collective agreements now in force, affecting nearly 1,500,000
workers in various industries, provide for the automatic adjustment
of wage scales to conform to changes in the cost of living as shown by
Ministry of Labor cost-of-living indexes.
The random sampling method was used to obtain family budgets
from representative workers. The households of 30,000 adult wage
earners and small-salaried employees in agriculture and industry,
distributed throughout England, Scotland, and Wales, were visited by
representatives of the Ministry of Labor and volunteer workers acting
under their direction, for the purpose of establishing contacts through
which data could be obtained. The families thus selected were
furnished with budget forms on which data for the week ending
October 23, 1937, were to be entered. The form called for informa
tion on—
1
M inistry of Labor Gazette (London), October 1937, p. 378.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Cost of Living
457
(a) The composition of the household—the sex and age (if under 18) of each
person and, in the case of wage or salary earners, their occupation and industry
and the number of days worked in the previous week;
(b) Housing the rent (or purchase payments) and rates, number of rooms in
the house or dwelling, number of rooms let (if any), and rent received;
(c) Expenditure on food the quantity and cost of each item bought, a separate
page being provided for each day of the week;
(d ) Expenditure on gas and electricity;
(e) Expenditure during the week on fuel, clothing, furnishing and utensils,
fares, amusements, and various other items, a printed list of each of the main
items being provided, with a space for “other expenditure” ;
(/) Garden, allotment, etc., produce—the quantities of eggs, vegetables, fruit,
etc., raised and consumed in the household during the week.
The families who were requested to report their expenditures for
that week will also be asked to furnish the same data, on official forms,
for selected weeks in January, April, and July 1938. The Ministry
of Labor will pay 2s. 6d. for each completed budget reported on the
official forms, in recognition of the time and labor involved in keeping
the necessary records and in filling up the forms.”
Additional information was necessary, particularly in the matter
of clothing expenditures, on points for which 1 week’s record would
be inadequate. The selected families were accordingly requested to
give the department data on clothing costs over a period of 12 weeks,
on special forms furnished weekly by the department. Arrangements
were made for reporting, confidentially, upon personal expenditures of
wage and salary earners which might not be known to the housewife
or other person making the return.
Volunteer services were used to explain the project to the household
selected for the inquiry before the work was actually under way.
Later, volunteers visited the households during the week studied to
advise and assist in filling the questionnaires and after the end of the
week to collect the completed budget.
Normal households, without paid lodgers not related to the family,
formed the basis of the sample, but single adults living alone were
also included. The great majority of the households selected were
those of persons coming under the unemployment-insurance system—
that is, manual workers, and nonmanual workers whose incomes do
not exceed £250 a year. Some uninsured workers in both manual and
nonmanual groups were also selected. Names of persons to be
visited were taken from the registers of workers insured against unem
ployment, but persons actually in receipt of unemployment benefit
or assistance were excluded.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Labor Turn-Over
LABOR TURN-OYER IN MANUFACTURING,
NOVEMBER 1937
THE EFFECT of the recession in industrial activity is reflected in
reports on labor turn-over received from manufacturing establishments
by the Bureau of Labor Statistics for November.
The increase in the lay-off rate from 4.45 in October to 5.99 per 100
employees in November was accompanied by lower quit and discharge
rates. The quit rate declined from 1.05 to 0.72 and the discharge rate
from 0.19 to 0.16. The total separation rate rose from 5.69 to 6.87 per
100 employees. The accession rate declined from 2.84 to 1.79 per 100
employees during the same period.
Fewer quits and discharges were reported in November 1937 than
in the corresponding month in 1936. The smaller number of quits
and discharges, however was offset by a greater number of lay-offs.
This caused the total separation rate to rise above the rate shown in
November 1936.
To what extent all factory workers are affected by reduced produc
tion schedules cannot be determined, as some establishments have
adopted a policy of working their employees in alternate shifts, thereby
giving all employees on the pay roll some work during the month ;
other companies have reduced the number of weekly working days,
while others have given their workers furloughs and still retain them on
the pay roll. This variation in policy interferes with complete com
parability in reports received and causes some distortion in the
general lay-off rate.
A ll Manufacturing
The Bureau of Labor Statistics survey of labor- turn-over covers
more than 5,000 representative manufacturing establishments which,
in November, employed over 2,500,000 workers. The rates represent
the number of changes in personnel per 100 employees on the pay rolls
during the month.
The rates shown in table 1 are compiled from reports received from
representative plants in 144 industries. In the 20 industries for which
separate rates are shown (see table 2) reports were received from repre
sentative plants employing at least 25 percent of the workers in each
industry.
458
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Labor Turn-Over
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
460
Table 1 shows the total separation rate broken down into quit,
discharge, and lay-off rates and the accession rate for each month of
1936 and for the first 11 months of 1937 for manufacturing as a whole.
The average monthly rates for 1936 are also presented.
T a b l e 1.— Monthly Labor Turn-Over Rates (per 100 Employees) in Representative
Factories in 144 Industries
Class of rate and
year
Quit rate:
1937
1936_________
Discharge rate:
1937
1936_________
Lay-off rate : 1
1937________
1936_________
Total separation
rate:
1937
1936_________
Accession rate:
1937_________
1936_________
1
Janu Feb March April May June July
ary ruary
1.37
1.06
1.89
1.13
1.23
1.23
1.59
1. 57
1.05
1. 29
0.72
1.13
.19
.26
.19
.24
. 16
1.19
1.43
.6 8
.8 6
. 21
.24
.19
.23
.2 0
. 22
.17
.2 1
.2 0
.23
. 19
.27
1.90
2 . 66
1.44
2 . 21
1.53
1.83
1.48
1.92
1.79
2 . 06
1.94
1.92
2.06
1.84
2. 57
3.23
2.84
1.47
4.45
1.72
5. 99
1.70
3. 38
3. 57
2. 85
3. 06
3.20
2 .8 8
3.09
3.29
3. 37
3.32
4.02
3. 28
3. 52
3. 22
3. 99
4. 73
4. 62
3. 30
5. 69
3. 25
4.71
2. 95
4. 74
3.97
4. 04
4.46
3. 56
4.05
3. 69
4. 49
3. 36
4.94
3. 36
4. 72
3.78
5.09
2.84
4.83
.2 1
. 19
.23
1.25
1.15
N o D e
Sep
vem cem Aver
tem Octo
age
ber
ber
ber
ber
1. 27
.71
4.60
3. 65
1.38
1.16
Au
gust
.2 1
.2 1
1.05
1.09
.2 2
.2 2
___ ___
2.14
2.06
6.87
3.04
3.41
3.37
1.79
4.60
4.41
4.
35
Including temporary, indeterminate, and permanent lay-offs.
Twenty Industries
In addition to turn-over rates for manufacturing as a whole, details
of labor turn-over are available for 20 separate manufacturing industries.
Turn-over in November in plants manufacturing cigars and ciga
rettes appears to have been lower than in any of the 20 industries
for which separate rates are shown. The total separation rate was
2.36 and the accession rate 1.45 per 100 employees. The highest lay
off rate (19.37) and total separation rate (20.60) occurred in the radio
and phonograph industry. The lowest lay-off rate was reported in
the cigar and cigarette establishments. This industry also registered
the highest quit rate; the lowest was shown in petroleum refineries.
Sawmills reported the highest discharge rate (0.25). The lowest
(0.04) occurred in iron and steel plants.
Slaughtering and meat packing showed the highest accession rate
(7.74). Plants manufacturing hardware reported the lowest (0.38).
Compared with the preceding month, the quit rate was higher in
plants producing rubber tires. Lower quit rates prevailed in 19
industries. Higher discharge rates were indicated in 2 industries.
In 17 industries lower rates were shown, and no change in one.
Rayon plants and petroleum refineries reported fewer lay-offs and
total separations. In 18 industries the lay-offs and total separations
were more numerous than in October. Higher accession rates were
indicated in the following industries: Boots and shoes, brick, tile,
and terra cotta, iron and steel, and rayon. In 16 instances lower
accession rates were reported.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
461
Labor Turn-Over
T a b l e 2 . —Monthly Turn-Over Rates (per 100 Employees) in Specified Industries
Class of rates
N o
vem
ber
1937
Octo
ber
1937
N o
vem
ber
1936
Automobiles and bodies
Quit...........................................
Discharge________________
L a y -o ff................. ...............
Total separation........ ...........
Accession................. ................
0.63
.14
11.09
1 1 .8 6
2.96
0.96
.15
2.33
3.44
8 . 26
2 .1 2
.33
2.03
4.48
10. 79
Brick, tile, and terra
cotta
Q u it..---------- ------------------Discharge________________
Lay-off___________________
Total separation__________
Accession................................-
0.62
.14
0.96
1 0 .2 2
9. 32
10.48
2.51
10.98
3.62
1.35
.17
4.10
5.62
5. 51
.2 0
Electrical machinery
Q uit.................................... .
Discharge------------------------Lay-off------ ---------------------Total separation....................
Accession__________ ______
0.55
0.84
.2 2
.2 2
5.33
4. 06
5.12
1.36
6 .1 0
.83
0.81
. 17
.52
1.50
4.91
Hardware
Q u it-.-................... ..................
Discharge__________ ______
Lay-off......................... .............
Total separtion___________
Accession_________________
0.50
.1 2
5.85
6 .47
.38
0 .6 8
.06
10.03
10.77
1.91
0. 90
.15
2.98
4.03
3.32
0.87
.03
6.32
7. 22
3.70
1.33
.34
.56
2.23
6 . 60
0. 57
.13
4.42
5.12
1.44
0.81
.43
9. 43
10.67
.91
. 66
.09
2.16
2.91
3. 71
0
0.64
0 .6 8
.2 0
.18
5. 56
6.42
8 .37
7. 64
8.48
7. 74
1
No data available.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
N o
vem
ber
1937
Automobile parts
0.70
.18
13.71
14. 59
2.13
1.13
.34
4.00
5.47
7.03
2.09
.6 6
1.54
4.29
13. 21
Cigars and cigarettes
1.36
.1 2
.8 8
2.36
1.45
1.38
.14
.40
1.92
3.31
1.45
.15
2.47
4.07
2.18
0
. 62
.1 0
8.36
9.08
2. 75
0.
.2 2
4.40
5.49
1. 56
1.0887
.29
1.31
2.63
4.47
1 .0 0
.04
6 .6 8
7. 72
1.05
1.62
.09
3.66
5. 37
.73
0.28
.06
2. 70
3.04
1.95
0. 53
.07
3. 62
4. 22
2.45
1 .0 2
.31
.19
1. 52
2.64
1.55
.31
4. 22
6.08
11.56
0.81
.06
7.41
8.28
.6 6
0.53
.07
5.45
6 . 05
.67
0.74
.09
5.83
6 .6 6
3. 6 8
0.84
.13
5. 52
6.49
1.59
0.85
.2 0
3. 6 6
4. 71
2.42
0.81
.15
5. 62
6 . 58
1. 64
1.16
1.25
.23
1.16
2. 64
4.51
.2 0
5.01
6 .37
3.10
Furniture
0.71
.19
11.16
12.06
3.09
1.76
.30
5.49
7. 55
3.68
1.43
.42
2.91
4.76
4.36
Knit goods
1. 33
.07
.77
2.17
2 . 22
0.47
.1 2
2. 41
3.00
2. 53
1 .0 0
.1 0
1.09
3.21
4.31
2. 29
3. 50
2.29
1 .6 6
0.92
.08
1.33
2. 33
.1 2
1 .8 8
Radios and phonographs
1.06
.17
19.37
20.60
1.32
1.29
.24
11.53
13.06
1.80
0
)
Sawmills
0.90
1 .2 0
1.07
.25
13.00
14.32
3. 64
2 .8 8
.1 1
.19
Woolen and worsted
goods
0. 59
.07
13.07
13. 73
2.60
N o
vem
ber
1936
Cotton manufacturing
Foundries and machine
shops
0.51
.18
5.93
6.62
1.07
Octo
ber
1937
Boots and shoes
Rubber tires
Slaughtering and meat
packing
Quit........ .............. ................. .
N o
vem
ber
1936
Petroleum refining
B ay on
Quit..................... .....................
Discharge........................... .
Lay-off___________________
Total separation. .................
Accession-____ ___________
Octo
ber
1937
Iron and steel
M en’s clothing
Quit--------------- ---------------Discharge-------- ---------------Lay-off.........- .............. ...........
Total s e p a r a tio n ..-______
Accession.. ---------------------
N o
vem
ber
1937
0 .8 6
.07
1.13
2 . 06
9. 72
2.25
.26
1 0 .2 1
12. 72
3.02
1.17
.24
7.89
9. 30
3.08
Minimum Wage am i Maximum Hours
LAWS LIMITING HOURS OF EMPLOYMENT FOR MEN,
AS OF JANUARY 1, 1938
LEGISLATION regulating the hours of labor of employees has been
adopted in all of the States. The most general type of enactment is
that limiting the hours of employment of women and minors.
Although the regulation of the working time of men has been of slower
development in the United States, several States have undertaken to
extend the field to additional classes of employment during the past
2 years.
Legislation limiting the hours of labor was early upheld by the
courts as a valid exercise of the legislative power of the State to protect
the health and morals of its citizens. The constitutionality of such
legislation affecting woman employees has been firmly settled. How
ever, the courts have viewed this type of legislation for men with
uncertainty. In such cases the purpose of the restriction and the
type of employees covered have usually been the deciding factor.
Hours legislation has been upheld where it has applied to men engaged
on public works, in private employments where public safety was
directly affected, and in those employments considered dangerous or
unhealthy to the workmen.
As a result of legislation enacted in 1937, two comprehensive laws
regulating the hours of labor of men in private employment are in
effect for the first time. The Pennsylvania Legislature, by Act No.
567, has limited the employment of men to 44 hours a week. The
act also provides an 8-hour day and 5%-day week. The law is not
applicable to agricultural labor, domestic servants in private homes,
or persons over 21 years of age earning $25 a week or more in execu
tive positions or in professional work. North Carolina, by an act
passed in 1937 (ch. 409), has limited the hours of labor of men to 10 a
day and 55 a week. There are, however, numerous exceptions, and
the law is not applicable to an employer of eight or fewer employees.
The Utah Legislature proposed (by H. J. Res. No. 1) an amendment
to the State constitution which would authorize the regulation of
hours of labor in factories; this amendment will be voted on at the
next general election. In this State the law providing for an 8-hour
day for men employed in mines was amended in 1937 by chapter 59,
462
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Minimum Wa g e and Maximum Hours
463
specifying that the 8-hour period must be computed from the time
the men leave the surface until they return. The hours of employ
ment of pharmacists were limited in Colorado (ch. 165) so as not to
exceed an average of 9 hours a day and not more than 108 hours in
any 2 consecutive weeks.
Laws regulating hours of labor generally exempt agricultural and
domestic labor. However, in 1937 the Legislature of Washington
passed a law providing that the hours of labor of domestic employees
may not exceed 60 hours a week. The Puerto Rico law, passed in
1935, regulates the hours of labor of employees in agricultural as well
as commercial and industrial establishments.
The following tabulation shows the legal restrictions on the hours
of labor of men (but not including bus or truck drivers) as of January 1,
1938.1 Although the table in general covers only legislation affecting
private employments, it also includes (under Federal legislation) those
laws enacted by the United States regulating the hours of labor of
persons employed on public works. Again, it does not cover rules or
regulations of State labor departments, which in some States have the
force and effect of law, nor legislation in States that have adopted
codes of fair competition, similar to those established under the
former National Industrial Recovery Act.
State and Territorial Restrictions on Hours of Labor of Men in Private Employments
Maximum
hours
Jurisdiction
Occupations or industries covered
Citation
Daily Week
ly
A laska--
8
.........
Arizona.
8
______ Certain employees in mines and smelters.
8
8
8
1
Arkansas.
16
8
2
California.
48
Underground mines___________________
Mines, smelters, reduction works, stamp mills,
concentrating mills, chlorinating processes, cya
nide processes, cement works, rolling mills, rodmills, coke ovens, blast furnaces.
Certain employees in electric light and power
plants.
Laundry employees______ ____________________
Certain railroad employees_____________________
Railroad telegraph and telephone operators_____
10
Saw and planing mills.
16
8
Certain railroad employees______ ______ ___
Underground workings, mines, smelters, etc..
Drug clerks.............................. ..............................
Certain railway e m p l o y e e s _____________
« 13
12
Telegraph or telephone dispatchers of trains.
Employees on streetcars...................- .................
Comp. L., 1933, sec.
2132.
Rev. Code, 1928, sec.
1354.
Idem, sec. 1356.
Idem, sec. 1357.
Idem, sec. 1358.
Idem, sec. 4707.
Digest, 1921, sec.
7080.
Idem, secs. 7082,7083,
7084.
Idem, sec. 7077.
Deering’s Gen. L.
1931, Act No. 4933,
Idem, Act N o. 5887,
secs. 1 and 2 .
Idem, Act N o. 6479,
sec. 1 .
Do.
Deering’s Pol. Code,
1931, sec. 3246.
See fo o tn o tes a t end o f table.
1
For earlier analyses, see issues of January 1929 (p. 16); January 1933 (p. 1); April 1934 (p. 831); and April
1936 (p. 1060).
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
464
State and Territorial Restrictions on Hours of Labor of Men in Private
Employments— Continued
Maximum
hours
Occupations or industries covered
Citation
Underground workings and mines, smelters, re
duction works, stamp mills, concentrating mills,
chlorinating processes, cyanide processes, and
coke ovens.
Cement and plaster manufacturing plants----------Certain railroad employees—. ---------------- ---------Pharmacists------------- ------ ---------------- -------------Railway telegraph or telephone operators and
train dispatchers.
Employees operating trains........................................
Stat. 1935, ch. 97, sec.
Jurisdiction
Daily
Week
ly
8
Colorado.
8
« 16
9
Connecticut__
«8
Florida..... .........
» 13
Georgia..............
10
io 13
8
Idaho.
Indiana.
h
16
Iowa__
Kansas-
12
16
8
16
13 10
2
Louisiana
M aine___
Maryland.
u8
n 8
10
10
10
M assachusetts. is 9 in
11.
M ichigan_____ 1610 in
12.
M innesota____ il 16
18 1 4
Mississippi.
10
M issouri...
8
Montana.
8
9
9
h
16
8
8
8
8
Nebraska.
1
16
613
Nevada.
8
*
16
8
N ew Jersey___
16 12
M8
1
108
Idem, ch. 97, see. 115.
Idem, ch. 139, sec. 81.
Acts of 1937, ch. 165.
Gen. Stat., 1930, sec.
3748.
Comp. Gen. L., 1927,
sec. 6595.
Code, 1933, sec. 54201 .
Cotton and woolen mills except engineers, firemen,
watchmen, mechanics, teamsters, yard employ
ees, clerical forces, cleaners, repairmen.
Employees operating train------ ------ ------------------ Idem, sec. 18-106.
Underground workings and mines, smelters, ore- 'Code, 1932, secs. 43reduction works, stamp mills, concentrators,
704 (as amended
1935, ch. 74) to 43and other ore-refining establishments.
706.
Burn’s Ann. Stat.,
Certain railroad employees—.
1926, sec. 13061.
Code, 1931, sec. 7984.
___ d o ........................................
Gen. Stat., 1935 secs.
Lead and zinc mines_______
49-282, 49-283.
Idem, sec. 66-601.
Certain railroad employees.—
D art’s Gen. Stat.,
Employees of street railroads.
1932, sec. 8173.
Compressedair......... ...................................-.............— Acts of 1934, no. 71.
___ do-------- --------- ------------------ ----------------------- Acts of 1931, ch. 164.
Railway telegraph or telephone operators_______ Ann. Code, 1924, art.
23, sec. 260.
Cotton and woolen m ills_______________________ Idem, art. 100, sec. 1.
Employees in tobacco warehouses in Baltimore 15_ Idem, art. 48, sec. 15.
Employees in mines of Allegany and Garrett Public Local Laws of
M d., 1930 (Garrett
Counties.
County), sec. 390,
p 2821
Certain street- or elevated-railway employees......... Gen. L., 1932, ch, 161,
sec. 103.
Operators of steam, surface, and elevated railroads. Comp. L., 1929, sec.
8492.
Certain railway em ployees................................. ......... M ason’s Stat., 1927,
sec. 4092.
Locomotive engineers and firemen________ ______ Idem. sec. 4091.
M ill, cannery, workshop, factory, or manufactur Code, 1930, sec. 4646.
ing establishment.
Mining, mechanical, chemical, manufacturing or Rev. Stat., 1929, secs,
13206, 13208,13622.
smelting; plate-glass manufacturing.
Operators in interlocking towers________________ Idem, sec. 4851.
Hoisting engineers, underground mines or tunnels, Rev. Codes 1935,
stamp mills, concentrators, or smelters for treat secs. 3068, 3071, 3072,
3073.
ment of ores.
Telephone switchboards in cities and towns with Idem, sec. 3074.
population of 3,000 or over.
Certain railroad employees........................................... Idem, sec. 3081.
Strip m ining.................................................................... Idem, sec. 3546.8.
Cement plants, quarries, and hydroelectric dam s.. Idem, sec. 3083.1.
Do.
Sugar refineries............................. ........................... .
48 Retail stores in cities and towns having a popula Idem, sec. 3073.1.
tion of 2,500 or over.
Employees of certain common carriers................. .. Comp. Stat. 1929,
sec. 74-902.
Telegraph or telephone dispatchers of trains_____ Idem, sec. 74-902.
Underground mines or workings of any kind; all Comp. L., 1929, secs.
2794, 10238, 10240,
workmen working around surface of such mines,
10242.
in smelters, open mines, plaster and cement
works.
Employees of common carriers_________________ Idem, sec. 6335.
Railroad telephone or telegraph operators and all Idem, sec. 6338.
other persons dispatching trains.
Certain street-railway em ployees............................. Comp. Stat. 1910, p.
5008, sec. 57.
Comp. Stat. Supp.
______ Compressed air.
1911-24, sec. 107140A (10).
60
See fo o tn o tes a t end o f table.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
101.
Minimum Wage and Maximum Hours
465
State and Territorial Restrictions on Hours of Labor of Men in Private
Employments— Continued
Maximum
hours
Jurisdiction
Occupations or industries covered
Citation
Daily Week
ly
N ew Mexico ._
4 16
New York........
14 §
10
10
4 16
8
North Carolina.
10
North Dakota .
2
Ohio_________
2 15
16
8
O klahom a___
O r e g o n .._____
8
10
8
8
22 14
23 9
6
14
Pennsylvania..
Puerto Rico___
8
12
Rhode Isla n d ..
13 10
8
South Carolina.
10
12
South D akota..
< 16
Texas________
4 16
10
U tah_________
8
Washington__
10
8
10
4 16
8
West Virginia..
8
Wisconsin____
Wyoming_____
4 16
United States..
25 8
8
4
16
S 13
8
26 8
8
Certain railroad employees_____
Stat., 1929, sec. 116—
724.
Cahill’s Consol. L.,
1930, ch. 32, sec.
430.
19 7 0
Apprentices or employees in pharmacies or drug Idem, ch. 15, sec.
stores.
1357.
Brick yards____________________
Idem, ch. 32, sec. 163.
Street, surface, or elevated railroads................
Idem, ch. 32, sec. 164.
Steam or other railroads______
Idem, ch. 32, sec. 165.
Signalmen on railroads____________
Idem, ch. 32, sec. 166.
20 55 All employments 31...................... .......
Acts of 1937, chs. 406,
409.
A ny railroad corporation or common carrier
Comp. L., 1913, sec.
4668.
Coal mines or open-pit mines__ . .
Supp. (1925) to Comp.
L .1913.sec. 3084a88.
Page’s Gen. Code,
1932, see. 9007.
In or about all coal m ines_____
Stat., 1931, see. 11112.
Mill, factory, or manufacturing establishments___ Code, 1930, sec. 49602.
48 Sawmills, planing mills, shingle mills, and logging Idem, sec. 49-602.
camps.
Underground m in e s ........ .........
Idem. sec. 49-604.
Common carrier _ ____________
Idem. sec. 62-1602.
Telegraph operators or train dispatchers responsi
Do.
ble for train movements.
Conductor, engineer, fireman, brakeman, or flag Code, 1930, sec. 62man on steam railroad.
1605.
44 All employments 34________ ______
Acts of 1937, No. 567.
Certain railroad employees________
Rev. Stat., 1911, sec.
1663.
Employees in commercial, industrial, or agricul Acts of 1935 (Spec.
tural establishments.
sess.), No. 49.
Certain street-railway employees.
Gen. L., 1923, sec.
3661.
55 Cotton and woolen m ills_______
Code, 1932, sec. 1466.
Certain street-railway employees.
Idem, sec. 1479.
Interurban railway employees—.
Idem, sec. 1480.
Certain railroad employees____
Comp. L. 1929, sec.
9715.
___do.....................................
Vernon’s Stats., 1936,
art. 6390 (p. 1174).
Underground workings and mines, smelters, and Rev. Stats. 1933, sec.
other institutions for the reduction of ores.
49-3-2 (as amended
1937, ch. 59).
Certain street-railway em ployees...
Rem. Rev. Stat.
1931, sec. 7648.
Coalm ines__________ . .
Idem, sec. 7654.
Those employed in transporting men in and out Idem, sec. 7656.
of mines.
Certain railroad employees____
Idem, sec. 7652.
Underground coal mines______ .
Idem, sec. 8794.
60 Domestic employees_______
Acts of 1937, ch. 129.
Telephone or telegraph operators on railroads .
Code, 1931, ch. 21,
art. 4, sec. 1.
Certain railroad employees.
Stat. 1935, sec. 192.24.
Underground mines, smelters, stamp mills, sam Rev. Stat. 1931, secs.
pling works, concentration plants, and all other
63-103, 63-104.
plants for reduction or refining of ores and metals.
Underground workers on leased mineral lands of U . S. Code, 1934,
the United States.
title 30, sec. 187.
Persons engaged in or connected with the opera Idem, title 45, sec. 62.
tions of trains in the District of Columbia or in
interstate commerce.
Idem, title 45, sec. 62.
Railroad operating employees_____
Idem, title 45, sec. 65.
Licensed officers and seamen____
Idem, title 46, sec.
673 (as amended
1936, 49 Stat. L.
1933)
40 ( 2 2 ) ___________ _____ ______
Sup. Il'toU . S. Code,
1934, title 41, sec.
35.
Compressed air. ...........
See foo tn o tes a t end o f table.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
..
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
466
State and Territorial Restrictions on Hours of Labor of Men in Private
Employments— Continued
Maxi mum
ho I T S
Jurisdiction
Daily
United States--
Occupations or industries covered
Citation
Public works; rivers and harbors and harbor
dredging.
Emergency public works................................ .............
U. S. Code, 1934, title
40, sec. 321.
Idem, title 40, sec.
406.
Idem, title 43, sec.
419.
Idem, title 48, sec.
447.
Idem, title 48, sec.
737.
Idem, title 15, sec.
605b (6 ).
Week
ly
28 8
30
Construction work in irrigation projects..................
8
Underground workers on leased mineral lands of
the United States in Alaska.
Public works in Puerto Rico________ _______ ___
8
8
30
(29) - ~
-
......................................................................................................... ........................................
1 Consecutive hours, after which 9 hours’ rest.
2 Consecutive hours, after which 8 hours’ rest.
3 108 hours in any 2 consecutive weeks; employee must have 1 complete day’s rest in 1 of such weeks and
2 half-day rest periods in the other week.
4 Consecutive hours, after which 10 consecutive hours off duty. After an aggregate of 16 hours’ work in a
24-hour period, 8 consecutive hours off duty.
« In towers operated only during day; maximum, 9 hours in towers operated night and day.
6 Consecutive hours, after which 10 hours’ rest.
2 In 2 consecutive weeks, or not more than 13 days in such 2 consecutive weeks.
8 In stations kept open only during day, 12 hours is the maximum.
9 After an aggregate of 13 hours in a 24-hour period, 8 hours’ rest is required.
i° After an aggregate of 13 hours in a 24-hour period, 10 hours’rest is required.
11 Consecutive hours, or an aggregate of 16 in 24 hours must be followed by 8 hours off duty.
12 Consecutive hours, after which 10 hours’ rest.
More than 16 hours’ labor in any consecutive 24 hours
is also forbidden.
13 To fall within 12 consecutive hours.
14 Schedule prescribed, limiting hours in ratio to air pressure.
>5 Hours are limited from 7 a. m. until noon and from 1 p. m. until 6 p. m.
16 Consecutive hours.
a Consecutive hours, after which 8 hours’ rest. Also forbids more than 16 hours’ work in any consecutive
24 hours.
18 Consecutive hours, after which 9 hours’ rest, or less if requested by said employees.
19 Hours to be so arranged that employee shall receive 1 afternoon and evening off in each week, and also 1
full day off in 2 consecutive weeks.
20 Nor more than 12 days in 14 consecutive days.
21 Numerous occupations are exempted.
22 Consecutive hours, after-which 10 consecutive hours off duty.
After an aggregate of 14 hours in any
24-hour period, 8 consecutive hours off duty.
23 In a 24-hour period, in towers, etc., operated only in the daytime.
In an emergency may work 4 addi
tional horns each day, not exceeding 3 days per week.
24 Does not apply to employment in agricultural occupations, or in domestic service in private homes,
or to the work of persons over 21 earning at least $25 a week in bona fide executive positions, or learned pro
fessions.
25 Provisions covering the hours of labor on public works are included.
26 While in safe harbor no seaman shall be required to do any unnecessary work on Sunday or on certain
legal holidays.
27 Persons contracting to furnish to the United States materials, etc., valued at more than $10,000 must
maintain an 8 -hour day and a 40-hour week.
28 Contracts for such work must provide for an 8 -hour day.
29 All loans made by the Reconstruction Finance Corporation to finance self-liquidating projects must be
subject to the condition that (except in executive, administrative, and supervisory positions) employees will
not be permitted to work more than 30 hours a week.
WAGE D E T E R M IN A T IO N S UNDER PUBLIC CON
TRACTS LAW: W E LT SH O ES, G R A N IT E , A N D
HANDKERCHIEFS
WAGES were determined for three additional industries1in December
1937-—men’s welt shoes, the dimension-granite, and the handkerchief
industry—under the powers conferred on the Secretary of Labor by the
terms of the W alsh-Healey Act governing conditions on public con tracts .2
For earlier determinations see the M onthly Labor Review, September 1937 (p. 694).
United States. The National Archives. Federal Register, Washington, December 24,1937, p, 3417,
December. 30, 1937, p. 3440, and January 12, 1938, p. 76.
1
2
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Minimum Wage and Maximum Hours
467
The minimum for the men’s welt-shoe industry was established on
December 21,1937, to take effect on or after 15 days from the date of
the order. A minimum wage rate of 40 cents per hour or $16 per
40-hour week was determined as the prevailing rate on the basis of
facts disclosed at a public hearing held by the Public Contracts Board.
Evidence was presented by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and the
Women’s Bureau of the Department of Labor, the National Boot
and Shoe Manufacturers Association, the Southern States Industrial
Council, the Mississippi Valley Association, the Brotherhood of Shoe
and Allied Craftsmen, the United Shoe Workers of America, and other
representatives of employers, employees, and the public.
For the dimension-granite industry the determination was made on
December 22,1937, to become effective on all contracts awarded on or
after January 15, 1938. Rates were fixed to include work on monu
mental stone, building stone, paving blocks, curbing, riprap, and rub
ble, but not crushed stone. The scales range from 57.5 to 32.5 cents
per hour for a 40-hour week according to geographic area and are as
follows:
(1) In Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Con
necticut, and New York: 57.5 cents per hour or $23 per week, based on a 40-hour
week arrived at either on a time or piece work basis.
(2) In Pennsylvania, Maryland, Wisconsin, Minnesota, South Dakota, and
all other States not included in paragraph (1) above or paragraph (3) below:
42.5 cents per hour or $17 per week based on a 40-hour week arrived at either on
a time or piece work basis.
(3) In North Carolina, Virginia, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama,
Tennessee, Kentucky, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas: 32.5 cents
per hour or $13 per week based on a 40-hour week arrived at either on a time or
piece work basis.
As in other cases the determination was made only after a public
hearing was held at which testimony was presented by representatives
of the Granite Cutters International Association of America as well
as by individual employers and employees. A special study made by
the Bureau of Labor Statistics was also presented.
The decision covering the handkerchief industry was dated January
10, 1938, to become effective on or after January 26, 1938. Minimum
wages for employees engaged in the performance of handkerchief
contracts are fixed at 35 cents per hour or $14 per week for a week of 40
hours.
Hearings were held to determine existing wage scales and informa
tion was also obtained from a special study presented by the Women’s
Bureau.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Wages and Hours o f Labor
WAGES AND HOURS IN UNION BAKERIES
MAY 15, 1937
THE average wage rate for union members in the bakery trades in
creased 5.1 percent between May 15, 1936, and May 15, 1937, ac
cording to reports received by the Bureau of Labor Statistics from
union officials in 43 cities.1 The average in 1937 was 92.8 cents an
hour while in 1936 it was 88.4 cents an hour. The average rate in
Hebrew bakeries increased 3.1 percent and in other bakeries 6.1 per
cent between 1936 and 1937. In spite of the lower rate of increase,
the 1937 average rate in Hebrew bakeries ($1,255) was more than 43
cents higher than in other bakeries (82.1 cents). Although Hebrew
bakeries generally have higher rates, one reason for this large dif
ference is the fact that a large proportion of the Hebrew bakeries are
located in New York City, where the average of all rates is higher than
in other localities.2
According to the wage classifications listed in table 1, the greatest
proportion of union members in both years received rates of 70 and
under 80 cents an hour. The proportion increased, however, from
18.6 in 1936 to 20.0 in 1937. Rates of 80 cents or higher were reported
for 55.9 percent of the members in 1936 and 63.7 percent in 1937.
More than a third of the members who were reported at rates of under
70 cents per hour in 1936 moved into higher brackets in 1937. The
change in the total percentage below 70 cents per hour was from 25.5
in 1936 to 16.3 in 1937.
In 1937 the largest proportion of members working in Hebrew
bakeries received rates of $1.30 and under $1.40 an hour; in other
bakeries the largest proportion of members received 70 and under
80 cents. The higher rates in Hebrew bakeries is again indicated by
the fact that, while rates of $1 and over were received by 35.8 percent
of the union members in all bakeries, such rates were received by
> The percent of change and the averages are based on aggregates computed from 268 comparable quota
tions furnished by unions reporting for both years. These quotations covered 16,932 members. The
membership weights in the aggregates used in each year are those reported for the second year. Including
the 4,235 members for whom no 1936 rates were obtained, the 1937 average rate for all union bakers was
87.1 cents per hour. On the same basis the average hours for all members reported were 42.4 per week in
1937. See p. 473 for method and coverage of the study.
3
Nearly 72 percent of the members covered in comparable reports for Hebrew bakeries were located in
New York City. The average rate for these in 1937 was $1,296 as compared with $1,155 for those in all other
cities.
468
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
469
Wages and Hours of Labor
85.0 percent of the members in Hebrew bakeries and b3r only 19.6 per
cent of those in other bakeries.
T a b l e 1. —Distribution
of Union Members in the Bakery Trades, by Hourly Rates,
1936 and 1937 1
Hebrew bak
eries
All bakeries
Other bakeries
Classified hourly rates
1937
Average hourly rate....... .............. ........................... - ........... $0.928
Percent of members whose hourly rates were—
1936
1937
1936
1937
$0.884
$1. 255
$1 . 218
$0.821
0 .1
0 .1
40 and under 50 cents............ - ------------ ---------------50 and under 60 cents--------- ------------------------ —
60 and under 70 cents________________ ______ ___
70 and under 80 cents_____________ _______ _____
80 and under 90 cents___________________ ______
90 and under $1.00______ ____________________
$1 . 0 0 and under $1 . 1 0 ________ - ................... .......
$1 . 1 0 and under $1 . 2 0 __________________________
$1.20 and under $1.30___________ _____ _______
$1.30 and under $1.40________ _______________
1
2
2.3
4.8
9.1
2 0 .0
1 2 .0
1 1 .2
16.4
7.2
5.8
2.3
7.3
5.7
8 .8
5.9
$0. 774
0 .1
1.3
3.1
9.1
11.9
18.6
15.9
11.7
5.7
3.7
1936
0 .2
.5
.9
.6
1 .2
.6
1 .1
1.5
11.4
6 .1
1 1 .6
8 .2
35.5
23.6
3.0
0 .2
0 .1
2.4
14.6
7.6
17.1
2.4
29.5
23.3
6 .2
1 1 .8
26.5
15.4
17.3
13.5
3.8
2 .2
.1
0
1.7
4.1
11.9
15.4
?4. 3
14.1
16.9
7.1
2 .1
2.3
(2)
)
Based on comparable quotations. See text footnote 1.
Less than Ho of 1 percent.
Two-thirds of the union members covered in both years studied
received wage-rate increases, while only 0.2 percent received decreases.
Almost one-third had no change in rates during the year. (See
table 2.) While the proportion of quotations showing increases for
members in Hebrew bakeries was much greater than for those in other
shops, they were mostly confined to unions having small memberships.
About 36 percent of the union membership in Hebrew bakeries re
ceived wage-rate increases, as compared with 78 percent in other
bakeries. On the other hand, 64 percent of the union membership
engaged in Hebrew bakeries received no change in wage rates during
the year, as compared to 22 percent of the members in other bakeries.
T a b l e 2 . —Changes
in Union Wage Scales in the Bakery Trades, 1937 Compared With
1936
Type of bakery
All types_______________ ____
Hebrew bakeries_____________
Other bakeries_______________
Wage rates per hour
Number
of quota
Number
of
quotations
Percent of members
tions com
showing—
affected by—
parable
with
No
No
1936
Increase Decrease change Increase Decrease change
268
56
212
182
43
139
4
l
3
82
12
70
67.3
35.7
77.6
.1
32.5
64. 2
.2
2 2 .2
0 .2
Table 3 indicates that the largest number (77) of wage-rate changes
between May 15, 1936, and May 15, 1937, were for increases of 5 to
10 percent. Such changes affected 27.5 percent of the union mem
bers covered in both years. Slightly over 18 percent of the members
received increases amounting to less than 5 percent, while over 12
39873—38------------- 12
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
470
percent of the members received wage-rate increases of 10 to 15 per
cent. Several quotations showed increases of over 30 percent, one as
high as 52 percent.
T able 3.—Percentage Change in Union Wage Rates in the Bakery Trades Betiveen
1936 and 1937
Number of quota
tions showing—
Classified percentage rate change
Increase Decrease
Less than 5 percent.............. .....................- ------ ---------------- --------
33
77
39
13
9
6
5
4
Percent of total
members affected
by—
Increase
Decrease
18.1
27.5
12.4
4.1
2.5
0 .2
2 .2
.5
In addition to the wage scales discussed above, there were 97 quota
tions received in 1937 which were nonexistent in 1936. These quota
tions, covering 4,231 members, represent agreements by new unions,
new occupations covered for the first time by old unions, and unions
which had for the first time made their scales effective. The average
rate for these members was considerably lower than for those having
effective scales in both years—64.0 cents per hour as compared with
92.8 cents per hour. The lower scales for these workers brought
under union agreements for the first time in 1937 was due to the fact
that many of them were for lower-paid occupations and also that a
large proportion of them were located in smaller cities.
Union Scales of Hours
Full-time weekly hours of union members in the bakery trades for
whom comparable reports were received decreased 1.6 percent be
tween May 15, 1936, and May 15, 1937. The average hours in 1936
were 43.1, and in 1937 they were 42.4 per week. For Hebrew
bakeries the change in average was from 45.9 to 45.1 and for other
shops from 42.2 to 41.5.
The distribution of members covered in both years, according to the
full-time hours provided in their agreements, appears in table 4.
In both years more members worked a 40-hour week than worked any
other scale. The proportion of the members, however, increased from
39.9 percent in 1936 to 44.1 percent in 1937. Over half of all the
members were reported at hours of 40 or less per week in 1937; in
1936 the proportion was 46.1 percent.
The scales of hours in Hebrew bakeries were longer as a rule than in
other types of shops. There was, however, the same tendency to
wards shorter hours. In 1936, 71.2 percent of the 4,180 members
covered had a 45-hour week and none were reported at any less number
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Wages and Hours of Labor
471
of hours. In 1937, the percentage on 45-hour scales was 78.1, with
6.6 percent of the members on 40- and 42-hour workweeks.
A majority of the members in other shops worked on 40-hour scales
in both years. In 1937 there were increased percentages at 36, 40,
42, and 44 hours per week and decreased proportions at 45 and 48
hours. The relative decrease in the maximum workweek (48 hours)
was not so great for these members as for those in Hebrew bakeries.
In Hebrew bakeries the decline was from 28.3 percent to 14.8 percent
during the year, a reduction of almost half the total members reported
at 48 hours in 1936. About one-fourth of the members in other
bakeries who had a 48-hour scale in 1936 changed to a shorter work
week during the year.
T able 4.—Distribution of Union Members in the Bakery Trades, by Hours per Week
1937 and 1936 1
Hebrew bak
eries
All bakeries
Classified weekly hours
1937
1936
1937
42.4
43.1
0.7
.4
0.7
.4
5.1
39. 9
3.4
1936
45.1
45. 9
Other bak
eries
1937
1936
41.5
42.2
0. 9
. .5
8.7
56.5
7. 6
5. 6
.2
0 9
.5
.
52 9
4 5
2 9
5.0
2 0 .0
26.5
Percent of members whose hours per week were—
6 .6
44.1
5.8
4.2
19.4
.1
18.7
1
Based on comparable quotations.
6 .1
.5
2 .2
21.3
.1
26.9
71.2
.5
28.3
78.1
.5
14.8
6 8
See text footnote 1.
For about 82 percent of the union membership there were no changes
in hours between May 15, 1936, and May 15, 1937. (See table 5.)
Slightly over 16 percent had their hours reduced, while 2 percent
had increases in hours. A smaller proportion, 13.5 percent, of
members in Hebrew bakeries received hour decreases than members
in other shops, where 17 percent had their hours reduced.
T able 5.— Changes in Union Hour Scales in the Bakery Trades, 1937 Compared With
1936
Hours per week
Type of bakery
All types_________ _________
Number
of quota
Number of quotations show
tions
ing—
compara
ble with
1936
No
Increase Decrease change
268
12
36
220
Percent of members affected
by—
Increase
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
212
12
25
175
No
change
2 .0
16.2
81.8
2 .6
13.5
17.1
86.5
80.3
11
Other bakeries------ ------ ---------
Decrease
472
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
Table 6 indicates that most of the changes in hours were for reduc
tions of 3, 4, and 8 hours per week, with almost equal proportions
of the total memberships affected by each reduction. One-half of 1
percent of the membership received increases of 4 hours in their
workweek. Three quotations, covering 1.5 percent of the member
ship, increased their workweek by 6 hours. These increases were from
a 42- to a 48-hour week.
T able
6
.—
Amount of Change in Union Hour Scales in the Bakery Trades Between
1936 and 1937
Number of quotations
showing—
Percent of total mem
bers affected by—
Amount of change in hours per week
Increase
Decrease
Increase
Decrease
5.6
5.5
.1
5.0
11
3
3
1
1
0.5
1.5
11
8
11
0
)
Less than Mo of 1 percent.
Overtime and Extra Work
Almost half of the members received time and a half for overtime,
and 23 percent additional received time and one-third. Work
beyond the regular weekly hours was prohibited in agreements cover
ing 10 percent of the members. The distribution of all the reports
received according to the initial overtime rates was:
N u m ber of
q u o ta tio n s
No overtime rate providedstraight tim e____________
Time and one-third______
Time and one-half_______
Double tim e_____________
5
39
84
195
11
P ercen t of
m em b ers
covered
1. 1
6.
23.
48.
3.
7
4
8
1
tr
rate_____________
Overtime prohibited.
28
3
7. 1
9. 8
Frequently the agreements provide that no regularly employed
member shall work overtime when substitutes are available, except in
cases of emergency. In some cases a permit from the union must be
secured before overtime may be worked. Other agreements set a
limit on the amount of overtime permissible for each employee,
usually a maximum of 2 hours per week. In a number of cases at
least a certain number of hours, commonly 12, must elapse before an
employee may be called to begin the next day’s work.
Although in some agreements work on any holiday is prohibited,
most agreements apply such prohibition only to labor holidays. Six
holidays were provided in most cases, but the number varied from
three to nine. The usual holidays observed are New Year’s, Memo
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Wages and Hours of Labor
473
rial Day, Fourth of July, Labor Day, Thanksgiving, and Christmas.
Agreements for Hebrew bakeries generally provide for several religious
holidays in addition to the legal holidays. The rate for work per
formed on the weekly day off and on holidays is in most cases the same
as the overtime rate, although some provide for double pay for work
on holidays. Some agreements provide full pay when holidays are
observed.
Because of the necessity of night work to produce fresh goods for
sale the following day, a provision for extra pay for night work is
frequently found. The periods during which this extra pay applies
begin between 6 and 10 p. m. and end between 4 and 6 a. m. The
amount of the night bonus varies from an additional 5 cents an
hour to 25 cents an hour.
A minimum of 5 or 6 hours or a full day’s pay is at times provided for
all those beginning a day’s work.
Scope of the Survey and Membership Covered
This study is one of a series of annual surveys started in 1907 by the
Bureau of Labor Statistics, covering union scales in various trades in
the principal cities of the United States. In recent years 70 cities
have been included in the general survey, although in many of these
cities there were no union members working under agreements in the
bakery trades. Effective union scales for bakery workers were reported
in 43 of the cities studied in 1936 and in 48 cities in 1937. The total
union membership covered in 1937 was 21,167, as compared with
15,086 in 1936.
Table 8 shows the number of union members for whom reports have
been received each year since 1918. The high point in membership
covered was in 1920. From 1921 to 1933 there was a decline reported
each year, except in 1930, when a small increase was recorded. Since
1933 there has been an increase each year, the 1937 membership
being practically double that of 1933.
T a b l e 8 . — Union Members in Bakery Trades Covered Each Year, 1918 to 1937
Year
1918 _______
1919________
1920________
1921________
1922________
Members
18,376
21,477
24, 721
24,398
2 2 , 808
Year
1923________
1924_______
1925. _____
1926________
1927________
Members
21, 574
21,306
20,805
20, 510
19,170
Year
1928 _ - .
1929
1930________
1931________
1932
___
Year
Members
18, 673
17,468
18, 301
16,403
13, 678
1933 ______
1934
_____
1935________
1936________
1937-- ____
Members
10, 960
12, 722
14,418
15,086
21,167
Rates of Wages and Hours in Each City
Union rates per hour and hours per week in the bakery trades, by
city and occupation, on May 15, 1937, and May 15, 1936, are shown
in table 9.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
474
T able 9.— Union Scales of Wages and Hours in the Bakery Trades, M ay 15, 1937, and
M ay 15, 1936
M ay 15,
1936
M av 15,
1937
City, type of bakery,
and occupation
A tla n ta , Q a.
Rates
Rates
of Hours of Hours
wages per wages per
per week per week
hour
hour
D o l.
40
40
40
.350
40
D o l.
1.188
1.125
48 1.188
48 1.125
48
48
1.271
1 .167
1.063
48 1.146
48 1.042
48 .938
48
48
48
B o s to n , M a s s .
B u f fa lo , N . Y .
D ay work:
Ovenmen or mixers.
Bench hands______
N ight work:
Ovenmen or mixers.
Bench hands______
Hebrew and Polish bakeries:
.6 8 8
48
48
.667
.625
48
48
.771
.729
48
48
.708
.667
48
48
.773
.729
48
48
Foremen or mixers_____ 1.091
Bench hands or ovenmen................................. .955
44 1.091
44
44
44
.729
B u tte , M o n tJ
C h ic a g o , III.
.955
Union A:
First hands________ .833
.750
Second h an ds.. . . .
H elpers.__________ .667
Union B:
Hand shops:
First hands____ .792
Second h an d s.._ .729
Third hands___ .604
Machine shops:
Mixers or oven
men_________ .770
Bench or ma
chine h an d s... .710
Mixer helpers or
molders and
.660
dividers_____
Oven feeders___ .600
Helpers, m a le ... .550
Helpers, female. .400
Slicers, female..
.490
Bohemian bakeries:
.792
First hands_______
Second hands______ .750
Third hands_______ .646
Hebrew bakeries:
First hands________ 1.146
Second h an ds......... . 1.042
Third hands_______ .563
40
40
40
40
48
48
48
.750
.625
.563
48
48
48
48
48
48
.750
.6 8 8
48
48
48
40
.750
40
40
.690
40
40
40
40
40
40
.640
.580
.530
.390
.470
40
40
40
40
40
48
48
48
.750
.708
.625
48
48
48
48 1.042
48 .938
48 .500
48
48
48
48
48
48
.667
.500
.458
48
48
48
.563
D a lla s , T ex .
Retail bakeries:
Hand shops:
48
First hands................ 8 .771
48 .771
F orem en... . _____
Second hands______ 8 .729
48
48 .729
Ovenmen or mixers.
Wholesale bakeries:
Bench
hands______
First hands, oven40 .730
40
men, or spongers._ .780
D
a
v
e
n
p
o r t, I o w a
40 .690
40
Second hands______ .740
Bohemian bakeries:
See Rock Island (111.)
Small shops:
district.
48 .667
48
First hands____ .729
48
Second h a n d s... .667
48 .604
D e n v e r , C o lo .
Large shops:
Hand shops:
40 .800
40
First hands____
.875
D ay work:
40 .725
40
Second h a n d s... .800
Foremen______
Polish bakeries:
Bench or ma
Retail shops:
chine h an d s...
F o r e m e n or
N ight work:
.875
48
Foremen______
48
.750
Machine hands.
Wholesale shops:
Machine shops:
F orem en
or
D ay work:
32 .938
32
spongers_____
.968
Shift foremen__
32
32 .817
Second h a n d s... .844
Mixers or oven
Scandinavian bakeries:
men_________
First hands, spong42
Bench or ma
3.900
48 .900
ers, or ovenmen.
42
chine h an d s...
.850
3
.850
48
Second han ds...........
42
48 .550
Helpers___________ 3 .550
1 After June 1, 1937: Foremen and mixers, $1,179; henchmen, $1,048; ovenmen,
8 10 cents per hour more for work between 10 p. m. and 4 a. m. Scale increased
1937.
3 2 0 eents per hour more for work between 1 0 p. m. and 6 a. m.
< Overtime limited to 1 hpur per week.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
D o l.
40 0. 920
40 .775
40 .838
40 .600
C l e v e l a n d , O h io
B a ltim o r e , M d .
Hebrew bakeries:
Foremen__________
Second hands............
Third hands..........
Rates
Rates
of Hours of Hours
wages per wages per
per week per week
hour
hour
Foremen or first hands.. 0.945
Bench or machine hands. .800
.863
Ovenmen or mixers___
Helpers........ ...................... .625
Packers or slicers, fe-
Hebrew bakeries:
Foremen or ovenm en.____________
Second hands______
City, type of bakery,
and occupation
M ay 15,
1936
C i n c i n n a t i , O h io
D o l.
0. 550
.500
.400
M ay 15,
1937
.729
.583
.542
.857
*
42
.857
42
.714
< 42
.714
42
.929
.786
<42
4 42
.929
.786
42
42
.875
«40
.875
40
.800
<40
.800
40
.750
< 40
.750
40
$1,143; 42-hour week.
$3 per week after June 1,
Wages and Hours of Labor
475
T a b l e 9 . — Union Scales of Wages and Hours in the Bakery Trades, M ay 15, 1937, and
M ay 15, 1936— Continued
M ay 15,
1937
City, type of bakery,
and occupation
D e n v er, C o lo —
M ay 15,
1936
Rates
Rates
of Hours of
Hours
wages per wages per
per week per week
hour
hour
Contd.
City, type of bakery,
and occupation
H o u s to n , T e x .—
Machine shops—Contd.
N ight work:
D o t.
Shift foremen... 0.950
Mixers or ovenmen..................
.875
Bench or machine h a n d s... .825
Part day and part
night work:
Shift forem en... .913
Mixers or ovenmen........... ....... .838
Hebrew bakeries:
Foremen or ovenmen_____________ .940
Second hands............ .894
Bench han ds.......... . .871
Helpers.......... ............ .653
D o t.
8
40 0.950
40
8
40
.875
40
8
40
.825
40
8
40
.913
40
8
40
.838
40
48
48
48
48
.854
.813
.792
.594
48
48
48
48
D e s M o in e s , Io w a
Hand shops:
Foremen__________
Journeymen_______
Helpers___________
Machine shops:
Foremen..................
Ovenmen or mixers.
B en ch m en ..............
Machine m e n .. .
Helpers..........
Bread wrappers . . .
M ay 15,
1937
.677
.604
.458
48
48
48
.625
.563
.417
48
48
48
.800
.700
.650
. 600
.500
.450
40
40
40
40
40
40
.750
.650
.600
.550
.450
.400
40
40
40
40
40
40
M ay 15,
1936
Rates
Rates
of Hours of Hours
wages per wages per
per week per week
hour
hour
Contd.
Bench men or machine D o l .
men________________ «0. 531
Wrappers........................... «. 396
«. 438
Helpers_______________ «. 375
D o l.
48 0. 521
48
48
48 .375
48
40
.979
40
40
40
.896
.834
40
40
40 1.104
40
48
K a n s a s C ity , M o .
D ay work:
Foremen__________ 1.063
Mixers, spongers, or
ovenm en and
.975
drawers_________
Bench hands______
.913
Night work:
Foremen __ ____ 1.188
Mixers, spongers, or
o v e n m e n and
draw ers.............. 1 . 1 0 0
Bench and under
hands___________ 1.038
Hebrew bakeries:
.989
Foremen__________
Mixers and drawers. .911
.856
40
40
1 .0 2 1
40
.959
40
40 1.188
40 1 063
48
48
«. 938
8. 784
48
40
.883
.765
40
40
8.837
8.812
8.675
40
40
40
.819
40
.625
40
.792
.625
48
48
48
.792
.625
.6 8 8
48
48
48
.563
.375
40
40
.682
.625
.568
.455
44
44
44
44
.950
.750
40
40
40
40
45
45
45
L o s A n g e le s , C a lif .
Hebrew bakeries:
1.313
1.188
7
7
M a d is o n , W is .
D e tr o it, M ic h .
Union A:
First hands, mixers,
or ovenm en.. __
Helpers, male_____
Helpers, female.........
Union B:
First hands, mixers,
Second hands or
benchmen_______
Hebrew bakeries:
First hands, night:
1 oven_________
2 ovens________
.800
44
.750
48
. 700
.600
.450
44
44
44
.667
48
.958
48
.813
.813
.521
48
48
M a n c h e s te r , N . IT .
.708
48
M e m p h is , T e n n .
45
45
45
.693
.591
.614
44
44
44
.625
40
40
40
40
40
«.729
48
.729
48
Mixers, ovenmen, second hands, bench
hands, machine men,
or wrapping-machine
operators_______ ____
Helpers _______ ______
M ilw a u k e e , W is .
D u lu th , M in n .
Foremen._____________
.910
.750
.800
Machine m en ._________
.6 8 8
H o u s to n , T e x .
Foremen______________
Mixers, ovenmen, or
spongers.............. 1 .........
Foremen or mixers_____
Bench hands__________
Second hands_________
48
45 1.356
45 1.400
45 1.289
48
1. 356
1.400
1.289
.625
Foremen______________
Bench h a n d s_____ . . .
Mixers, ovenmen, or
spongers. ...................
Machine men________
Helpers_________ ___
«.573
48
.573
48
Hand bakeries:
Foremen_____ ____
Mixers or ovenmen _
Bench hands___. . .
H elpers......................
Machine bakeries:
Foremen__________
Bench hands______
Helpers.......... ............
Overtime limited to 1 hour per week.
50 cents per hour for first 6 months, 55 cents per hour for second 6 months.
6 1 week’s vacation and 4 holidays per year with full pay.
7 Agreement provides 48 hours; members limited to 40 to share work.
8 1 0 cents per hour more for night work.
8
8
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
.6 8 8
.550
.6 8 8
476
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
T a b l e 9 . — Union Scales of Wages and Hours in the Bakery Trades, M ay 15, 1937, and
M ay 15, 1936— Continued
M ay 15,
1937
City, type of bakery,
and occupation
M ilw a u k e e , W i s —
M ay 15,
1936
Rates
Rates
of Hours of
Hours
wages per wages per
per week per week
hour
hour
Con.
M ay 15,
1937
City, type of bakery,
and occupation
M ay 15,
1936
Rates
Rates
of Hours of Hours
wages per wages per
per week per week
hour
hour
N ew H aven, C onn.
B o l.
Hebrew bakeries:
D ay work:
Bench hands,
Bench
hands,
second
Bench hands,
third..
Night work:
Bench hands,
Bench hands,
second
Bench hands,
th ird ..
B o i.
0.872
B o i.
47 0.809
47
.787
47
.723
47
.702
47
.638
47
.896
47
.813
47
.728
47
N ew
Third hands or helpers.......... ............... .
Union B:
.800
45
.667
.622
.533
.489
45
45
45
45
. 90C
44
. 75C
44
.700
.650
44
44
.600
.550
44
44
Junior bench hands
or packers_______
H elpers........... ..........
First h a n d s............. .
See Rock Island (111.)
district.
N a s h v ille , T e n n .
Foremen________ _____
Ovenmen...........................
Mixers or wrappingroom foremen_______
Bench or machine hands
Machine operators_____
Helpers...............................
.729
48
.521
.469
.396
.354
48
48
48
48
N ew ark, N . J .
Union A:
Foremen, ovenmen
or mixers,...............
Bench hands.............
Third hands...............
Union B:
First hands or oven
men______ ______
Second hands or
benchmen...............
Hebrew bakeries:
Foremen or ovenmen
Mixers or second
hands.......................
1.050
.925
.775
40
40
40
.875
.725
40
40
40
1.458
48 1.333
48
1.325
48
48
1.354
48 1.250
48
1.250
48 1.146
» Overtime limited to 2 hours per week.
48
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
48
48
48
48
48
1 .0 0 0
.917
48
48
48
.417
48
.950
.850
40
40
.950
.850
40
40
.750
40
.750
40
. 925
. 825
40
40
.725
.625
. 575
.450
40
40
40
401
First hands________ 1.050
.950
Helpers........ .............. .750
Union D:
Foremen__________ 1.250
1. 050
Second hands______ .950
.700
M o l i n e , II I .
1 .0 0 0
1 .2 0 0
B o l.
48 0.750
48 .713
48 .675
Y o rk , N . Y .
Union A:
First hands or ovenmen_____ _______
M in n e a p o lis , M in n .
Hand shops:
F o rem en ........... .......
Mixers, ovenmen,
spongers, or travel
ing-oven operators
Bench hands______
Oven helpers______
Helpers, female____
Machine shops:
Foremen__________
Mixers, ovenmen,
spongers, or trav
eling-oven opera
tors__________ .p.
Bench hands or di
vider men_______
Dough-room men__
Oven helpers or in
gredient scalers___
Bench-hand helpers,
Foremen or mixers.......... 0.750
Ovenmen...........................
.713
Benchmen____________
.675
Hebrew bakeries:
Foremen or ovenmen_____________ 1.083
Second hands........... . 1 . 0 0 0
Third hands or helpers._____________
.625
D ay work:
First hands____
Second h a n d s...
Third hands or
helpers______
N ight work:
First hands____
Second hands__
Third hands or
helpers______
German bakeries:
First hands________
Second hands______
H elpers......... ............
Hebrew bakeries:
Union A:
First hands or
ovenmen_____
Second h a n d s...
Third hands or
helpers______
Union B:
Mixers or ovenm en..................
First hands____
Second h a n d s...
Helpers________
Union C:
First hands____
Second h a n d s...
Helpers_______
40
40
40
.938
.750
48
48
48
»40 1.250
« 40 1.050
»40 .950
0 40
. 700
40
40
40
40
.929
35
35
.933
.889
1 .0 2 1
.C0 0
. 929
35
35
45
45
.875
.833
48
48
.844
45
.792
48
1 .0 0 0
42
42
.933
.889
45
45
1 .0 0 0
.952
1
.905
42
.884
45
1 000
.
.938
. 625
40
40
40
.979
.917
. 521
48
48
48
1.333
.
45 1.125
45 1.063
48
48
45
.813
48
1.125
1.188
1. 025
.800
40
40 1.146
40 .979
40 .750
48
48
48
1.467
1.333
.933
45 1.467
45 1.333
45 .933
45
45
45
1 200
.933
477
Wages and Hours of Labor
T a b l e 9 . — Union Scales of Wages and Hours in the Bakery Trades, M ay 15, 1937, and
M ay 15, 1936—Continued
City, type of bakery,
and occupation
M ay 15,
1937
M ay 15,
1936
M ay 15,
1937
Rates
Rates
Hours
of Hours of
wages per wages per
per week per week
hour
hour
D o l.
40 0.825
40 .725
40
40
40
.625
40
40
40
.950
.800
40
40
40
.700
40
P e o r i a , III.
Machine shops:
Foremen__________
Ovenmen or spongers............................
Bench or machine
.952
42
.929
42
.833
42
.810
42
.762
42
.738
42
Hand shops:
Foremen or first D o l .
hands___________ 0.833
Second hands, mixers, or ovenmen—. .760
Third hands or
bench and machine hands______ .729
Machine shops:
Foremen or first
hands___________ 1 . 0 0 0
Second hands, mixers, or o ven m en ... .913
Benchmen________
.875
Hebrew bakeries:
Ovenmen___ ______ 1.179
Mixers or bench
hands___________ 1.071
Third hands_______ .833
R o c k I s la n d
P h ila d e lp h ia , P a .
Hebrew bakeries:
mixers _________
Rates
Rates
of Hours of Hours
wages per wages per
per week per week
hour
hour
R o c h e s te r , N . Y .
O k la h o m a C ity , O k la .
D o t.
D ay work:
Foremen__________ 0.900
Mixers or ovenm en.. .800
Bench or machinemen_........................ .700
Night work:
1.025
Forem en...............
M ixers or ovenmen - .875
Bench and machinemen-......................- .775
Fourth hands______
City, type of bakery,
and occupation
M ay 15,
1936
1.249
45 1.190
45
1.190
1.091
.694
45 1.133
45 1.039
45 .661
45
45
45
.750
.700
.590
.535
.430
40
40
40
40
40
45 1.333
45
(I I I .)
D o l.
48 0. 730
48
48
.677
48
48
.642
48
40
.810
44
40
40
.740
.700
44
44
42 1.031
48
.990
.729
48
48
.904
.798
.656
48
48
48
42
42
d is tr ic t
Daywork:
Foremen__________
Mixers or ovenmen.
Night work:
Mixers or ovenmen..
Benchmen..................
.779
.673
.531
48
48
48
.904
.798
.656
48
48
48
>«. 833
48
.833
48
io. 750
48
.750
48
P itts b u r g h , P a .
S t. L o u is , M o .
.800
.750
.650
.600
.530
Mixers or o v e n m e n ___
Benchmen____________
Checkers______ _______
Hebrew bakeries:
First hands or oven1.422
men_______ ____
Second hands or
mixers...................._ 1.356
Third hands or
1.267
Polish bakeries:
.933
.889
.844
.556
40
40
40
40
40
45 1.267
45
45 1.178
45
45
45
45
45
P o r tla n d , O reg .
Hand shops:
.900
4C
40
40
1
. I ll
1 056
36
36
.875
. 84C
40
40
1 .0 0 0
36
36
36
.800
40
1.050
1 .0 0 0
Machine shops:
Foremen...... ............ -
Hand shops: 11
Foremen__________
Second hands or
benchmen_______
Machine shops: 11
Foremen....................
Ovenmen or sponge rs.._ .......................
Assistant spongers..
Scalers or first bench
101.155
40
1 .1 0 0
40
101.050
io. 998
40
40
1 .0 0 0
40
40
io. 971
40
.925
40
io. 945
.788
io. 761
Wrappers or slicers.. .500
Hebrew bakeries: 11
Foremen or ovenmen....... .................. 1.208
Second hands or
benchmen_______ 1.042
.833
40
40
40
40
.900
.750
.725
40
40
40
48 1.146
48
.979
.833
48
48
1 .0 2 0
36
36
36
36
36
Bench or machine
48
48
.950
S t. P a u l, M in n .
.833
.778
P r o v id e n c e , R . I .
48 .938
48
.938
Foremen or ovenmen—
Second hands, mixers, or
48 .875
48
benchmen___________ .875
i« $2 . 1 0 more per week for night work.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Bench hands__________
.729
.667
.646
48
48
48
1.157
1 .11C
1.072
1.017
.855
36
36
36
36
36
S a n F r a n c is c o , C a lif .
Foremen or ovenmen__
Mixers________ _______
Bench hands...................
Flour blenders.......... .......
H e lp e r s............................
111
week’s annual vacation with pay.
. 97C
.950
.900
.750
478
T
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
able
9 . — Union Scales of Wages and Hours in the Bakery Trades, M ay 15, 1937, and
M ay 15, 1936— Continued
M ay 15,
1937
City, type of bakery,
and occupation
M ay 15,
1936
Rates
Rates
of Hours of
Hour
wages per wages per
per week per week
hour
hour
M ay 15,
1937
City, type of bakery,
and occupation
S a n F r a n c is c o , C a lif .—
JDol.
Jobbers:
Foremen or oven- D o t .
m en______ ______ 0. 98S
Bench hands______
.919
Helpers________ __
.656
Small bakeries:
Foremen or ovenmen______ ______
.935
Bench h a n d s........... . 874
H elpers,__________
.62£
French and Italian bakeries:
Foremen, mixers, or
ovenmen________
.962
Bench h a n d s.._____
.864
D o t.
4C
40
40
42 0 .85C
42 .794
42 .571
42
42
42
42
42
.817
.733
45
45
40 1.125
40
40
40
40 .825
40 .525
4C .775
4C .725
4C .675
40 . 65C
40
4C
40
40
40
.625
.450
40
40
40
40
40
40
S e a ttle , W a s h .
Foremen________ _____ 1.180
Mixers, machinemen, or
ovenmen____________ 1 . 1 2 0
Bench hands..................... 1.050
Helpers:
Rate A____________
.772
Rate B ____________ .883
36 1.180
36
36 1.12C
36 1.050
36
36
36
36
.772
.883
36
36
40
44
40
44
48
44
44
44
48
44
.660
.660
.550
.660
.625
.600
.580
.550
.521
.500
40
40
40
40
48
40
40
40
48
40
S o u th B e n d , I n d .
.660
.660
.660
.650
.625
.600
.560
.530
.521
.500
.480
.400
44
44
.480
.400
40
40
.700
40
40
40
.970
.920
.650
40
40
40
Foremen______________ 12.833
Second hands, mixers,
or ovenmen_________
.729
Bench hands.................... 13. 625
48
.833
48
48
48
.729
.625
48
48
S pokan e, W ash .
1 .1 0 0
1 .0 0 0
S p r in g fie ld , M a s s .
12
91.7 cents per hour after July 1, 1937.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
First mixers_________ _ 0.75C
Bench hands or peeloven runner-in m e n ... . 70C
Second mixers . . _____ .650
Traveling-oven m e n ,
peeler-out men, dividers, molders, or mixers’ helpers__________
.600
Peel-oven helpers, molders’ helpers, or wrappers_______ ______
. 55C
Helpers, other_________
.500
P o l.
44
44
44
44
44
44
W a s h in g to n , 1 ). C .
S c r a n to n , P a .
First bench hands_____ 1.125
Second bench hands___
.575
Third bench hands____
.550
Fourth bench hands___
.500
Peel-oven tenders______ .825
Traveling-oven tenders.. .550
Molders_____ _________ .775
Mixers________________ .725
Dividers______________
.675
Mixers’ helpers......... ....... . 65C
Pan greasers or pan setters.................................. .625
Helpers_______________
.450
Foremen, mixers, or
ovenm en............
___
Bench or machine hands.
H elpers.______________
Rates
Rates
of Hours of Hours
wages per wages per
per week per week
hour
hour
T o l e d o , O h io
Continued
Mixers________________
Dividers______________
Bench hands__________
Peel-oven m en________
First hands.......... .............
Molders_____ _________
Traveling-oven tenders.
Mixers’ helpers________
Second hands........ ...........
Molders’ helpers_______
Helpers:
Rate A .____ ______
Rate B ____________
M ay 15,
1936
D ay work:
Journeymen ............. 1.05C
Helpers. _________
. 600
N ight work:
Journeymen. _____ 1.250
Helpers___________
.700
40
40
40
40
1 .0 2 0
. 550
40
40
. 650
40
40
1 .2 2 0
W ic h ita , K a n s .
Mixers________________
Ovenmen__ ________
Benchmen or machinemen________________
Helpers____ __________
. 675
. 675
40
40
. 650
.613
40
40
.638
.500
40
40
. 613
. 450
40
40
1.146
1.042
48
48
.938
.833
48
48
.780
.720
. 660
.450
.425
48
48
48
48
48
. 650
. 600
.550
48
48
48
.313
48
. 375
48
. 250
48
.800
40
.771
.709
.615
.458
48
48
48
48
W o r c e s te r , M a s s .
Hebrew bakeries:
Foremen __ ______
Second hands___ _
Y o u n g s t o w n , O h io
Hand shops:
Foremen........... . . . .
Mixers or ovenm en..
Bench hands.............
Helpers___________
First helpers, female.
Second helpers, female ___________
Machine shops:
Mixers or ovenm en..
Bench and machine
hands, or mixer
helpers______ _
Dumpers and feeders______________
Bakeshop h elp ers...
Checkers__________
Chute men or head
slicers and wrappers. _____ ______
Packers or slicing
and wrapping machine operators___
Hand wrappers____
Hebrew bakeries:
Ovenmen...... ............
Mixers______ ____ _
Bench hands.............
Helpers___________
13
.725
40
.670
.630
.620
40
40
40
.600
40
.560
.480
40
40
.925
.850
.738
.450
48
48
48
48
66.7 cents per hour after July 1, 1937.
Wages and Hours of Labor
479
OVERTIME WORK BY SALARIED EMPLOYEES
THE PROBLEM of overtime among salaried employees is being
given consideration by numerous companies, and in this connection
determined efforts are being made to eliminate the exploitation of
the rank and file of these workers.
Of 53 employers whose replies to a recent inquiry on overtime prac
tices were analyzed, 26 reported that they had some type of restrictive
regulation with reference to overtime. In 20 companies some or all
of the salaried workers are paid “straight time” when they work over
time. Only four establishments stated that any of their salaried
force were paid for overtime at premium rates. Thirty-three of the
establishments allow equivalent time off. However, the regulations
and classes of employees covered differed considerably from company
to company. In 23 firms evening meals are provided for employees
who are called upon to do night work. These findings and the follow
ing data are taken from an article published in the November 1937
issue of Personnel, published by American Management Association.
Many of the companies endeavor to control overtime employment
and to eliminate excessive overtime. One establishment provides a
check upon overtime by supervisory control of the hours of employ
ment through time and earnings reports, cost statements, and similar
expedients. Another organization which is averse to needless over
time'stipulates that any employee who remains at work more than
half an hour after closing time must have his time of leaving reported
by his supervisor to the personnel record office. A monthly record
of overtime is referred to the vice president who is responsible for the
administration of the home office, and evidence of excessive overtime
is submitted to the department head for corrective measures. A third
establishment endeavors to reduce inordinate overtime through strict
supervision and budgeting. “Yardsticks” are set up for each office
to aid in finding out whether or not overtime is justifiable.
When overtime is paid for, straight time is ordinarily allowed. In
one establishment, however, employees are paid 50 cents per hour for
working after 7 o’clock in the evening if their salaries are less than
$1,200 per annum and 75 cents per hour if their yearly salaries are
between $1,200 and $3,000; but employees who receive more than
$3,000 annually are not paid for overtime.
The regulations in various companies are somewhat elastic, for
instance, one company pays straight time for overtime work only in
cases in which it is not practicable to allow the employees compensa
tive time off. Several companies which give equivalent time off
also meet the expense for meals.
The amounts allowed for supper money differ considerably. Among
those reported are 50 cents, 75 cents, 85 cents, $1.00, and $1.50. One
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
480
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
firm which grants its nonsupervisory employees $1.00 for dinner, as
well as equivalent time off, provides that the overtime thus compen
sated for should be at least 2% hours in one day. Another organiza
tion which allows time off and 85 cents for supper stipulates that the
overtime so provided for shall exceed 2 hours in a single day.
While the survey here reviewed was mainly for the purpose of ascer
taining the overtime policies of the companies, other data were also
secured. For example, if the establishments covered in the survey
“could be considered representative, it might reasonably be concluded
that the 5-day week is prevalent in office organization.” Twentynine of these establishments report that they have a 5-day week in
some or all of their offices, and the information given by other com
panies, which do not state explicitly the number of days a week their
office employees are required to work, indicates that many of these con
cerns also have a 5-day week. In one company a salaried employee
who is called upon to work Saturday mornings receives an additional
10 percent of his weekly salary. Another organization in which it is
necessary to have a skeleton force in the forenoon on Saturdays
compensates the employees who are so employed by a half day off in
the following week. Another concern, after negotiating with its
employees on the subject, gives Saturday mornings off to those who
can be spared. According to the author, these indications of the
prevalence of the 5-day week in office organizations are perhaps as
significant as any data regarding company overtime practices that
were brought out by this survey.
EARNINGS OF OFFICE WORKERS IN NEW YORK
STATE FACTORIES, OCTOBER 1937
OFFICE workers in New York State factories earned an average of
$33.93 per week in October 1937, as compared with $33.05 in October
1936. Male workers received $44.76, nearly twice as much as women,
who averaged only $22.41. This ratio is by no means uniform by
individual industries. These figures are from the annual (October)
survey by the State Department of Labor, reported upon in its
Industrial Bulletin for November 1937. The workers covered in the
survey included clerks, stenographers, bookkeepers, accountants,
cashiers, stock clerks, office managers, and superintendents.
The average weekly earnings of office employees in the various
industry groups in October of each year from 1928 to 1937 are shown
in table 1. The averages given are based upon reports from the
fixed list of manufacturing firms whose reports are used by the New
York Department of Labor in its monthly employment record. The
department states that as substantially the same firms are represented
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Wages and Hours of Labor
481
in these reports each year the data in the table may be assumed to
indicate the trend in office salaries; but that the variations in salaries
between occupations, and in the proportion of higher-salaried super
visory and technical workers in different industries, make comparisons
of dollar earnings between industries questionable. These differences
may also explain the variations between average salaries in New
York City and in the rest of the State as well as between the earnings
of men and women.
T able
1 . —Average
Weekly Earnings of Office Employees in Representative New York
State Factories in October of Each Year, 1928 to 1937
Average weekly earnings in October—
Industry
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
All industries_______________ $36.37 $36.94 $37. 48 $35.49 $31.86 $31.85 $32. 45 $32. 71 $33. 05 $33.93
Stone, clay, and glass. ______
Metals and machinery_______
Wood manufactures_________
Furs, leather, and rubber goods.
Chemicals, oils, paints, etc___
Pulp and paper_____ ______
Printing and paper goods . . .
Textiles-____________________
Clothing and m illinery............
Food and tobacco___________
Water, light, and pow er..____
35.10
37. 63
37. 22
29. 82
33.38
(>)
41.37
30.81
31.82
35.03
31.60
34. 70
37. 72
37. 56
29.34
34. 07
0 )
42. 6 8
30.87
33.30
36.04
30.77
35.52
38.29
36174
30. 58
34.74
(*)
43.94
33.47
32. 60
36. 49
33.01
34. 35
35. 06
38. 07
28.75
32.87
(>)
41.85
33.46
31.27
35.10
30.64
31.48
31.27
32.04
24.73
29.93
f1)
37. 25
29.35
27. 63
33.10
31.59
28. 83
32. 39
30.31
24.72
30.64
(0
36.44
31.76
26.24
31.90
30.24
27.74
34. 29
30. 59
23.72
31.00
<‘>
36.71
29. 97
25.38
31.86
34.10
26.47
35. 30
30. 05
24. 51
30.41
(>)
36.13
2 26.32
26. 28
32.84
34. 6 8
26.65
35. 56
30.02
24.73
31.49
0 )
36.23
26. 92
26. 67
33.55
35.47
28.07
36. 83
32. 67
23.80
32. 59
(>)
37.28
26.45
27.44
33.49
36.30
i Separate earnings not computed because of small number of employees.
s N ot comparable with preceding years.
The average weekly earnings of men and women in October 1937
are given in table 2. The figures in this table were not based on a
fixed list of concerns, as was the case with those in table 1.
T a b l e 2 . —Average
Weekly Earnings of Men and Women in Factory Offices in New
York State, October 1937
Women
M en
Industry i
Total
State
New
York
City
Up-State
$44. 76
$45.25
$44.48
44.99
43.54
36. 70
44.40
49.98
37.14
38.26
43.21
40.85
36.18
38.22
38. 79
54.45
40.28
37. 54
44.95
45.94
46.19
35. 20
47.04
41.97
36. 21
40.26
40. 46
Total
State
$22.41
New
York
City
Up-State
$23.80
$21. 50
2 2 .0 1
23.08
20.41
. 28
21.91
23.05
20. 76
23.00
23.25
2 1 .1 1
21.72
20. 27
18.94
21.62
21.75
20.91
20.58
21.97
22
25. 67
22.64
24. 01
20.32
23.95
24.47
1 Separate earnings not computed for stone, clay, and glass, pulp and paper, and water, light, and power
industries, because of small number of employees.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
482
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
Employment in New York factory offices increased 14.1 percent and
total pay rolls 17.1 percent from October 1936 to October 1937.
Table 3, taken from the November 1937 Industrial Bulletin (Albany),
shows the number of employees and amount of pay roll, by industry,
in October 1937, with the percent of change from October 1936.
T able 3.—Employment and P ay Rolls in Factory Offices in New York State, October 1937,
Compared with October 1936
Employees
Industry
Stone, clay, and glass_____ _ _______ _ _ __________
Metals and machinery. _ __
______
Wood manufactures_________ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Furs, leather, and rubber goods. _ _____
_ _____
Chemicals, oils, paints, etc____ _ _ _ ___ _____ _ __
Printing and paper goods._ ____ _
__________ _
Clothing and millinery. _ _
Food and tobacco _ _____
_____
_. _
Water, light, and power________________________
Pay roll
Number,
October
1937
Percent of
change,
October
1936October
1937
Amount,
October
1937
46,475
+14.1
$1,576, 710
+17.1
786
16,038
1,402
2,973
3,954
332
9,407
2,229
3,724
4,007
1,623
+ 8 .7
+15.0
+ 4.7
+ 2 1 .0
+ 3 .8
+ 9 .6
+18.2
+29.0
+ 9 .0
+17.3
-.9
, 062
590,737
45,797
70,745
128,880
13,534
350, 723
58,950
102,190
134,178
58,914
+14.5
+19.1
+13.9
+16.4
+ 7 .5
+18.3
+21.7
+26. 7
+ 1 2 .2
+17.1
+ 1.4
22
Percent of
change,
October
1936October
1937
EARNINGS IN PUERTO RICAN INDUSTRIES 1936-37
THE average hourly earnings of 80,834 workers in 1,411 industrial
establishments and agricultural undertakings in Puerto Rico in 1936-37
were 13.4 cents and the average actual earnings per week, $4.76. The
average earnings of approximately one-third of these workers were less
than 10 cents per hour. The 55,247 males averaged 15.6 cents and
the 25,481 females, 9.1 cents. The working week was most commonly
48 hours. In the year under review the average earnings of males in
refrigerating plants were 43.3 cents per hour, whereas adult males in
tobacco cultivation averaged as little as 7.3 cents. In the industries
listed in the following table as employing women the hourly earnings of
females ranged from 4.7 cents in fruit-packing shops to 19.2 cents in
cigarette factories. These and the following data are taken from the
Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor of Puerto Rico, 1936-37,
except when otherwise noted.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
483
Wages and Hours of Labor
T a b l e 1 .— A v e r a g e H o u r ly a n d W e e k ly E a r n in g s a n d H o u r s o f L a b o r in V a r io u s
I n d u s tr ie s in P u e r to R ic o , 1 9 3 6 - 3 7
Average hours
per week
Industry, and sex of workers
Number Number
of es- of em
tablish- ployees
ments
Full
time
Alcohol distilleries: M ales... ______________
Button factories:
Males_________________ . ____ _____
Females_____________ . . . . . __________
Cigar factories:
Males_______________ . . . .
.. . _ _
Fem ales... ___________ _ _________ _
Cigarette factories:
Males________ . . . . . . _______________
Females_________ _____ ______________
Coffee cultivation:
M a le s____________________ _
Females____ _ ............. ......... ___
Coffee roasting: M ales.__ __________ ____
Fruit canneries:
Males___________________ _ _________
Females_______________________ ______
Fruit packing shops:
Males_______________________ __ _____
Females___ . . . _________ . . . __ .__
Hat factories:
Males_______________ _____ _
. . . _.
Females_________ _ ______ _ _____
Needlework industry:
Children’s garments:
__
_
______
Males, adult___
Females__ _ _
................. .
Handkerchiefs and art linen:
M ales.. _ _
_ _ _
. . . _
Females . . . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
M en’s shirts:
Males_____________ _ _ __ _______
Females_._
___
M en’s suits:
M a les... . . .
_ _ _ __ __ _
Females_________________ ______
Pants:
Males__________ _
_
____
Females__________________________
Women’s underwear:
M ales..
_____ _
___ _ . .
Females. ___ ______ .
.
___
Women’s dresses:
M ales. _____ _______ _____
Females
__ .
Refrigerating plants: M ales___________ . . .
Sugar-cane planting: Males, adult_______
Sugar factories: Males, adult______________
Sugar refineries: Males_____ _____________
Tobacco cultivation:
Males, adult_ _ _____________ _ .
Females,____ _ _________________
Tobacco stripping:
M ales. _____
_ _ ________ ____
Females____ _________________________
Actu
ally
worked
Aver
age
earnings
per
hour
Average
earnings
per week
Full
time
Actual
6
116
55.6
50.7
$0.178
$9.89
$9.03
3
335
145
48.0
48.0
39.8
43.6
.189
.107
9. 07
5.13
7.51
4. 6 6
436
528
47.5
47.8
41.9
34.2
.203
.171
9. 64
8.17
8.52
5. 8 6
1
13
1
11
48.0
48.0
26.7
28.1
.351
.192
16.85
9.22
9.10
5.39
' .072
.067
.161
3. 45
3.21
7.73
2
5. 8 6
4.04
3.36
2.29
4. 51
. 26
3.41
2
26
8
106
36
10
1,170
278
87
48.0
48.0
48.0
36.0
31.3
46.3
4
4
177
614
52.3
50.5
30.0
28.4
.1 1 2
.08
. 60
2 .1 1
7.48
2
202
4
43
48.0
48.0
36.1
43.2
.094
.047
4
4
181
230
47.8
47.8
46.6
41.7
.219
.128
10. 47
6 .1 2
10. 23
5. 35
110
18
2
2 .0 2
22
1,740
45.9
46.9
34.3
31.9
.154
.104
7. 07
4. 8 8
5. 29
3.33
43
40
526
1,953
46.5
46.2
33.6
35.0
.1 1 1
.093
5.16
4. 29
3.74
3. 26
6
69
433
45.7
44.9
41.7
36.6
.1 1 1
7.31
4.98
4.07
6
208
430
48.0
48.0
41.2
34.5
.143
.139
6 .8 6
6
. 67
5. 90
4.80
19
18
98
409
47.7
47.0
41.9
39.3
.093
5.77
4. 37
5. 07
3.67
27
47
251
2,511
47.4
46.5
35.6
33.5
.136
.099
6.44
4. 60
4.85
3.33
2
18
284
5
20,143
12, 230
384
45.1
45.4
49.6
49.1
55.6
56.0
43.3
41.3
49.6
28.4
44.2
48.6
.191
.104
.433
.128
.175
.168
8.61
4.72
21. 50
6.28
9.73
9.41
8.29
4.29
21.50
3. 65
7. 73
8.18
1,515
676
47.9
48.0
36.3
31.4
.073
.05
3. 50
2.40
2
76
SO
50
1,492
13,033
48.0
47.2
45.0
40.4
.1 2 2
.08
5. 8 6
3. 78
5. 50
3.26
6
6
4
2
109
41
3
112
.160
.1 2 1
6 .6 8
. 66
1. 56
The average hourly earnings of 6,954 workers in 1,268 commercial
establishments in Puerto Rico in 1936-37 were 16.6 cents, the 5,927
adult males averaging 17.5 cents, the 1,020 adult females 11.8 cents
and 7 boys, 4.78 cents. The average actual weekly hours for both
sexes together were 48.9.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
484
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
Earnings of Home Workers
Needlework is one of Puerto Rico’s principal industries, offering
employment for some 50,000 women, many of whom ply this craft in
their own homes 1 for a scant remuneration. In the last quarter of
1936 the Puerto Rican Bureau of Women and Children in Industry
visited 36 towns and barrios where needlework is being carried on in
homes. The survey included 306 homes where 400 home workers
were interviewed as to their hours, earnings, and working conditions.
The general business practices in the industry, as disclosed in the
1933 investigation by the Island Bureau in cooperation with United
States Women’s Bureau, have not changed.2
In the survey of 1936 the data on earnings and working time relate
to the last bundle of work completed or about to be delivered by the
person interviewed. Many of these bundles were small; others were
large enough to keep the needleworkers busy from 2 to 4 weeks.
The estimated hourly earnings of home workers, based on the last
bundle of work, were as follows:
H o u r ly e a r n in g s
P ercen t of
h om e w orkers
Less than one-half a cent_________________________________ 8%
One-half cent and less than 1 cent_________________________ 13%
1 cent and less than 2 cents_______________________________ 24%
2 cents and
less than 4 cents__________________________ 30%
4 cents and
less than 9 cents_________________________ 17%
9 cents and
less than 25 cents_________________________ 2
25 cents and over________________________________________
%
No report_______________________________________________
3
Total_____________________________________________ 100
The commissions of agents and subagents reduce considerably the
home workers’ earnings. In 23 percent of 53 styles for which informa
tion was secured, the agent claimed as commission 20 percent of the
homeworkers’ earnings; for41 percent of the styles, 20 to 30 percent
of the earnings; for 14 percent of the styles, 30 to 40 percent of the
earnings; and for the remaining styles, 40 or more percent of the
earnings.
The reduction of the earnings of home workers as a result of their
work’s passing through so many hands is shown in the following table:
1U. S. Department of the Interior. Annual report of the Secretary, for the fiscal year ending June 30,
1937. Washington 1937. P.331.
2See M onthly Labor Review, July 1935 (pp. 153-154).
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
485
Wages and Hours of Labor
4 a b l e 2.—Earnings of Agents, Subagents, and Home Workers
Garment
Amount
per dozen
contrac
tors
Handkerchiefs...........................
Nightgowns........................ ...........
S lip s.-........................................
Hand tow els................ .......
Costume slips—........ ......... ........
Nightgowns........................ .......
I
l
$0.17
1.60
1.40
.35
1.55
1.93
2.48
2.25
Earnings (per dozen) of
Agent
Subagent
$0 . 0 1
.60
.30
.03
.23
.35
.30
.45
$0 . 0 1
Home
worker
$0.15
.1 0
1 .0 0
1 .0 0
.07
.25
.1 2
1 .2 0
.38
1.38
.50
1 .2 0
.80
1.30
Percent of total work dis
tributed by
Agent
5.8
37.5
21.4
Subagent
5.8
7.1
8 .6
2 0 .0
14.8
18.1
2 0 .0
1 2 .0
55.6
2 0 .0
2 2 .2
7.7
Home
worker
8 8 .2
62.5
71.4
71.4
77.4
62.0
32.2
57.7
In the annual report of the Secretary of the Interior for the fiscal
year ending June 30, 1937 (p. 331), reference is made to the recently
organized needlework cooperative in Puerto Rico to assist many
thousands of skilled needleworkers who found themselves without
employment when relief was discontinued. Established as Puerto
Rico Handcraft, Inc., this organization has been for some months
placing its high-grade hand-made silk garments on the market in the
island and is planning to seek later an outlet in the United States.
fW
W
#
EMPLOYMENT, WAGES, AND HOURS IN ITALY, 1937 1
IN JUNE 1937, 16 percent of the industrial establishments in 35
industries in Italy, which employed 52 percent of all workers in these
industries, reported a total daily average of 1,440,106 employees,
working an average of 166 hours per month, for an average hourly
wage of 2.17 lire.2 The workers in 28 occupations, totaling 1,083,449,
classified by weekly hours of labor showed, during the last week in
August 1937, the following distribution: Less than 40 hours, 16.8 per
cent; 40 to 45 hours, 44.4 percent; 45 to 48 hours, 28.8 percent; and •
over 48 hours, 10 percent. In 1936 the average hourly wage for male
agricultural workers was 1.15 lire; for industrial workers, including
men, women, and children, 1.74 lire.
Table 1 shows, for 35 industries in Italy for June 1937, the percent
age of establishments and of workers reporting; the average number of
workers employed per day; average earnings per hour per worker; and
the average number of hours worked during the month per worker.
For the first 6 months of 1937, the average hourly wage for men,
women, and children in Italian industry varied as follows: January,
1.79 lire; February, March, and April, 1.77 lire; May, 2.11 lire; and
1 Bollettino Mensile di Statistics dell’ Istituto Centrale de Statistics del Regno d ’ltalia, Supplemento
ordinario alia "Gazzetta Ufficiale.” (Rome), August 21,1937 (p. 538); September 21,1937 (p. 618); and Octo
ber 21,1937 (pp. 704, 705).
* Average exchange value of lira, January to August 1937=5.26 cents.
39873— 38-------13
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
486
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
June, 2.17 lire. The notable increase in May and June 1937 was due
in part to a resolution of April 30, 1937, which established wage
increases of 10 and 12 percent in industry, effective May 9, 1937.3
T a b l e 1 . —Employment
and Hourly Earnings in Italy, June 1937, by Industry
Coverage (percent
of total)
Industry
Estab
lishments Workers
reported
repre
sented
Average
number of
workers
employed
per day
Average
earnings
per hour
per
worker
L ir e
All industries______________ ____ ______________
16
5
14
24
19
71
27
S
24
21
25
30
35
34
40
25
20
Wool
Silk:
Wood
_________________________
38
34
53
47
40
41
41
50
41
49
31
40
32
________ _______ ____
22
52
46
29
43
30
46
Average
hours
worked
per
month
per
worker
1,440,106
2.17
166
26
46
47
41
87
60
40
55
35
55
51
56
61
78
36
54
69
48
78
80
32, 365
4,291
18, 731
4,829
10,119
9,871
4,814
52.913
187, 368
22,832
36,731
15,623
273, 231
97, 607
14,186
9.752
12, 728
2 2 , 216
161,516
70,902
.
2. 40
131
181
159
167
173
157
136
165
152
158
166
164
183
180
171
131
170
145
166
170
57
72
74
60
82
83
24, 781
21,157
32, 377
27, 624
32,887
25,499
70,998
31,625
19, 698
36,911
3, 683
6 , 353
1.030
3,039
12,958
26,861
52
66
68
49
39
49
83
33
57
54
69
1 66
2 .0 1
2 .0 2
2.81
2.03
1.25
2 .1 1
2. 24
2.17
1.97
2. 34
2.71
2.95
1.53
2.16
2. 39
1.85
1.55
1.77
.93
1.64
1 35
1.51
1. 73
2. 02
2.46
1 .8 8
. 60
1.90
3.15
1.24
2
1 .0 2
2. 29
1.73
2. 46
142
170
165
166
174
175
173
171
172
156
205
178
170
164
170
170
The percentage distribution of industrial workers in Italy, by
industry and by weekly hours of labor, for the last week in August
1937, is shown in table 2, which also gives the total number of workers
in each industry for the same period.
* Il Lavoro Fascista (Rome), M ay 1, 1937.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
W ages
487
and Hours of Labor
T able 2.—Percentage Distribution of Workers in Italy, by Industry and by Weekly Hours,
Last Week of August 1937
Percent working, per week—
Total num
ber of
persons
40-45
than
45-48
Over 48
employed Less
40 hours
hours
hours
hours
Industry
All industries......... .................................................... .
Treating of silk...... .............. .................. ........................
Silk sp in n in g ...____________________ _______ _
Silk weaving_____________________ ___ _____ ___
Rayon____ ___________________________________
Cotton___________________________ _____ ______
Wool_________________________________________
Flax and hemp___________________ ____________
Jute___________ ________________ . . . ----------Hosiery. ________ ____ _______________________
Knitting___________________________ _________
H a t s ..____________ ___ _____ __________________
Welding---- --------- ---------------- ------------------------Automobiles___________________________ . _ . . .
Automobile body works_______ _______________
Railway machine shops ----------------------------------Electrical shops............................................................. .
Specialized mechanical shops___________________
Various shops___________ _____ ________ _____
Shipyards______________________________ _____ _
Rubber. ______________________________ _____ Perphosphate__________________ ____________
Tanning_______ _______________________ _______
Shoes_______________ _______ ______ ______ ___
P ap er.. ---------------------- ------ ------ -------------------Cement______________ _________ ________ —
Glass.
____________ ______ _________________
Dough products factories..................... . ................. .
1,083,449
16.8
44.4
28.8
25, 599
16, 598
25,927
28,181
190,207
89,394
23,724
13, 582
23,136
16,050
9,346
70,825
25,495
31,982
10.731
15,124
41,976
100, 688
151,336
28,470
20,983
6 , 878
12, 468
24, 639
28,395
16,179
17,013
18, 523
14.4
24.6
18.7
18.8
18.6
19.2
82.5
53.6
39.4
46.6
40.4
31.4
33.9
38.6
53.4
51.6
47.2
48.1
49.3
3.0
21.3
37.0
22.4
35.6
42.6
37.6
16.5
2 2 .6
38.1
18.3
26.4
41.5
15.6
9.4
3.8
1 0 .2
16.5
12. 5
8.3
14.6
5.9
13.4
15.1
2 0 .8
32.6
21.7
14.4
14.7
41.7
2 2 .8
29.6
47.1
40.2
38.1
•61.1
31.6
42.9
6 6 .2
61.0
52.5
51.1
73.6
59.2
42.4
1 0 .0
.1
.5
4.9
1 2 .2
5.4
6 .8
5.9
6 .8
7.3
4.9
1.3
2 1 .0
17.1
1 0 .0
28.2
28.3
56.5
45.4
25.9
29.4
29.9
24.2
22.5
38.5
10.9
15.9
8 .1
13.0
16.9
14.8
10.5
17.9
23.7
1 0 .1
40.0
5.2
7.8
2.3
2.9
5.9
1 2 .0
21.3
9.8
2 .2
4.1
5.0
2 2 .0
10.9
In table 3 are presented the hourly wages of adult workers in
various occupations in 5 large cities of Italy on January 1, 1937.
T a b l e 3.— Wages per Hour, Adult Workers in Various Occupations in 5 Large Cities
of Italy, January 1, 1937
Industry and occupation
Building:
M a so n s.............................................
Bricklayers-.......................................
Carpenters...........................................
Joiners........................... ...................
Tinners (hydraulic brass workers)
Painters_______________________
Structural-iron workers_________
Concrete workers._____ ________
Laborers-...........................................
Mechanical engineering:
F itte r s...............................................
Turners................................................
Molders________________________
Patternmakers________ _________
Laborers, unskilled......................... .
Furniture:
Cabinet makers................................ .
Upholsterers....... ................................
Polishers............................................ .
See fo o tn o te s a t end o f table.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Florence
Milan
Rome
Turin
Venice
L ir e
L ir e
L ir e
L ir e
L ir e
2.75
2.75
2.95
3.20
3.20
3.47
3.15 1f
3.15
3.25
2.90
3.25 }
3.10
3.25 {f
2 .1 0
2.65 }
2.90 \/
3.30
2.30
2.80
2.62
3.38 }
3.88
3.72
3. 20
3.53
3.15
2.89
3.20
3.50
2.85
3.25
1.90
2 .0 2
2.31
2.31
2.31
3.03
1.87
2. 55
2. 55
3.20
2.90
2.95
2.50
3.24
2.93
2.46
2.08
3.25 \f
3.15 /\
3.45
3.30 /\
3.25
3.50
2.60
2 .1 0
3.25
3.25
2.90
0 )
3.30
2.60
3.30
(>)
2 .2 0
2 .0 0
3.45
3.97
3.25
f
1
2.77 \f
2.92
2 .8 6
3.00
2.85
85
3.00
2.85
2.85
3.00
3.00
4.70
2.35
2.85
3.00
2 .1 0
2 .2 0
2.25
2.25
3.00
2. 25
1.80
1,99
3.13
2.89
2. 77
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
488
T able 3.— Wages per Hour, Adult Workers in Various Occupations in 5 Large Cities
of Italy, January 1, 1937—Continued
Printing:
Compositors, hand___
Compositors, machine.
Machine minders.........
B ookbin ders................
Laborers-.......................
Electrical installation:
Skilled electricians
Electric power distribution:
Skilled electricians____
Unskilled laborers,........
Transportation:
Motormen, street car.
Milan
Florence
Industry and occupation
L ir e
3 .5 0
f
[
3.97 1
2. 25
4 .1 5
4. 33
3 .9 1
4 .5 2
3 .9 4
4 .1 1
3 .1 0
3 .1 8
3 .7 8
2 .0 5
3 .1 3
3 .8 0
/
l
L ir e
3 .5 0
[
3 .5 0
{
(■)
Rom e
Turin
Venice
L ir e
L ir e
L ir e
/
1
/
4 .0 7
3 .8 0
4 .4 3
4 .4 9
3 .6 0
4 .0 5
4 .1 5
4 .0 4
4 .1 5
2 .9 0
3 .1 5
2 .4 0
1 .7 8
4 .5 3
3 .2 7
2. 62
(>)
1 .4 5
3 .0 8
2 .1 5
\
/
2 .9 3
Motormen, autobus
2 .2 5
3 .4 5
Conductors, street ear
2.00
2 .8 5
0)
Conductors, autobus.
2.00
2 .9 5
(0
Motor drivers............ -
2.12 I
2 .4 5
2. 60
Horse drivers...............
2 .3 5
Porters, freight.............
2 .3 0
2 .0 7
1 .8 5
2 .4 5
3 .2 5
{
2 .6 0
3 .5 0
2 .0 8
3 .4 8
2 .2 5
3 .1 0
{
1 .8 0
2 .3 0
2 .8 9
2. 30
Maintenance of way men
Food:
Bakers..................................
Local authorities:
U nskilled laborers............
1
/
}
2 .3 6
2. 25
( ')
.«
/
\
f
1
/
\
/
\
3. 25
3 .9 0
(2)
..
4 .1 5
3 .6 0
(3)
f
1
f
1
f
\
2 .5 0
2 .9 8
2 .5 0
2 .9 8
2 .3 4
2 .8 2
2 .3 4
2 .8 2
2 .2 0
2 .5 0
2 .0 5
2 .1 0
1 .9 3
2 .0 0
2 .0 5
2 .5 2
(*)
(l)
} (1)
} «
j
1 .9 9
}
2 .0 3
}
1 .7 2
}
2 .0 9
}
1 .6 5
2 .4 3
3 .4 0
2 .1 9
3 .6 3
/
1
1 .7 8
2 .1 1
}
2 .1 4
1 Paid by the month.
1 D aily wage of 6.50 lire, plus a share of receipts varying from 17 to 45 percent.
* Piecework.
EARNINGS OF MOTORCAR DRIVERS IN
SOVIET UNION, 1937 1
WHEN the first 5-year plan (1928-32) was promulgated, there were
in the Soviet Union only about 18,000 freight and passenger motor
cars, and these were mainly of obsolete types. In 1935 the number
of motorcars had risen to 260,000, and the motorcar industry of
that country had advanced to fifth place in the world and to fourth
place in Europe. By the end of 1937 the Soviet Union led all the
countries of Europe in the manufacture of freight motorcars and held
second place in the world.
Parallel with the growth of motor-vehicle traffic there was an ad
vance in the number and importance of chauffeurs and drivers. These
workers were organized first in the Union of Workers of the Public
Transport Services. In 1934, however, a special Motor Drivers’
■Joint press report of International Transportworkers’ Federation and International Marine Office«’
Association, Antwerp, Belgium, October 11, 1937.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Wages and Hours of Labor
489
Union was founded, embracing the drivers of trucks, passenger cars,
buses, and taxis, as well as the workers in the repair shops. Because
of the growth of the union it was divided into regional sections—one
for Moscow and Leningrad, and one for the South, and one for the East.
At the time of its foundation in 1934 the Moscow and Leningrad
Motor Drivers’ Union had 96,424 members of a total number of
111,460 drivers and repair workers. By January 1, 1937, its mem
bership had risen to 153,000 out of 160,000 workers in that industry
in the Soviet Union. The executive organ of the union is the central
committee which is elected at the congress, and under which are work
ers’ committees, works councils, group committees, according to the
nature of the enterprise. In addition the union has six regional com
mittees.
The motor drivers of Soviet Russia have a 7-hour day; workers
engaged in work harmful to health (as in accumulator rooms) a 6-hour
day. Drivers and workers engaged in unhealthful work receive a
month’s paid vacation per year. Woman workers, in case of preg
nancy, receive 4 months’ leave—two before and two after childbirth—
during which the average rate of wages is paid. Pupils at technical
schools are given 1 to IK months’ leave per year. The working of
longer hours is punished directly by the union or by a court sentence.
The wages of bus and taxi drivers consist of a basic wage varying
according to qualifications, and various allowances for good care of
the car, economy in the use of fuel, tires, etc. The basic monthly
wages of class 1 bus drivers are 471 rubles 2 and those of class 2 driv
ers are 421 rubles; for taxi drivers of these classes the rates are 246
and 216 rubles, respectively. In addition, bus drivers have a seniority
allowance, which amounts to 10 percent of the basic wage after 2
years’ service, and 20 percent after 3 years’ service. The allowances
are as follows: 33 rubles a month for good care of the vehicle; half
a month’s wages for driving half a year without a break-down; 60 per
cent of the value of the gasoline saved; and 65 percent of the value
of the saving in tires. In this way a taxi driver’s earnings total 400
to 450 rubles a month.
The wages of truck drivers are made up differently. In addition
to the basic wage, which again varies according to the qualifications
of the driver and the carrying capacity of the car, payment is also
made for time taken up by the loading and unloading of the cars.
The basic wage of a first-class driver of a 5-ton truck, for instance,
is 341 rubles a month, to which are added allowances, totaling 50
to 100 rubles per quarter year, for taking good care of the car and
driving without break-downs. The allowances for economy in the
use of fuel and tires are the same as for other drivers. Actual earn
ings of truck drivers average 600 to 700 rubles a month.
’ Value of ruble ae fixed b y Soviet law 18 20 cents in U nited States currency.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
490
INCREASE OF WAGES OF LOW-PAID WORKERS
IN SOVIET UNION
THE Soviet of People’s Commissars of the U. S. S. R. issued a reso
lution on November 1, 1937, in accordance with which the lowest
paid industrial and transportation workers were to receive increases
of wages.1 The average industrial wage rose from about 190 rubles 2
a month in 1935 to approximately 237 rubles a month in 1936; this
average, however, included the salaries of the highest paid officials,
engineers, and skilled workers, as well as those of the lowest paid
unskilled laborers. The wage scale of the unskilled workers remained
at an extremely low level. The majority of skilled workers had by
1935 considerably increased their money income to meet the rising
cost of living because of the fact that they had been put on a piecerate basis, but the average unskilled worker continued to work for the
most part on a time basis and earned about 70 rubles a month—a wage
rate which had been established in 1929 when staple food and othei
prices were much lower.
In 1935 70 percent of all working time was paid for on a piecerate basis whereas in 1928 only about one-half (57.5 percent) was paid
on this basis.3 Although no precise figures have been published
concerning the present extent of piece work, it has undoubtedly in
creased, as in 1936, 78 percent of all work in heavy industry was
organized under the piece-work system.4 The new wage increases
tend to close, at least to some extent, the gap between the lowest
paid workers and the higher paid piece workers. Beginning Novem
ber 1, 1937, laborers working on a time basis will receive not less
than 115 rubles a month; those on piece work will be paid not less than
110 rubles a month. The total wage fund is to be increased in 1938
for this purpose by 600,000,000 rubles.
i Report of Hon. Joseph E. Davies, United States Ambassador to the Soviet Union, November 11, 1937.
* Value of ruble as fixed by Soviet law is 20 cents, United States currency.
• Pravda No. 275, October 5, 1937.
«Plannovoe Khozyastvo (Planned Economy), November 1,1937.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Employment Offices
OPERATIONS OF UNITED STATES EMPLOYMENT
SERVICE, DECEMBER 1937
OVER 1,162,000 claims for unemployment-compensation benefits
were filed through offices of the United States Employment Service
during the first week of January, preliminary reports reveal. This
total represents the initial registrations in the 22 States (including the
District of Columbia) which inaugurated benefit payment procedure
.at the beginning of January 1938, as well as the claims received in
Wisconsin, where unemployment-compensation benefit payments have
been made for some time. This large initial volume of registrations
for claims received follows an increasing volume of new applications
during December. In the month a total of 452,000 new applications
were registered at the Employment Service offices throughout the
country. A large number of placements also were made, 178,676
being reported, although declines were reported from the previous
month.
The largest number of placements among the 178,676 jobs filled
during December were in private employment. Altogether 129,382
private jobs were filled, 65,761 represented placements of men and
63,621 those of women. Private placements during the month were
17.9 percent less than the number reported in the previous month,
the greater part of the decline being in placements of men. In addi
tion to seasonal influences and the effects of reduced activity in certain
lines of business, a large part of the decrease in placements resulted
from the increased load placed upon the facilities of the offices by the
expanded registration of workers. Placements on public work at pre
vailing wages numbered 46,663, nearly all placements being of men.
The Employment Service also assisted in making 2,63 if assignments
on security-wage relief-work jobs.
Nearly 900,000 registrations for work were received at the employ
ment offices during December, 452,035 representing new applications
received from persons registering with the Service for the first time,
and 441,235 applications representing the renewal of registrations
which had been received previously but which had lapsed to an in
active status. The volume of new applications represents a gain of
51.1 percent over the number reported in November and is the highest
single month’s total received since December 1935.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
491
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
492
The increase may be accounted for in large part as being made in
anticipation of the inauguration of unemployment-compensation bene
fit payments in 22 States beginning in January 1938. Although the
percentage increase in the volume of new applicants for the country
as a whole was 51.1 percent, the increase in volume in those States
planning to pay unemployment-compensation benefits equaled 76.7
percent. In the non-benefit-paying States, however, the average
increase was only 12.9 percent. Registration with public employ
ment offices is required in connection with the filing of claims for
benefits and many claimants registered in advance of the formal filing
of their claim. Increases in the volume of new applications were
reported in 39 States.
As a result of this large inflow both in new applicants and in regis
trants previously registered but recently inactive, the active file of
the Employment Service rose 10.3 percent during the month to a
total of 4,874,924 registrants. The largest increases in the active file
were reported among men, a gain of 11.7 percent occurring. This
brought the total of male applicants to 3,816,171. Active women
registrants numbered 1,058,753.
A summary of the activities during December is given in table 1.
T able 1 — Summary of Operations of United States Employment Service, December 1937
Percent of change from—
Activity
Number
452,035
178,676
129,382
46, 663
2,631
4,874,924
November
1937
December
1936
+51.1
-2 0 .3
-1 7 .9
-2 6 .8
- 9 .6
+10.3
+47.2
-4 1 .1
-2 4 .8
-5 9 .9
-8 2 .5
- 2 2 .8
December
1935
- 9 .8
-7 7 .7
+114. 0
-4 8 .7
- 1 0 0 .0
-4 6 .0
Reports of activities of the Employment Service for veterans showed
the same general trends in every field as for nonveterans. The
increase in the number of veterans in the active file, however, was
slightly less than the increase for nonveteran men (table 2).
T able 2.— Summary of Veterans'1Activities, December 1937
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Percent of change from—
Activity
Number
17,295
9,810
4,822
4,673
315
267,915
November
1937
December
1936
+55.0
-2 1 .3
-3 2 .7
- 5 .4
-1 0 .5
+ 9 .7
+36.8
-4 8 .1
-3 5 .0
-5 5 .6
- 6 6 .6
- 2 2 .2
December
1935
-2 0 .4
-8 3 .3
+74.0
-5 2 .6
-9 9 .3
-5 1 .5
Employment Offices
493
T able 3.—Operations of United States Employment Service, December 1937
TOTAL
Placements
Private
Division and State
United States
Public
Per
cent of
T o ta l 1 N um change Regular
from (over 1
ber
N o month)
vem
ber
------ 178,676 129,382 -1 7 .9
3,969
151
656
388
877
432
1,465
Per
Tem
cent of
porary N um change N um
from
(1
ber
month ber
N o
vem
or less)
ber
Per
cent of
change
from
N o
vem
ber
Active me
Dec.
31
Per
cent of
change
from
N ov.
30
43, 740 85, 642 46, 663 -2 6 .8 452, 035 +51.1 4,874,924 +10.3
-1 7 .9
+46.6
-1 4 .8
- 1 .0
-3 0 .6
- 9 .8
-1 9 .7
2, 029
82
458
185
448
198
658
1,940 1,700 -3 0 .5 61,893
69
328 -4 2 .8 6,138
164 -4 6 .8 3, 598
198
203
361 - 3 .7 1, 641
429
368 -4 1 .2 19,981
234
117 - 8 . 6 9,736
362 -1 6 .8 20, 799
807
Middle Atlantic------ 19, 392 14,614 -2 3 .6
New York_____ 10,903 8,598 -2 6 .3
3, 024 2,623 -2 3 .8
N ew Jersey____
Pennsylvania—
5,465 3, 393 -1 5 .6
4,926
2,504
981
1,441
9,688 4,496 -3 3 .9 87,775 +68.9 1,110,677 + 7 .6
6,094 2,233 -4 2 .8 33, 211 +47.5 251, 597 - 1 .3
392 + 9 .5 9,343
1, 642
182, 614 + 7 .7
- .2
1,952 1,871 -2 6 .4 45, 221 +124.9 676,466 + 1 1 . 2
New England______
Maine.* ..............
New HampshireVermont_______
Massachusetts—
Rhode Island—
Connecticut____
5,776
479
822
749
1,245
588
1,893
N ew appli
cations
East North Central.. 33,429 26,925
9,486 7, 039
Ohio__________
Indiana________ 3,037 2,766
Illinois____ ____ 13,805 11, 571
Michigan.........
3,278 2,561
Wisconsin--------- 3,823 2,988
-1 9 .8
-1 9 .9
-1 6 .8
-1 7 .2
-3 1 .8
-1 9 .7
10,466 16,459 5, 208 -3 7 .0 71,186
2,643 4, 396 1,469 -4 0 .8 16, 382
268 -1 9 .3 7,900
1, 590 1,176
3, 857 7,714 2,173 -3 8 .7 16, 972
902 1,659
575 -3 3 .4 14, 022
1,474 1,514
723 -3 1 .2 15,910
+174.6 453, 599 +22.4
+259. 4 26, 513 +45.7
+124. 5 23, 607 +32.3
+48.1 10,407 +41.6
+119.6 260, 624 + 8 .9
+187.6 49,162 +35.0
+269. 0 83, 286 +61.7
+ 7 .0
+ 1 0 .1
-1 2 .7
- 8 .7
+42.3
+12.3
965,104 + 7 .5
277, 776 + 8 .4
102,665 - 1 . 6
300,097 + 4 .6
147, 782 + 1 2 . 8
136, 784 +14.8
West North Central. 18,827 12,483 -2 5 .3
Minnesota ----- 4, 502 3,387 -2 0 .3
Iow a. ________
4,096 2,816 -3 0 .9
M issouri. .......... 3,717 2 , 2 1 0 -2 4 .4
North D a k o ta ... 1, 988 1,806 -2 3 .7
South D akota.. . 1,264
527 -1 8 .0
830 -3 3 .3
Nebraska______
1,645
Kansas.............
907 -2 5 .2
1,615
5, 222
1,743
South A tla n tic ... . . 21,577 11,859 -1 7 .8
540 -3 1 .4
Delaware______
606
M aryland______ 1,649 1 , Oil - 1 1 . 2
District of Colum bia.............. 1,881 1,704 -7 .1
Virginia_______
3,681 1,927 + 5 .9
West Virginia. . .
994 -3 0 .1
1,463
North Carolina.. 4,826 3, 209 - 6 .5
South Carolina.. 1,557
614 -5 5 .2
Georgia________ 4, 554 1,860 -2 9 .2
Florida-----------1, 360
0
5,041
142
445
6,818 9, 222 -2 3 .3 60, 848 +89.1 527, 263 + 1 2 . 6
60 -5 8 .3
398
898 + 1 0 . 2 10, 733 + 4 .7
566
638 -3 4 .9 14,696 +227.6 53,404 +48.9
735
948
483
1,265
267
756
969
177 + 9 .9 2,213 - 1 0 . 8
979 1,747 -2 2 .4 4,598 +11.3
511
258 - 6 8 . 1 6,981 +147. 5
1,944 1,615 -1 4 .4 17,888 +125.9
347
935 -3 0 .4 2,938 +35.8
1,104 2,691 - 2 2 . 8 8 , 696 +40.7
0
1 ,1 0 1
+15.4 1,940 +63.0
East South C entral.. 10, 043
K entucky........ .
2,535
Tennessee______ 2,856
Alabama.............. 2,126
M ississippi------2,526
2, 274
452
1,125
570
127
4,469
1,070
2,029
1,168
202
-1 1 .9
-1 2 .7
+20.4
-4 3 .9
+155.7
West South Central. 42,305 36, 670 - 3 .9
Arkansas............. 1,739 1,481 -4 3 .1
Louisiana______ 4,367 3,688 +19.3
Oklahoma_____
2,819 1,939 -3 3 .0
T e x a s ............ . _ 33,380 29, 562
- .0
991
607
111
413
335
0
7,261
1,644
1,794
1,219
1,199
416
417
572
6,157
1,062
1,160
1,506
180
726
815
708
-3 8 .1 29, 551 + 9 .8 511, 236
-4 6 .3 8,259 + 2 1 . 2 115, 566 + 3 .6
-3 9 .1 4,887 + 7 .5 62,801 +13.2
+ 2 .1
7, 539 +16.3 151,854 + 6 .4
-7 2 .8 1,131 -3 6 .2 26,911 + 3 .9
-4 9 .9 1,556 +17.3 51,581 - 3 .0
-5 4 .4 2, 555 -1 7 .8 42,455 + 5 .6
+ 2 . 6 3,624 +26.9 60,068 + 5 .0
26,848
47,204
80, 291
93,989
52,251
99,905
62, 638
-1 0 .4
- 4 .1
+18.1
+25.9
+ 7 .8
+11.5
+ .8
2,195 5,498 -1 8 .5 28,069 + 6 6 . 0 368,954 + 6 . 6
618 1,447 - 3 . 0 2,547 -2 4 .0 104,530 + 1 . 1
904
827 -4 4 .5 8,043 +85.4 116,839 + 4 .9
903 +37.2 12,576 +109.8 8 8 , 360 +26.5
598
75 2,321 -2 5 .3 4,903 +52.1 59,225 - 3 .5
5, 276 31,394 5,571 - 7 . 2 44,287
253 - 8 .7 3,415
408 1,073
675 +18.8 7, 473
1,417 2,271
349 1, 590
878 -2 9 .3 5, 876
3,102 26,460 3,765 - 3 . 9 27,523
+54.0 395,143 + 6 .9
+113.3 47,525 +10.7
+44.2 64,816 + 9 .3
+61.5 98,055 + 7 .3
+50.1 184, 747 + 5 .0
-3 0 .9
-7 4 .3
-3 2 .6
-1 9 .6
- 1 0 .2
-4 9 .4
- 7 .9
-3 4 .0
+32.6
2,446
143
304
83
677
235
693
134
177
3,096 3, 8 8 6 -2 9 .5 14, 408 + 1 0 . 1 171, 813 +15.1
266
751 -3 6 .5 1,158 +13.5 23,333 + 1 2 . 0
278
258 -2 6 .9 2,170 +43.6 17,862 +28.4
212
554 - 8 .7
136 -6 6 .7
6,389 +28.1
987 1,109 -3 1 .3 4,436 - 8 .5 59,026 +12.5
554 -1 5 .9 1,104 - 1 1 . 6 24,303 + 6 . 8
213
451
730 +16.1 2,600 +34.6 18, 394 +18.2
467
187 -5 5 .6 1, 747 +24.6 18, 408 + 2 1 . 2
222
161 -3 3 .7
639 +21.9
4,098 +15.1
Pacific ________ _ 17, 791 12, 851 -2 7 .0
942 -2 9 .7
Washington____ 2,180
675 -3 8 .9
Oregon.................
1,547
California- ____ 14, 064 11, 234 -2 5 .9
6,060
398
303
5,359
6,791 4,925 -1 8 .4 54,018 +34.4 371,135
544 1,230 - 2 1 . 2 8 , 1 0 1 +32.8 71, 592
372
871 - 3 . 9 9 ,37C +103. 5 54,945
5,875 2,824 -2 0 .9 36, 547 +23.9 244, 598
M ountain_______ _
Montana______
Idaho____ _____
W yo m in g ..........
Colorado.............
N ew Mexico___
Arizona ______
U tah__________
N evada________
9,536
1,164
840
485
2,792
1,005
1,900
79C
560
5,542
409
582
295
1,664
448
1,144
601
399
1 ,0 2 2
‘ Includes 2,631 security-wage placements on work-relief projects,
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
+23.4
+ 2 1 .0
+28.9
+23.0
494
T
able
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
3 . —Operations
of United States Employment Service, December 1937— C on tin u ed
M EN
New applica
tions
Placements
Public
Private
Division and State
Total
1
Active file
Per
cent of
Per
Per
change
cent
of
cent of Reg Tem
N
um
po
from Dec. 31
ber
ular
rary N um change
N um change
No
from (over 1
ber from
ber
(1
vem
N o
N o
month
ber
vem
vem month) or less)
ber
ber
United S t a te s -------- 113,841 65,761 -2 8 .0
Per
cent of
change
from
Nov.
30
18, 274 47,487 45,692 -2 7 .1 340,026 +68.7 3,816,171 +11.7
766 1,645 -3 1 .4 43, 281 +186. 2 336, 252 +22.9
324 -4 3 .5 4,464 +256.0 22, 501 +43. 5
45
102
161 -4 7 .0 2,362 +129.8 18,036 +32. 6
8,615 +47.8
90
360 - 4 . 0 1,370 +71.5
191
364 -4 1 .3 14, 601 + 134.9 189,987 + 9.1
63
89 -2 8 .2 5,911 +171. 6 34,733 +34.8
275
347 -1 3 .9 14,573 +299.3 62,380 +62.1
-2 7 .6
+62.8
-2 7 .9
-2 4 .1
-4 0 .8
122
-3 1 .1
577 -2 2 .3
894
25
272
74
162
59
302
-3 5 . 1
-3 6 .1
-3 4 .4
-3 2 . 5
1,753
965
293
495
3,548 4,213 -3 4 .9 67,879
2,504 2,092 -4 3 .0 25,489
390 + 9.6 7,029
457
587 1,731 -2 9 .2 35,361
East North C entral. 17, 287 10,934 -3 4 .1
5,141 2, 739 -3 8 .1
Ohio______ ____
Indiana________ 1,330 1,072 -2 6 .9
7,124 4,946 -2 8 .8
Illinois_____ _
1,793 1,086 -4 6 .2
Michigan.............
1,899 1,091 -3 7 .0
Wisconsin___
3,980
887
567
1,603
358
565
, 954 5,111 -3 7 .4 53,061 + 2 2 . 0 773,647 + 9 .0
1,852 1,431 -4 1 .4 12,801 +24.6 224,897 +10.5
505
256 -2 0 .7 5,454 - 1 . 2 83, 016
-.7
3,343 2,150 -3 8 .6 11,681 + 5 .7 235,480 + 5.1
572 -3 3 .1 11, 588 +58.5 123,922 +15.3
728
702 -3 2 .3 11,537 +23.7 106,332 +17.0
526
N ew England--------M a in e ..._____
New HampshireVermont_______
M assachusetts-..
Rhode Island---Connecticut------
3,385
394
536
524
717
224
990
1,660
70
374
164
353
Middle Atlantic........
New York_____
New Jersey------Pennsylvania—
9,763
5,633
1,149
2,981
5,301
3,469
750
1,082
West North Central. 12, 400
2, 689
Minnesota-------2,636
Iowa__________
Missouri_______ 2,506
North D a k o ta ... 1,159
1,006
South D a k o ta .. .
1,167
Nebraska______
Kansas------------- 1,237
6,151 -3 7 .3
1, 595 -2 9 .4
1,394 -4 3 .6
-3 8 .4
1 ,0 0 1
980 -3 6 .7
282 -3 1 .7
360 -4 9 .0
539 -3 1 .9
South Atlantic_____ 14, 832
248
Delaware---------Maryland______ 1,098
612
Dist. of Col___
2,672
Virginia_______
699
West Virginia.. .
North Carolina.. 3,230
South Carolina.. 1, 300
Georgia................. 3,682
1,291
5,318
182
462
463
958
243
1,634
370
1 , 006
7,842
1,860
1,819
1,683
2, 480
2,340
433
994
754
159
East South Central.
Kentucky______
Tennessee______
Alabama_______
M ississippi_____
-3 1 .3
-3 8 .1
-3 2 .9
-2 5 .3
- 5 .1
-0 0 .8
-1 2 .5
-5 9 .3
-4 2 .1
1,898
50
236
198
428
107
416
125
338
0
- 2 1 .0
-3 2 .4
+33.6
-5 0 .7
+224.5
1
, 006
136
431
334
105
876, 224 + 8 . 6
194,436 - 1 . 0
147, 231 + 8.5
534, 557 + 1 2 . 6
6
3,941 6 , 069 -3 8 .5 21,177 +23. 0 414, 297 + 6 . 2
794 1,042 -4 6 .8 6,236 +51.1 92,389 + 5 .5
961 1,123 -4 0 .4 3, 523 +16.5 50, 758 + 15.1
656 1, 504 + 2 . 0 5,321 +32.1 121,553 + 7.1
644
650 -3 5 .1 21,182 + 4.1
177 -7 2 .8
718 -4 9 .9 1, 067 + 17.8 44, 548 - 2 . 2
246
224
807 -5 4 .6 1,790 -1 7 .9 34,771 + 6 . 6
698 + 2 . 2 2,590 +32.8 49, 096 + 5 .4
416
3,420 9,104 -2 3 .5 44,545 + 106.1 389,923 + 14.8
7,964 + 7 .8
132
603 +24.3
60 -5 8 .3
226
636 -3 4 .2 11,065 +248. 5 42, 525 +50. 7
149 + 4 .9 1,432 + 7 .6 18,144 - 7 .5
265
530 1,711 -2 3 .7 3,312 +41.5 33,032 - 1 .7
136
250 -6 8 .9 5,573 +199. 6 66,638 + 19.5
1,218 1, 595 -1 4 .1 11, 554 + 112.5 64, 238 +26.6
245
927 -3 0 .6 2, 308 +39. 5 38, 027 + 9.4
2, 675 -2 3 .0 7,331 +62.0 73, 451 +14.2
668
1 ,1 0 1
+ 16.6 1,367 + 6 8 . 8 45,904 + 1.7
0
1,334 5,440 -1 8 .9 22,151 +78.2 286,679 + 7 .6
297 1,416 - 3 .5 1, 663 -1 7 .0 83,663 + 1 .4
825 -4 4 .6 5, 934 + 1 1 2 . 8 91, 484 + 5.3
563
881 +37.0 10, 375 +116.3 69,366 +30.1
420
54 2,318 -2 5 .4 4,179 +47.0 42,166 - 3 .5
2,207 21, 704 5,512 - 7 .1 33, 218
844
250 - 7 .4 2,758
139
+18.7 5,692
70C 1,918
668
849 -2 9 .7 4,633
64
978
1,304 17,964 3,745 - 3 . 8 20,135
+70.4 U06,320 + 8 .9
+ 167.8 38, 854 + 12.5
+70.1 51,633 +11.3
+74.2 79,891 + 8 . 0
+61.7 135, 942 + 7 .5
-2 9 .9 11,467 +19.0 141,428 +17.4
921 +22.3 19, 216 + 14.0
-3 6 .9
-2 7 .0 1,820 +51.2 15,754 +30.5
5, 209 +33.7
-6 7 .7
357 -1 3 .1
46,750 + 14.4
-3 1 .8 3,346 - 4 .1
-1 6 .2
888
- 4 .8 20, 064 + 7 .5
+ 15.8 2,169 +40.9 15,406 + 2 0 . 6
-5 6 .2 1,466 +59.2 15,588 +25.3
3,441 + 18.3
500 +27.9
-3 3 .6
,959
1,061
530
319
1,963
831
1,346
454
455
3, 021
316
276
137
854
279
595
269
295
-4 4 .2
-7 8 .4
-4 7 .6
-2 7 . 5
- 2 0 .1
-5 7 .8
-2 2 .7
-4 9 .2
+41.1
1,225
94
105
25
274
113
425
65
124
1, 796 3,842
222
741
254
171
112
131
58C 1,097
166
55C
17C
726
204
183
160
171
11,890
1,703
1,299
7,125
490
437
6,198
-4 0 .6
-4 1 .7
-4 1 .5
-4 0 .4
3,101
146
141
2,814
4,024 4,756 -1 7 . 1 43,247 +49.8 291, 401
344 1, 209 - 2 2 . 2 6 ,974 +46.5 62,135
862 - 3 . 9 8,370 +121.9 46,067
296
3,384 2,685 -1 8 .4 27,903 +37.2 183,199
M ountain_________
M ontana......... .
Tdaho__________
Wyoming..........
Colorado.............
New Mexico........
Arizona................
U t a h .............. .
N evada................
i includes
801
433
345
336
36
136
123
0
West South Central. 29,483 23, 911 - 9 . 2
983 -4 9 .0
1,238
Arkansas______
3,290 2,618 +43.8
Louisiana............
1,892 1,042 -3 9 .8
Oklahoma_____
Texas.................... 23,063 19, 268 - 7 .6
Washington____
Oregon.......... .......
California............
2 ,2 1 0
+101.4
+77.2
+19.4
+163. 2
6
8 ,8 8 8
2,388 security-wage placements on work-relief projects.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
+27.1
+23.9
+32.7
+26.9
Employment Offices
T a b l e 3 . —Operations
495
of United States Employment Service, December 1937— C o n tin u e d
WOMEN
N ew appli
cations
Placements
Active file
Private
Division and State
T o ta l 1
United States____ _____ 64,835
Percent
Tem
of
porary
N um change Regular
ber
from (over 1 month
N ov month)
or
ember
less)
63, 621
- 3 .9
25,466
New England___________
M aine______________
N ew Hampshire_____
V erm ont... ________
M assachusetts.............
Rhode Island. . . . . _
Connecticut________
2,391
85
286
225
528
364
903
2,309
81
282
224
524
310
1,135
57
186
888
- 9 .1
+35.0
+12.4
+27.3
- 2 1 .6
+ 2 .6
-1 7 .9
Middle Atlantic_______
New Y ork............ ..
N ew Jersey...... ..........
Pennsylvania.............
9, 629
5, 270
1,875
2,484
9,313
5,129
1,873
2,311
-1 5 .0
-1 7 .7
-1 8 . 6
- 4 .4
3,173
1,539
East North Central____ 16,142
Ohio_______________
4,345
Indiana____ ________
1,707
Illinois_____________
6,681
Michigan___________
1,485
Wisconsin________ _ 1,924
15,991
4, 300
1,694
6,625
1,475
1,897
-5 .7
- 1 .5
- 8 .8
- 5 .6
-1 5 .0
- 4 .6
6
, 332
1,792
1,422
1,209
826
245
470
368
West North Central_____
Minnesota_____
Iowa_________
Missouri_________ .
North Dakota_______
South Dakota_______
Nebraska___________
Kansas_____________
6,427
1,813
1,460
South A tlan tic... ______
Delaware______ . . .
Maryland ________
District of Columbia..
Virginia __________
West Virginia___ . .
North Carolina______
South Carolina . __
Georgia. . . _____ _
Florida_______ _____
6,745
358
551
1,269
1,009
764
1,596
257
872
69
6,541
358
549
1,241
969
751
1,575
244
854
, 201
675
1, 037
443
46
2, 129
637
1, 035
414
43
West South C entral.. . . .
Arkansas__________
Louisiana___________
Oklahoma_________
Texas______________
, 822
501
1,077
927
10,317
M ountain_____ ______
M ontana___ _
Idaho_____ . ______
Wyoming__________
Colorado__________ .
N ew Mexico________
Arizona____________
U tah_____________ .
N evada_______ ____ _
Pacific_____________
Washington ___ _ _
Oregon___ ______ _ .
California...................
East South Central.
Kentucky_____ . . .
Tennessee__________
Alabama____________
M ississippi..................
1
1 ,2 1 1
829
258
478
378
38,155 112,009
Percent
of
change
from
N ov. 30
+14.9 1,058,753
+ 5.4
18,612
1,674
1,236
271
5,380
3,825
6,226
+151. 0
+268. 7
+115.0
-1 2 .3
+86.7
+216. 4
+213.5
117, 347
4, 012
5, 571
1,792
70, 637
14,429
20,906
+20.7
+59.3
+31.4
+ 18. 1
+ 8.3
+35.4
+60.5
946
6,140
3,590
1,185
1,365
19,896
7,722
2,314
9,860
+ 8 .9
- 5 .1
-3 3 .3
+47.9
234,453
57,161
35,383
141,909
+ 3 .8
- 2 .4
+ 4 .7
+ 6 .3
6,486
1,756
1,023
2, 254
544
909
9, 505
2,544
671
4, 371
931
988
18,125
3, 581
2,446
5, 291
2,434
4,373
-2 1 .4
- 2 2 .2
-3 0 .6
-2 9 .8
- 4 .4
-9 .6
191,457
52,879
19, 649
64, 617
23, 860
30,452
+
- 5 .3
+ 2 .5
+ 1 .2
+ 7 .9
- 8 .3
- 1 0 .0
-1 1 . 5
-6 .7
+ 1 .0
+ 6 .5
- 1 2 .8
-1 2 .4
3, 012
942
589
646
271
75
277
3, 320
850
833
563
555
170
193
156
, 374
2, 023
1,364
2,218
481
489
765
1,034
-1 3 .6
-2 4 .8
-1 0 .4
- 9 .7
-3 7 .5
+16.2
-1 7 .7
+14.1
96, 939
23,177
12, 043
30,301
5,729
7,033
7, 684
10,972
+ 1 .0
-3 .7
+ 5 .5
+ 3 .9
+ 3 .2
- 7 .7
+ 1 .1
+ 3 .5
- 2 .2
-2 7 .4
+22.3
+ 2 .1
+19.6
- 6 .5
3,143
92
209
537
520
376
849
142
418
16,303 +54.2
295 - 1 0 . 6
3, 631 +177. 0
781 -3 2 .1
1,286 -2 8 .2
1,408 +46.5
6 , 334 +155.2
630 +23.8
1,365 -1 7 . 6
573 +50.8
137, 340
2, 769
10, 879
8,704
14,172
13, 653
29, 751
14, 224
26, 454
16, 734
+ 6 .8
-3 .3
+42.4
-1 5 .8
- 9 .3
+ 1 2 .0
+24.3
+ 3 .8
+ 4 .6
- 1 .6
+ .6
-4 7 .4
- 4 .0
0
111
286
139
356
688
212
3, 398
266
340
704
449
375
726
102
436
0
+ .9
+9.1
+ 10. 0
-2 5 .3
+43.3
1,268
316
694
236
861
321
341
178
12, 759
498
1,070
897
10,294
+ 7 .9
-2 6 .3
-1 5 .8
-2 2 .9
+18.1
3, 069
269
717
285
1,798
2,577
103
310
166
829
174
554
336
105
2,521
93
306
158
810
169
549
332
104
-3 .0
-2 9 . 5
- 9 .2
- 1 1 .2
+ 3 .4
-2 4 .9
+16.3
-1 2 .9
+13.0
1 ,2 2 1
5,901
477
248
5,176
5,726
452
238
5,036
+ 1 .8
- 9 .4
-3 3 . 5
+ 5 .7
2,959
252
162
2,545
12
Dec. 31
1,174
24
96
113
238
171
532
0
2
Percent
of
N um change
from
ber
N ov
ember
22
49
199
58
403
122
268
69
53
8
5,918
884
2, 109
2 , 201
724
+32.3
-3 4 .3
+36.2
+83.7
+90.0
82, 275
20,867
25, 355
18, 994
17, 059
+ 3 .3
.0
+ 3.4
+ 14.8
- 3 .5
9,690
229
353
612
8,496
11,069
657
1,781
1,243
7,388
+19.4
+15.1
- 3 .0
+27.0
+25.6
88,823
8,671
13,183
18,164
48,805
+ .7
+ 3 .3
+ 2 .3
+ 4 .7
- 1 .5
1,300
44
107
2, 941
237
350
197
1,090
216
431
281
139
-1 4 .8
- 1 1 .2
+14.0
+ .5
-1 9 .7
-3 1 .6
+9. 7
-4 1 .6
+ 4 .5
30, 385
4,117
2,108
1 , 180
12, 276
4,239
2, 988
2,820
657
+ 5 .7
+ 3 .9
+ 14.6
+ 8 .3
+ 6 .0
+ 3 .3
+ 7 .6
+ 2 .6
- 4 .9
-1 5 .6
+ 2 0 .2
- 5 .6
79, 734
9,457
8,878
61, 399
+11. 5
+ 4 .7
+12.3
+12.5
21
100
407
47
281
263
51
2,767 **), 771
200
1, 127
76
1 ,0 0 0
2,491
8,644
Includes 971 public placements and 243 security-wage placements on work-relief projects.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1 .6
+ .2
+ .8
496
Monthly Lahor Review—February 1938
T a b l e 4 . —Operations
of United States Employment Service, December 1937
VETERANS
N ew applica
tions
Placements
Division and State
Active file
Public
Private
Per
cent of
Per
Per
Tem
change
cent of N um
cent of Regu porary
from Dec.
Total <
lar
31
N um change
ber
N um change (over
(1
N o
from
from
month ber
ber
vem
N o
1
No
or
ber
vem
vem month) less)
ber
ber
4,673
- 5 .4
200
+ 3.1
- 4 .0
-4 .5
United States..............
9,810
4,822 -3 2 .7
1,317
3,505
389
35
44
148 -2 2 .9
+57.1
11
23 -4 2 .5
- 2 0 .0
8
-4 8 .8
22
15 -3 1 .8
69 - 1 .4
74
5
16
5
14
74
New Hampshire..
28
9
41
-3 9 .6
-3 2 .7
-5 3 .1
-4 9 .2
84
38
19
27
265
203
26
36
345
148
34
163
22
Connecticut........ .
58
65
165
725
392
254
129
50
927
238
613
-2 9 .7
-4 4 .2
+47.8
-1 9 .7
2,567
644
400
1, 523
601
159
49
285
55
53
543 -2 6 .1
194 -2 3 .0
61 +238.9
178 -3 7 .5
41 - 2 1 . 2
69 -4 6 .1
3,071
702
374
636
710
649
1
468
63
205
43
38
32
1,286
345
234
397
33
41
7
22
1,133 +35.9
93 -5 4 .9
247 +24.1
585 +383.5
18 -5 8 .1
55 -5 2 .6
58 -3 9 .6
77 +45.3
6
245
883
231
81
397
81
93
-3 7 .1
-3 9 .4
- 2 .4
-3 8 .6
-4 7 .4
-3 2 .6
282
72
32
Wisconsin______
1,507
477
142
576
141
171
1,854
233
570
653
72
89
87
150
630 -3 3 .0
134 -2 9 .1
239 -3 9 .5
-4 6 .9
68
54 + 17.4
33 - 1 0 8
29 -3 9 .6
73 -2 4 .7
162
71
34
25
16
400 -3 1 .3
28 +55.6
46 -3 2 .4
131
3
-1 7 .1
-1 6 .7
-7 1 .7
-1 8 .9
-6 5 .0
-3 7 .8
24
30
5
23
3
-3 1 .6
-1 5 .5
-2 6 .4
-4 6 .7
+125.0
62
16
17
26
3
100
138
North Dakota___
South Dakota___
Kansas...................
1 ,0 1 2
Maryland---------District of ColumVirginia________
29
97
92
193
86
North Carolina...
South C arolina...
159
69
217
70
68
70
15
73
21
79
Alabama................
Mississippi............
162
49
39
65
9
West South Central..
1,581
1,073
74
157
117
725
110
Louisiana...............
Texas----------------
218
195
1,058
687
98
86
W yoming___ . . .
U tah........ ..............
California..............
31
162
57
154
4
54
1,478
22C
16C
1,098
26
40
8
21
22
0
0
577
232
116
151
77
East South C entral...
112
-3 0 .5
- 5 1 .C
+33.1
-4 3 . 5
-3 2 .1
12
42
S
75
296
18
40
14
6!
15
83
-2 0 .4
-7 4 .3
+ 5 .;
+16.7
—2 . 8
-5 1 .6
+2.5
-4 2 .9
20
37 + 8 . 8
116
881 -3 3 .4
70 -4 .8
41 -5 0 .
761 —34.
268
8
17
(
25
12
4'
!
7
22
7
239
21
8
New Jersey-------Pennsylvania-----
West North Central..
65
269
25
25
- 7 .9
-8 7 .5
-3
3 .8
51
573
1
+ 9 .7
+88.7 28,136 +14.4
+225. 6 1, 769 +36.8
+81.7 1,460 +30.4
452 +33.7
+66.7
+43.7 18,229 + 6 . 2
+142.9 2,083 +22.9
+145.2 4,143 +39.0
+81.3
+41.5
+40.4
+125.3
55,020
11,940
10,665
32,415
+ 5 .5
—6 . 2
+ 8 .0
+ 9 .7
+26.4 55,771 + 8 .3
+28.3 16,018 + 9.7
+ 1 2 . 0 6,468
+• 2
- 9 .8 17,477 +5. 2
+96.7 8,062 +14.1
+34.6 7,746 +14.7
+40.5 32,802 + 6 . 0
+78.8 8,143 + 2 .7
+ 11.4 4,352 + 15.0
+58.2 9,469 + 7 .5
-1 9 .5 1,284 +4.1
+86.4 3,094
+• 3
2,624 + 6 .7
+ 2 .0
100
136 +36.0 3,836 -j-5. 2
1,820 +98.3 24,406 + 1 1 . 8
544 + 8 . 6
19 +90.0
490 +214.1 3,004 +38.7
2,093 —6 . 8
1,780 + 1 . 0
3,893 +18.4
3, 218 + 2 1 . 0
1,947 + 7 .6
3,632 +15.5
4,295
+ .8
24 - 1 1 . 1
123 +35.2
48 -5 0 .0
+ 8 .9
86
46 -1 9 .3
138 + 1.5
56 + 9 .8
129 + 2 0 . 6
136 +30.8
261 + 153.4
413 +96.7
75 +27.1
249 +81.8
48 +50.0
413 + 3.5
182 +51.7
77 -4 2 .5
+59.3
86
-2 5 .3
68
942
74
310
409
149
+73.5 15,040 + 6 .7
-2 0 .4 4,468 —1 . 8
+83.4 5,281 + 5 .5
+ 108.7 3,685 +26.9
+75.3 1,606 —1 . 8
935
62
115
108
650
493 - 4 .1
36 + 2 0 . 0
61 +45.2
78 -4 4 .7
318 + 5.6
1,313
139
273
217
684
+48.7 18,520 + 7 .2
+73.8 2,556 + 16.1
+69.6 3,642 + 6 .7
+85.5 4,657 + 6 . 1
+30.3 7,665 + 5.4
180
1(
2!
377
80
46
13
92
4!
6'
44
40
10
50
18
57
6
33
22
39
6
V.
4‘
3
3!
17
3C
61S
57
3'
522
i Includes 315 security-wage placements on work-relief projects.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
2 ,2 1 1
14 - 2 2 . 2
36 -4 0 .0
50 +316.7
55 - 3 .5
24
6
7
3
349
241
45
63
88
17,295 +55.0 267,915
Per
cent of
change
from
Nov.
30
-
2 1 .8
2 0 .8
- 6 .1
-69.8
-24.6
+ 2 0 .6
+33.
-54."
%
17 -46.9
596 —1 1 .
141
—3.
Hi
336 —17.
765 +25.4 10,051 +18.0
67 +28.8 1,244 + 2 0 . 2
140 +70.7 1,199 +36.1
401 +62.8
21
-2 7 +
198 —3.S 3,298 + 11 * 2
1,327 + 9 .0
-4 2 .
22
226 +76.6 1,23E +28.5
72 +44.6 1 ,16S + 2 1 . 8
178 —1 1 . 0
IS -2 4 .
3,32C +46.1 28,16S +21.4
416 +36.8 5,498 + 2 0 . 1
4 ,76C +24.0
701 +107.
+35.1 17,911 + 2 1 . 2
2 ,2 0 1
Trend o f Employment and Pay Rolls
SUMMARY OF REPORTS FOR DECEMBER 1937
THERE were estimated decreases in December of 276,000 in employ
ment and $15,300,000 in weekly pay rolls in all manufacturing indus
tries combined and in the 16 nonmanufacturing industries surveyed
each month by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Approximately 747,000 fewer workers were employed by these
industries in December 1937 than in the same month a year ago, and
weekly pay rolls were $19,100,000 smaller than in December 1936.
The average number employed in the year 1937, however, was over
1,000,000 higher than the average for the year 1936, and weekly pay
rolls for 1937 were $50,900,000 larger.
A preliminary tabulation by the Interstate Commerce Commission
showed that class I railroads employed 995,725 workers in December,
exclusive of executives, officials, and staff assistants, a decrease of
52,050 since November.
Employment in the executive, judicial, and military services of the
Federal Government was greater in December than in the preceding
month, while employment in the legislative service decreased. An
increase in the employment level occurred on Federal projects under
The Works Program, projects operated by the Works Progress Admin
istration, and on work projects of the National Youth Administration
and Student Aid. Decreases in the number of workers employed
occurred on P. W. A. construction projects, projects financed from
regular Federal appropriations, and on projects financed by the
Reconstruction Finance Corporation. There was a decrease in the
number of workers in the Civilian Conservation Corps.
Industrial and Business Employment
Decreased employment from November to December was shown in
13 of the 16 nonmanufacturing industries surveyed by the Bureau of
Labor Statistics and in 79 of the 89 manufacturing industries covered.
Pay rolls were lower in 10 of the nonmanufacturing and 72 of the
manufacturing industries.
For all manufacturing industries combined, it is estimated that
513,000 wage earners (6.4 percent) were laid off between November
and December. Although employment declines in factories have been
noted for December in 13 of the preceding 18 years, the present drop
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
497
498
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
was the largest with but one exception (1920). Because of the short
ening of work schedules and the spreading of work, factory pay rolls
fell more sharply than employment, the estimated decline in weekly
wage disbursements being $17,600,000 or 9.6 percent.
A comparison with December 1936 shows that the factory employ
ment level was 9.7 percent (797,000) lower in December 1937 and that
weekly wage disbursements were 15 percent ($29,203,000) lower.
The average employment index for 1937 was 99.3 on the basis of 100
for 1923-25, this being 8.1 percent above the 1936 level. In terms of
workers the difference between the two levels was 624,000. The
average 1937 pay-roll index was 98.0, a gain of 18.9 percent compared
with the 1936 level. In terms of weekly wage disbursements, the
increase was nearly $31,700,000.
The most pronounced percentage decreases in manufacturing em
ployment from November to December were in industries for which
sharp seasonal curtailment is generally reported in December. Beetsugar plants, having passed the peak of seasonal activity, reduced their
forces 42.0 percent and canning and preserving establishments reported
a decline of 24.9 percent, reflecting seasonal reductions in operations.
Radio and phonograph factories also reported a sharp seasonal decline
(20.9 percent) in number of workers. Due to the decrease in produc
tion schedules, employment in the automobile industry declined 15.2
percent from November to December and weekly pay rolls fell 27.8
percent. Electric and steam railroad car-building companies reported
15.2 percent fewer employees in December, due primarily to the com
pletion of orders on hand. The decrease of 15.2 percent in employ
ment in the stove industry was somewhat larger than seasonal and the
14.8 percent decline in the stamped and enameled ware industry was
also more pronounced than the usual December declines. Plants man
ufacturing plumbers’ supplies reported a decrease (partly seasonal) of
11.0 percent in employment, and firms manufacturing jewelry reported
a seasonal decline of 10.3 percent.
Decreases in employment ranging from 9.0 percent to 10.2 percent
were reported in marble, slate, and granite works; in steam railroad
repair shops; in sawmills; and in factories making brick, tile, and terra
cotta; wirework; cottonseed oil, cake, and meal; and rayon.
Other industries of major importance in which substantial declines
were shown included blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling mills;
foundries and machine shops; men’s clothing; glass; silk and rayon
goods; cotton goods; and paper and pulp.
Among the 10 manufacturing industries reporting gains in numbers
of workers over the month interval were fertilizers (8.3 percent), canesugar refining (6.6 percent), cast-iron pipe (4.0 percent), boots and
shoes (3.7 percent), and woolen and worsted goods (2.1 percent). The
increases in cane-sugar refining and wool were contraseasonal and the
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Trend of Employment and Pay Rolls
499
gains in the remaining three industries were larger than seasonal.
Smaller increases were reported in the millinery, fur-felt hat, electric
railroad repair shop, slaughtering and meat packing, and chewing and
smoking tobacco industries.
In the nonmanufacturing group retail trade was'the only industry
which increased employment to any appreciable extent. Christmas
trade was largely responsible for the increase of 9.2 percent in employ
ment in retail stores. The December index of employment in retail
trade (100.1) was above the average for the year 1929 (100.0), and
was at the highest level of any month since December 1930. The
major portion of this increase was in the general merchandising group
of retail establishments (department, variety, and general merchan
dising stores and mail-order houses) in which a gain of 31.8 percent or
284,000 workers was shown. Employment in this group in December
1937 exceeded the level of any preceding month, including December
1929. Employment in other lines of retail trade increased by 1.8 per
cent or approximately 46,500 workers. There were substantial
employment gains in stores dealing in jewelry, apparel, hardware,
furniture and housefurnishings, and in wood, coal, and ice firms.
Retail lumber and building material dealers reported a greater-thanseasonal decline and retail automobile dealers also reported fewer
workers. The important group, retail food stores, showed an em
ployment decrease of 0.5 percent.
Anthracite mines reported a somewhat less-than-seasonal increase
of 0.6 percent in employment from November to December and in
surance firms hired a small additional number of workers. In the 13
nonmanufacturing industries reporting losses in employment, the
most pronounced decline was in the private building-construction
industry. While employment in this industry normally recedes from
November to December, the current decrease of 17.2 percent is larger
than the December decreases shown in 4 of the preceding 5 years for
which data are available. Other industries in which substantial
declines, largely seasonal, were reported were quarrying and nonmetallic mining (12.0 percent) and dyeing and cleaning (4.2 percent).
Metal mines further reduced their working forces in December, em
ployment falling 6.6 percent over the month interval. Bituminouscoal mines reported a decrease of 2.0 percent in number of workers and
year-round hotels also reported a seasonal curtailment of 1.8 percent.
In the remaining industries surveyed (crude-petroleum producing,
telephone and telegraph, power and light and manufactured gas,
electric railroad and motorbus operation, wholesale trade, laundries,
and brokerage) the decreases ranged from 1.6 percent to 0.3 percent.
Aggregate employment in the combined 16 nonmanufacturing in
dustries surveyed showed a net increase (237,000 workers) between
November and December, and aggregate weekly pay rolls were
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
500
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
$2,300,000 greater in December than in the preceding month. Com
parisons of the averages for 1937 with the averages for 1936 show
that only one industry, anthracite mining, had fewer workers and
smaller pay rolls in the current year. The 16 nonmanufacturing
industries combined employed 382,600 more workers in 1937 than in
1936 and paid out $19,246,000 more per week in wages and salaries.
The 1937 employment level exceeded the 1936 level by 27.4 percent
in metalliferous mining, by 7.9 percent in the telephone and telegraph
industry, and by 10.4 percent in private building construction. Gains
in average employment between 1936 and 1937 ranging from 4.5 per
cent to 6.1 percent were shown in wholesale trade, retail trade, electric
light, and power, hotels, and laundries.
There were 52,050 fewer workers (exclusive of executives, officials,
and staff assistants) employed by class 1 railroads in December than
in November, according to a preliminary report of the Interstate
Commerce Commission. This report showed 995,725 such workers
on pay rolls in December, a decrease of 5.0 percent since November.
December pay-roll figures were not available when this report was
prepared. For November, the wage disbursements were $154,856,765,
a decrease of 8.3 percent, or $14,081,513, from October.
Hours and earnings.—The average hours worked per week by fac
tory wage earners was 34.4 in December, according to reports covering
full- and part-time workers. This average was 3.1 percent below the
November figure. Average hourly earnings fell 0.1 percent to 66.6
cents and average weekly earnings fell 3.4 percent to $22.93. Com
parisons with December 1936 show that current average hours were
16.5 percent lower; average hourly earnings, 12.2 percent higher; and
average weekly earnings, 5.9 percent lower than a year ago.
Of the 14 nonmanufacturing industries for which man-hour data are
available, 6 showed gains over the month interval in average hours
worked per week and 5 showed increases in average hourly earnings.
Average weekly earnings were higher in 6 of the 16 nonmanufacturing
industries covered.
A summary of employment and pay-roll indexes and average weekly
earnings in December 1937 for all manufacturing industries combined,
for selected nonmanufacturing industries, and for class 1 railroads,
with percentage changes over the month and year intervals, except
in the few industries for which data are not available, is presented in
table 1.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
501
Trend of Employment and Pay Rolls
1.—Employment, Pay Rolls, and Earnings in All Manufacturing Industries
Combined and in Nonmanufacturing Industries, December 1937 (Preliminary
Figures)
T able
Industry
All manufacturing industries
combined 1___________ ____
Class I steam railroads 2 --------Coal mining:.................................
Anthracite______________
Bituminous ......... ................
Metalliferous mining------------Quarrying and nonmetallic
m in in g.................. ....................
Crude-petroleum producing—
Public utilities:
Telephone and telegraph...
Electric light and power
and manufactured g a s ...
Electric-railroad and motorbus operation and
maintenance-..................—
Trade:
Wholesale. ..........................
Retail _____________ ____
General merchandising.
Other than general
merchandising-------Hotels (year-round) 4-------------Laundries- ........ ........................
Dyeing and cleaning-------------Brokerage............................. .........
Insurance----------------------------Building construction— ..........
Index
Decem
ber
1937
Percentage
Percentage
change from— Aver change from—
Index
age in
Decem
De
cem N ov D e
ber
N ov D e
N ov D e
ber ember cember
1937
ember cember 1937
ember cember
1936
1936
1937
1937
1936
1937
Percentage
change from—
(m s-2 5
=100)
(im -2 5
=100)
8 8 .6
56.4
- 6 .4
- 5 .1
- 9 .7
- 6 .9
80.9
0
- 9 .6
0
-1 5 .0 $22. 93
0
-3 .4
0
0
-
43.9 - 1 2 . 0
-.9
76.5
47.2
81.3
65.1
- 7 .2
-4 .0
+ 9 .4
2 .0
6 .6
-
+ 4 .6 -1 4 .8
+ 4 .4 - 4 . 5
- 9 .0 +12.9
33.4 - 2 0 . 1
69.8
-.7
1 1 .2
+ 5 .6
-1 5 .3
+13.9
-5 .9
0
(1 9 2 9 =
100)
(1 9 2 9 =
100)
50.9
80.5
70.4
Average weekly
earnings
Pay roll
Employment
27. 02
25.49
29.43
+ 3.9
+ 6 .5
- 2 .5
- 8 .2
-.4
+ 3 .2
19.32
34.11
- 9 .2
+ .3
-4 .7
+ 7 .8
78.0
- 1. 1
+ 5 .9
94. 7
+ 3 .6 +14.9
31.44
+ 4 .7
+ 8 .5
96.1
-
+ 3 .0
102.4
- 1 .4
+ 9.1
34.38
- . 2
+ 5 .9
- .5
+ .4
71.9
+ .1
-.3
+ 9 .2
1 0 0 .1
144.7 +31.8
+ 2 .5
+ .5
+ .9
72.8
1 .2
93.3
88.4
87.3
87.3
77.1
0
0
0
+
-
+• 4
+ 3 .9
-.3
-4 .2
- .7
- 1 .6
-6 .9
+• 2 + 1 .8
-1 7 .2 -1 3 .9
+ 3 .7
32.26
+ .6
+ 3 .2
+ 6.9
+ 6 .2
+ 6 .3
30.00
21. 55
18. 59
-.4
+ 4 .3
+ 5 .6
+ 5.3
+ 6 .2
+9. '6
+ 4 .0
+ 2 .7
- 6 .1
+4. 3
- .8
-2 2 .7 -1 0 .9
24.57
15.25
17.03
19.09
38.36
38.91
28. 53
77.8
- .7
80.6 + 7 .0
123.5 +27.2
71.7
76.3
79.2
58.9
1 .8
1 .8
- .8
0
0
0
+ 1 .3
- 2 .0
+ 5
- 6 .9
- 2 .6
- 2 .0
- 3 .5
-.5
- .2
-
+•
&
2 .8
1 .0
-.9
-6 .7
+ 5 .8
+ 5.1
+ 4 .4
+ 3 .4
+• 9
+ 2 .5
+ 3.5
Revised indexes; adjusted to 1933 Census of Manufactures.
Preliminary; source—Interstate Commerce Commission.
N ot available.
« Cash payments only; the additional value of board, room, and tips cannot be computed.
3 Less than Ho of 1 percent.
1
2
3
Public Employment
During the month ending on December 15, 105,000 workers were
employed on P. W. A. construction projects. Compared with the
period ending in mid-November this represented a decrease of 16,000
or 13.5 percent. Employment reductions on this work, as on other
construction programs, was in part seasonal. Federal and nonFederal N. I. R. A. projects employed more than 34,000 workers;
and projects financed from E. R. A. A. 1935, 1936, and 1937 funds,
70,000. Pay-roll disbursements on all P. W. A. projects totaled
$8,990,000.
Construction projects financed from regular Federal appropria
tions employed 181,000 workers. This was a decrease of over 30,000
compared with the period ending in mid-November. The decreases
reported on nonresidential building construction, forestry, public
39873— 38—■
— 14
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
502
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
roads, dredging, dikes, and revetments, naval vessels, and miscel
laneous projects offset increases in employment on electrification
projects, locks and dams, ship construction and repair other than
naval vessels, and streets and roads. Employment on residential
building-construction projects, underpasses, and water and sewerage
construction projects remained virtually the same. Pay-roll dis
bursements amounted to $17,162,000, a reduction of $3,142,000 from
the preceding month.
Employment on construction projects financed by the Reconstruc
tion Finance Corporation totaled 4,000 for the period from midNovember to mid-December. Decreases were shown in the number
of workers employed on building construction and water and sewer
age projects, while an increase occurred on miscellaneous projects.
Pay-roll disbursements amounting to $550,000 were $52,000 less
than during the period ending in mid-November.
With the expansion of The Works Program to meet increasing
unemployment, the number of workers engaged on projects of The
Works Program was 2,280,000 in December, a net increase of more
than 118,000 since November. Of the total number working on this
program, 186,000 were employed on Federal projects under The
Works Program, 1,668,000 on projects operated by the Works Prog
ress Administration, and 426,000 on work projects of the National
Youth Administration and on Student Aid. Pay rolls for the pro
gram as a whole totaled $98,980,000 and were $1,199,000 greater
than in November.
In the regular services of the Federal Government increases in
employment were reported in the executive, judicial, and military
services, while employment in the legislative service decreased. Of
the 889,000 employees in the executive service in December, 114,000
were working in the District of Columbia and 775,000 outside the
District. Approximately 85.2 percent of the total number of em
ployees in the executive service were paid from regular appropriations
and 7.1 percent from emergency funds. Day labor hired by the
Federal Government for construction work (force-account) was 7.7
percent of the total employment in the executive service. Among
the departments reporting pronounced increases in employment were
the Post Office Department, the Department of Commerce, and the
Department of the Interior. Decreases occurred in the Department
of Agriculture and the Department of Labor.
Workers employed in the Civilian Conservation Corps numbered
338,000, a decrease of more than 12,000 compared with November.
Decreases in employment were registered for all groups of workers
with the exception of nurses. There was virtually no change in the
number of nurses. Of the total number in camps during the current
month 292,000 were enrolled workers, 5,000 reserve officers, 300
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Trend of Employment and Pay Rolls
503
nurses, 2,000 educational advisers, and 39,000 other supervisory and
technical workers. Pay rolls for all groups of workers exceeded
$16,070,000.
For the month ending December 15, 170,000 workers were employed
on road projects financed wholly from State funds, more than 22,000
less than during the preceding period. Of the total, 24,000, or 14
percent, were working on new construction and 146,000, or 86 percent,
on maintenance and repairs. Pay-roll disbursements for both types
of work amounted to $10,377,000.
A summary of Federal employment and pay-roll statistics for
November and December is given in table 2.
T a b l e 2 .—Summary
of Federal Employment and Pay Rolls, December 19371
(.Preliminary Figures)
Employment
Class
Decem
ber
Pay rolls
Percentage
Novem change
ber
Federal services:
Executive 2 ......................................
889,550 3 821, 271
Judicial______ __________ _
2,008
1,999
Legislative______ ____________
5,188
5,345
M ilitary________________ .
326,667
323, 403
Construction projects:
Financed by P. W. A . 4 _________
104,718
1 2 1 ,1 0 2
Financed by R. F. C .s_____
4,028
4,421
Financed by regular Federal ap
propriations. _________ _____
180, 594
211,004
Federal projects under The Works
Program____________________
184, 654
186,133
Projects operated by W. P. A _______ 1, 668,085 1,566, 697
National Youth Administration:
Works project_____________
137,929 3 126,852
Student A id. . ________ _ .
288,131 3 283, 269
Civilian Conservation Corps................ 338,217
350, 714
December
+8.3
+ .5
- 2 .9
+ 1 .0
$137,217,360
514,920
1,209,723
25,856, 294
-1 3 .5
- 8 .9
-1 4 .4
November
Percentage
change
$124,664,980
547, 685
1, 219,978
24, 659,262
+ 1 0 .1
- 6 .0
8,989,667
550,135
10,959,110
6 C2 , 2 2 1
—18.0
—8 . 7
3
- .8
+4 9
17,162, 379
20,303,903
—15. 5
+ 6 .5
10,173.186
84,570,148
10, 857,382
82, 714,339
- 6.3
+ 2.2
+ 8 .7
+ 1 .7
- 3 .6
2,397, 423
1,839, 242
16,070,030
3
2,232,473
1,976,864
16,335; 123
+ 7.4
—7. 0
- 1 .6
+ .8
3
1 Includes data on projects financed wholly or partially from Federal funds.
2 Includes force-account and supervisory and technical employees shown under other classifications to
the extent of 109,488 employees and pay-roll disbursements of $13,385,359 for December and 112.827 employees
and pay-roll disbursements of $13,706,612 for November.
3 Revised.
* Data covering P. W. A. projects financed from E. R. A. A. 1935,1936, and 1937 funds are included. These
data are not shown under The Works Program. Includes 70,228 wage earners and $5,685,040 pay roll for
December; 80,541 wage earners and $6,814,004 pay roll for November covering P. W. A. projects financed
from E. R. A. A. 1935, 1936, and 1937 funds.
5 Includes 116 employees and $9,760 pay-roll disbursements for December and 167 employees and $11,824
pay-roll disbursements for November on projects financed by the RFC Mortgage Co.
DETAILED REPORTS FOR NOVEMBER 1937
Industrial and Business Employment
A MONTHLY report on employment and pay rolls is published as
a separate pamphlet by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. This gives
detailed data regarding employment, pay rolls, working hours, and
earnings for the current month for industrial and business establish
ments and for the various forms of public employment. This pam
phlet is distributed free upon request. Its principal contents for the
month of November, insofar as industrial and business employment
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
504
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
is concerned, are reproduced in this section of the Monthly Labor
Review.
Figures on employment and pay rolls are available for the follow
ing groups: 89 manufacturing industries; 16 nonmanufacturing in
dustries, including private building construction: and class I steam
railroads. The reports for the first two of these groups—manufac
turing and nonmanufacturing—are based on sample surveys by the
Bureau of Labor Statistics, and in virtually all industries the samples
are large enough to be entirely representative. The figures on class I
steam railroads are compiled by the Interstate Commerce Commission
and are presented in the foregoing summary.
EMPLOYMENT, PAY ROLLS, HOURS, AND EARNINGS
The indexes of employment and pay rolls, average hours worked
per week, average hourly earnings, and average weekly earnings in
manufacturing and nonmanufacturing industries in November 1937,
as well as in September and October, are presented in table 1. The
September and October figures may differ in some instances from those
previously published because of revisions necessitated by the inclusion
of late reports and other causes.
Average weekly earnings shown in table 1 are computed by dividing
the total weekly pay rolls in the reporting establishments by the
total number of full- and part-time employees reported. As all
reporting establishments do not supply man-hour data, average hours
worked per week and average hourly earnings are necessarily based
on data supplied by a smaller number of reporting firms. The size
and composition of the reporting sample varies slightly from month
to month and therefore the average hours per week, average hourly
earnings, and average weekly earnings shown in the two following
tables are not strictly comparable from month to month. The sample,
however, is believed to be sufficiently adequate in virtually all in
stances to indicate the general movements of earnings and hours over
the period shown.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
T
able
1.— E m p lo y m e n t, P a y R o lls , H o u r s , a n d E a r n in g s in M a n u f a c tu r in g a n d N o n m a n u fa c tu r in g I n d u s tr ie s , N o v e m b e r , O cto b e r, a n d S e p te m b e r ,
1937
MANUFACTURING
[Indexes are based on 3-year average 1923-25=100 and are adjusted to 1933 Census of Manufactures. Not comparable to indexes published in pamphlets prior to October 1936. Com
parable series available on request]
Employment index
Average weekly
earnings 1
Pay-roll index
Average hours worked
per week 1
Average hourly
earnings 1
Novem Octo
ber
ber
1937
1937
All manufacturing industries---------- ---------------- _
Durable goods_______ _____ - ................ ..............
Nondurable goods------ --------- -----------------------
Sep Novem Octo
ber
ber
tember
1937
1937
1937
Sep Novem Octo
ber
tember
ber
1937
1937
1937
Sep Novem Octo
tember
ber
ber
1937
1937
1937
Sep Novem Octotember
ber
. ber
1937
1937
1937
Sep
tember
1937
C e n ts
C e n ts
C e n ts
$23. 92
$25.39
$24. 92
35.4
37.6
37.4
66.7
6 6 .6
65.8
99.4
100.9
26. 80
20.54
28. 83
21.37
28. 18
21,30
36.4
34.4
39.1
35.9
38.6
36.1
73.3
59.6
73.0
59.6
72.4
59.0
1 1 2 .8
129.7
96.9
48.9
24. 64
25. 33
22.34
19.68
28. 50
29.96
25.94
19.98
29. 37
31.65
25.21
20.15
32.6
30.7
32.3
33.5
37.0
35.7
38.2
34.4
37.8
37.5
37.6
35.1
76.3
82.8
69.2
58.5
76.8
83.7
57.7
76.8
84.2
67.3
56.7
86.7
69.6
101.4
72.7
22.94
26.22
24. 55
22.45
24. 06
28. 8 6
27. 26
25.83
24.32
29. 23
24. 58
24.57
38.9
35.6
35.4
33.6
40.4
39.5
39.3
39.0
40.7
39.7
36.5
37.2
60.2
74.1
69.4
6 6 .8
60.6
73.3
69.3
66.4
61.0
73.9
67.2
65.9
72.2
97.8
83.9
23.18
1 2 2 .6
27.99
23.07
26.24
25.59
29.04
23.85
26.97
25.37
28. 69
23.97
33.1
32.3
39.3
37.5
37.7
39.3
40.9
38.6
38.7
38.9
40.7
39.7
69.8
65.5
71.4
61.9
69.4
65.4
71.2
62.0
69.7
65.3
70.6
60.8
103.6
166.8
22.95
23.00
24.20
26.79
24.54
24. 47
36.7
33.5
39.0
37.9
39.7
35.6
62.2
68.7
61.9
70.8
61.6
68.7
134.2
203.5
134.3
189.2
27.79
28.74
28. 8 6
30.14
28. 47
28.78
37.9
38.9
39.9
40.6
39.7
38.8
72.6
74.1
72.0
74.5
71.6
74.4
148.4
124.8
146.5
124.1
32.61
27.74
33.61
28.65
33.20
28.05
39.7
37.2
41.1
39.0
40.9
38.4
82.7
74.6
82.5
73.6
81.9
73.1
94.7
100.5
1 0 2 .1
89.5
1 0 0 .1
1 0 0 .1
92.4
97.3
97.6
103.6
97.3
107.3
89.9
89.0
101.7
98.2
98.1
108.6
80.5
57.9
105 8
117.5
84.8
62.1
108.8
121.4
87.5
64.9
85.7
92.9
78.7
42.6
106.8
118.9
96.9
46.3
88.3
64.7
91.5
89.6
89.8
71.6
94.4
93.6
89.9
73.0
92.6
94.5
80.5
55.8
99.9
63.5
85.9
67.6
114.5
76.2
66.3
91.1
75.0
96.8
73.5
108.3
79.1
53.1
65.0
74.5
99.8
6 6 .6
1 0 0 .8
77.4
113.4
82.3
114.0
94.2
81.6
107.5
91.7
179.5
97.0
187.2
98.4
170.3
90.3
162.3
100.7
202.3
121.4
143.0
128.9
150. 5
130.7
147.2
1 2 1 .2
184.5
133.6
113.1
136.3
119.3
136.5
121.3
141.2
114.3
D u r a b le goods
Iron and steel and their products, not including
machinery.-............... ................ -.........- ....................
Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling mills . .
Bolts, nuts, washers, and rivets...........................
Cast-iron pipe...................... ....................................
Cutlery (not including silver and plated
cutlery) and edge tools........................................
Forgings, iron, and steel.........................................
Hardware....................................... ....................... .
Plumbers’ supplies------------------------------------Steam and hot-water heating apparatus and
steam fittings.........................................................
S to v es............................................... .......................
Structural and ornamental metalwork----------Tin cans and other tinware...................................
Tools (not including edge tools, machine tools,
files, and saws)______ ____________________
Wirework— .......... ..................................................
Machinery, not including transportation equip
ment........ ............................................................ ..........
Agricultural implements........................................
Cash registers, adding machines, and calcu
lating machines—.................................................
Electrical machinery, apparatus, and supplies.
See footnotes at end of table.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
2 1 .0 2
6 8 .0
Trend of Employment and Pay Rolls
Industry
T a b le 1.— E m p lo y m e n t, P a y R o lls , H o u r s , a n d E a r n in g s in M a n u f a c tu r in g a n d N o n m a n u fa c tu r in g I n d u s tr ie s , N o v e m b e r , O c to b er, a n d S e p te m b e r
1937— Continued
tn
O
ON
MANUFACTURING—Continued
Employment index
Average weekly
earnings 1
Pay-roll index
Average hours worked
per week 1
Average hourly
earnings 1
Industry
Sep Novem Octo
ber
tember
ber
1937
1937
1937
Sep Novem Octo
ber
ber
tember
1937
1937
1937
Sep Novem Octo
ber
ber
tember
1937
1937
1937
Sep Novem Octo
ber
tember
ber
1937
1937
1937
Sep
tember
1937
C e n ts
C e n ts
D u r a b l e g o o d s —Continued
Machinery, not including transportation equip
ment—Continued.
Engines, turbines, tractors, and water w heels..
Foundry and machine-shop products________
Machine tools____________ ______ _____ ..
Radios and phonographs...________________
Textile machinery and parts_________________
Typewriters and parts______________________
Transportation equipment______ . ______ ____
Aircraft___________________ ____________ _
A utom obiles______ _____ ____________ ______
Cars, electric- and steam-railroad____________
Locomotives...............................................................
Shipbuilding______________________ ________
Railroad repair shops. . . . . . ...................... ..........
Electric railroad____ _____________ ____ ____
Steam railroad________________________ ____
Nonferrous metals and their products____________
Aluminum manufactures"___________________
Brass, bronze, and copper products__________
Clocks and watches and time-recording de
vices.................. ................... ..................... ............
Jewelry______ _____________ ______ ___ _____
Lighting equipmen t________ ______________ _
Silverware and plated ware___ ____ _________
Smelting and refining—copper, lead, and z in c ..
Stamped and enameled ware________________
Lumber and allied products.............................. ......
Furniture........ ........................... .............
..........
Lumber:
M illwork_______ _____ _______ __________
Sawmills................. ........................................ .
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
117.8
104.8
153.9
156.7
77.7
138.4
1 2 1 .8
795.0
133.2
65.8
61.6
105.9
57.4
63. 1
57.0
108.4
123.5
105.5
125.0
100.3
95.6
79.3
8 8 .0
144.0
63.5
79.5
51.2
47.6
152.5
110.4
157.7
200.5
82.8
147.9
122.7
784.0
133.9
67.9
64.1
106.8
59.0
63.3
58.7
112. 7
104.7
113. 1
153.6
111.9
157.6
208.3
84.0
151.2
107.0
766.8
112.5
68.5
64.4
106. 2
60.4
63.4
60.2
114.1
131.0
114.8
127.5
106.4
100. 1
80.8
92.1
154.0
69.5
127.0
155.0
1 0 1 .8
157.9
123.0
70.2
106.0
1 2 0 .0
725.3
125.8
81.1
51.4
121.4
63.3
159.4
113. 5
170.3
165.5
80.9
128.4
129.9
723.0
138.3
82.5
56.0
124.4
64.9
158.8
114.2
165. 5
173.9
85.2
142.8
104.4
670.4
105.6
79.7
55.0
119.0
63. 1
67.7
62.9
$32.36
28. 69
33. 31
21.67
26. 26
23.17
33.37
28.17
34.07
29.13
34.08
31.54
31.58
30.46
31.76
26. 18
27.63
26. 76
$32.00
28.42
32.36
21.94
27.18
25. 20
SO. 57
26.71
30.93
27.89
33. 28
30. 34
30. 05
30.24
30. 02
25. 95
26.05
27.94
39.3
38.3
42.9
33.2
37.0
32.5
35.1
39.7
34.3
38.5
41.4
36.9
43.0
43,6
43.0
37.3
38.5
33.7
39.4
40.6
45.1
35.6
39.3
37.0
37.7
40.6
37.3
38.9
44.0
37.3
43.2
43.7
43.2
39.7
40.4
36.7
39.2
40.4
44.2
36.9
41.3
39.5
35.0
38.5
34.2
37.4
43.7
35.8
41.0
43.6
40.8
39.1
39.5
38.1
62.7
88.9
70.2
91.3
76.9
78.5
83.8
73.6
68.5
74.1
65.9
67.2
73.4
23. 62
25.80
26. 18
27. 10
29. 10
23. 70
21.23
2 1 .1 1
22.91
24. 73
25. 50
27.81
28. 0 1
22.69
21.41
20.85
38.6
40.3
38.3
38.8
39.9
37.1
37.2
37.0
41.1
43.2
39.9
42.4
41.7
39. 1
40.3
40.4
40.1
40.7
39.1
43.5
40.2
37.3
40.3
40.5
57.6
58.9
65.4
64.1
69.8
61. 2
52.8
53.2
57.5
59.2
65.7
64. 3
69.8
60. 6
53.3
52.4
57. 2
60.0
65.4
64.7
69.7
60.9
53.8
51. 6
21.90
21. 13
22.09
21.65
37.7
37.3
40.2
40.2
40.8
40.0
54.7
52.0
54.5
53.6
54.3
55.0
6 8 .2
6 8 .0
63.0
99.9
127.8
92. 1
64.9
109.9
115.9
106. 7
132.7
89.4
104.3
80. 7
90.9
156.4
65.3
76.8
128.0
81. 7
98.5
81.4
8 6 .8
97. 2
79.5
93.0
153.2
71.8
89.1
122.3
78.8
94.4
72.6
83.8
141.5
55. 1
65.8
78. 2
. 22
24. 09
25. 07
24.84
27. 90
22. 76
19.48
19. 6 6
54.3
52.7
55.6
54.7
46.3
40.4
51.7
49.4
53. 2
52.6
20. 58
18.99
1 0 1 .1
1 1 0 .1
135.7
113.2
8 8 .6
149.2
6 8 .2
C e n ts
$32. 38
27.12
31.63
20. 74
24.50
20.43
31.03
27. 89
31. 23
29.61
32. 47
31.02
31.61
30. 63
31. 78
24. 63
25. 82
24. 77
22
82.8
70.8
73.8
62.5
6 6 .6
82.5
70.6
73.9
61.1
67.2
62.6
8 8 .6
69.5
91.4
74.8
77.4
83.0
73.4
6 8 .0
73.8
65.8
68.4
73.0
82. 2
70.3
73.3
60.0
65.9
63.8
87.4
69.3
90.4
74.7
76.1
83.2
73.4
67.9
73.8
6 6 .0
6 6 .0
73.4
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
Novem Octo
ber
ber
1937
1937
Stone, clay, and glass products............................
Brick, tile, and terra cotta________ _____ _
Cement.............................................................. .
Glass........... .................................... ................ .
Marble, granite, slate, and other products.
Pottery................................................................
6 8 .2
45.5
66. 1
106.7
42.1
76.9
71.4
50.0
69.2
109.9
43.4
78.6
72.7
52.3
69.9
111. 1
44.9
77.0
63.6
36.4
67.3
111.9
34.6
70.0
69.6
44. 2
72. 2
119.2
37.8
72.9
69.9
46.4
72.8
118.7
39.8
98.8
91.9
88.7
93.9
98.4
1 0 1 .6
71.5
71.5
49.7
76.8
79.0
89.0
61.0
112.3
50.8
42.8
84.2
81.0
64.2
85.1
96.8
94.6
62.0
87. 1
85.3
84.5
92.5
95.9
94.9
69.2
116.9
23. 71
19.18
25. 73
25. 21
23.88
24.05
24. 74
21. 19
26.34
26. 1 0
25.37
24.29
24. 38
21.64
26. 2 0
25. 6 8
25. 71
22. 71
36.5
35.8
38.2
35.8
36.2
37.9
33.7
39.6
39. 1
37. 5
38.7
39.8
38.3
39.4
38.5
36.8
38.7
39.4
64.4
53.4
67.4
70.5
66.3
63.1
63.9
53.3
67.3
70.0
66. 2
62.1
64.3
54.9
16. 87
16.45
17. 07
14.30
18.35
20. 49
2 0 . 20
18. 33
16. 0 2
17.73
17.99
18.14
20.29
16.17
14. 79
20. 30
13. 97
17. 14
15. 50
23.60
23. 77
25.84
32. 36
22.71
16.24
18. 62
27. 30
28.54
28. 0 1
20. 97
25. 97
17.03
18.20
16.80
28.26
21.35
24.90
16. 99
16. 79
20. 05
14. 84
18. 0 2
30.6
31.5
57.6
87.0
83.9
106.3
84.2
95.4
49.0
103.0
71.6
64.5
98.6
133.2
136.1
253.0
73.8
307.1
89.0
80.7
74.0
98.0
100.7
60.1
56. 5
70.0
54.9
103.7
103.3
117.6
15. 37
15. 24
13. 77
13. 25
16.10
19. 87
19. 96
17. 40
14.54
16. 43
15.74
15.82
17. 25
15.52
14. 36
17.40
13.14
15.48
13. 72
22.13
24.46
25.10
32.22
22.42
15.74
17.63
26.10
29.16
28.31
25.09
26. 41
16. 72
17. 06
16.66
27. 48
20.42
23. 26
21.92
17. 43
16. 55
18. 82
17.53
18.12
18. 94
15. 62
13. 43
25. 05
12. 88
17. 94
16.49
23.70
23.03
25. 90
33. 27
22. 35
15. 75
18. 79
27.15
27. 83
28. 35
26.01
24.96
17. 12
18. 81
16. 79
27. 89
20.53
24. 71
31.5
33. 1
34.4
28. 2
33.7
31.7
27.7
28.9
26.1
29.2
33.6
32.8
32.8
33.6
26.4
33.7
37.1
35.3
26.7
35.6
34.2
30.3
31.3
29.5
31.2
33.3
35.6
33.2
34.4
30.8
34.9
37.0
36.3
30.8
34.3
35.1
32.1
30.8
29.8
30.1
32.6
31.6
50.9
49.2
64.9
42.1
50.0
57.6
71.6
52.4
46.2
59.4
54.3
61.1
55.5
46.0
37.3
52.1
49.4
64.6
42.4
50.3
57.5
72.4
52.3
46.9
58.6
57.4
62.1
61.7
47.8
37.6
51.6
49.2
65.0
42.4
49.6
57.1
70.9
52.0
46.9
58. 9
56.3
61.7
58.4
47.5
38.1
33.1
28.6
26.9
35.2
40.3
41.4
38.8
34.7
31.8
30.4
37.5
40.9
43.0
39.2
32.8
32.9
31.7
37.7
40.5
42.8
40.2
40.4
54.5
52.3
62.8
60.2
61.1
84.2
40.8
54.2
51.9
63.3
58.8
60.6
83.5
40.4
55.0
53.0
63.0
57.0
60.8
83.2
33.8
38.7
43.7
46.5
41.1
49.6
40.9
37.4
33.5
37.9
37.7
39.0
36.9
36.3
41.3
45.6
46.1
40.8
41.6
38.5
37.6
35.8
37.9
38.7
40.8
39.5
36.9
40.8
45.3
46.3
41.1
44.7
36.2
37.0
37.2
37.0
38.4
39.2
39.2
47.8
45.6
58.8
61.3
46.5
45.5
59.0
60.1
6 8 .1
6 8 .8
50.8
62.8
44.9
51.1
44.2
75.7
52.8
63.2
52.4
45.1
51.3
44.4
75.6
52.7
63.1
44.3
46.5
59.2
59.7
69.1
59.6
69.0
46.0
51.0
45.5
75.1
52.8
63.0
92.8
103.8
29.96
37.42
29. 71
37.59
29. 69
37.03
38.7
37.1
38.3
37.1
38.6
36.9
78.5
97.1
78.5
97.4
77.9
96.5
6 6 .8
6 8 .0
70.0
66.9
61.6
N o n d u r a b le goods
92.0
87.2
85.7
91.1
91.2
108.8
83.0
111.9
67.6
59.8
1 0 1 .0
90.7
134.9
8 8 .1
130.4
43.8
114.6
80.3
80.8
82.9
114.6
135.2
194.3
83.7
118.7
91.8
76.0
65.1
90.5
252.1
70.4
62.9
56.7
63.6
106.4
103.3
113.6
98.3
107.0
1 1 2 .2
83.0
116.3
75.4
68.4
112. 1
103.5
150.4
89.7
135.9
52.0
120.7
89.5
90.7
89.6
125.0
138.4
202.7
86.4
185.9
95.5
76.9
6 8 .8
89.4
253.0
6 8 .8
62.6
56.2
63.3
107.9
104.8
117.3
98.8
107.5
94.9
99.4
98.4
97.8
110.5
85.5
116.5
79.9
70.4
114.4
108.7
152.2
88.9
127.7
56.7
119.2
92.7
94.0
92.5
137.8
136.7
223.3
91.6
311.5
85.4
76.8
82.2
8 6 .8
91.6
67.2
62. 1
55.8
62.8
107.7
6 8 .6
61.1
84.2
82.1
103.8
26.7
1 0 2 .6
53.8
46.0
82.7
115.9
130.3
212.7
67.2
111.4
89.8
76.7
61.5
102.3
267.4
6 6 .8
57.2
63.8
56.4
101.5
1 2 2 .8
62.4
52.8
87.0
80.2
1 1 0 .1
87.3
1 1 1 .8
35.5
112.5
66.3
58.7
95.0
125.0
137.3
222.4
70.3
187.7
98.4
80.9
63.9
1 0 0 .1
224.3
64.2
57.9
6 8 .2
1 0 2 .8
1 0 2 .6
119.1
105.4
56.6
105.1
108.9
116.7
98.9
105.9
93.1
106.1
92.6
107.3
6 8 .2
2 0 .8 6
2 1 .2
6 6 .8
Trend of Employment and Pay Rolls
Textiles and their products...................................
Fabrics___________________ ____________
Carpets and rugs........................................
Cotton goods............................................
Cotton small wares................ ............... .
D yeing and finishing textiles________
Hats, fur-felt..................... .........................
K nit goods................................................
Silk and rayon goods................................
Woolen and worsted goods__________
Wearing apparel............ ............................ .
Clothing, men’s . . .....................................
Clothing, women’s_________________
Corsets and allied garments........ .........
M en’s furnishings__________________
M illinery___________ ____ _________
Shirts and collars......................................
leather and its manufactures............... ..............
Boots and shoes...............................................
Leather_______________________________
Food and kindred products.________________
Baking......... ................................................
Beverages................................ .........................
B utter................................................................
Canning and preserving...............................
Confectionery— ............. ............... ...............
Flour.............................................. ..................
Ice cream_________________ ___________
Slaughtering and meat packing............ ......
Sugar, beet.......................................................
Sugar refining, cane.........................................
Tobacco manufactures.............................................
Chewing and smoking tobacco and snuff..
Cigars and cigarettes.._______ _________
Paper and printing................... ................. ...........
Boxes, paper....................................................
Paper and p u l p . ,. . .......................... ..............
Printing and publishing:
Book and job______________________
Newspapers and periodicals...... ..........
See fo o tn o te s a t end o f table.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
cn
O
1937— Continued
508
T a b l e 1.— Employment, P ay Rolls, Hours, and Earnings in Manufacturing and Nonmanufacturing Industries, November, October, and September,
MANUFACTURING—Continued
Employment index
Pay-roll index
Industry
Octo
ber
1937
122.7
122.4
129.8
126.5
126.7
135. 2
127.1
114.8
97.3
80.5
131.6
387.5
Sep Novem Octo
tember
ber
ber
1937
1937
1937
Sep Novem Octo
ber
ber
tember
1937
1937
1937
Average hours worked
per week 1
Sep Novem Octo
ber
tember
ber
1937
1937
1937
Average hourly
earnings 1
Sep N ovem- Octo
tember
ber
ber
1937
1937
1937
Sep
tember
1937
C e n ts
C e n ts
Continued
Chemicals and allied products, and petroleum
refining_____________________________________
Other than petroleum refining.......................
Chemicals... __________ ______________
Cottonseed—oil, cake, and meal_________
Druggists’ preparations.......... .................. .
Explosives........................................................
Fertilizers_____________ _____ ________ _
Paints and varnishes_____________ ______
Rayon and allied products.............................
Soap......................................... ........................
Petroleum refining___________ ______ _______
Rubber products........................................................... .
Rubber boots and shoes.___________ ____ ___
Rubber goods, other than boots, shoes, tires,
and inner tubes.......... .......................................
Rubber tires and inner tubes...............................
1 2 1 .0
112.5
95.4
75.3
128.0
374.0
100.4
123.9
90.9
71.9
128.2
80.8
1 2 1 .1
1 2 2 .1
142.3
94.3
70.4
143.1
97.4
75.9
$28. 07
25.59
30. 25
13.18
24.33
31.64
17.02
26.95
23. 79
28.23
34. 42
24.11
21. 70
139.5
84.3
132.6
90.4
21.93
26. 26
132.1
129.6
141.7
113.0
125.8
106.6
77.4
124.8
360.3
116.9
140.4
82.0
62.1
137. 5
136.1
150.6
118.9
128.9
110.5
83.2
134.1
374.9
125.7
97.7
77.5
128.6
128.9
137.4
120.7
114.1
97.6
84.6
132.4
407.1
103.1
127.2
98.0
78.7
137.3
87.0
134.7
88.3
121.7
72.9
1 0 2 .8
139.0
137.7
150.9
112.4
127.3
106.4
97.2
131.6
393.6
$28. 32
25.99
30.84
13.14
24. 47
32.18
17.16
28.17
23. 89
28. 55
34. 43
25.83
22.83
$28.19
25.92
30.47
13.14
24.29
30.89
19.16
27.53
23. 8 8
28. 6 8
34.16
28. 64
24.24
38. 5
39.5
38.7
53.5
39.2
39.7
38.6
38.8
37.0
39.2
35.8
31.6
35.9
39.2
40.3
39.6
54.1
39.6
40.5
38.8
40.5
37.4
40.0
35.9
33.8
37.5
39.0
40.2
38.9
53.2
40.8
38.9
41.1
39.6
38.4
39.9
35.5
34.5
40.0
23. 61
28. 24
22.60
29. 76
36.0
27.2
38.8
29.3
37.5
30.8
$18. 99
24.37
31.22
28.3
26.9
43. 1
38.9
39.9
31.4
29.6
44.2
42.6
39.9
27.5
43.6
42.1
40.0
73.8
65.8
78.2
24.8
58.3
79.8
44.1
69.6
64.4
C e n ts
97.0
79.0
60.4
73.4
65.4
77.9
215
58.4
79.5
44.2
69.7
63.8
71.9
96.9
79.0
60.9
78.4
24.9
57.8
79.5
46.7
69.6
64.6
72.7
97.4
79. 1
60.6
60.9
97.2
61.4
96.6
60.6
97.0
90.7
87.8
69.9
55.0
84.3
91.2
88.7
70.8
55.4
83.3
90.8
89.0
71.6
53.9
83.9
72A
74.0
6 6 .1
NONMANUFACTURING
[Indexes are based on 12-month average 1929=100]
Coal mining:
Anthracite.................................................................
Bituminous............. ..................................... ..........
Metalliferous mining____________ ______ ________
Quarrying and nonmetallic mining______________
Crude-petroleum producing____ _____ __________
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
50.5
82.1
75.4
49.9
77.2
51.0
82.9
82.9
53.3
77.5
48.2
80.5
84.1
54.7
78.2
45.1
77.8
71.6
41.7
70.2
51.0
8 6 .0
81.7
49.3
69.9
31.5
77.7
82.2
50.1
71.2
$26. 0 0
24.00
30. 05
21.48
34.12
$29.14
26.25
31.26
23. 70
33. 64
2 2 .8 6
33.93
2 0 .8
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
N o n d u r a b le go o d s—
N ovember
1937
Average weekly
earnings 1
Public utilities:
Telephone and telegraph-------------- -------------Electric light and power and manufactured
79.9
80.1
91.1
94.3
92.3
30.57
31.44
31.58
38.6
39.9
39.1
84.9
83.5
83.0
97.3
98.5
98.6
103.8
105.3
104.0
34.44
34.23
33. 96
40.4
40.4
40.2
85.8
85.1
85.2
73.2
73.4
73.7
71.9
71.4
71.6
32.21
31.93
31.71
45.9
45.9
46.0
69.4
68.7
68.1
93.5
91. 7
109.8
86.9
88.9
94.0
92.1
108.1
87.9
89.2
89.9
85.3
- 2 .9
-. 1
- 3 .3
93.0
90.7
103.7
87.3
78.3
75.3
97.1
70.8
77.9
79.2
62.9
+ 1 .1
+ 1 .8
- 8 .1
79.3
75.9
96.2
71.7
77.7
81.5
71.4
- 3 .2
+ .3
- 3 .0
78.3
74.4
92.4
70.7
76.1
84.4
72.8
- 2 .5
-2 .4
- 2 .2
30. 27
21.65
18. 37
24. 55
15.25
16. 90
19.55
38.60
39.15
30. 52
30.45
21.96
18. 55
24. 89
15. 11
16. 96
20. 78
38. 52
38. 45
31. 22
30.60
21.87
18. 62
24. 64
15. 00
16. 84
20.61
38.77
38. 59
31.76
42.7
42.7
39.2
43.9
47.2
41.6
40.8
(4)
(4)
33. 1
42.9
43.0
39.4
44.2
47.1
42.1
42.6
(4)
«
34.3
42.6
42.7
39.1
43.9
47.4
42.5
43.9
(4)
(4)
34. 1
70.6
55.9
51.2
57. 5
32.2
40.7
49.1
(4)
(4)
91.6
70.6
56. 5
51. 5
58.1
31.7
40.3
49.9
(4)
(4)
90.8
71.7
56.2
51.6
57.6
31.6
39.7
47.4
8 8 .0
80.0
+ .8
1
- 6 .4
8 8 .1
93.7
86.7
- 1 .9
-. 2
-.7
( 4)
( 4)
92.8
i
Average weekly earnings are computed from figures furnished by all reporting estab 2 Cash payments only; the additional value of board, room, and tips cannot be com
puted.
lishments. Average hours and average hourly earnings are computed from data supplied
3 Indexes of employment and pay rolls not available; percentage changes from pre
by a smaller number of establishments as all reporting firms do not furnish man-hours.
ceding month substituted.
The figures are not strictly comparable from month to month because of changes in the
4 N ot available.
size and composition of the reporting sample.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Trend of Employment and Pay Rolls
Electric-railroad and motorbus operation and
maintenance-------------------------------- ---------Trade:
Wholesale..................................................................
Retail............. ..........................................................
General merchandising........................ ..........
Other than general merchandising............
Hotels (year-round) 2....................................................
Laundries..................................- .....................................
Dyeing and cleaning.....................................................
Brokerage 3 ......................................................................
Insurance 3 -----------------------------------------------------Building construction 3 .................................................
79.1
ca
s
510
IN D E X ES
Monthly Lahor Revieiv—February 1938
OF EMPLOYMENT AND PAY ROLLS, JANUARY
NOVEMBER 1937
1936 TO
Indexes of employment and pay rolls are given in tables 2 and 3
for all manufacturing industries combined, for the durable- and non
durable-goods groups of manufacturing industries, and for 13 non
manufacturing industries, including 2 subgroups under retail trade,
by months, from January 1936 to November 1937, inclusive. The
accompanying chart indicates the trend of factory employment and
pay rolls from January 1919 to November 1937.
The indexes of factory employment and pay rolls are computed
from returns supplied by representative establishments in 89 manu
facturing industries and cover wage earners only. The base used
in computing these indexes is the 3-year average, 1923-25, as 100.
In November 1937 reports were received from 25,315 manufacturing
establishments employing 4,684,590 workers, whose weekly earnings
were $112,034,042. The employment reports received from these
establishments cover more than 55 percent of the total wage earners
in all manufacturing industries of the country and more than 65
percent of the wage earners in the 89 industries included in the
monthly survey of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
The indexes for nonmanufacturing industries are based on the
12-month average for 1929 as 100. Figures for mining, laundries,
dyeing and cleaning, and building construction cover wage earners
only, but the figures for public utilities, trade, hotels, brokerage, and
insurance relate to all employees, including executives. For crudepetroleum producing they cover wage earners and clerical field force.
Data for both manufacturing and nonmanufacturing industries are
based on reports of the number of employees and amount of pay
rolls for the pay period ending nearest the 15th of the month.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Trend of Employment and Pay Rolls
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
512
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
T a b l e 2 . —Indexes of Employment and P ay Rolls in A ll Manufacturing Industries
Combined and in the Durable- and Nondurable-Goods Groups 1
[Adjusted to 1933 Census of Manufactures—3-year average 1923-25=100]
Manufacturing
Total
Durable goods
Nondurable goods 1
1
Month
Employ
ment
1936
January........................
February...... ..........
March...........................
April....................... .
M ay______ ________
June_______________
8 6 .8
July...............................
A u g u s t......................
September_________
October______ _____
November.......... .........
D ecem b er.......... .......
91.2
93.5
95.5
96.7
96.9
98.1
Average______
91.9
86.9
87.9
89.1
89.8
90.1
1937
1936
96.5
99.0
73.8
73.7
77.6
79.3
80.8
81.1
1 0 1 .1
1 0 2 .1
102.3
1 0 1 .1
101.4
102.3
1 0 2 .1
4
Pay rolls
100. 5
94.7
Employ
ment
Pay rolls
1937
1936
1937
1936
90.7
95.8
104.9
105.2
102.9
78.7
78.6
80.2
82.3
84.0
84.7
90.4
93.2
96.4
98.6
99.9
98.8
71.8
76.0
78.5
79.0
106.4
107.5
104.6
80.2 100.4
83.5 103.8
83.6 1 0 0 . 1
89.0 * 1 0 0 . 1
90.7
89.5
95.2
84.6
84.7
85.7
89.2
91.0
92.7
98.9
98.1
97.3
4 97. 6
92.4
75.9
77.0
77.2
85.3
88.9
93.4
100.7
104.0
99.4
101.7
89.9
82.4
84.7
1 0 1 .1
66.9
6 6 .6
78.0
Employ
ment
Pay rolls
1937
1936
1937
1936
8 6 .6
95.4
95.8
96.1
96.3
96.0
95.9
103.0
105.2
106.1
105.9
104.8
103.5
82.5
82.7
84.9
83.5
83.8
83.9
104.1
1 0 2 .8
106.9
105.9 107.3
104.7 4103. 6
103.3
97.3
104.0
85.6
91.8
91.6
93.7
92.9
97.5
92.5
1 0 0 .0
98.2
99.5
1937
96.0
99.9
1 0 2 .6
102.9
102.3
1 0 0 .8
1 0 0 .0
103.5
100.9
98.2
89.0
4
87.9
i Comparable indexes for earlier years will be found in the April 1937 issue of the M onthly Labor Review.
* Includes the following groups of manufacturing industries: Iron and steel; machinery; transportation
equipment; railroad repair shops; nonferrous metals; lumber and allied products; and stone, clay, and glass
products.
* Includes the following groups of manufacturing industries: Textiles and their products, leather and
its manufactures, food and kindred products, tobacco manufactures, paper and printing, chemicals and
allied products, products of petroleum and coal, rubber products, and a number of miscellaneous industries
not included in other groups.
‘ Revised.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
513
Trend of Employment and Pay Rolls
T able 3.—Indexes of Employment and P ay Rolls in Selected Nonmanufacturing
Industries, January 1936 to November 19371
[12-month average 1929=100]
Anthracite mining
Month
Employ
ment
Pay rolls
Bituminous coal
Employ
ment
Pay rolls
Metalliferous mining
Quarrying and nonmetallic mining
Employ
ment
Employ
ment
Pay rolls
Pay rolls
1936 1937 1936 1937 1936 1937 1936 1937 1936 1937 1936 1937 1936 1937 1936 1937
59.1
61.2
52.5
49.8
M ay_________ 54.9
June.................... 51.2
54.1
52.7
48.9
54.0
51.0
51.1
54.4
76.7
42.6
28.6
56.3
42.0
42.7
41.0
37.8
63.9
44.4
50.9
79.8
80.2
80 4
77.5
76.2
75.7
84.6
84.8
85.9
72.6
77.8
77.9
70.6
78.4
70.2
62.6
62.2
61.5
79.9
82.4
88.4
54 4
67.8
71.2
41.7
42.8
45.1
45.5
47.7
48.2
58.4
63.4
70.6
76.9
79.8
77.7
39.4
36.9
42.2
48.4
52.0
53.5
45.7
46.7
49.1
53.1
54.9
55.4
25.5
23.9
30.9
36.1
42.1
44.0
34.6
37.8
41.3
48.1
51.4
52.6
48.4
41.1
47.6
49.9
51.5
54.8
45.0
41.2
48.2
51.0
50.5
37.2
31.4
34.9
48.5
40.3
55.4
35.2
27.2
31.5
51.0
45.1
75.5
76.9
78.2
81.1
82.3
83.9
75.8
78.8
80.5
82.9
82.1
62.6
65.4
71.0
79.2
80.7
85.0
66.4 61.3 82.0 46.1
73.8 61.6 83.4 48.2
77.7 63.1 84.1 50.0
8 6 .0
64.2 82.9 53.7
77.8 62.9 75.4 54.6
57.7
64.4
77.8
83.0
82.2
81.7
71.6
54.4
55.3
54.9
54.6
52.6
49.4
55.5
54.9
54.7
53.3
49.9
43.9
46.2
44.8
46.2
43.5
39.4
50.8
53.2
50.1
49.3
41.7
Average.. 51.8 ........ 45.7 ........
79.0
February..........
August........—
September........
November........
Crude-petroleum
producing
M onth
Employ
ment
Pay rolls
54.2
55.5
55.9
57.5
60.8
61.9
6 6 .8
69.6
73.1
76.2
78.5
79.5
48.4
60.3
70.8
49.5
38.9
Telephone and tele
graph
Electric light and
power, and manu
factured gas
Electric-railroad and
motorbus opera
tion and mainte
nance *
Employ
ment
Employ
ment
Employ
ment
Pay rolls
Pay rolls
Pay rolls
1936 1937 1936 1937 1936 1937 1936 1937 1936 1937 1936 1937 1936 1937 1936 1937
70.1
69.9
70.2
70.8
6 8 .2
71.6
70.4 72.1
74.4
74.8
75.4
76.6
77.7
78.5
75.0
76.2
77.2
76.0
78.5
77.4
70.5
70.8
71.2
69.«
70.2
73.1
73.5
73.7
73. 8
73.7
73.6
79.7
79.8
80.1
79.«
79.1
79.9
81.2
78.8
.83.1
81.6
82.4
58.6 ........
72.2
71.1
February........... 70.8
70.9
71.3
72.7
June_________ 73.7
72.7
73.5
74.2
75.8
76.7
78.5
55.7
55.7
56.0
57.1
58.0
58.9
61.2
64.1
63.«
67.7
75.4
75.0
74.5
73.6
73.2
72.4
78.5
79.3
78.2
77.5
77.2
60.4
59.7
60.4
59.6
60.1
61.3
September____
November____
Average— 72.9
78.9
83.6 8 6 . 1
82.2 8 6 . 1
87.2 8 6 . 8
86.3 8 8 . 0
89.5 89.0
90.4
8 8 .6
92.1
92.2
92.4
93.1
94.6
96.3
84.8 92.3 70.7 72.5
84.7 93.6 71.7 72.5
85.« 94.8 71.2 72.6
8 6 .2
95.5 71.3 72.9
87. t 97.« 71.5 73.8
8 8 . 1 100.4 71.7 73.3
92.1
92.1
92.3
94. E
91.1
97.5
98. 8
98.6
98.5
97.8
89.8 1 0 2 . 2 72.4 73.4 66.5
89.8 1 0 2 . 6 72.4 73.4 66.5
91.4 104.0 72.8 73.7 66.4
92.7 105.8 73.1 73.4 67.7
91.8 103.8 73.0 73.2 69.7
72.5
69.8
93.8
91.7
93.1
93.5
94. C
93.5
93.2
90.5
8 8 .8
72.0
65.0 6 8 . 0
68.3 68.7
67.8 69.2
65.9 69.4
6 6 .1
70.1
71.1
6 6 .8
70.8
73.1
71.6
71.4
71.9
67.2
1 Comparable indexes for earlier years for all of these industries, except year-round hotels, w ill be found
in the February 1935 and subsequent issues of the M onthly Labor Review. Comparable indexes for yearround hotels will be found in the September 1935 issue of the M onthly Labor Review.
* N ot including electric-railroad car building and repairing; see transportation equipment and railroad
repair-shop groups, manufacturing industries, table 1 .
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
514
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
T able 3.—Indexes of Employment and P ay Rolls in Selected Nonmanufacturing
Industries, January 1936 to November 1937—Continued
Wholesale trade
Month
Employ
ment
Pay rolls
Total retail trade
Employ
ment
Pay rolls
Retail trade—gen
eral merchandising
Retail trade—other
than general mer
chandising.
Employ
ment
Employ
ment
Pay rolls
Pay rolls
1936 1937 1936 1937 1936 1937 1936 1937 1936 1937 1936 1937 1936 1937 1936 1937
January...........
February.........
March........ .
April................
M ay________
June________
85.6
85.0
85.6
85.7
84.6
84.6
July..................
A ugust,...........
September___
October...........
November___
December____
85.4 90.6 69.0
86.3 91.8 69.7
88.0 93.0 70.5
89.0 94.0 71.5
89.7 93.5 73.1
91.0
72.8
Average-
86.7
90.7
92.0
92.1
91.9
90.8
90.3
72.6 80.4
74.1 79.7
69.0 75.0 81.9
67.9 75.4 85.2
68.2 76.1 85.0
68.4 76.3 85.5
66.6
66.6
69. 4
76.9
79.0
78.3
79.3
78.3
85.4 62.1 68.0
85.2 61.6 67.
88.5 63.5 70.5
88.8 65.3 71.9
89.
65.8 73.5
90.5 66.4 74.4
88.2 95.1 76.4 83.8 78.4 82.9 59.1 64.7
85.1
90.9
97.4
95.5
96.4
82.9 59.1 64.8
85.4 60.7 67.0
86.0 62.1 68.3
86.7 62.7 69.8
87.2 63.3 70.6
83.2 87.6 65.1 72.8 90.7 95.9 77.3 87.3 81.2 85.4 62.6
88.7 92.1 68.3 75.9 103.9 108.1 87.2 96.2 84.7 87.9 64.4 71.7
90. 1 91.7 70.3 75.3 109.3 109.8 91.4 97.1 85.1 86.9 65.7 70.8
99.6
75.9
143.4
116.2
88.1
67.6
85.7
66.3
99.1
Employ
ment
Pay rolls
83.5
January..................
February_______
March...... ..............
April......................
M ay........................
June........- ..............
81.9
82.8
82,
83.2
84. 1
83.9
85.5
86.4
86.9
88.4
87.7
86.9
July_____ _______
August....................
September.............
October_________
N ovem ber......... .
December..............
83.3
83.2
84.2
85.4
84.6
84.0
86.1
Average.......
83.6
82.2
Laundries
Em ploy
ment
62.7
Dyeing and cleaning
Employ
ment
Pay rolls
1937 1936 1937
1937
Pay rolls
1936 1937 1936 1937 1936 1937
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
78.3
79.5
82.0
82.3
82.6
82.4 86.2 64.4 72.3 89.4 93.8 76.4 85.7 80.5 84.2 61.9 69.5
86.6 90.7 66.6 74.4 98.5 103.7 82.8 92.4 83.5 87.3 63.3 70.7
Year-round hotels
Month
93.9 73.9 82.9
100.3 77.3 87.
99.6 81.0 89.1
102.1 80.8 91.5
102.9 81.3 92.5
64.9 70.4 81.5 88.5 68.3 76.4 71.5 76.8 51.6 55.6
66.5 72.5 81.2 88.6 67.8 76.3 70.3 76.2 49.0 54.6
66.0 72.7 82.1 88.7 69.9 77.5 74.7 81.1 56.4 61.7
66.3 74.5 83.2 88.5 70.9 78.5 81.8 84.9 64.1 68.8
67.0 73. 85.5 90.3 75.6 81.4 87.3 88.6 72.2 73.9
66.6 74.0 87.2 93.5 75.8 85.5 87.5 92.1
69.2 79.2
66.0 73.3 90.5 95.2 79.0 86.9 85.5 86.0 64.8 68.0
86.8 66.1 74.4 89.6 94.2 76.7 86.0 83.5 84.9 63.2 69.0
88.1 67.5 76.1 89.6 93.7 76.6 84.4 86.7 86.7 66.1 72.8
89.2
77.7 87.6 89.9 75.3 81.5 86.5 85.3 66.7 71.4
77.9 87.0 88.0 74.5 79. 2 81.3 80.0 60.2 62.9
87.6
76.1
77.7
57.3
67.2
86.1
73.9
81.2
61.7
515
Trend of Employment and Pay Rolls
TREND OF INDUSTRIAL AND BU SIN E SS EMPLOYMENT, BY STATES
A comparison of employment and pay rolls, by States and geo
graphic divisions, in October and November 1937, is shown in table 4
for all groups combined, and for all manufacturing industries combined,
based on data supplied by reporting establishments. The percentage
changes shown, unless otherwise noted, are unweighted—that is, the
industries included in the manufacturing group and in the grand
total have not been weighted according to their relative importance.
The totals for all manufacturing industries combined include
figures for miscellaneous manufacturing industries in addition to the
89 manufacturing industries presented in table 1. The totals for all
groups combined include all manufacturing industries, each of the
nonmanufacturing industries presented in table 1 except building
construction, and seasonal hotels.
T able 4.— Comparison of Employment and P ay Rolls in Identical Establishments in
October and November 1937, by Geographic Divisions and by States
[Figures in italics are not compiled by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, but are taken from reports issued by
cooperating State organizations]
Total—all groups
Geographic divi
sion and State
N um N um
ber of ber on
estab pay roll
lish Novem
ments ber 1937
Per
cent
age
change
from
Octo
ber
1937
Amount
of pay roll
( 1 week)
Novem
ber 1937
Manufacturing
Per
cent
age
change
from
Octo
ber
1937
N um N um
ber of ber on
estab pay roll
lish Novem
ments ber 1937
Per
cent
age
change
from
Octo
ber
1937
D o lla r s
New England_____ 13,982
M aine............ .
797
New
Hamp
shire_______
615
476
Vermont_____
Massachusetts- i 8 , 3 1 8
Rhode Isla n d .. 1,270
Connecticut___ 2,506
868
, 906
50,184
- 5 .4 19,350,140 - 8 .5
- 7 .5
966,099 -1 4 .7
36,015
16, 693
470,9 9 8
86,609
208,407
- 5 .3
- 8 .7
- 5 .6
669,543 - 9 .8
342,829 -1 7 .6
1 0 ,8 4 3 ,0 8 0
3,578
292
207
148
- 5 .6
1 ,7 5 8
- 5 .8 1,702, 711 -1 6 .6
- 3 .9 4,826,878 - 9 .5
427
746
587,633
39,130
172,167
Middle Atlantic___ 32,649 2, 229, 394
N ew York____ 20,571 978,083
New Jersey___ 4,292 355,193
Pennsylvania.. 7,786 896,118
- 3 .4
- 3 .2
- 2 .5
- 3 .9
East North Central.. 24,706 2,416,811
Ohio...... ............ 8 , 1 1 1
636,124
Indiana.............. 3 , 6 3 1 3 8 6 , 7 9 4
Illinois_______ 5 6 , 3 3 6 6 4 4 ,6 3 1
Michigan..........
3,859 591,876
W isconsin......... 6 3 , 7 7 9 3 5 7 , 4 8 6
- 3 .8 64, 856, 575 - 8 .9 83,48 1,839, 512
- 5 .5 16,527, 288 -1 0 .3 2,551 469, 217
7, 0 6 7 , 1 9 9 - 1 3 . 4
- 5 .8
947
331, 083
West North Central. 12,127
M innesota........
2,303
Iowa_________
1,933
Missouri______ 3,123
North Dakota.
597
South D akota..
570
1,588
Nebraska..........
Kansas............... "3 , 0 1 3
- 2 .9
- 2 .3
- 3 .7
- 4 .1
- 1 .3
- .3
-.9
-5 .il
447,670
93,737
68,641
174,828
5,892
8,525
36,428
6 9 , 6 1 9 10
See footnotes at end of table.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
57,938, 056 - 7 .4 5, 440 1,261,331
26,918, 278 - 5 .5 2 3 , 3 5 6 4 4 7 , 6 3 3
9,121, 229 - 4 .8
3 8 4 8 3 6 0 ,6 1 7
21,898,549 - 1 0 . 6 3 , 3 3 6 5 5 3 , 1 8 3
D o lla r s
-8 .6
486,891 193,463 5 ,8 3 3 ,0 6 7
1 2 .8
2 1 .8
-9 .0
- 6 .9 1,195,150 - 4 .7 3, 8 8 6 , 751 - 4 .8 31, 135,736 -
2 1 .1
1 1 .2
1 0 .2
- 5 . 3 1 1 ,6 8 8 ,6 1 3
- 9 .3
6 ,6 0 9 ,4 7 0
- 5 .5
- 3 .4
* - 5 . 3 1 3 ,9 3 7 ,6 5 4 * - 1 3 . 7
- 4 .8 50, 262.234 -1 0 .4
- 7 .1 12,337,080 - 1 2 . 8
- 6 .3
3 ,4 4 7
945
1 1 ,4 5 8
4 4 4 ,1 0 7
6 1 7 ,1 9 4
1 7 7 ,9 1 3
-6 .8
5 ,7 4 6 ,1 7 4
- 4 - 7 1 1 ,5 0 0 ,1 3 3
- 1 . 3 1 6 ,1 3 3 ,5 3 6
* -3 .1
4 ,5 5 5 ,3 3 1
- 1 5 .8
- 9 .5
-8 .0
* - 6 .7
10,817,173 - 4 .0
2,447,830 - 3 .9
1, 609,478 - 4 .8
4,130,538 - 5 .6
142,836 - 2 .4
215,862 - 1 . 0
857,154 + ( 8)
2,424
421
412
876
56
38
162
215,708
43,490
37, 577
92,619
663
2,183
12,838
- 5 . 6 5,212,311
- 3 .9 1,145', 587
- 6 .4
927,908
- 7 . 2 2,054, 784
- 3 .9
19, 781
- .5
57,618
- 3 .5
330, 111
-6 .3
-4 .3
-6 .4
- 9 .3
- 4 .3
+ 3 .0
+ 1 .9
-3 .3
-4 .9
1 6 ,8 8 3 ,3 0 5
- 7 .0
- 1 .3 17,873, 795
- 8 .5
- 3 .6
- 3 .4
Per
cent
age
change
from
Octo
ber
1937
- 7 .2 12, 283, 884 - 1 2 . 0
- 8 .9
699,562 -1 8 .2
28,268 - 6 . 6
9,823 - 1 0 . 8
3 7 1 ,1 5 7
6 7 , 088
Amount
of pay roll
( 1 week)
Novem
ber 1937
6 ,5 0 6 ,0 8 8
1 ,4 1 3 ,4 7 5
* - 3 .6
459
3 6 ,3 3 8
6 7 6 ,5 3 3
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
516
T able 4.— Comparison of Employment and P ay Rolls in Identical Establishments in
October and November 1937, by Geographic Divisions and by States— Continued
[Figures in italics are not compiled by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, but are taken from reports issued by
cooperating State organizations]
Manufacturing
Total—all groups
Geographic divi
sion and State
N um N um
ber of ber on
estab pay roll
lish N ovem
ments ber 1937
Per
cent
age
change
from
Octo
ber
1937
Amount
of pay roll
( 1 week)
Novem
ber 1937
Per
cent
age
change
from
Octo
ber
1937
N um N um
ber of ber on
estab pay roll
lish Novem
ments ber 1937
Per
cent
age
change
from
Octo
ber
1937
Amount
of pay roll
( 1 week)
Novem
ber 1937
Per
cent
age
change
from
Octo
ber
1937
D o lla r s
D o lla r s
573,167 - 2 . 7 10,173,426
267, 209
11,138 -1 0 .3
92, 672
< -4.0 2 , 1 2 5 , 0 5 7
- 6 .6
- 8 .3
873, 562
15,337
- 2 . 0 17,073,905
373,930
- 8 .4
- 5 .3
- 6 .9
2,818
89
1 8 6 ,0 9 0
-2 .7
S , 1 9 7 ,0 1 3
- 6 .6
686
42,682
118,689
157, 249
+ 1 . 1 1,098,490
- 1 . 8 2,265,005
- 3 .2 3,957, 237
+ .3
- 4 .8
- 7 .4
34
470
254
3, 212
80,431
59,919
160,534
-
-
6 .0
581
143, 616
80,225
116,439
46,317
- . 3 1,166,386
- 3 .4 1,841,476
832,772
+ 5 .2
- 2 .5
- 6 .0
+ 3 .0
222
71,536
89,162
21,481
4, 549
1,282
1,337
1,303
627
305,485
87, 501
105, 606
91,319
21,059
- 3 .3
- 2 .0
- 5 .1
- 3 .2
5, 580,355
1,849, 416
1,873, 763
1,535,874
321,302
- 7 .7
- 8 .1
- 7 .3
- 8 .1
- 6 .0
1 ,0 2 1
294
383
250
94
188,122
36,510
76,945
61,856
12,811
- 4 .8 3,166,660 - 1 0 . 1
696,828 - 1 1 . 8
- 3 .5
- 6 .7 1,310,367 - 9 .7
986,488 - 9 .7
- 4 .1
172,977 - 9 .3
- .1
West South Central. 5,038
11704
Arkansas_____
Louisiana.......... 1,029
1,470
Oklahoma.........
Texas................. is 1 , 8 3 5
215,445
- 1 .9 4, 822,134
105, 839
4,490
700
509
355
1,252
322
498
636
218
154,181
22,515
14, 208
10,949
49,348
7,265
19,152
26,939
3,805
South Atlantic_____ 11,252
221
Delaware..........
Maryland____
1 ,6 4 1
District of Co
lumbia..........- 1 , 1 1 1
Virginia—- ........ 2,161
West Virginia.. 1,280
North
Caro
lina.......... ....... 1,509
South
Caro
782
lina..................
Georgia............ . 1,515
1,032
Florida— ..........
East South Central.
Kentucky..........
Tennessee____
Alabama_____
M ississippi___
M ountain________
Montana...........
Idaho..................
W yoming_____
Colorado_____
N ew M ex ico ...
A rizo n a ...........
U tah_________
Nevada..............
Pacific........................ 10,084
Washington___ 3,124
1,420
Oregon...............
California.......... >8 5 , 5 8 0
2 .0
+ .8
2,341,596
384
198
* -8 .6
+ 1.9
109,624
- 2 . 8 1,481,493
- 2 . 8 1,513,563
+ 1 .2
- 6 .1
- 7 .0
2,060,982
- 6 .7
- . 4 1,006,972
- 4 .3 1,246,738
+ 1.4
361,788
- 2 .6
- 7 .9
+ .9
-
2 .0
- 3 .7
1,175
- 5 .8
-4 .5
5 2 4 ,2 7 5
-7 .2
246
1 8 ,2 6 6
3 0 9 ,7 3 4
-1 0 .1
50,721
48,030
- 1 .2
- 2 .5
986,287
1,168,534
- 3 .4
- 4 .5
232
143
25,832
12, 201
- 3 .4
- 7 .0
- 2 .2
- 5 .2
2,300, 893
8 8 ,6 4 1
435, 705
288,278
- 7 .5
-9 .2
8 8 ,0 5 3
-
2 ,1 4 3 ,0 3 8
- 2 .4
554
4 9 ,5 4 0
- 2 .1
1 ,2 6 7 ,1 7 6
-3 .2
- 4 .6 4,054,062 - 4 .9
- 8 .4
660,041 -1 1 .4
- 2 .9
360, 203 - 2 .3
-. 1
316,534 - 1 . 0
- 5 .9 1,259,881 - 3 .7
- 1 .4
161,261 - 4 .2
-5 .0
508,546 - 1 0 . 8
- 2 .4
+ .6
674,831
+ .2
112,765
- .8
569
81
56
39
187
33
42
107
24
47,344 - 7 .6 1,208,185 - 3 .3
5,035 - 2 . 8
129, 299 -1 2 .4
124,101 - 4 . 6
4,976 - 6 . 0
2,434 - 1 . 1
75,801 + 1 . 0
495,404 - 5 . 0
19,535 - 1 1 . 6
15,492 - 5 .2
908
- .4
89,042 - 7 .8
3,557 - 3 .0
250,320 + 7.4
9,950 - 6 . 6
28, 726 - 1 .3
949 - 2 .5
9.9
449,201 - 7 .2 12, 300, 572
100,151 - 9 .0 2, 573,923 - 1 2 . 2
52,866 - 1 1 . 6 1,303,345 -1 7 .8
2, 523
569
306
243,212 -1 1 .3 6,442,256 -1 5 .1
54,701 -1 4 .3 1,341,505 -1 8 .9
659,954 -2 8 .6
29,336 -1 8 .2
1 ,6 4 8
1 5 9 ,1 7 5
2 9 6 ,1 8 4
1.0
-6 .8
8 , 4 2 3 , SO4
- 7 .8
-8 .8
4 ,4 4 0 ,7 9 7
- 1 1 .3
1 Includes banks and trust companies, construction, municipal, agricultural, and office employment,
amusement and recreation, professional services, and trucking and handling.
2 Includes laundering and cleaning, and water, light, and power.
8 Includes laundries.
* Weighted percentage change.
8 Includes automobile, and miscellaneous services, restaurants, and building and contracting.
6 Includes construction, but not public works.
7 Does not include logging.
• Less than Ho of 1 percentI Includes financial institutions, miscellaneous services, and restaurants.
10
Weighted percentage change including hired farm labor.
I I Includes automobile dealers and garages, and sand, gravel, and building stone.
12
Includes business and personal service.
18 Includes banks, insurance, and office employment.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Trend of Employment and Pay Rolls
517
IN D U S T R IA L A N D B U S IN E S S EM PLO Y M EN T IN P R IN C IP A L
M ETR O PO LITA N A R EA S
A comparison of employment and pay rolls in October and No
vember 1937 is made in table 5 for 13 metropolitan areas which had
a population of 500,000 or over in 1930. Cities within these areas,
but having a population of 100,000 or over are not included as data
concerning them are tabulated separately and are available on re
quest. Footnotes in the table indicate which cities are excluded.
The figures represent reports from cooperating establishments and
cover both full- and part-time workers in miscellaneous manufactur
ing and nonmanufacturing industries as well as in the manufacturing
and nonmanufacturing industries presented in table 1 except building
construction.
T able 5.— Comparison o f Employment and P ay Rolls in Identical Establishments in
October and November 1937 by Principal Metropolitan Areas
Metropolitan area
Number of Number Percentage
pay roll change from
establish on
November
October
ments
1937
1937
Amount of
Percentage
pay roll
change from
(1 week)
October
November
1937
1937
New York i ....................... _......................... .
Chicago 2....................................... ............... .
Philadelphia 3______________________
D etroit............................ ................ ..............
Los Angeles 4............................ .....................
15,258
4,424
2, 410
1,659
2,866
651,289
470, 235
221,318
385,235
155,909
- 2 .1
- 3 .4
- 2 .8
-.5
- 2 .5
$17,112,560
12, 789,375
5,981,897
12, 303,806
4,376,119
- 4 .1
- 7 .5
- 4 .4
- 7 .8
- 5 .1
Cleveland........................................................
St. Louis...... ............ ................ ...................
Baltimore........................... ............... ...........
Boston 8___________________ _____ ____
Pittsburgh.................................. ....................
1,768
1,551
1,204
3,712
1,280
144, 892
133,848
103, 221
172, 262
227,297
- 4 .8
- 4 .1
- 1 .7
- 4 .7
- 5 .5
3,839,101
3,255,480
2,460,135
4,153, 203
5,746, 523
-1 0 .5
- 6 .8
- 6 .6
- 3 .3
-1 4 .4
San Francisco 8............... ...............................
Buffalo......................................................... .
Milwaukee..................... ............. ..................
1,651
863
1,074
86,407
64,343
105,855
- 3 .5
- 7 .8
- 3 .4
2, 568, 518
1, 743, 553
2,858,105
-5 .7
-1 4 .2
- 5 .6
1 Does
2 Does
3 Does
4 Does
8 Does
8 Does
not
not
not
not
not
not
include
include
include
include
include
include
Elizabeth, Jersey City, Newark, and Paterson, N . J.; and Yonkers, N . Y.
Gary, Ind.
Camden, N . J.
Long Beach, Calif.
Cambridge, Lynn, and Somerville, Mass.
Oakland, Calif.
UNEMPLOYMENT IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES, LAST
QUARTER OF 1937
UNEMPLOYMENT totals for foreign countries moved upward in
the last quarter of 1937, and according to official announcements
these increases were believed to be more than seasonal in certain
industrial countries. Statistics covering trade-union members, un
employed registered with public exchanges, and compulsorily insured
workers are drawn upon in the accompanying table dealing with the
unemployment situation.
3 9 8 7 3 — 38--------15
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
518
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
Special importance is attached to the increase in the number of
registered unemployed in Great Britain, where the total for December
1937 was 1,665,407, as compared with 1,628,719 for the same month
of the previous year. While winter weather is stated to have affected
outdoor employments adversely and there was also a seasonal decline
in other trades, it is believed that the condition of world markets
and the uncertainties of price movements contributed to the higher
unemployment.
Even though unemployment in Austria, Belgium, Canada, France,
Germany, Norway, and Sweden has tended to increase substantially
in recent months over the lows established during the summer of
1937, the totals are well below the same months of the previous year.
In Denmark the number of trade-unionists unemployed rose sharply
in November 1937, a similar movement in 1936 having occurred a
month later. Registration in Poland was larger at the end of the
year than in December 1936. Registration of the unemployed in
Germany increased from 469,053 in September 1937 to 994,590 in
December.
The table following gives statistics of unemployment in foreign
countries as shown in official reports, by years from 1931 to 1936,
and by months beginning with November 1936 and including the
latest month for which figures are available.
Beyond comparisons of the figures in a single series for different
periods, it is not possible to use the official unemployment statistics
to measure volume of unemployment in a single country or to compare
conditions in one country with those in another, owing to the fact
that the coverage is not always complete. For example, only insured
persons may be reported in some instances, or certain classes, such as
agricultural labor, may be excluded.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Trend of Employment and Pay Rolls
519
Statement of Unemployment in Foreign Countries
Australia
Year and date (end of month)
1931,
1932.
193319341935.
1936.
Trade-unionists
unemployed
Number
Percent
117,866
120,454
104,035
86,865
71,823
53,992
27.4
29.4
25.1
20.5
15.6
12.2
46, 863
10.7
44, 004
9.9
43,584
9.7
Austria
Belgium
Compul
sory insur
ance, num
ber of un
employed
in receipt
of benefit
Unemployment-insurance societies
Wholly unem
ployed
Partially unem
ployed
Number
Percent
Number
253,368
309,969
328,844
287, 528
261,768
259,185
79,186
161.468
168,033
182, 855
165.469
122, 256
10.9
19.0
17.0
19.0
17.9
13.4
121,890
175,259
170,023
166, 229
118, 754
91,451
16.9
20.7
17.2
17.2
257, 063
290,452
112,881
131,565
12.1
94, 332
92, 619
10.1
10.2
316, 050
309,178
277,126
239,280
215,176
196, 067
187,360
178,081
176,308
188, 262
224,166
268,784
131,645
124, 669
113,296
97,979
95,888
86, 344
84, 348
88,825
90, 574
14.5
13.7
12.4
97,737
82,125
79, 711
66,163
75, 673
78, 052
78,831
89, 606
84,282
10.7
9.0
8.7
7.3
8.4
Percent
12.8
10.0
1936
November.
December..
14.4
1937
January__
February..
March........
April...........
M a y ...........
June............
July______
August.......
September .
October___
November.
December..
42,145
9. 3
Canada
Year and date (end of month)
Trade-union insur
ance
funds—un
employed in re
ceipt of benefit
Number
1931__________
1932____________
1933___________
1934___________
1935_______
1936___________
10.6
9.5
9.3
9.8
9.9
Danzig,
Free
City of
Czechoslovakia
Percent Number
of trade- of unem
unionists ployed
unem
on live
ployed
register
10.8
Number
of unem
ployed
registered
Percent
8.6
8.7
9.9
9.3
Denmark
Trade-union unem
ployment funds—
unemployed
Number
Percent
16.8
22.0
22.3
18.2
15.4
13.3
291,332
554, 059
738, 267
676,994
686,269
622,687
102,179
184, 555
247,613
245, 953
235, 623
208, 539
8.3
13.5
16.9
17.4
15.9
13.1
24,898
33,244
31,408
20,326
17,983
13, 553
53,019
99, 508
97,417
81,756
76,195
78,669
17.9
31.7
28.8
22.2
19.8
19.3
12.7
14.3
510,205
619,143
176,658
198,492
10.8
12.1
10, 764
14,933
83,552
127,478
20.0
30.3
14.5
13.7
12.9
11.1
9.5
10.4
8.9
7.6
7.7
8.9
11.2
667,486
677,947
627,258
503, 632
385,061
303,535
248,127
233,318
230,692
237, 737
333,455
451,484
210,894
221,464
210,244
176,348
137,677
113,838
110, 861
108, 063
106,496
107,782
12.9
13.2
12.4
10.3
8.0
6.6
6.4
6.2
6.1
6.1
16,797
16,724
14,909
8,776
6,526
4, 617
3,327
2,984
2,910
3,800
5, 028
9,714
140,262
133,795
122,687
74,793
63,310
60,199
66, 006
65,853
72,387
84,684
108 878
« 152Ì 850
33.0
31.4
28.6
17.5
14.8
13.9
15.2
15.1
16.5
19.2
24 F>
1936
November______
December___________ .
1937
January_________
February______
March______
April_______
M ay_________________
June____
July__________________
August____________
Septem ber.. ______
October__________
November______
December______________
Provisional figure.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
3 4 .5
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
520
Statement of Unemployment in Foreign Countries— Continued
Estonia
Number un Number of
employed re unemployed
maining on
registered
live register
Year and date (end of month)
1931__________________________
1932_____________ ____________
1933__________________________
1934____ _____________________
1935__________________________
1936__________________________
1936
November----- ----------------------December__________ ____ _____
France
Germany
Great Britain
Number of
unemployed
in receipt of
benefit
Number of
unemployed
registered
Number of
persons reg
istered with
employment
exchanges
Finland
3,632
7,121
8,210
2,970
1, 779
1, 276
11,522
17,581
17,139
10,011
7,163
4, 796
56,112
273,412
276,033
345,033
426,931
432,120
4, 573,218
5,579,858
4, 733,014
2,718,309
i 2,151,039
i 1, 592, 630
2, 668,000
2,757,000
2,520,616
2,159, 231
2,036,422
1,754,975
2,102
1,988
5,348
4,398
407,831
410,785
1,197,140
1,478,862
1, 623,602
1,628,719
2,388
2,064
1, 801
1,191
638
486
403
470
473
788
1, 473
1,727
6,805
5,383
4,482
3, 554
3,126
2,076
2,089
2,794
3,450
3, 705
3, 924
3,770
426,072
410,219
386, 254
368, 381
345,503
321,725
313, 553
311,315
305,341
319, 223
332,850
365,452
1, 853, 460
1, 610,947
1, 245,338
960,764
776,321
648, 421
562,892
509, 257
469, 053
501,847
572, 521
994,590
1, 689,223
1, 627,845
1, 601,201
1,454,443
1,451,330
1,356,598
1,379,459
1,358,621
2 1, 339, 204
1, 390, 249
1,499,203
1,665,407
1937
January______________________
February____ ______________
July_______ __________________
November------------------ --December______________ ____
H u n g a ry
G re a t B r ita in a n d N o r th e r n Ire la n d
C o m p u ls o ry in s u ra n c e
Y e a r a n d d a te (e n d of
m o n th )
W h o lly u n e m p lo y e d
..
- - ___________________
_____________________________
_______ _______________ _____
_____________________________
_____________________________
_______ ____________________
E m p lo y
m e n t ex
changes,
a p p lic a
tio n s fo r
w o rk
T ra d e -u n io n is t
u n e m p lo y e d
C h ris tia n
(B u d a
p e s t)
N um ber
P ercen t
2 ,1 2 9 , 359
2 ,2 7 2 , 590
2 ,1 1 0 ,0 9 0
1 ,8 0 1 ,9 1 3
1 ,7 1 4 ,8 4 4
1 ,4 9 7 ,5 8 7
1 6 .7
1 7 .6
1 6 .4
1 3 .9
1 3 .2
1 1 .3
5 8 7 ,4 9 4
5 7 3 ,8 0 5
4 5 6 ,6 7 8
3 6 8 ,9 0 6
3 1 2 ,9 5 8
2 5 1 ,3 7 9
4 .6
4 .5
3 .5
2 .9
2 .3
1 .9
5 2 ,3 0 5
6 6 ,2 3 5
6 0 ,5 9 5
5 2 ,1 5 7
5 2 ,0 4 8
5 2 ,1 1 4
977
1 ,0 2 6
1 ,0 8 5
996
967
800
27, 635
2 9 ,7 7 2
2 6 ,7 1 6
2 2 ,2 9 1
1 8 ,3 1 5
1 5 ,6 3 7
1 ,4 2 9 ,7 3 6
1 ,4 2 4 ,4 5 1
1 0 .7
1 0 .7
191, 585
197, 722
1 .5
1 .5
5 0 ,3 7 1
5 0 ,8 6 3
841
923
1 3 ,8 1 5
1 5 ,0 4 4
1 ,4 8 9 ,0 9 2
1 ,4 6 0 ,0 2 6
1 ,4 0 6 , 530
1 ,3 0 5 ,2 8 0
1 ,2 4 5 ,5 8 9
1 ,1 6 6 ,8 8 1
1 ,1 3 6 ,2 8 7
1 ,1 4 8 ,4 8 7
1 ,1 3 8 ,7 3 1
1 ,2 1 5 ,0 0 0
1 ,2 8 4 ,3 8 6
1 ,3 3 8 ,8 5 0
1 1 .2
1 0 .9
1 0 .5
9 .8
9 .3
8 .7
8 .5
1 8 7 ,8 7 4
1 6 4 ,7 3 9
169, 740
130, 788
2 1 0 ,4 0 1
203, 329
249, 345
2 0 8 ,9 4 1
1 9 4 ,9 9 7
1 7 9 ,8 5 6
2 2 2 ,2 0 4
3 2 6 ,0 2 6
1 .4
1 .3
1 .3
1 .0
1 .6
1 .6
1 .9
1 .6
1 .5
1 .3
1 .6
2 .4
5 4 ,4 0 7
5 6 ,1 9 2
56, 782
5 3 ,8 6 5
50, 273
4 5 ,7 4 0
4 3 ,9 1 5
4 5 ,9 0 4
4 4 ,9 4 6
4 5 ,1 8 7
3 6 ,9 6 8
969
1 ,0 1 2
1 ,0 1 1
943
936
729
815
843
864
896
1 5 ,6 4 0
1 6 ,1 4 8
1 5 ,8 7 8
1 4 ,9 8 4
1 3 ,6 3 7
13, 513
1 3 ,1 6 9
1 2 ,5 8 4
1936
1937
J u ly
_________________________
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
S o c ia l
D em o
c ra tic
P ercen t
N um ber
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
T e m p o ra r y s to p
pages
8.6
8 .5
8 .9
9 .4
9 .8
1,116
1
1 Includes the Saar.
3
New series.
12,895
1 2 ,8 9 6
1 3 ,8 4 0
Trend of Employment and Pay Rolls
521
Statement of Unemployment in Foreign Countries— Continued
Year and date (end
of month)
1931.
1932.
1933.
1934.
1935.
1936.
Irish Free
State
Italy
Compul
sory in
surancenumber
unem
ployed
Number
of unem
ployed
registered
wholly
unem
ployed
25,230
62,817
72,255
103,671
1119,498
99,834
734,454
1, 006,442
1,018, 955
963,677
Japan
Latvia
Netherlands
Official estimates
unemployed
Number
unem
ployed
remaining
on live
register
Unemployment in
surance societies—
unemployed
Number
Percent
6.1
6.8
Number
Percent
422, 755
485,681
408,710
372,941
356,103
5.6
5.0
4.6
8, 709
14, 587
8,156
4,972
4,825
3,851
82, 800
153, 500
163, 000
160,400
173,673
168,668
18.1
29.5
31.0
32.1
36.3
36.2
< 110,859
105,078
322, 948
322, 969
4.1
4.1
4,025
5,613
156, 575
163,381
33.7
35.0
100,177
91,680
93,426
92,363
88,480
64,011
63,288
65,670
68, 928
68,809
94,414
97,855
333,210
328,528
315,845
307,958
300,343
299,341
8292,050
5283,940
4.2
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.8
3.7
3.6
3.5
6,358
6,178
172,014
161,107
149,115
133, 523
124,711
119,325
122,982
124,610
124,012
126,621
8135,140
8 152,581
36.9
34.5
31.9
28.5
26.5
25.3
26.0
26.3
26.1
26.6
28,6
32.3
1936
November.
December..
1937
January_____
February___
March............
April..............
M ay.............
June................
July.................
August...........
September . . .
October_____
November___
December___
N ew Zea
land
Year and date (end of month)
Number
unem
ployed
registered
by employ
ment ex
changes 8
1931.
1932.
1933.
1934.,
1935.,
1936.,
6,110
3, 290
2,127
1,446
1,146
1,093
1,075
1,077
82,304
Norway
Trade-unionists (10
unions) unemployed
Number
Percent
Poland
Rumania
Number
unem
ployed
remaining
on live
register
Number
unem
ployed
registered
with em
ployment
offices
Number
unem
ployed
remaining
on live
register
27,479
32,705
7 35,591
35,121
36,103
32,643
299, 502
255,582
249,660
342,166
381,935
41,430
51, 549
46,971
39,235
38, 234
36,890
14,790
16, 588
15,963
14,783
13,267
22.3
30.8
33.4
30.7
25.3
18.8
39,056
35, 286
14,330
16,632
18.8
21.7
35,119
36,260
402,814
31,416
28, 941
27,907
27, 953
28,302
29,326
30,443
27,323
25,053
18,045
18,163
18,457
17, 561
14,813
13,020
12,772
13, 221
14,503
16, 286
23.2
23.1
23.2
21.8
18.1
15.6
15.2
15.6
17.0
19.1
35,435
34,440
32,951
31,824
26,298
22,028
18,572
20,045
25,431
29,063
32, 239
833,906
532,662
545,651
525,041
443,140
334,527
294,334
278,361
261,386
252,719
263,615
329,474
463,175
1
35.851
38,899
29,060
16,871
13.852
13,549
1936
November.
December.
11,526
16,224
1937
Jan u ary...
February..
March........
April...........
M ay............
June............
July............
August___
September.
October___
November.
December..
» Incomplete figures.
• N ew series from 1933 on.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1Special employment period.
8 Preliminary figure.
7 Revised figures.
18,778
19,653
17,392
12,609
10,784
6,396
6,822
5,878
6,083
6,343
522
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
Statement of Unemployment in Foreign Countries— Continued
Sweden
Switzerland
Trade-unionists
unemployed
Unemployment funds
Yugo
slavia
Year and date (end of month)
Wholly unemployed
Partially unemployed
Number
Number
1931.
1932.
1933.
1934.
1935.
1936.
1936
November______
December______
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Number
R1.5
71
’ .5.52
17. 2
22 8
23 7
18. 9
16 1
13. 6
67,869
99,776
12.8
18.5
65,900
78, 864
12.3
14.3
85,717
80,637
83,024
68,156
51,903
49,109
42,451
40,953
43,474
52,870
69,533
15.8
14.5
14.9
12.1
9.2
8.6
7.4
7.1
7.5
9.0
11.7
87, 300
84,100
66,985
51,300
37,800
34,082
34, 300
34,800
36,404
40,000
16.6
16.0
12.7
9.7
7.2
6.4
6.6
6.7
6.8
7.6
Percent
12.1
12. 2
8.5
6.1
5.9
5.3
10,018
14, 761
15,997
15,647
16,752
19,436
20, 000
18,176
3.6
3.3
14,239
22,069
17,500
16, 000
14,488
12,100
10, 200
10,217
10,300
10,900
11,194
13,000
3.3
3.0
2.7
2.2
1.9
1.9
1.9
. 2.0
2.1
2.4
35,170
39, 510
35, 324
24, 765
16,936
11,258
11,543
10,845
12, 250
13, 719
18,494
29,988
5.9
9.1
10.8
9. 8
11.8
13. 2
M
1937
J a n u a ry .............
February............
March_________
April----- ---------M ay____ ______
June......................
J u ly ..------ ------August___ _____
September_____
October................
November.......... .
December...........
Percent
Number
of unemployed
régistered
Building Operations
SUMMARY OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
PRINCIPAL CITIES, DECEMBER 1937 1
IN
BUILDING activity as measured by the value of permits issued
showed a marked increase (52.8 percent) in December over the
preceding month. All classes of construction registered gains. The
greatest, 81.9 percent, was in new nonresidential construction. New
residential construction and additions, alterations, and repairs
increased 47.9 and 19.6 percent, respectively. This pick-up in building
activity, however, can almost wholly be attributed to the increase
in the value of permits issued in New York City, where a new building
code goes into effect January 1.
Compared with a year ago permit valuations showed an increase
of 25.5 percent. New nonresidential construction in December was
48.6 percent above the corresponding month of 1936, while the value
of permits issued for additions, alterations, and repairs increased
32.6 percent and new residential construction rose 7.4 percent.
Comparison of December 1937 with November 1937 and December
1936
A summary of building construction in 1,498 identical cities in
December 1937, November 1937, and December 1936 is given in
table 1.
T a b l e I . —Summary of Building Construction in 1,498 Identical Cities, December 1937
Number of buildings
Estimated cost
Percentage
change from—
Class of construction
Decem
ber 1937
Novem Decem
ber 1937 ber 1936
Percentage
change from—
December
1937
N ovem Decem
ber 1937 ber 1936
All construction___ _____________
33,319
-2 5 .6
-1 3 .0
$150, 573,355
+52.8
+25.5
N ew residential____________ .
New nonresidential____________ _____
Additions, alterations, and repairs__ _0............
7,924
5,622
19, 773
+ 1 .7
-3 8 .8
-2 8 .8
-1 2 .9
-2 4 .7
-9 .0
63, 692,062
59,902,207
26,979,086
+47.9
+81.9
+19.6
+7.4
+48.6
+32.6
1 More detailed information by geographic divisions and individual cities is given in a separate pamphlet
entitled “ Building Construction, December 1937,” copies of which will be furnished upon request.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
523
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
524
A summary of the estimated cost of housekeeping dwellings and of
the number of families provided for in new dwellings in 1,498 identical
cities, having a population of 2,500 and over, is shown in table 2 for
the months of December 1937, November 1937, and December 1936.
T a b l e 2 . —Estimated
Cost of Housekeeping Dwellings and Number of families Provided
for in 1,498 Identical Cities, December 1937
Estimated cost of housekeeping Number of families provided
for in new dwellings
dwellings
Percentage change
from—
Type of dwelling
December
1937
All typ es--------------------------------------------1family___________ ________
2family 1________ __________
Multifamily 3--------------- ---------------------
Novem Decem
ber 1937 ber 1936
+47.7
$62,566, 515
26,330,660
5,126,616
31,109,239
1 Includes 1- and 2-family dwellings with stores.
Percentage change
from—
December
1937
-1 0 .9
+183. 2
+183.0
+ 6 .2
-3 1 .2
+108. 7
+71.0
Novem Decem
ber 1937 ber 1936
15,911
+48.7
+11.3
6,950
1,569
7, 392
-3 .6
+127. 7
+164. 2
-1 6 .7
+86.6
+44.5
3 Includes multifamily dwellings with stores.
,
Analysis by Size of City December 1937
Table 3 shows the estimated cost of building construction for which
permits were issued in December 1937 compared with November
1937 and December 1936, by size of city and by class of construction.
T a b l e 3.—
Estimate,d Cost of Building Construction for Which Permits Were Issued,
by Size of City
New residential buildings
Total construction
Size of city
imber
cities
Estimated
cost,
December
1937
Percentage
change from—
Novem Decem
ber 1937 ber 1936
Percentage
change from—
Estimated
cost,
December
1937
N ovem Decem
ber 1937 ber 1936
Total, all reporting cities...
1.498
$150, 573,355
+52.8
+25.5
$63,692,062
+47.8
+ 7.4
500.000 and over__________
100.000 and under 500,000--50.000 and under 100,000--25.000 and under 50,000-----10.000 and under 25,000-----5.000 and under 10,000------2,500 and under 5,000---------
14
78
95
155
429
337
390
92,328,811
19,311,438
9,051,952
7,886,962
10, 763, 223
5,198, 705
6,032,264
+137.3
+104.2
-3 4 .4
-1 0 .4
-2 7 .3
-2 1 .4
-3 1 .2
+95.8
44,872,002
5, 840,782
2,793,084
2,401,910
4,266,901
2, 367,133
1,150, 250
+150.4
-1 7 .7
-1 9 .1
-3 9 .3
-2 8 .8
-1 6 .6
-3 6 .3
+102.1
-5 7 .9
-4 2 .1
-4 3 .6
-4 5 .7
-4 5 .0
-4 1 .4
-2 7 .6
-6 .2
- 7 .4
-.5
+121.4
New nonresidential buildings
Size of city
Estimated
cost,
December
1937
Total, all reporting cities... $59, 902,207
500.000 and over...... ..............
100.000 and under 500,000...
50.000 and under 100,000---25.000 and under 50,000-----10.000 and under 25,000........
5;000 and under 10,000------2,500 and under 5,000...........
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36, 784, 552
7, 696,544
3, 770,971
3,311,368
4,651,845
1,666,411
2,020, 516
Percentage
change from—
Novem Decem
ber 1937 ber 1936
+81.9
+219.1
+14.7
-4 8 .5
+51.3
+47.8
+11.0
+280. 7
+48.6
+140.1
-2 3 .8
+18.4
-2 5 .4
+17.3
-3 2 .6
+145. 5
Additions, alterations, and
repairs
Estimated
cost,
December
1937
$26,979,086
10,672,257
5, 774,112
2,487,897
2,173,684
1,844,477
1,165,161
2,861,498
Percentage
change from—
Population
(census of
1930)
Novem Decem
ber 1937 ber 1936
+19.6
+32.6
58,511,755
+12.7
+ 7 .9
+44.7
- 3 .9
-2 5 .6
+31.7
+639.6
+38.8
+ 5 .7
+18.9
+ .9
- 1 .3
+49.6
+864.0
21,449,853
14,853,267
6, 333, 524
5, 511,096
6, 569,618
2, 381, 711
1,412, 686
Building Operations
525
The estimated cost of housekeeping dwellings for which permits
were issued in the 1,498 identical cities reporting for November and
December 1937, together with the number of family dwelling units
provided in new dwellings, by size of city, is given in table 4.
T a b l e 4 . —Estimated
Cost of Housekeeping Dwellings and Number of Families Provided
for in 1,498 Identical Cities, by Size of City, December 1937
Estimated cost of house
keeping dwellings
Number of families provided for in—
All types
Size of city
Decem
ber 1937
N ovem
ber 1937
Total, all reporting cities.. $62, 566, 515 $42,361,302
M ulti
1-family 2-family
dwellings dwellings1 family
dwellings 1
Per
cent
age
D e N o D e N o
change cem vem cem vem
ber
ber ber ber
1937 1937 1937 1937
D e
cem
ber
1937
N o
vem
ber
1937
D e
cem
ber
1937
No
vem
ber
1937
+47.7 15,911 10, 699 6,950 7, 212 1,569
689 7,392 2,798
500.000 and over_________ 44, 615, 002 17,896, 566 +149. 3 11, 050 4,058 2, 916 1, 560 1,245
100.000 and under 500,000.. 5,432,073 6,953,904 -2 1 .9 1, 529 1,966 1,172 1,597 142
50.000 and under 100,000__ 2,718,532 3,439,049 -2 1 .0
750
903 517 736
66
25.000 and under 50,000___ 2,369,910 3,538,726 -3 3 .0
608
914 543 777
31
10.000 and under 25,000___ 4, 036,901 5,992,184 -3 2 .6
995 1, 531 915 1,373
41
5.000 and under 10,000____ 2, 243,847 2,759,499 -1 8 .7
648
791 576 704
27
2,500 and under 5,000_____
1,150,250 1, 781,374 -3 5 .4
331
536 311 465
17
149 6,889 2, 349
195 215 174
102 167
65
57
34
80
102
39
56
41
45
46
43
3
28
1 Includes 1- and 2-family dwellings with stores.
2 Includes multifamily dwellings with stores.
,
Construction During Calendar Years 1936 and 1937
Cumulative totals for the 12 months of 1937 compared with the
calendar year 1936 are shown in table 5. The data are based on
reports received from cities having a population of 2,500 and over.
T a b l e 5 . —Estimated
Cost of Building Construction in Reporting Cities of 2,500
Population and Over, 1936 and 1937, by Class of Construction
Class of construction
Estimated cost of building con
struction
1937
Percentage
change
1936
All construction..______________ ________________
$1,650,901,097
$1,482,761,951
+11.3
New residential_______ _______ __________________
New nonresidential___________ _______ __________
Additions, alterations, and repairs________________
729,913,571
556,687,404
364,300,122
695,216,807
475,417,075
312,128,069
+ 5 .0
+17.1
+16.7
Table 6 presents the estimated cost of housekeeping dwellings and
number of family dwelling units provided in cities with a population
of 2,500 and over, for the calendar years 1936 and 1937.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
526
T a b l e 6 . —Estimated
Cost of Housekeeping Dwellings and Number of Families Provided
for in Reporting Cities of 2,500 Population and Over, 1936 and 1937, by Type of
Dwelling
Estimated cost
Type of dwelling
A ll typ es............ ................ ....................
Percent
age
change
Number of families
provided for
Percent
age
change
1936
1937
1937
1936
$718,182,439
$686,281,530
+ 4 .6
178,679
169,714
+ 5.3
509,479,894
33,817,188
174,885,357
462,205,927
25,134, 613
198,940,990
+10.2
+34.5
-1 2 .1
117, 296
11,893
49, 490
105,949
9,096
54,669
+10.7
+30.7
-9 .0
'Includes 1- and 2-family dwellings with stores.
'Includes multifamily dwellings with stores.
The information on building permits issued December 1937,
November 1937, and December 1936 is based on reports received by
the Bureau of Labor Statistics from 1,498 identical cities having a
population of 2,500 and over.
The information is collected by the Bureau of Labor Statistics
direct from local building officials, except in the States of Illinois,
Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, and Penn
sylvania, where the State departments of labor collect and forward the
information to the Bureau. The cost figures shown in this report are
estimates made by prospective builders on applying for permits to
build. No land costs are included. Only building projects within
the corporate limits of the cities enumerated are included in the
Bureau’s tabulation. In addition to permits issued for private build
ing construction, the statistics include the value of contracts for Fed
eral and State buildings in the cities covered. Information concerning
public building is collected by the Bureau from various Federal and
State agencies having the power to award contracts for building con
struction. These data are then added to the data concerning private
construction received from local building officials. In December 1937
the value of Federal and State buildings for which contracts were
awarded in these 1,498 cities amounted to $5,704,000; in November
1937, to $1,835,000; and in December 1936, to $11,006,000.
Construction from Public Funds
The value of contracts awarded and force-account work started
during December 1937, November 1937, and December 1936 on
construction projects financed from various Federal funds is shown
in table 7.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
527
Building Operations
7.— Value of Contracts Awarded and Force-Account Work Started on Projects
Financed From Federal Funds, December 1937, November 1937, and December 1936 1
T able
Value of contracts awarded and forceaccount work started—
Federal agency
December
1937
November
19372
December
19362
$110,860,323
$88,767,808
3 $100,474, 254
419,974
476,373
6,762,468
1,383,466
47,971,377
4, 004,945
57, 080, 561
4,136,314
33,569,177
11,450,901
39,135,043
10,771,709
3 39, 059,108
14,984,802
28,896,167
Public Works Administration:
Non-Federal:
N . I. R. A _______________________________________
E. R. A. A _______________________________________
Federal projects under The Works Program------------- ---------Regular Federal appropriations—------- -------------------------------
1 Preliminary, subject to revision.
2 Revised.
3 Revised: includes $3,754.281 low-cost housing projects (Housing Division. P. W. A ).
The value of public-building and highway-construction awards
financed wholly from appropriations from State funds, as reported
by the various State governments for December 1937, November
1937, and December 1936, is shown in table 8.
T a b l e 8.—
Value of Public-Building and Highway-Construction Awards Financed
Wholly From State Funds
Value of contracts
Type of project
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
December
1937
$4,335,282
2,572,449
November
1937
$1,305,240
6,629,309
December
1936
$869,921
6,717, 757
R etail Prices
SUMMARY
,
,
Food Electricity and Gas
THE continued decline of meat prices, combined with a sharp drop
in the price of eggs, lowered the food cost index 1.2 percent between
November and December. The comparatively sharp decline during
the last 4 months of the year, however, carried the December index 0.4
percent below the level of December 1936.
A downward trend in prices of electricity was shown during the
year with rate reductions occurring in 22 of the 51 cities. Fourteen
cities reported changes in prices of gas. Lower prices of manufactured
gas in some localities are reflected in the all-gas index.
FOOD
Prices in December 1937
RETAIL food costs declined 1.2 percent between November and
December largely as a result of the continued decline in meat prices
and a sharp break in the price of eggs. Lower costs were reported
for 43 of the 51 cities included in the index, with higher costs in the
other 8 cities.
The food cost index for December 14 was 82.6 percent of the 1923-25
average. This is 0.4 percent below the level of a year ago. Food
costs are 27.6 percent higher than in December 1932, when the index
was 64.7. They are 21.9 percent below the level of December 1929,
when indexes for all commodity groups were well above their present
level.
DETAILS BY COMMODITY GROUPS
The cost of cereals and bakery products declined 0.3 percent between
November 16 and December 14. Prices were lower for 8 of the 13
items in the group. Flour decreased 1.7 percent, continuing the
decline which began in July. There was no change in the average
528
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Retail Prices
529
price of white bread. Corn meal and hominy grits showed decreases
of 2.5 and 2.7 percent respectively.
Meat costs continued to decline in all reporting cities and were 4.7
percent below the November level. Price decreases were reported for
18 of the 21 items in the group. Beef and veal costs combined declined
4.9 percent, and pork costs dropped 7.7 percent. Reductions of more
than 5 percent were reported for five of the six beef items and for all
seven pork items. Lamb and poultry costs declined 1.8 percent and
1.0 percent respectively. Prices rose slightly for both pink and red
salmon, continuing the upward trend of the past 10 months.
The cost of dairy products made a seasonal advance of 1.9 percent
and reached the highest level for the year. The price of butter, which
rose 5.3 percent, was higher than for any December since 1929. The
average price of milk increased 0.1 percent; an increase of 1.0 cent a
quart in Buffalo and Peoria, and a decrease of 0.5 of a cent in Seattle,
were the only important changes.
Egg prices, which are usually near their peak at this season of the
year, broke sharply, with a decrease of 9.7 percent. Seven of the ten
cities that reported increases for eggs were in the West Central States.
The fruit and vegetable index rose 3.9 percent as a result of a 5.0
percent increase in the cost of the fresh items of the group. The more
important increases for staple products were cabbage, 24.4 percent;
sweetpotatoes, 11.4 percent; onions, 7.1 percent; potatoes, 3.8 percent;
and apples, 2.8 percent. Oranges, with a drop of 16.4 percent, was
the only fresh item which showed a decrease. The cost of the canned
items decreased 0.7 percent, while the dried products declined 2.6
percent. Prices of items in these subgroups were generally lower,
with the largest decreases for canned and dried beans.
Beverage and chocolate costs declined 1.0 percent, due to a decrease
of 1.5 percent in coffee prices and a 2.6 percent decline for cocoa. A
price increase of 0.2 percent was reported for both tea and chocolate
prices.
The cost of fats and oils declined 3.6 percent. The price of lard
dropped 8.4 percent, following the trend of pork prices. Lard com
pound and vegetable shortening decreased 2.1 percent and 1.6 percent
respectively.
The cost index for the sugar and sweets group moved down 0.5
percent. Prices were lower for all items in the group. Sugar, the
most important item, declined 0.5 percent.
Indexes of retail food costs for December and November 1937,
together with indexes for December 1936, 1932, and 1929 are shown
in table 1. The chart shows trends in the cost of all foods and of
each major commodity group for the period January 1929 to De
cember 1937, inclusive.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
530
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
Retail Cost
of
1923- 25=100
Food
Retail Prices
T a b l e 1. —Indexes
531
of Retail Food Costs in 51 Large Cities Combined,1 by Commodity
Groups
December and November 1937 and December 1936, 1932, and 1929
1937
Commodity group
Dec. 14
N ov. 16
1936
Dec. 15
1932
Dec. 15
1929
Dec. 15
All foods...............................................................
82.6
83.6
82.9
64.7
105.7
Cereals and bakery products........................
Meats...................................................................
Dairy products....................................... ..........
Eggs-------------------- ------ ----- ------------------Fruits and vegetables......................................
Fresh........................ ................................
Canned...............................................
Dried................ ............................................
Beverages and chocolate.............................. .
Fats and oils.......... .................................
Sugar and sweets..............................
93.7
98.0
88.2
76.7
58.4
56.2
79.9
62.4
69.4
72.0
66.8
94.0
102.8
86.6
84.9
56.2
53.5
80.5
64.1
70.1
74.8
67.1
91.9
93.0
82.5
85.9
69.1
67.6
81.6
70.6
67.8
77.2
63.9
71.1
66.8
65.7
80.6
51.8
50.7
66.8
49.5
72.8
49.0
58.5
97.8
117.6
100.5
128. 7
103.7
104. 1
94. 6
106.9
105. 3
90. 7
75. 1
1 Aggregate costs of 42 foods in each city prior to Jan. 1, 1935, and of 84 foods since that date, weighted to
represent total purchases, have been combined with the use of population weights.
The prices of 55 of the 84 items included in the index declined be
tween November and December, 25 increased, and 4 showed no change.
Compared with a year ago, the December prices were higher for 47
items and lower for 36 items.
The brands and grades used for reporting retail food prices to the
Bureau of Labor Statistics were recently reviewed by several large
distributing companies. Since the Bureau requests that prices be
furnished in each city on the brands or grades of the various items that
are sold in largest volume, a number of changes were necessary.
These changes have been incorporated in the retail food price report
for December. Prices for November have been recomputed on a
comparable basis. All commodities affected by the changes are
indicated in table 2 as revised.
Average prices of each of the 84 foods for 51 cities combined are shown
in table 2 for December and November 1937 and for December 1936.
T a b l e 2 . —Average
Retail Prices of 84 Foods in 51 Large Cities Combined •
December and November 1937 and December 1936
[‘ Indicates the 42 foods included in indexes prior to Jan. 1, 1935]
1937
1936
Article
Cereals and bakery products:
Cereals:
‘ Flour, wheat_________ _________
‘ Macaroni......... .............. ..............
‘ Wheat cereal__________ ____ ____
‘ Corn flakes_______________ .
‘Corn meal_________ ____ _________
Hominy grits__________ __________
‘ Rice—................................................
‘ Rolled oats______ _____ __________
Bakery products:
•Bread, white_______ ______________
Bread, whole-wheat________ ____ __ ---------------------- do___
Bread, rye_______ ______ __________
Cake____________________________
Soda crackers______ _____ _________
S e e fo o t n o te s a t en d o f ta b le .
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Dec. 14
N ov. 16
Dec. 15
C e n ts
C e n ts
C e n ts
4.3
15.2
24.5
7.7
5.0
9.1
8. 1
7.4
2 4.4
15.1
24.5
2 7. 6
5.1
9.4
8. 1
2 7.3
4. 9
15.2
24.2
8.0
5.4
9.8
8.6
7.4
8.9
9.8
10.0
25.4
16.6
8.9
9.8
10.1
25.4
2 16.7
8.2
9.3
9.0
25.4
18.2
532
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
T a b l e 2 . —Average
Retail Prices of 84 Foods in 51 Large Cities Combined— Continued
December and November 1937 and December 1936
[’Indicates the 42 foods included in indexes prior to Jan. 1, 1935]
1936
1937
Article
Meats:
Beef:
’ Sirloin steak............. . .................
’ Round stea k .................. ............
’ Rib roast___________________
’ Chuck roast................................
’ Plate______________________
L iver............... ..........................
Veal:
Cutlets— .......... ................... .
Pork:
’ Chops................................. .........
Loin roast________ _______ _
’ Bacon, sliced............................ .
Bacon, s tr ip ...................... ........
’ Ham, sliced.................................
Ham, w hole.......... ............. ......
Salt pork......................................
Lamb:
Breast......... ..................................
Chuck.......................................... .
’ Leg.................................................
Rib c h o p s..................................
Poultry:
’ Roasting C h ic k e n s..................
Fish:
Salmon, pink.............................
’ Salmon, red ............................... .
Dairy products:
’ Butter______ _______________ —
’ Cheese............ ................................... .
Cream----------- ------------ ------------Milk, fresh (delivered and store)3.
*Milk, fresh (delivered).....................
’ Milk, evaporated.................... .........
’ E ggs...................... ................................ Fruits and vegetables:
Fresh:
Apples_____________ _______
’ Bananas....... ...............................
Lemons____________________
’ Oranges........ ............................... .
Beans, green------ ----------------’ Cabbage___________________
C arrots......................................
Celery.............................. ............
Lettuce....................................
’ O nions....................... .................
’ Potatoes___ ________ _______
Spinach_______ ______ _____
Sweetpotatoes............................
Canned:
Peaches........................................
Pears---- ------ ------- -------------Pineapple........ .............. .............
Asparagus........................... .........
Beans, green...............................
’ Beans with pork....................... .
’ Corn_______ ______ _________
’ Peas........... ...................................
’ Tomatoes.............. ................ ......
Tomato soup..............................
Dried:
Peaches.......................................
’ Prunes.........................................
’ R a isin s.......................................
Black-eyed peas____________
Lima beans.............. ...............
’ N avy beans_________ ______
Beverages and chocolate:
’ Coflee_____________ ______ ____
’ T ea____ ____ ________ __________
Cocoa...................................................
Chocolate......... ...................................
See fo o tn o tes a t end o f table.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Dec. 14
N ov. 16
Dec. 15
C e n ts
C e n ts
C e n ts
pound—
. .. d o .. ..
...d o ___
...d o ___
...d o ___
...d o ___
39.4
36.1
31.6
24.8
16.9
24.8
41.5
38.4
33.7
26.1
17.9
25.1
39.2
35.1
29.7
23.2
15.5
25.3
.d o ...
43.6
44.7
40.5
.do___
.do___
.do___
.do___
.do___
.do___
.do___
31.1
25.3
40.0
33.8
47.1
28.4
23.7
34.1
28.6
43.1
36.2
49.7
29.9
25.2
31.4
25.9
39.7
34.3
48.4
30.7
24.9
.do___
.do___
do___
.do___
14.7
24.4
29.9
38.0
14.6
24.7
31.0
38.3
11.9
20.4
26.1
32.7
.d o___
35.4
35.8
29.1
.16 oz. can..
..........do___
14.0
27.0
14.0
26.7
12.9
24.8
......... pound..
______ do___
____J4 p in t..
_____ quart..
______ do___
1454-oz. can..
_____dozen..
45.5
29.4
15.0
12.7
13.0
7.5
39.0
43.2
29.6
14.9
12.7
13.0
3 7.5
2 43.2
40.0
29.3
15.4
.pound..
...d o ___
.dozen ..
...d o ___
pound..
...d o ___
.bunch..
..s ta lk ..
..h e a d ..
.pound..
...d o ___
...d o ___
...d o ___
4.4
2 4. 3
36.8
28.6
13.9
3.7
5.8
36.6
34.2
12.4
3.0
5.1
8. 1
4. 3
2.0
7. 3
4. 0
1.9
8.1
6. 2
6.2
6.2
3. 7
3.3
.no. 254 can..
.............d o___
......... ..d o ___
...n o . 2 can..
........... .d o___
. . . 16-oz. can..
...n o . 2 can..
............d o ___
______ do___
l O H - o z . can..
19.5
21.7
23.1
30.1
11.5
7.6
19.6
12.2
12.4
7.9
44.7
6.0
6.6
27.3
28.9
11.2
3.7
5.3
9.0
7.5
3.2
3.2
7.1
4. 1
18.5
21.8
22. r
23.1
30.0
22.5
27.1
11.6
8.0
12.1
12.2
16.0
9.0
7.4
16.0
9.1
7.5
..............pound..
________ do___
15-oz. package..
..............pound..
________ do___
________ do___
16. 2
9.8
16. 5
2 10. 0
........... .. d o ___
........ .......do___
——-8-oz. ca n ..
,8-oz. package-
12.2
7.4
13.0
16.2
9.5
8.1
10. 2
10.3
8. 3
9. 7
6.9
8.5
10.1
7. 2
17.4
10.4
9.8
9.6
11.7
9.2
25.0
<17.7
9.8
16.5
2 25.3
2 < 17. 7
24. 5
71.0
10.1
10.1
16.5
16.0
533
Retail Prices
T able 2.—Average Retail Prices of 84 Foods in 51 Large Cities Combined—Continued
December and November 1937 and December 1936
[• Indicates the 42 foods included in indexes prior to Jan. 1, 1935]
1937
1936
Article
Dec. 14
N ov. 16
Dec. 15
C e n ts
C e n ts
C e n ts
Fats and oils:
• L a r d ............................ ................. — . .................................pound..
___________ _______ do___
•Vegetable shortening....................... . ................... ..................do___
Salad oil.................................... .............. _____________ _____ p in t..
M ayonnaise_____ _______________ _
...... ........................... pound..
Peanut butter................. ....................... .....................................do___
Sugar and sweets:
•Sugar........................................................ ............................ .........do----Corn sirup............................................... _______ ____ ..24-oz. can ..
________ _____ 18-oz. can..
Strawberry preserves_________ ____ ________ _________pound..
14.7
13.5
20.1
25.2
17.5
17.6
19.0
16.1
13.8
20.4
25.1
17.6
17.7
19.1
16.8
15.3
21.4
25.1
16.9
18.8
18.8
5.6
14.4
14.4
22.4
5.6
14.4
14.5
22.4
5.5
14.2
14.4
20.9
1 Prices for individual cities are combined with the use of population and consumption weights.
» November prices for revised brands and/or grades for comparison with December. See p. 531. For
prices comparable with October and preceding months, see Retail Prices, November 1937, table 2.
> Average prices of milk delivered by dairies and sold in grocery stores, weighted according to the relative
proportion distributed by each method.
4 Quarter pound.
DETAILS BY REGIONS AND CITIES
The average decrease of 1.2 percent in the composite food index
resulted from lower costs in 43 cities and increases in 8. The decreases
were largest in Boston and Providence, where the cost of meats and
eggs dropped considerably more than the average for all cities com
bined. In addition, there was a decline of 5.1 percent in fruit and veg
etable costs in Providence. The largest increase occurred in Peoria,
where egg prices rose and advances in the costs of dairy products and
fruits and vegetables were greater than the average for other cities.
Indexes of retail costs of food by cities and regions are given in
table 3 for December and November 1937 and for December of
earlier years.
T able 3.— Indexes of the Average Retail Cost of All Foods, by Regions and Cities 1
December and November 1937 and November 1936, 1935, 1933, 1932, and 1929
f1923—
25 = 1001
1937
1936
1935
1933
1932
1929
Dec. 15
Dec. 17
Dec. 19
Dec. 15
Dec. 15
Region and city
Dec. 14
Nov. 16
Average: 51 cities combined____
82.6
83.6
82.9
82.0
69.3
64.7
105.7
New England................ ...........
81.0
83.8
80.9
80.5
69.1
66.0
105.8
78.7
86.6
84.7
82.1
86.1
81.4
80.6
81.9
88.9
86.4
83.5
87.9
82.8
83.7
78.4
86.0
82.6
82.7
86.3
81.7
81.3
78.3
86.7
81.2
82.9
85.6
81.0
79.9
67.3
72.7
69.3
70.6
73.2
70.1
68.8
65.3
68.6
63.9
65.0
69.0
65.0
64.0
105.4
106.3
105.1
103.0
107.8
104.1
104.8
Boston________ ____ _____
Bridgeport_______________
Fall River____ __________
M anchester...___________
New H aven______________
Portland, M aine...................
Providence........... .................
S ee fo o t n o te s a t en d o f ta b le .
3 9 8 7 3 — 38 --------16
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
534
T able 3.—Indexes of the Average Retail Cost of A ll Foods, by Regions and
Cities— Continued
December and November 1937 and November 1936, 1935, 1933, 1932, and 1929
[1923-25=100]
1937
1936
1935
1933
1932
1929
Dec. 15
Region and city
Dec. 14
N ov. 16
Dec. 15
Dec. 17
Dec. 19
Dec. 15
Middle Atlantic...........................
Buffalo__________________
Newark_________________
New York_______________
Philadelphia___________ Pittsburgh_____________ _
Rochester_______________
Scranton________ ____ ___
84.0
81.8
85.6
86.0
83.9
81. 1
82.8
77.0
84.9
81. 1
88.5
87.3
83.3
83.5
83.1
77.3
83.4
81.6
84.6
83.3
85.9
81. 1
83.4
81.1
83.1
82.0
84.5
84.1
84.2
80. 1
81.7
78.9
70.7
68.8
72.0
72.2
71.3
67.3
67.9
69. 1
66.6
65.0
69.8
69.5
65.4
62.3
61.6
63.5
106.0
106.4
105 7
105. 5
107. 2
105.8
104.5
107.7
East North Central____________
Chicago_________________
Cincinnati_______________
Cleveland_______________
Columbus, Ohio_________
D etroit_____ ____________
Indianapolis____________
Milwaukee______________
Peoria_____ ___________
Springfield, 111_____ ____
82.9
84.2
83.3
81.9
81.0
82.5
81.6
85.7
82.5
80.9
83.6
85.0
83.5
83.7
80.9
82.4
81.8
86.9
81.5
80.5
83.4
84.6
85. 1
81.8
83.9
81.8
84.0
85.9
85.1
83.6
81.8
82.6
84.9
79.6
83.2
80.9
81.3
83.9
82.9
80.9
68.1
68.6
68.3
67.7
69.4
66.9
67.5
69.4
69.7
65.9
62.2
64.5
63.4
60.7
61.2
58.0
62.7
66.1
63.2
61.3
107.0
110.1
111.2
101.8
106.2
104.7
108.3
106.3
106.9
105.4
West North Central----------------Kansas C ity_____________
Minneapolis_____________
Omaha—________________
St. Louis________________
St. Paul______________
84.3
82.0
87. 1
80.9
86 3
83.9
85.2
83.4
87.5
80.2
88.0
84.1
87.1
85.4
91.2
84.7
87.7
86.5
84.8
83.2
86.6
81.8
86.6
84.4
69.2
68.8
72.1
66.3
68.9
71.1
64.0
66.3
65.7
61.2
63.5
63.2
107.1
107. 1
108.9
103.9
108.1
106.1
South Atlantic......... ....................
Atlanta_______ ____ _____
Baltimore_______________
Charleston, S. C___.............
Jacksonville______________
N orfolk.. ______________
Richmond_______________
Savannah_______________
Washington, D . C ................
81.0
76.6
86.1
82.2
79.4
79.8
76.0
80.8
83.6
81.8
77.5
86.6
83.3
79.7
80.0
76.4
82.3
85.6
83.4
80.0
86.7
84.1
80.6
83.6
82.0
82.9
85.3
82.7
80.8
86.1
82.3
79.8
83.2
78.5
82.9
85.7
69.1
65.5
72.0
70.3
64.9
69.1
67.0
68.2
72.0
63.1
59.2
66.2
63. 5
60.3
63.7
60.8
63.7
65.2
104.2
103.2
104.7
104.6
100.0
110.9
100.9
105.9
104.7
East South Central........................
Birmingham...... ............ .......
Louisville________________
M emphis_________ ____ _
Mobile__________________
77.2
72.8
86.9
78.6
76.6
77.4
72.8
87.1
79.3
78.0
79.5
75.3
88.5
81.6
77.7
77.7
72.6
88.4
79.6
76.8
65.4
62.0
70.9
68.7
65.2
60.4
58.3
63.9
62.0
60.9
103.9
101.3
108.6
105.7
103.1
West South Central___ ____ ___
Dallas......................................
Houston____________ ____
Little Rock....................... .
N ew Orleans.................. .......
80.7
78.7
80.4
78.5
84.2
81.2
78.8
81.2
79.2
84.8
81.6
79.4
81.9
80.8
84.4
80.8
80.5
80.3
78.5
83.4
68.6
68.2
66.9
66.3
72.0
62.5
63.3
58.8
59.3
66.8
104.9
105.7
103.5
107.8
105.0
Mountain.____ _______ _______
B utte..................... ..................
Denver...................................
Salt Lake C ity............. .........
84.9
80.6
87.8
80.9
85.6
80.1
88.0
82.8
86.6
82.0
89.5
82.8
84.8
78.7
86.6
83.1
* 67. 7
62.1
70.0
»65.4
64.8
62.2
66.7
62.4
102.5
104.9
103.0
101.1
Pacific......... ....................................
Los Angeles............... ............
Portland, Oreg___________
San Francisco................... .
Seattle__________________
80.0
74.9
82.3
85.1
81.5
80.9
75.3
83.4
86.2
83.2
80.1
76.3
82.0
83.2
82.6
78.6
74.0
80.1
82.4
81.6
» 69.3
» 66.5
65.3
« 73.8
68.3
66.4
62.4
65.7
72.2
65.4
102.4
99.2
104.3
105.8
103.7
i Aggregate costs of 42 foods in each city prior to Jan. 1,1935, and of 84 foods since that date, weighted to
represent total purchases, have been combined for the regions and for the United States, with the use of
population and consumption weights.
» Revised.
T he B ureau of Labor S ta tistics collects prices in nine cities th at
cannot be included in the food cost indexes, since no prices are available
for th e 1923-25 base period. T hese cities were selected from areas
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Retail Prices
535
which were not adequately represented by the 51 cities in the current
food cost indexes.
Average prices for each of these cities for which data were available
have been released since June 1935. Consumption weights have been
provided for these cities, making it possible to measure changes in
food costs from one period to another. Percentage changes in food
costs between November and December 1937 are shown in table 4 for
these nine cities.
T able 4.—Percentage Changes in Retail Food Costs for Specified Cities
December 1937 Compared With November 1937
Percentage change Dec. 14, 1937, compared with N ov. 16, 1937
Region and city
West North Central:
Cedar Rapids-------------Sioux Falls___________
W ichita________- ____
South Atlantic:
Columbia, S. C_______
Winston-Salem_______
East South Central:
Jackson—_____________
Knoxville.— _________
West South Central:
El Paso______________
Oklahoma C i t y ______
All
foods
Cereals
and
bakery Meats
prod
ucts
Dairy
prod
ucts
Eggs
Fruits
and
vege
tables
Bever
ages
and
choco
late
Fats
and
oils
Sugar
and
sweets
- 0 .4
- .4
- .1
- 0 .2
-.4
- 1 .3
- 4 .3
- 4 .3
- 2 .0
+ 7 .5
+ 1 .5
+ 1.3
-2 . 1
- 7 .9
+ 7 .7
- 0 .6
+5.7
+ .4
- 0 .4
- 1 .1
+ .6
- 2 .0
- 4 .9
-3 .6
-2 .1
-.7
- 1 .4
+ .3
- 1 .4
- 7 .3
- 2 .4
- 2 .4
- 4 .8
+ 2 .2
+ 1.6
+ 4 .5
+ •3
+ 6 .2
+ .4
- 3 .1
+ .5
- 3 .4
- 3 .7
-1 . 1
-.5
+ .2
- .3
+ 2 .5
- 3 .4
+ .3
- 7 .8
+ 3 .9
+ 1.6
- 1 .7
+ 4 .2
- 4 .2
+ 9 .5
+ 1.1
+ .2
- 1 .5
- 5 .5
+ 2 .2
-. 4
- .3
+ 4 .4
-.3
+ .9
- 5 .6
+ .4
+ 2 .8
+ .6
+ 2.7
0
+ 2 .6
+20.8
-.4
+ .1
- 1 .2
- .4
- 1 .3
+ .5
ELECTRICITY
THE December 1934 issue of Retail Prices introduced a revised tech
nique, whereby the prices for November 15, 1934, were given for
three typical services of electricity for household customers for 51
cities, and a statement concerning the basis for the application of the
rates in computing the prices. Since that time prices of electricity
for household use have been computed quarterly. This publication
presents comparable figures showing net monthly bills and average
prices per kilowatt-hour as computed from rate schedules in effect on
December 15, 1937, and a résumé of changes affecting the cost of
electricity to domestic customers since December 15, 1936. Twentyfour cities have reported changes. Net monthly bills and average
prices per kilowatt-hour before and after the change, and percentage
change in the net monthly bills, are shown for these cities.
Prices on December 15, 1937
Residential rates for electricity are secured quarterly from 51 cities.
These rates are used for computing average prices and typical bills
in each city for the quantities of electricity which most nearly approxi
mate the consumption requirements for the usual domestic services
for a five-room house, including living room, dining room, kitchen, and
two bedrooms. The blocks of consumption which have been selected
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
536
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
as representative of average conditions throughout the country are
25 and 40 kilowatt-hours for the use of electricity for lighting and
small appliances alone; 100 kilowatt-hours for lighting, small appli
ances, and a refrigerator; and 250 kilowatt-hours for the addition of
an electric range to the preceding equipment.
The technical specifications which are used as the basis for the
application of these rates are:
Floor area (1,000 square feet).
Connected load:
Watts
Lighting and appliances_____________________________
700
Refrigeration______________________________________
300
Cooking------------------------------------------------------------------ 6, 000
Measured demand:
Lighting and appliances_____________________________
600
Refrigeration_______________________________________
100
Cooking------------------------------------------------------------------2, 300
Outlets: Fourteen 50-watt.
Active room count: In accordance with schedule of rates.
Typical bills and average prices per kilowatt-hour for the various
blocks of consumption are shown in table 5 for each of the 51 cities.
T able 5.— Total Net Monthly Bill and Price per Kilowatt-Hour for Specified Amounts of
Electricity Based on Rates as of December 15, 1937, by Cities
N et monthly price per kilowatthour
N et monthly bill
Region and city
New England:
Boston________________
Bridgeport____________
Fall River_____________
Manchester____________
New H aven___________
Portland, M aine_______
Providence_____ _______
Middle Atlantic:
Buffalo________________
Newark...............................
New York: 2
Bronx_____________
Brooklyn__________
Manhattan________
Queens____________
Richmond_________
Philadelphia___________
Pittsburgh___________
Rochester_____________
Scranton___ ___ _______
East North Central:
Chicago______ ____ ____
Cincinnati_____ ______
Cleveland____ ____ ____
Columbus........ ..................
25 kilo 40 kilo
wattwattType hours hours
of
owner Light Light
ship 1
ing
ing
and
and
small
small
appli appli
ances
ances
25 kilo 40 kilo 100 kilo 250 kilo
wattwattwattwatthours
hours
hours
hours
Light
Light Light Light
ing,
ing,
ing
ing
appli appli
and
and
ances,
ances,
small
small
refrig
and
appli appli
refrig erator,
ances
ances erator
and
range
C e n ts
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
$1.55
1.31
1.58
2.00
1.31
1.85
1. 76
$2.30
2.05
2.38
2.80
2.05
2.60
2. 66
$5.10
4. 87
4. 98
5.00
4.87
4.70
5. 50
$9.60
8.70
9.13
8.00
8.70
7.70
9. 50
6.2
5.3
6.3
8.0
5.3
7.4
7.0
p
p
1.13
1.84
1.70
2.54
3.06
4.44
5.31
8. 69
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
1.69
1.69
1.69
1.69
1.95
2.19
1.40
1.25
1.59
1. 25
2.46
2.46
2.46
2.46
3.02
3.17
2.15
2.00
2.26
2. 00
4.81
4.81
4.81
4. 81
6.08
5. 62
3.76
4.00
4. 56
4. 25
p
p
p
M
P
M
1.34
1.00
1.00
.85
1.25
1.00
1.94
1.45
1.60
1.27
1.95
1. 58
3. 65
2. 50
3. 75
2.80
4.50
3. 80
S e e fo o t n o te s a t en d o f ta b le .
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
100 kilo 250 kilo
wattwatthours hours
Light Light
ing,
ing,
appli appli
ances,
ances, refrig
and
refrig erator,
and
erator
range
C e n ts
C e n ts
C e n ts
5.8
5.1
5.9
7.0
5.1
6.5
6.7
5.1
4.9
5.0
5.0
4.9
4.7
5.5
3.8
3.5
3. 7
3. 2
3.5
3.1
3.8
4.5
7.4
4.3
6.4
3.1
4.4
2.1
3.5
8.16
8.16
8.16
8.16
10.67
9.09
6. 76
7.50
7.81
8.00
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
7.8
8.8
5.6
5.0
6.3
5.0
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
7.5
7.9
5.4
5.0
5.7
5.0
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
6.1
5.6
3.8
4.0
4.6
4.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
4.3
3.6
2.7
3.0
3.1
3.2
6. 65
4. 75
7. 25
5. 55
8.50
8. 30
5.4
4.0
4.0
3.4
5.0
4.0
4.9
3.6
4.0
3.2
4.9
4.0
3.7
2.5
3.8
2.8
4.5
3.8
2.7
1.9
2.9
2.2
3.4
3.3
Retail Prices
537
T able 5.— Total Net Monthly B ill and Price per Kilowatt-Hour for Specified Amounts of
Electricity Based on Rates as of December 15, 1937, by Cities—Continued
N et monthly price per kilowatthour
N et monthly bill
Region and city
25 kilo
wattType hours
of
owner
ship Light
ing
and
small
appli
ances
East North Central—Contd.
D etroit3 4_____________
Indianapolis___________
Milwaukee.......................
Peoria________________
Springfield, 111________
40 kilo 100 kilo 250 kilo 25 kilo 40 kilo 100 kilo 250 kilo
wattwattwattwattwattwattwatthours hours hours hours hours hours hours
Light
ing
and
small
appli
ances
Light Light
ing,
ing,
appli appli
ances,
ances, refrig
and
refrig erator,
and
erator
range
Light
ing
and
small
appli
ances
Light
ing
and
small
appli
ances
C e n ts
C e n ts
Light Light
ing,
ing,
appli appli
ances, ances,
refrig
and
refrig erator,
and
erator
range
C e n ts
C e n ts
p
p
p
p
p
M
$1.39
1.38
1.41
1.50
1.25
1.25
$1. 95
2.10
1.90
2.01
1.90
1.90
$3.48
4.40
3.48
3. 57
5 3.02
3.02
$6. 95
8.15
6.35
6.32
• 5. 22
4.80
5.6
5.5
5.7
6.0
5.0
5.0
4.9
5.3
4.8
5.0
4.8
4.8
3.5
4.4
3.5
3.6
8 3.0
3.0
P
P
P
P
P
P
1.66
1.47
1.19
1.21
1.09
1.60
2. 35
1.99
1. 90
1.74
1.45
2.15
4.08
3. 61
3.88
3.20
2.91
3.85
7.91
6.60
7.78
6.35
5.81
7.00
6.6
5.9
4.8
4.8
4.4
6.4
5.9
5.0
4.8
4.4
3.6
5.4
4.1
3.6
3.9
3.2
2.9
3.9
3.2
2. 6
3.1
2. 5
2. 3
28
P
P
P
1.45
1.22
1.13
2.12
1.90
1.80
3.95
3.85
3.90
6.57
6.57
8.20
5.8
4.9
4.5
5.3
4.7
4.5
3.9
3.8
3.9
2. 6
2.6
3 3
P
P
M
P
P
P
P
1.60
1.50
1.75
1. 38
1. 38
1.62
.98
2.50
2.25
2.70
2.10
2.10
2. 37
1. 56
5.35
4.20
4.95
4.65
4.65
4. 57
3.10
8.85
6.82
7.95
7.65
7.65
7.97
5.65
6.4
6.0
7.0
5.5
5.5
6.5
3.9
6.2
5.6
6.8
5.3
5.3
5.9
3.9
5.3
4.2
5.0
4.7
4.7
4.6
3.1
3.5
2.7
3.2
3.1
3.1
3.2
2 3
P
P
P
P
1.25
7 1.00
1.13
1.38
2.00
1.56
1.75
2.20
3.75
3.20
3. 71
4.25
7.30
6.95
7.31
8. 75
5.0
4.0
4.5
5.5
5.0
3.9
4.4
5.5
3.8
3.2
3.7
4.3
2. 9
28
2.9
3 5
P
P
1.45
1.20
2.13
1.80
3.95
3. 50
6. 58
6.13
5.8
4.8
5.3
4.5
4.0
3.5
2. 6
2 5
P
P
1.19
1.20
1.90
1.80
4.30
3.83
8.10
7.08
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.5
4.3
3.8
3.2
2.8
P
P
P
«1.93
8 1.78
1.88
2.88
2.63
2.85
5.20
5.10
5.50
8. 67
8.67
10.25
«8.0
8 7.4
7.5
7.2
6.6
7.1
5.2
5.1
5.5
3.5
3. 5
4.1
P
P
1.55
1.53
2.38
2.45
4.43
4.90
7.93
9.49
6.2
6.1
5.9
6.1
4.4
4.9
3.2
3.8
P
P
1.63
1.63
2.40
2.30
4.92
3.83
7.85
7.14
6.5
6.5
6.0
5.7
4.9
3.8
3.1
2.9
P
«M
P
P
San Francisco__________
P
Seattle________________
P
M
1.10
1.10
1.25
1.25
1.30
1.25
1.25
1.65
1. 65
1.88
1.88
1.77
2.00
2.00
2.97
2.97
3.37
3.37
3.09
3.20
3.20
5.10
5.10
6.07
6.07
5.89
6.08
6.10
4.4
4.4
5.0
5.0
5.2
5.0
5.0
4.1
4.1
4.7
4.7
4.4
5.0
5.0
3.0
3.0
3.4
3.4
3.1
3.2
3.2
2.0
2.0
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
West North Central:
Kansas City 2__________
Minneapolis___________
Omaha................................
St. Louis 33............... .........
St. P a u l.____ _____ ____
South Atlantic:
Atlanta:
Immediate_________
Inducem ent6______
Baltimore_____________
Charleston, S. C.:
Immediate_________
Objective 8___ ____
Jacksonville. _________
Norfolk__________ _____
R ichm ond..___________
Savannah_____________
Washington.......................
East South Central:
Birmingham:
Immediate_________
Objective 6_________
Louisville4____________
M em phis........................
Mobile:
Present........................
Objective 8_............
West South Central:
Dallas___ ______ _______
Houston_______________
Little R ock:2
Present____________
C entennial6___ . .
N ew Orleans___________
Mountain:
Butte_________________
Denver 2............................
Salt Lake C ity :2
Present................. .......
Objective 8_________
Pacific:
Los Angeles........................
Portland, Oreg..................
2.8
3.3
2. 5
2 5
8 2.1
19
1 Type of ownership is indicated as follows: P, private utility; M , municipal plant.
8 Prices include 2-percent sales tax.
3 Prices include free lamp-renewal service.
4 Prices include 3-percent sales tax.
8 Revised.
8 The “Inducement” rate in Atlanta, the “Objective” rate in Charleston (S. C.), Birmingham, Mobile,
and Salt Lake City, and the “ Centennial” rate in Little Rock are designed to encourage greater use of elec
tricity.
7 Minimum charge.
8 Based on 24 kilowatt-hours in accordance w ith billing policy of operating com pany.
8 The municipal plant absorbed 1 of the privately owned utilities Jan. 31, 1937.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
538
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
,
Price Changes December 16, 1936, to December 15, 1937
Changes in prices of electricity to residential customers since De
cember 15, 1936, have been recorded for 24 of the 51 reporting cities.
Rate reductions occurred in 22 widely separated cities, representing
all regional areas. For seven of these cities—Cincinnati, Washington,
D. C., Birmingham, Dallas, Salt Lake City, Los Angeles, and San
Francisco—lowered rates were also reported during the 12 months
prior to December 15, 1936. An increase in the Missouri State sales
tax, effective June 8, 1937, advanced the price of electricity to cus
tomers in Kansas City and St. Louis.
Rate decreases lowered the cost for current for all 4 services in 14
of the 22 cities. These reductions amounted to 4.4 percent or more
for each service in Scranton, Philadelphia, Indianapolis, Atlanta, San
Francisco, and the Borough of Queens 1 in New York. The greatest
general reduction covering all services was reported for Scranton,
where decreases ranged from 12.4 percent for customers using 100
kilowatt-hours to 23.1 percent for those using 25 kilowatt-hours—the
latter decrease being greater than that shown for any other city for
the use of current for lighting and small appliances only. Other
cities whose rate reductions were, in a lesser degree, most advantageous
to the smaller users are: Fall River; Portland, Maine; Newark;
Minneapolis; Birmingham (“Immediate” rate); Dallas; Salt Lake
City (“Present” rate); Portland, Oreg.; New York (Bronx, Brooklyn,
Manhattan, and Queens).
The greatest reductions for customers using 250 kilowatt-hours per
month occurred in Cleveland where the municipal and privately owned
utilities reported decreases of 25.0 and 26.6 percent respectively for
this service. Other cities in which lower rates were most beneficial to
customers using major appliances are: Bridgeport, New Haven, Phila
delphia, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Milwaukee, Washington (D. C.), Los
Angeles, and San Francisco.
Customers in Indianapolis using the intermediate amounts of cur
rent, 40 and 100 kilowatt-hours per month, received the greatest
benefits from lowered rates. This condition was reversed for one
company serving part of the customers in the Borough of Queens,
New York. In Atlanta the price reductions under the “Immediate”
rate were greatest for customers using major appliances, while the
“Inducement” rate provided decreases for small users only.
Net monthly bills, average prices per kilowatt-hour, and percentage
change from December 16, 1936, to December 15, 1937, inclusive, are
published in the special Retail Price report for December 1937,
copy of which will be furnished upon request of the Bureau.
1 Smaller decreases were reported by companies serving other boroughs.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Retail Prices
539
GAS
THERE was introduced in Retail Prices for November 1935 a re
vised technique whereby the first of a series of quarterly reports on
prices for each of four consumption factors typical of the use of gas
for domestic purposes were presented for 50 cities. This publication
gives comparable figures showing net monthly bills and average prices
per therm and per thousand cubic feet as computed from rates in
effect on December 15, 1937; and also a resume of changes affecting
the cost of gas to domestic customers during the preceding year.
Fourteen cities have reported changes. Net monthly bills and aver
age prices per thousand cubic feet and per therm before and after
the change, and percentage changes in the net monthly bills, are shown
for these cities.
Prices on December 15, 1937
Residential rates for gas are secured from 50 cities. These rates
are used in computing^average prices and typical bills for each city
for quantities of gas which approximate the average residential con
sumption requirements for each of four combinations of services. In
order to put the rate quotations upon a comparable basis it is neces
sary to convert the normal consumption requirements used for com
puting monthly bills into an equivalent heating value expressed in
therms (1 therm = 100,000 B. t. u.). This procedure is necessary
because of the wide range in the heating value of a cubic foot of gas
between different cities. The equipment and blocks of consumption
which have been selected as representative of average conditions
throughout the country are based upon the requirements of a fiveroom house, including living room, dining room, kitchen, and two
bedrooms.
These specifications are:
Range_____________________________________________
Range and manual type water heater________________
Range and automatic storage or instantaneous type
water heater_____________________________________
Range, automatic storage or instantaneous type water
heater, and refrigerator___________________________
T h erm s
10. 6
19. 6
30. 6
40. 6
Typical net monthly bills and prices per thousand cubic feet and
per therm for these services for each city, presented in table 7, have
been computed from rate schedules in effect on December 15, 1937.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
T able 7.— Total Net Monthly Bill and Prices per Thousand Cubic Feet and per Therm for Specified Amounts of Gas, Based on Rates as of
December 15,1937, by Cities
M onthly consumption in cubic feet and net monthly bill based
on specified numbers of therms 2
10.6 therms
New England:
Boston................ ............
Fall River.......................
Manchester__________
New Haven__________
Portland, Maine.........
Providence............ .........
Middle Atlantic:
B u ffa lo .......... ................
Newark........ ....................
N ew York:4
Bronx______________
Brooklyn____ ______
M anhattan..................
Queens______ ______
Richmond...................
Philadelphia...................
Pittsburgh.____ ______
Rochester........................
Scranton..........................
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Range and
manual-type
water heater
Range
Cubic
feet
19.6 therms
Bill
Cubic
feet
Bill
30.6 therms
40.6 therms
Range and
automatic 3
water heater
Range, auto
matic 3 water
heater, and
refrigerator
Cubic
feet
Bill
Cubic
feet
Bill
M onthly price based on consumption of specified numbers of
therms 2
Per therm for—
Per thousand cubic feet for—
30.6
40.6
10.6
10.6
19.6
therms therms therms therms therms
30.6
40.6
19.6
therms therms .therms
Range
and
manualRange
type
water
heater
Range
and
auto
matic 3
water
heater
Range,
auto
Range Range
and
matic 3
and
water Range manual- auto
heater,
type matic 3
water water
and
heater heater
refrig
erator
D o lla r s
D o lla r s
D o lla r s
D o lla r s
D o lla r s
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
535
535
528
525
528
525
510
1,980
1,980
2,010
2,020
2,010
2,020
2,080
2.48
2.28
2.53
2. 85
2.41
3.03
2.57
3,660
3,660
3, 710
3,730
3,710
3, 730
3,840
4.16
4. 21
4.06
4.82
4.11
5.16
4.16
5,720
5,720
5, 800
5,830
5,800
5,830
6, 000
5.70
5. 63
5.94
5.67
6.20
6.51
6.10
7, 590
7,590
7,690
7, 730
7,690
7,730
7,960
7.19
7.12
7.64
6.92
8.09
8.03
7.86
1.25
1.15
1.26
1.41
1.20
1.50
1.24
1.14
1.15
1.09
1.29
1.11
1.38
1.08
1.00
.98
1.02
.97
1. 07
1.12
1.02
0. 95
.94
.99
.89
1.05
1. 04
.99
23.4
21.5
23.9
26.8
22.7
28.5
24.3
21.2
21.5
20.7
24.6
21.0
26.3
21.2
18.6
18.4
19.4
18.5
20.3
21.3
19.9
17.7
17.5
18.8
17.0
19.9
19.8
19.4
X
M
900
525
1,180
2,020
.77
2.69
2,180
3, 730
1.42
4.31
3,400
5,830
2. 21
6.06
4,510
7, 730
2.93
7. 29
.65
1. 33
,65
1.16
.65
1.04
.65
.94
7.2
25.4
7.2
22.0
7.2
19.8
7.2
18.0
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
N
N
N
M
M
540
540
540
540
540
540
540
530
1,130
1,100
1,100
537
520
1, 960
1,960
1,960
1,960
1, 960
1,960
1,960
2,000
940
960
960
1,970
2,040
2.30
2.34
2.43
2. 58
2.30
2. 30
3.10
1.80
5 1.00
» 1.00
• 1. 00
1. 97
2.89
3, 630
3,630
3, 630
3, 630
3,630
3,630
3,630
3, 700
1,730
1, 780
1,780
3, 650
3, 770
4. 26
3.80
4.05
4. 37
4.26
4.26
5.10
3.25
1.04
1.07
1.07
3. 65
4. 57
5,670
5, 670
5,670
5,670
5, 670
5,670
5,670
5, 770
2,710
2, 780
2,780
5, 700
5,880
6.65
5. 25
6.03
6.56
6. 65
6.65
7. 08
5.00
1. 63
1.67
1.67
5. 56
5. 77
7,520
7,520
7,520
7, 520
7,520
7, 520
7,520
7,660
3,590
3,690
3,690
7, 560
7, 810
8.82
6.42
7.82
8.54
8. 82
8.82
8.87
6.61
2.15
2. 21
2.21
7. 05
7. 60
1.17
1.19
1.24
1.32
1.17
1.17
1.58
.90
1.06
1.04
1. 04
1.00
1.41 1
1.17
1.05
1.12
1.20
1.17
1.17
1.40
.88
.60
.60
.60
1.00
1.21
1.17
.93
1.06
1.16
1.17
1.17
1. 25
.87
.60
.60
.60
.98
.98
1.17
.85
1.04
1.14
1.17
1.17
1.18
.86
.60
.60
.60
.93
.97
21.7
22.1
23.0
24.4
21.7
21.7
29.3
17.0
9.4
9.4
9.4
18.6
27.2
21.7
19.4
20.7
22.3
21.7
21.7
26.0
16.6
5.3
5.4
5.4
18.6
23.3
21.7
17.2
19.7
21.4
21.7
21.7
23.1
16.4
5.3
5.4
5.4
18.2
18.8 1
21.7
15.8
19.3
21.0
21.7
21.7
21.8
16.3
5.3
5.4
5.4
17.4
18.7
D o lla r s
D o lla r s
D o lla r s
C e n ts
C e n ts
Range,
auto
matic 3
water
heater,
and
refrig
erator
C e n ts
C e n ts
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
Region and city
Heat
ing
value
per
Kind
of
cubic
gas 1 foot in
British
thermal
units
^
®
East North Central:
Chicago__________
Cincinnati.......... ..
Cleveland________
Columbus________
See footnotes on p. 542.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1.23
.69
.51
.55
.48
» 1.21
.85
.72
1.53
1. 52
1.06
.67
.52
.55
.48
t 1.18
.85
.71
1.37
1.37
18.3
8.6
7.1
7. 1
7.1
14.6
14.9
16.6
20.0
18.0
17.0
8.3
4.5
5.2
4.6
12.8
14.9
14.7
18.6
17.1
15.3
8.0
4.7
5.2
4.6
12.0
14.9
13.9
15.3
15.2
13.3
7.8
4.8
5.2
4.6
11.7
14.9
13.6
13.7
13.7
1.31
1. 49
.76
1. 54
1. 03
1.13
1. 28
.64
1. 37
.89
1. 04
1.19
.59
1.29
.83
1.00
1.14
.57
1.23
.79
12.6
18.7
13.7
19.4
18.7
10.8
16.0
11.6
17.1
16.1
10.0
14.8
10.6
16.1
15.0
9.6
14.2
10.2
15.3
14.5
4.38
6.08
1. 65
.85
1. 35
.85
1.21
.78
1.06
.75
16.8
17.0
13.8
17.0
12.3
15.6
10.8
15.0
7,380
7,380
7, 590
7, 660
7, 730
7, 590
6, 720
9.01
7.28
9.88
8.51
7. 76
9.49
5.16
1.40
(10)
2. 03
1. 20
1. 30
1.25
.86
1.40
1.24
1. 73
1.18
1.28
1. 25
.83
1.29
1.06
1.43
1.15
1.04
1. 25
.79
1.22
.99
1.30
1.11
1.00
1.25
.77
25.5
(10)
38.0
22.6
24.8
23.3
14.2
25.5
22.6
32.4
22.2
24.4
23.3
13.8
23.5
19.3
26.8
21.6
19.8
23.3
13.1
22.2
17.9
24.3
21.0
19.1
23.3
12.7
4.70
2. 06
3. 60
7,810
4, 510
4,140
6. 25
2.63
4. 21
.80
.78
1.40
.80
.66
1.24
.80
.61
1.15
.80
.58
1.02
15.4
8.7
14.3
15.4
7.3
12.7
15.4
6.7
11.8
15.4
6.5
10.4
3,190
3,190
4.75
4.06
4, 230
4,230
5. 43
4. 69
2.05
1.86
1.68
1.47
1.49
1.27
1.28
1.11
21.2
19.3
17.5
15.3
15.5
13.3
13.4
11.5
1.84
1.74
1.61
2.10
2,910
2,970
3, 060
3,220
2.54
2.43
2.23
3.15
3,870
3, 940
4,060
4, 270
3.19
3.06
2. 79
4.09
1.25
1. 14
1.04
1.12
.98
.91
.82
1.02
.87
.82
.73
.98
.82
.78
.69
.96
11.9
11.0
10.4
11.9
9.4
8.9
8.2
10.7
8.3
7.9
7.3
10.3
7.9
7.5
6.9
10.1
2,310
2,380
2, 270
1. 59
3. 35
3.27
3,600
3,710
3, 540
2.17
4.20
4.16
4,780
4, 920
4, 690
2.70
4.84
4. 86
.89
1.70
1. 72
.69
1.41
1.44
.60
1.13
1.17
.57
.98
1.04
10.5
20.6
20.0
8.1
17.1
16.7
7.1
13.7
13.6
6.7
11.9
12.0
1,780
3, 440
1,700
3,920
1.81
3.98
1.82
5. 36
2,780
5, 370
2,660
6,120
2.42
5. 33
2. 49
5. 32
3,690
7,120
3,530
8,120
2. 95
6.61
3.10
6. 45
1.30
1.26
1. 38
1.46
1.01
1. 16
1.07
1. 37
.87
.99
.94
.87
.80
.93
.88
.79
11.8
22.0
12.0
29.2
9.2
20.3
9.3
27.3
7.9
17.4
8.1
17.4
7.3
16.3
7.6
15.9
800
865
1,100
1,050
1,050
* 1,010
570
520
1,000
1,000
1,330
1,230
960
1,010
1,010
1,050
1,860
2,040
1,060
1,060
1.94
.91
*. 75
».75
»75
1.55
1.58
1.76
2.12
1.91
2,450
2,270
1,780
1,870
1,870
1,940
3,440
3, 770
1,960
1,960
3. 33
1. 63
.89
1.03
.90
2.51
2.92
2.89
3. 64
3. 36
3,830
3,540
2,780
2,910
2,910
3,030
5,370
5,880
3,060
3,060
4.69
2.45
1.43
1.60
1.40
3. 68
4.57
4.26
4.67
4. 66
5,080
4,690
3,690
3,870
3,870
4,020
7,120
7,810
4,060
4,060
5.39
3.16
1.93
2.13
1.86
4. 75
6. 05
5. 51
5. 57
5. 56
1. 46
.74
.78
.74
.74
1 1.47
.85
.86
2.00
1.80
N
X
M
X
M
* 1,040
800
555
800
550
1,020
1,330
1,910
1,330
1,930
1.33
1.98
1.46
2.05
1.98
1,880
2,450
3, 530
2,450
3,560
2.12
3.13
2.27
3. 35
3.16
2,940
3,830
5,510
3,830
5, 560
3.05
4. 54
3.26
4.92
4. 59
3,900
5,080
7,320
5,080
7,380
3.88
5.78
4.16
6. 23
5.87
N
M
980
500
1,080
2,120
1.78
1.80
2,000
3,920
2.70
3. 33
3,120
6,120
3.77
4.78
4,140
8,120
M
M
M
M
M
M
X
550
550
535
530
525
535
604
1,930
1,930
1,980
2,000
2,020
1,980
1,750
2.70
(10)
4.03
2. 40
2.63
2.48
1.51
3, 560
3, 560
3, 660
3,700
3,730
3, 660
3, 250
4. 98
4. 42
6.34
4. 36
4. 78
4. 58
2.71
5,560
5,560
5, 720
5, 770
5,830
5, 720
5,070
7.19
5.92
8.20
6. 62
6. 05
7.15
4.01
M
X
N
520
900
980
2,040
1,180
1,080
1.63
.92
1.51
3,770
2,180
2,000
3.02
1.43
2.48
5,880
3, 400
3,120
N
N
960
960
1,100
1,100
2.25
2.05
2,040
2,040
3.43
2.99
N
N
N
N
1,050
1,030
1,000
950
1,010
1,030
1,060
1,120
1.26
1.17
1.11
1.26
1,870
1,900
1,960
2,060
N
N
N
850
825
865
1,250
1,280
1,230
1.11
2.18
2.12
N
M
N
M
1,100
570
1,150
500
960
1,860
920
2,120
1.25
2. 34
1.27
3.10
i
Retail Prices
D etro it*_________
Indian apolis..........
Milwaukee_______
Peoria___________
Springfield, 111____
West North Central:
Kansas C ity 4..........
Minneapolis..........
Omaha_____ _____
St. L o u is4_______
St. Paul....... ............
South Atlantic:
A tlanta__________
Baltimore................
Charleston, S. C.:
Immediate_____
Objective •...........
Jacksonville............
Norfolk.....................
Richmond...............
Savannah________
Washington, D . C .
East South Central:
Birmingham_____
Louisville 6..............
M em phis________
Mobile:
Present._______
Objective •_____
West South Central:
D allas.......................
Houston_________
Little Rock 4_____
N ew Orleans..........
Mountain:
B utte........................
Denver 4_________
Salt Lake City 4__
Pacific:
Los A ngeles............
Portland, Oreg___
San Francisco____
Seattle»__________
1.36
.72
.50
.55
.48
1.29
.85
.77
1. 86
1.71
X
X
N
N
N
N
M
M
N
N
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Cn
4^
bo
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
1Different kinds of gas are indicated as follows: M , manufactured; N , natural; X , mixed manufactured and natural.
2 Typical monthly consumption for each service for a 5-room house (1 therm equals 100,000 B. t. u.).
Automatic-storage or instantaneous water heater.
* Prices include 2-percent sales tax.
s M inimum charge.
1 Prices include 3-percent sales tax.
7 Revision based on the average heating value of gas served from December 1936 to December 1937. This revision has been extended back through December 1936, during which
period prices per thousand cubic feet had been based on an estimated heating value of 1,000 B. t. u.
i- 8 Revised March 1937 for change from 1,000 to 1,040 B. t. u. per cubic foot—effective date not available.
V
' The “ Objective” rates in Charleston and Mobile are designed to encourage a greater use of gas. An intermediate rate called the “Inducement” rate, also available in Mobile,
provides a price lower than that of the “ Present” rate for a part of the monthly consumption for customers whose increase in the use of gas is not sufficient to entitle them to the
advantages of the “ Objective” rate.
m The “ Objective” rate is not applicable for customers using 10.6 therms for the reason that the bill would be higher than that computed under the “ Immediate” rate.
3
Retail Prices
543
Indexes of Changes in the Price of Gas
Series of indexes (1923-25 = 100) for all gas and for manufactured,
natural, and mixed manufactured and natural gas have been com
puted for two of the services for which typical bills are published
quarterly—10.6 therms, illustrating the use of gas for a range; and
30.6 therms, typical of heat requirements for both range and auto
matic water heater. These indexes have been computed for quarterly
periods from March 1923 to December 1937, inclusive, and are based
upon bills for these services for each of the 50 cities reporting to the
Bureau. They are published annually in December.
Composite indexes and city indexes for each service together with
the basic data used in their computation and a statement of method
ology were published in “Changes in Retail Prices of Gas, 1923-1936,”
Bulletin No. 628 of the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Changes in composite indexes since December 15, 1936, were rela
tively unimportant to manufactured gas customers using 10.6 therms
for range only, and to all customers served with natural gas or mixed
manufactured and natural gas. The sharp drop of 5.1 percent in
prices of 30.6 therms of manufactured gas in June 1937, followed by
an equally abrupt advance of 4.9 percent in December resulted in
large measure from the introduction of a summer rate which was
available to customers in the Bronx, Manhattan, and Queens boroughs
of New York. This rate provided a price considerably lower than
the winter rate for all gas consumed in excess of 3,000 cubic feet
(16.2 therms). The influence of these changes is also reflected in
the all-gas index for 30.6 therms for 50 cities combined.
Table 8 presents composite indexes for the 50 cities combined,
together with separate indexes for manufactured, natural, and mixed
gas, for December of specified years from 1924 to 1935 and for the
quarterly periods from March 1936 to December 1937, inclusive.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
544
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
T a b l e 8 . — Indexes
of Retail Prices of Gas
March, June, September, and December 1937 and 1936 and December of specified years,
1924-35
[1923-25=100]
30.6 therms, range and water
heater
10.6 therms, range
Date
All gas Manu Natural Mixed All gas Manu Natural Mixed
factur
factur
ed
ed
50
cities
1924:
1926:
1928:
1930:
1932:
1934:
1935:
1923,
1923,
1923,
40.
7
3
cities; cities; cities;
1937,
1937,
1937,
24 cities 19 cities 7 cities
50
cities
1923,
1923,
1923,
7
40
3
cities; cities; cities;
1937,
1937,
1937,
24 cities 19 cities 7 cities
December.............. .....................
December.__________________
December............ ......................
December____ _____ ____ ____
December___________________
December___________________
December............................. .........
100.0
99.9
99.5
99.3
97.4
97.4
97.2
100.1
99.6
99.1
100.3
99.3
100.1
100.0
98.7
107.1
119.4
119.2
119.2
115.0
114.1
98.9
101.0
101.0
99.3
98.1
98.3
98.3
100.0
99.6
97.3
94.0
89.7
88.5
86.8
100.0
99.4
98.3
96.7
92.8
92.7
90.4
102.0
108.1
108.5
108.3
108.3
104.5
104.0
98.9
101.0
101.0
98.8
97.5
92.9
92.5
1936: March______________________
June_____________________ . .
September............... .....................
December__________________
97.1
96.9
96.9
96.5
100.0
99.9
99.9
99.8
114.0
112.9
113.0
113.0
198.0
98.1
98.1
98.3
86.6
86.4
86.4
85.0
90.3
90.2
90.2
90.0
103.2
101.4
i 101.4
1 101.4
92.0
92.1
92.0
1 92. 2
1937: March____________ __________
June____________________ . .
September______ ____ _____
December............................ .........
96.4
96.5
96.6
96.6
99.8
99.8
100.0
100.0
112.8
112.8
112.8
112.8
98.2
98.3
98.4
98.4
85.0
82.2
82.1
84.7
89.9
85.3
85.2
89.4
101.3
101.2
101.2
101.2
92.2
i 92.3
92.5
92.5
1 Revised.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Retail Prices
545
Price Changes, December 16, 1936-December 15, 1937
Price changes occurred during the year in the following 14 cities:
New York (Bronx, Manhattan, and Queens), Scranton, Milwaukee,
Kansas City, Minneapolis, Omaha, St. Louis, St. Paul, Charleston
(S. C.), Richmond, Savannah, Washington (D. C.), Birmingham,
and Los Angeles.
New rate schedules were introduced in 9 of the 14 cities, changes
were reported in the heating value of the gas served in 3, and an in
crease in State sales tax advanced the price to the consumer in the
remaining 2.
General rate reductions reported for eight cities resulted in lower
prices of gas for all residential customers in Scranton, Omaha, and
Los Angeles; and for customers using major appliances in addition
to a range in Richmond, New York, Charleston (S. C.), Milwaukee,
and St. Paul. The greatest reductions occurred in Richmond where
prices dropped 18.6 percent for customers using 30.6 therms, and
21.0 percent for those using 40.6 therms. Substantial reductions
during the summer months only were also reported for New York.
An “Objective” rate schedule made available in Charleston (S. C.)
provided lower prices to customers whose consumption of gas had
increased sufficiently to produce a monthly bill equal to or greater
than that computed under the old rate for the corresponding month of
the preceding year.
Although there were decreases in the cost of gas to the larger con
sumers in Milwaukee and St. Paul, prices for 10.6 therms for range
only advanced 1.8 percent and 14.2 percent respectively, in these cities.
A rate increase in Minneapolis advanced prices slightly for all
services. Prices also advanced in Savannah and Birmingham due to
decreases in the heating value of the gas served. In Washington
an increase in the heating value lowered the price slightly.
Typical net monthly bills, prices per thousand cubic feet and
per therm, and percentage change from December 16, 1936, to De
cember 15, 1937, inclusive, are published in the special Retail Price
report for December 1937, copy of which will be furnished upon request
to the Bureau.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Wholesale Prices
WHOLESALE PRICES, DECEMBER AND YEAR 1937
WHOLESALE commodity prices for the year 1937 were 6.8 percent
above the 1936 level, according to the all-commodity index, which
advanced from 80.8 to 86.3. Prices rose steadily until April, when the
year’s high point—88.0—was reached. A downward tendency was
evidenced during May and June, followed by a pronounced rise in July.
After July, however, when the index stood at 87.9, a sharp decline
began and continued throughout the year. By December the index
had fallen to 81.7, representing a decline of 7.1 from the July level.
Each of the 10 major commodity groups averaged higher in 1937
than in 1936. The miscellaneous commodity group registered the
greatest gain—10.4 percent. During the year period metals advanced
10.0 percent; building materials and housefurnishing goods, 9.8
percent; hides and leather products, 9.6^percent;Yarm products, 6.8
percent; textile products, 6.7 percent; chemicals and drugs, 4.4 per
cent; foods, 4.1 percent; and fuel and lighting materials, 1.8 percent.
Between 1936 and 1937 the semimanufactured articles group of
commodities advanced 12.4 percent. Finished product prices rose 6.3
percent, and raw materials increased 6.1 percent. According to the
index for “All commodities other than farm products,” nonagricultural
commodity prices advanced 6.8 percent. Industrial commodity prices,
as measured by the index for “All commodities other than farm prod
ucts and foods” rose 7.2 percent.
Commodity prices generally have advanced sharply from the low
of February 1933, when the all-commodity index receded to 59.8. The
group increases during this period range from 17.8 for chemicals and
drugs to 111.2 percent for farm products. Although each of the com
modity groups in 1937 was above the depression low point, each is below
the year 1929.
A comparison of the 1937 group and subgroup indexes with 1936,
1929, and the low points falling between June 1930 and June 1935 is
shown in table 1.
546
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Wholesale Prices
T able
547
] .— Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices for Year 1937 Compared With 1936,1929,
and Low Points Between June 1930, and June 1935
[1926 = 100]
Index
Group and subgroup
All commodities________________
Per
centage
change
1936 to
Year Year
1937
1937 1936
Low between
June 1930 and
June 1935
Month
In
dex
Per
Per
centage d „ , centage
change year
change,
1929 to
low to
1929
1937
1937
86.3
80.8
+ 6 .8
February 1933.
59.8
+44.3
95.3
- 9 .4
Farm products__________________ 86.4
Grains_____ ________________ 98.3
Livestock and poultry_______ 95.5
Other farm products_________ 77.2
Foods.................................................... 85.5
Dairy products........ ................ . 83.1
Cereal products........................... 87.6
Fruits and vegetables________ 74.2
M eats.................................. ........... 99.1
Other foods________ _________ 75.6
Hides and leather products.......... . 104.6
Shoes............................................ 105.0
Hides and skins.......................... 113.5
Leather.................. ....................... 96.8
Other leather products.............. 102.6
Textile products____ ____ ______ _ 76.3
C lothing............... ................. .
87.9
Cotton goods............................... 84.3
Knit goods.............. ..................... 65.1
Silk and rayon........................... 32.5
Woolen and worsted goods___ 91.1
Other textile products................ 68.4
Fuel and lighting materials............. 77.6
Anthracite__________________ 77.8
Bituminous coal_____________ 98.6
Coke.......... ................ ................... 103.1
Electricity__________________
(i)
Gas.................................................. (i)
Petroleum products_________ 60.5
Metals and metal p r o d u cts........... 95.7
Agricultural implements........... 94.0
Iron and steel_______________ 98.2
Motor vehicles 2.............. ......... . 89.3
Nonferrous metals___________ 89.6
Plumbing and heating_______ 78.8
Building materials_____ _________ 95.2
Brick and tile_______________ 93.5
Cement____ _____ ___________ 95.5
Lum ber.___________________ 99.0
Paint and paint materials____ 83.4
Plumbing and heating_______ 78.8
Structural steel_________ ____ 113.2
Other building materials.......... 99.1
Chemicals and drugs____________ 83.9
Chemicals__________________ 89.9
Drugs and pharmaceuticals___ 79.1
Fertilizer materials........ ............ 71.2
Mixed fertilizers........................... 73.2
Housefurnishing goods......... ............. 89.7
Furnishings................................. 93.4
Furniture.................................... 85.9
Miscellaneous__________ ____ ___ 77.8
Automobile tires and tubes___ 55.8
Cattle feed........ ........................... 110.5
Paper and pulp......................... 91.7
Rubber, crude............................. 40.5
Other miscellaneous...............
84.7
Raw materials..................................... 84.8
Semimanufactured articles............... 85.3
Finished products.......................... . 87.2
All commodities other than farm 86.2
products.
All commodities other than farm 85.3
products and foods.
80.9
88.3
84.7
76.0
82.1
83.9
86.2
71.9
87.8
75.9
95.4
99.8
94.6
85.6
95.5
71.5
81.1
80.3
61.2
31.2
82.9
67.0
76.2
80.5
97.4
94.7
83.4
85.2
57.3
87.0
94.2
87.6
83.3
71.6
75.0
86.7
88.7
95.5
84.5
80.1
75.0
95.0
90.2
80.4
87.2
74.4
65.9
68.4
81.7
85.3
78.0
70.5
47.2
94.4
80.7
34.2
81.1
79.9
75.9
82.0
80.7
+ 6 .8
+11.3
+12.8
+ 1 .6
+ 4 .1
- 1.0
+ 1 .6
+ 3 .2
+12.9
-0 .4
+ 9 .6
+ 5 .2
+20.0
+13.1
+ 7 .4
+ 6 .7
+ 8 .4
+ 5 .0
+ 6 .4
+ 4 .2
+ 9 .9
+ 2 .1
+ 1 .8
- 3 .4
+ 1 .2
+ 8 .9
____do_________
December 1932..
January 1933___
February 1933...
____do_________
March 1933____
February 1933...
October 1932___
December 1933..
February 1933...
____do...............
March 1933.........
June 1932______
February 1933...
April 1933______
February 1933...
July 1932______
February 1933...
March 1933____
September 1934.
February 1933...
____do...................
M ay 1933.............
M ay 1935______
April 1933______
March 1933____
April 1934______
January 1935___
M ay 1933............
April 1933.......... .
June 1933......... .
M ay 1933............
April 1933______
February 1933...
____do____ ____
August 1932........
March 1933____
November 1931..
August 1932____
July 1932______
February 1933...
January 1932___
June 1932....... .
March 1933____
July 1934_____ .
April 1933______
February 1933...
April 1933______
____do...................
........ do_________
........ do...................
____do_________
____do_________
December 1932..
April 1933...........
June 1932______
March 1933____
Februarv 1933...
July 1932______
February 1933__
April 1933______
40.9
31.7
37.8
44.2
53.7
50.9
60.4
52.2
46.0
54.1
68.0
83.2
32.5
55.3
77.2
51.2
60.9
49.1
47.1
24.3
53.2
66.2
60.4
73.0
78.1
75.2
88.3
87.6
31.2
76.9
83.0
75.2
82.7
46.2
59.4
69.6
74.9
74.6
55.5
66.8
59.4
77.3
77.6
71.2
78.5
54.6
61.5
60.0
71.5
71.7
71.5
57.8
37.4
37.1
70.6
5.8
72.6
48.4
55.5
65.7
63.7
+111.2
+210.1
+152.6
+74.7
+59.2
+63.3
+45.0
+42.1
+115.4
+39.7
+53.8
+26.2
+249. 2
+75.0
+32.9
+49.0
+44.3
+71.7
+38.2
+33.7
+71.2
+ 3 .3
+28.5
+ 6 .6
+26.2
+37.1
-1 7 .6
+ 0 .9
-1 0 .0
-2 7 .6
-1 4 .4
-2 1 .3
- 0 .5
-2 4 .1
- 9 .2
-1 9 .5
-4 .1
-1 .2
+ 0 .7
-1 4 .5
- 3 .6
-1 5 .6
- 2 .3
-1 4 .7
-2 6 .4
-5 9 .6
+ 3 .2
-2 6 .5
-6 .5
-1 3 .7
+ 8 .0
+21.9
+93.9
+24.4
+13.3
+30.6
+ 8 .0
+93.9
+32.7
+36.8
+24.8
+28.0
+78.4
+24.9
+32.7
+46.4
+27.7
+17.8
+14.5
+44.9
+15.8
+22.0
+25.5
+30.3
+20.1
+34.6
+49.2
+197. 8
+29.9
+598.3
+16.7
+75.2
+53. 7
+32.7
+35. 3
104.9
97.4
106.1
106.6
99.9
105.6
88.0
97.8
109.1
93.9
109.1
106.3
112.7
113.2
106.4
'90.4
90.0
98.8
88.5
80.4
88.3
93.1
83.0
90.1
91.3
84.6
94. 5
93.1
71.3
100.5
98.7
94.9
100.0
106.1
95.0
95.4
94.3
91.8
93.8
94.9
95.0
98.1
97.7
94.2
99.1
71.5
92.1
97.2
94.3
93.6
95.0
82.6
54.5
121.6
88.9
42.3
98.4
97.5
93.9
94.5
93.3
-1 5 .1
- 4 .8
- 4 .8
+ 3 .5
-1 0 .7
-1 5 .6
-1 7 .1
-.2
-.8
+ 4 .0
+ 5 .5
-1 2 .1
-17.1
+15.4
+ 1 .4
-1 0 .9
- 9 .3
+10.6
-2 2 .7
-2 4 .7
-4 .9
-0 .2
- 9 .6
-5 .8
+ 2 .4
- 9 .1
+ 3.1
- 4 .3
-1 3 .9
-1 3 .0
-9 .2
- 7 .7
- 7 .6
65.3
+30. 6
91.6
- 6 .9
1 Data not yet available.
2 Preliminary revision.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
79.6
+ 5 .6
+10.0
-.2
+12.1
+ 7 .2
+25.1
+ 5 .1
+ 9 .8
+ 5 .4
0
+17.2
+ 4.1
+ 5 .1
+19.2
+ 9 .9
+ 4 .4
+ 3 .1
+ 6 .3
+ 8 .0
+ 7 .0
+ 9 .8
+ 9 .5
+10.1
+10.4
+18.2
+17.1
+13.6
+18.4
+ 4 .4
+6.1
+12.4
+ 6 .3
+ 6 .8
+ 7 .2 ____do_________
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
548
Index numbers for the groups and subgroups of commodities for
each year 1929 to 1937, inclusive, are shown in table 2.
T able
2 . — Index
Numbers of Wholesale Prices, by Groups and Subgroups of
Commodities
[1926 = 100]
1936
1935
1934
1933
1932
1931
1930
All commodities........ .............................................. 86.3
80.8
80.0
74.9
65.9
64.8
73.0
86.4
95.3
Farm products.................— .............- .................... 86.4
98.3
Livestock and poultry_________________ 95.5
Other farm products....................................... 77.2
80.9
88.3
84.7
76.0
78.8
82.5
85.1
73.4
65.3
74.5
51.5
70.5
51.4
53.1
43.4
55.8
48.2
39.4
48.2
51.4
64.8
53.0
63.9
69.2
88.3
78.3
89.2
91.1
104.9
97.4
106.1
106. 6
85.5
83.1
87.6
74.2
99.1
75.6
82.1
83.9
86.2
71.9
87.8
75.9
83.7
79.8
94.1
63.6
94.5
77.7
70.5
72.7
88.7
67.5
62.9
66.6
60.5
60.7
75.0
61.7
50.0
61.1
61.0
61.3
66.4
58.0
58. 2
60.7
74.6
81.8
73.1
72.4
75.4
69.8
90.5
95.5
81.5
96.6
98.4
80.9
99.9
105.6
88.0
97.8
109.1
93.9
Hides and leather products...................... .......... 104.6
105.0
Hides and s k in s ______ __________ ____ 113.5
96.8
Other leather products................................... 102.6
95.4
99.8
94.6
85.6
95.5
89.6
98.0
80.8
80.1
85.0
86.6
98.1
68.6
75.0
86.6
80.9
90.2
67.1
71.4
81.1
72.9 86.1
86.1 93.7
42.1 60.2
65.1 86.2
90.1 101.4
100. 0
102.0
91.0
101.3
105.5
109.1
106.3
112.7
113.2
106.4
Textile products.— ..............- .............. - ..............
76.3
87.9
84.3
65.1
Silk and rayon------------------------------ ------ 32.5
Woolen and worsted goods.------------------- 91.1
Other textile products.................................... 68.4
71.5
81.1
80.3
61.2
31.2
82.9
67.0
70.9
79.8
83.4
61.8
30.2
76.1
68.5
72.9
82.5
86.5
63.2
26.7
79.7
73.1
64.8
72.2
71.2
58.9
30.6
69.3
72.5
54.9
63.0
54.0
51.6
31.0
57.7
67.9
66.3
75.9
66.1
60.9
43.5
68.2
75.1
80.3
86.2
84.7
80.0
60.2
79.0
84.2
90.4
90.0
98.8
88.5
80.4
88.3
93.1
77.6
77.8
98.6
103.1
(>)
(')
Petroleum products..........- ................ ............. 60.5
Metals and metal products............ ..................... 95.7
94.0
Agricultural implements----------- --------98.2
Motor vehicles a-------------------------- --------- 89.3
Nonferrous metals-------------------------------- 89.6
Plumbing and heating--------------------------- 78.8
Building materials—. ------------------------------- 95.2
Brick and tile-------- --------------------- 93.5
Cement_________________ ___ ________ 95.5
Lumber______________ _______ ______ 99.0
Paint and paint materials-------- ------------- 83.4
Plumbing and heating.---------- --------------- 78.8
Structural steel------------------------------------ 113.2
Other building materials............................. . 99.1
Chemicals and drugs____________ ________ 83.9
Chemicals___________________ _______ 89.9
Drugs and pharmaceuticals_____________ 79.1
Fertilizer materials------ --------- --------------- 71.2
73.2
Mixed fertilizers________________ —
Housefurnishing goods—------- ------------- -------- 89.7
Furnishings____ ______________________ 93.4
Furniture----------- -- ----------- ------ --------- 85.9
Miscellaneous__________________ __________ 77.8
Automobile tires and tubes_____________ 55.8
Cattle feed_________ _______________ . . . 110.5
Paper and pulp—................— ---------- — 91.7
40. 5
Other miscellaneous___________________ 84.7
Raw materials------------------------------------------- 84.8
Semimanufactured articles............... .................... 85.3
Finished products_____ . . . ------------- ----------- 87.2
All commodities other than farm products___ 86.2
All commodities other than farm products and
foods......... ..............................................- ............ 85.3
76.2 .73.5 73.3 66.3 70.3
80.5 79.7 80.1 82.2 88.4
97.4 96.7 94.5 82.8 82.0
94.7 88.6 84.8 77.9 77.7
83.4 87.8 91.8 94.3 104.7
85.2 89.3 93.4 97.5 101.3
57.3 51.3 50.5 41.0 45.4
87.0 86.4 86.9 79.8 80.2
94.2 93.7 89.6 83.5 84.9
87.6 86.7 86.7 78.6 79.4
83.3 84.1 87.6 83.2 87.1
71.6 68.6 67.7 59.6 49.8
75.0 68.9 72.6 67.1 66.8
86.7 85.3 86.2 77.0 71.4
88.7 89.4 90.2 79.2 77.3
95.5 95.3 93.2 86.1 77.2
84.5 81.1 84.5 70.7 58.5
80.1 79.8 79.5 73.3 71.1
75.0 68.9 72.6 67.1 66.8
95.0 92.0 90.8 83.1 80.9
90.2 90.1 90.3 82.7 79.5
80.4 80.5 75.9 72.6 73.5
87.2 86.9 79.6 79.6 79.5
74.4 73.9 72.1 56.3 57.7
65.9 66.3 67.1 65.9 66.9
68.4 70.6 72.5 64.5 69.3
81.7 80.6 81.5 75.8 75.1
85.3 84.2 84.1 76.6 75.4
78.0 77.0 79.0 75.1 75.0
70.5 68.3 69.7 62.5 64.4
47.2 45.7 44.9 42.1 41.1
94.4 88.3 89.4 57.9 46.0
80.7 80.0 82.7 76.6 75.5
34.2 25.4 26.5 12. 2
7. 3
81.1 80.0 82.1 76.2 83.7
79.9 77.1 68.6 56.5 55.1
75.9 73.6 72.8 65.4 59.3
82.0 82.2 78.2 70.5 70.3
80.7 80.2 76.9 69.0 68.3
67.5
91.1
84.6
82.4
98.8
98.7
39.5
84.5
92.1
83.3
89.5
61.9
84.7
79.2
83.6
79.4
69.5
79.4
84.7
83.1
84.8
79.3
83.0
62.8
76.8
82.0
84.9
82.2
88.0
69.8
46.0
62.7
81.4
12.8
88.0
65.6
69.0
77.0
74.6
78.5
89.1
89.4
84.0
97.7
97.3
61.5
92.1
95.0
89.1
94.0
82.4
88.6
89.9
89.8
91.8
85.8
90.5
88.6
87.3
93.3
89.1
93.7
68.0
85.6
93.6
92.7
91.4
94.0
77.7
51.3
99.7
86.1
24.5
95.5
84.3
81.8
88.0
85.9
83.0
90.1
91.3
84.6
94.5
93.1
71.3
100.5
98.7
94.9
100.0
106.1
95.0
95.4
94.3
91.8
93.8
94.9
95.0
98.1
97.7
94.2
99.1
71.5
92.1
97.2
94.3
93.6
95.0
82.6
54.5
121.6
88.9
42.3
98.4
97.5
93.9
94.5
93.3
78.4
75.0
85.2
91.6
Group and subgroup
Dairy products------- ---------------------------Cereal products-------- ------ -------------------Fruits and vegetables______ ____ _______
Other food s............ ....................... ............. .
Fuel and lighting materials------------------------Anthracite______ _______ _______ _______
Bituminous coal----------------------------------Coke............ ........................................ - .............
1 Data not yet available.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1937
79.6
77.9
71.2
70.2
J Preliminary revision.
1929
Wholesale Prices
549
Wholesale Price Level in December
Sharp declines in prices of farm products, foods, and hides and
leather products largely accounted for a decrease of 1.9 percent in
the all-commodity index during December.
The decrease brought the combined index of 784 price series to 81.7
percent of the 1926 average, representing a decrease of 7.2 percent
from the year’s high point (April) and a decrease of 3.0 percent from
December 1936.
Each of the 10 commodity groups, except fuel and lighting materials,
averaged lower during the month. The decreases ranged from 0.5
percent for the metals and metal products and miscellaneous com
modity groups to 4.0 percent for foods.
The number of items for which prices increased, decreased, or
remained steady during December are shown in table 3.
T able 3.—Number of Commodities Changing in Price from November to December 1937
Group
Increases
Decreases
No change
A ll commodities................................ ...................................................
94
278
412
Farm products_________________ ____ _________ ___________
Foods.......................................................................................................
Hides and leather products_______________ _______ _________
Textile products______ _______________________ __________
Fuel and lighting materials........ ......................................................
32
34
1
2
9
33
50
27
62
9
2
38
13
48
Metals and metal p ro d u cts.................................................... .......
■ 2
2
5
1
26
28
14
10
19
102
Chemicals and drugs........................... ........................ ......................
Housefurnishing goods.........................................................................
Miscellaneous.........................................................................................
6
6
70
SO
27
Wholesale prices of raw materials declined 2.3 percent in December
to the lowest level reached in the past 3 years. Compared with
December 1936, raw material prices dropped 11.9 percent. Semi
manufactured commodity prices declined 2.6 percent during the month
and are 5.6 percent below a year ago. The fluctuations in the finished
products group have been less pronounced. Although the December
index is 1.6 percent below the November level, it is 1.8 percent above
December 1936.
The index for the large group “All commodities other than farm
products,” marking the movement in prices of nonagricultural com
modities, fell 1.5 percent. The index for “All commodities other
than farm products and foods,” representing the trend in prices of
industrial commodities, dropped 0.8 percent. That the decline in
the general index during the year was caused primarily by weakening
prices of farm products and foods is shown by the fact that the price
level for “All commodities other than farm products” was 0.5 percent
above a year ago and that for “All commodities other than farm
products and foods” was 1.7 percent above December 1936.
3 9 8 7 3 — 3 8 --------17
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
550
A comparison of the December level of wholesale commodity prices
with November 1937 and December 1936 is given in table 4.
T able 4.— Comparison of Index Numbers for December 1937 With November 1937 and
December 1936
[1926=100]
Commodity group
Decem Novem
ber 1937 ber 1937
Change
from a Decem Change
from a
month ber 1936 year
ago
ago
P ercen t
P ercen t
81.7
83.3
- 1 .9
84.2
-3 .0
72.8
79.8
97.7
70.1
78.4
75.7
83.1
101.4
71.2
78.2
-3 .8
-4 .0
-3 .6
-1 .5
+ .3
88.5
85.5
99.7
76.3
76.5
-1 7 .7
- 6 .7
- 2 .0
-8 .1
+ 2 .5
96.3
92.5
79.5
89.7
75.0
96.8
93.7
80.2
90.4
75.4
-.5
- 1 .3
-.9
-.8
-.5
89.6
89.5
85.3
83.2
74.5
+ 7 .5
+ 3 .4
-6 .8
+ 7 .8
+ .7
75.4
77.7
85 3
83.5
83.6
77.2
79.8
86.7
84.8
84.3
- 2 .3
- 2 .6
- 1 .6
- 1 .5
-.8
85.6
82.3
83.8
83.1
82.2
-1 1 .9
-5 .6
+ 1 .8
+ .5
+ 1 .7
Largely because of decreases of 9.7 percent in meats and 6.0 percent
in fruits and vegetables, the wholesale foods group declined 4.0 percent
to the lowest level reached since May 1936. Quotations were lower
for cheese, dried apples, prunes, raisins, canned corn, fresh beef,
mutton, cured and fresh pork, veal, cocoa beans, coffee, copra, salt
mackerel, glucose, lard, oleo oil, and tallow. Dairy products ad
vanced 1.1 percent and cereal products increased 0.6 percent. Higher
prices were reported for powdered milk, corn meal, and pepper. The
December food index—79.8—is 6.7 percent below the December 1936
comparative.
Wholesale market prices of farm products decreased 3.8 principally
because of a drop of 9.0 percent in livestock and poultry prices. Sharp
declines were reported in prices of cows, steers, hogs, sheep, eggs,
apples, lemons, oranges, hops, tobacco, and wool. Grains advanced
3.3 percent. Quotations were higher for corn, wheat, calves, cotton,
seeds, onions, and sweetpotatoes. The December 1937 group index—
72.8—is at the lowest point reached in the past 3 years, and is 17.7
percent below a year ago.
The hides and leather products group index declined 3.6 percent as a
result of lower prices for shoes, luggage, hides, skins, and leather. In
the past 4 months this group decreased 9.6 percent.
Continued weakness in prices of cotton goods and raw silk together
with lower prices for clothing, knit goods, woolen and worsted goods
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Wholesale Prices
551
and certain other textiles such as raw jute caused the textile products
index to fall 1.5 percent.
The building materials group index declined 1.3 percent because of
decreases of 1.6 percent in paint and paint materials, 1.1 percent in
lumber, and 1.0 percent in brick and tile. Pronounced price de
creases were reported for concrete blocks, Ponderosa pine and spruce
lumber, carbon black, red lead, litharge, Chinawood oil, rosin, door
and window frames, sewer pipe, and prepared roofing. Wholesale
prices of cement and structural steel remained unchanged at the
November level.
Primarily due to falling prices for fats, oils, calcium acetate, copper
sulphate, glycerine, menthol, ground bones, and mixed fertilizers, the
chemicals and drugs group index decreased 0.9 percent. Calcium
chloride, granulated salt, soda phosphate, and tankage prices ad
vanced.
The housefurnishing goods group index decreased 0.8 percent during
the month. Both furniture and furnishings shared in the decline.
Falling prices for nonferrous metals including antimony, electro
lytic copper, pig lead, lead pipe, quicksilver, copper rods and wire,
and pig zinc; also concrete reinforcing bars, locks, and knobs resulted
in a decline of 0.5 percent in the metals and metal products group
index. Average wholesale prices of agricultural implements and
motor vehicles advanced slightly. Plumbing and heating fixtures
remained steady.
Cattle feed prices decreased 1.9 percent during December and
paper and pulp declined 0.7 percent. Lower prices were also reported
for cylinder and neutral oils, garden hose, and soap products. Crude
rubber advanced 2.0 percent and automobile tires and tubes remained
unchanged at last month’s level.
Fuel and lighting materials advanced 0.3 percent. Coal, coke, and
electricity prices were higher and gas and petroleum products were
lower.
Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices by Commodity Groups
In table 5 are presented index numbers of wholesale prices by com
modity groups, by years from 1926 to 1937, inclusive, and by months
from January 1936 through December 1937.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
552
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
T able 5.— Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices, by Groups of Commodities
[1926 = 100]
Year and month
Hides Tex Fuel Metals Build Chem House- Misfurand
and
Farm
ing
icals
celtile
and
nish- laneprod Foods leather prod light metal mate and
ing
prod rials drugs
prod ucts
ucts
ous
ing
goods
ucts
ucts
All
com
modi
ties
B y years:
1926 ................... - 100.0
99.4
1927 ...... ..............
1928 ..............—- 105.9
104.9
1929.................— -
100.0
96.7
101.0
99.9
100.0
107.7
121.4
109.1
100.0
95.6
95.5
90.4
100.0
88.3
84.3
83.0
100.0
96.3
97.0
100.5
100.0
94.7
94.1
95.4
100.0
96.8
95.6
94.2
100.0
97.5
95. 1
94.3
100.0
91.0
85.4
82.6
100.0
95.4
96.7
95. 3
1930 ........ ...........1931
1932 ...... ................
1933........................
88.3
64.8
48.2
51.4
90.5
74.6
61.0
60.5
100.0
86.1
72.9
80.9
80.3
66.3
54.9
64.8
78.5
67.5
70.3
66.3
92.1
84.5
80.2
79.8
89.9
79.2
71.4
77.0
89.1
79.3
73.5
72.6
92.7
84.9
75.1
75.8
77.7
69.8
64.4
62.5
86.4
73. 0
64.8
65.9
1934 ........ .............
1935 ........ .............
1936 ...................
1937.......... ..............
B y months:
1936:
January_____
February___
March.............
65.3
78.8
80.9
86.4
70.5
83.7
82.1
85.5
86.6
89.6
95.4
104.6
72.9
70.9
71.5
76.3
73.3
73.5
76. 2
77.6
86.9
86.4
87.0
95.7
86.2
85.3
86.7
95.2
75.9
80.5
80.4
83.9
81.5
80.6
81.7
89.7
69.7
68.3
70.5
77.8
74.9
80.0
80.8
86.3
78.2
79.5
76.5
76.9
75.2
78.1
83.5
83.2
80.1
80-2
78.0
79.9
97.1
96. 1
94.9
94.6
94.0
93.8
71.7
71.0
70, 8
70.2
69.8
69.7
75.1
76. 1
76.2
76.4
76.0
76.1
86.7
86.7
86.6
86.6
86.3
86.2
85.7
85.5
85.3
85.7
85.8
85.8
80.5
80. 1
79.3
78.5
77.7
78.0
81.4
81.5
81.4
81.5
81.5
81.4
67.8
68.1
68.3
68.6
69.2
69.7
80.6
80.6
79.6
79.7
78.6
79.2
81.3
83.8
84.0
84.0
85.1
88.5
81.4
83.1
83.3
82.6
83.9
85.5
93.4
93.6
94.6
95.6
97.0
99.7
70.5
70.9
70.9
71.6
73.5
76.3
76.2
76.3
76.1
76.8
76.8
76.5
86.9
87.1
86.8
86.9
87.9
89.6
86.7
86.9
87.1
87.3
87.7
89.5
79.4
79.8
81.7
82.2
82.5
85.3
81.2
81.4
81.7
82.0
82.3
83.2
71.0
71.5
71.3
71.5
73.4
74.5
80.5
81.6
81.6
81.5
82.4
84.2'
M ay _______
June________
91.3
91.4
94.1
92.2
89.8
88.5
87.1
87.0
87.5
85.5
84.2
84.7
101.7
102.7
104.2
106.3
106.7
106.4
77.5
77.5
78.3
79.5
78.7
78.2
76.6
76.8
76.2
76.8
77.2
77.5
90.9
91.7
96.0
96.5
95.8
95.9
91.3
93.3
95.9
96.7
97.2
96.9
87.7
87.8
87.5
86.9
84.5
83.6
86.5
87.9
88.4
89.0
89.3
89.5
76.2
77.3
79.5
81.1
80.5
79.4
85.9
86.3
87.8
88.0
87.4
87.2
July— .......... A u g u s t------September__
October_____
N ovember___
December___
89.3
86.4
85.9
80.4
75.7
72.8
86.2
86.7
88.0
85.5
83.1
79.8
106.7
108.1
107.6
106.7
101.4
97.7
78.3
77.1
75.3
73.5
71.2
70.1
78.1
78.4
78.7
78.5
78.2
78.4
96.1
97.0
97.1
96.4
96.8
96.3
96.7
96.3
96.2
95.4
93.7
92.5
83.9
82.2
81.4
81.2
80.2
79.5
89.7
91.1
91.1
91.0
90.4
89.7
79.0
77.3
77.0
76.2
75.4
75.0
87.9
87.5
87.4
85.4
83,3
81.7
M ay________
June----- -----July________
A ugust______
September. .
October------N ovem ber...
December___
1937:
January_____
February____
M arch............
Index numbers by groups and subgroups of commodities for each
month of 1937 and the average for the year 1937 are shown in table 6.
T a b l e 6 . — Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices by Groups and Subgroups of Commodities
[1926 = 100]
Group and subgroup
All commodities_______
Farm products........ .........
Livestock and poultry
Other farm products..
Dairy products______
Cereal products--------Fruits and vegetables.
Other foods.......... .........
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
N o D e
Sep
Jan Feb March April M ay June July Au tem Oc vem cem Year
uary ruary 1937 1937 1937 1937 1937 gust ber tober ber
ber 1937
1937 1937 1937 1937 1937
1937 1937
85.9
86.3
91.3 91.4
113.0 111.5
91.4 89.9
84.8 86.3
87.1
88.9
88.1
82.4
90.6
82.1
87.0
88.7
89.3
87.8
90.3
78.8
87.8
88.0 87.4 87.2 87.9 87.5 87.4 85.4
94.1 92.2 89.8 88.5
113. 2 119.2 113.9 105.7
93.7 93.6 95.9 98.3
88.5 83.4 79.0 77.4
87.5
90.2
90.1
86.5
92.0
78.2
85.5
78.5
89.8
83.5
94.9
77.0
84.2
73.1
88.7
84.1
95.9
75.2
84.7
72.0
90.4
84.5
98.0
74.3
83.3
81.7
86.3
89.3
105.2
105.0
75.1
86.4
92.0
108.2
71.4
85.9
91.9
106.7
71.2
80.4
77.0
98.5
70.1
75.7
69.2
86.2
70.7
72.8
71.5
78.4
69.3
86.4
98.3
95.5
77.2
86.2
76.4
92.3
71.2
106.0
74.6
86.7
79.7
87.9
65.3
112.1
73.6
88.0
84.8
86.1
64.0
113.4
75.5
85.5
85.7
84.6
62.2
107.4
73.4
83.1
89.2
81.5
61.5
98.3
73.6
79.8
90.2
82.0
57.8
88.8
71.5
85.5
83.1
87.6
74.2
99.1
75.6
553
Wholesale Prices
T a b l e 6.—Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices by Groups and Subgroups of
Commodities— Continued
Group and subgroup
Sep Oc N o D e
Jan Feb
vem cem Year
April M ay June July Au
uary ruary March
gust tem
ber
1937
1937
1937
1937
ber tober
ber 1937
1937
1937 1937
1937 1937
1937 1937
1937
Hides and leather prod
ucts.............................. 101.7 102.7
S h o e s ............................ 99.7 101.4
Hides and skins............ 116.0 114.9
94.3 95.5
Leather_____________
Other leather products 101.1 101.7
104.2
102.3
118.5
97.1
101.7
106.3
103.8
121.4
100.7
102.3
106.7
106.1
117.7
100.6
102.3
106.4
107.5
114.6
98.8
102.3
106.7
107.4
116.2
98.7
102.7
108.1
107.4
122.1
100.0
103.2
107.6
107.5
120.7
98.9
103.3
78.7
87.2
92.6
65.7
32.5
78.2
89.1
89.7
64.6
32.5
78.3
90.1
86.8
64.8
33.9
77.1
90.0
82.2
65.7
32.9
75.3
89.7
76.8
66.5
32.4
106.7 101.4 97.7 104.6
107.6 106.9 105.6 105.0
117.1 94.6 85.5 113.5
97.2 92.7 86. t 96.8
103.3 103.1 102.7 102.6
Textile products..............
C lo th in g ......................
Cotton goods.................
Knit goods....................
Silk and rayon---------Woolen and worsted
goods_____________
Other textile products.
77.5
83.9
91.9
64.4
34.5
77.5
84.2
91.3
64.7
33.7
78.3
84.8
94.0
64.9
33.6
79.5
86.8
95.1
65.9
33.8
73.5
89.4
73.1
65.8
30.6
71.2
87.3
70.5
64.2
30.1
70.1
86.7
68.7
63.4
29.4
76.3
87.9
84.3
65.1
32.5
91.9
66.2
93.1
65.9
92.6
66.5
93.5 93.3 93.2 94.4 93.9 92.4 90.1
68.8 68.9 67.5 69.3 71.1 70.0 69.0
85.1
69.0
83.5
68.5
91.1
68.4
Fuel and lighting mate
rials_______________
Anthracite__________
Bituminous coal-------Coke_______ _____ _
Electricity.....................
G a s..............................
Petroleum products.. .
76.6
81.6
96.8
97.6
81.0
82.2
58.3
76.8
81.6
97.4
97.6
80.8
80.7
59.1
76.2 76.8 77.2 77.5 78.1
77.8 72.4 74.2 74.5 76.6
97.5 98.6 98.5 98.5 98.6
97.7 102.8 105.1 105.0 104.9
77.8 77.1 78.8 79.5 80.0
79.8 80.7 83.0 84.2 84.0
58.6 59.8 60.9 61.5 61.8
90.9
91.7
96.0
93.0
91.7
86.3
84.8
77.1
93.1
92.0
86.3
89.4
77.4
93.1
97.5
86.3
101.1
77.6
Metals, and metal prod
ucts_______________
Agricultural imple
ments......................
Iron and steel—............
Motor vehicles2_____
Nonferrous metals----Plumbing and heating.
Building materials-........ 91.3 93.3
89.7 91.0
Brick and tile ......... .
95.5 95. 5
Cem ent.------- ---------Lumber_____________ 93.0 99.0
Paint and paint ma
83.7 83.4
terials---------- -----Plumbing and heating. 77.1 77.4
Structural steel............. 104.7 104.7
Other building mate
rials.............................. 93.9 95.0
78.4
76.8
98.7
104.9
79.4
82.6
62.0
78.7
78.7
99.2
105.0
80.5
84.0
62.2
78.5 78.2 78.4 77.6
78.8 79.8 80.0 77.8
99.3 99.2 101.1 98.6
105.3 105.4 105. 5 103.1
81.0 83. 1 (>)
0)
83.6 83.1 (>)
(>)
61.7 60.6 59.5 60.5
96.5 95.8 95.9 96.1 97.0 97.1 96.4
96.8
96.3
95.7
92.1
99.6
86.9
97.0
78.7
93.8
99.6
86.9
91.7
78.7
94.1
99.7
86.9
91.9
78.7
94.2
99.8
87.0
92.7
78.7
94.2
99.9
90.2
93.3
78.8
94.2
99.8
91.2
92.6
80.6
94.2
99.7
92.2
85.5
80.6
95.9
99.3
95.3
78.5
79.6
96.1
99.0
95.6
75.1
79.6
94.0
98.2
89.3
89.6
78.8
95.9 96.7
91.8 94.9
95.5 95.5
102.1 103.0
97.2
95.0
95.5
103.0
96.9
95.0
95.5
102.2
96.7
95.4
95.5
101.3
96.3
95.5
95.5
99.5
96.2
95.0
95.5
99.0
95.4
93.4
95.5
97.3
93.7
92.9
95.5
94.8
92.5
92.0
95.5
93.8
95.2
93.5
95.5
99.0
83.9 83.9 83.7 83.6 83.9 84.1 84.6 84.2 81.5 80.2 83.4
77.6 78.7 78.7 78.7 78.7 78.8 80.6 80.6 79.6 79.6 78.8
112.9 114.9 114.9 114.9 114.9 114.9 114.9 114.9 114.9 114.9 113.2
98.9
99.9 101.3 101.1 101.0 101.0 100.8 100.2
98.7
96.9
99.1
Chemicals and drugs---Chemicals....... ..............
Drugs and pharma
ceuticals.....................
Fertilizer materials—
Mixed fertilizers...........
87.7
96.4
87.8
95.6
87.5
95.3
86.9 84.5 83.6 83.9 82.2 81.4 81.2
94.2 91.1 90.1 89.9 87.0 85.7 85.3
80.2
84.2
79.5
83.5
83.9
89.9
79.0
70.6
71.4
83.0
70.7
71.7
83.0
70.3
71.7
82.9 79.2 78.0 78.2 78.2 78.3 78.3
70.7 70.6 70.5 71.3 71.7 71.8 72.5
72.0 72.2 72.3 74.2 74.8 74.8 74.9
76.8
71.9
74.5
75.1
72.0
74.4
79.1
71.2
73.2
Housefurnishing goods..
Furnishings-........ .........
Furniture-----------------
86.5
89.0
84.0
87.9
91.2
84.5
88.4
91.7
85.0
89.0 89.3 89.5 89.7 91.1 91.1 91.0
92.1 92.5 92.5 92.6 95.0 94.9 94.9
85.8 86.1 86.6 86.8 87.1 87.1 87.1
90.4
94.8
86.0
89.7
93.5
85.9
89.7
93.4
85.9
79.5
81.1 80.5 79.4 79.0 77.3 77.0 76.2
77.8
76.2 77.3
Miscellaneous_________
Automobile tires and
tubes........................... 51.8 53.1
Cattle feed........ ............ 135.4 129.4
Paper and pulp______ 84.8 87.5
Rubber, crude_______ 44.3 44.3
Other miscellaneous-— 83.1 84.2
Raw materials. . . ------Semimanufactured arti
cles_______________
Finished products----- .
All commodities other
than farm products___
All commodities other
than farm p r o d u c t s
and foods____ _______
88.1
88.3
55.0 56.4 56.4 56.4 56.4
135.0 146.8 139.9 116.9 116.5
90.2 93.9 94.6 95.0 94.2
50.9 49.3 44.6 41.0 39.6
84.8 85.3 85.5 85.8 85.7
56.4
82.9
94.1
38.2
85.4
55.4
81.2
93.4
38.4
85.1
56.4
83.6
92.4
33.6
84.6
75.4
75.0
57.4
83.3
90.4
30.6
83.5
57.4 55.8
81.7 110.5
89.8 91.7
31.2 40.5
82.7 84.7
90.1
88.7 87.1 86.1 86.5 84.8 84.4 80.7
77.2
75.4
84.8
79.8
86.7
77.7
85.3
85.3
87.2
85.4
84.9
85.5
85.4
89.6
86.4
89.5 87.5 86.8 87.0 86.6 85.3 82.5
87.4 87.5 87.7 88.8 89.0 89.1 88.1
84.6
85.0
86.3
86.9 86.7 86.8 87.5 87.6 87.6 86.4
84.8
83.5
86.2
83.4
84.1
85.5
86.5 86.3 86.1 86.3 86.1 85.9 85.1
84.3
83.6
85.3
1 Data not yet available.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
2 P r e li m i n a r y re v is io n
554
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
In table 7 the price trend since 1926 is shown for the following groups
of commodities: Raw materials, semimanufactured articles, finished
products, all commodities other than farm products, and all commodi
ties other than farm products and foods.
The “All commodities other than farm products” group includes all
commodities except those designated as farm products and the index
for this group represents the movement in prices of nonagricultural
commodities. All commodities with the exception of those designated
as farm products and foods are included in the group “All commodities
other than farm products and foods.” The index for this group reflects
the trend in prices of industrial commodities. The commodities
included under the classifications “Raw materials,” “Semimanufac
tured articles,” and “Finished products” are as follows:
R aw m aterials .— All farm products (67 quotations), bananas, cocoa beans,
coffee (2 quotations), copra, pepper, hides and skins (7 quotations), raw silk (4
quotations), hemp, jute, sisal, coal (6 quotations), crude petroleum (3 quotations),
iron ore (2 quotations), scrap steel, gravel, sand, crushed stone, crude sulphur,
phosphate rock, nitrate of soda, tankage, crude rubber (3 quotations); total, 109.
Sem im an u factu red articles .— Oleo oil, raw sugar, vegetable oil (6 quotations),
leather (7 quotations), print cloth (2 quotations), tire fabric (2 quotations), cotton
yarn (5 quotations), rayon (4 quotations), silk yarn (6 quotations), worsted yarn
(3 quotations), artificial leather (2 quotations), jute yarn (2 quotations), bar iron
(2 quotations), steel bars (3 quotations), steel billets, malleable castings, pig iron
(7 quotations), wire rods, skelp, steel strips, aluminum, antimony, ingot copper,
pig lead, nickel, quicksilver, brass rods, copper rods, silver, pig tin, pig zinc,
barytes, butyl acetate, carbon black, iron oxide black, prussian blue, ethyl acetate,
chrome green, copal gum, chinawood oil, linseed oil, rosin, turpentine, whiting,
yellow chrome, plaster, tar, pine oil, camphor, opium, wood pulp (4 quotations),
paraffin wax; total, 93.
F inished 'products .-—Butter (18 quotations), cheese (3 quotations), milk (3
quotations), cereal products (28 quotations), canned fruit (6 quotations), dried
fruit (6 quotations), canned vegetables (7 quotations), meats (14 quotations),
beverages (3 quotations), powdered cocoa, fish (6 quotations), glucose, grape jam,
lard, molasses, oleomargarine, peanut butter, salt, tomato soup, cornstarch,
granulated sugar, edible tallow, tea, vegetable oil (2 quotations), vinegar, shoes
(21 quotations), other leather products (6 quotations), clothing (20 quotations),
cotton goods (except print cloth, tire fabric, and yarn) (26 quotations), knit
goods (9 quotations), woolen textiles (15 quotations), burlap, rope (3 quotations),
thread (2 quotations), twine (3 quotations), coke (4 quotations), electricity, gas,
fuel oil (2 quotations), gasoline (5 quotations), kerosene (2 quotations), agricultural
implements (31 quotations), angle bars, augers, axes, reinforcing bars, steel
barrels, boiler tubes, bolts (4 quotations), butts, sanitary cans, chisels, files,
hammers, hatchets, knives, knobs, locks, nails, pipe (3 quotations), planes,
plates, rails, rivets (2 quotations), saws (2 quotations), steel sheets (3 quotations),
spikes, structural steel, terne-plate, tie plates, tin plate, vises, wire fence (4
quotations), wood screws, motor vehicles (7 quotations), babbitt metal, lead pipe,
brass sheets, copper sheets, zinc sheets, solder, brass tubes, wire (2 quotations),
plumbing and heating (8 quotations), brick and tile (12 quotations), cement, lath
(2 quotations), lumber (16 quotations), shingles (2 quotations), prepared paint (6
quotations), paint materials (9 quotations), asphalt, building board (2 quotations),
doors, frames (2 quotations), glass (4 quotations), lime (2 quotations), sewer pipe,
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
555
Wholesale Prices
prepared roofing (4 quotations), slate roofing, window sash, acid (12 quotations),
alcohol (3 quotations), aluminum sulphate, ammonia (2 quotations), anilin oil,
arsenic, baking powder (2 quotations), benzene, bleaching powder, borax, calcium
compounds (4 quotations), coal-tar colors (4 quotations), copperas, copper sul
phate, creosote oil, formaldehyde, logwood extract, naphthalene, potash, que
bracho extract, sal soda, salt cake, granulated salt, sodium compounds (5 quota
tions), tallow, toluene, caffeine, castor oil, chlorine, chloroform, cream of tartar,
Epsom salts, glycerine, iodine, menthol, peroxide of hydrogen, phenol, potassium
iodide, quinine sulphate, soda phosphate, strychnine, zince chloride, ammonia
sulphate, ground bones, kainit, manure salts, muriate potash, sulphate potash,
superphosphate, mixed fertilizers (6 quotations), housefurnishing goods (61 quota
tions), automobile tires and tubes (4 quotations), cattle feed (4 quotations), boxboard (3 quotations), paper (4 quotations), wooden barrels, batteries (2 quota
tions), caskets (2 quotations), cigar boxes, matches (2 quotations), mirrors, lubri
cating oil (4 quotations), pipe covering, rubber heels (2 quotations), rubber hose,
shipping cases, soap (5 quotations), starch, tobacco products (5 quotations);
total, 582.
T able 7.— Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices, by Special Groups of Commodities
[1926 = 100]
SemiRaw manYear and month mate ufacrials tured
arti
cles
1926____ ____ _
1927.......... .............
1928____________
1929___ _________
F in
ished
prod
ucts
All
com
mod
ities
other
than
farm
prod
ucts
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
96.5 94.3 95.0 94.6
99.1 94.5 95.9 94.8
97.5 93.9 94.5 93.3
All
com
mod
ities
other
than
farm
prod
ucts
and
foods
100.0
94.0
92.9
91.6
1930____________
1931___ _________
1932____________
1933
________
84.3
65.6
55.1
56. 5
81.8
69.0
59.3
65.4
88.0
77.0
70.3
70.5
85.9
74.6
68.3
69. 0
85.2
75.0
70.2
71.2
1934 __________
1 9 3 5 ......................
1936____________
1937____________
68.6
77.1
79.9
84.8
72.8
73.6
75.9
85.3
78.2
82.2
82.0
87.2
76.9
80.2
80.7
86.2
78.4
77.9
79.6
85.3
1936:
January_____
February____
March______
April_______
M ay .............
June________
78.1
79.1
77.4
77.0
75.8
77.6
74.8
74.6
74.4
74.5
74.1
73.9
82.4
82.2
81.3
81.6
80.5
80.7
80.9
80.7
80.2
80.1
79.2
79.4
78.8
79.0
78.9
78.9
78.8
78.8
Year and month
1936—Continued.
July. .............
All
com
Semimod
Raw man- Fin ities
ished other
mate ufacprod
rials tured
arti ucts than
farm
cles
prod
ucts
All
com
mod
ities
other
than
farm
prod
ucts
and
foods
79.8
81.5
81.8
82.1
83.1
85.6
75.2
75.6
75.9
76.2
78.6
82.3
81. 6
82.4
82.3
82.0
82.6
83.8
80.3
80.9
80.9
80.9
81.7
83.1
79. 5
79. 7
79.6
80.1
81.0
82.2
88.1
February____ 88.3
90.1
88.7
87.1
86.1
85. 4
85.5
89. 6
89. 5
87. 5
86.8
84. 9
85.4
86. 4
87.4
87. 5
87. 7
84. 6
85.0
86. 3
86.9
86. 7
86.8
83. 4
84.1
85. 5
86. 5
86. 3
86.1
July________ 86.5
August______ 84.8
September___ S4.4
80.7
November___ 77.2
December___ 75.4
87.0
86.6
85.3
82. 5
79.8
77.7
88.8
89.0
89.1
88.1
86.7
85.3
87.5
87.6
87.6
86.4
84.8
83.5
86.3
86.1
85.9
85.1
84.3
83.6
September__
October_____
November___
December___
1937:
Index numbers for the groups and subgroups of commodities for
November and December 1937 and December of each of the past 7
years are presented in table 8.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
556
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
T a b l e 8 . —Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices, by Groups and Subgroups of Commodities
[1926=1001
Group and subgroup
D e No D e D e D e D e D e De D e
cem vem cem cem cem cem cem cem cem
ber
ber
ber
ber
ber
ber
ber
ber
ber
1937 1937 1936 1935 1934 .1933 1932 1931 .1930
All commodities....................................................... 81.7
83.3
84.2
80.9
76.9
70.8
62.6
68.6
79.6
Farm products.............................. .............. ...........
Grains________________________ _____
Livestock and pou ltry.................. ...............
Other farm products............... ................. .
72.8
71.5
78.4
69.3
75.7 88.5
69.2 109.0
86.2 85.0
70.7 84.4
78.3
76.6
87.4
72.8
72.0
91.5
57.2
75.1
55.5
60.4
38.0
64.3
44.1
31.7
38.7
51.3
55.7
47.0
51.7
61.2
75.2
64.0
76.3
78.1
F o o d s.......... ..........................................................
Dairy products.......... ............................... .......
Cereal products................................................
Fruits and vegetables__________________
M eats__________________________ ______
Other foods___________________________
79.8
99.2
82.0
57.8
88.8
71.5
83.1
89.2
81.5
61.5
98.3
73.6
85.5
88.9
87.1
75.4
87.2
84.0
85.7
83.7
97.2
63.7
97.5
77.5
75.3
79.6
92.2
62.4
69.0
74.3
62. 5
65.1
84.7
63.0
46.0
63.4
58.3
59.5
61.7
52.8
49.4
66.1
69.1
79.8
72.2
63.5
63.2
67.2
82.4
89.2
75.9
75.4
89.2
77.0
97.7 101.4 99.7 95.4
105.6 106.9 99.4 100.1
85.5 94.6 110.4 96.5
86.9 92.7 92.6 87.6
102.7 103.1 98.3 87.1
85.1
97.2
67.4
71.8
85.7
89.2
98.6
74.9
80.1
87.6
69.6
83.8
41.7
59.2
81.9
79.8
89.2
48.8
78.6
99.7
91.4
97.7
69.4
91.5
104.8
53.0
62.5
51.7
49.3
29.3
54.2
66.6
60.8
70.8
56.4
58.5
39.0
63.9
71.3
73.7
83.5
75.6
72.3
87.2
73.9
77.8
69.3 68.3
88.7 94.8
80.2 83.8
75.3 81.1
104. 1 104.1
96.5 98.2
45.0 39.6
710
89.6
89.1
83.8
100.7
95.4
51.1
Hides and leather products_________________
Shoes_______ ____ _______ _____________
Hides and skins_____________ _____ ____
L eather______ ____ _____ _____________
Other leather products.................. ...............
Textile products______________________ ____
Clothing______________________________
Cotton goods............ ........................................
Knit goods......................................................
Silk and rayon___________ _____ ________
Woolen and worsted goods______________
Other textile products____________ _____
Fuel and lighting materials.......... ........................
Anthracite_____ _______ _____________ _
Bituminous c o a l............. . ____________
Coke.............................
Electricity_____ ______ ________ ________
Gas...................................
Petroleum products................ ......................
Metals and metal products.________________
Agricultural implements_______________
Iron and steel___ ____ ___ _____________
Motor vehicles 2.................... ..........................
Nonferrous metals_____ .
__________
Plumbing and heating....................... ..........
Building materials_________ _______________
Brick and tile_________________________
Cement......................................... ...................
Lumber_____________ ________________
Paint and paint materials.............................
Plumbing and heating...... ........................... .
Structural steel...............................................
Other building materials..............................
71.2
87.3
70.5
64.2
30. 1
85.1
69.0
76.3
83. 1
90.3
63.0
33.8
90.5
65.3
73.2
81.0
86.0
62.2
33.7
81.0
68.1
70.0
78.4
84.3
61.9
27. 1
74.0
68.6
76.4
87.9
85.5
71.2
29.6
84.3
75.9
78.4 78.2
80.0 79.8
101. 1 99.2
105.5 105. 4
83. 1
(*)
83. 1
0)
59. 5 60.6
76.5
82.3
97.3
97.8
82.7
83. 1
58.0
74.6
82.9
98.7
89.6
84.9
84.5
52.8
73.7
82.3
96.5
85.6
93. 1
89.3
49.8
73.4
81.5
90.6
83.6
94. C
92.2
51.6
96.8
95.9
99.3
95.3
78.5
79.6
89.6
93.0
90. 9
83.7
78.6
76.7
86.8
94.6
86.9
83.5
70.6
71.1
85.9
92.7
85.6
86.3
67.5
68.8
83.5
85.1
83.6
83.7
66.6
72.5
79.4
84.5
78.8
85.5
48.3
67.5
82.2
85.5
81.0
89.7
53.8
79.9
87.9
94.4
86.6
90.2
71.7
85.3
92.5 93.7 89.5
92.0 92.9 88.5
95.5 95.5 95.5
93.8 94.8 89.6
80.2 81.5 82.4
79.6 79.6 76.7
114.9 114.9 101.7
96.9 98.7 92.6
85.5
88.9
95.5
81.5
80.0
71.1
92.0
90.0
85.1
91.2
93.9
81.2
78.8
68.8
92.0
89.8
85.6
85.7
91.2
88.0
77.5
72.5
86.8
88.6
70.8
75.1
81.1
56.5
68.1
67.5
81.7
80.1
75.7
80.0
74.6
65.8
76.6
79.9
81.7
81.5
84.8
87.1
90.6
75.2
83.7
85.3
81.7
89.3
70. 1
86.7
68.7
63.4
29.4
83.5
68.5
96.3
96. 1
99.0
95.6
75.1
79.6
79.5
83.5
75. 1
72.0
74.4
80.2
84.2
76.8
71.9
74.5
85.3
93.3
77.4
68.6
71.4
80.6
87.7
74.7
64.5
67.7
77.8
82.2
73.4
65.3
73.7
73.7
79.2
59.0
68.1
69.9
72.3
79.7
54.7
63. 1
65.6
76.1
80.8
61.0
70.1
77.1
85.6
89.9
65.7
81.4
90.6
Housefurnishing goods_____________________ 89.7
Furnishings_____ ______ _______ ________ 93.5
Furniture______ ______________ ____ ___ 85.9
90.4
94.8
86.0
83.2
86.9
79.4
81.0
84.7
77.1
81.2
84.2
78.2
81.0
82.9
79.3
73.6
74.7
72.7
78.5
76.6
80.6
88.8
85.6
92.5
67.5 71.0
45.0 47. 5
70.8 123. 1
79.2 81.5
27.2 26.4
80.2 80.7
65.7
43.2
60.3
82.5
18.0
79.0
63.4
44.6
37. 1
73.0
6.8
81.3
66.8
40.8
53.9
80.8
9.5
85.9
73.5
50.2
78.2
84.0
15.6
90.3
Chemicals and drugs..............................................
Chemicals.........................................................
Drugs and pharmaceuticals......... ...............
Fertilizer materials_________ __________
Mixed fertilizers................................ ............
Miscellaneous_____________________ ______ _
Automobile tires and tu b es..
... ... ..
Cattle feed____________________________
Paper and pulp________________________
Rubber, crude_________ _______________
Other miscellaneous______________ _____
75.0
57.4
81.7
89.8
31.2
82.7
75.4 74.5
57.4 50. 1
83.3 130.7
90.4 82.9
30.6 41.9
83.5 82.2
Raw materials....................... ...................................
Semimanufactured articles______ _______ ___
Finished products_________________________
All commodities other than farm products___
All commodities other than farm products and
foods........... ................................... .......................
75.4
77.7
85.3
83.5
77.2
79.8
86.7
84.8
85.6
82.3
83.8
83.1
77.7
75.2
83.1
81.3
73.1
71.0
79.5
77.8
61.9
72.3
74.8
74.0
52.1
57.7
68.4
66.5
60.2
63.7
73.3
71.3
74.2
75.1
82.8
80.5
83.6
84.3
82.2
78.7
78.0
77.5
69.0
72.3
80.3
1 Date not yet available.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
557
Wholesale Prices
Weekly Fluctuations
A decided downward tendency was evidenced in wholesale com
modity prices throughout the 4 weeks of December.
The foods group registered the greatest decline—3.2—during the
4-week period November 27 to December 25. Hides and leather
products dropped 1.8 percent; building materials, 1.3 percent; textile
products, 0.9 percent; housefurnishing goods, 0.8 percent; farm prod
ucts, 0.7 percent; chemicals and drugs, 0.5 percent; and miscellaneous
commodities, 0.1 percent. The metals and metal products group
advanced slightly from the last week of November to the last week
of December and fuel and lighting materials remained steady.
Weekly price variations in the commodity groups during December
are shown by the index numbers in table 9. The percentage changes
from week to week are given in table 10.
T able 9.— Weekly Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices, by Commodity Groups, December
and November 1937
[1926=100]
Commodity group
Dec.
25
1937
Dec.
18
1937
Dec.
11
1937
Dec. Nov. Nov. Nov. N ov.
4
13
6
27
20
1937 1937 1937 1937 1937
All commodities........ ................................................. .........
Farm products........................................ ............................
Foods_____________________ ____________________
Hides and leather products........................ ......................
Textile products________ _______ _____ ___________
Fuel and lighting materials............................ .................
Metals and metal products_______________ ________
Building materials...................... ................................. .
Chemicals and drugs......................................................
Housefurnishing goods......... ..............................................
Miscellaneous_____________ _____ ________ _______ _
Raw materials.............. ..................................................... .
Semimanufactured articles................................................
Finished products.................................. ..........................
All commodities other than farm products________
All commodities other than farm products and foods..
81.2
72. 9
78.9
98.4
69.4
78.6
96.2
92.5
79.2
91.4
74.9
75.3
77.4
85.0
83.1
83.6
81.5
73.2
79.7
98.2
69.5
78.6
96.4
92.8
79.1
92.1
74.8
75.2
77.6
85.5
83.4
83.7
81.9
73.4
80.7
98.3
69.9
78.6
96.2
93.0
78.9
92.1
74.8
75.3
78.1
85.9
83.8
83.7
82.0 82.0 82.9 83.2
73. 9 73.4 75.9 77. 8
80.7 81.5 83.2 83.6
99.8 100.2 101.8 103.0
69.8 70.0 70.5 71.0
78.6 78.6 78.6 79.0
96.3 96.1 96.6 94.6
93.0 93.7 93.8 94.0
79.4 79.6 79.8 80.0
92.1 92.1 92. 1 92.1
75.1 75.0 75.4 75.0
75.7 75.4 77.0 78.2
78.4 78.9 79.7 80.0
85.9 86.1 86.6 86.5
83.8 84.0 84.5 84.5
83.9 83.9 84.2 84.0
83.8
77.7
84.3
104.2
71.6
78.9
95.1
94.4
80.1
92.2
75.5
78.6
81.1
87.0
85.1
84.3
T able 10.— Weekly Changes (Percent) During December 1937, by Groups of Commodities
Percentage change from—
C o m m o d ity g ro u p
N o v . 27 D e c . 18
to D e c . to D e c .
25
25
D e c . 11
to D e c .
18
D ec. 4
to D ec.
11
N o v . 27
to D e c .
4
A l l c o m m o d i t i e s . . . ........................... ......... .............................. ........... .......................
- 1 .0
- 0 .4
- 0 .5
- 0 .1
0 .0
F a r m p r o d u c t s ________________ ________ ____ _________ _________________
F o o d s I ............................................................ ......................................................................
H i d e s a n d l e a t h e r p r o d u c t s ............................................. .................. ..................
T e x t i l e s ___- .............. .'........... ................ ...........................................................................
- .7
- 3 .2
- 1 .8
— .9
0
- .4
-1 . 0
+ -2
- . 1
0
—. 3
- 1 .2
- . 1
- . 6
0
- .7
0
- 1 .5
+ .1
0
+ .7
- 1 .0
- .4
- .3
0
M e t a l s a n d m e t a l p r o d u c t s . . ..............................................................................
B u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s " . ______________ __________ __________ _______________
+ .1
- 1 .3
- .5
- .8
- , 1
- .2
- .3
4 -, 1
- .8
+ .1
+ .2
- .2
+ .3
0
0
- . 1
0
- .6
0
- .4
+ .2
- .7
- .3
0
+ .1
- .1
- 1 .9
- 1 .3
- 1 .1
- .4
+ .1
- .3
- .6
- .4
- . 1
- .1
- .6
-.5
+ .4
- .6
-.5
—. 5
H o u s e f u r n i s h i n g g o o d s ____________________________ _________ _________
Raw
m a t e r i a l s ______ . . . _________
_____ .
.
.
_________
____
F i n i s h e d p r o d u c t s ____ ________ _________ ________________ ______________
All c o m m o d i t i e s o t h e r t h a n f a r m p r o d u c t s ............... ....................... .........
A l l c o m m o d i t i e s o t h e r t h a n f a r m p r o d u c t s a n d f o o d s ........................
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
0
- .4
0
0
-.2
-.2
- .2
0
558
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
Monthly Average Wholesale Prices and Index Numbers of
Individual Commodities
The table showing monthly average wholesale prices and index
numbers of individual commodities formerly appearing in the Whole
sale Price separate is now published semiannually instead of monthly.
The December 1937 issue of the pamphlet showed the average for
the year 1937 and information for the last 6 months of 1937. The
monthly figures will be furnished upon request.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Recent Publications o f Labor Interest
JANUARY 1938
Agriculture
Selected references on practices and use of labor on fa rm s— P a rt I . Compiled by
William A. Newman and Loring K. Macy. Washington, U. S. Works
Progress Administration, 1937. 284 pp. (National Research Project,
Studies of Changing Techniques and Employment in Agriculture, Report
No. A-3, Part I.)
The references are grouped under five main heads— crops (grains, cotton, to
bacco, etc.), fruits and vegetables, livestock, implements and operations, and sea
sonal distribution of labor. The material is also classified by State under the
various subheadings.
Proceedings of third ann u al convention of Southern Tenant F arm ers’ U nion, M u s
kogee, Okla., J a n u a ry 1 4 -1 7 , 1937. Memphis, Tenn., Southern Tenant
Farmers’ Union, 1937. 84 pp.
Although concerned mainly with living and working conditions of tenant farm
ers and farm laborers, the proceedings also included discussion of consumers’
cooperation and an account of the working of the Delta Cooperative Farm, and
the cooperative store run in connection therewith, at Hillhouse, Miss.
Civil Service
By Lewis Meriam. Wash
ington, Brookings Institution, Institute for Government Research, 1937.
62 pp. (Pamphlet No. 19.)
A critical comparison of existing personnel organization and techniques in the
Federal service and the proposed changes in,the present system, which contem
plate the abolition of the United States Civil Service Commission and the creation
of a one-man personnel agency. The recommendations of the author center
around measures to strengthen the present system, chiefly through greater appro
priations for the Civil Service Commission and an expansion of personnel adminis
trative units within the various governmental divisions.
The B ritish civil service. By Herman Finer. London, Fabian Society and George
Allen & Unwin, Ltd., 1937. 254 pp.
Discusses the historical development, general organization, practices and policies
in recruiting, remuneration, promotion and discipline, and the “spirit and opera
tion,” of the civil-service system of Great Britain. An appendix presents the
salary scales and provisions for annual leave applying to the general clerical and
the executive classifications.
Personnel adm in istration in the Federal Government.
Consumer Problems
A n a ly sis of condition, qu ality, and size requirem ents of U nited States and State
standards fo r fresh fr u its and vegetables, and legal stan dards fo r d a iry products.
Washington, U. S. Consumers’ Project, 1937.
18 pp., folders.
[Richmond?],
1937. Various paging, maps, charts; mimeographed.
An article on social effects of changes in buying habits in Virginia, based on
this report, is published in this issue of the Monthly Labor Review.
R eport of V irg in ia State P lan n in g Board: Vol. X I , R etail trade.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
559
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
560
Cooperative Movement
Washington, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Extension Service and Agricultural Adjustment Administration, 1937. 13 pp.
Distinguishes among the various types of cooperative associations and shows
the distinction between cooperatives and other businesses, discusses relations
between producers’ and consumers’ cooperatives, and quotes opinions from
various sources as to how far cooperative effort is practicable.
Cooperative societies [Great B rita in ]— statistical su m m aries, 1 9 2 6 -3 6 . London,
Registry of Friendly Societies, 1937. 3 pp.
Co-ops: H ow fa r can they go?
S ix ty-n in th ann u al cooperative congress [of Cooperative U nion, L td.}, held in Bath,
England, M a y 1 7 -1 9 ,1 9 3 7 . Manchester, Cooperative Union, Ltd., Holyoake
House, Hanover Street, 1937.
764 pp.
Economic and Social Problems
Books and articles on the economic history of G ermany. Compiled by Walther Vogel.
(In Economic History Review, London, November 1937, pp. 116-124.)
Practically all the references are to material in the German language, published
in Germany.
Books and articles on the economic history of Great B rita in and Irelan d. Compiled
by J. de L. Mann. (In Economic History Review, London, November 1937,
pp. 111-115.)
H ow much com pensation?
A problem of transfer from private to public enterprise.
By Ernest Davies. London, Victor Gollancz, Ltd., and New Fabian Re
search Bureau, 1937. 59 pp. (N. F. R. B. No. 33.)
The British Labor Party has advocated the policy of public purchase of key
industries and their operation by public corporations. The author of this booklet
views compensation to the present owners as a necessary transitional stage and
discusses the principles of compensation, the various possible methods, and the
detailed problems of the transitional period. There is some discussion of past
experience in connection with public corporations, such as the London Passenger
Transport Board.
M oney. By Emile Burns. London, Victor Gollancz, Ltd., 1937. 94 pp. (New
People’s Library, Vol. I.)
A simplified analysis of the nature of money and its relations to trade, produc
tion, and income including wages. .
The n ation al capital, and other sta tistica l studies. By Sir Josiah Stamp. London,
P. S. King & Son, Ltd., 1937. 299 pp., charts.
These collected papers contain both factual data and studies of statistical
method relating to several important topics, which include estimates of Great
Britain’s capital wealth, profits in Great Britain and the United States, and
methods of estimating national income in various countries.
The w orld’s wealth, its use and abuse. By Broadus Mitchell. New York, Henry
Holt & Co., 1937. 772 pp.
.
,
A considerable part of the volume is devoted to subjects directly concerned with
labor. These include wages, wage theories, trade unionism, labor under the “ New
Deal,” and proposed systems of social reorganization. Other topics usually
discussed in general works on economics are also included.
P rolonged unem ploym ent, technical progress and the conquest of new m arkets. By
Fritz Sternberg. (In International Labor Review, International Labor
Office, Geneva, October 1937, pp. 446-485; charts.)
During the long period of relatively slow technological progress before the World
War, there was a comparatively small amount of unemployment and, at the same
time, a rise in real wages. These conditions are attributed by the author mainly
to the rapid expansion of the markets and investments of industrialized areas in
other regions and the attendant high rates of profit for capital investments. The
author states that, in the foreseeable future, the severe restriction of opportunity
for expanding external markets and investments is likely to be combined with
continued technological progress due to competitive pressure. He holds also that
the checking of unemployment and the sharing by workers in the benefits of
technological progress are no longer automatic adjustments incidental to external
expansion and must be dependent increasingly on labor organization and general
planning.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Recent Publications of Labor Interest
561
By Helen Seymour. Chicago, American Public Welfare
Association, 850 East 58th Street, 1937. 38 pp.; bibliography.
Makes available what the issuing office believes to be the first successful attempt
at a general account and interpretation of pressure organizations of unemployed
and destitute persons as a factor in the administration of relief. According to a
foreword to the report, the self-organization of the jobless “helped to prevent them
from being used by the extreme right or the extreme left as hired storm troopers
of reaction or revolution.”
W hen clients organize.
Education and Guidance
A review o f educational legislation, 1935 and 1936. By Ward W. Keesecker.
Washington, U. S. Office of Education, 1937. 39 pp. (Bulletin, 1937, No. 2,
advance pages; chapter VIII of volume I of biennial survey of education in
United States, 1934-36.)
Among the enactments reviewed are those containing provisions concerning
vocational education; training, salaries, employment, tenure, and retirement of
teachers; and the higher education of Negroes.
E ducation al experim ents in social settlements. By Gaynell Hawkins. New York,
American Association for Adult Education, 1937. xvi, 145 pp.
Endeavors to show through a study of certain social settlements “the extent
to which they are actual and potential agencies for adult education.”
The Federal adult education project fo r the deaf. By William J. Marra. (In
American Annals of the Deaf, Washington, D. C., November 1937, pp.
406-410.)
A brief account of a successful school for the adult deaf in Kansas City, Mo.,
which since the establishment of the project in 1934 up to the time the report
was prepared had had a total class attendance of 2,609.
V ocational services under Jew ish auspices. New York, Council of Jewish Federa
tions and Welfare Funds, 71 West 47th Street, 1937. 35 pp.; mimeographed.
(Section of 1936 year book of Jewish social work.)
Reports on the vocational-guidance and placement activities of two types of
Jewish agencies—those established solely for these activities, and those offering
such services through a separately organized department.
E ducation in 1936— being report of B oard of E ducation, and statistics of public
education fo r E ngland and W ales. London, Board of Education, 1937. 199
pp. (Cmd. 5564.)
A chapter on technical and commercial education in England contains informa
tion on the release of students by employers during working hours for attendance
on courses of instruction, provision for unemployed boys and girls, and classes
for unemployed adults. In other parts of the report more detailed information
is given on adult education.
E ducation in J a p a n under D epartm ent of E ducation— adm in istration and work.
Tokyo, Department of Education, 1937. 43 pp., charts.
Includes information on pensions and allowances for elementary school teachers,
and on salaries of principals and teachers in secondary schools, 1926 to 1935.
Employment and Unemployment
By Herman B. Byer,
Washington, U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1938. 11 pp., charts. (Serial
No. R. 661, reprint from January 1938 Monthly Labor Review.)
E m ploym en t resulting from P . W . A . construction, 1 9 3 3-37.
U nem ploym ent in the learned professions: A n international stu dy of occupational
and educational plan n in g. By Walter M. Kotschnig. London, Oxford
University Press, 1937. 347 pp.
Parts I and II deal with increases and shifts in student enrollments and their
cause and effect in regard to the moot question of over-crowded professions. In
Part III the various aspects of controlling student enrollments are portrayed and
presented in their relation to the market of intellectual labor. The final section
deals with the need for occupational and educational planning. Although pri
marily a treatise on unemployment in the professions throughout the world, the
analysis also treats of several other aspects of present conditions which affect
professional workers.
The trend of em ploym ent and unem ploym ent in the Saorstdt in the years 1935 and
1936. Dublin, Department of Industry and Commerce, 1937. 29 pp.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
562
Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
Forestry
Skogsbygdens arbets- och levnadsvillkor: D el I I , Onskem&l och fo r slag (enligt avgivna
utl&tanden). Stockholm, Socialstyrelsen, 1937. 227 pp.
Report on working and living conditions of forestry workers in Sweden, includ
ing wages, cost of living, and housing, together with proposals for improving these
conditions and for better regulation of the lumber trade in general.
Health and Industrial Hygiene
N ew health fron tiers: Proceedings of fifteenth annual conference of the M ilban k
M em orial F und, A p r il 29 and 30, 1937. New York, Milbank Memorial
Fund, 1937. 107 pp.
The discussions covered the subjects of hygienic aspects of housing, health
problems of adult life, and nutrition and public health.
P ublic welfare and m edical care. Addresses delivered at meeting of American
Public Welfare Association, Indianapolis, Ind., May 27, 1937. Chicago,
American Public Welfare Association, 850 East Fifty-eighth Street, 1937.
Various paging.
S ocialized m edicine in the Soviet U nion. By Henry E. Sigerist, M. D. New York,
W. W. Norton, Inc., 1937. 378 pp., illus.
An account of the development of the medical system in the Soviet Union
with special reference to socialist and communist theories.
E nvironm ent an d em ployee efficiency. New York, American Management Associa
tion, 330 West 42d Street, 1937. 28 pp., illus. (Office Management Series,
No. 81.)
Papers presented at a conference on office management, covering noise, air
conditioning, and lighting, in offices.
Toxicology. By William D. McNally, M. D. Chicago, Industrial Medicine,
1937. 1022 pp.
Contains the results of recent research in the field of toxicology, as well as the
fundamental facts and basic principles, and is designed to serve the medical and
legal professions. Considerable space is given to carbon-monoxide, lead, and
arsenic, as these causes of poisoning are most frequently encountered in court
and industrial work.
Housing
T hird ann u al report of F ederal H ousing A d m in istra tio n , fo r year ending December
31, 1936. Washington, 1937. 65 pp.
Statistics of operation show the organizations financing mortgage loans, types of
dwellings upon which money is loaned, and ratio of property valuation to borrower’s
income.
The housing m arket. Washington, National Housing Committee, 1937. 32 pp.,
maps, charts.
Basing its conclusions on existing statistics of income, dwellings built, rents,
and tenancy, the committee presents a program for future residential building.
Revival of the building in d u stry. By Bryant Putney. Washington, 1937. 13 pp.
(Editorial Research Reports, Vol. 2, 1937, No. 20.)
Cites reasons for the failure of housing construction to meet the country’s needs,
and discusses Federal efforts to stimulate building.
Three m illion houses. By Sir Charles Morgan-Webb. New York, Committee for
the Nation, 205 East 42d Street, 1937. 197 pp., illus.
A description of the post-war housing program in Great Britain.
Immigration
By Wasyl Halich. Chicago, University of
Chicago Press, 1937. 174 pp., maps, illus.; bibliography.
Discusses the causes of emigration of Ukrainians to this country, the periods in
which such emigration took place, the numerical importance of these immigrants
in the United States, and their distribution, occupations, professions, businesses,
and social institutions.
U krain ian s in the U nited States.
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Industrial Accidents and Workmen’s Compensation
Washington, U. S. Bureau of the Cen
sus, 1937. (Vital Statistics, Special Reports, Vol. 3, No. 38, pp. 181-212.)
Presents distribution of accidental deaths for the United States, individual
States, cities of 100,000 or more, and age groups, by cause and type of accident.
K a n sa s accidental deaths, 1936. Topeka, Kansas State Board of Health, 1937.
17 pp., charts.
The study shows that 1 in every 12 deaths was the result of an accident, and
that 1 in every 7 accidental deaths was occupational. The number of occupa
tional deaths is listed as 257, of which 109 were due to accidents on farms. Total
occupational deaths, however, would presumably include a number of the 588
additional deaths from the 493 motor-vehicle accidents reported, as 150 commer
cial vehicles were involved.
F atal accidents in the U nited S tates, 1935.
1936 ann u al statistical report issu ed by In d u stria l C om m ission of Ohio: A statistical
stu d y of all accident and occupational disease claim s filed w ith In d u stria l
C om m ission of Ohio during calendar year 1936, w ith a su m m ary of the years
1927-36, inclusive. Columbus, Industrial Commission, 1937. 27 pp.
A total of 203,956 claims were filed, covering 1,066 fatalities, 7 permanent
total disabilities, 1,873 permanent partial disabilities, and 35,076 temporary dis
abilities of more than 7 days’ duration, 22,609 of 7 days’ duration or less, and
143,325 involving no time loss. Occupational disease was reported as the cause
in 1,376 cases, less than 0.7 percent of the total claims.
C oal-m ine explosions in Ohio, 1874-1936. By C. W. Owings. Washington, U. S.
Bureau of Mines, 1937. 37 pp.; mimeographed. (Information Circular
6956.)
Gives reports on 163 explosions or ignitions known to have occurred in the
State during the 63-year period covered, resulting in the death of 190 and injury
to at least 265 persons. The various causes of these accidents are considered
and recommendations as to preventive measures are summarized.
Fifth report of D epartm ent of Labor and In du stries, W ashington, covering period of
1 9 3 2-36, inclusive. Olympia, 1937. 312 pp.
Devoted almost entirely to detailed statistical tabulations covering the exper
ience of the accident and medical-aid funds under the compulsory and exclusive
workmen’s compensation act of the State. Accident frequency rates per 1,000,000
man-hours worked are shown for reported fatal injuries as 0.766 in 1933, 0.760
in 1934, 0.825 in 1935, and 0.821 in 1936, and for compensable nonfatal injuries
as 47.6 in 1933, 48.2 in 1934, 49.1 in 1935, and 50.4 in 1936.
Twentieth an n u al report of W orkm en’s C om pensation Board, B ritish C olum bia, for
the year ended December 31, 1936. Victoria, 1937. 24 pp.
A total of 29,667 claims were filed with the Board during the year as against
26,280 in 1935, an increase of 13 percent, which practically corresponds with the
increase in the number of workers. Awards made in the 13,547 cases closed in
1936 amounted to $2,332,727. The administrative cost of the accident fund
was 3.01 percent of the receipts collected from employers, leaving 96.99 percent
for providing compensation to injured workers and their dependents.
Beretning fr a D irektoratet fo r U hjkkesforsikringen fo r aaret 1935. Kpbenhavn,
Denmark, 1937. 117 pp. (Ssertryk af Socialt Tidsskrift, September 1937.)
Contains a summary of the activities in 1935 of the Danish Directorate of
Accident Insurance and the Accident Insurance Council, under the compulsory
insurance act of 1933; important decisions; and statistical tables covering 1,984
fatal and 73,670 nonfatal injuries, 1928-33, by industries.
Printed in Danish, with summary of statistics and industry classification in
French.
B eretning om arbejds- og fa b rik tilsyn ets virksom hed i aaret 1936. Kpbenhavn,
Denmark, Direktoratet for Arbejds- og Fabriktilsynet, 1937. 150 pp.,
diagrams, illus. (Ssertryk af Socialt Tidsskrift, Juli-August 1937.)
Annual report on activities of Factory Inspectorate of Denmark, covering,
separately, factories, elevators, boilers, and bakeries. Includes recommendations
for accident prevention, a summary of the results of an investigation of hygienic
conditions and occupational diseases, and, in an appendix, a detailed analysis of
the 1935 accident data.
Printed in Danish with summary in French.
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Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
Helsinki, Finland, Sosiaaliministerio,.
Sosiaalinen Tutkimustoimisto, 1937. 61 pp.
Annual report on industrial accidents in Finland, giving an analysis of the
experience for 1934, accompanied by detailed tabulations for insured workers
and for government employees. Distribution by industry is shown for man-hour
exposure, pay rolls, insurance premiums, compensation payments, accidents, time
loss, and causes, covering 70,279 injuries to insured workers and 5,535 to govern
ment employees. Distribution of closed cases of insured workers is shown by
age, degree of disability, cause, industry group, and location of injury.
Printed in Finnish and Swedish, with nomenclature, table of contents, and
general remarks in French.
T yossa sattuneet tapatu rm at vuonna 1934.
S ta tistics of com pensation and proceedings under W orkm en ’s C om pensation A cts
and E m p lo yers’ L ia b ility A d , 1880, in Great B rita in durin g the year 1935.
London, Home Office, 1937. 32 pp. (Cmd. 5557.)
Reports were received, from employers and insurers, of 2,640 fatal and 422,699
nonfatal injuries. These included 17 fatal and 19,081 disabling cases of industrial
disease. Compensation awards totaled £766,012 for fatal and £5,442,478 for
nonfatal injuries. The aggregate average number of workers covered by the acts
was reported as 7,231,870.
Proceedings of E ighth A ll-O h io S a fety Congress, Colum bus, A p r il 2 0 -2 2 , 1937.
Columbus, Industrial Commission of Ohio, Division of Safety and Hygiene,
1937. 551 pp.
Papers presented and discussions on industrial safety at the general and sec
tional sessions, attended by more than 1,500 registered delegates and visitors.
L ist o f respiratory protective devices approved by U. S . B ureau of M in es. By H. H.
Schrenk. Washington, U. S. Bureau of Mines, 1937. 6 pp.; mimeographed.
(Information Circular 6952.)
Supersedes Information Circular 6918 and lists approvals as of April 10, 1937,
Som e results of first-a id train in g of all the em ployees of a m ine or plant. By J. J.
Forbes. Washington, U. S. Bureau of Mines, 1937. 13 pp.; mimeographed.
(Information Circular 6957.)
W h at’s wrong w ith m ine safety program s? By D. Harrington. Washington, U. S.
Bureau of Mines, i937. 9 pp.; mimeographed. (Information Circular
6958.)
Emphasizes the responsibility of owners or operators and the necessity for
their active interest in accident prevention.
S a fety stan dards fo r m otion-picture-m achine operators. Washington, U. S. Bureau
of Labor Statistics, 1938. 17 pp. (Serial No. R. 647, reprint from January
1938 Monthly Labor Review.)
H ygiene y seguridad del trabajo. By Mariano R. Tissembaum. Santa Fe,
Argentina, Instituto Social de la Universidad Nacional del Litoral, 1936.
90 pp., illus. (Temas Obreros, No. 5.)
Safety and health standards agreed upon by the International Labor Organiza
tion; and legislative provisions in Argentina pertaining to the safety and health
of workers in oil fields, mines, motorized agriculture, and industrial and commer
cial establishments; seats for workers; work of women and minors; home work;
and work which is especially dangerous or unhealthful.
Industrial Relations
Edited by
Henry C. Metcalf. New York, Harper & Bros., 1937. 182 pp.
Transcript of discussions presented at a series of round-table conferences con
ducted by the Bureau of Personnel Administration (New York), by economists,
Government officials, trade-unionists, industrialists, and authorities on personnel
administration, dealing with various phases of employer-employee relations that
are presented as evolving through legislation, Government intercession, and
changing industrial and social conditions. A bibliography of selected references
lists many of the most recent publications on subjects related to the conference
discussions.
Collective bargaining fo r today and tom orrow— approach and method.
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Geneva, Inter
national Labor Office (American Branch, 734 Jackson Place, Washington,
D. C.), 1937. 239 pp. (Second item on agenda of International Labor
Conference, 24th session, Geneva, 1938; report II.)
The general nature and scope of the question and the situation in the principal
territories concerned are examined, and the following problems of regulation are
discussed: The requirement that contracts be in writing, their contents, and
administrative supervision of their conclusion; application of the requirements to
women, young persons, and children; medical examination of workers; length of
contract period; transfer of workers under contract; termination of contracts;
repatriation of workers after contract termination; reengagement contracts; and
penal sanctions.
C om pulsory arbitration of labor dispu tes. (In Congressional Digest, Washington,
December 1937, pp. 289-320.)
Factual material and pro and con discussions.
The legality of “ peaceful coercion” in labor dispu tes. By Bernard Eskin. (In
University of Pennsylvania Law Review and American Law Register,
Philadelphia, March 1937, pp. 456-483.)
Brief analysis of legal theories regarding group action growing out of labor
controversies, as indicated by court decisions.
M u n ic ip a l and county labor boards.
(In The Commonwealth, official journal of
Commonwealth Club of California, San Francisco, December 28. 1937.
part 2, pp. 142-175.)
Includes a brief report on the extent to which local governments (city and
county) are in fact involved in extensive industrial disputes in their respective
localities; a review of the organization and functioning of local machinery, where
such exists, for interceding in labor disputes; and a pro and con discussion of the
desirability of municipal and county labor boards patterned after and acting in
conjunction with State and national labor relations boards. The appendix
resents the text of the ordinance creating the Toledo (Ohio) Industrial Peace
;oard, with comments upon the achievements of that agency, by the board itself
and by organized employers and employees; and a similar treatment of the
Newark (N. J.) Municipal Labor Board.
The relative status of the sit-dow n strike in the developm ent of labor law . By R. J.
Howard. (In Virginia Law Review, Charlottesville, May 1937, pp. 799-815.)
S it-dow n strikes— a new problem fo r government. (In Illinois Law Review, Chicago
March 1937, pp. 942-959.)
H ow to handle grievances. By Glenn Gardiner. New York, Elliott Service Co.,
219 East 44th Street, 1937. vii, 52 pp.
A working manual for foremen and others in supervisory positions, who deal
with employees’ grievances.
E l A B C de las huelgas. By Mario Pavon Flores. Mexico, D. F., Editorial
“ Masas,” 1937. 196 pp.
This volume, by a Mexican professor of industrial law who has been active in
the interests of the Mexican workers, covers the origin and growth of the strike
movement, kinds of strikes, general principles and practices followed, and ultimate
objectives of strikes. With special reference to Mexico, the author discusses the
right to strike, settlement of labor conflicts, legal forms to be used in conducting
strikes, court decisions in connection with strikes and collective labor agreements,
strike regulations in the statutes of the Confederation of Mexican Workers, and
the attitude of the Mexican Government toward strikes.
R egulation o f contracts of em ploym ent of indigenous workers.
P
Labor Organization
Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania
Press, 1937. 77 pp.
The five addresses reproduced in this compilation were given before the student
body of the Wharton School of Finance and Commerce of the University of
Pennsylvania during the academic year 1936-37. Three of them deal with' the
Committee for Industrial Organization, from different viewpoints. George M.
Harrison, a vice president of the American Federation of Labor, discussed the
issues involved in the cleavage in the American labor movement; George Sokolsky,
journalist, spoke on C. I. O. tactics, particularly the sit-down strike, in their
relation to established legal concepts; and Philip Murray, chairman of the Steel
Workers’ Organizing Committee, outlined the objectives of the C. I. O. as exempli
fied in the organizing and collective-bargaining movements in the steel industry.
W harton A ssem bly addresses, 1987.
39873— 38—
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The other addresses were: “Problems Confronting Your American Democracy,”
by Sir Wilmott Lewis, Washington correspondent of the London Times; and “The
Debate Over the Constitution,” by Henry Wolf Bikle, general counsel of the
Pennsylvania Railroad Co.
The evolution of the Germ an Labor Front. By Taylor Cole. (In Political Science
Quarterly, New York, December 1937, pp. 532-658.)
Covers developments up i August 1936.
A pocket history of the B ritish workers to 1919. By Raymond Postgate. (In Fact,
London, August 1937, pp. 7-93.)
Condensed historical review of workers’ movements in Great Britain, from the
beginning of craft organization at the close of the eighteenth century to 1919,
including trade unionism, chartism, the reformist movements, syndicalism, and
socialism.
M inim um Wage
R eport of the M assachusetts M in im u m W age C om m ission fo r year ended November
SO, 1936. Boston, 1937. 18 pp.
Review of the year’s activities of the commission, during which period it
functioned as part of the State department of health. The report covers inspection
and enforcement activities and the decisions of three new wage boards and the
directory orders based thereon.
M ining Industry
F orty-fifth ann u al report of S tate M in in g D epartm ent of A labam a— coal m ines, 1936.
Birmingham, 1937. 95 pp., illus.
Data on accidents, employment, equipment, operating conditions, and produc
tion, with a directory of mines in the State.
A n n u a l report of coal m ines, W ashington, fo r year ending December 31, 1936.
Olympia, Department of Labor and Industries, 1937. 18 pp.
Covers accidents, employment, equipment, development, and production.
A n n u a l report of D ivisio n of M in es and M in in g , In d ia n a , fo r fiscal year ended
J u n e SO, 1936. [Indianapolis, 1937.] 14 pp. (Reprinted from 1936
yearbook.)
Data on accidents, employment, wages, and production, with a directory of
mines in the State.
Negro in Industry
Compiled in office of Lawrence A. Oxley. Washing
ton, U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1937. 34 pp.; mimeographed.
Negro year book: A n annual encyclopedia of the Negro, 1937—38. Edited by
Monroe N. Work. Tuskegee Institute, Ala., Negro Year Book Publishing
Co., 1937. 575 pp. (9th ed.)
Part 1 of this handbook contains information on the achievements of Negroes
in the United States; their interests in relation to national recovery, agriculture,
business, government, education, and religion; the problems of race relations,
crime, lynching; statistics of population, occupations, and mortality; historical
data concerning slavery and Negro soldiers in United States wars. Other parts
of the volume deal with the Negro in Latin America, Europe, and Africa, and the
Negro in poetry and the fine arts. A bibliography is furnished, as well as a
directory of Negro newspapers, national organizations, and social-service centers.
B ibliograph y on Negro labor.
O ccupational characteristics of white-collar and skilled N egro workers of A tlan ta,
Georgia. Atlanta, Works Progress Administration of Georgia, 1937. 110
pp., charts, bibliography; mimeographed.
Presents data on social background, occupational shifts and trends, and rela
tionships of the workers to social agencies.
Personnel Management
New York, American Management Association, 330
40 pp. (Office Management Series No. 79.)
Sign ifican t developm ents in office m anagem ent. New York, American Management
Association, 330 West 42d Street, 1937. 39 pp. (Office Management Series
No. 78.)
Office personnel practices.
West 42d Street, 1937.
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Planning
Joint congress of International Federation for
Housing and Town Planning and International Housing Association, Paris
1937. London, International Federation for Housing and Town Planning,
25 Bedford Row, W. C. 1, 1937. 110 pp., maps.
Short statements, in English, French, or German, on national and regional
planning in a number of foreign countries. Each statement has been summarized
in the other two languages.
N ation al and regional plan n in g.
Prices
R evised method of calculation of the wholesale price index of the U nited States Bureau
of L abor S ta tistics. By Jesse M. Cutts and Samuel J. Dennis. Washington,
U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1937. 12 pp. (Serial No. R. 666, reprint
from Journal of American Statistical Association, December 1937.)
Som e problem s involved in establishing m ilk prices. By E. W. Gaumnitz and O. M.
Reed. Washington, U. S. Agricultural Adjustment Administration, Division
of Marketing and Marketing Agreements, 1937. 227 pp., charts.
S ta tystyk a cen, 1936. Warsaw, Glôwny Urz^d Statystyczny, 1937. 146 pp.
Statistics of prices in Poland in 1936, tabulated by provinces and districts.
Printed in Polish, Avith table of contents, introduction, and some table heads in
French.
Prison Labor
Washington, U. S. Prison Industries
Reorganization Administration, 1937. 84 pp., charts.; mimeographed.
While commending the good features of the California penal system, the
report calls attention to the serious overcrowding in two of the State’s institutions
and the need for institutional diversification. The desirability of expansion of
industrial production in the prisons, in order to keep the inmates busy, is also
emphasized and new industries suggested.
The prison labor problem in C alifornia.
Profit Sharing
P rofit-sharing and other su pplem entary-com pensation plan s covering wage earners.
By F. Beatrice Brower. New York, National Industrial Conference Board,
Inc., 247 Park Avenue, 1937. 22 pp. (Studies in Personnel Policy, No. 2.)
Reviewed in this issue.
Railroads
By Lewis
C. Sorrell. New York, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1937. 330 pp., charts; bibliog
raphy.
The author is professional adviser to the Transportation Conference and the
Railway Business Association. The book is essentially an argument against public
ownership and operation of railways. An eight-page section is devoted to “The
Railway Labor Interest.”
R a ilw a y s of th irty n ations: Government versus private ow nership. By P. Harvey
Middleton. New York, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1937. 328 pp., illus.; bibliog
raphy.
Sponsored by the Railway Business Association. The author attempts to show
that public ownership of railways in the United States is undesirable.
Government ow nership and operation of ra ilw a ys fo r the U nited S tates.
Relief Measures and Statistics
A n n u a l report of D irector of Em ergency Conservation W ork, fiscal year ending J u n e
30, 1937. Washington, 1937. 49 pp., folders.
Reviews the various activities of the Civilian Conservation Corps for the year
covered, and gives an account of the experience of a typical enrollee.
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Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
A id to dependent children in their own homes— a stu dy of the causes of dependency.
Olympia, Wash., State Department of Social Security, 1937. 26 pp.; mimeo
graphed. (Monograph No. 26.)
In order to determine the causes of dependency, an investigation was made of
the condition of 5,467 Washington families receiving direct aid for dependent
children at certain specified periods. The report includes data on occupations of
living fathers, major causes of dependency as revealed by the study, and education
of living mothers.
R eport on old-age assistance in N ew H am pshire, F ebruary 1 ,1 9 3 6 , to December 31,
1936. Concord, State Board of Welfare and Relief, 1937. 63 pp.
Copenhagen, Danmarks
Statistiske Departement, 1937. 116 pp.
Statistics of operation of the old-age pension system and other forms of public
assistance in Denmark, 1934-35.
Offentlig fo r sorg og alder sr ente i regnskabsaaret, 193J+-35.
R eport of the M in iste r of P u blic W elfare, Province of O ntario, fo r fiscal year 1935—
1936. Toronto, 1937. 109 pp.
_The subjects dealt with include old-age pensions, mothers’ allowances, children’s
aid, industrial schools, and unemployment relief.
Textile Industry
Geneva, International
Labor Office (American branch, 734 Jackson Place, Washington, D. C.), 1937.
In 2 volumes, 354 and 288 pp. (Studies and Reports, Series B, No. 27.)
Reprint, with certain alterations and additions, of the report originally prepared
and distributed in proof as a basis for discussion at the Tripartite Teclmica
Conference on the Textile Industry held in Washington, D. C., in April 1937.
First ann u al report of the S p in d les B oard [Great B ritain ]. London, Board of Trade,
1937. 20 pp. (Cmd. 5579.)
Covers total spindle capacity in Great Britain and the acquisition and disposal
of unused mills and machinery under the Cotton Spinning Industry Act of 1936,
which called for the purchase and scrapping of redundant and idle spinning mills
and machinery through a special Government agency created for the purpose.
The world textile in d u stry— economic and social problem s.
Unemployment Insurance and Relief
The a dm in istration of unem ploym ent com pensation benefits in W isconsin, J u ly 1,
1936, to J u n e SO, 1937. By Walter Matscheck and R. C. Atkinson. Chicago,
Public Administration Service, 850 East 58th Street, 1937. 92 pp. (Publi
cation No. 58.)
This report on the first year’s experience under the Wisconsin unemploymentcompensation law contains a summary of the law, an account of the administrative
organization and personnel and procedures in filing and registering claims, a
discussion of the time factors in the payment of claims, and conclusions from the
Wisconsin experience. The appendix contains copies of the various forms and
reports used by employers and employees.
The U nem ploym ent Insu ran ce S tatu tory Com m ittee [Great B ritain ], By Sir William
Beveridge. London, London School of Economics and Political Science,
1937. 55 pp. (Politica Pamphlet No. 1.)
Reviews the work of the Committee sinèe its establishment in 1934.
Les remedes contre le chômage en Europe. Louvain, Belgium, Union International*
d’Êtudes Sociales de Malines, 1936. 120 pp.
A collection of papers on the remedies for unemployment which have been adopted
in Austria, Belgium, France, Great Britain, and Italy.
Wages and Hours of Labor
Washington, U. S. Bureau
of Labor Statistics, 1937. 11 pp. (Serial No. R. 652, reprint from Novem
ber 1937 Monthly Labor Review.)
Löhne und ernährungskosten in D eutschland, 1820 bis 1937. By Jürgen Kuczynski.
Liepäjä, Latvia, Gotti. D. Meyer, 1937. 45 pp.
Statistical report on money wages and cost of food in Germany from 1820 to
E arn in gs and hours in bitum inous-coal m in in g, 1936.
1937.
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By Michael Stewart. London,
Victor Gollanez, Ltd., and New Fabian Research Bureau, 1937. 35 pp.
(N. F. R. B. No. 34.)
A summary of arguments for further reductions in working hours. The pam
phlet also contains a brief historical account of reductions in hours; discussions of
specific problems, such as the effect of shorter hours on overhead cost and shifts;
and an examination of the possibility of action by a single country without cor
responding reductions of hours in other countries.
The fo rty hour week— a case fo r collective action.
Women in Industry
By Ethel L. Best and
Arthur T. Sutherland. Washington, U. S. Women’s Bureau, 1937. 44 pp.
(Bulletin No. 153.)
Data from an advance summary of this study were published in the September
1937 Monthly Labor Review.
W om en’s hours and wages in D istrict of Colum bia in 1987.
Youth Problems
H ow fa re A m erican you th ? A report to the A m erican Youth C om m ission of the
A m erican C ouncil on E ducation. By Homer P. Rainey and others. New
York, D. Appleton-Century Co., Inc., 1937. 186 pp., charts.
In this review of the various angles of the youth problem the following are among
the subjects considered: Adult education, arts and crafts, vocational education,
occupational preferences, vocational adjustment, youth surveys, employment and
unemployment, wages, Negro youth, and National Youth Administration ac
tivities.
Su rveys of youth— fin din g the facts. By D. L. Harley. Washington, American
Council on Education, 1937. 106 pp. (American Council on Education
Studies, Ser. IV— American Youth Commission, Volume 1, No. 1.)
Identifies and gives a brief description of 180 national, regional, State, and local
surveys carried on in the United States since 1931. An appendix contains ref
erences to some recent youth surveys made in Great Britain.
F oundation s of N Y A guidance, including bibliographies an d annotated references.
By Mildred E. Lincoln. Albany, National Youth Administration for New
York State, 1937. 108 pp.
General Reports
By Witt Bowden. Washington,
U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1937. 37 pp. (Serial No. R. 651, reprint
from November 1937 Monthly Labor Review.)
A n n u a l report of S ecretary of Interior, fo r fiscal year ending J u n e 80, 1987. Wash
ington, 1937. xxii, 410 pp.
Contains the reports of the various branches of the Department, among them
the Safety Division of the Bureau of Mines, Office of Education, Office of Indian
Affairs, and Office of Adviser on Negro Affairs. Data on employment of Indians,
taken from the volume, are published in this issue of the Monthly Labor Review.
L abor in depression and recovery, 1929 to 1987.
Tw enty-fifth ann u al report of Secretary of Labor, fo r fiscal year ended J u n e 30, 1937.
Washington, 1937. 139 pp.
In addition to the Secretary of Labor’s review of labor conditions in the United
States, and certain recommendations on public policy on labor matters, this report
contains a detailed account of the current activities of each of the bureaus and
divisions of the Department of Labor.
A n n u a l report of C om m issioner of L abor of P uerto R ico [fiscal year J u ly 1, 1986,
to J u n e 80, 1987]. San Juan, 1937. 161 pp.
Data concerning average earnings and hours in specified industries, and
earnings of home workers in the needlework industry, from this publication, are
given in this issue of the Monthly Labor Review. The report also contains in
formation on collective agreements, strikes, wage claims, workmen’s compensa
tion, employment-office activities, homesteading, women and children in industry,
and labor legislation.
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Monthly Labor Review—February 1938
Berlin, Statistisches Reichsamt,
1937. Various paging.
Statistics of wages, employment and unemployment, employment of the par
tially disabled, prices, cost of living, housing, welfare work, social insurance, the
youth movement, and legal aid, in Germany in 1937 and preceding years, with a
summary review of the same conditions in foreign countries.
S ta tistica l abstract, 1987, Irish Free State. Dublin, Department of Industry and
Commerce, 1937. xvi, 198 pp.
The data include statistics of population and population movements in 1936;
mortality rates by causes, 1929 to 1936; employment and total earnings by in
dustry, 1931 to 1935; industrial analyses of live employment-exchange registers,
by months, 1935 and 1936; and number insured under various social-insurance
systems, 1936.
S tatistisch es jahrbuch fu r das Deutsche Reich.
R eport of N ew Z ealand D epartm ent of L abor [fiscal year A p r il 1, 1936, to M arch
81, 1987], Wellington, 1937. 46 pp.
Sections of the report are devoted to such subjects as employment and unem
ployment, the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act of 1936,
and hours of labor fixed by award for various occupations.
R eport of D irector of Labor and C hief Inspector of Factories and Shops, Q ueensland,
fo r year ended J u n e 80, 1937. Brisbane, Department of Labor, 1937. 76 pp.
A n n u a l report on working of Factories and Steam B oilers D epartm ent, South A u s
tralia, fo r year ended December 31, 1936. Adelaide, 1937. 27 pp.
Largely a statistical report, it shows volume of employment by industries,
wages paid, extent of overtime work, accidents, and related labor facts.
R eport of D epartm ent of Labor and S ocial W elfare, U nion of South A frica , fo r year
ended December 1986, w ith which are included reports of chief inspector of fa c
tories, w orkm en’s com pensation com m issioner, and wage board. Pretoria,
1937. 100 pp.
Reviews the work of the department in connection with unemployment relief,
training and placement of the unemployed, social-welfare work, and administra
tion of industrial laws.
W orld economic review, 1936: P a rt I I , Foreign countries.
Washington, U. S.
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, 1937. 275 pp.
For many of the countries, data are given on employment, unemployment,
wages, and prices.
B u lletin de V In stitu t In tern ation al de S tatistiqu e (session d ’Athenes, 1936). Athens,
Greece, 1937. 303 pp.
Reports presented at the 23d session of the International Statistical Institute,
Athens, 1936, covering vital and health statistics, prices, cost of living, etc., in
different countries.
U n iversity debaters’ annual: Constructive and rebuttal speeches delivered in debates
of A m erican colleges and universities during the college year 193 6 -1 9 3 7 . Edited
by Edith M. Phelps and Julia E. Johnsen. New York, H. W. Wilson Co.,
1937. 533 pp.
The current volume contains the texts of debates and lists of references on 11
topics. Four of these deal with labor problems— hours, wages, strikes, and
cooperation—and three others deal with closely related subjects, namely, the
Constitution in relation to social change, government ownership of electric
utilities, and teachers’ oaths of allegiance.
Secretarial assistance in teachers colleges and norm al schools. By Luther Jordan
Bennett. New York, Columbia University, Teachers College, 1937. 86 pp.,
maps, charts. (Contributions to Education, No. 724.)
One chapter deals with general conditions of employment—wages, working:
hours, vacations, etc.
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