Full text of Monthly Labor Review : April 1947, Vol. 64, No. 4
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MAY 7 1347
U N IT E D STATES D E P A R T M E N T O F LABOR • BUREAU O F LABOR STATISTICS
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LAWRENCE
+
C O N T E N T S
R.
KLEIN
,
Editor
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APRIL 1947, Voi. 64, No. 4
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P art 1.—Labor in California and Pacific Northwest
Page
Prospective labor supply on the West Coast_________________________
Wartime and postwar employment trends in California________________
Employment in the Northwest_____________________________________
Income on the West Coast________________________________________
Homesteads for veterans in Yakima Valley__________________________
Postwar wage developments in the Pacific region_____________________
Reconversion experiences of Northwest shipyard workers______________
Pacific Northwest economic outlook— 1947__________________________
Collective bargaining on the Pacific Coast___________________________
Labor laws of California, Oregon, and Washington____________________
Cooperatives in the Pacific States_______________________ __________
563
576
589
599
609
610
627
636
650
675
688
P art 2.— Current Labor Statistics
Current statistics of labor interest in selected periods_________________
Labor-management dis-putes:
Controversies and significant developments, March 1947___________
Work stoppages in February 1947______________________________
Activities of U. S. Conciliation Service, February 1947____________
Prices and cost of living:
Indexes of consumers’ prices in large cities, February 1947_________
Retail prices of food in February 1947__________________________
Wholesale prices in February 1947______________________________
Construction:
Construction activity, January-M arch 1947______________________
Trends of employment and labor turn-over:
Labor force, February 1947____________________________________
Summary of employment reports for February 1947______________
Industrial and business employment________________________
Public employment_______________________________________
Detailed reports for industrial and business employment, January
1947---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Labor turn-over in manufacturing, mining, and public utilities,
January 1947______________________________________________
Trends of earnings and hours:
Summary of earnings and hours data for January 1947____________
Trend of factory earnings, 1939 to January 1947_________________
Recent publications of labor interest__________________________________
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P a r t 1 .— L a b o r in C a l if o r n ia a n d
P acific N o r th w est
Introduction
California and the Pacific Northwest States are peculiarly well
adapted to intensive study with respect to their labor economics, as
the ensuing articles reveal. The 10 articles comprising this specialized
issue are, in the main, written against the background of three ques
tions: What happened during the war? What was the effect of
reconversion? What are the most likely future economic trends?
In terms of problems, war production and reconversion affected
in varying degrees and in varying ways all facets of the area’s economy:
e. g., capital equipment, agriculture, union organization, wages,
employment, and composition of the labor force. Classic examples
of wartime expansion of plant capacity, production, and employment
are the aircraft and shipbuilding industries. In some instances,
such as in population growth, the war merely intensified well-estab
lished prewar trends. The heights to which employment in the three
States rose in the first half of the forties led many to predict dire
consequences in terms of unemployment and its effects when war
production ceased. But the essential symptoms of the area’s basic
economic metabolism point in the other direction.
It is easy to pose questions and propound problems. The answers
and the analyses are more difficult. It appeared that some of these
could best be handled by competent persons resident in and familiar
with the locale of the study. Accordingly the Bureau of Labor Statis
tics enlisted the assistance of three labor economists who are outstand
ing in their respective fields. They are M. I. Gershenson, chief of the
Division of Labor Statistics and Research of the California Depart
ment of Industrial Relations, who contributed the article on Wartime
and Postwar Employment Trends in California; Nathanael II.Engle,of
the University of Washington, who wrote on the Pacific Northwest
Economic Outlook—1947; and Clark Kerr, of the University of
California, the author of Collective Bargaining on the Pacific Coast.
The Bureau is grateful for their cooperation.
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M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
For the most part, the specialized articles treat California and
the Pacific Northwest States of Washington and Oregon as two
separate areas. With two exceptions, these three States form the
bases for the several articles. Professor Engle’s article includes
the State of Idaho and 10 counties of Montana. The article on
postwar wage developments includes the State of Nevada.
This is the third specialized issue of the Monthly Labor Review.
In the July 1946 issue the problem [of reconversion in New England
was discussed; in the October 1946 issue, seven articles were published
under the general heading of Labor in the South. From time to time,
other specialized issues will appear, dealing with economic-geographic
areas or with some single problem or related problems of labor
economics.
Mary N. Hilton, of the Bureau’s Wage Analysis Branch, had the
major editorial responsibility for the 10 specialized articles; and credit
for assistance in planning the issue and for liaison work with the
authors, as well as for the considerable task of integrating the material,
is hers. William A. Bledsoe, Regional Director for the Bureau in
San Francisco, originally suggested the issue and aided in the planning.
—L. R. K.
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Prospective Labor Supply on the West Coast1
w a r t im e e x p a n s io n of labor supply on the West Coast was
unprecedented in the region’s long history of rapid labor-force growth.
Though the gains in California were the most spectacular, exceptional
increases in the working populations of Oregon and Washington
also took place.2 A determination of the probable degree of perma
nency of this unusual labor-force growth and of future labor-supply
prospects is fundamental to any appraisal of the economic outlook
for the Pacific Coast region. The present article analyzes war and
prewar labor-force developments in the region and presents estimates
of prospective labor supply in 1950 3 (see table 3, p. 571). These
are supplemented by information on the basic socio-economic charac
teristics of the West Coast work force.
T he
Sources of Wartime Labor Supply
The projects initiated under the National Defense Program,
followed by World War II, greatly accelerated the expansion of
labor supply in the Pacific Coast region. Between 1940 and 1945
the labor force 4 for the three Far Western States expanded by 1,591,000, to a total of 5,859,000. This increase in working population,
during a 5-year period, was substantially larger than any of the
great spurts in West Coast labor supply that occurred during 10-year
periods between 1870 and 1940. The largest previous expansion
took place between 1920 and 1930 and amounted to 1,162,000 (see
table 1).
In war, as in peace, the Pacific Coast had the fastest growing work
force in the Nation (see chart 1). The expansion of 37 percent in
the region’s labor supply between 1940 and 1945 was nearly double
the rate of increase for the country as a whole (table 2). The increase
in every section of the country during the war was significant, but
the gains, except for the West Coast, did not range higher than
between 15 and 24 percent.
1 Prepared by Lester M. Pearlman, under the direction of Leonard Eskin, in the Bureau’s Occupational
Outlook Division.
2 See articles on Wartime and Postwar Employment Trends in California and on Employment in the
Northwest in this issue.
3 Source of data on labor-force changes since 1940, unless otherwise indicated, is Bureau of Labor Statistics
Bulletin No. 893, State and Regional Variations in Prospective Labor Supply (reprinted from Monthly
Labor Review, December 1946, with additional data).
4 The labor force includes all civilians 14 years of age and over, who are working or seeking work and
members of the armed forces.
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M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 19 47
Although nearly three-fourths of the gain in labor force on the
West Coast during the war took place in California, the percentage
increase in that State was somewhat smaller than in Washington, and
only moderately larger than in Oregon. High wartime demands for
labor, particularly in the aircraft and shipbuilding industries, brought
thousands of workers into the labor market of each of the West
Coast States. It is significant that 5 out of 10 areas which were
selected for special census studies by the President’s Committee for
Congested Production Areas were on the Pacific Coast. The urban
areas surveyed by the Census Bureau in order to indicate the strain
being put upon facilities and resources in areas of unusual wartime
activity, included Los Angeles, Portland-Vancouver, Puget Sound,
San Diego, and San Francisco Bay.5
* See Bureau of the Census, Population, Series CA, Washington, 1944. The other 5 congested produc
tion areas were Charleston (S. C.), Detroit-Willow Run, Hampton Roads, Mobile, and Muskegon.
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PROSPECTIVE LABOR SUPPLY— WEST COAST
T able 1.—-Population and labor-force growth in the United States and the Pacific Coast
Region, 1870-1940 1
[In thousands]
United States
Year
1870___________
1880___________
1890___________
1900___________
1910___________
1920___________
1930___________
1940___________
Population
Labor
force 2
12,146
38, 558
50,156
16,848
62,622 22,338
23, 283
75,995
91,972 s 36,633
105, 711
41, 236
122, 775
43,595
131,669 4 54,778
Labor Popuforce 2 lation
Population
Oregon
California
Pacific
278
675
471
1,115
1,871
833
1,035
2, 417
4,192 31, 905
2, 410
5,567
3,572
8,194
9,733 4 4, 268
Labor Popuforce 2 lation
238
560
374
865
543
1,208
642
1,485
2,377 31,090
1,510
3, 427
2,499
5,677
6,907 4 3, 056
91
175
314
414
673
783
954
1,090
Washington
Labor Popuforce 2 lation
Labor
force 2
24
75
349
518
1,142
1,357
1,563
1,736
10
30
164
224
3 514
578
664
4742
30
67
126
169
3 301
322
409
4 470
1 Adapted from decennial censuses, 1870 to 1940, Bureau of the Census, Washington, D. C.
2 Data refer to persons 14 years of age and over. Figures for years earlier than 1940 refer to “gainful
workers” ; i. e., persons usually employed in a gainful occupation; figures for 1940 refer to “labor force” ,
persons working or seeking work during the week ending Mar. 30, 1940. These concepts are broadly com
parable, and, for purposes of this article, are considered under the general term “labor force.” The labor
force includes members of the armed forces.
s Adjusted data for 1910 are adapted from'the Sixteenth Census Population report, Comparative Occupa
tion Statistics for the United States, 1870 to 1940, Bureau of the Census, Washington, D. C., 1943.
4 Preliminary, pending release of Census official estimate of United States total on basis comparable
with current census series.
T able 2.— Sources of wartime labor supply, by major geographic division, A pril 1940
to A pril 1945
[In thousands]
Change-1940 to 1945
Labor force 2
Caused byDivision or State 1
Unit,fid Rtatfis
_
______
Pacific _______
. . . ......... ......
California--------- ---------------Oregon-------------- -------------Washington----- .. ----- -----M ountain--------- ------------ ------West South Central------------------East South Central______ ____
South Atlantic. _______________
West North C e n t r a l .--------------East North Central-------------------Middle A tlantic.___ __________ New England---------- -------------
In
number
(total)
1940
1945
54,778
65,986
11,208
4,268
3,056
470
742
1,580
5,004
4,050
7,249
5,418
11,203
12,249
3,757
5,859
4,207
624
1,028
1,848
6,087
4,705
8,868
6,281
13,883
14,069
4,386
1,591
1,151
154
286
268
1,083
655
1,619
863
2,680
1,820
629
Inter
state
migra
tion
847
662
68
117
-29
-281
-320
57
-427
270
-164
47
Partici Natural
pation popula
of
tion
“extra” growth
workers
In per
cent
7,986
3,222
20.5
652
422
76
154
186
935
580
855
1,040
1,920
1,416
402
92
67
10
15
111
429
395
707
250
490
568
180
37.3
37.7
32.8
38.5
17.0
21.6
16.2
22.3
15.9
23.9
14.9
16.7
i The States included in divisions other than the Pacific are as follows: Mountain Division—Montana,
Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and Nevada; West South Central Division—
Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas; East South Central Division—Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama,
and Mississippi; South Atlantic Division— Delaware, Maryland, District of Columbia, Virginia, West
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida; West North Central Division—Minnesota,
Iowa, Missouri, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas; East North Central Division— Ohio,
Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin; Middle Atlantic Division—New York, New Jersey, and Penn
sylvania; New England Division—Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and
Connecticut.
.
,
3
Preliminary, pending release of Census official estimate of United States total, on basis comparable with
current Census series. Labor force includes persons 14 years of age and over working or seeking work and
members of the armed forces.
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MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
The unusual manpower requirements of West Coast industry during
the war were met primarily by the inflow of workers migrating from
other regions and by the added participation of housewives, students,
retired men, and other “extra” workers who ordinarily would have
been outside the labor market. Approximately 847,000 workers came
from other sections of the country to find jobs on the West Coast; in
addition, some 652,000 extra wartime workers were drawn from the
resident population into the labor force. These groups, supplemented
by approximately 92,000 new entries that were added as the result
of natural population growth and long-term trends in labor-market
participation, accounted for the Pacific Coast’s total labor-force expan
sion of 1,591,000 during the war. The part played by each of these
sources of wartime labor supply in each Pacific Coast State is sum
marized in table 2.
M IGRATION
The West Coast has characteristically been an importer of labor.
Large-scale migration westward has been the most important factor
underlying the rapid population and labor-force growth of the region.
Between 1920 and 1930, the gain was 1,620,000 persons through popu
lation exchanges with other regions. The westward movement
slackened somewhat during the depression years of the 1930’s, but
the Pacific States showed a net gain of 1,300,000 persons during that
decade. Expanding employment opportunities between 1940 and
1945 brought net in-migration to the region to a total of 1,984,000,
including the 847,000 workers previously mentioned. These migra
tion figures exclude any members of the armed forces from other
regions who may have had plans to settle on the West Coast after
their discharge.
The large majority of the migrants to the West Coast during the
war located in California, but substantial numbers settled in Wash
ington and Oregon. Most of the newcomers came from the Central
farm belt stretching from North Dakota and Minnesota in the North
to Texas and Louisiana in the South. The wartime population move
ments between major geographic divisions of the United States closely
followed the pattern of prewar migration, as shown by the tabulation
following. (See also chart 2.)
The wartime movement of people within the Pacific Coast region,
particularly from rural to industrial areas, was also highly significant,
though far less publicized than the migration over longer distances.
Indirect evidence of the magnitude of rural to urban shifts within the
Pacific States is found in the fact that internal migration in the West
(including the Mountain States) reached record volumes during the
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PROSPECTIVE LABOR SUPPLY— WEST COAST
war. Migration within States located in the West totaled 950,000
between December 1941 and March 1945,6 while migration across
State lines within the region amounted to 770,000.7 Moreover, 1 out
of 4 migrants into the congested production areas on the West Coast
between 1940 and 1944, came from within the Pacific region itself.
Net migration (in thousands)1
1933-40
1940-45
(total)
(civilians)
Region and division
West_______
_ ________
Pacific__
California _ _
Washington __
Oregon,_
Mountain
_ _
South
____
West South Central
East South Central
South A tlantic,- _
North__
_________
West North Central
East North Central.
Middle Atlantic _
New England
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
887
822
665
80
77
65
-2 7 2
-2 7 0
-1 9 5
193
-6 1 5
-5 0 9
41
-1 3 1
-1 6
1, 915
1, 984
1, 551
273
160
-6 9
-1 ,2 7 4
-6 5 7
-7 5 1
134
-6 4 1
- 1 , 000
632
-3 8 3
110
1Source of 1935-40 data, Bureau of the Census, 16th Census of the United States, 1940, Population, Internal
Migration 1935-40, Color and Sex of Migrants, Washington, 1943; 1940-45 data, Bureau of the Census* Popu
lation, Special Report P-46, No. 3 (adjusted to exclude immigrants from other countries), Washington, 1946.
EXTRA WARTIME WORKERS
Examination of the surveys of the 5 congested urban areas on the
West Coast furnishes some idea of the personal characteristics of the
652,000 extra wartime workers drawn from the resident population
of the Pacific States. There were in these areas in 1944, approxi
mately 378,000 workers drawn from the resident population who on
the basis of long-term peacetime trends would not have been expected
to work or seek work. The characteristics of these extra workers
showed a marked similarity to those of extra workers in the Nation
as a whole.8
Youths of school and college age were a major source of additional
labor supply for the war. Although many of these worked only parttime, while continuing to attend school, many others left school
early to take civilian jobs or enter the armed forces.
6 Intrastate migration includes migrants whose place of residence was in a different county but in the same
State as the place of residence in December 1941.
i See Bureau of the Census, Population, Series P-S, No. 5, Washington, September 2,1945.
8 See Edwin D. Goldfield, The Wartime Labor Force in Major Industrial Areas (in Review of Economic
Statistics, Cambridge, Mass., August 1945).
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M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
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PROSPECTIVE LABOR SUPPLY— WEST COAST
569
Women over the age of 35 years also entered the labor market in
unusual numbers in response to wartime labor demands. Most of the
extra workers from this group were married women without respon
sibility for the care of young children. On the other hand, extra
participation of young women between the ages of 20 and 34 was
limited by the sharp rise in marriages and births after 1940. The
entry of young married men into the armed forces, however, caused
many young service wives to obtain jobs or to continue working after
they normally would have quit.
Of the extra workers among adult men, some had postponed
retirement, some had been able to find steady work, after being
employed only intermittently before the war, and others, who had
been considered virtually unemployable by the rigid prewar standards,
found a market for their services during wartime.
Prospective Labor Supply
The effects of migration on the Pacific Coast labor supply are
expected to prove more lasting than the effects of participation of
extra workers. Wartime population movements followed wellestablished prewar patterns; migration was from areas in which
expansion of employment opportunities failed to keep up with popu
lation growth to the growing industrial areas. The long-term stability
in the geographic distribution of employment opportunities was not
basically altered b3r the war.9
Moreover, the widely predicted large-scale exodus of workers from
war centers following the end of hostilities failed to materialize.
While some return migration undoubtedly took place after the war,
cities such as San Diego and Los Angeles had considerably larger
populations early in 1946 than in April 1944.10 This is attributable
not only to the return of servicemen, but also to the fact that the
economy of the Far West was very successful in absorbing workers
displaced by reconversion cut-backs in war production. Within a
year after the war’s end, the number of employees in nonagricultural
establishments had reached the VJ-day level. This relatively smooth
transition from war to peacetime activities has encouraged workers
who migrated during the war to remain in the West.
In view of these postwar developments and the long-term trend
westward both in times of prosperity and in times of depression, mi
gration between 1945 and 1950 is likely to be at a rate at least as great
as the prewar—1935 to 1940—rate. Only if a period of severe de# See Seymour L. Wolfbein and A. J. Jaife, Internal Migration and Full Employment (in Journal of the
American Statistical Association, Washington, D. C., September 1945).
jo See Bureau of the Census, Population, Series P-SC, No. 183, 1946, and Series CA, Nos. 2 and 5, Wash
ington, April 29 and May 25, 1944.
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MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
pression were to set in, would the rate be likely to fall below the
prewar level.
Judging from the national experience and prospects, most of the
extra workers drawn into the West Coast labor force are likely to
drop out by 1950. In the Nation as a whole, only one-fourth of 8
million extra wartime workers were still in the labor force after 1 year
of peace. The greatest decline in the extra-worker group occurred
among school-age youth and college-age men and women, as the pre
war trend toward longer schooling was resumed and large numbers
of veterans whose education had been interrupted during the war
returned to school with the aid of the “GI Bill of Rights.”
Next in importance has been retirement from the national labor
force of IK million women between the ages of 20 and 34 years. This
movement stimulated by the current high marriage and birth rates,
is consistent with the previous observation that women in the early
years of marriage and childbearing are least responsive to employ
ment opportunities. Currently, the fact that there are about 1 million
fewer of this age in the labor market, than might have been expected
on the basis of prewar trends, indicates the extent to which such
women will retire from employment if there are ample opportu
nities for male wage earners at relatively high wages.
In contrast, only 1 million of the women aged 35 years and over and
virtually none of the men aged 25 and over who entered the labor
force during the war retired from it during the first postwar year.
It is recognized that one of the effects of the urgent wartime demand
for labor was to provide employment opportunities for older men and
women who had been forced from the labor market because of a lack
of work opportunities during the depression. Whether or not they
remain in the labor force in the coming years will depend largely
upon the availability of employment opportunities.
All factors considered, the number of additional workers in the
1950 United States labor force is expected to be about 1 million—
roughly 15 percent of the wartime total. On the same basis, the
wartime extra-worker total on the West Coast in 1950 would be
about 100,000.
Table 3 presents estimates of prospective labor supply on the
West Coast in 1950, under three assumptions as to the volume of
interstate migration between 1945 and 1950. In all three projections,
it is assumed that participation of extra workers in each State will
be 15 percent of the wartime extra-worker total.
Under the medium assumption (B), the West Coast’s labor supply
in 1950 would come to about 5,800,000 persons—approximately
1,500,000 above the 1940 level and only slightly below the wartime
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PROSPECTIVE LABOR SUPPLY— WEST COAST
peak. This increase of 36 percent between 1940 and 1950 compares
with an expected gain of 13 percent for the Nation as a whole. Cali
fornia’s labor force would show the fastest expansion over the decade,
39 percent, but Oregon and Washington would also show substantial
increases of 28 and 27 percent, respectively.
T able 3.—Estimated labor force in the United States, by major geographic division, 1940
and 1945, and projected 1950 1
[In thousands]
1950 4
Division or State 2
1940 3
1945 3
Assump
tion A
Assump
tion B
Assump
tion C
----
54,778
65,986
62,028
62,028
62,028
Pacific _____ - ______ -- -- ____
- ------------- .
California___
Oregon------------- --------------------------Washington________ _____________
M ountain.__ ------------- ------- -----------West South Central____ _______ _____
East South Central_____ .... ------------South Atlantic_________ _____ . . . . ..
West North Central.. . .
----- ------- ...
East North C entral................ . . .. ...
Middle Atlantic______________________
New England. _ _______
. ---------
4,268
3,056
470
742
1,580
5,004
4,050
7, 249
5,418
11,203
12, 249
3,757
5,859
4,207
624
1,028
1,848
6,087
4, 705
8,868
6.281
13,883
14,069
4,386
5,375
3,904
566
905
1,796
5,715
4,600
8,810
5,617
12,644
13,281
4,190
5,787
4,240
603
944
1,827
5,594
4,507
8,918
5,357
12,655
13,202
4,181
6,224
4, 566
636
1,022
1,770
5,433
4,282
8,864
5,185
12,913
13,118
4, 239
United S tates.. -------
-------------
1 Labor force includes all persons 14 years of age or over working or seeking work, and members of th e
armed forces. All data are at April seasonal level. Annual average for total United States is about threefourths of a million higher.
2 For a listing of the States included in each division, see table 2, footnote 1.
3 Preliminary, pending release of Census official estimate of United States total, on basis comparable
with current census series.
4 Corresponding data for each State and detailed description of the estimating procedures appear in
Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 893, State and Regional Variations in Prospective Labor Supply
(reprinted from M onthly Labor Review, December 1946, with additional data).
All three projections assume that the 1950 labor force of each State will include some “extra” workers
who would not be in the labor force on the basis of the prewar patterns of labor-market participation. Par
ticipation of extra workers in each State is assumed to be 15 percent of the wartime extra-worker total.
All three projections take account of net civilian interstate migration between 1940 and 1945. None of the
projections makes allowance for migration from foreign countries between 1940 and 1950. Assumptions
with respect to interstate migration between 1945 and 1950 are as follows:
Assumption A .—Whatever new interstate migration takes place between 1945 and 1950 will be offset
by return of wartime migrants to their prewar States of residence so that interstate migration in the last
half of this decade will have no net effect on the size of the labor force in each State.
Assumption R —The net number of workers who move between States during the period 1945-50 will
be the same as would be expected on the basis of 1935-40 experience.
Assumption C.—Net interstate migration of all workers between 1945 and 1950 will be equal to the net
interstate migration of civilian workers between 1940 and 1945. Migration of workers on this scale during
the second half of the decade could come about with a considerably smaller total population movement
than occurred during the first half, because wartime civilian migrants included large numbers of service
men’s dependents and a relatively small proportion of men of working age.
Composition of the Labor Force
An analysis of labor supply on the West Coast should provide
some insight into the composition as well as the size of the working
force. The sections which follow outline certain key characteristics
of the labor supply as well as trends in labor-market participation
among the various components of the population.
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M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
CHARACTERISTICS OF MIGRANTS
Because of the importance of migration to the labor force of the
Pacific Coast region, the personal characteristics of migrants are
significant. Migrants to the Coast provide a highly versatile and
productive source of labor. Contrary to the popular impression,
most of the people who move to the Pacific States are in the young,
vigorous! age groups. More than half of the in-migrants between
1935 and 1940, for example, were over 20 but under 45 years of age;
only 10 percent were over 55 (see table 4).
T able 4.—Age distribution of in-migrants to the Pacific coast, 1935-40, by sex 1
Age groups
Number (in thousands)
Total
All migrants, 5 yeais and over_________
5-19 years____ _____________________
20-34 years___ ______________________
_____ ____ ____
35-44 years___
45-64 years____ ____________________
55-64 years_______ _________________
65 years and over____ ________________
Male
Percent distribution
Female
Total
Male
Female
1,047
548
499
100.0
100.0
100.0
259
432
153
101
62
40
132
232
82
53
30
19
127
200
71
48
32
21
24.8
41.3
14.6
.9.6
5.9
3.8
24.0
42.3
15.0
9.7
5.5
3.5
25.5
40.1
14.2
9.6
6.4
4.2
1 Source: Sixteenth Census, 1940, Population, Internal Migration 1935-40, Age of Migrants, Bureau of
the Census, Washington, 1946.
To a large extent, the newcomers have already been educated and
trained at the expense of other States. Approximately half of the
1935-40 in-migrants 25 to 34 years of age had a high-school education
or better, and 9 out of 10 had a seventh-grade education or better.
This educational level was about as high as that for the comparable
group of nonmigrants on the Coast in 1940.
In addition, migrants to the West Coast as a group have had training
in many fields of work. Their 1940 occupational distribution in
general resembled that of nonmigrants even with respect to the most
skilled types of labor. For example, approximately 10 percent of the
1935-40 in-migrant workers and 8 percent of the nonmigrant workers
were engaged in professional or semiprofessional occupations in 1940;
12 percent of the migrants and 13 percent of the nonmigrants were
employed as craftsmen or foremen.
I t is not surprising, in view of these facts, that the California State
Reconstruction and Reemployment Commission made the statement,
“California got a bargain when 1,300,000 new people came here for
war jobs * * * migration has been one of California’s chief
avenues to greatness and growth, the new people who have come to
this State are a distinct asset.” 11
11 California State Reconstruction and Reemployment Commission, How Many Californians? Sacra
mento, Calif., July 1944 (pp. 5,10).
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PROSPECTIVE LABOR SUPPLY— WEST COAST
573
* AGE DISTRIBUTION
In spite of the inflow of young workers through migration, the Far
Western labor force as a whole is relatively old, most nearly resembling
that of the industrial Northeast12 (see table 5). In 1940, only 42
percent of the workers on the Pacific Coast were under 35 years of
age, compared with 52 percent in the South. To a large extent, the
older labor force in the Far West reflects low fertility, which in turn
is associated with the fact that the great majority of the population
resides in towns and cities. In 1940, approximately 87 percent of the
Pacific population resided in nonfarm areas, as compared with only 61
percent of the southern population.
Labor-Market Participation
Certain characteristics within each age and sex group of the labor
force in the Far West differ from those in other sections. Specifically,
in the Pacific region relatively few teen-age youngsters, older men,
and adult women are in the working population (see table 5).
TEEN-AGE YOUTHS
The worker rate (proportion of labor force to population) of young
people 14 to 19 years old in the Pacific States, in 1940, was 22.6 per
cent—a rate considerably lower than the rates of 31.7 and 28.7 per
cent in the South and the Northeast, respectively. This reflects a
longer period of schooling for teen-age youth in the Far West than in
other regions. In the Pacific States, 61.4 percent of the school-age
population (5 to 24 years) attended school in 1940, compared with
59.8 percent in the Northeast and 53.6 percent in the South.
The substantially higher proportion of young people who attend
school in the Far West as compared with the South partly reflects
rural-urban differences between the two sections. Southern young
sters leave school at particularly early ages, largely because of the
availability of jobs in agriculture for unpaid family labor. It is note
worthy, however, that the school attendance rate on the Pacific Coast
also exceeds that of the Northeast, despite the fact that a greater
proportion of the Pacific Coast young people live in rural areas.
OLDER MEN
The proportion of workers among older men is considerably lower
in the Far West than in other regions, including the Northeast, be
cause many such men from other States settle on the Pacific Coast
when they retire. The worker rates for older men in the Pacific
region are particularly low in comparison with those in the South,
12
The Northeast, as defined in this article, includes the New England, Middle Atlantic, and East North
Central States.
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574
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
because the latter is a predominantly agricultural region. In nonagricultural communities, which prevail in the Far West and the
Northeast, a worker is often forced to leave the labor market when
he can no longer compete with younger men. In agricultural regions,
however, men are able to work to later ages, because farming is
typically a family enterprise in which age is no bar to continuation in
a working status.
T able 5.—Labor Force in selected regions of the United States, classified by age and sex,
1940 1
West Coast
Age and sex
Num
ber (in
thou
sands)
Ail workers:
14 years and over. ___ _ .. 4,268
14-19 years. ____ ______
210
20-24 years.. __ _ ______ .
531
25-34 years____ ____ ____ . 1,086
35-44 years.
. .
960
45-54 years
. . . ♦_
808
55-64 years___
500
65 years and over__________
167
Males:
14 years and over. __ . . ____ 3,221
14-19 years_______ . ___ _
141
20-24 years_________________
360
25-34 years-------------------------815
35-44 years-------------------------734
45-54 years_____ _.
628
55-64 years ...
405
65 years and over .
....
138
Females:
14 years and over___ ______ 1,047
14-19 years.. . . . . . . ______
69
20-24 years.. ....... ..................
171
25-34 years__ .. . . . ___
271
35-44years . ____ . . .
__
226
45-54 years__ . . . . . . . . . __
180
55-64 years
....
101
65 years and over____
_ .
29
Per
cent
distri
bution
N ortheast2
South
W ork Num Per W ork Num Per W ork
er rate3 ber (in cent er rate3 ber (in cent er rate3
(per thou distri (per thou distri (per
cent) sands) bution cent) sands) bution cent)
100.0
4.9
12.4
25.5
22.5
18.9
11.9
3.9
53.9
22.6
65. 2
65.8
65.1
61.9
53.3
21.1
27,210
1,920
4, 004
6,818
5, 801
4,805
2, 805
1,057
100.0
7.1
14.7
25.0
21.3
17.7
10.3
3.9
54.9
28.7
73.5
66.8
63.2
59.8
51.8
23.2
16,303
1,635
2,426
4, 345
3, 361
2, 438
1,434
664
100.0
10.0
14.9
26.6
20.6
15.0
8.8
4.1
54.0
31.7
63.3
64.2
62.9
59.9
53.0
28.8
100.0
4.4
11.2
25.3
22.7
19.5
12.6
4.3
79.3
30.0
87.1
96.2
96.2
91.9
81.8
35.6
19,979
1,137
2,409
4,842
4,460
3, 886
2, 345
900
100.0
5.7
12.1
24.2
22.3
19.5
11.7
4.5
81.0
33.9
90.3
96.8
97.3
94.1
85.3
41.6
12, 323
1,196
1,689
3,195
2, 543
1,929
1,196
575
100.0
9.7
13.7
25.9
20.6
15.7
9.7
4.7
82.2
46.4
90.4
96.2
96.5
93.5
86.8
50.0
100.0
6.6
16.3
25.9
21.6
17.2
9.6
2.8
27.1
15.0
42.6
33.7
31.8
28.9
22.1
7.1
7,231
783
1, 595
1,976
1, 341
919
460
157
100.0
10.8
22.1
27.3
18.5
12.7
6.4
2.2
29.1
23.6
57.4
37.9
29.2
23.5
17.2
6.6
3,980
439
737
1,150
818
509
238
89
100.0
11.0
18.5
28.9
20.6
12.8
6.0
2.2
26.2
17.0
37.5
33.3
30.2
25.4
17.9
7.7
1 Preliminary, pending release of Census official estimate of United States total on basis comparable with
current Census series.
2 Northeast includes the New England, Middle Atlantic, and East North Central States.
! Proportion of labor force to population. Percentages were computed from unrounded figures.
WOMEN
Although approximately 1 woman in 4 in the Far West worked or
sought work outside her home, in 1940, this rate of labor-market
participation (27.1 percent) was lower than that in the North'
east (29.1 percent) and slightly higher than that in the South (26.2
percent). Relatively more women are in the Northern labor market
because of the high concentration of that region’s female population
in industrial urban areas. The West Coast has relatively more women
in farm areas than the Northeast and also has relatively more in rural
nonfarm districts. Worker rates for women in every section of the
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PROSPECTIVE LABOR SUPPLY— WEST COAST
575
country increase with urbanization. Greater household responsi
bilities, larger families, and lack of outside employment opportunities
limit labor-market participation of rural women.
Although most women in the Far West live in urban areas, their
rate of labor-market participation was only slightly above that of
Southern women, the majority of whom live in rural areas. This is
attributable to the very small proportion of the women in the Pacific
States who are nonwhite. In the South, however one-fourth of the
women are nonwhite, and nonwhite women work or seek work
(mostly in domestic service) to a greater extent than do white women.
TRENDS IN LABOR-MARKET PARTICIPATION
Certain trends in the rates of labor-market participation by various
groups in the population are discernible over long periods. In general,
the same long-term trends prevail in the Far West as elsewhere in the
Nation. Operating to reduce prospective labor supply are the move
ments toward fewer younger and fewer older workers. The worker
rate of youths 14 to 19 years old on the Pacific Coast dropped from
33.2 percent in 1920 to 22.6 percent in 1940; that of men 65 and over
fell from 53.9 percent in 1920 to 35.6 percent in 1940.
The principal factor working in the opposite direction—toward a
larger labor force—is the trend toward greater employment of women.
The worker rate for women aged 20 to 44 years in the Far West
rose from 26.4 percent in 1920 to 34.9 percent in 1940. This increasing
proportion of women workers has accompanied a movement away
from farms, a long-term decline in the birth rate, and mechanization
of household and industrial processes. Moreover, social attitudes
toward employment of women have become more favorable.
These long-term trends in labor-market participation, in combina
tion with natural population growth, would cause the Pacific labor
force to increase by only 160,000 between 1940 and 1950. But the
chief importance of the trends is in reshaping the compo
sition of the work force. The future labor force on the West Coast
will include more women and fewer older and younger persons than
in the past. Public interest will more than ever, therefore, be con
cerned with problems relating to labor standards for women, social
security, and educational facilities, as well as with the basic problem
of maintaining high levels of employment.
I
736 0 3 9 — 47 -
-2
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Wartime and Postwar Employment Trends
in California
B y M. I. G e r s h e n s o n , Chief, Division of Labor Statistics and Research, California
Department of Industrial Relations
L o n g b e f o r e Japan’s surrender, questions were raised as to what
would happen in California “after the war.” What would be the
aftermath of a huge increase in population, a tremendous expansion
of the labor force, and a severe distortion of the employment pattern?
Would the State be able to absorb the thousands of workers who would
lose their jobs in war plants and at the same time find employment
for the service men and women who would be returning to civilian life?
It was obvious that California’s problem was not that of reconverting
prewar plants to peacetime operations, since new war industries were
superimposed on an economy in which manufacturing was a relatively
small part of the total, and war plants were literally built on vacant
fields.
As a result of the wartime upheaval of the Nation’s population,
California’s population increased from 7 million in April 1940 to
9 million in 1946, and the civilian labor force rose from 3 million
to 3% million. During the war, however, the number of employed
civilians increased more rapidly than population or civilian labor
force, and unemployment virtually disappeared.
Wartime Employment Changes
Total civilian employment, including owners and self-employed as
well as wage and salary workers, rose to 3,712,000 in June 1944. This
represented an increase above the prewar level of 48 percent. Between
June 1944 and June 1945 civilian employment decreased by 111,000 as
a result of reductions in manufacturing. Seasonal factors were respon
sible for a slight rise to 3,658,000 in the 2 months preceding Japan’s
surrender.
The course of total civilian employment obscures wide variations in
the wartime trends for the several industry divisions comprising the
total. In some divisions the working force increased tremendously, in
others only moderately; one major group registered a decrease of 30
percent (table 1).
MANUFACTURING
The exigencies of war affected manufacturing to a greater extent
than any other industry division. Ships and airplanes—the prime
requisites for waging global war—-were “must” production items for
California. Employment in the State’s industrial plants, including
576
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577
EMPLOYMENT TRENDS— CALIFORNIA
T
able
1.—Estimated civilian employment in1 California, by industry, selected months
1940-462
lln thousands]
Industry division
Apr. June June June Aug. Feb. June Aug. Nov. Dec.
1940 1943 1944 1945 1945 1946 1946 1946 1946 1946
All industry divisions _ . . . . . . . . . . __ 2,514 3, 671 3, 712 3,601 3,658 3,327 3, 552 3,698 3,642
3,648
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing 2____
Agriculture__________ _________
Forestry and fishing____________
272
267
5
328
324
4
337
333
4
370
366
4
388
384
4
304
300
4
373
368
5
415
409
6
385
379
6
355
349
6
M ining______________ _________ . . .
Metal mining_________________
Crude-petroleum and natural-gas
production____ _ ___________
Nonmetallic mining and quarrying.
48
17
34
7
33
6
32
5
32
5
36
5
37
6
38
6
38
6
37
6
25
6
22
5
22
5
22
5
22
5
25
6
25
6
26
6
25
7
25
6
Construction 3_________ _____ _____
119
163
156
150
154
151
174
183
182
176
Manufacturing____________ ________
414 1,191 1,124
909
909
625
688
764
730
730
184
54
253
90
271
101
278
104
286
106
284
98
288
98
293
96
290
94
293
94
10
33
26
31
30
12
44
41
41
25
12
44
48
42
24
10
44
51
45
24
10
46
54
46
24
12
45
48
53
28
11
45
48
56
30
11
48
48
59
31
11
47
46
60
32
11
47
48
60
33
Trade_____________ _____________
Wholesale__________ ____ .. .
Retail________________________
634
156
478
681
167
514
697
160
537
737
169
568
744
173
571
794
178
616
830
188
642
849
191
658
878
192
686
899
196
703
Service______ . _ _ _ ________ _ . . .
Hotels and other lodging places___
Laundries and other personal services__ _
_ ___________ ___
Domestics................... . . . ______
Banking_________ __ _________
Insurance and real estate _____ .
Automobile-repair services and
garages__ . . . . ________ . . .
Business services and repair___ .
Motion pictures, amusement, and
recreation____ ________ _____
Education, medical, legal, charit
able, and other services_______
606
46
592
50
620
52
621
52
634
54
678
53
715
54
725
56
719
53
724
53
79
111
35
87
85
80
34
81
88
84
34
82
91
85
36
82
92
86
36
84
96
88
41
96
100
89
43
100
101
90
44
101
100
90
44
102
101
91
44
102
22
46
21
52
22
57
22
59
24
58
29
63
31
67
31
67
32
67
32
68
66
74
83
78
80
84
91
92
86
88
114
115
118
116
120
128
140
143
145
145
Governm ent4 _____ _____ .
Federal_________ ___________ ...
State and local. ___ _______ ____
237
51
186
429
242
187
474
284
190
504
313
191
511
322
189
455
264
191
447
250
197
431
233
198
420
216
204
434
227
207
Transportation, communication, and
utilities________________________
Railroads.. ____ ___________ . . .
Street and suburban railways and
bus lines__________ ________
Trucking and warehousing for hire.
Water and other transportation___
Communication_______ _____ ..
Utilities: water, light, and power. .
1 The estimated employed includes wage and salary workers, employers, own-account workers, and un
paid family workers.
Source: California Department of Industrial Relations, Division of Labor Statistics and Research.
2 Does not include Mexican contract workers and emergency volunteer workers.
3 Contract construction. Docs not include force-account or Government construction workers.
4 All civilian employees of the Federal, State, and local governments regardless of the activity in which
the employee is engaged.
owners and self-employed, rose from 414,000 in April 1940 to 1,191,000
in June 1943. This increase was considerably larger, both relatively
and absolutely, than for any other industry division. The impetus
of war contracts catapulted manufacturing from third to first place
among the 8 major industry divisions. Two of every 3 persons re
cruited to the ranks of the civilian employed between April 1940 and
June 1943 augmented the personnel of manufacturing firms. In June
1943 approximately a third of all civilian workers in the State were
employees of industrial establishments, contrasted with a sixth in
April 1940.
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578
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
The unprecedented increase in manufacturing was concentrated
largely in aircraft and shipbuilding. Employment in these two indus
tries skyrocketed from less than 45,000 before the war to a peak of more
than 640,000 in the summer of 1943. These two industries alone
absorbed one-half of the entire 1940-43 increase in the total number
of civilians employed in California.
Unprecedented gains, although not as spectacular as in aircraft and
shipbuilding, were also recorded in other manufacturing industries
closely related to the war effort. In the durable-goods category (other
than transportation equipment), the largest increases in the number
of wage and salary workers occurred in the following groups:
April
mo
Nonferrous metals and their products___ 7, 700
Electrical machinery and equipment___ 8, 200
Machinery (except electrical)_________ 23, 500
Iron and steel and their products_____ 35, 200
Number employed_______________
Percent
Wartime peak
Increase
26, 200
26, 100
73, 100
75,400
(Nov. 1943)
(June 1944)
(Feb. 1944)
(June 1943)
240
218
211
114
So-called “war” industries in the nondurable-goods division reached
their wartime peak later than the durable-goods groups:
Number employed
April
Rubber products___________
Chemicals and allied products.
Petroleum products_________
mo
6, 700
16, 600
18, 300
Wartime peak
21, 200 (Mar. 1945)
28, 600 (Feb. 1945)
29,400 (Mar. 1945)
Percent
increase
216
72
61
Employment in manufacturing, which had reached its peak in 1943,
turned down moderately in 1944, after aircraft, shipbuilding, iron and
steel, nonferrous metals, machinery, and electrical machinery had all
passed their employment peaks. Abrupt declines occurred in 1945
following the surrender of Germany.
Thousands of workers who staffed the war factories of the State
were women, whose employment as production workers rose from
66,000 in 1941 to a wartime peak of 285,000 in August 1943. In 1944
they comprised 29 percent of all factory workers. Over half of the
new recruits among women went into the aircraft industry (which
employed 104,000 women at the peak) and into shipyards (which
employed over 40,000 at the peak, or 15 percent of their total force).
By August 1945, however, with the early contraction of aircraft and
shipbuilding, the total number of women in factories was down to
187,000.
GOVERNMENT
Next to manufacturing, the largest wartime gain in civilian employ
ment occurred in government service. The total number of persons in
California engaged in government service rose from 237,000 in April
1940 to a peak of 511,000 in August 1945—an increase of 116 percent.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
579
EMPLOYMENT TRENDS— CALIFORNIA
DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL CIVILIAN
EMPLOYMENT IN CALIFORNIA
INDUSTRY
MINING
CONSTRUCTION
TRANSPORTATION.
COMMUNICATIONS,
AND U TILITIES
GOVERNMENT
AGRICULTURE,
FORESTRY AND
FISHING
SERVICE AND
FINANCE
TRADE
MANUFACTURING
2 ,5 1 4 ,0 0 0
3 ,6 7 1 ,0 0 0
3 ,6 4 2 ,0 0 0
APRIL 1940
JUNE 1943
NOV. 1946
Source
STATE OF CALIFORNIA
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS
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INCLUDES AGRICULTURAL WORKERS, EMPLOYERS,
OWN-ACCOUNT, AND UNPAID FAMILY WORKERS.
580
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
Before the war, State and local government employees greatly out
numbered Federal personnel in California, but this relationship was
reversed soon after Pearl Harbor. Federal employment, notably in
navy yards, arsenals, supply depots, airfields, hospitals, ports of
embarkation, and other military establishments, increased from 51,000
in April 1940 to a wartime peak of 322,000 in August 1945. State
and local government employment rose slightly from 186,000 in April
1940, but by VJ-day was back to 189,000.
TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATION, AND UTILITIES
Between April 1940 and the month of Japan’s surrender total em
ployment in the transportation, communication, and utilities division
expanded from 184,000 to 286,000. Movement of raw materials to
war plants, coupled with use of California ports as embarkation centers
for troops and supplies, resulted in tremendous expansion of railway,
truck, and water-front activities which continued throughout the war.
Increased employment in transportation and communication was
partly offset by a 20-percent decrease in such public utilities as gas,
electricity, and water, which, because of shortages of manpower and
materials, were forced to eliminate all extensions of capital facilities
except in congested war production areas. Employment in all trans
portation groups combined increased 75 percent from 123,000 in
the spring of 1940 to 216,000 during the month of Japan’s surrender.
In the same period, the number of employees of telephone and tele
graph companies rose 50 percent to 46,000.
TRADE AND SERVICE
In normal times the volume of employment in trade and service
industries tends to be directly related to the size of the population;
but, despite the huge increase in civilian population and military
personnel stationed in California, employment in these industries
changed little between 1940 and 1943, as workers went into higher
paying industries. Employment in trade and service combined
increased moderately after 1943 and by June 1945 reached a total
of 1,358,000. This was approximately 10 percent above the April
1940 level—an increase considerably less than the relative population
growth in the State. In 1940 trade and service accounted for nearly
half of all employed persons in California; in June 1943 the proportion
had diminished to approximately a third.
Employment in wholesale and retail trade in California increased
from 634,000 in April 1940 to 681,000 in June 1943. Although
thousands of small firms closed their doors because of shortages of
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EMPLOYMENT TRENDS— CALIFORNIA
581
goods and labor and because of diminution of the tourist trade,1
some large trade establishments were able to increase their sales forces
by intensive recruitment of women and by greater use of part-time
personnel. In addition, many new trade establishments were opened
in war-work centers, which sprang up almost overnight in various
parts of the State. Employment in trade increased slightly in 1944
and then at a more accelerated rate in 1945. By VJ-day the number of
persons in wholesale and retail distribution of commodities had
reached 744,000.
Among the service industries, employment increased between 1940
and 1943 in laundry and cleaning and dyeing establishments, hotels
and lodging places, amusement and recreation, and business and repair
services owing to the large number of war workers and military
personnel in the State. In all other groups, the trend was downward
or showed little change. The net change for the service division as a
whole was a decrease from 606,000 workers in April 1940 to 592,000
in June 1943. From this point, employment turned upward until
June 1944 and maintained this level until August 1945. Following
the surrender of Germany the upward trend was once more resumed
and on VJ-day employment in the service division totaled 634,000
persons.
CONSTRUCTION
Construction employment in California was relatively small in
April 1940, but rose rapidly thereafter and reached peak levels in the
fall of 1942. The heavy demand for war-workers’ housing and for
army and naval installations resulted in an increase in the personnel
of private contract construction firms from 119,000 in April 1940 to
nearly 200,000 in August 1942. The trend then turned sharply downAvard, and by June 1945 employment in construction had receded to
approximately 150,000. This reflected the drastic limitations imposed
on all but the most essential building and maintenance work because
of serious manpower and material shortages.
MINING
The most significant wartime change in the mining division was the
sharp contraction of employment in the metal-mining group from
17,000 in 1940 to about 7,000 in 1943, as a result of restrictions on the
production of gold. Gold mining was reduced to a small fraction of
its prewar importance (many mines being allowed to continue only
1 Records of the California State Board of Equalization indicate th at the number of trade outlets de
creased from a pre-Pearl Harbor peak of 205,000 in December 1940 to approximately 170,000 in June 1943.
These figures do not represent retail establishments exclusively, as all businesses in the State which handle
any commoditiessubjectto theretail sales tax are required to secure a sales-tax license whether or not their
chief activity is selling articles at retail. The trend, however, reflects primarily retail trade.
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582
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
on a property-maintenance basis), whereas activity was concentrated
in special strategic metals for war use, such as tungsten, mercury,
chromium, and vanadium.
Even before the war, employment in crude-petroleum and naturalgas production had followed a gradual downward trend. This con
tinued during the early years of the war and was not reversed until
the beginning of 1943, when petroleum products were in urgent
demand for military purposes. The number of workers in quarries
and nonmetallic mines increased rapidly in 1941 and continued on a
high level in 1942. With the falling off of construction activity, em
ployment contracted sharply during 1943.
The net result of the diverse trends in the several groups com
prising the mining division was a decrease in total employment in
the division as a whole from 48,000 in April 1940 to 32,000 in June
1945—a level which was maintained through VJ-day.
AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY, AND FISHING
Compared with other industry divisions, employment in agriculture
changed relatively little during the war years. Despite military with
drawals and loss of workers to war industries, employment in agri
culture was reasonably well sustained. In California the trend was
slightly upward between 1940 and 1945, and with the aid of foreign
contract and emergency volunteer workers the farmers of the State
broke all production records during the war. Some loss of employ
ment was experienced in forestry and fishing, but in California these
industries represented only 2 percent of total employment in the
division as a whole in April 1940.
It is estimated that 370,000 persons, exclusive of Mexican contract
and emergency volunteer workers, were employed in agriculture,
forestry, and fishing in June 1945, compared with 272,000 in April 1940.
Postwar Employment Changes
As was to be expected, total employment dropped sharply following
VJ-day, the decrease being concentrated largely in manufacturing
because of heavy lay-offs resulting from widespread contract can
cellations. Work stoppages during the fall and winter months gave
additional impetus to the downward movement. Contrary to the
expectations of a protracted period of decline, the postwar employ
ment low in California was reached within 6 months after the sur
render of Japan, reflecting rapid readjustment to peacetime pursuits.
By February 1946 total civilian employment had decreased to
3,327,000 from 3,658,000 in August 1945, a month of high seasonal
activity. From the February low point employment climbed steadily
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EMPLOYMENT TRENDS— CALIFORNIA
583
and in September 1946—13 months after the termination of hostili
ties—reached a peak of 3,766,000. From this high seasonal level
civilian employment in California declined to an estimated 3,648,000
in December 1946—more than 320,000 above the postwar low in
February.
Unemployment, which recorded a historical low in 1943, had
increased somewhat in 1944 and 1945 as war orders slackened; about
120.000 persons were unemployed when hostilities ceased in August
1945. The heavy lay-offs in manufacturing industries immediately
following the war’s end at once brought a sharp rise in unemployment
to an estimated postwar high of 500,000 in the spring of 1946 (accord
ing to the California Department of Employment). As manufac
turing, trade and service activity, and agriculture and forestry
expanded during 1946, this peak was reduced to a seasonal low of
260.000 in the autumn. At the end of 1946, the total unemployed
was around 350,000.
As in the case of the figures covering the wartime period, the
statistics of total civilian employment since August 1945 obscure
diverse postwar trends in the various industry divisions.
MANUFACTURING
On the termination of hostilities with Japan the decrease in manu
facturing employment became precipitate as contracts for war supplies
were summarily canceled. From 909,000 in August 1945, the total
number of persons (including owners and self-employed workers)
attached to manufacturing industries dropped uninterruptedly until
February 1946, when the postwar low of 625,000 was reached (table 2).
This level was approximately half the wartime peak and was better
than one and one-half times the April 1940 total of 414,000.
As was to be expected, the postwar decrease in manufacturing was
concentrated in the two industries responsible for most of the wartime
increase—aircraft and shipbuilding. The number of wage and salary
workers in the aircraft industry had declined nearly 50 percent from
a peak of 330,000 in 1943 to 171,000 in August 1945, when the war
came to an end. immediate lay-offs brought the number down to
105.000 in the following month, and steady, but more gradual con
tractions thereafter reduced the working force still further. Employ
ment continued at a low level for several months and then increased
slightly to 96,000 in November and December 1946.
Shipbuilding employment (exclusive of Government navy yards)
dropped steadily from the wartime peak of 313,000 in 1943 to 146,000
in August 1945. Nearly 50,000 jobs in this industry were wiped out
in the month following VJ-day, and continued lay-offs together with
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584
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 19 47
work stoppages in San Francisco Bay Area yards brought the number
of wage and salary workers to a low of 34,000 in March 1946. At
the close of the year employment was in the neighborhood of 27,000—
less than 10 percent of the wartime high.
T able 2.—Estimated employment in manufacturing industries of California, selected
months 1940-46 1
[In thousands]
Industry
All manufacturing industries................
Employers and own-account workers...
Wage and salary w orkers.. _________
Nondurable goods______________
Durable goods ________ ______
Apr. June June June Aug. Feb. June Aug. Nov. Dec.
1940 1943 1944 1945 1945 1946 1946 1946 1946 1946
414 1,191 1,124
909
909
625
688
764
730
20
20
20
23
23
23
24
24
393 1,170 1,104
285
200 267
187 903 819
889
281
608
889
322
567
602
277
325
665
297
368
741
361
380
706
316
390
706
316
390
21
21
730
Food and kindred products__________
Fruit, vegetable, and fish canning..
Tobacco manufactures______________
Textile-mill products..... ................ ........
Apparel___ ______________________
Paper and allied products___________
Printing, publishing, and allied industries____________________________
Chemicals and allied products_______
Petroleum products________________
Rubber products----- ------ ---------------Leather and leather products________
Miscellaneous manufacturing ..............
81
38
1
6
28
6
105
36
1
6
33
9
110
43
1
6
33
10
104
33
1
5
33
10
145
74
1
5
33
10
96
28
1
5
37
11
104
34
1
6
39
12
166
88
1
6
40
12
116
42
1
7
41
12
114
40
1
7
41
12
33
16
18
7
4
6
32
23
22
18
5
13
33
27
26
20
4
15
35
27
28
18
5
15
36
27
29
17
5
14
40
25
29
15
6
12
42
28
31
16
6
12
42
28
32
16
6
12
42
29
32
17
6
13
44
29
32
17
6
13
Lumber and timber________________
Furniture and finished lumber products____________________________
Stone, clay, and glass products_______
Iron and steel and their products_____
Transportation equipment (except
automobiles)__________ _________
Aircraft and parts______________
Shipbuilding and repairing_______
Nonferrous metals and their products..
Electrical machinery and equipm ent...
Machinery (except electrical). . _____
Automobiles and automobile equipm ent___ _____ ______________ ___
22
29
29
28
27
20
25 -
26
28
26
18
17
35
23
22
75
22
23
67
24
22
63
24
22
61
23
24
37
24
26
57
26
27
62
29
30
64
29
30
64
45
38
6
8
8
24
632
323
307
24
22
69
549
273
274
24
26
71
353
185
166
21
24
66
319
171
146
19
24
64
135
95
38
15
13
48
133
91
40
16
18
56
128
93
33
18
19
57
123
96
25
18
21
60
125
96
27
18
21
61
10
7
8
7
7
10
13
17
17
16
'Includes administrative, supervisory, sales, technical, and office personnel, and force-account con
struction workers, as well as production and related workers.
Source: California Department of Industrial Relations, Division of Labor Statistics and Research.
Employment in other war manufacturing industries fell off sharply
after the cessation of hostilities. Plants manufacturing consumers’
goods, however, began to take on workers in large numbers, and soon
employment in many industries began to break previous records.
An almost uninterrupted increase brought the total number of wage
and salary workers in the apparel industry to above 40,000 in the fall
of 1946, as against 28,000 in April 1940. Employment in plants
producing furniture and finished lumber products rose to over 29,000
in the latter period from a prewar level of 18,000. Wage and salary
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EMPLOYMENT TRENDS— CALIFORNIA
585
workers in paper and allied products exceeded 12,000 in the closing
months of 1946—twice the prewar level. In printing, publishing, and
allied industries a new high of 44,000 was recorded in December 1946,
representing an increase of more than 10,000 above the April 1940
level. Reflecting the postwar building boom, employment in the
stone, clay, and glass products group climbed to approximately 30,000
in the closing months of 1946—an increase of 67 percent above April
1940. Within the food-products group new all-time highs were
registered in 1946 in dairy products, meat products, beet sugar, and
beverages. Although not numerically large, new postwar peaks also
were reached in the textile-mill products and leather-products in
dustries.
Particularly significant was the postwar recovery in many of the
so-called “war industries.” In the chemicals groups, total employ
ment fell off sharply following VJ-day, but a steady uninterrupted
increase in 1946 brought the total number of wage and salary workers
to a new peak of 29,000 in November 1946. Cessation of hostilities
had little effect on the petroleum-products group; the total number
employed was 32,000 in the fall of 1946—approximately 3,000 above
the wartime peak and 75 percent above April 1940. The rubberproducts group, after dropping to a postwar low of around 14,000
employees, recovered to 17,000 in November 1946, which was 4,000
below the wartime high, but more than double the prewar level.
Among the durable-goods industries, the largest relative postwar
increase occurred in the automobile and automobile-equipment group.
From around 7,000 in August 1945 the total number of wage and salary
workers skyrocketed to 19,000 in October 1946, compared with the
April 1940 total of less than 10,000.
After declining to nearly 35,000, total employment in the iron and
steel group recovered to nearly 65,000 in October 1946—30,000
above the prewar level. Substantial recoveries to levels well above
those prevailing before the war were recorded also in nonferrous
metals, electrical machinery and equipment, and machinery (except
electrical).
GOVERNMENT
The only major industry division other than manufacturing in
which employment registered a nonseasonal decrease following VJ-day
was government, reflecting reductions in the number of Federal
employees largely in arsenals, navy yards, and other wartime estab
lishments. More than 100,000 Federal employees lost their jobs in
the 15 months following the surrender of Japan, as employment was
reduced to 216,000 in November 1946. Despite this sharp contrac-
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586
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
tion, the number of Federal employees in California in 1946 was more
than 4 times the number in April 1940.
Offsetting the decrease in Federal employment was a moderate but
steady rise in the number of persons employed in State and local
government jurisdictions, which increased to 207,000 in December
1946—a level some 20,000 above April 1940. At the close of 1946
Federal employees continued to outnumber those in State and local
government service, whereas before the war there were 3 State and
local government employees for every Federal employee in California.
TRADE AND SERVICE
The most effective offset to the deep postwar cuts in manufacturing
employment was the rapid and sustained increase in trade and service
employment as war-closed civilian businesses were reopened and
thousands of new businesses were established to meet the needs of
California’s enlarged population. The number of owners, self-employ
ed, and wage and salary workers in trade and service increased from
1.378.000 in August 1945 to 1,597,000 in mid-November 1946, just
before the usual pre-Cliristmas rise in retail stores. This increase of
220.000 was greater than the net reduction of 179,000 in manufacturing
employment during the same period.
Reflecting unprecedented increases in the number of trade estab
lishments, the number of persons in wholesale and retail trade rose
to 878,000 in November 1946 from 744,000 in August 1945.2 This
rise of 134,000 includes an estimated increase of some 31,000 owners
and self-employed persons. The hiring of extra workers for the
Christmas rush brought the total number of persons attached to
trade to 899,000 in December 1946, the highest in the history of the
State.
As in the case of trade, the end of the war gave impetus to the up
ward trend in service industries which was evident prior to VJ-day.
Between August 1945 and December 1946, 90,000 persons found job
opportunities in service and finance industries as employment in
creased to 724,000. Of this increase, 35,000 were employers and ownaccount workers.
With but one exception, employment in every subgroup within the
service division was higher at the end of 1946 than in August 1945
(table 1). Largest relative increases occurred in automobile-repair
services and garages, banking, insurance and real estate, business and
repair services, and education, medical, legal, charitable, and other
service groups.
2 By VJ-day the number of trade outlets licensed by the State Board of Equalization had recovered from
a wartime low of 170,000 in 1943 to 200,000. Between VJ-day and July 1, 1946, 32,000 new trade outlets were
opened and an additional 10,000 received retail-sales permits in the following quarter, so that by October
1946 the number had reached the record-breaking total of 242,000.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
587
EMPLOYMENT TRENDS— CALIFORNIA
TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATION, AND UTILITIES
Postwar employment reductions in transportation were offset by
increases in communication and water, light, and power utilities.
Total employment of 293,000 in the division as a whole at the end of
1946 was slightly above the total in August 1945 and more than 100,000
above the April 1940 level.
Railroad employment practically doubled between April 1940 and
August 1945, but declined slightly after the war. Employment in
local transportation and trucking maintained their war-end levels.
Water and other transportation fell off moderately.
Large-scale hiring by the telephone industry, reflecting postwar
expansion of capital facilities, resulted in an increase in the total
number of telephone and telegraph workers in California from 46,000
in August 1945 to 60,000 in December 1946. Similarly, employment
in water, light, and power utilities expanded by one-third to 33,000 at
the close of 1946.
CONSTRUCTION
Shortages of men and materials retarded postwar progress in the
construction industry. Total employment dropped from 154,000 in
August 1945 to a postwar low in January 1946, but increased to
185,000 in September 1946. Employment in the construction in
dustry fell off at the end of the year to approximately 176,000 in
December 1946. Construction experienced a similar seasonal decline
throughout the Nation.
MINING
Employment in the mining division as a whole increased after VJday from 32,000 in August 1945 to a postwar high of 38,000 in August
1946. This level, nevertheless, was some 10,000 below the total for
this division in April 1940. Metal mining continued to be depressed,
reflecting an unfavorable relationship between the price of gold and
operating costs which made the resumption of gold mining on the
prewar scale unattractive. Employment in crude-petroleum and
natural-gas production rose from 22,000 in August 1945 to 26,000 in
July 1946 and then dropped to the April 1940 level of 25,000 in the
closing months of the year. The number of workers in nonmetallic
mining and quarrying rose from 5,000 in August 1945 to 7,000 in
November 1946 and then declined seasonally to 6,000 in December.
NONAGRICULTURAL EMPLOYMENT IN CALIFORNl C
STATES
c OMPARED
WITH UNITED
The net increase in nonagricultural employment between April
1940 and November 1946 was considerably greater in California than
in the Nation as a whole. The relative differences between the two
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
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M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
are shown in the following tabulation of percentage changes for the
various industry divisions and for total nonagricultural employment,
from April 1940 to November 1946.
United States California
Percent change
Total nonagricultural employment_________________________ 37.2
Manufacturing__________________________________________ 47.0
Mining________________________________________________ —1.8
Construction____________________________________________ 53.6
Transportation, communication,and utilities-------------------------- 39.5
Trade____________________ ____________________ - ______
28.2
Service____________________________________________>— 31. 0
Government____________________________________________ 29.1
55. 9
79. 6
—19.0
75. 9
61. 1
44.3
33. 3
77. 2
AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY, AND FISHING
Employment in agriculture experienced the usual seasonal fluc
tuations during 1945 and 1946, but on a relatively high level. Farmers
in many areas in the State took advantage of unusually favorable
weather conditions in November and December 1946 and a more
abundant labor supply to advance winter farm operations well ahead
of usual schedules. As a result, employment during the closing
months of 1946 was sustained above normal seasonal levels.
In December 1946, 355,000 persons were engaged in agriculture,
forestry, and fishing, compared with the seasonal high of 477,000
in September. Not included in these totals are 15,000 Mexican
nationals who were working on California farms at the end of the
year and 20,000 during peak operations in September 1946.
RETURN OF EMPLOYMENT PATTERN TO NORMAL
The shift of the California economy from peace to war resulted in
severe distortion of the employment pattern. With the return to
peace, traditional relationships began to be restored and the employ
ment pattern at the end of 1946 was not very different from that
in 1940.
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Employment in the Northwest’
I n t h e P a c ific N o r t h w e st ,2 which had only a moderate degree of
industrialization before the war, the wartime employment growth was
concentrated chiefly in shipbuilding and aircraft. Since these warexpanded industries were staffed to a large extent through in-migra
tion, it was anticipated that the postwar employment problems of the
region might well be acute. This has not proved to be true as yet,
since activity in the area remains high and unemployment is not
marked.
Trends in Northwest Compared ivith United States
During the war period, nonagricultural employment3 exclusive of
government, in the Pacific Northwest, showed much greater relative
T
1.— Trend of nonagricultural employment1 in Pacific Northwest2 and United
States, by major industry division, September 1939,3 and annual averages 1943-46
able
Period
Total
Transpor
nonagri
tation
cultural Manufac Mining
and
(exclud turing 3
public
ing gov
utilities
ernment)
Trade
Finance
Service
and
miscel
laneous
Contract
construc
tion 3
Employment (in thousands)—Northwest
1939 (September)___
587.6
191.8
6.1
89.8
163.6
26.2
80.5
29.6
1943______________
1944______________
1945______________
1946______________
960.1
983.5
879.9
817. 7
477.7
467.7
390.1
278.6
5.2
4.4
3.8
4.0
106.1
112.4
112.3
117.4
187.2
197. 4
199. 5
215.6
26.3
27.7
28.4
33.4
94.7
104. 5
106.9
120.0
62.9
69.4
38.9
48. 7
117.6
129.7
132.7
149.0
212.2
234.3
131.3
164.5
115.1
116.0
119.7
136.9
140.2
101.2
105.7
132.3
Index (September 1939=100)--N orthw est
1943______________
1944______________
1945______________
1946______________
163.3
167.3
149.7
139.1
249.0
243.8
203.4
145.2
84.8
72.1
62.0
65.8
118.1
125.1
125.0
130.6
114.4
120.6
121.9
131.8
100.6
105.8
108.5
127.5
Index (September 1939=100)—United States
1943______________
1944______________
1945______________
1946______________
135.6
133.8
129. 2
126. 7
172.5
169.9
151. 4
144.2
103.9
100.0
93.5
94.6
120.9
126.9
129.5
134.3
107.9
108.8
114.4
127. 2
99.9
98.9
102.5
117.1
1 Includes all nonagricultural divisions except government.
2 The States of Oregon and Washington comprise the Northwest.
3 Estimates for manufacturing and construction are based on 1939 annual averages, all others are based on
September 1939.
1 Prepared in the Employment Statistics Division of the B ureau’s Employment and Occupaticna
Outlook Branch, by Eleanora H. Barnes under the direction of Clara F. Schloss.
2 The States of Washington and Oregon comprise the Northwest as used in this article.
8 “Nonagricultural employment” as used in this article includes wage and salary workers in all non
agricultural establishments except government. Proprietors, self-employed persons, domestic servants,
and personnel of the armed forces are excluded. This applies to both regional and United States employ
ment.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
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590
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 194 7
gains than did like employment throughout the United States. At its
wartime peak, employment in the region had risen above prewar by
over 70 percent, as compared with a 36-percent rise in the total num
ber of nonagricultural workers in the United States. Although
postwar employment declines were proportionately greater in Wash
ington and Oregon than in the United States as a whole, employment
in the Northwest in 1946 on the basis of annual averages was 39 per
cent greater than in 1939, while the corresponding figure for the
United States was 27 percent (see table 1).
Trend of Nonagricultural Employment in Northwest
In September 1939, almost a third of the 588,000 nonagricultural
workers in the Pacific Northwest were employed in manufacturing,
and more than a fourth were in trade (see chart and table 2). By
1943 the wartime expansion was well under way and about one out
of every two workers in the Northwest was employed in manufac
turing. In January of that year, nonagricultural industries em
ployed more than one and a half times as many people as in 1939.
The largest increase was in factory employment, which went up by
130 percent, although all divisions except mining and finance shared
in the gain.
The peak nonagricultural employment—over 1,000,000—was
reached in July 1944, when almost 415,000 more people were
at work than in 1939. Although manufacturing employment was
somewhat below its maximum at this time, the combination of near
maximum numbers in transportation and public utilities, construc
tion, and trade, raised nonagricultural employment to its record level.
Even before the end of the war, there were sharp cuts in ship
building and in aircraft, so that employment was rapidly reduced.
Nonagricultural employment as a whole reached a postwar low of
770,400 in November 1945, which represented a decrease of about a
fourth from the peak level but an increase of almost a third above
the prewar level. About four-fifths of the reduction was in manu
facturing industries, in which seasonal contraction of food industries
and a prolonged strike in the lumber industry, in addition to heavy
cut-backs in the shipbuilding and aircraft programs, contributed to
the decrease. At the same time, trade, finance, and service industries
were all taking on employees in the period between July 1944 and
November 1945, thus limiting the net decline to some extent.
Even at this low point, all major industry divisions except mining
showed appreciable gains over the prewar period, ranging from 13
percent in finance to 40 percent in manufacturing.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
591
EMPLOYMENT— NORTHWEST
DISTRIBUTION OF NON AGRICULTURAL
EMPLOYMENT IN THE NORTHWEST
INDUSTRY
MINING
FINANCE
CONSTRUCTION
SERVICE
AND
MISCELLANEOUS
TRANSPORTATION
AND PUBLIC
U TILITIES
TRADE
MANUFACTURING
5 8 7 ,6 0 0
9 8 3 ,5 0 0
1939
1944
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LA80R
BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS
736039-
47 -
3
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
8 1 7 ,7 0 0
1946
EXCLUDES WORKERS IN FEDERAL,STATE, AND
LOCAL GOVERNMENT. EXCLUDES PROPRIETORS,
SELF-EMPLOYED PERSONS, DOMESTIC SERVANTS,
AND PERSONNEL OF THE ARMED FORCES.
592
MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
T able 2.—Estimates of nonagricultural emnloyrnent1 in Pacific Northwest2 by major
industry division, September 1939 and by month January 1943-December 1946
[In thousands]
Year and month
Total
Transpor
nonagri
tation
cultural Manufac Mining and
pub
(exclud turing
lic utili
ing gov
ties
ernment)
1939: September 3__
587.6
1943:
January_______
900.3
February______
908.0
March________
929.9
April_______
938.9
951.4
M ay__________
980.5
June__________
July____ ______
990.5
August________
988.6
September_____
990.5
October_______
984.3
November_____
979.6
December_____
978.3
1944:
971.4
January ______
February______
963.1
M arch.
_ ...
966.2
April_______ _
970.9
980.9
M ay. ________
June______ . . . 1, 000.1
July---------------- 1,002. 3
August________ 1, 000. 6
September____
997.3
October_______
991.7
November. . __
984.0
December_____
972.9
1945:
949.4
January.. ____
928.4
February______
M arch. . . . _ _
914.2
April_______ __
909.5
907.6
May _______ _
912.4
June____ ____
July---------------916.6
913.1
August____ _ .
September.
861.6
October_______
789.1
November_____
770.4
December_____
786.0
1946:
January_______
779.1
February______
772.9
M arch________
778.4
April_________
790. 9
M ay. . . ____
796.2
June_______ ._
819.2
Ju ly ... _ _____
835.2
August________
850.4
September.
855.7
October_______
851.6
November_____
843.0
December_____
839.9
Trade
Finance
Service Contract
and mis construc
cellane
tion
ous
191.8
6.1
89.8
163.6
26.2
80.5
29.6
441.4
447.9
457.2
462.2
471.0
488.7
498.0
498.0
500.4
496.3
489.0
481.8
5.3
5.2
5.2
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.1
5.0
100.8
101.1
102.8
103.7
104.0
107.8
109.7
110.5
110.3
108.2
107.1
107.4
185. 8
177.0
179.5
183.4
185.4
187.8
188.6
187.0
188.4
190.9
194.4
197.8
26.1
26.1
26.1
26.3
26.4
26.8
26.7
26.4
26.2
26.2
26.2
26.2
89.9
89.5
91.9
93.5
93.9
96.5
97.6
96.8
97.0
96.5
96.1
97.4
51.0
61.2
67.2
64.5
65.4
67.6
64.7
64.7
63.0
61.0
61.7
62.7
471.8
465.7
462.2
459.0
459.1
467.5
472.2
472.3
474.7
474.1
471.2
462.8
4.7
4.7
4.6
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.4
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.2
4.0
107.9
109.3
109.7
110. 3
112.4
115.6
116.7
117.0
114.4
112.8
112.0
110.9
193.8
187.9
188.4
191.6
194.3
196.9
197.6
197.5
200.3
202.1
205.6
212.8
26.8
27.3
27.5
27.7
27.7
28.0
28.2
28.2
28.0
27.7
27.5
27.7
99.4
101.1
102.5
104.5
105.7
107.3
107.5
105.9
106.0
105.4
103.9
104.1
67.0
67.1
71.3
73.3
77.2
80.3
75.7
75.4
69.6
65.3
59.6
51.6
460.7
453.2
441.9
432.4
426.8
425.7
426.9
416.5
362.6
291.1
268.7
274.4
3.9
4.0
3.8
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.6
3.6
3.8
3.9
3.9
4.1
108.8
109.2
110.2
111.2
113.0
114.7
115. 3
115.7
112.1
111.4
112.4
113.5
198.3
193.8
193.2
196.1
196.1
195.1
193.2
195.8
204.5
202.4
208.3
217.1
27.5
27.5
27.7
27.7
27.7
28.2
28.7
28.8
28.7
29.1
29.5
29.7
103.8
102.2
102.2
103.5
103.9
106.2
109.2
110.2
109.4
110.4
110.0
111.8
46.4
38.5
35.2
34.9
36.4
38.8
39.7
42.5
40.5
40.8
37.6
35.4
276.9
270.0
268.5
265.0
263.1
277.7
283.4
290.6
296.4
291.3
280.6
279.4
4.0
3.9
4.1
3.1
3.4
4.2
4.0
4.2
4.4
4.3
4.4
4.6
114.1
113.4
114.3
115.2
116.1
118.7
120.7
121.6
119.2
118.8
117.2
118.9
205.7
204.5
204.9
210.8
212.6
211.9
214.6
217.7
219.5
223.4
230.1
232.0
30.8
31.3
31.8
33.2
33.4
33.9
34.9
35.0
34.2
34.0
34.0
33.9
111.7
112.5
114.6
117.9
119.2
120.8
123.2
124.3
125.2
123.8
123.0
123.4
35.9
37.3
40.2
45.7
48.4
52.0
54.4
57.0
56.8
56.0
53.5
47.7
1 Estimates include all full- and part-time wage and salary workers in nonagricultural establishments
(except government) who worked or received pay during the pay period ending nearest the 15th of the month.
Proprietors,-self-employed persons, domestic servants, and personnel of the armed forces are excluded.
2 See table 1, footnote 2.
3 See table 1, footnote 3.
From the low point in November 1945, activity increased again, so
that by December 1946, about 70,000 nonagricultural workers bad
been taken on, which brought the total to about 840,000. Much of
this expansion was in such industries as trade, which accounted for a
third of the gain, and in services, which took on about a fifth of the
new workers. These industries had been understaffed during the war.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
EMPLOYMENT— NORTHWEST
593
Trends in Major Industry Divisions
MANUFACTURING
The Northwest had three things that the Nation needed to meet
the needs of war—protected rivers and harbors suitable for building
ships on a year-round basis, the nucleus of a shipbuilding industry
with past experience in ship construction, and a well-established
lumber industry to provide construction materials for ways and for
ships. With these resources available, manufacturing employment
increased much more rapidly in the Northwest between September
1939 and September 1943 than in the Nation as a whole. In Sep
tember 1943, the peak manufacturing employment for the region—
500,400—represented an increase of 160 percent from 1939, while
the Nation’s maximum employment in November of the same year
represented a gain of 77 percent over the prewar period (table 3).
With some variation, this relatively high position was maintained
throughout the war period.
In the 3-month interval immediately following VJ-day, however,
the situation was quite different; by November 1945, almost 150,000
workers had been dropped from the factory pay-rolls in Washington
and Oregon, and employment levels were only 40 percent above 1939.
The December 1946 employment-—279,400-—was about 46 percent
above the prewar level, as compared with an increase in factory
employment for the Nation as a whole of over 55 percent. The
region and the Nation each gained about 45 percent in manufacturing
employment between 1939 and 1946, however, if seasonal factors
are disregarded. As of the end of 1946, the trend of employment
in the Nation appears to be definitely upward, but in the Pacific
Northwest seasonal factors have so strongly influenced the employ
ment trend in the last few months that it is very difficult to appraise
the outlook.
Transportation equipment.-—The growth and decline of the trans
portation-equipment industry dominated industrial employment and
even nonagricultural employment as a whole in the Northwest for
the war and the immediate postwar periods.4 Only 7,000 workers
were employed in the shipbuilding and aircraft industries in 1939,
but by July 1943, almost 249,000 were employed. This high level
was maintained, with slight variations, throughout 1943; in 1944,
employment began to decline, and by August 1945, only 176,600
were employed. In the 3-month interval after the war ended, two
< Estimates for the transportation equipment group do not include Government-operated navy yards.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
594
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
men were laid off for every man retained. Not until December 1946
were increases in aircraft workers of sufficient magnitude to cause
a slight upturn in the group employment. However, the necessity
of absorbing displaced shipbuilding-aircraft workers forms the key
peacetime problem. To solve this the Northwest must look to its
large peacetime manufacturing industries and to other components
of the economic life of the region.5
T able 3.— Manufacturing employment1 in Pacific Northwest,2 1939 annual average; key
months, 1943-44; by month, August 1945-December 1946
[In thousands]
Industry group
All manufacturing.--------- ------------
1939
191.8
1946
1945
1943
1944
Sept.
July
Aug.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
500.4
472.2
416.5
268.7
274.4
276.9
270.0
268.5
168.9
8.8
9.4
182.8
9.1
9.5
188.6
8.9
9.4
183.6
8.9
8.9
184.3
9.7
8.7
Mar.
Durable goods___ ______ ____ 123.6
5.7
Iron and steel
Machinery, except electrical_______
3.9
Transportation equipment, except
7.1
autos___________________ - --Nonferrous m etals------- -------- __ _ 2.1
Tiiimhp.r and timber
90.8
9.3
Furniture___________ _____ ____
4.7
Other durable g o o d s--------------------
404.2
11.4
14.4
383.0
11.5
13.3
320.2
9.7
11.4
242. 5
9.7
109.6
9.6
7.0
223.5
10.5
106.6
10.6
7.0
176.6
9.0
97.2
10.1
6.2
68.6
5.1
60.3
10.4
6.3
62.4
4.9
79.3
11.1
6.5
58.3
4.9
88.2
11.9
7.0
52.4
4.8
89.6
12.1
6.9
49.0
4.0
92.9
12.5
7.5
68.2
2.4
4.3
32.9
13.6
9.8
2.8
2.2
96.2
3.4
4.8
57.9
15.3
8.5
3.4
2.9
89.2
3.5
4.8
49.3
15.3
8.8
4.9
2.6
96.3
3.3
4.3
52.5
15.3
9.2
8.7
3.0
99.8
3.8
5.5
53.9
15.1
10.1
8.1
3.3
91.6
4.0
5.7
46.6
15.1
8.9
7.9
3.4
88.3
4.0
5.8
41.6
15.5
10.2
7.7
3.5
86.4
4.1
5. 5
39.7
16.9
10.1
7.6
3. 5
84.2
4.3
5.9
37.2
15. 5
10.3
7.4
3.6
Oct.
Nov.
Nondurable goods__ _ ______
Textile-mill products_____________
Apparel____________ __________
Pood _______________ - -------- -Paper and allied products____ _____
Printing and publishing---------------Chemicals________________ ____
Other nondurable goods___________
1946
April
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Dec.
265.0
263.1
277.7
283.4
290.6
296.4
291.3
280.6
279.4
Durable goods_______ _____ 180.8
10. 2
Iron and steel... __
-----------Machinery, except electrical--. . _ 8.3
Transportation equipment, except
40.9
autos__________________ ____
4.0
Nonferrous metals_______________
Lumber and tim ber, ------------------- 96.9
12.8
Furniture__ _ _____ __________
7.8
Other durable goods______________
176.1
10.8
8.2
181.0
11.4
8.1
181.8
11.5
8.4
185.8
11.9
8.5
182.7
12.6
8.6
183.1
12.4
8.6
182.7
12.1
8.8
185.2
12.3
8.9
33.9
4. 1
98.5
12.8
7.8
30.8
4.3
105.8
12.9
7.7
29.7
5.4
105.9
12.7
8.2
25.1
6.7
111.7
13.1
8.8
23.6
7.5
109.1
13.1
8.2
23.1
7.8
109.4
13.2
8.6
22. 9
8.3
108.7
13.2
8.7
25. 9
8.2
108.0
13.2
8.7
84.2
4.4
6.1
36.3
16.0
10.5
7.3
3.6
87.0
4.4
6.0
39. 2
16.3
10.5
7.0
3.6
96.7
4.4
5.8
48.7
16.6
10.2
7.0
4.0
101.6
4.4
6.0
53.6
16.6
10.1
6.9
4.0
104.7
4.2
6.3
56.2
16.6
10.3
6.9
4.2
113.7
4.4
6.1
65.1
16.3
10.7
6.8
4.3
108.3
4.4
6.5
58.9
16.6
10.8
6.8
4.3
97.9
4. 5
7.0
48.2
16.7
10.7
6.7
4.1
94.2
4.6
7.5
43.9
16.4
11.0
6.8
4.0
All manufacturing_______________
Nondurable goods.- _ ______
Textile-mill products.- __________
Apparel_______________________
F o o d .. ___ _____________ _____
Paper and allied products.. ___—
Printing and publishing______
Chemicals..- _ . _____ ______
Other nondurable goods __________
1 Estimates include all full- and part-time wage and salary workers who worked or received pay during
the pay period ending nearest the 15th of the month. Proprietors, self-employed persons,domestic servants,
and personnel of the armed forces are excluded.
2 See table 1, footnote 2.
» See article on Prospective Labor Supply on the West Coast, p. 563; also Pacific Northwest Economic
Outlook, 1947, p. 636.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
EMPLOYMENT— NORTHWEST
595
Lumber and timber basic products.— Workers in lumber and logging
activities constitute the largest peacetime manufacturing-employment
group in the INIorthwest—over a third of manufacturing employment.
About 108,000 workers were on the pay rolls in December 1946,
representing an increase of 19 percent from 1939, but a decrease from
the highest employment of the war period. With the exception of
the last quarter of 1945, when the industry was involved in labormanagement disputes, the group has been one of the more stable
sources of work in the region.
Not only is this industry an important source of employment in
this region, but in December 1946, workers in Washington and
Oregon constituted over 15 percent of the national employment in
lumber. However, because of its seasonal characteristics, even rela
tively large postwar expansion in this industry would do little to solve
the aircraft and shipbuilding displacement problem.
Food products— Food-processing workers formed the only other
large manufacturing group in the peacetime industrial economy of
the Northwest, accounting for about 17 percent of factory employ
ment. The principal food industries are fruit, vegetable, and fish
canning, and flour milling. Employment in canning is particularly
subject to extreme seasonal peaks which occur in September and
October. Variations in employment in 1946 ranged from 36,300
workers in April to 65,100 in September. Average employment
in 1946 was 47,400, a 44-percent increase over the 1939 average
of 32,900.
Other industries.—Six other small but relatively stable industries
in the Northwest furnished employment to an additional 66,000
factory workers in 1946. The largest of these was the pulp and paper
products group, employing about 16,300, an increase of 2,600 workers
over 1939. Furniture factories employed about 13,000 persons, an
increase of 3,500 from the prewar period. A number of other indus
tries—such as chemical products, machinery (except electrical),
printing, and iron and steel—employed on the average from 7,000
to 11,000 people. N onferrous-metals products employed an average
of about 6,000 workers in 1946, but the opening of several new
aluminum plants in. the region resulted in about 3,800 additional jobs
in the industry in the last half of 1946.
These smaller manufacturing industries, which are all employing
more people than in 1939, accounted for about a fourth of factory
employment in the Northwest in 1946. They are not sufficiently
large, however, to absorb any appreciable part of the workers formerly
engaged in the transportation-equipment industries or of those who
will be seasonally unemployed. vEmployment possibilities in other
lines offer more opportunities.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
596
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 194 7
OTHER INDUSTRY DIVISIONS
Trade.—The Northwest has always been a mercantile shipping and
trading center not only for the interior of these States, but for Alaska
and the Far East. Wholesale and retail trade in the Northwest
accounted for a little more than a fourth of the region’s employment
before the war and was second only to manufacturing. From
September 1939 to December 1946, there was a continuous growth
in trade amounting to an increase of over 40 percent. By the latter
date, it provided employment for 232,000 people. All types of trade
took on more workers, but the marked increases were in restaurants
and in department and drygoods stores.
Eating and drinking establishments hired 27,000 additional workers
between September 1939 and September 1945, bringing the total to
over 45,000. Even with a slight decrease from the latter period to
December 1946, employment was double the prewar total. General
merchandise stores added about 12,000 workers between September
1939 and September 1946, to bring the total to 39,000. Retail food
and liquor stores and independent wholesale stores also hired more
people. Seasonal increases continued the upward trend in most
groups between September and December 1946.
Trade in the Pacific Northwest had a somewhat stronger relative
position during the war than did trade in the rest of the Nation.
Average employment was 20 percent greater in 1944 than in 1939,
as compared with an increase of 9 percent in the Nation as a whole.
By 1946, however, the regional increase was only slightly greater than
the increase in the Nation. The general trend in the region, never
theless, was still strongly upward.
Service and miscellaneous industries.-—Service establishments, a
source of relatively steady and increasing employment, accounted for
about 15 percent of all workers in the Pacific Northwest in 1946.
Employment increased about 55 percent between September 1939
and September 1946, and this level was maintained until the end of
the year.
In the postwar period, the service industries in the Northwest have
made the second largest gain among the industry divisions. They
have also shown a considerably greater relative expansion than has
the similar group in the entire United States. They employ half
again as many workers as in 1939, as compared with an increase of
slightly more than a third in the rest of the Nation. The relative
importance of service employment in the economy of the Northwest,
its steady wartime expansion, and its continuing postwar increases
are encouraging.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
EMPLOYMENT— NORTHWEST
597
Transportation and public utilities.—'Transportation and public
utilities, accounting lor approximately 14 percent of nonagricultural
workers, employed 118,900 people in December 1946. In 1939,
these industries were the third largest employer in the region, but
after the war, with the more rapid growth of service, they dropped to
fourth place. The division as a whole gained in employment steadily
through the war years, and in 1946 the number of workers was about
30 percent greater than in 1939, slightly less of an increase than in
the entire United States. The mining and the transportation and
public utilities divisions were the only two in which the relative
increase in employment was greater in the Nation than in the North
west region.
Street railways, trucking, water transportation, and stevedoring
constituted about two-fifths of total division employment in Decem
ber 1946. The work is quite seasonal in nature, with peak periods
occurring in July and August. In 1944 the variation between the
high and low months was about 8,000 workers. In these industries,
also, the general trend has been upward.
Interstate railways employed another third of the workers in
transportation and public utilities, or about 37,900 in December 1946.
To meet the demands of war, railway employment increased around
10,000 between 1939 and 1943. Only small increases occurred in
the following years, and during 1946 a slight down trend was evident.
For most of the war years, communications had a work force of
about 13,000 and public utilities had around 8,000. With the end of
the war, however, the axailablility of men and materials, coupled
with the delayed demand for service, resulted in a sharp increase in
employment in communications. The total rose 42 percent from
Aaigust 1946 to December 1946.
Construction—'The construction industry is one of the smaller
components of nonagricultural employment in the Northwest. It
accounted for about 6 percent of all employment before the war.
However, construction workers experienced the second largest war
time expansion, ranking next to manufacturing in relative increase
over prewar employment. The increase of 130 percent in average
annual employment from 1939 to the peak in 1944 was much greater
than the increase in the United States as a whole, due to a greater
volume of war-plant and war-housing construction. In 1945, employ
ment in this division was reduced but was still 31 percent above
the 1939 level. By 1946, as materials for private building became
available, construction employment increased considerably through
out the country. Relative expansion in the Northwest was 64 per
cent, as compared with 32 percent in the whole United States. In
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
598
MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
this area, as in the United States as a whole, construction should
prove a source of increased labor demand for some time in dew of the
large backlog of demand for housing and other types of private con
struction which were postponed during the war.
Finance.—In 1939, about 26,200 workers or about 4 percent of
total workers in the region, were employed in finance, insurance, and
real estate. Slight increases occurred in 1944 and again in 1945, but
it was not until 1946 that many additional workers found employ
ment in these industries. In December 1946, the persons thus em
ployed totaled about 33,400.
Mining.—Mining is the smallest of the major industry divisions
and accounts for less than 1 percent of the region’s workers. It is
the only major group that employed fewer people in the war and post
war years than in 1939. Difficulty in securing labor, suspension of
gold-mining activities, and the closing of several chrome mines were
some of the factors involved in this decrease. By 1945, annual average
employment was 40 percent below the prewar level. By the end of
1946, however, 4,600 workers, or 75 percent of the prewar total,
were employed in mining.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Income on the West Coast1
T h e p r o p o r t io n of relatively high-wage employments on the West
Coast is greater than in the remainder of the country. This employ
ment pattern is reflected in the extent of urbanization in the area 2
which in itself is a factor helping to account for the region’s high level
of money income. Another important factor affecting the income
level of the region is the existence of a wage differential which tends
to favor West Coast workers. In almost all industries, and for similar
occupations in similar industries, West Coast wage rates are higher
than in any other region in the country.3
Expanding industry and employment in the Pacific States during
the past several decades has led to a competition for workers, in spite
of the large numbers who have migrated to the area over the years.
The variety and abundance of economic resources and the initiative
of the population have enabled the region to absorb the in-migrants
at relatively high rates of remuneration. A greater proportion of the
population is in the most productive age range than is in the group
of younger dependents. The large proportion of older persons with
independent incomes and the expenditures of the large numbers of
tourists help to support the important trade and service industries.
The growth in the aggregate amount of income payments in these
States 4 has been a natural accompaniment to the increase in popula
tion and economic activity. The region experienced the greatest rate
of income growth of any large area in the country, both in the prewar
and in the war years, exceeding even the substantial increases in the
Southern States.5 The West Coast share of the country’s total
income payments increased steadily from 1929 to 1944, and the gen
eral level of this proportion appears to have been maintained since
the end of the war.
The decrease in income from war manufacturing, at the end of
World War II, was largely offset by increases in mustering-out pay1 Prepared by Solomon Shapiro of the Bureau’s Labor Economics Staff. The State income data used in
this article have been published or made available by the National Income Division of the Office of Business
Economics of the U. S. Department of Commerce. The cooperation of this Division is gratefully acknowl
edged.
2 While urbanization in the States of Washington and Oregon was somewhat below the level for the
United States in 1940, California, with about 70 percent of the Pacific Coast population, had 71 percent of
its population living in cities in that year.
2 See Regional Wage Differentials, by Harry Ober and Carrie Glasser, M onthly Labor Review, October
1946.
4 State income payments represent income received in the various States by individuals, from payers
either within or outside the State. These payments include certain “nonproductive” receipts which are
included in money income, such as social-security benefits and relief payments. They exclude certain items
of income, like business savings, which accrue to, but are not received by, the population. Certain imputed
items, such as products consumed on the farm, are also included.
* See Income in the South. Monthly Labor Review, October 1946.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
599
600
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
rrients, unemployment benefits, and payments in trade, service, and
other civilian industries. As a result, aggregate income payments in
the fourth quarter of 1945, the most recent period for which data are
available, were only 5 percent below the peak of war production.
Further expansion in the civilian segments of the economy since 1945
has enabled the region to keep the approximate income relationship
to the rest of the country which it achieved at the height of war
production,
Because of its strategic location with respect to the Pacific theater
of war, and the availability of resources for shipbuilding and other war
manufactures, the West Coast was the scene of tremendous war ac
tivity. This was particularly so in the Seattle-Tacoma area in
Washington, the Portland-Vancouver area in Oregon and Washington,
and the San Francisco and Los Angeles areas in California.6 The
presence of various embarkation points on the Coast resulted in a
concentration of military personnel, while the increase in war manu
facturing caused the migration of hundreds of thousands of workers
to the region. The consequent increase in the flow of income caused
even the nonmilitary segments of the economy, such as trade and
service, to increase at a faster rate than in the rest of the country.
The spectacular expansion of the shipbuilding and aircraft industries
on the West Coast helped to bring war manufacturing pay rolls from
5 percent of the area’s total income payments in 1940 to about 20
percent in 1944. In 1945, when war manufacturing sharply declined,
trade and service pay rolls increased almost 9 percent, which offset
about a fifth of the decrease in war manufacturing. Federal Govern
ment pay rolls contributed about 9 percent of the total increase in
income between 1940 and 1944; these continued to increase in 1945
and offset about 3 percent of the decrease in war manufacturing in
that year.
The increase of 1,239 million dollars in military payments was about
12 percent of the total increase in income payments between 1940
and 1944; by the end of the period this type of payment constituted
over 7 percent of total income. The inclusion of mustering-out pay
raised this percentage to over 8 in 1945. Agricultural income also con
tributed about 12 percent of the increase in total income payments
in the region between 1940 and 1944. A slight decline was expe
rienced in 1945, even though this type of income continued to increase
in the other States. A somewhat greater relative increase in farm
production expenses in the Pacific States largely accounts for the
decline.
o U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 826, Impact of the War on Employment in 181 Centers
of War Activity, 1945.
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INCOME— WEST COAST
Per Capita Income
Since 1941, the West Coast has replaced the Middle East States 7 as
the region of highest per capita incomes (aggregate income payments
divided by total population resident in the area). The more rapid
increase in incomes on the West Coast, from the depths of the depres
sion in the thirties to the high point of war activity, caused an increas
ing disparity between per capita incomes on the West Coast and the
rest of the country.
For the past few decades, both the population and per capita income
in the region have increased more rapidly than in other areas of the
country. The capacity of the area to absorb the migrant workers
and older retired persons and to increase per capita income at the
same time has been rather striking. Among the three States of the
West Coast, California has consistently shown the highest per capita
income, Washington being second. Since the war, these two States
have been at or above the level of New York and Connecticut, the
traditional leaders in average incomes.
Payments to civilian population.—During the war years, per capita
incomes were, to some extent, influenced by the inclusion of military
personnel and pay, particularly in the areas of large military con
centrations. While generally per capita income relates to the entire
T a b l e 1. -Per capita income payments1 to civilian population, West Coast and all other
States, 1940-4o 2
West Coast
Year
United
States
Total
California
Oregon
Washing
ton
All other
States
Civilian per capita income payments
1940______________________
1941............. ...... .......................
1942— . ___ _______________
1943______________________
1944______________________
1945______________________
$573
694
860
1, 050
1,143
1,158
$746
932
1,190
1,465
1,543
1,485
$803
981
1, 214
1,497
1,570
1,526
$578
753
1,062
1,265
1,331
1,272
$626
842
1,173
1,456
1, 563
1,447
$560
675
832
1,012
1,105
1,126
Percent of national civilian per capita income
1940— ____ _______________
1941______________________
1942................. ..........................
1943— ____ ______________
1944______________________
1945______________________
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
130.2
134.3
138.4
139.5
135.0
128.2
140.1
141.4
141.2
142.6
137.4
131.8
100.9
108.5
123.5
120.5
116.4
109.8
109.2
121.3
136.4
138.7
136.7
125.0
97.7
97.3
96.7
96.4
96.7
97.2
1 Per capita income payments are derived by division of total income payments to civilians (total income
payments less net pay of the armed forces) by total civilian population.
1 Source: U. S. Departm ent of Commerce, Survey of Current Business, August 1946, and unpublished
data.
7Delaware, District of Columbia, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia.
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M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
population, including military personnel, per capita income pay
ments to civilians are a somewhat better measure of the income status
of the average individual during the war. However, so far as trends
or interregional relationships are concerned, little difference results
from the two methods of computation of per capita income.
Table 1 shows the per capita income payments to the civilian popu
lation on the West Coast and in the other States for the period 194045. The average civilian income of $746 in the region in 1940 was
$186 more than in the rest of the country. By 1943, this disparity
had increased to $453, but the subsequent relative decline in the rate
of increase reduced the difference to $359 in 1945. Compared with
the average civilian income for the country as a whole, the West
Coast average was about 30 percent greater in 1940 and about 40
percent greater in 1943; but in 1945, the average was only 28 percent
greater.
Payments to total population {including military personnel).—Table
2 shows per capita income payments for the entire population from
1929 to 1945, on the West Coast and in the rest of the country. The
inclusion of the armed forces in the computation of per capita incomes
decreases average incomes on the West Coast somewhat, particularly
in the last 3 years of the war. This is in interesting contrast to the
situation in the low income areas, such as the South, where military
T able 2.—Per capita income payments 1 and percent of national per capita income,
West Coast and all other States, 1929—45 2
Year
United
States
West Coast
California
Total
Oregon
Washington
All other
States
Per capita income payments
1929
1933
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
_______________
_________________
____________________
_______________
_____________
_____________________
_____________________
_________________
_____________________
-
$680
368
539
575
693
862
1,040
1,133
1,150
$865
465
691
749
925
1,177
1,402
1,494
1,446
$946
511
741
805
974
1,189
1,426
1,513
1,480
$640
337
544
579
752
1,075
1,244
1,318
1,266
$713
369
588
632
833
1,152
1,398
1,519
1,407
$667
361
527
561
674
835
1,005
1,097
1,120
104.9
100.3
109.1
109.9
120.2
133.6
134.4
134.1
122.3
98.1
98.1
97.8
97.6
97.3
96.9
96.6
96.8
97.4
Percent of national per capita income
1929______________________
1933______________________
1939______________________
1940______________________
1941 __
_______
1942______________________
1943 __
_____ __________
1944 __
________________
1945______________________
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
127.2
126.4
128.2
130.3
133.5
136.5
134.8
131.9
125.7
139.1
138.9
137.5
140.0
140.5
139.0
137.1
133.5
128.7
94. 1
91.6
100.9
100.7
108.5
124.7
119.6
116.3
110.1
1 Per capita income payments are derived by division of total income payments by total population
(excluding armed forces and civilians outside Continental United States).
2 Source: U. S. Department of Commerce, Survey of Current Business, August 1946, and unpublished
data.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
603
INCOME— WEST COAST
pay was higher than average civilian income and the inclusion of the
former increased per capita incomes. In 1940, the number of mili
tary personnel was not great enough to make a difference in the two
measures. In 1943, however, when military personnel within conti
nental United States reached its peak, the per capita income for the
entire population was $63 below that for civilians alone, as compared
with $7 in the rest of the country. In the 13 Southern States per
capita income for the entire population was $12 more than that for
civilians alone.
Per capita income for the whole population reduces somewhat the
disparity between average incomes on the West Coast and in the
rest of the country. In 1943, for instance, West Coast per capita
incomes (including armed forces) were 134.8 percent of the national
average compared with 139.5 percent for civilian per capita incomes.
,
Total Income and Types of Payments 1929-45
The remarkable changes in the volume of income payments after
1929 were accompanied by changes in the proportions represented by
aggregate wages and salaries, property income, proprietors’ income,
and other income payments. While the aggregate amounts of the
various types of income increased during the war period, the relative
importance of the income shares was considerably altered, in some
cases the trend being reversed. These changing shares reflect, to a
large degree, the changing structure of the economy.8 Table 3 shows
the composition of income payments on the West Coast and in the
rest of the country and the relation of the components to the total
since 1929.
Aggregate income payments.—The expansion in business activity
and in the income of individuals, first in the recovery period of the
thirties and then during the immediate prewar and war periods, was at
a faster rate in the Pacific States than in the rest of the country. Total
income payments of 7,339 million dollars on the West Coast were 6
percent greater in 1940 than in 1929; in the remainder of the country,
the 1940 payments were still 10 percent below the 1929 figure. During
the next 2 years aggregate income payments increased at a consider
ably more rapid rate on the West Coast than in the remainder of the
country. However, after 1942 the rate of increase was not much
8 The inclusion of net pay of the armed forces tends to distort the relationship of wages and salaries to total
income during the war years. The deduction from m ilitary pay for family allowances and allotments and
their inclusion in other income is another difficulty in seeing true relationships. The proportions, based
on the aggregates of the various types of payments, do not measure the income status of the individuals who
receive such income. No account is taken of the numbers of persons in the various groups, a greater change
in which may, for the average individual, offset the change in the aggregate. Furthermore, many indi
viduals receive more than one type of income although usually only one type is significant. Data of this
sort are not available and without a detailed knowledge of the distribution of income recipients an analysis
of the income of individuals is not satisfactory.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
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M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
greater than in the other States, and in 1945 the West Coast ex
perienced little change while the increase continued in the rest of
the country. During the war period the State of Washington ex
perienced the greatest relative expansion of total income payments
in the country, an increase of 185 percent between 1940 and 1945.
As a result of the more rapid growth of economic activity in the
West Coast area, its share of the country’s aggregate income payments
rose from 8.4 percent in 1929 to 9.7 percent in 1940 and to 11.6 percent
in 1945.
T able 3.— Total income payments and their composition, West Coast and all other
States, 1929-45 1
All other States
West Coast States
Year
Total
income
pay
ments 2
Wages Propri Prop
Other
and
erty income8
etors’
sala
ries 3 income4 income8
Total Wages Propri Prop
Other
income and
etors’ erty income8
pay
sala
ments2 ries 3 income4 income8
Amount (in millions)
1929_____________
1933_____________
1939_____________
1940_____________
1941_____________
i942_____________
1943_____________
1944_____________
1945,,....... ..............
$6, 924
4,048
6, 646
7, 339
9, 369
12, 558
16, 454
17, 910
17,644
$4, 297
2, 483
4,101
4, 538
5, 881
8, 647
11, 781
12,614
11,925
$1,115
614
1,016
1,167
1, 594
2,066
2,597
2,820
2,810
$1, 408
749
1, 057
1,128
1,422
1,395
1,492
1,607
1,729
$104
202
472
506
472
450
584
869
1,180
$75, 693 $48.139 $12, 701 $13, 878
6,018
7,979
42, 225 26, 083
63, 955 39, 749 9, 957 9, 966
68,513 43,457 10, 681 10, 207
82, 900 54, 062 14, 180 10, 861
102, 743 69, 301 18, 306 11,395
122, 831 84,616 20, 823 12,175
131, 750 89, 057 21, 230 13, 055
135,060 86,767 22, 584 14,035
$975
2,145
4, 283
4,168
3, 787
3, 741
5, 217
8,408
11, 674
Percentage distribution
1929_____________
1933_____________
1939_____________
1940_____________
J941_____________
1942_____________
1943_____________
1944_____________
1945_____________
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
62.1
61.3
61.7
61.8
62.8
68.9
71.6
70.4
67.6
16.1
15.2
15.3
15.9
17.0
16.4
15.8
15. 7
15.9
20.3
18.5
15.9
15.4
15.2
11.1
9.1
9.0
9.8
1.5
5.0
7. 1
6.9
5.0
3.6
3.5
4. 9
6.7
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
63.6
61.8
62.1
63.4
65.2
67.5
68. 9
67.6
64.2
10.8
14.2
15.6
15.6
17.1
17.8
17.0
16.1
16.7
18.3
18.9
15.6
14.9
13.1
11.1
9. 9
9.9
10.4
1.3
5.1
6.7
6.1
4.6
•3.6
4.2
6.4
8.7
' Source: U. S. Department of Commerce, Survey of Current Business, August 1945 and August 1946.
2 Includes only payments to residents of the continental United States; excludes pay of Federal civilian
employees and armed forces stationed outside the country with the exception of that paît flowing into this
country in the form of voluntary allotments of pay and contributions to family allowance payments by mili
tary personnel to their dependents.
3 After deduction of employees' contributions to social security, railroad retirement, railroad unemploy
ment insurance, and Government retirement programs. Pay of the armed forces, net of contributions to
family allowance payments and of allotments to individuals, is allocated by States in terms of the State of
duty.
4 Represents the net income of unincorporated establishments, including farms, before owners’ with
drawals.
f Includes dividends, interest, net rents, and royalties.
• Includes public assistance and other direct relief; labor items such as work relief, veterans’ pensions and
benefits, Government retirement payments, workmen’s compensatio l, and social-insurance benefits;
mustering-out payments to discharged servicemen; and family allowance payments and allotments of pay
to dependents of military personnel (allocated to State of dependent’s residence!.
Wages and salaries.-—Total wages and salaries paid in the region
increased from 2,483 million^ dollars in 1933 to 4,538 million dollars
in 1940, and to 12,614 million dollars in 1944, the year of greatest
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
INCOME— WEST COAST
605
war activity. The increase between the extreme dates was 408
percent, but in the remainder of the country it was only 241 percent.
Wages and salaries in the West Coast States, which constituted
about 62 percent of total income payments before the war, increased
to 71.6 percent in 1943. The proportion was slightly below that of
the rest of the country before the war; since 1942 this position has
been reversed.
Proprietors’ income.—West Coast farmers and unincorporated busi
nesses, taken as a group, also enhanced their position relative to the
same group in the rest of the country. Between 1933 and 1945,
proprietors’ income on the Pacific Coast rose 358 percent compared
with a 275-percent increase elsewhere. Before the war, this type
of income was about as important a component of total income in
the Pacific States as in the rest of the country. In 1940 and 1941,
it became relatively more important on the West Coast, but declined
thereafter to the prewar relationship. The ratio of proprietors’ to
total income remained somewhat higher in the rest of the country.
The greater relative increase in farm income—a more important
component outside the West Coast—may account for the latter fact.
Property income.—Receivers of property income, as a group, have
had the smallest share in the expansion of aggregate income in the
country since the depression years. While other types of income
increased threefold to fivefold throughout the country, property
income was only about 80 percent higher in 1945 than in 1933. In
the Pacific States, however, the increase (131 percent) was significantly
larger than in the country as a whole. Declining interest rates and
decreased dividends in the thirties together with rent ceilings and
increased taxes during the war combined to cause a continuous decline
in the relative share of this type of income. Since 1941, the decline
in the proportion of this type of income on the West Coast was greater
than in the rest of the country.
Other income.—“Other income” increased in relation to the total
during the depression years, with the growth of relief and work-relief
payments and, after 1935, social-security benefits. These payments
declined in relative importance in the early war years as a result of
the tremendous increase in the other income components. In 1944
and 1945, the large amounts of allowances and allotments to families
of servicemen together with mustering-out pay were significant
enough to raise the proportion of “other” income. This is true of
both the West Coast and the rest of the country; but after 1942, the
increases were somewhat less on the West Coast than in the other
States.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
606
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
,
Wages and Salaries and Their Composition 1940-45
The relatively greater increase in economic activity in all segments
of the West Coast economy during the war years is indicated in the
increasing proportions of the country’s total wages and salaries paid
to the major industry groups of wage and salary earners on the West
Coast, except manufacturing, in which some decline occurred during
the last war years (table 4). Table 5 and the chart show the relative
importance of the major industrial components of wages and salaries
on the West Coast and in all other States during the war period.
Aggregate wages and salaries.—Since the increase in wages and sala
ries was greater on the West Coast than in the rest of the country,
this type of payment rose from 9.5 percent of the country’s total in
1940 to 12.1 percent in 1945. The rate of growth during the war
years was also greater for each of the industry components of total
wages and salaries and, with a few exceptions, greater than in any other
region.
T able 4.—Percent that West Coast ivages and salaries form of national total, by
components, 1940-45 1
Percent of national to tal wage and salafy payments
Year
1940_______ ______ ______
1941____ _____ ___________
1942_____________________
1943_____________ _____
1944________
1945______________________
West
Coast
total
Manu
facturing
9. 5
9.8
11.1
12. 2
12.4
12.1
Trade and
service
0.6
7. 5
9.9
11.3
11.1
9.6
Federal
Govern
ment (civil
executive)
Farm
17.1
18.3
20.1
22.4
23.6
24.3
11.4
11.7
12.3
13.1
13.5
13.4
All other
9.4
10.6
12.2
12. 8
14.3
15.3
10.1
10.3
11.1
12.1
12.4
12.6
1 Source: Based on data from Department of Commerce.
T able 5.—Percentage distribution of civilian ivages and salaries and their components,
West Coast and all other States, 1940 and 1943-45 1
West Coast States
All other States
Component
1940
1943
1944
1945
1940
1943
1944
22.7
33.9
3.8
3.8
35.8
42.3
21.9
4.0
8.4
23.4
40.0
22.9
4.2
9.2
23.7
32.6
26.3
4.8
10.0
26.3
33.3
27.1
1.9
3.8
33.9
45.1
19.6
1.9
7.7
25.7
44.7
20.4
1.9
7.6
25.4
40.9
22.7
2.0
7.4
27.0
Total____________________________ 100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Civilian wages and salaries: *
Manufacturing
. ________________
Trade and service 3__ _ ...........................
Agriculture__ _ ______________ __
Federal Government A. _____________
All other__________________________
1 Source: Based on data from Department of Commerce.
s After deduction of employees’ contributions under social-insurance programs.
8 Before deduction of social-insurance contributions.
* Before deduction of civil-service retirement contributions of employees.
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1945
73603947 -
WEST COAST AND ALL OTHER STATES
WEST COAST
ALL OTHER STATES
INCOME— WEST COAST
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF CIVILIAN WAGES AND SALARIES
IN SELECTED INDUSTRIES
05
o
608
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
Manufacturing wages and salaries.—These rose 365 percent in
the Pacific States from 1940 to 1945. Because a substantial part
of the increase was due to war manufacturing, a considerable decline
occurred in 1945 after the end of the war. During the same period
factory pay rolls increased only 164 percent in the rest of the country,
but the relative decline in 1945 was much less than in the West Coast
States. The increased importance of manufacturing on the West
Coast as a result of the war is indicated by the region’s proportions
of the country’s total manufacturing pay roll—5.8 percent in 1929,
6.6 percent in 1940, and 11.3 percent in 1943. The region’s factory
pay rolls became the most important component of total civilian wages
and salaries, rising from 22.7 percent of the total in 1940 to 42.3 per
cent in 1943. In spite of the drop in war manufactures, the propor
tion of manufacturing wages and salaries in 1945 was still greater
than that of trade and service.
Farm wages.—With the highest wage level for farm labor in the
country, the West Coast attracted farm workers during the war when
other areas were losing them. West Coast farm wage rates, starting
from a relative high level at the beginning of the war, increased more
rapidly than in any other region, thus raising aggregate farm wages
in this area from 14.6 percent of the country’s total in 1933 to 17.1
percent in 1940 and to 24.3 percent in 1945. Aggregate farm wages
in the 3 West Coast States almost equalled the amount paid in the 13
Southern States where 5 or 6 times as many hired farm workers were
employed. With a smaller proportion of farm labor in the Pacific
Coast labor force than in the rest of the country, farm wages were
4.8 percent of total civilian wages and salaries in 1945 compared with
2.0 percent in the other States.
Trade and service wages and salaries.—Increases in wages and sal
aries and other types of income helped to swell the amounts of wages
and salaries paid in the Pacific trade and service industries between
1940 and 1945 by about 94 percent. The comparable figure for the
rest of the country is 62 percent. Nevertheless, trade and service
pay rolls became a less important component of total wages and
salaries during the war because of the restrictions on consumer goods
and services, and the greater importance given to manufacturing and
agriculture. Trade and service pay rolls on the West Coast de
creased from 33.9 percent of total wages and salaries in 1940 to 21.9
percent in 1943; but with the decline in war manufacturing in 1945,
they rose to 26.3 percent.
Federal Government (civil executive) wages and salaries.—Pay rolls
in the executive branch of the Federal Government in the West Coast
region increased from 9.4 percent of the national total in 1940 to 15.3
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
INCOME— WEST COAST
609
percent in 1945. These payments increased more than fivefold in the
Pacific States between 1940 and 1945, compared with an increase of
279 percent for the rest of the country. The greater expansion in
Federal pay rolls on the West Coast resulted from the greater relative
increase in war activity in the region.
Homesteads for Veterans in Yakima Valley1
S e v e n t e e n h u n d r e d acres of irrigated farm lands in the Yakima
Valley of the State of Washington were opened as homesteads for men
and women veterans of World War II on April 1, 1947. The land is
part of more than 4,100 acres of public lands of the Roza Division of
Yakima Project which are to become available for homesteads as
rapidly as the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation can complete irrigation
facilities that are under construction.
In announcing the availability of the initial 28 homesteads in this
region, the Secretary of the Interior stated that the land is rich and
suitable for a variety of crops, when irrigated. Sixteen of the 28
farms allotted to veterans in April were fully or partly developed on a
lease basis during wartime. The remaining 12 units are lowlands
covered with sagebrush. Each unit is from 40 to 100 acres.
To qualify, a veteran must have had at least 90 days’ service during
World War II. His eligibility was determined by a board of examiners
and, in general, was dependent upon 2 years of farm experience, $3,000
in liquid capital or assets or credit usable in the development of an
irrigated farm, good character and industry, and the physical ability
to do the required farm work. Applicants also were required to meet
the principal qualifications of the Federal homestead laws including
age (21 years or head of a family, with exceptions for veterans),
citizenship (citizens or having declared their intention to become
citizens), and limitation of land ownership (not more than 160 acres
in the United States). The cost to the homesteader was only the
Government fee and irrigation construction charges.
1 Information is from press release No. 14229 of the U. S. Department of the Interior, Information
Service, dated February 14, 1947.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Postwar Wage Developments in the Pacific Region1
in 1945 marked the beginning of negotiations leading toward
widespread wage adjustments on the Pacific Coast. The relatively
high degree of union organization in the Pacific region2 provided
machinery for negotations on a broad area basis, and many significant
and far reaching wage changes were made. This article summarizes
available information on the movement of manufacturing and non
manufacturing wages in the region during recent years, and discusses
significant wage negotiations in a number of the region’s leading
industries that influenced the course of postwar wage movements.3
The Pacific States have long enjoyed a favorable position in the
Nation’s wage structure. As a region these States have the highest
general wage level in the country, and their major cities rank among
the top-wage areas in the United States.
West Coast wages in 37 manufacturing and 7 nonmanufacturing
industries are compared with industry-average wages in table 1.
Although the choice of industries for which data are presented was
limited by the availability of recent information, those selected
demonstrate conclusively the high general wage level of the Pacific
region.4
V J -day
Recent Wage-Rate Trends in Manufacturing
This wage leadership, established over a long period of time, has
been maintained during the recent war and postwar years. The
Bureau of Labor Statistics index of urban wage rates,5 available since
1 Prepared by Leonard R. Linsenxnayer, Wage Analyst, of the Bureau’s San Francisco Regional Office.
2 The Pacific region as referred to in this article comprises the States of Washington, Oregon, California,
and Nevada.
2 The article is not concerned with the technical aspects or evaluation of Government wage-price policies
and machinery following VJ-day. For a discussion of this subject, see Wage Policy and the Role of FactFinding Boards, Monthly Labor Review, April 1946 (p. 537).
4 See also Regional Wage Differentials (Labor in the South), M onthly Labor Review, October 1946, and
Intercity Variations in Wage Levels, Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 793 (reprinted from Monthly
Labor Review, August 1944).
{ For the latest report on urban wage trends for the United States as a whole, see Monthly Labor Review,
March 1947 (p. 369).
The urban wage rate series measures trends in basic wage rates resulting from general wage changes and
from individual wage-rate adjustments within individual occupational classifications. For incentive
workers, they reflect changes in straight-time hourly earnings of key occupational groups. They exclude
the effects of such factors as the shifting of employment among regions, industries, and occupations, and
most of the changes in the composition of the labor force, as well as changes in payments for overtime and
late-shift work, vacations and holidays, and other similar items.
Data for the national studies have been collected periodically from approximately 6,500 identical estab
lishments in 69 urban areas. Of these, some 700 establishments are located in seven urban areas of the Pacific
region. The information concerning industry wage trends for the region and for specific cities was derived
from a special anslysis of data collected in these national surveys.
610
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POSTWAR WAGE DEVELOPMENTS----PACIFIC REGION
April 1943 for the Pacific region, shows that manufacturing wages in
that region advanced 8.2 percent during the last 2 years of heavy
T a b l e 1.—Straight-time average hourly earnings in selected industries, United States and
Pacific region
Straight-time average hourly earnings
Industry
Date of
survey
Pacific region 1
United
States
San
Los
Fran
Total Angeles
cisco
Port
land
Seattle
Manufacturing
Apparel:
Men’s and boys’ dress shirts, etc.......
Overalls and industrial garments___
Women’s coats and suits...............
Women’s and misses’ dresses............
Work pants, cotton___ _____ ____
Chemicals and allied products:
Chemicals, industrial.........................
Drugs and medicines_____________
Paints and varnishes............ ...........
Perfumes and cosmetics___ _______
Soap and glycerin...------ ------------Food products:
Bread and bakery products...............
Furniture:
Wood furniture, other titan up
holstered____________________
Wood furniture, upholstered______
Leather products:
Footwear............................................
Lumber_________ _____ _________ _
Metal products:
Aircraft engines and parts________
Electrical generating equipment...... .
Electroplating, plating, and polishing.
Fabricated structural steel________
Ferrous foundries...............................
Iron and steel forgings------ -----------Machinery, miscellaneous..................
Machine tools-------- ------------------Machine tool accessories__________
Nonferrous metal foundries........... .
Power boilers________ __________
Radios, etc___________ ______ ___
Sheet-metal work.............................
Stoves and ranges..................... .........
Tool and die jobbing shops________
Paper and allied products:
Corrugated and fiber boxes;......... ......
Folding paper boxes................ .........
Set-up boxes............. ........................
Structural clay products_____________
Textile mills:
Knit outerwear__________ _______
Woolen and worsted..........................
Tobacco products:
Cigars................... .......... ......... ........
Apr. 1945
...d o _____
July 1946
Apr. 1945
...d o -------
$0.6»
Jan. 1946
July 1946
...d o ........
...d o _____
...d o .........
1.14
.92
1. 22
.78
1.10
.93
1.19
July 1945
.76
Oct. 1945
...do_____
.70
...d o ____
Aug. 1944
.64
1.87
1.31
.58
1.01
$
0. 86
.84
2. 06
1.28
.81
.99
1.10
0.90
.94
$0. 81
.77
$0.85
1.33
.92
1.13
.79
.94
1.21
1. 24
1.05
1.17
1.07
.98
1.06
.94
1.19
1.19
.91
.99
1.06
.94
1. 30
1.00
.93
1.18
.86
.83
.72
1.16
2 1.18
1.16
Jan. 1945
...d o ____
...d o ____
—do____
...d o ____
— do____
...d o ..........
...d o _____
— do.........
— do_____
...d o _____
...d o _____
...d o _____
July 1946
Jan. 1945
1.14
.98
1.09
1.06
1.11
1.13
1.01
1.18
.98
1.05
1.08
1.03
.98
.85
1.06
1.08
1.28
.96
1.35
/ 1.30
1.23
Oct. 1945
...d o ------...d o ........
— do..........
.78
.79
1.00
.88
.97
1.00
1.02
1.19
1.09
1.31
1.14
1.08
1.46
1.12
1.20
.95
.80
.82
3.95
July 1946
Apr. 1946
.94
.96
.92
Jan. 1946
.73
1.02
July 1946
July 1945
...d o -------
.87
1.03
.52
1.53
Apr. 1945
...d o ____
...d o ____
July 1945
.79
.67
.41
.87
.92
.73
.55
.68
1.36
1.18
1.06
1.26
1.34
1.15
1.13
1.15
1.20
1. 21
1.12
1.16
1.14
1.21
1.12
1.12
1.23
1.19
1.27
1.05
1.46
1. 29
1.35
1.11
1.17
1.17
.94
1.32
1.31
1. 23
1. 26
1.20
1.04
.80
.92
.98
.85
1.12
1.11
1.11
1.45
Nonmanufacturing
Auto repair shops______ _____
Electric light and power........ .
Power laundries..........................
Retail trade:
Clothing stores....... ...............
Department stores.............
Limited-price variety stoi es.
Warehousing and storage............
1.11
1.00
.66
.90
.54
.94
1.50
1.53
.77
.69
.74
1.01
.79
.74
.58
1.05
.91
.74
.60
1.04
.82
.61
1. 05
1 In this article Pacific region refers to the States of Washington, Oregon, California, and Nevada.
2Includes Pacific and Mountain regions.
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MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
war production (April 1943 to April 1945) and 18.3 percent during
the reconversion and postwar period (April 1945 to October 1946),
in contrast with comparable rises of 9.9 and 18.8 percent for the entire
country (table 2). The slightly larger increases registered by the
national index do not reflect loss of position by the Pacific region,
but rather marked improvement in the relative position of certain
low-wage areas and industries.
T able 2.—Percent change in urban wage rates in manufacturing, by industry group,
Pacific region and United States, A pril 1943 to October 1946
Percent change from—
April 1943 to
April 1945
Industry group 1
Pacific
region
All manufacturing_________________ .
Food and kindred products........ ........
Apparel and allied products____ ____
Printing, publishing, and allied indus
tries________________ . _______
Products of petroleum and coal_____
Rubber products.________________
Shipbuilding____ _____
______
Other metal products______________
United
States
April 1945 to
October 1946
Pacific
region
April 1943 to
October 1946
United
States
Pacific
region
United
States
8.2
4.3
25.8
9.9
7.7
20.4
18.3
23.1
25.2
18.8
20.2
20.0
28.0
28.4
57.5
30.6
29.5
44.5
8.4
2 1.1
15.9
2 .8
10.2
9.6
.1
F. 2
2.1
10.7
23.6
17.8
12.5
17.3
16.7
21.4
20.4
16.6
15.9
16.3
34.0
3 19.1
30.4
3 18.2
28.6
33.1
20.5
26.2
18.3
28.7
1Data for several industry groups included in the survey are not presented separately, largely because
of the relatively minor position of these industries in the urban areas studied.
2 October 1943 to April 1945.
3 October 1943 to October 1946.
POSTWAR INCREASES IN RATES
Increases in wage rates during wartime were held to moderate pro
portions as a consequence of the Government’s wage stabilization
program. These wartime advances in many industries resulted pri
marily from selective rate adjustments to individuals and to small
groups of workers designed to correct various types of wage inequities,
from the operation of incentive wage systems, and from “upgrading”
classification practices of individual employers to meet labor market
exigencies. Some industries important in the war effort also received
across-the-board increases approvable under wartime wage controls.
With the consumers’ price index registering an advance substantially
in excess of the 15-percent figure to which wartime general wage in
creases had been geared by the Little Steel formula; with the disap
pearance of wartime earnings resulting from long hours of work and
overtime and night-shift premium pay; with the sharp reduction in
employment in the high-wage war industries and the reemployment
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POSTWAR WAGE DEVELOPMENTS— PACIFIC REGION
613
of workers in lower-wage peacetime industries—the stage was set
after hostilities ended for organized labor to begin a drive for increases
in wage rates. Upward revisions were granted by some companies as
soon as wage controls were relaxed after YJ-day. The movement
gained momentum during the last quarter of 1945, resulting in the
formation of patterns of wage increase which influenced postwar wage
adjustments in entire industries and areas. In contrast to wartime
wage increases, these early postwar revisions in rate scales usually
took the form of increases “ across the board” or of uniform amounts
for all workers.
By October 1946 the wave of postwar wage increases had covered
the Nation. Wage rates on the Pacific Coast rose 18.3 percent be
tween April 1945 and October 1946. As few upward wage adjust
ments occurred in this region between April 1945 and VJ-day,
virtually all this gain can be accredited to postwar wage advances.
The last quarter of 1946 saw the beginning of negotiations leading
to “second round” wage adjustments.
Because the first major postwar wage revisions throughout industry
were strongly influenced by the “ pattern-setting” increase of eaily
1946 announced for a, few major industries, there has been remarkable
uniformity in the average amounts by which wage rates have been in
creased in various manufacturing industries during the postwar period.
When translated into percentages of former base rates, these amounts,
of course, appear as relatively larger gains for the lower-wage than for
the higher-wage industries.
The movement of wage rates in some of the more important groups
of industries found in. urban areas of the Pacific region, and compara
ble data for the Nation as a whole, are shown in table 2. Most of
the '^industries in this Pacific region have conformed closely to the
pattern of increases shown by the country as a whole. The Pacific
Coast apparel industry has improved its relative standing substan
tially, and the rubber industry to a lesser extent. The food industries
have kept pace with other industries in postwar gains, but had rela
tively low wartime increases.
WAGE-RATE CHANGES IN PACIFIC COAST CITIES
Manufacturing wage earners in each of the major cities of the
Pacific region—Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, and Portland—
have experienced postwar wage-rate gains somewhat similar to the
regional average. Los Angeles rates registered the largest increase
(19.5 percent between April 1945 and October 1946) and Seattle the
lowest (15.5 percent). The trend of manufacturing wage rates in
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614
MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 194 7
these cities over the 3%-year period for which data are available is
shown in table 3.6
Primarily because of much-higher-than-average gains during the
period of wartime wage stabilization, Los Angeles wage rates in
October 1946 showed a net gain of 32.5 percent over the April 1943
level (table 3), which is about 1.9 percentage points above the na
tional average and 4.5 points above the average for the Pacific region.
To some extent this greater percentage increase is attributable to the
T able 3.—Percent change in urban wage rates in manufacturing industries, Pacific
Coast cities, A pril 1943 to October 1946 1
Percent change from—
City
April 1943 April 1945 April 1943
to April to October to October
1945
1946
1946
Pacific region____________
8.2
18.3
28.0
Seattle________ ____
Portland_____________
San Francisco____ ______
Los Angeles___________ __
4.0
1.4
2.1
10.9
215. 5
17.8
16.9
19.5
2 20.2
19.5
19.4
32.5
1 October 1943 employment was used for weighting purposes in the combination of industry-area wage
data. For estimates based on current employment weights, see footnote 6 below.
2 Data partially estimated.
fact that Los Angeles had a lower original wage level than the other
Pacific cities;7but it is caused, in part, by the nature of her industries
and by wartime wage-control problems arising from the complex and
rapidly changing industrial structure of the area during the war
period. The percentage figures do not, of course, indicate the extent
to which increases in wage rates in Los Angeles have reduced the
9 Because basic data required for revising industry-area employment weights to conform to postwar
distribution of employment are not yet available, the urban wage-rate indexes are still being computed using
wartime (October 1943) weights. In view of major changes in employment distribution by industry, brought
about in Pacific Coast cities by reconversion of war industries, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has computed
the postwar changes in wage rates for the four major Pacific cities using estimated current employment
weights. The difference between estimates thus derived for manufacturing industries and the wage increases
derived from the use of October 1943 weights is shown below:
Percent change, April 1945
to October 1946, using—
Area
October 1943
employment
weights
All manufacturing, Pacific region
Seattle___________________
Portland______________ ... .
San Francisco.. . . _________
Los Angeles_______ ______
18.3
15.5
17.8
16.9
19.5
Estimated
October 1946
employment
weights
19.9
14.2
22.9
18.3
21.6
7 See Intercity Variations in Wage Levels, Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin No. 793 (reprinted from
Monthly Labor Review, August 1944).
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POSTWAR WAGE DEVELOPMENTS— PACIFIC REGION
615
previously existing disparity between her wage levels and those of
the other Coast areas; and comprehensive data are not available
for such an analysis. There is strong support, however, in the results
of a number of industry-area occupational wage surveys conducted in
1945 and 1946 for the assumption that Los Angeles wage levels, in
general, now approach those of Seattle, Portland, and San Francisco.
Summary data from these surveys for the four cities are shown in
table 1 (p. 611). In some industries, wages in Los Angeles exceed
those in one or more of the other areas.
T able 4.—Percent change in urban wage rates in selected manufacturing industry groups,
Pacific Coast cities,1 A pril 1943 to October 1946
Percent change from—
Industry group and city
Printing, publishing, and allied in
dustries:
Seattle__________________ ____
Portland_____________________
San Francisco________________
Los Angeles___________ _____
Products of pet roleum and coal:
San Francisco___ ______ ______
Los Angeles...... .........................
Shipbuilding:
Seattle______________________
Portland_____________________
San Francisco— _____________
Los Angeles---------------- _ ____
Other metal products:
Seattle___ __________________
Portland_____ _____ ________
San Francisco________________
Los Angeles________ _ ______
April 1943 April 1945 April 1943
to A pril to October to October
1946
1946
1945
7.1
2.1
13.9
5.2
3 17.4
22.7
27.5
22.3
2 25.7
25.3
45.2
28.7
3 1.6
3.7
16.1
19.4
4 18.0
4 20.2
.7
3.7
.7
3 2.6
317.3
16.3
16.4
21.9
2 18.1
4 17.1
17.2
4 25.1
8.9
1.3
5.2
12.2
2 14.5
14.5
13.2
17.6
2
24.7
16.0
19.1
31.9
>October 1943 employment used as constant weights for combining industry and area data.
2 Partially estimated.
3 October 1943 to April 1945.
4 October 1943 to October 1946.
Further comparisons may be observed in table 4, which summarizes
area wage changes in four industry groups. In three of these groups,
wage levels in Los Angeles advanced more sharply, during both the
postwar period and the entire period, than in the other three cities.
WAGE-RATE INCREASES AND CHANGES IN CONSUMERS’ PRICES
The impressive increases in wage rates in the Pacific region during
the postwar period are seen in somewhat different perspective when
compared with changes in consumers’ prices for the same period. In
“real” terms—that is, in terms of the purchasing power of the rate
increases—there was little change in rates in manufacturing between
April 1945 and October 1946. This is indicated clearly in the ac
companying chart, where the average increases in money rates are
deflated by changes in the level of prices of selected goods, rents, and
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MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
services consumed by moderate-income families.8 It should be noticed
that the comparison of changes in money wage rates and consumers’
prices does not measure changes in the total “real” wage position of
workers. For this purpose data on gross earnings would be required.
POSTWAR MANUFACTURING WAGE RATE
INCREASES AS AFFECTED BY INCREASES IN CONSUMER
PRICES, APRIL 1945 TO OCTOBER 1946
APRIL 1945=100
LOS
ANGELES
PORTLAND,
SAN
OREG*
FRANCISCO
INCREASE IN RATES CANCELED BY
INCREASE IN CONSUMER PRICES
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS
SEATTLE
RESIDUAL VALUE OF RATE
INCREASES
*DATA FOR COMPUTATION OF REAL RATE BASED ON
INCREASE IN CONSUMER PRICE INDEX FROM
MARCH 15, 1945 TO SEPTEMBER 15, 1946 AS
QUARTERLY DATA ONLY ARE AVAILABLE.
Recent Wage-Rate Trends in Nonmanufacturing
The nonmanufacturing industries in the Pacific region appear to
have kept pace in terms of wage change with Pacific manufacturing
during the 3-year period between April 1943 and April 1946.9 The
8 Real wage-rate indexes are computed by dividing actual wage indexes by consumers’ price indexes and
multiplying the result by 100.
»Information on nonmanufacturing urban wage trends for periods later than April 1946 is not available.
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POSTWAR WAGE DEVELOPMENTS— PACIFIC REGION
617
urban wage-rate index for the five nonmanufacturing industries in the
region advanced 24.3 percent over this period (table 5), while that for
manufacturing showed a 21.3-percent increase. The Pacific region
nonmanufacturing index for selected industries shows a relatively
smaller increase, however, than the national nonmanufacturing aver
age (29.5 percent). The difference between the regional and national
indexes is traceable to the 2-year war period (April 1943-April 1945),
during which time Pacific Coast nonmanufacturing wage rates in
creased only 9.8 percent, as contrasted with a Nation-wide average
gain of 17.9 percent. Two obvious factors that contributed to the
relatively low wartime increase (in terms of percent gain) are the
region’s original high wage level and the fact that wartime wage
increases to adjust substandard wage scales were of only minor
importance in the Pacific region.
T able 5.—Percent change in urban wage rates in selected nonmanufacturing industries
Pacific Region and United States, A pril 1943-April 1946
Percent change from—
Industry group
April 1943 to
April 1945
Pacific
region
All selected industries_________________
Wholesale trade---------------- ----------Retail trade___________ ___________
Finance, insurance, and real estate__
Local utilities_____ ______________
Service trades____________ _______
9.8
0.5
13.6
6.4
>8.9
314. 2
April 1945 to
April 1946
United
States
Pacific
region
17.9
9.2
24.0
13.7
4.5
18.4
13.2
14.5
14.8
10.4
13.7
8.9
United
States
10.0
8.6
12.7
5.9
12.6
7.0
April 1943 to
April 1946
Pacific
region
24.3
15.0
30.4
17.5
2 23. 8
*24.4
United
States
29.5
18.6
39.7
20.3
17.6
26.9
1 October 1943 to April 1945.
2 October 1943 to April 1946.
3 Revision of previously published figures.
Postwar nonmanufacturing wage increases, on the other hand,
exceeded the national average, registering a 13.2-percent advance
between April 1945 and April 1946 in comparison with a 10.0-percent
increase in the national average. It is interesting to note that the
postwar advance in West Coast nonmanufacturing rates during this
period again closely approximated the increase registered by the
region’s manufacturing rates for the same period (12.2 percent). If
it could be assumed that a similar relationship between manufacturing
and nonmanufacturing wage movements continued throughout the
year 1946, the postwar increase in Pacific nonmanufacturing wage
rates would be approximately 20.0 percent as of October 1946.
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MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
T able 6.—Percent change in urban wage rates in selected nonmanufacturing industries,
Pacific Coast cities, A pril 1943-A pril 1946
Percent change from—
City
April 1943
to
April 1945
April 1945
to
April 1946
April 1943
to
April 1946
Pacific region______________
9.8
13.2
24.3
Seattle________________
Portland_____ ______ _
San Francisco__________
Los Angeles__ _____ __
6.0
10.1
7.3
12.3
17.1
6.8
14.1
17.0
113.5
17.5
22.5
31.4
1 Partially estimated.
INDUSTRY AND AREA COMPARISONS
In common with Nation-wide experience, the most impressive wage
gains in the nonmanufacturing industries studied were recorded by
Pacific Coast retail trade, where rates^advanced 30.4 percent over the
3-year period, including a 14.8-percent rise during the last year of
the period. National average increases in this industry for compara
ble periods were 39.7 and 12.7 percent, respectively (table 5). Only
in the gas and electric industry had over-all rate increases on the
Pacific Coast exceeded the average for the Nation, but increases for
the postwar period had exceeded the national average for each industry.
In nonmanufacturing, as in manufacturing, Los Angeles wage rates
in general advanced to a greater extent than rates in other major West
Coast cities (table 6), although the banking and service industries in
Portland constitute important exceptions (table 7).
T able 7.— Percent change in urban wage rates in selected nonmanufacturing industry
groups, Pacific Coast cities, A pril 1943 to A pril 1946
Percent change from—
Industry group and city
Retail trade:
Seattle. _________ . ____ _ ______ ___
___
Portland
.
____________ ___ . . .
San Francisco _ . _ . _ . _ ................... .
Los Angeles____ __________________________
Banks, trust companies, and loan associations:
Seattle . _________ . . __________________ _______
P o rtla n d ........... ...............................
. .
_ _
San F ran cisco ..._______________________ . . .
. . . __
Los Angeles............................... ............ . _
Service trades:
Seattle.. . _ . _ . .................................. .
Portland... _______________............ ...... ......
San Francisco.. ____ ____ _____ _. _ _
Los Angeles ... ___________ . . . . . . _ ___ . . . . . . ..
_ ...
1Data partially estimated.
2 Insufficient representation to permit separate presentation of data.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
April 1943
to
April 1945
April 1945
to
April 1946
9. 7
7.6
12. 2
17.3
i 7. 2
7. 5
14. 5
20.1
(2)15.3
0
5.1
4.8
7.0
9.9
11. 7
7.9
25.8
10.0
16.9
i 8. 2
7.9
8.7
10.7
April 1943
to
April 1946
117.6
15.7
28. 5
40.9
(9 23.4
15.5
17.1
116.7
35.7
19 6
29.4
POSTWAR WAGE DEVELOPMENTS— PACIFIC REGION
619
History of Postwar Wage Negotiations on Pacific Coast10
The upward movements in wage rates and hourly earnings for the
postwar period described in the preceding section resulted almost
wholly from general or across-the-board wage movements negotiated
in the major West Coast industries. Some of these negotiations
were industry-wide, some were pattern-setting adjustments made in
key situations, and others were conducted largely on a local basis
with little “pattern” influence. Some of the leading and dramatic
wage changes which established the patterns of wage movement on
the Pacific Coast betvjeen VJ-day and February 1947 are described
below.
Aircraft.—General wage changes amounting to 15 percent have
been negotiated in all major West Coast aircraft plants except one
since VJ-day. Although industry-wide negotiations began immedi
ately after the war’s end with both of the unions active in the aircraft
industry—the International Association of Machinists (Independent)
and the United Automobile, Aircraft, and Agricultural Implement
Workers (CIO)—these gave way to bargaining involving the indi
vidual companies and the unions separately. The 15-percent adjust
ments were negotiated individually for each company. In the one
plant which did not follow the 15-percent pattern, increases of 16
cents an hour for job rates of $1.10 or less, and 17 cents an hour for
job rates in excess of $1.10, were negotiated.
During the war, the aircraft industry in southern California was
unique in the adoption of region-wide wage and job evaluation plans
for both factory and office workers. Both were made effective by
National War Labor Board directive orders and were administered by
a tripartite panel known as the West Coast Aircraft Committee, with
actions subject to approval by the Regional War Labor Board.
Coincident with negotiations leading to the general wage increases,
the uniform industry-wide wage plans (for both factory and office
workers) were replaced with individual plant revisions of the wartime
plan. In February 1947, the principle of job evaluation still prevailed,
but industry-wide uniformity had been abandonded.
Building trades.—Postwar wage movements in the construction
industry resulted from local negotiations, and their composite result
is effectively illustrated by the Bureau’s annual survey of union wage
rates in the building trades.11 Between July 1945 and July 1946,
union rates for building journeymen increased 12 percent in Los
Angeles, 16 percent in San Francisco, 12 percent in Portland, 8 percent
10 See also Collective Bargaining on the Pacific Coast, p. 650 of this issue.
11 This series has been conducted annually since 1907. For the most recent comprehensive report for the
United States as a whole, see Monthly Labor Review, January 1947 (p. 53). The data are collected by
means of annual visits to union officials. Since June 1946, the data have been revised on a monthly basis
for the seven occupations incorporated in table 8.
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M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
in Seattle, and 11 percent in Spokane, as compared with the national
average increase of 11 percent for 75 cities.12 Rates for building
helpers and laborers during this same period increased 16 percent
in Los Angeles, 22 percent in San Francisco, 19 percent in Portland,
11 percent in Seattle, and 12 percent in Spokane, compared with the
national average increase of 16 percent in 75 cities.
Table 8 presents information on the effective union wage rates in
several Pacific Coast cities for seven important building and construc
tion occupations in both the war and postwar period. The dates
T a b l e 8. — Wartime and postwar changes in effective union rates in selected building-trades
occupations, Pacific Coast cities, Ju ly 1941 to February 15, 1947
Effective union wage rate on—
Occupation and area
Bricklayers:
Seattle
- __
______________
Spokane . .
____
Portland
_____________ _____
San Francisco... ______ ___ ______
Los Angeles
..
______
Carpenters:
Seattle
-- - ___- _____________
Spokane
_____ __ ___ ___
Portland
. . .
_____________
San Francisco — _____ - ________
Lcs Angeles _________ ___________
Electricians:
Seattle ___
- _______ ____
Spokane _
___
___ _ ___
Portland _ _____________________
San Francisco . _______________
Los Angeles. ____ ___ . __________
Painters:
Seattle . . ____ . _____ ___
_______ _______
Spokane
Portland.
__ . ___ ______
San Francisco ____________ ______
Los Angeles
.
. . ________
Plasterers: ~
Seattle ___ _______
. . ____
Spokane___. . . _____ . . .
...
Portland
_____ _ . . . ___ _ __
San Francisco. ________ _______ ..
_________
Los Angeles ________
Plumbers:
Seattle
________
.
...
Spokane________ . . . . . . __
Portland. ______ . . .
__________
San Francisco
____ ___ . . .
Los Angeles __________ _________
Buildipg laborers:
S eattle___ ____ _ _________ _
Spokane .
____
-... . .
Portland _________ ___ ______ ___
San Francisco__ ____ ___ _______
Los Angeles__________ _____ _____
June 1,
1941
July 1,
1945
Percent increase from—
Feb. 15,
1947
June 1,
1941, to
July 1,
1945
July 1,
1945, to
Feb. 15,
1947
June 1,
1941, to
Feb. 15,
1947
$1,650
1.500
1.500
1.750
1.500
$1,845
1.750
1.725
1. 875
1.500
$2.105
2.250
2.100
2.250
2.000
11.8
16.7
15.0
7.1
0
14.1
28.6
21.7
20.0
33.3
27.6
50.0
40.0
28.6
33.3
1.350
1.250
1.200
1.250
1.175
1.545
1.440
1.375
1.500
1.350
1.805
1.750
1.750
1. 750
1.650
14.4
15.2
14.6
20.0
14.9
16.8
21.5
27.3
16.7
22.2
33.7
40.0
45.8
40.0
40.4
1.550
1.375
1.500
1.500
1.375
1.745
1.550
1.580
1.700
1. 700
2.005
1.750
1 1.800
2.000
2.000
12.6
12.7
5.3
13.3
23.6
14.9
12.9
13.9
17.6
17.6
29.4
27.3
20.0
33.3
45.5
1.350
1.250
1.175
1.250
1.000
1. 545
1.450
1.375
1.500
1.250
1.805
1.650
1.550
1.750
1.500
14.4
16.0
17.0
20.0
25.0
16.8
13.8
12.7
16.7
20.0
33.7
32.0
31.9
40.0
50.0
L650
1. 675
1.500
1.667
1.667
1.845
1.750
1.725
1.750
1.667
2.105
2.100
2.100
2. 250
2.000
11.8
4.5
15.0
5.0
0
14.1
20.0
21.7
28.6
20.0
27.6
25.4
40.0
35.0
20.0
1. 550
1. 550
1.500
1.525
1.375
1.745
1.650
1. 725
1. 700
1. 750
2.200
2.200
2.125
2.000
2.000
12.6
6.5
15.0
11.5
27.3
26.1
33.3
23.2
17.6
14.3
41.9
41.9
41. 7
31. 1
45.5
.950
.800
.825
.850
.750
1.145
1. 000
.950
1.000
.875
1.405
1.150
1. 350
1.250
1.150
20.5
25.0
15.2
17.6
16.7
22.7
15.0
42.1
25.0
31.4
47.9
43.8
63.6
47.1
53.3
i $1,875 an hour to be effective March 1, 1947.
i2
I t should be noted that the percentage changes were based on specific rates weighted by the number
of members working at each rate. Only those quotations showing comparable data for both 1945 and
1946 were included. Specific increases during this 12-month period naturally reflect larger percentage
increases among those classifications with comparatively lower scales. For this reason, those cities with
loweqscalcs tend to show greater percentage increases than those which have higher scales.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
POSTWAR WAGE DEVELOPMENTS— PACIFIC REGION
621
used in the table are the best available dates illustrative of significant
war and postwar periods. June 1, 1941, represents the observation
nearest to Pearl Harbor; July 1, 1945, the best available summary
reflecting VJ-day rates; and February 15, 1947, represents the latest
available information at the time this article was prepared.
Lumber—Union organization in the basic lumber industry in the
Far West is extensive. The principal unions are International Wood
workers of America (CIO) and the United Brotherhood of Carpenters
and Joiners of America. (AFL). More than four-fifths of the workers
in the industry were employed in operations having contracts with one
or the other of these unions.
In the Douglas Fir and Pine regions, the CIO union negotiated a
12^-cent-an-hour increase in November 1945.13 At about the same
time, the AFL workers in the northern and central California districts
also negotiated a 12%-cent increase.
Meanwhile, the AFL unions in the Pacific Northwest, out' on
strike from the end of September to the beginning of December 1945,
obtained an increase of 15 cents an hour. Shortly thereafter, an
additional 2%-cent increase was negotiated by the CIO workers in
the entire region and the AFL Pine workers in northern and central
California, bringing them to the total 15-cent postwar gain achieved
by the Northwest AFL workers.
Subsequently, Douglas Fir and Pine workers of both unions have
obtained additional increases—5 cents an hour retroactive to the
spring of 1946, and 15 cents an hour retroactive to December 1946
or January 1947. Thus, the total postwar wage gain in these regions
amounted to 35 cents an hour.
In the Redwood region, the postwar period saw the inauguration of
a work stoppage which began January 14, 1946, and was still unsettled
in mid-February 1947. The wage issue involved was a demand for
an increase in the minimum rate from $0.82)6 to $1.25 an hour. One
large company lias signed an agreement providing a minimum hourly
rate of $1.20 and a union shop. The other eight companies offered a
minimum rate of $1.25, but declined to grant a union-shop contract
or to guarantee immediate return of union members to their old jobs.14
After the rejection of these terms by the workers, negotiations were
discontinued.
Interarea wage differentials formalized by action of the West Coast
Lumber Commission during the war were generally being main
tained in February 1947, but the unions were attempting to eliminate
them through collective bargaining wherever possible.
is An unusual aspect of the CIO settlement was that fallers and buckers, who had enjoyed high incentive
earnings during the war, were excluded from the 12^-cent increase unless their earnings averaged below
$13 for an 8-hour day.
i< The companies had reopened in July 1946 on a partial production basis with nonunion workers.
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MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
Motion 'picture production.—A 25-percent increase for mechanical,
technical, and skilled workers, announced by one major producer on
January 1, 1946, set the pattern for the industry. Similar wage
adjustments subsequently negotiated with other producers were all
retroactive to January 1, 1946. By February 1947, about 18,000
workers had been affected by increases, with some adjustments still
in the negotiating stage. Additonal increases were given to such
lower-paid classifications as janitors, policemen, laborers, and wardrobe
workers. White-collar workers received increases averaging 31 per
cent between VJ-day and February 1947.
Petroleum refining.—Following VJ-day, during the fourth quarter
of 1945 and the first quarter of 1946, an 18-percent industry-wide in
crease was negotiated and made retroactive to November 19, 1945—
the time when most refineries had returned to a scheduled 40-hour
workweek.
Negotiations for new contract rates were unofficially begun in
September 1946, when the Oil Workers International Union (CIO)
announced that it would seek a 20-percent general wage increase. On
October 30, 1946, this demand was raised to 25 percent—an average
of $43.43 per month for each worker. Industry representatives, when
negotiations officially opened on January 16, 1947, countered with a
proposal of a $35-a-month “ cost of living allowance,” to be effective
from January 1 to June 30, 1947.
A compromise wage offer from the Standard Oil Co., calling for a
pay boost of $17.30 a month (or 10 cents an hour) plus a $17.70
(10.2 cents an hour) “cost of living allowance,” both to be retroactive
to January 1 but effective only until June 30, was rejected by the
union. On the morning of a scheduled strike, settlement was finally
reached on an amended version of the compromise offer. Under its
terms, the new wage rates will be effective until December 31, 1947,
instead of June 30, with either side permitted to initiate wage nego
tiations after September 1. When this article was prepared, this
settlement appeared to be the pattern for probable settlements of
negotiations in all major oil companies on the West Coast.
The second-round Standard Oil Co. increase brings the total post
war wage increases to approximately 25 percent, plus the “cost of
living allowance” of $17.70 a month, which represents an additional
7 percent.
Printing.—Basic rates for all organized printing-trades workers,
negotiated largely on a trade and city basis, averaged 28 percent
higher in Seattle on July 1, 1946 than a year earlier. During this
period, printing-trades workers in Los Angeles and Spokane registered
an increase of 24 percent, Portland 22 percent, and San Francisco 19
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
POSTWAR WAGE DEVELOPMENTS— PACIFIC REGION
623
percent. In each of these cities the extent of increase exceeded that
of the national average (17 percent).
Public utilities.—During the first 9 months following VJ-day, elec
tric light and power companies and their respective unions negotiated
wage increases on an individual company basis. By June 1946, the
“pattern” of these increases, most of which were negotiated in the
first 3 months after VJ-day, was 16 percent15 for the Coast as a
whole. The increases ranged from 6 percent to slightly more than
21 percent. In most of the large utility operations, the increases
totaled 15 percent or more. In some establishments, the increases
were settled in two or more steps, and some groups of workers received
different amounts of increase than others, to adjust existing inequities.
In some cases, the increases were temporary settlements pending the
outcome of negotiations in other companies or industries.
The relevance of the patterns created by national settlements in
the steel, petroleum, and automobile industries was a major issue in
negotiations between the Pacific Gas & Electric Co. and the Utility
Workers Union of America (CIO). On May 9, 1946, a fact-finding
board was appointed by the Secretary of Labor to handle the case.
The board’s report was accepted by both sides. This settlement,
together with increases totaling 18% percent already negotiated by
the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers of America
(AFL) for groups of workers organized by that union, gave all plant
or “ physical” workers employed by the company a total of 18% per
cent in postwar wage adjustments, and yielded clerical workers
about 20 percent.
Subsequent to May 1946, wage developments in West Coast
electric light and power companies may be summarized as follows:
1. An 8 %-percent increase to workers represented by the Inter
national Brotherhood of Electrical Workers of America (AFL) in all
California companies.
2 . No general wage increase to workers represented by the Utility
Workers Union of America (CIO); at the end of February 1947,
however, negotiations were under way for further wage adjustments
based upon individual plant issues.
3. Increases of 11.7 percent in one company in the Pacific North
west, and general wage increases in another of 8 cents an hour plus
6 percent.
In public utilities other than the electric light and power companies,
varied increases were negotiated on an individual plant basis. Gas
utility workers averaged about 17 percent, and water department
is Report and Recommendations of the Fact-Finding Board in the Dispute between the Pacific Qas and
Electric Co. and the Utility Workers Union of America, CIO * * * , U. S. Department of Labor,
Washington, 1946 (mimeographed).
73 6 0 3 9 — 47 ----------- 5
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M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
workers in major cities received about 10 percent, within a few months
after VJ-day.
In the communications industry, two general wage increases were
announced by the Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Co.—one on
December 22 , 1945, retroactive to December 1, and the other on
May 18, 1946, retroactive to March 1, 1946. These two increases
amounted to a total average general wage increase of I 8 I2 percent
since VJ-day, and applied to approximately 46,000 workers.
Shipbuilding .—In March 1946, all shipyard workers on the West
Coast received an increase of 18 cents an hour, retroactive to
December 14, 1945.
For shipyard machinists, this increase followed a strike of 140 days’
duration in the San Francisco Bay area. At the end of February
1947, negotiations were under way following a union demand for an
additional increase of 25 cents an hour.
Shipping and waterfront employment.—-Wage developments on the
West Coast involving shipping and waterfront workers have been
handled on an industry-wide basis. The U. S. Conciliation Service,
two fact-finding boards, a number of special investigations by a
designated representative of the Secretary of Labor, and impartial
arbitration have played prominent roles in the maze of postwar
negotiations on wages and interrelated nonwage issues.
Major wage adjustments for seagoing workers reflect negotiations
involving the following unions for licensed personnel: Masters, Mates,
and Pilots of America (AFL), National Marine Engineers Beneficial
Association (CIO), and American Communications Association (CIO).
Unlicensed personnel were represented by the Sailors Union of the
Pacific, Seafarers’ International Union (AFL), the Marine Firemen,
Oilers, Watertenders, and Wipers Association (Independent), and the
Marine Cooks and stewards (CIO).
The first major postwar adjustment for unlicensed personnel
amounted to $45.00 a month to compensate partially for losses in
wartime bonus earnings. Typical increases in ratings from VJ-day
to the end of 1946 have been from $100 a month to $172.50 for able
seamen; from $110 to $177.50 for firemen and watertenders; and from
$87.50 to $150.00 for messmen. While these adjustments appear
to be very substantial, there is no information available to permit a
determination of the extent of changes in earnings after VJ-day.
In the longshore industry, prolonged negotiations for wage in
creases after VJ-day proved fruitless, and on April 5, 1946, the
Secretary of Labor appointed a fact-finding board in order to prevent
a strike. The board recommended an hourly increase of 22 cents,
retroactive to October 1, 1945—the day after the expiration of the old
contract. This recommendation, which established a basic hourly
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
POSTWAR WAGE DEVELOPMENTS----PACIFIC REGION
625
rate of $1.37, was accepted by the parties. In the fall of 1946 another
increase of 15 cents an hour was reached through collective bargaining.
It was also agreed that wages could be reviewed on January 1, 1947,
at the request of either party; if no agreement could be reached, the
issue would be determined by the impartial chairman for the industry.
As a result of this provision, a 5-cent hourly increase, effective January
1, 1947, was awarded by the impartial chairman, bringing the basic
hourly rate to $1.57.
The results of these activities, as affecting wage changes for sea
going personnel and longshore labor up to the end of 1946, are reflected
in table 9.
T able 9.—Summary of general wage changes for unlicensed classifications of ship and
longshore labor, August 18, 1945, to January 19471
S H IP LA BO R
Date of
adjustment
Adjustments
m s
Sept. 30________ Increase of $45 a month:
First mate and first assistant engineer 2 . __
Fourth mate and fourth assistant engineer 2___
Able seaman__ ___ ___
Fireman/watertender________ . . .
Messman__ ___________
Dec. 12 . ........
Overtime hourly wage rate adjusted to $0.90 for all unlicensed ratings
191)6
Jan. 4______
Increase ranging from $5.00 to $45.00 for all licensed personnel: first mate and
first assistant engineer.
June 15______ _ Overtime payable for work on Sundays at sea and Saturdays and Sundays
in port.
Overtime hourly wage increased from $0.90 to $1 for all unlicensed ratings
Increase of $30 00 while at sea for masters, chief engineers, first mates, and
first assistant engineers who do not stand sea-watches and who normally
work a 44-hour weeir.
Increase ranging from $17.50 to $52.50 a month for members of the Sailors’
Union of the Pacific (SU P):3 Able seaman.
Increase of $17.50 a month for ratings of the National Union of Marine Cooks
and Stewards (MCS-CIO): Messman.
Increase of $17.50 a month for all ratings of the Pacific Coast Marine Fire
men, Oilers, Watertenders, and Wipers (M FOW W -Independent); except
one rating at $27; and additional $25 for day-men; and adjustments for
others ranging from $5 to $25: Fireman/watertender.
Sept. 19-24_____ Increase of overtime to $1.25 for unlicensed ratings above $200
Increase of $2.25 to $5 for certain MC and St ratings on freighters, and $5 to
$7.50 on class A and B passenger ships.
Nov. 23__ ____ Overtime hourly rate increased from $1.25 to $1.60 for licensed personnel
Increase of $5.00 for masters, chief engineers, first mates, and first assistant
engineers who do not stand sea-watches and who normally work a 44-hour
week.
Increases ranging from $33.00 to $86.00 for licensed personnel
Percent
of in
crease
16.9
22.8
45.0
40.9
51.4
4.8
19.0
13.2
11.3
15.0
L O N G SH O R E LA BO R
191)5
Nov. 4_________ Increase in straight-time hourly wage from $1.10 to $1.15
4.5
191)6
June 15________ Increase of straight-time hourly wage from $1.15 to $1.37
Nov. 23________ Increase of straight-time hourly wage from $1.37 to $1.52
Dec. 26.............. Increase of straight-time hourly wage from $1.52 to $1.57
19. 1
10.9
3.3
1 Data based on table prepared by Pacific-American Shipowners’ Association.
2 Class B passenger ships: Victory type—C2, C3, and Manukai type.
3 Affiliated with the Seafarers’ International Union of North America (SIU-AFL).
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626
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 194 7
Local transit workers.—Although a combined measure of the various
increases received by unionized local transit workers within specific
cities is not available for the postwar period, a picture of post VJ-day
movement can be obtained from a summary of important rate in
creases occurring in Pacific Coast cities between July 1, 1945, and
July 1, 1946. In Los Angeles, rates for local 1-man cars and busses
after 6 months were increased 28 cents an hour, and for the Pacific
Electric Co., in the same city, 18% cents. In San Francisco, rates for
2 -man car operators in the municipal system rose about 10 cents dur
ing this period. In Portland, a gain of 17 cents was recorded for
operators of 1 man cars and busses. In Seattle, regular bus operators,
and in Spokane, bus operators after 1 year’s service, received hourly
increases of 11 and 10 cents, respectively.
Since July 1, 1946, municipal system streetcar and bus operators in
San Francisco received an additional increase of 12% cents. A further
increase of 5 cents an hour has also been granted to bus operators in
Spokane since that date.
Transportation—railroads and busses.—Railroad workers were in
volved in Nation-wide developments which culminated, in May 1946,
in a general wage increase of 18% cents an hour and a moratorium on
changes in working rules for 1 year in the case of the operating brother
hoods.16
Transportation workers employed by the Pacific Greyhound Bus
Lines also benefited by wage settlements extending over seven Western
States. Settlement of an 18-day strike in October 1945, brought
increases of approximately 10 percent. In October 1946, new in
creases averaging 12 percent were obtained through collective bar
gaining.
Trucking industry.—Union wage rates for motortruck drivers in
the period between July 1 , 1945, and July 1 , 1946, increased 15 per
cent in Los Angeles, 18 percent in San Francisco, 9 percent in Port
land, 16 percent in Seattle, and 14 percent in Spokane, compared
with a national average increase of 11 percent.
18 Railway Wage Changes, 1941-46, Monthly Labor Review, September 1946 (p. 335).
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Reconversion Experiences of Northwest
Shipyard Workers1
m id -1946 only a third of a selected group of wartime workers in
the Northwest shipyards had returned to jobs similar to those they
held before the war. A substantial majority of the group surveyed
in April 1945 were still residents in the shipyard areas in June 1946,
despite the fact that 57 percent of them had been newcomers during
the war. Following cut-backs in production and resultant lay-offs
in the shipyards after VJ-day, many had taken jobs in peacetime
activities at wage rates lower than those paid at the yards. Average
straight-time hourly earnings for the group of workers studied in the
summer of 1946 were 6 percent lower than in the spring of 1945.
Compared to their prewar earnings, however, they averaged an in
crease of 64 percent on an hourly basis. Gross weekly earnings of 53
workers employed in 1941 and in the survey periods averaged $56.43
in June 1946, compared with $37.59 in early 1941 and $71.49 in the
spring of 1945. About 30 percent of the group studied in the summer
of 1946 were unemployed.
By
The Northwest Shipbuilding Industry
Shipbuilding in the Pacific Northwest is concentrated in two areas—
one around Portland and Vancouver on the Columbia River, about
100 miles from the Pacific Coast, and the other on Puget Sound.
Before the war, the leading industries of the Portland-Vancouver area
were lumbering, shipbuilding, fishing, and food processing. As ship
building expanded to meet the Nation’s wartime needs, employment
in shipyards, which was less than 400 workers in April 1940, grew in
4 years to a total of 120,000.
In Seattle and Tacoma, the principal cities in the Puget Sound
area, lumber products, transportation equipment, and food products
were the chief industries in 1940. Shipbuilding developed into a
major activity during the war, and employment in the yards increased
from a prewar total of about 6,000 to 95,000 in the summer of 1944.
In the Kaiser Co. shipyards, new construction methods and re
sulting high production early in the war attracted Nation-wide
1 Prepared by Jean A. Wells and Elizabeth S. La Perle of the Bureau’s Wage Analysis Branch. The
field work for the survey was done under the immediate supervision of Jean A. Wells in the Bureau’s regional
office at San Francisco.
The study is part of the Bureau’s Nation-wide work and wage experience studies, which covered more
than 5,000 workers and were designed to illustrate the impact of reconversion. It summarizes the expe
riences of 400 workers selected at random out of an approximate 48,000 in the Todd-Pacific and Kaiser ship
yards, in April 1945. Of the group originally studied, 371 were men and 29 women; 366 were white and
34 were Negroes. These workers were first interviewed in April 1945. Follow-up surveys were made in
the winter of 1945-46 and in the summer of 1946.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
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628
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 194 7
attention. In December 1943, employment at the Vancouver yard
reached its peak—39,000 workers. The number had declined to
28,000 by ApriPl945, when the first survey by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics was*made. Within 2 weeks after VJ-day, the work force
was reduced to 13,000; subsequent reductions were smaller but con
tinual, and in the summer of 1946, less than 100 employees (clerical
and supervisory) remained.
The Todd-Pacific shipyard in Tacoma was used as a testing ground
for préfabrication of ships. The favorable results of this technique
led to its use in other yards on the West Coast. Aircraft carriers,
numbering 52 in all, were the main product of the Todd-Pacific yard,
although it also built many other types of vessels. In 1944, employ
ment in this yard was at its peak, about 27,000 workers; but, by
VJ-day, employment had dropped to 21,000, and it continued to
decline. The 2,000 workers remaining in June 1946 were engaged in
the decomissioning of Navy vessels.
The W arlime Labor Force
At the beginning of the war, only a small nucleus of skilled shipyard
managers and workers was available in the Northwest. The ToddPacific yard drew largely on local sources for employees, but by the
time operations were begun by the Kaiser Co. in Vancouver, other
establishments had absorbed most of the available labor supply.
The Kaiser Co. then inaugurated, in cooperation with the U. S.
Employment Service, a Nation-wide recruitment program which
brought workers from every State in the country. Because of the
high rate of labor turn-over, this program was continued until early
1945.
Personal characteristics.—Of the 400 workers interviewed intheBLS
survey of April 1945, 371 were men. At the Kaiser yards, in Vancou
ver, 15 percent of the workers studied were Negroes, in the ToddPacific yard at Tacoma, only 1 percent. Workers ranged in age from
15 3'ears to 65 and over, averaging (median) 38 years. None of the
women, however, was over 49 or under 20. About four-fifths of the
workers studied were married and had dependents; three-fifths had
from 1 to 3 dependents, and a fifth had 4 dependents or more. A
majority were members of 3- to 5-person family groups, but less than
two-fifths belonged to families with more than one wage earner.
Migration.—Fifty-nine percent of the workers at the Todd-Pacific
yard lived in or near Tacoma in 1941, whereas only 18 percent of the
Kaiser yard workers lived in the proximity of Vancouver at that time.
Over half of the Kaiser workers migrated from communities a thousand
or more miles from Vancouver, but not more than a fifth of the
Tacoma workers traveled as far as a thousand miles.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
SHIPYARD WORKERS— NORTHWEST
629
Of the 400 workers studied in April 1945, 43 percent were residents of
the shipyard areas in 1941, 8 percent came from other parts of the
States in which the yards were located, approximately two-fifths came
from other States west of the Mississippi River, and a tenth from east
of the Mississippi.
Whether the in-migrant workers would remain in the Pacific North
west became an important question after VJ-day. A substantial
number could be absorbed in the peacetime work force, since addi
tional workers were needed for postwar industrial expansion of the
area. When 400 workers were interviewed in the spring of 1945,
more than three-fiftlis of them indicated a desire to stay. In the
summer of 1946, 70 percent of those 400 wage earners were still in the
area; not more than 30 percent had departed, although 57 percent had
been newcomers during the war.
A former South Dakota farmer wanted to remain in the Northwest,
if he could find a job there. Since he was 58 years old, he expected
he would have to accept maintenance or janitor work after the
shipyard closed. But he considered that “ a small sacrifice for the
privilege of living in the Northwest.” At the latest contact, he was
still there and was employed in demounting housing units.
Of 96 out-migrants, slightly more than two-fifths returned to their
1941 communities. Some of the group (13 percent) remained in the
same States as the shipyards but moved outside the area. The
largest group of out-migrants (25 percent) went to the West North
Central section of the country, which had supplied the greatest
proportion of workers during the war. Some 23 percent were living
in States east of the Mississippi River, 17 percent were in the West
South Central section, about 8 percent were in the Southwest, and
about 14 percent in the East North Central States.
A larger number of in-migrants to the Tacoma yard remained in the
Northwest than of in-migrants to Vancouver, since, in the former
area, peacetime industry offered greater job opportunities at acceptable
wage rates.
About four-fifths of the white men, but only about two-fifths of the
women, and one-fifth of the Negroes, remained in the summer of 1946.
Reasons stated by women for leaving were such as, to join a husband
released from the armed services, to accompany a husband looking
for work elsewhere, or to care for sick relatives. Negroes left princi
pally because of inadequate living conditions and difficulties encount
ered in finding jobs.
A 28-year-old Negro, in his search for employment during the war
had moved from Missouri to Pennsylvania, then to Tennessee and
to Idaho, before entering a Washington shipyard. Following his
lay-off after the war, he continued his active search for work, moving
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M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
from Washington to Oregon, to Nevada, and to California. When
last heard from, he had a job in southern California. Married, but
without children, this young man was better able to travel in search
of a job than some of his former coworkers.
Postwar Employment Experience
By mid-1946, only a handful of the workers were still employed by
the shipyards. Of the 281 workers interviewed, about 60 percent had
found jobs, 31 percent were unemployed, and 9 percent had withdrawn
from the labor force.
T able 1.—Employment status of Northwest shipyard workers, by sex, winter 1945-46
and June 1946
Number of workers
Employment status
Winter 1945-46
June 1946
Men
Men
Total
Women Total
Women
All workers______ _______ ________________ ___ -
317
296
21
281
259
22
Employed by same company as in spring 1945
Employed by different employer
______ ______
Self-employed______________________________ ..
Unemployed and seeking work_________________ .
In armed forces ____________ _ __ _________ _
Not seeking work________________ ______________
130
82
20
66
3
16
127
80
19
58
3
9
3
2
1
8
13
115
40
87
2
24
13
112
39
80
2
13
3
1
7
11
7
Percentage distribution
All workers--------- -------------- --------------------- -------
100
100
100
100
100
100
Employed by same company as in spring 1945__ _ _
E mployed by different company__ *.... I ___ ____
Self-employed______ ___________________________
Unemployed and seeking work___________ ______ In armed forces
__ ______________________
Not seeking work.
. _______________________
41
26
6
21
1
5
43
27
6
20
1
3
14
10
5
38
5
40
14
31
1
9
5
43
15
31
1
5
14
5
32
33
49
UNEMPLOYMENT
Sixty-six (or 21 percent) of the 317 workers reinterviewed in the
winter of 1945-46 were unemployed. Unemployment of a week or
more was experienced by 137 persons during the winter. Claims for
unemployment compensation were filed by 88, and 59 actually drew
benefits. Most of those who did not receive benefits were reemployed
before the end of their waiting period. By the summer of 1946 the
number of unemployed had risen from 66 to 87, and comprised 31
percent of the workers reinterviewed at that time.
A 44-year-old Negro welder was unable to find any employment
after his discharge from the shipyard. Most of his working life he
had been a grain farmer in Illinois. When interviewed in the winter
of 1945-46, he said he wanted to remain in the area, and would take
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SHIPYARD WORKERS— NORTHWEST
631
any job he could get. He liked farming but did not want to return
to it until he could get enough money and machinery to start over
again. When heard from in the summer of 1946, he had returned to
Illinois and was still seeking a job. Without any savings, he was
forced to accept aid from relatives to support five children.
Another unemployed worker, aged 46, at the winter interview,
reported he had been unable to find a job. He was discouraged about
opportunities in the Northwest, and was considering moving to
California if he remained unemployed. The next summer, however,
he was still living in Washington and still seeking work as an auto
mechanic, his “usual” job.
Stricter age, race, and sex requirements set by employers, and fewer
available jobs, were not the only reasons for unemployment among
the former shipyard workers. Other important factors included the
inability of many of them to qualify for available skilled openings
and the reluctance of the same workers to accept lower-paying jobs
which required less training and experience.
The USES in Portland had about 3,300 job openings at the end of
June 1946, when unemployment in the area was estimated to be
23,500. More than half of these openings were in trade and service
industries and offered low wage rates. About two-fifths were skilled
and professional jobs, for which few applicants were sufficiently
trained. The remainder, although they paid good wages, were
physically strenuous or required the workers to live in logging and
lumber camps away from their families.
Another factor influencing unemployment of these ex-shipyard
workers in the summer of 1946 was the problem of economic readjust
ment which the Nation was facing. Hampered by material shortages,
the peacetime economic activities of the Northwest could not expand
sufficiently to meet accumulated consumer demands.
IN D U S T R IA L AND OCC UPATIONAL S H IFT S
The prewar industrial and occupational experience of the workers
illustrates the variety of fields from which a civilian labor force for
war work was mobilized. Four-fifths of the 400 wTage earners studied
in April 1945 were employed in January 1941. The largest proportion
(26 percent) were engaged in various manufacturing industries, fol
lowed, in order of the numbers employed, by agriculture, wholesale
and retail trade, service industries, government service, and the
transportation and public-utilities industries. Six percent of the
group were unemployed and were seeking work, in January 1941.
The remainder were students, housewives, or otherwise not part of
the labor force.
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MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 194 7
T able 2.—Employment status of selected northwest shipyard workers, by industry group,
January 1941 and June 1946
Number of workers
Percentage dis
tribution
Industry group
January
1941
All industry groups____________________________________
Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries______ ________ _________
Mining _ _ _ _ _
__ ___ ___ _ . . . _ _ _______ _ __ _
Construction... ______ . . . _________________________ _._
Manufacturing__ T_ _ _______
____ __ __________ __
Wholesale and retail trade ______________________________
Finance, insurance, and real estate. ___ _
Transportation, communication, and other public utilities____
Services.. _ ____________________ _ _
_ _ _______ . ..
Governm ent._ _ _
_____
_
______
Industry not reported__
In armed forces_______________ ___ _ _. . . . .
_ ______
Not seeking work_____ ________________ . . . _________ . _
Unemployed_______________
___ _. ____ _ ________
June
1946
January
1941
June
1946
400
281
100
100
48
15
39
86
43
2
20
44
26
2
3
, 49
23
13
2
31
62
18
4
10
24
4
12
4
10
22
11
5
11
7
5
1
11
22
6
1
4
9
1
12
6
1
9
30
2
24
87
0)
(i)
(9
i Less than Xpercent.
Occupations and industries in which the workers were employed,
in 1946 differed substantially from those of their usual, prewar
experience. Only 30 percent of the workers who were reinterviewed
during the winter (1945-46), and who had prewar employment ex
perience, had returned to their prewar occupations. Less than a
seventh of the group were employed in the same industry. There
is indication that by the summer of 1946, more workers had returned
to the industry in which they had worked before the war; at that
time, about a fifth were in their prewar industry. Part, but not all,
of this increased proportion results from the fact that fewer workers
who had prewar employment experience were reinterviewed.
One worker was an insurance underwriter in Montana before he
became a shipyard burner. Quitting before VJ-day to return home,
he took a job as department head in a chain store. Not liking this
work at all, he left after a short time, was unemployed for 3 months,
and then again became a life-insurance underwriter.
Two major shifts took place in the occupational distribution.
Whereas 16 percent of the group had been farmers before the war,
only 5 percent could be so classified in June 1946. Before the war,
6 percent of the workers were proprietors or managers; in the summer
of 1946, the proportion had doubled. This increase was stimulated
by the relaxation of stringent wartime restrictions which had affected
the normal turn-over of new businesses. Some workers were able
to set themselves up in business by using savings accumulated during
the war years; others were perhaps induced to strike out independ
ently as a reaction to the restrictions of the large shipyards.
One man, who disliked the confinement of the shipyards, as soon
as the war was over, quit and took a short vacation. Then, after
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SHIPYARD WORKERS— NORTHWEST
633
working a few months as a construction carpenter, he used his small
savings to buy a band saw and lumber. During the Christmas season,
he designed and constructed wooden toys. Since then he has re
mained at the woodworking business, making a variety of wooden
articles.
Some of the prewar farmers had left their old homes and migrated
to the Northwest with little intention of returning to the hard work
on the farms. High wages and limited responsibilities at the ship
yards further dissuaded them from resuming farm life.
One of these was a 32-year-old shipfitter. For more than 10
years he had been a farm hand, and for over 5 years, an independent
corn and cotton farmer in Missouri; he left farming because of crop
failures. When interviewed as a shipfitter, he stated he was plan
ning to remain in the Portland area, mainly because of the higher
wages. He had no intention ever to return to farming. His lastknown job was that of ship painter in Portland.
About four-fifths of the workers were apparently making no eco
nomic use of their shipyard crafts in the months subsequent to their
wartime employment. Mass-production operations at the shipyards
had been so arranged that much specialized work could be done by
those who had only limited training. As a result, the extent to
which the shipyard skills could be utilized in work elsewhere was
also limited.
For example, Mr. B., aged 34, was a grocery clerk before entering
the shipyard. During the 3%years he spent at the yard as an elec
trician helper and later as a journeyman, he learned new skills and liked
the work. However, he did not plan to pursue the trade outside the
shipyard, since he would have to become an apprentice first and,
having a family, he could not live on the low wages. When last
contacted, he was a salesman in a men’s store.
H O URS AND EA R N IN G S
High wage rates such as those in the two shipyards studied, were
an important inducement in drawing workers from other industries
and areas to war work. By April 1945, 195 shipyard workers, for
whom prewar (1941) wage-rate data were available, received an
average increase over such rates of 45 %cents an hour. Straight-time
hourly rates were increased 100 percent or more for a third of the
group, increases of from 50 to 100 percent were experienced by a
fourth*, and a slightly higher proportion received increases of less
than 50 percent. Four workers received the same wage rate in
April 1945 as in 1941, and 17 had suffered a decrease,
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634
MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
T able 3.— Changes in gross weekly earnings, weekly hours, and average hourly earnings
of 53 identical Northwest shipyard workers, specified periods 1941-46
W'orkers with—
Item and period
Number of workers__ _____ ___ _____
Average gross weekly earnings:
1941___________________________
Spring 1945_________ __________
Winter 1945-46
... . .
June 1946_________________ . . . .
Average weekly hours:
1941___________________________
Spring 1945_________________ ....
W inter 1945-46_____________ ___
June 1946__________________ ____
Average hourly earnings:
1941_____ _________ ____________
Spring 1945_______________ _ ..
Winter 1945-46.. _________ _ ___
June 1946______________________
Straight-time average hourly earnings:
1941___________________________
Spring 1945_________. . . . . . . .
Winter 1945-46__________________
June 1946______________________
All workers
Same em
ployer as in
spring 1945
Different
employer
53
6
47
$37. 59
71.49
53. 42
56.43
$41.11
76. 32
51.98
54. 62
$37.15
70. 87
53.60
56.66
45.9
46.8
42.5
41.5
45.8
49.4
38.8
37.8
45.9
46.4
43.0
42.0
$0.82
1.53
1.26
1.36
$0.90
1.55
1.34
1.45
$0.81
1.52
1.25
1.35
.77
1.42
1. 22
1.33
.84
1.41
1.34
1.45
.76
1.43
1.20
1.32
Longer work hours (most workers were on a 45- to 48-hour week
in April 1945), accompanied by shift differentials, contributed sub
stantially to high gross weekly earnings. None of the workers in
the spring of 1945 earned less than $45 a week. Almost 70 percent
of the group earned from $60 to $70 a week, and about 30 percent
earned more than $70.
Higher wartime wages were also reflected in the upward shift in
the distribution in annual-income brackets from 1943 to 1944 (al
though some workers were already employed at the shipyards in
1943). Of the 400 workers studied, 377 reported annual income for
the 2 years. Whereas 14 percent of these workers earned less than
$1,500 in 1943, that proportion was cut in half in 1944. Over $4,000
was received by 7 percent in 1943, and by 14 percent in 1944. In
1943, 30 percent of the workers had an annual income of from $1,500
to $3,000, and 50 percent had from $3,000 to $4,000. In 1944, less
than 25 percent were in the former income bracket and more than
50 percent were in the latter.
In the summer of 1946, hourly earnings of 53 employed former
shipyard workers for whom data are available for all 4 periods averaged
$1.36, an increase of 66 percent over their prewar earnings. Hourly
earnings for the same group had increased 8 percent on the average,
between the previous winter and the summer of 1946. The rise
reflects the general trend of wage rates during the year.
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SHIPYARD WORKERS— NORTHWEST
635
A journeyman shipfitter, who earned $1.20 an hour in the yards,
quit his job before hostilities ended to become an unskilled laborer in
the nearby town where he lived. Although his new rate was only
90 cents, he reported that his net weekly earnings were maintained,
because his transportation, lunch, and clothing costs had all de
creased considerably. His rate on the new job has since been in
creased to $1,125.
Wage rates in the Pacific Northwest, particularly in the shipyards
and other war industries, were generally high in relation to those in
other sections of the country. Of the 99 workers who reported wages
earned outside the shipyards in the winter of 1945-46, 69 received
lower rates, 5 equal rates, and 25 higher rates, than they had earned
in the shipyards. Gross weekly earnings for all workers, which aver
aged $70.36 in April 1945, declined to $51.58 by the winter of 1945-46,
reflecting generally lower wage rates in peacetime jobs as well as
a reduced workweek.
A former journeyman welder at the shipyard, 26 years old, quit the
yard to drive a dump truck for $1.35 an hour on a construction project.
As that job was located away from home, he soon left it for that of
barker feeder at $1.10 an hour, at a local paper mill. When logs
became scarce, the paper mill shut down, and this man unsuccessfully
sought other work for 2 months. He finally accepted employment as
a dishwasher, at 71 cents an hour plus meals, in the restaurant where
his wife worked. In a month, he was promoted to short-order cook
at $1.22 an hour. He was still working on this job when contacted
6 months later.
Gross weekly earnings for the workers increased to an average of
$56.43 for 41.5 hours by the summer of 1946 (table 3). These data
probably understate somewhat the increase in earnings resulting from
general wage increases in the spring of 1946. Earnings and rates
for the winter of 1945-46 include those of a substantial number of
workers still in the shipyards, which paid some of the highest rates
in the area. Since few workers remained in the shipyards by June
1946, the summer earnings figures are composed almost entirely of
rates in peacetime industries.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Pacific Northwest Economic Outlook — 1947
By JNathanael H. E ngle , Director, Bureau of Business Research, University of
Washington
T h e n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s of the Pacific Northwest—Washington,
Oregon, Idaho, and the western tier of Montana counties—originally
shaped its economic pattern.1 Exploitation of forest, agricultural,
ocean, and mineral resources has built an economy which in the past
has provided raw materials more than end products. Development
through substantial Federal aid of hydroelectric energy, another type
of natural resource, has altered the emphasis and turned the direction
of economic growth toward industrial diversification. Not that the
old will be abandoned, but that new industries will be added, is the
promise of the future.
Characteristics of the Region
The Pacific Northwest, with an area of some 285,000 square miles,
is dominated by the drainage basin of the Columbia River and its
tributaries. Second in size in the United States to the Mississippi,
this great river system has set its impress on the industrial future of
the region through its actual and potential contribution to the de
velopment of hydroelectric power. A second natural feature of
industrial importance is Puget Sound, a long arm of the Pacific Ocean
which reaches nearly 200 miles east and south into the heart of western
Washington, providing splendid deep water harbors, industrial sites,
and unrivaled 'recreational facilities.
Three mountain ranges traverse the region from north to south:
the coastal range, of which the Olympics on the northwestern thrust
of Washington are the most dominant phase; the Cascades, which
extend through both Washington and Oregon about 100 to 180 miles
from the coast, broken only by the deep gorge of the Columbia River;
and the Rocky Mountain system, which extends southeasterly across
Idaho and Montana.
CLIMATE OF THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST
The climate of this region is a definite asset contributing to its
industrial growth. Meteorologists have described the climate as
“the most important environmental factor in the Pacific Northwest/’
the essential features being “a small annual range of temperature for
the latitude, an abundant precipitation, most of which comes during
the rather mild winter, a relatively cool summer, a long frost-free
1 Occasionally the entire State of Montana is added where it is difficult or impossible to differentiate the
statistics. In this analysis the more comprehensive area is used for the most part. However, in other
articles in this issue, discussion of the Pacific Northwest is limited to the States of Oregon and Washington.
636
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ECONOMIC OUTLOOK— PACIFIC NORTHWEST
637
season, and wind from off the ocean nearly all year.” This climate
pattern prevails along the coast and shows increasing change in direct
proportion to increasing distance from the coast.
NATURAL RESOURCES *
The Pacific Northwest does not have abundant, fertile, arable soils.
Of the total area, approximating 250 million acres, about 70 million
acres are in forests, 60 million in arid or semiarid range land, 32
million in farm pasture, and 16 million under cultivation. It is
estimated that between 8 and 9 million additional acres may ulti
mately be made available for agriculture by appropriate conservation
measures. For example, the Columbia Basin project, on which work
is now in progress, is expected to add about 1 million acres to cultiva
tion.
Much of the land is publicly owned, 107 million acres being in In
dian reservations, national parks, water development sites, mineral,
forest, and grazing lands. State and local governments also have
extensive holdings. Very little over half of the total acreage is pri
vately owned.
Timber is one of the most important industrial assets of the region.
Pacific Northwest forest lands contain 55 percent of the timber of the
United States, although they comprise but 15 percent of the forest
area. A comprehensive survey points out that “the standing timber
in the region is estimated at around 883 billion board feet, of which
roughly 47 percent is Douglas fir, found west of the Cascades. About
60 percent of this volume of timber is economically available. Of the
total timber in the region, 50 percent is in Federal ownership and 42
percent is privately owned.” The remainder is in State hands.3
Mineral resources of the Pacific Northwest are extensive and varied
but have not been fully explored or tested as yet. Montana leads the
region in the exploitation of minerals, followed by Idaho, Washing
ton, and Oregon. Leading metals produced in the region are gold,
silver, copper, lead, zinc, and mercury. Idaho produces 20 percent
of the silver mined in the United States, and 25 percent of the Nation’s
lead. Montana contributes 20 percent each to the silver and copper
production of the country. Washington produces copper, zinc,
silver, and molybdenum. Gold and mercury are found in Oregon.
Of the nonmetallic minerals, Washington has large deposits of bitu2 For a more extensive background analysis of this subject see Development of Resources and Economic
Opportunity in the Pacific Northwest, report of the Pacific Northwest Regional Planning Commission to
the National Resources Planning Board (Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office), 1942; also,
The Pacific Northwest, edited by Otis W. Freeman and Howard H. M artin (New York, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.) 1942.
» Development of Resources and Economic Opportunity in the Pacific Northwest, report of the Pacific
Northwest Regional Planning Commission to the National Resources Planning Board (Washington, U. S.
Government Printing Office), 1942, p. 7,
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M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
minous and subbituminous coal, limestone, alumina clays, fine clays
and related materials for the ceramics industry, the latter being found
also in Oregon and Idaho. During the war strategic minerals, nor
mally submarginal, came into limited production. Manganese and
chromium were mined in Montana; chromium in Oregon; tungsten in
Idaho, Washington, and Montana; vanadium in Idaho; and magnesite
and dolomite in Washington, to mention the more important. Of
current interest is the discovery and testing of alumina bearing ores
in Oregon.
Water resources are among the major industrial assets of the Pacific
Northwest. The Columbia River and its tributaries and the coastal
streams provide tremendous potentials for electric power, irrigation,
navigation, and fisheries. It is estimated that the region has 40 per
cent of the hydroelectric power potential of the Nation, sufficient to
generate 15 million kilowatts, 90 percent of the time. Installed capac
ity is now in excess of 2% million kilowatts, nearly 6 percent of the
Nation’s total. For irrigation and flood control, possible water stor
age capacity in the Pacific Northwest is estimated as adequate for 50
million acre-feet of water, enough for all the land which is suitable for
reclamation and irrigation.
Deep water harbors which accommodate seagoing ships are avail
able in Puget Sound, Gray’s Harbor, and in the lower stretches of the
Columbia River. Plans for river improvement may ultimately per
mit navigation of the Columbia as far inland as The Dalles, 188 miles
from the Pacific. In fact, some interests hope to open up the Colum
bia and the Snake to Lewiston, Idaho, 470 miles inland. Additional
plans contemplate navigation of the Willamette River from Port
land to Eugene, Oreg., about 170 miles south. Industrial sites con
tiguous to deep water harbors are abundant. Ample water is available
for industrial uses, much of which requires no special treatment
because of its freedom from salts and minerals.
Northwest water resources also include fisheries which are among
the richest of the world. Moreover, joint Canadian-American
commissions have negotiated salmon and halibut pacts which have
proved successful in conserving these valuable species of food fish.
Finally, water resources contribute to the wealth of the region through
the provision of recreational facilities which attract a large volume
of tourist trade.
POPULATION
Sparsely populated as a whole, the Pacific Northwest had less than
4 million people in 1940—not 3 percent of the national total—on a
land area comprising 9 to 10 percent of continental United States.
The population, 88.3 percent native white as compared with 81.1
percent for the United States as a whole, was concentrated largely
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
639
ECONOMIC OUTLOOK— PACIFIC NORTHWEST
on the Coast, with over 70 percent of the total in Washington and
Oregon. One-fourth of the people lived in the four larger urban
centers of Seattle, Portland, Spokane, and Tacoma.
Industrial Diversification
Extractive industries.—This group ranked first in prewar (1940)
employment of the people of the Pacific Northwest, providing jobs
for over a quarter of the workers (table 1). Agriculture was the
largest employer of manpower, giving work to one out of every five
gainfully occupied persons in the area. On the average, a quarter
of the total population lived on farms before the war, ranging from
19 percent in Washington to 38 percent in Idaho.
The total value of all farm products “sold, traded, or used by
farm households,” according to the Census of Agriculture, was
422 million dollars for the year 1939. Washington ranked first,
followed in order by Oregon, Idaho, and Montana. The most
important farm products were wheat, hay and other field crops,
livestock, dairy and poultry products, fruits and vegetables, including
potatoes and peas. There was considerable variation among the
States in the value of farm products sold (table 2).
Wholesale and retail trade.—Second as a source of employment,
wholesale and retail trading activities accounted for 18.3 percent
of the jobs in the region in 1939 (table 1). Approximately 238
T a b l e 1.—Percentage distribution of employed workers 14 years old and over in the
Pacific Northwest, by industry group, 1940 1
Percentage distribution of workers in—
Industry group
Pacific
Northwest
Idaho
Montana
Oregon
Washing
ton
Extractive __ . . . __
_________ ____
Agriculture___
______________Forestry and fisheries_______ _____ Logging--------------------------------------M in in g .______ . . ______________
Construction_______
______________
Manufacturing. __ ______________ ___
Food and related products___ _____
Sawmills and planing mills_________
Iron and steel. _ ______
____
Nonferrous metals. . . ____________
Transportation equipment, except
automotive___
. ..
_____ .
All other__________ _____________
Transportation and communication_____
Wholesale and retail trade. . . . . _____
Finance, insurance, and real estate. ____
Business and repair services-----------------Personal services_____________________
Amusement, recreation, etc
________
Professional and related services________
Government_________ ___________ ____
Not reported_________________________
26.1
20.3
.6
3.0
2.2
5.5
14.8
2.4
5.1
.6
.6
42.7
36.7
.5
1.3
4.2
4.5
6.6
1.89
2.26
.06
.50
40.0
31.8
.4
.5
7.3
4.8
6.9
1.50
1.21
. 12
2.08
23.6
18.3
.5
4.1
.7
6.3
16.9
2. 5
7.2
.7
.2
19.0
13.8
.8
3. 5
.9
6. 2
18.0
2.8
5. 7
.8
.4
1.1
5.0
8.0
18.3
2.9
2.3
7.1
.9
7.8
4.9
1.4
.12
1.77
6.6
16.4
1.7
2.1
6.0
.9
7.4
3.5
1.6
.01
1.94
8.0
15.8
1.9
2.1
6.0
.8
7.6
4.8
1.3
,i
6.2
7.9
18.9
3.0
2.4
7.6
1. 0
8.0
3.8
1.6
2.3
6.0
8. 5
19.1
3. 5
2.3
7. 3
.9
7.9
5. 9
1.4
Total__________________________
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
1 Source: Population—Second Series, U. S. Census, United States Summary, 1940. pp. 99,100.
73 6 0 3 9 — 47 ----- 6
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million dollars were distributed in pay rolls to the quarter of a million
people earning their living in the distributive trades.4
T
able
2.— Value of crops and livestock sold, traded, and consumed on the farm in the
Pacific Northwest, 1939 1
Value (in millions of dollars)
Item
Pacific
Northwest
Idaho
Montana
Oregon
Wash
ington
All items_______________
421.6
91.7
91.5
107.6
130.8
Livestock _________________
Dairy products_______________________
Poultry and poultry products____
Other livestock products___________
Field crops____ ____ ____
Vegetables______ ___________
Fruits and n uts______________
Horticultural specialties.. .
Forest products. _______
Consumed on f a r m ____ . _______
93.4
52.7
27.0
15.7
144.9
9.1
31.7
5.4
2.0
39.7
24.1
10.6
2.6
3.3
39.7
1.3
1.7
.3
.3
7.8
30.8
5.6
2.3
5.8
38.4
.3
.3
.3
.2
7.5
23.9
15.4
9.9
4.3
27.0
3.4
9.6
2.1
.9
11.1
14.6
21.1
12.2
2.3
39.8
4.1
20.1
2.7
.6
13.3
1Source: Sixteenth Census of the United States, Agriculture, Third Series, United States Summary,
1940, tables 38-40.
The total volume of manufactured products for 1939 was valued at
1,245 million dollars. About 174,000 wage earners received 221 mil
lion dollars in wages in addition to those receiving salaries, dividends,
or profits from the industry.5
Transportation and communication.—The prosperity of a region as
extensive and far removed from world market centers as the Pacific
Northwest depends to a great degree upon adequate transportation
and communication systems. Substantial land, air, and water facil
ities serve the territory. Four transcontinental railroads link the
Northwest coast with the East, and another line runs south to Cali
fornia. Three major airlines maintain regular service in normal
times. Other lines, both inter-regional and feeder have been started
or have applied for operating permits. Coastal shipping in the
Northwest engages in trade with Alaska to the north and with Cali
fornia to the south and, via the Panama Canal, with Atlantic and
Gulf ports. Oceangoing lines carry passengers and freight to the
Orient and other parts of the world. Before the war, 8 percent of
the employed workers of the Pacific Northwest gained their livelihood
from transportation and communication services. The percentage
is not likely to change much, although expansion in absolute numbers
employed will come as the region develops. Freight rates, which in
the past have favored raw materials moving east and finished goods
moving west are now undergoing a process of revision as the region’s
interest shifts to more advanced types of manufacture.
4 U. S. Census Bureau, Censuses of Wholesale and Retail Trade, 1940.
8 Source: U. S. Census of Manufactures, 1940.
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The remainder of the gainfully occupied, about a third, are found
in professional, personal, or business services of various sorts, in
finance, real estate, or insurance, in the construction and building
trades, or in Government service (see table 1).
Impact of the War
Demands of war found the Pacific Northwest region uniquely pre
pared to make major industrial contributions. The basic forest and
food industries responded promptly to the increased load placed upon
them. Shipbuilding and aircraft production, small industries before
the war, sprang into the limelight and quickly became the largest
employers of manpower in the region. To illustrate, there were less
than 13,000 workers employed in these 2 industries in King and Kitsap
Counties, Wash., at the time of the 1940 census. By January 1, 1943,
the number had grown to more than 100,000 and the peak was not
reached until a year later. In Clark County, Wash., across the
Columbia River from Portland, Oreg., practically no shipbuilding
existed in 1940, the census listing but 17 employed workers. On
January 1, 1943, over 31,000 workers were employed.
More fundamentally significant, if less spectacular, developments
occurred in minerals and metals, especially the electrometallurgical
industries. Reference has been made to the mining of strategic
minerals in response to war needs. Of more far-reaching importance
are the industries attracted by the abundance of cheap hydroelectric
power. Ferrosilicon plants were built at Wenatchee and Spokane,
Wash., a ferroalloy plant was operated at Portland, Oreg., and a
ferrochromium plant was constructed at Tacoma, Wash. Electrolytic
manganese was produced at Hoodsport, Wash. Electrolytic copper
was and still is refined at Great Falls, Mont., and at Tacoma, Wash.
Electrolytic zinc was and continues to be produced at Kellogg, Idaho,
and at Anaconda and Great Falls, Mont.
LIG H T M ETALS IN D U STR Y 6
Outstanding progress has been made by the region in the production
of light metals, particularly aluminum. The new industry was ini
tiated by the establishment of two plants by private companies, one
at Vancouver, Wash., in 1940, and the other at Longview, WTash.,
shortly after. As the war demands became pressing, three additional
aluminum reduction plants were constructed by Defense Plant
Corporation, one each at Troutdale, Oreg., Spokane and Tacoma,
Wash. These five plants, when operating at capacity toward the end
of 1943, were producing at an annual rate of nearly 600 million pounds,
« For a comprehensive analysis of the light metals industry see Aluminum, An Industrial Marketing
Appraisal, by Engle, Gregory, and Mosse (Chicago, 111., Richard D. Irwin, Inc.), 1944.
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well over twice the prewar capacity of the United States and over 25
percent of the greatly expanded war capacity. In addition to these
reduction plants, a large, modern aluminum sheet rolling mill, with
capacity of some 20 million pounds monthly was built by DPC near
Spokane, Wash.
Four factors are decisive in the location of aluminum reduction
works. First, there must be an abundant supply of firm or prime
electric energy; second, the cost of electric energy must be low; third,
the plants should be located close to tidewater to insure economical
transportation for incoming raw materials and outgoing products;
finally, there should be a large enough domestic or local market to
enable the industry to get started and to develop more distant markets.
Undoubtedly, these factors influenced the two private companies in
their original selection of sites on the lower Columbia River. The
first two factors, and the expanding demand of the West Coast aircraft
industry for aluminum, were responsible for the later expansion
financed by DPC. These plants were located in the region at the
direction of the War Department.
During the war these aluminum plants were dependent on remote
sources for alumina and other raw materials. With a fixed price of
$50 a ton and freight of $8 a ton in train loads, the industry had to
bear a high cost for the basic raw material. Offsetting factors were
power and labor costs. Electric energy at $17.50 per kilowatt, or
about 2 mills per kilowatt-hour, is the cheapest in the country. While
wage rates were and are high as compared with other regions, and
especially with the Southeast, labor costs are lower. A study of
eight DPC plants from all sections of the country showed labor cost
per pound of aluminum in Pacific Northwest reduction plants to range
from 6% to 9 percent under the weighted average for the country, and
from 24 to 29 percent under the highest cost plant. Only one plant,
located in the Southeast where wage rates were very much lower,
showed lower average wage costs per pound. No DPC plant showed
as low total cost per pound of aluminum as the Pacific Northwest
plants.
Efforts were made to overcome the potential postwar handicap of
high freight rates on alumina by the construction of a commercialscale pilot plant at Salem, Oreg., financed by DPC to test a process
for extracting alumina from local clay. There was also a small plant
in Salt Lake City, Utah, which attempted to produce alumina from
alunite. Neither of these attempts to find a local source of alumina
proved successful.
The light metals industry is also represented in the region by a
magnesium plant located near Spokane, Wash. Using dolomite ore
from north of Spokane and ferrosilicon made on the site, the plant
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has annual capacity for 48 million pounds of magnesium. In view of
the cost-price relationship it had been thought that this plant would
have little prospect for postwar operations. However, when the
plant was placed on sale by the War Assets Administration, in January
1947, two substantial bids were made for it. What the future of the
magnesium industry generally will be cannot now be foretold. Exten
sive research both on production techniques and processing has been
underway for several years at Washington State College, which
ultimately may unlock secrets for the more efficient production of
magnesium from local ores as well as for advanced techniques in
its use.
One of the most intriguing and perhaps the largest war plants in
the region was the plant at Richland, Wash., which played so vital a
role in the production of atom bombs. Operation of this plant was
taken over by a large electric company. For 1947 and subsequent
years, the program proposed, “ under the sponsorship of the Man
hattan Division of the United States Corps of Engineers, will consist
of two parts. One will be fundamental research and the other
construction and development.” 7 Employment fell from 6,000 at
the war peak to 5,000 in October 1946. No estimate is available for
1947.
Other wartime developments worthy of mention lie in the chemical
field. At Portland, Oreg., two calcium carbide plants were built,
with a third at Tacoma, Wash. A modern coke plant was erected at
Tacoma using coal from local mines. Two companies have chlorine
and caustic soda plants at Tacoma, one of the companies also operates
a sodium and potassium unit at Portland. Synthetic alcohol plants
were constructed by DPC at Bellingham, Wash., using pulp mill
waste, and at Salem, Oreg., using wood waste. The Bellingham
Plant, now in private hands, continues operation. Operations in the
field of adhesive resins, used largely in the plywood industry are
found in Seattle, Wash., Portland, Oreg., Tacoma and Hoquiam,
Wash. Substantial beginnings have been made in plastics and in
molded plywood.
While less spectacular than the shipyards and the light metals,
bomber, and bomb plants of Washington and Oregon, the contribu
tions of Montana and Idaho industries were by no means unimportant.
The mining industries contributed copper, lead, zinc and such essential
strategic war minerals as chromium, manganese, tungsten, and
vanadium. Moreover, these industries, as well as cattle and sheep
raising, and other agricultural pursuits, had to contend with a con
tinual labor shortage brought about by the shift in population to the
7 Margaret L. Schleef and John A. Guthrie, The Pacific Northwest’s Economic Outlook for 1947, in
Pacific Northwest Industry, December 1946, p. 37.
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higher-wage war industries on the coast. Inland communities were
drained of skilled mechanics, plumbers, and electricians until it was
difficult to keep automobiles, trucks, and farm machinery in working
order.
The effect of the war on Pacific Northwest industry may be sum
marized in the indexes of business activity compiled by the Bureau
of Business Research of the University of Washington.8 The Puget
Sound area as measured by the index reached its peak in February
1945 when it stood at 262 (1935-39= 100). The August 1945 figure
was 237, which was also the average for the entire year 1945. In
contrast, the index of the Portland-Vancouver or Lower Columbia
River area did not climb as high as did the Puget Sound area index.
The high point, reached in February 1945, was 195. The Inland
Empire area, centering in Spokane, Wash., and including much of
eastern Washington, northeastern Oregon, northern Idaho, and
western Montana was somewhat slower than the coastal territories
in feeling the effects of the war boom. A smaller volume of war
contracts was let in this area. These facts are reflected in the index
which reached its wartime peak of 171 in January 1945.
W A R TIM E S H IFT S IN P O PU L A T IO N
Between July 1 , 1940, and July 1 , 1944, according to the Census
Bureau estimates, civilian population, had risen from 3,910,204 to
4,266,176, a net gain for the region of over 9 percent (table 3). By
July 1945, the total had dropped slightly to 4,252,629. Actually the
1940-44 gain was concentrated in Oregon and Washington. By 1945
Washington’s population had expanded still further to 2,088,574,
while Oregon had dropped back slightly to 1,206,322. Idaho and
Montana continued to record losses.
Studies of the in-migrant war population in the Puget Sound and
Portland-Vancouver areas revealed the fact that approximately a
third of the war workers moved from other points of the Pacific
Northwest and a large share of the remainder from points due east to
the Great Lakes. Only a sprinkling came from the industrial East or
the South. Among those from the Southeast, however, were several
thousand Negroes. The Negro population of the Puget Sound area
as reported by the Census Bureau increased from 5,242 in 1940 to
9,792 in 1944, not quite double. More than a fivefold increase is
recorded for the Portland-Vancouver area, where the number of
Negroes rose from 2,105 in 1940 to 11,316 in 1944. Total nonwhite
population has shown very little change, the figures being 31,301 in
1940 and 32,901 in 1944.
s See Pacific Northwest Industry, monthly publication, Bureau of Business Research, University of
Washington.
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What actually has happened is a substitution of Negroes for
Japanese. The evacuation of Japanese from the coastal region as a
military precaution offset in numbers the influx of Negroes.
T able 3.— Civilian population in the Pacific Northwest, by State, 1940 and 1944 1
Population
Area
1940
1944
United States. ___ __________
131,669, 275
132,563, 271
Pacific Northwest. __________ .
Idaho. __________________
M ontana________ . . . . . .
Oregon______ ______ _____
Washington_____________
3,910,204
5¿4,873
559, 456
1,089,684
1,736,191
4, 266,176
531, 573
464, 999
1,214,226
2,055,378
1Source: U. S. Bureau of the Census: Population Special Reports, Series P-45, No. 2, March 10,1945, p. 2.
The Future of the Pacific Northwest
As the foregoing facts indicate, the future of the Pacific Northwest
should be bright. Existing evidence suggests that the population of
the region will continue to expand at a rate somewhat above that of
the 1930-40 decade. Moreover, for Oregon and 'Washington, that
expansion will be based, not on the prewar but on the war peak level
or near it. Idaho and Montana have regained most if not all of their
wartime losses in population, but the Coast States have more than
made up for such wartime shifts by the influx of veterans from other
States and by new families.
To illustrate, the labor force in Washington was 717,000 in 1939,
with employment at 608,000 and unemployment at 109,000. At the
war peak the labor force was slightly in excess of a million, with em
ployment close to 1,000,000 and unemployment negligible. In 1943
a survey of the postwar plans of workers and employers indicated that
the labor force would be 829,000 a year after victory, with employ
ment at 743,000 and 86,000 unemployed. Actually, in July 1946, the
labor force was 913,500, of whom 843,500 were employed and 70,000
unemployed; many of the latter were veterans who had not yet found
themselves and women war workers who continued to draw unem
ployment compensation with little intention of remaining in the
labor force. In January 1947, the State Office of Unemployment
Compensation and Placement reported that “ the downward trend
which has characterized State-wide employment since the end of the
war was nearly halted by the middle of November” (1946) and that
“ employment is probably stabilized, at least until the spring of 1947.”
The outlook for specific industries and geographic divisions of the
Pacific Northwest is also on the whole encouraging. This is particu
larly true of aircraft and shipbuilding. James E. Louttit, manager of
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the Industrial Department of the Seattle Chamber of Commerce,
states that one large aircraft company “has a backlog of $150,000,000
in orders for Stratocruisers and other heavy aircraft exclusive of army
orders. The employment level is approximately 11,000, which may
be increased slightly as actual production of planes gets well under
way.” 9
In shipbuilding, deflation appears to have run its course. Some
yards are closed down permanently. Others are operating on repair
work or building fishing and other commercial craft. Norman J.
Box, manager of the Bremerton Chamber of Commerce, writes of the
Puget Sound Navy Yard:
We do not expect, of course, anywhere near our wartime peak of employment,
but undoubtedly a great many more persons will be employed in this yard than
before the war. The wartime peak of employment was 32,500 and we expect this
to level off at around 10,000 on a more or less permanent basis.10
An over-all estimate is that shipbuilding will continue at 23 percent
above prewar.
Even shipyards built exclusively for the war effort have not been
wholly valueless. Prof. Wesley C. Ballaine of the University of
Oregon points out that—
The salvage value of the shipyards when used for industrial purposes is sur
prisingly high. Conversion of the Swan Island yard (near Portland) has progressed
substantially. At present a mobile concrete mixer is being manufactured there
for a Portland distributor, and machine-shop work is performed for logging and
sawmill machinery manufacturers. One of the proposed products to be made
there is an aluminum clothes drier for a Portland manufacturer. * * * in
terests, which have leased a portion of the area, plan to encourage aluminum
fabrication for industrial concerns in the vicinity in order to provide additional
markets for the aluminum rolled at * * * Spokane * * *.n
Uncertainties as to the future of the aluminum industry have yielded
to optimistic hopes. The Vancouver, Wash., plant is operating at
capacity and the company is working on plans for a local source of
alumina, possibly using Oregon ores. The company operating the
Longview, Wash., plant has leased the Troutdale, Oreg., plant and
has it in operation. Another company has leased the Spokane, Wash.,
reduction plant and the aluminum rolling mill and purchased the
Tacoma, Wash., reduction plant. Plans are under consideration for
a local alumina plant by this company also.
Markets for aluminum will determine the future of these operations.
In addition to the aircraft industry, which continues to be a heavy
9 Pacific Northwest Industry, December 1946, p. 46.
10 Idem, p. 43.
11 Oregon, by Wesley C. Ballaine, in Pacific Northwest Industry, pp. 54-56.
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consumer of aluminum, many new users of aluminum are appearing
in Portland, Spokane, and Seattle.
Several small fabricating plants which make use of the aluminum of the rollihg
mill have sprung up in Spokane County. Although not as large as the rolling
mill and reduction plant, they are playing an increasingly important role in the
manufacturing of eastern Washington. The largest employs approximately 125
people and seems to be maintaining this level. The future of these plants is still
uncertain, and further expansion is limited at this time by a shortage of building
and production materials and by a shortage of labor. Most of these fabricating
plants have sprung up since the war, and in 1947 their permanency should be
determined.12
Professor Ballaine writes: “There has been a marked growth during
1946 of small firms in the Portland area using aluminum for the
manufacture of such items as griddles, pots and pans, wheels, pulleys,
castings, etc. It seems reasonable to anticipate further expansion of
this kind.” 13
Pacific Northwest aluminum plants have too great capacity, how
ever, to count on West Coast markets, which at best are not likely
to absorb more than 20 to 25 percent for some years to come. Reli
ance must be placed on export outlets and sales to the industrial con
suming centers of the Great Lakes area. Potentially low costs make
possible effective competition in these markets, especially when a
Pacific Northwest alumina plant is in operation.
In contrast to the widespread anticipation of industrial expansion
and diversification on the coast and at Spokane is the less optimistic
outlook for Montana and to a lesser extent for Idaho. As Prof.
Robert C. Line of Montana State University puts it: “Montana needs
new industries. These have to be built from the ground up. She
does not have idle buildings which were war plants 2 years ago. She
does not have surplus labor waiting for employment.” 14
Certain limiting factors on industrial expansion of the entire region
should be kept in mind. The Pacific Northwest shares with the
Nation the general shortage of skilled labor and lack of housing facil
ities as well as difficulties in getting materials and labor for industrial
construction. It seems strange to suggest the possibility of a shortage
of electric power, in view of the great Bonneville and Coulee dams
which, when built a few years ago, offered capacity far beyond the
foreseeable needs of the region. If the aluminum industry continues
to operate at anywhere near capacity, however, very little surplus
power will be available for new industrial expansion.
12 Margaret L. Schleef and John A. Guthrie, op. cit., p. 38.
h Op. cit., p. 56.
u Western Montana, by Robert C. Line, in Pacific Northwest Industry, December 1946, p. 53.
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The agricultural picture is admirably summed up by Prof. John A.
Guthrie of Washington State College. “The outlook for agriculture
in 1947 is clouded by the uncertainty of general business conditions
and the threat of further labor troubles.” Even if employment,
production, and income are at a high level, he goes on to say—
* * * This may not result in a proportionate demand for farm products,
inasmuch as there is still a tremendous accumulated demand for many manu
factured goods which were not available during the war. Consumer spending
may be directed heavily towards scarce durable consumer goods.
Prices of many farm products are expected to continue relatively high in 1947,
although they may decline in the latter part of the year.15
Other authorities in the region are less optimistic about farm prices.
However, large yields are anticipated which should mean substantial
farm incomes even though prices are lower.
The outlook for the basic forest products industries is encouraging.
Demand for housing is expected to insure a strong market for lumber
for several years to come. New forest “access roads” have been
opened up which permit logging operations not hitherto possible.
There is also the technological development called “relogging” which
enables cut-over areas to yield additional revenue by setting up small
portable sawmills to use “small trees, broken logs, tops, etc., that were
left by the first operation because the cost of transporting them to a
mill was greater than their value.” 16 Now only the lumber has to be
taken out. Conservation and selective logging continue a part of
the long-range program of the industry with the ultimate objective of
a sustained yield from forest resources.
Fisheries is another Pacific Northwest industry with a promising
future. Before the war the “take” of fish from the Pacific Northwest
waters, including Alaska, was equal to that of the New England
States, a 20-million-dollar industry. New developments for 1947
include factory ships, deep-sea trawlers equipped to catch the king
crab, sole, and other bottom fish as far north as the Bering Sea, and
also to clean, sharp freeze, and package the product, and return to
port with as much as 200 tons of fish ready for market.
Foreign trade prospects of the Pacific Northwest should begin to
materialize in 1947. New companies have been organized and plans
laid to enter into aggressive promotion of foreign trade as international
conditions permit. Plans are also afoot for a foreign trade zone in
the Puget Sound area. An exhaustive study of the possibilities of
such a zone has recently been completed.17
18 Op. cit., p. 38.
10 Ballaine, op. cit., p. 55.
17 A Foreign-Trade Zone for Puget Sound: Its Economic Desirability and Feasibility, by Prof. Charles
J. Miller, University of Washington, published by the Washington State Department of Conservation and
Development, Olympia, 1947.
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Finally, the tourist industry of the Pacific Northwest offers imme
diate prospects for 1947 and 1948 that may be measured in terms of
millions of dollars annually. The findings of a recent survey indicate
a 200-million-dollar annual potential tourist trade for the State of
Washington alone, once the necessary accommodations for tourists
are provided.18
Summing up, the economic outlook for the Pacific Northwest for 1947
is as good as or somewhat better than for 1946, assuming no serious
national recession. Population growth is expected to continue, with
employment opportunities keeping pace. Unemployment, which has
been low during 1946 despite serious problems of reconversion, includ
ing an influx of more^than the region’s prewar share of veterans, is not
expected to rise greatly. In fact, labor shortages, which have held
back certain industries, notably construction and building, are likely
to continue. Incomes will probably remain high on a per capita
basis, assuring a better than average as well as a growing market
within the region.
i®The Tourist Industry of Washington, by Mr. Robert G. Seymour, Bureau of Business Research of the
University of Washington, made for the State of Washington Department of Conservation and Develop
ment, 1946.
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Collective Bargaining On The Pacific Coast1
By C lark K err , University of California
activity is now almost a century old on the Pacific Coast,
dating from the “Gold Rush” days in California, A diverse and in
creasingly powerful trade-union movement has developed. Organi
zation is more complete than in most other parts of the Nation.2
The movement has a tradition of aggressive action as attested by the
general strikes of Seattle (1919), San Francisco (1934), and Oakland
(1946); the Wheatland hop riots (1913); the Everett (1916) and
Centralia (1919) “massacres” in the days of the Industrial Workers of
the World (IWW); the union domination of politics on two occasions
in the history of San Francisco and one in Seattle; and the episodes of
the bombing of the Los Angeles Times (1910) and the Tom Mooney
case in San Francisco (1916)—among other illustrations. Employers
also have organized in strong and aggressive associations. In recent
times the “master agreement” negotiated between a union and an
employers’ association has become the increasingly accepted instru
ment of collective bargaining. Multiemployer bargaining is sufficiently
widespread to be the standard pattern.
T r a d e -u n io n
Union Agreement Coverage
Collective bargaining is more widespread on the Pacific Coast than
in the United States generally. In 1945 throughout the Nation,
about 48 percent of the workers in occupations over which unions
claim active jurisdiction were covered by written collective bargaining
agreements.3 On the Pacific Coast, an estimated 57 to 63 percent of
the workers “eligible” are covered by agreements.4
Approximately 3% million workers on the Pacific Coast are now
“eligible” for coverage by union agreements.5 About 60 percent
actually work under such arrangements.
This comparative strength of the trade-unions on the West Coast is
even greater when examined in conjunction with the industrial struc
ture of the region. Nation-wide, the greatest degree of organization
generally exists in manufacturing employment. Such employment on
1The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of the members of the staff of the Institute of Industrial
Relations, University of California (Berkeley), and particularly of Carl Campbell.
2Already by the turn of the century San Francisco was considered “the most completely closed-shop com
munity in the United States.”—Ira B. Cross: History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley,
University of California Press, 1935), p. 261.
2U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics: Extent of Collective Bargaining and Union Recognition, 1945 (Bulletin
No. 865, reprinted from M onthly Labor Review, April 1946, with additional data).
<Estimated from data obtained from government, union, and industry sources.
8
The Bureau of Labor Statistics definition of “eligibility” (Bulletin No. 865, op. cit.) and current estimates
of total employment have been used.
650
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the Pacific Coast at the time of the 1940 census accounted for 17.9
percent of the gainfully employed, as compared with 23.4 percent for
the entire Nation. Although manufacturing has expanded compara
tively in the Pacific Coast States since that time, it does not yet equal
the national average. This means that despite the handicap of less
industrialization, the unions have been able to surpass the national
average in the degree of their influence over employment conditions.
The nonmanufacturing industries are unusually well organized.6
The coverage of collective agreements is not uniformly distributed
on the Coast. It is substantially more complete in Seattle and San
Francisco, which are the oldest and strongest centers of union organi
zation, than in Portland and Los Angeles. Employees in Alaska for
some time and in Hawaii recently have been at least as fully covered
by union agreements as those in California, Oregon, and Washington.
The American Federation of Labor has a greater preponderance of
union membership in this region than it has throughout the Nation.
This is explained, in part, by the lesser development of manufacturing,
in which field the Congress of Industrial Organizations has most of
its members. The AFL also had progressed farther in its organiza
tional efforts on the Pacific Coast, particularly in San Francisco and
Seattle, by the time the CIO was established, than it had in most
other parts of the Nation. The AFL has almost exclusively organized
the building, the printing, the service, and the metal trades, local
transportation, and retail and wholesale distribution. It has also
been the dominant organizer of such prominent West Coast industries
as motion picture production, fruit and vegetable canning, ship
building, and pulp and paper manufacturing. The textile, rubber,
electrical products, steel, and automobile industries, in which the CIO
predominates, are not of great importance on the Pacific Coast. The
CIO is dominant on the Coast in the oil, longshore, and fishing indus
tries, among others. The two organizations share jurisdiction in the
lumber, aircraft, and water-transportation industries.
Development of Characteristic Collective Bargaining Systems
LONGSHORING
No collective bargaining system on the Pacific Coast has attracted
as much continued public notice in the past decade and a half as that
on the water front. The longshore industry is the connecting link
between water-borne transportation and shore-side industries. When
this link breaks down, both the maritime industry and many manu
facturing industries are quickly affected. The economic life of San
Francisco is particularly dependent on its water front.
«See footnote 3.
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Unionism on the water front dates back almost a century. Cargo
handlers undertook their first strike in San Francisco in 1851.7 The
Riggers and Stevedores Union Association, established in 1853, was a
tightly knit organization with certain guild characteristics. Foremen
were members of the association, and an initiation fee of $100 was
charged. Until 1886 the Riggers and Stevedores Union Association
was the only organization in the field. In that year two new groups
appeared, one of them affiliated with the Knights of Labor.
National organization first developed in 1892, when the precursor of
what is now the International Longshoremen’s Association j(AFL)
was formed. Shortly thereafter the three West Coast unions, together
with a fourth which had since come into being, affiliated with the
national organization. Joint action in San Francisco of longshore
locals and other maritime unions was attempted from 1891 to 1906 in
the City Front Federation, and of longshore locals on a coastwise basis
from 1908 to 1916 in the Longshoremen’s Union of the Pacific.8
Pacific Coast unity came to an end with the coastwise strike of 1916,
which was lost. “ Rustling cards” were introduced; these contained a
history of the individual longshoreman’s union activity, if any, and
had to be presented when employment was sought in employer-con
trolled hiring halls. The San Francisco longshoremen lost another
strike in 1919 and organization virtually disappeared on the Pacific
Coast, except for the “ Blue Book Union” under employer sponsorship.
With the Nation-wide stimulation which the National Industrial
Recovery Act gave to union organizations, locals of the International
Longshoremen’s Association began to reappear in 1933. In Feb
ruary 1934 a coast-wide convention of ILA locals was held. Here
emerged the two principal demands which led up to the 1934 water
front strike—the jointly controlled hiring hall and a coast-wide con
tract. The strike began on May 9 and lasted until July 31, 1934.
When, on July 3, the Industrial Association of San Francisco attempted
to open the port with strikebreakers and the Governor of California
called out the National Guard, the spectacular general strike of July
16-19 resulted.9
The 1934 strike was concluded by arbitration before the National
Longshoremen’s Board, appointed by the President. The award of
7 Robert C. Francis: History of Labor on the San Francisco Water Front (unpublished doctoral dis
sertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1934). See also Ira B. Cross: History of the Labor Movement
in California (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1935).
s A short-lived Federated Council of Wharf and Wave Unions was organized in 1888.—Cross, op. cit
p. 198.
9
For accounts of the 1934 strike see Paul Eliel, The Waterfront and General Strikes (San Francisco,
Hooper Printing Co., 1934); Paul S. Taylor and Norman Gold, San Francisco and the General Strike (in
Survey Graphic, September 1934); and Dwight L. Palmer, Pacific Coast Maritime Labor (unpublished
doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1935).
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the Board established the basic contract which still governs the rela
tions of the parties. The period from 1934 to the present has been
by no means peaceful. In 1936 a major maritime strike occurred in
which the longshoremen, through the Maritime Federation of the
Pacific, joined other maritime groups in a walk-out lasting 97 days.
The new union weathered this test of strength intact. In 1946 another
coastwise strike occurred, lasting 6 weeks, this time under the
auspices of the Committee for Maritime Unity. The period from
1934, even when no coast-wide strike was in progress, has at best
been one of uneasy peace.
The West Coast longshoremen withdrew from the ILA in 1937 and
affiliated with the CIO as the International Longshoremen’s and
Warehousemen’s Union (ILWU). The “march inland” of the long
shoremen has spread the influence of the union outside the water front
itself into many other industries, including warehousing, cotton com
pressing, and flour milling, among others, particularly in San Fran
cisco.10
Labor relations in the longshore industry on the Pacific Coast are
governed by a single contract between the Waterfront Employers’
Association of the Pacific Coast and the ILWU. The Waterfront
Employers’ Association is a well-organized association of employers
which deals collectively with a number of shore-side crafts, the most
important of which is the longshoremen. All longshoremen on the
Pacific Coast, with the exception of those employed in Tacoma, Port
Angeles, and Anacortes, who still belong to the ILA, are covered by
the coast-wide contract.
Virtually all bargaining is on a coast-wide basis,11 although the con
tract specifically provides for the settlement of port issues at the port
level and makes provision for port arbitration of minor disputes. The
clear tendency both in arbitration and in negotiation between the
parties has been to regard an increasing number of issues as having
coast-wide significance. There are few collective agreements which
owe less to collective bargaining and more to arbitration than the
agreement between the ILWU and the Waterfront Employers’
Association.12 Its major structure was laid down by the National
Longshoremen’s Board in 1934. More recently terms of new con
tracts have been arbitrated by the National War Labor Board and a
Federal fact-finding panel. Few major contract clauses have been
negotiated by the parties. During the life of the agreement disputes
10 The ILWU has also organized the sugar and pineapple plantation workers in the Hawaiian Islands and
negotiated island-wide contracts. This is the first time plantation workers have been effectively organized
in the Islands.
11 Maritime Labor Board: Report to the President and to the Congress (Washington, 1940).
12 Richard Allen Liebes: Longshore Labor Relations on the Pacific Coast, 1934-42 (unpublished doctoral
dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1942).
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are submitted to an arbitrator appointed by the Secretary of Labor
when the parties are unable to settle them in negotiation.13
Three major and continuing sources of disagreement throughout the
years have been (1) job control, (2) productivity, and (3) contract
observance. Here the issue of job control is not principally one of
decasualization. Decasualization has been the mutual concern of
both the employers and the union.14 The Pacific Coast hiring hall
system was, in fact, an employer introduction. The dispute has
been, rather, whether longshoremen should be dispatched on a
rotational basis, or whether employers have the right to order steady
gangs. Controversy over whether a decline in productivity has
resulted from the end of a “speed-up” or is evidence of a “slow
down” is a continuing one. The size of sling loads and the size and
composition of gangs are recurring causes of disagreement. Con
tract observance has been a source of contention, looming most
dramatically when the longshoremen have refused to cross picket lines
or have struck to indicate their sympathy with, or opposition to, some
national or international development (as illustrated by the refusal
to load scrap iron for Japan.) The employers have insisted that any
stoppage of work not provided for in the contract was a violation of
contract and should be penalized. The union has from time to time
maintained that there are grounds for refusing to work which the
contract could not control.
The casual nature of the longshoreman’s work and the hostility
growing out of the bitter 1934 strike have, among other factors, made
the development of mutually satisfactory relationships difficult to
achieve.
MARITIME TRANSPORTATION
The maritime industry of the Pacific Coast has a long history of
troubled relations. The first strike of seamen was in 1850 in San
Francisco, in resistance to a wage cut.15 After an unsuccessful attempt
in 1880, the first permanent union of unlicensed seamen was started
in San Francisco in 1885 and later became the Sailors’ Union of the
Pacific (SUP), which has ever since been the leading organization of
unlicensed personnel in the deck departments of West Coast ships.16
This union was for a long period the center of organizational activity
>3 The arbitration is of the “quasi-judicial” type and owes much of its approach to Wayne L. Morse, now
United States Senator from Oregon and formerly Coast Arbitrator. Mr. Morse has stated that an arbi
trator “is bound by the record presented to him in the form of evidence and argument at the arbitration
hearing. His job is the same as that performed by a State or Federal judge, called upon to decide a case
between party litigants.” (Proceedings, Third Annual Convention, International Longshoremen’s and
Warehousemen’s Union, 1940, p. 261.) The Morse philosophy of arbitration has been widely accepted on
the Pacific Coast.
n M. Keller: Decasualization of Longshore Work in San Francisco (National Research Project, Works
Progress Administration, 1939).
18 Cross, op. cit., p. 16.
19 Paul S. Taylor: The Sailors’ Union of the Pacific (New York, the Ronald Press, 1923).
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in the Pacific Coast ports. The Marine Firemen were organized in
1886 and the Cooks and Stewards in their present organization in 1894.
Both of these have been limited in their activities to the West Coast.
Licensed personnel was organized about the same time by the Masters,
Mates, and Pilots’, and by the Marine Engineers’Beneficial Association,
both of East Coast origin.
The first written collective agreement for unlicensed personnel was
signed by the SUP in 1902 and continued until 1921. Agreements
also were signed by the Marine Cooks and Stewards and the Marine
Firemen. These agreements were with the Ship Owners’ Association.
In 1921 an unsuccessful strike was called to resist a wage cut, and
collective bargaining virtually disappeared until 1933. The SUP,
during much of this period, was torn by an internal struggle
between the leadership and IWW followers.17
A great revival of union activity came in 1933. The waterfront
strikes of 1934 and 1936 resulted. Maritime workers on the Coast
are now almost completely organized. The two principal organizations
of licensed personnel continue to be the National Organization of
Masters, Mates, and Pilots of America (AFL) and the National
Marine Engineers’ Beneficial Association (CIO). Unlicensed per
sonnel belong to three primarily West Coast unions: Sailors’ Union
of the Pacific (AFL), Marine Cooks’ and Stewards’ Association of
the Pacific Coast (CIO), and the Marine Firemen, Oilers, Watertenders, and Wipers Association of the Pacific Coast (Independent).
Repeated efforts have beeh made to federate the several crafts.
The Wharf and Wave Council in 1888 and the City Front Labor Coun
cil in San Francisco from 1891 to 1906 were the first associations
attempted.18 The International Seamen’s Union, organized by the
SUP in 1892, affiliated the major West Coast crafts, along with
fishermen’s unions and inland boatmen, until the establishment of
the CIO, in 1935, led the Cooks and Stewards, the Inland Boatmen’s
Union, and the Marine Firemen to break off. It was replaced by the
Seafarers’ International Union of North America (AFL) in 1938,
which finds its chief strength in the SUP. Following the 1934 strike,
the Maritime Federation of the Pacific united the Pacific Coast
crafts, including the SUP, which later withdrew (1938) in a bitter
controversy with the longshoremen. The Federation disappeared
during the early years of the war. In 1946 a national confederation
of maritime unions was formed at a convention in San Francisco,
Calif.—the Committee for Maritime Unity. After coordinating the
strike in the fall of 1946, the Committee ceased to function, owing to
internal friction.
it John S. Gambs: The Decline of the IWW (New York, Columbia University Press, 1932), ch. 5.
i* Cross, op. clt., pp. 198 and 207.
7 3 6 0 3 9 — 47 -----------7
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Factionalism has been rife throughout the history of maritime
unionism in Pacific ports. Differing union ideologies, the rivalry of
aggressive leaders, the sense of craft identification, and conflicts over
work jurisdiction have abetted the factional bitterness. The longest
continuing jurisdictional fight has been between the sailors and the
longshoremen, and dates back at least to 1902.19 Rivalry between
the AFL and CIO has served to increase the historic factionalism.
Throughout the history of the industry, the employers have gen
erally been more cohesively organized than the workers. Their
organizations have been stronger and more stable, and predicated on
a wider base than those of the employees during most of the past half
century. They have not had the dissension so evident on the union
side. The Pacific American Shipowners’ Association now represents
employers in the offshore, intercoastal, and Alaska trades and nego
tiates and administers collective agreements. The Shipowners of the
Pacific Coast is a similar organization of coast wise operators, but
since coastwise shipping is now of minor importance, it is the less
influential of the two associations.
Coast-wide master agreements are signed with the several unions.
Industry-wide bargaining, when bargaining has been undertaken at
all, has been the standard practice since 1902. Arbitration has not
been so widely used in administering these agreements as in the long
shore industry. The parties have relied on negotiation and direct
action to settle their disputes, and have rarely used arbitration.
Two of the major sources of controversy over the years have re
lated to (1) working conditions and (2) control of hiring. The nature
of the industry occasions an unusual number of disputes over working
conditions:
The work done and the kind of life lived by maritime workers are essentially
different from that of workers in other occupations * * * Unlike other
workers, when a seaman sells his labor he virtually sells himself, temporarily.
Of necessity he lives on the ship. There is no possibility of changing his place
of work or his occupation, whether or not conditions are satisfactory, until he
reaches a safe port. While he is at sea and to a less extent ashore, the seaman is
restricted in matters which other workers consider definitely personal, such as
food, living quarters, associates, and recreation.20
Living conditions aboard ship, consequently, have come to be elabo
rately regulated, including the quality of meals, the color of pillow
cases, and the frequency with which clean towels are supplied. A
multitude of “ working rules,” in the absence of standardized work,
establish the duties and compensation of the various members of the
crews. The unions consider them necessary to protect seamen
against the autocratic rule of the master of the ship; employers tend
to regard them as “ featherbedding.”
19 Cross, op. cit., p. 247.
ao Maritime Labor Board: Report to the President and to the Congress (1940).
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Control of hiring is of unusual importance because of the constant
turn-over of personnel. The hiring machinery governs access to jobs
and the selection of employees. On the Pacific Coast the unions
control the hiring of unlicensed personnel through their own hiring
halls. Licensed personnel is, however, selected by the employers.
The strike of 1946 was in large part over the method of selection of
licensed employees. Control remained in the hands of the employers.
The role of the Government has been unusually prominent. During
both wars, the Government has operated the bulk of merchant vessels
on its own account; and even in peacetime, labor-management stability
in the maritime industry is a prime objective of national policy. The
Government regulates conditions aboard ship, and either sets the
rates or subsidizes most of the merchant marine. Among the Federal
agencies engaged in mediation, arbitration, and regulation of maritime
labor have been the United States Shipping Board (1917 to 1933), the
United States Maritime Commission (1936 to date), the Maritime
Labor Board (1938 to 1940), and the War Shipping Administration
and the War Shipping Panel of the National War Labor Board (during
World War II). More recently, the Department of Labor has sought
to continue the equalization of wages and other conditions between
the two coasts, begun by the War Labor Board, by appointing in 1946
and again in 1947 a single arbitrator to hear cases on both the East
and West Coasts. The balance among the unions in their contract
levels is so delicate that it is easily upset.
The bitterness and reluctance to compromise, which have been
characteristic of maritime labor relations, result from a number of
circumstances. Until fairly recently, the employment relation was
that of master and servant. The employees have been without the
stabilizing influence of a continuing community life. Shipboard living
conditions encourage unrest and a sense of grievance. The offshore
merchant marine has been faced with rigorous foreign competition,
and, unlike most manufacturing industries, has enjoyed no particular
productive superiority. In the interest of more stable relations, adap
tation of the provisions of the Railway Labor Act of 1926 to the mari
time industry have on occasion been suggested.21
FISHING
The fishermen of the Pacific Coast are quite generally unionized.
Contrary to practice elsewhere in the United States, these unions
bargain over the price of fish. This has given rise to a civil suit
filed by the Antitrust Division of the U. S. Department of Justice
charging the major union in the field—the International Fishermen
and Allied Workers of America (CIO)—with restraint of trade in
81 Maritime Labor Board, op. eit., eh. 3.
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violation of the Sherman Act.22 In an earlier case, involving the
Columbia River Area, the U. S. Supreme Court held that the members
of the Pacific Coast Fishermen’s Union were independent entrepre
neurs.23 The unions have contended that their members are workers
bargaining over their wages. The outcome of the current case will
determine whether organized fishermen can carry on collective bar
gaining over fish prices and other terms with canneries or fresh fish
dealers individually or collectively. The decision of the Supreme
Court will greatly affect the sphere and existence of unionization in this
segment of the economy.
The first recorded union among fishermen on the West Coast was
organized in San Francisco in 1864. The Italian Fishermen struck
and later organized a cooperative sales society when white dealers
drove out Chinese peddlers and lowered fish prices.24 Unions of
fishermen in the city were reported again in 1882-83 and 1889.25 The
first continuing union was the Columbia River Fishermen’s Union,
formed at Astoria, Oreg., in 1886 and affiliated shortly thereafter with
the AFL. Following a strike in 1896, it started a cooperative cannery,
which still operates. It was reorganized in 1933 as the Columbia
River Fishermens’ Protective Association and extended its member
ship throughout the Columbia River district.
The initial organization in Alaska took place in Bristol Bay in 1902
following a strike. Fishermen were sailing out of San Francisco and
Seattle to this rich salmon fishing area and selling the fish to the can
neries. The Fishermen’s Protective Union of the Pacific Coast and
Alaska was formed; it continues today under the name of the Alaska
Fishermen’s Union.26 Sometime later the Copper River and Prince
William Sound Fishermen’s Union was established; it also is still in
existence. Other unions were started from time to time in other
fishing districts of the coast. The International Seamen’s Union
(AFL) affiliated them in a loose way, each local union retaining its
own autonomy. Some of the local unions remained independent
even of this loose federation.
The ISU established the Pacific Coast Fishermen’s Union in 1932,
which covered most districts except those of the Columbia River.
The Salmon Purse Seiners’ Union of the Pacific was organized in the
Puget Sound area in 1935, and the Deep Sea and Purse Seiner Fisher
men’s Union of California in 1936. Both affiliated with the ISU.
The Fishing and Cannery Workers’ Industrial Union, which had been
n California CIO Council, Research Department: The P'isheries of California (San Francisco, 1947) p. i.
** Columbia River Packers’ Association, v. Hinton, 315 U. S. 1 (M) (1943), 76 Law Ed. 750 (1942).
M Cross, op. cit., p. 36.
18 Idem, pp. 19S and 315,
K Homer E . Gregory: North Pacific Fisheries (New York American Council, Institute of Pacific Rela
tions, 1939)
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a dual union outside of the AFL, disbanded in 1936 at the same time
as its parent association, the Trade-Union Unity League.
In 1936, a convention of fishermen’s locals affiliated with the
ISU was held in Seattle. A loose confederation, comprising six of the
major district associations, including the Alaska Fishermen’s Union,
was formed and called the Federated Fishermen’s Council of the
Pacific Coast. This federation joined the CIO in 1937 as the Inter
national Fishermen and iUlied Workers of America (IFAWA). Addi
tional associations joined in 1938 and 1939, and IFAWA is now the
dominant union on the Coast.27 Independent unions and associations
and locals affiliated with the ISU still exist in Alaska, Puget Sound,
and California, but approximately three out of every four organized
fishermen now belong to IFAWA. The constituent locals, however,
still retain great local autonomy. Each district has its own problems,
and there are seven districts in California alone. Each type of fish
requires different gear and handling. Some of the major types of
fish are tuna, sardines, mackerel, salmon, crab, shark, smelt, sole,
abalone, and halibut. The markets are local, and the general tradi
tion is toward cohesion more by district and type of catch than toward
strong coast-wide federation.
The purchasers of fish—the canneries and fresh fish dealers—have
also combined. In California, fresh fish dealers in southern California
are represented by the Western Sea Foods Institute, and in northern
California by the Northern California Fisheries’ Association. Fish
canners have 4 associations. The 9 major Columbia River packing
companies deal jointly with the Columbia River Fishermen’s Protec
tive Union, now affiliated with IFAWA. The Puget Sound Salmon
Canners, Inc., and the Alaska Salmon Industry, Inc., unite canners
in their respective districts for collective bargaining purposes.
The latter association signs contracts with 13 unions, several of them
affiliated with IFAWA. A number of other associations of canners
and fish dealers operate on the Coast.
Some of the contracts are signed on an individual company-by
company basis; other contracts are identical for the whole industry in
the area but are separately signed for fear of antitrust prosecutions;
and still other contracts are signed by an association of canners or
dealers, as in northern California and Alaska, for all of their members.
Collective bargaining can be unusually complicated. In the Alaska
salmon industry, for example, negotiations cover a wide range of
subjects not found in the normal contract: Allowances for board and
lodging while away from home, the type of quarters on ship while
27 Workers in the fish canneries have also been organized by IFAWA or its affiliates. Contracts are now
on a local basis, but a coastwise contract has recently been suggested as a union aim. Other canneries,
such as some in the Puget Sound Area, are organized by the AFL, and still others by the Food and Tobacco,
Agricultural and Allied Workers (CIO).
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being transported to Alaska, the price at which gear will be sold, the
prices for various sizes and types of fish, “run money,” “lay money,”
“waiting time,” seasonal guaranties, and the adequacy of culinary
service. The nature of the industry gives rise to issues not normally
found in collective bargaining. All contracts are by district, such as
the Northern California Fish Stabilization Agreement covering the
sale of fresh fish.
The fishing industry is highly seasonal, and negotiations at times
are on a “crisis” basis. Considerable risk is taken by both the buyers
and sellers of the fish.
Collective bargaining, much of it on a multiemployer basis by
districts, is now the standard practice in the fishing industry on the
Pacific Coast.
LUMBER
A large part of the lumber commercially produced in the United
States comes from the Pacific Northwest. In 1940 employment in
the lumber and lumber products industry constituted half of all
manufacturing employment in Washington and Oregon combined.
Fir and pine are the two most important types of lumber produced in
the Northwest. California has a much smaller lumber industry
specializing in redwood. The chief area competitive with the Pacific
Northwest is the South, where the degree of unionization and wages
are at far lower levels.
The lumber industry moved to the Northwest in the last quarter
of the nineteenth century. The workers were typically single men,
“ homeless, womanless, and voteless.” The earliest unions were
among the shingle weavers, who constituted a relatively skilled
craft.28 They first organized in the 1890’s. The initial efforts of
the AFL to organize in the camps and sawmills during the same
decade were abortive. The IWW entered the industry in 1905. Its
program of aggressive action designed to achieve immediate results
gained many supporters. The AFL organized unions including
sawmill and timber workers in 1905, and again in 1913 and 1916.
The AFL and IWW both called strikes in July 1917 for higher
wages, shorter hours, union recognition, and better conditions. The
strikes were lost. Production, however, fell off, partly as a result
of sabotage, and the Federal Government became concerned because
of the need for lumber during the war. The Loyal Legion of Loggers
and Lumbermen (the 4L) was formed with War Department support.
Conditions were greatly improved, chiefly through Federal interven
tion in behalf of increased output. The 8-hour day—the chief
demand of the strikers—was granted. The 4L was never accepted
as a bona fide union, however, and declined after the end of hostilities
28 Vernon H. Jensen: Lumber and Labor (New York, Farrar & Rinehart, 1945), p. 117.
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and the withdrawal of Government support, and in the face of AFL
and IWW condemnation.
Employers in the lumber industry first organized in 1891.29 The
strongest of the early associations was the Lumbermen’s Protective
League, which functioned during World War I. The employers were
completely opposed to unionization, and effective collective bargaining
therefore never occurred on any scale. The strong feelings in the
Northwest about unionization and union efforts culminated in the
Everett and Centralia skirmishes between unionists and nonunionists
in 1916 and 1919. Seven men were killed and 50 wounded in the
first encounter, and four men killed and a number wounded in the
second.
Union activity was at a low ebb during the 1920’s. The collapse
of the building boom, after a recession beginning in 1926, caused a
great reduction in employment. This was followed by the Nation
wide depression beginning in 1929. The industry started to revive,
in 1933 and, with it, union activity. The National Recovery Act
established a Lumber Code Authority, but it was never very effective,
partly because of the differences in conditions between the South
and the Pacific Northwest. Stimulus was given to organizational
activity, however, which resulted in the formation of a Council of
AFL locals, which represented both the sawmill and logging branches
of the industry.
In 1935 the AFL Executive Board gave jurisdiction over the
lumber industry to the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and
Joiners of America. Under its leadership, demands for a closed
shop, wage increases, shorter hours, and other conditions of employ
ment were made. The industry-wide strike of 1935 resulted, and
collective bargaining became established for the first time on a per
manent basis. Settlements, however, were made with individual
companies, and in succeeding years the drive toward standardization
among employers and districts was a major source of disputes. Unity
within the union’s ranks, however, was not achieved, and in 1936 a
separate union was formed, which in 1937 affiliated with the CIO as
the International Woodworkers of America. The CIO has had its
chief strength in the logging camps, and the AFL in the mills.
Continual disputes occurred after 1935, growing out of the long
history of ill feeling between employers and the unions, the hetero
geneity in contract provisions, and the rivalry between the two
unions. Collective agreements were signed covering increasingly
large segments of the industry, the most inclusive agreement being in
the fir district with the Lumbermen’s Industrial Relations Committee.
District-wide collective bargaining has not yet been replaced by single
28 Jenson, op cit., p. 115,
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industry-wide agreements, although company-by-company bargain
ing is of constantly decreasing significance. During World War II,
union rivalry and manpower shortages, arising in part from the exodus
to the ship yards and aircraft factories, directed great attention to
wage rates. A wage study was first undertaken by Dexter M. Keezer,
then president of Reed College, for the Council of National Defense.30
Subsequently the National War Labor Board created a lumber com
mission, partly to assure uniformity of treatment in across-the-board
increases and greater standardization of individual job rates. Main
tenance-of-membership was introduced into the industry by the
National Defense Mediation Board, the predecessor of the War Labor
Board, in the Snoqualmie Falls case.
Following the conclusion of World War II, an important strike
occurred during the “first round” of wage increases, hut the “second
round” was settled through peaceful collective bargaining. The
common labor rate in the industry is now one of the highest in the
United States. It is the key wage rate in the Pacific Northwest, and
influences directly the rates in such diverse industries as pulp and
paper manufacturing and casket making.
The turbulent history of industrial relations in the lumber industry
of the Pacific Northwest is indicated by the fact that “although
employing less than 10 percent of the gainfully occupied population,
the lumber industry accounted for over half of the days of idleness
from strikes in Washington and Oregon between 1927 and 1940, and
accounted for over two-thirds of the employee complaint charges
filed in those States with the National Labor Relations Board from
1935 to 1940.” 31 The historical employer opposition to unionism,
the traditional floating nature of much of the labor force, and the
rivalry, first between the IWW and AFL and later between the AFL
and the CIO, in part explains the extent of industrial strife.
PULP AND PAPER
The most rapidly expanding and prosperous segment of the pulp
and paper industry is located in the Pacific Northwest. The great
growth of the industry in this area has occurred in the past 15 years.
In 1940, it ranked as the fourth largest employer among the manu
facturing industries of Oregon and Washington. The high quality of
the raw material, plentiful hydroelectric power, low-cost water trans
portation, and high output per man-hour have given the region a
considerable competitive advantage over other sections of the country.
Unionization was first attempted in the industry during World
War I.32 Unsuccessful strikes were called in 1918 and 1919, and all
so D. M. Keezer: The Douglas Fir Lumber Industry (Advisory Commission to the Council of National
Defense, Washington, D. C., 1941).
3i Richard A. Lester: Economics of Labor (New York, MacMillan Co., 1941), p. 765.
33 Roger Randall: Labor Relations in the Pulp and Paper Industry of the Pacific Northwest (Portland,
Oreg., Northwest Regional Council, 1942), p. 29.
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union efforts collapsed during that postwar period. The industry
prospered during the 1920’s, wages were relatively high, the workers
enjoyed a fairly large measure of security, and the national “climate”
was not conducive to trade-union activity. Paper consumption is
responsive to cyclical economic changes; during the depression years
of 1930-32, two wage cuts were instituted and working time reduced.
In 1933, with the advent of the NRA, a spontaneous organizational
movement got under way. The local organizations shortly there
after affiliated with the two established AFL international unions in
this field—the International Brotherhood of Paper Makers and the
International Brotherhood of Pulp, Sulphite, and Paper Mill Workers
of the United States and Canada. The former has its jurisdiction in
paper manufacturing, and the latter mainly in the pulp mills. These
two unions now include virtually all the workers subject to their
jurisdiction in the three West Coast States.
In 1934, the two unions approached a group of employers and after
only 3 days of bargaining negotiated an agreement covering half of
the industry. Nearly every year since, the contract has been re
opened for liberalization of wages and working conditions. In 1936, the
unions obtained maintenance of membership. No strike or lockout has
ever occurred. Wages are the highest in the industry in the United States.
In recent years, a single agreement has been negotiated covering the
entire industry (with a few minor exceptions) on the Pacific Coast.
The two unions formed the Pacific Coast Pulp and Paper Mill Em
ployees’ Association to conduct joint negotiations with the employers.
The operators are united in the Pacific Coast Pulp and Paper Manu
facturers’ Association, organized in 1934 for negotiating purposes at
the suggestion of the officials of the international unions.33 This
association from the start adopted the policy of full acceptance of
collective bargaining. Consequently there was no initial period of
strife, which in other industries has left a residue of lasting bitterness
and mutual suspicion. Only one “unfair labor practice” case was
filed under the National Recovery Act, and none under the National
Labor Relations Act.
The parties have developed an interesting technique for their
industry-wide negotiations. An annual conference is held, with the
chairmanship rotating from year to year between representatives of
the employer and the union groups. While the actual bargaining is
conducted by a small number of people, the negotiations are carried
on in “gold fish bowl” surroundings. Great care is taken to assure
adequate representation of all interests. The conference is well
attended by representatives of both sides, and observers are welcome
and numerous.
33 Collective Bargaining in the West Coast Paper Industry (Industrial Relations Section, Princeton Uni
versity, Princeton, N. J., 1938).
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Grievance procedure has been carefully developed. Four steps
are provided, the final one being arbitration.34 Few cases, however,
have ever gone to the joint arbitration board. Job evaluation has
been conducted on a joint basis sirce 1934. A joint job analysis
committee began an industry-wide study of classifications and rates,
which resulted in a uniform rate for all unskilled labor, regardless of
district, and greater standardization in job rates above common labor.
Several thousand individual rates have been reviewed. A permanent
classifications committee issues interpretations of wage provisions of
the agreement and relieves the grievance machinery of part of its
normal load.
The two most unstabilizing factors in the industry have been the
varying profit position of the several companies and the threat of
rival unionism. The different mills turn out different products and
their mechanical equipment ranges from the very modern to the
nearly obsolete. Consequently, in any one year their capacities to
pay increased wages may be and have been quite diverse. This
situation sets up internal conflicts within the employer and the union
organizations. The second threat to stability has come from inter
union rivalry. The International Woodworkers of America (CIO)
has, on occasion, made efforts to win over individual locals of the
two AFL unions. It has been successful in some communities where
lumbering is also important, but has never been able to secure control
of a sufficient number of locals to be able to obtain representation
rights. The National Labor Relations Board has ruled the industry
wide unit the appropriate one for collective bargaining purposes. The
parties have been careful not to let wages in the lumber industry
surpass those in pulp and paper. Industry-wide bargaining has
insured greater security against rival unionism, and thus greater
stability in industrial relations, than would have occurred under
plant-by-plant bargaining.
This industry made remarkably rapid, in fact almost instantaneous,
progress into mature bargaining on an industry-wide basis with a
minimum of friction. The parties have both been satisfied with the
master agreement type of bargaining. “For both the employers and
the unions coast-wide bargaining has simplified negotiations, increased
understanding through joint activities, and provided stable relations.” 35
The standardization of wages and conditions has removed a source of
unrest, and the magnitude of a strike or lock-out has caused the
parties to weigh carefully the advantages of such action as against
the costs.
34 R. P. Wallenberg and E. W. Cooper: Labor in the Pacific Coast Paper Industry (in Harvard Busi
ness Review, Boston, Spring 1938).
33 Richard A. Lester and Edward A. Robie: Wages Under National and Regional Collective
Bargaining (Industrial Relations Section, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J., 1946) p. 88.
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The sources of the good relations existing in the pulp and paper in
dustry are of some interest in an area where the major industry has
been marked by an opposite experience. The pulp and paper in
dustry in the Northwest has been prosperous and expanding. This
has permitted relatively high wages and secure employment. The
employees have been stable members of the work force. Many of
them are skilled, and investment per worker is high. Consequently,
the employer needs to be particularly concerned with their attitude
toward their work. Unionization came into this relatively youthful
industry when national policy encouraged union recognition. The
largest employer in the industry was noted for a liberal policy toward
the employees and toward unionization. The parent international
unions were long-established and responsible organizations. The
unions were immediately given a sense of institutional security which
allowed them to become concerned at least as much with the problems
of the industry as with their own survival. The result has been a
record of joint relations unmarred by those conflicts which have so
harrassed certain other West Coast industries.
MOTION-PICTURE PRODUCTION
Motion-picture production is one of the most highly concentrated
industries in the United States. It is almost completely localized
in Southern California. With 30,000 employees, it is among the
State’s leading industries, requiring a large investment in plant and
equipment and demanding many and varied talents and skills.
Trade-union organizational activity first began in 1916. The
AFL at that time undertook a major but unsuccessful campaign to
organize the industry. The International Alliance of Theatrical Stage
Employees and Moving Picture Machine Operators of the United
States and Canada entered the industry in 1918. The Alliance had
a firm base in the theaters of the Nation and has always held the
power to withdraw the projectionists from the motion picture houses.
This has been a potent bargaining weapon. The Alliance sought to
become a quasi-industrial union, accepting employees with a wide
variety of skills into its ranks, including carpenters, painters, and
electricians. The building-trades unions from the start were never
satisfied to relinquish jurisdiction to the Alliance and organized simul
taneously. The Alliance and the principal craft unions, in the face of
opposition from the studios, finally formed a united front and in
1926 negotiated the Basic Studio Agreement. This agreement is still
the standard contract, although there have been changes in the
signatory unions and companies.
The Alliance and the craft unions continued the truce in their
warfare following 1926 for a number of years, but jurisdictional
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questions kept arising. Owing partly to criminal charges against
two rival leaders and to continuing jurisdictional controversies, the
major craft unions in 1941 formed the Conference of Studio Unions.
Internecine warfare has continued ever since, and reached a peak in
1945, when a jurisdictional conflict over a small number of workers
precipitated a prolonged and violent strike.
The Actors Equity Association entered Hollywood in the 1920’s.
It was opposed by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences,
which had an employee-representation plan devised to promote
better relations between the studios and such highly skilled groups as
the directors, writers, actors and technicians. The Academy became
the dominant group. In 1933, however, it recommended the accept
ance of a drastic salary reduction and, confronted with widespread
suspicion of producer domination, lost prestige and membership
rapidly, finally continuing only with technical research and alloca
tion of awards.
The NEA brought a great upsurge in union activity. The indus
try became almost completely organized. Murray Ross wrote in
1941: “Hollywood is a union town.” 36 The employees are organized
into 43 different crafts, most of them affiliated with the AFL. 3‘ They
may be divided into four major groups: (1) the Alliance, (2) the
Conference of Studio Unions, (3) the talent guilds, and (4) the unions
of white-collar workers. The Alliance has 10,000 members; the
Conference, 7,000. The Screen Actors Guild is the most prominent
of the talent guilds. In few, if any, other industries are white-collar,
professional and technical, and managerial employees so completely
unionized.
The employers are also quite thoroughly organized. There are
three groups of producers, each of which carries on labor negotiations
separately. The 10 major studios are members of the Association of
Motion Picture Producers, 25 large independents belong to the
Society of Independent Motion Picture Producers, and the third
group which includes 32 smaller independent companies forms the
Independent Motion Picture Producers Association. The first of
these associations, because of the dominating size and importance of
its member companies, is the contract leader for the industry.
An unusual institution is the Central Casting Corporation, an em
ployment office set up in 1925, as a result of an investigation by the
Russell Sage Foundation, to hire minor actors and “extras.” Much
progress has been achieved in reducing turn-over and eliminating
hiring abuses which formerly prevailed. This operation is now one
of the largest and most efficient placement bureaus in the Nation.
38 Murray Ross: Stars and Strikes (New York, Columbia University Press, 1941), p. 3.
Trouble in Paradise (in Fortune, November 1946).
m More
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Excessive jurisdictional subdivisions seem to have increased un
necessarily the manpower requirements of the industry. The
industry has been a profitable one and wages have been compara
tively high; consequently the most difficult disputes have not been
over wages.
A IR C R A FT
Aircraft production during the war period mushroomed into one
of the leading industries on the Pacific Coast. In Washington it
ranked third, following lumber and shipbuilding, and in California,
first in volume of employment. Since the war’s end it has shrunk
drastically, but remains an important industry, several times ex
panded over prewar levels. Airframe production is centralized in
the Seattle and southern California areas. Only one major company
operates in Washington, which during the war had plants in Seattle
and half a dozen neighboring towns. In southern California, two
of the major companies are located in San Diego, and the four others
in the Los Angeles area.
The first union organization in the industry took place at the Boeing
plant in Seattle. In 1933 a group of workers obtained a federal local
charter from the AFL.38 This charter designated the Boeing or
ganization as Aeronautical Workers’ Industrial Union, Local 18886.
In 1934 the American Federation of Labor gave the International
Association of Machinists (IAM) jurisdiction over all aircraft workers,
and in October 1935, the Boeing group affiliated with the IAM. The
first contract was signed in 1936. The union obtained the highest
hiring-in rate in the industry. Generally the Boeing contract has
remained the most favorable in the Nation. It has consistently pro
vided the highest level of wages. It also provides for a union shop
and has a strict seniority clause.
Wages have been the major source of dispute between the Boeing
Aircraft Co. and the IAM. Seattle is the highest wage area of any
in which major airframe firms are located, and the most strongly
unionized. The relatively high wages in the shipyard and lumber
industries, among others, set the pace for aircraft. At the same time,
the high percentage of women and the competition from lower wage
areas, in an industry where labor is a high percentage of total cost,
have exercised a downward pressure. The wage controversy reached
its peak during World War II, when the manpower situation was
particularly acute in the Seattle area. A special wage increase was
granted at Boeing by the National War Labor Board to aid the
effective prosecution of the war. Except for a short period of internal
conflict within the union shortly before the United States’entry into
the war, industrial relations generally have been conducted in a
88 Seattle Times, July 27, 1941.
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peaceful way. Arbitration is used to settle disputes during the life
of the contract when the parties fail to agree.
In southern California, the IAM obtained its first contract in 1937.
It chartered industrial locals which admitted to membership all
production workers, irrespective of completion of an apprenticeship.
The United Automobile Workers (UAW—CIO) also secured its first
contract in 1937 but allowed it to lapse in 1938. With the stepping up
of airplane production in 1939, the UAW renewed its organizing activ
ities. Its jurisdiction was specifically amended to cover aircraft
workers. An organizational battle was begun between the IAM and
UAW which has continued intermittently ever since. It was most
intense during the early war years. Of the two organizations, the
IAM appears to have a 2){ to 1 superiority in membership. A third
union, the National Union of Aircraft Welders—never affiliated with
either the AFL or CIO—has represented the welders at several south
ern California plants. Wages have been the major source of contro
versy with the employers, just as in Seattle, but the California problem
never was as acute.
The industry is best known in the industrial relations field for its
work on job evaluation. The prewar internal wage structure has
been described as “chaotic.” The U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics,
at the request of the Office of Production Management,39 in the fall
of 1941 made a study of wage rates in California airframe companies
which confirmed this designation.40 The expansion of the industry,
the increasing division of labor, the introduction of new processes and
new machinery, the tremendous variety of tasks involved in building
an airplane, wage competition among the companies, and the influx
of thousands of new workers created a welter of illogical job and
personal rates.
Efforts were made to reduce the chaos created by the phenomenal
growth of the industry with the advent of war. The Aircraft Produc
tion Council was established to coordinate manpower and production
practices. An employment center was developed for the central
registering of applicants and hiring of employees. The Southern
California Aircraft Industry (SCAI) in 1941, realizing the need for
stabilizing wages, established a working committee to study the
problem and recommend a solution. The committee decided that an
industry-wide job evaluation plan was necessary “to provide a definite
control in the establishment of hiring rates and job pay ranges in the
various plants of the aircraft industry.”41 A plan, known as the
89 Later, the War Production Board.
40 U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics: Wage Rates in the California Airframe Industry, 1941 (Bulletin
No. 704, 1942).
« Southern California Aircraft Industry: Job Evaluation Plan (November 1941).
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“SCAI plan,” 42 was worked out for the industry and was approved by
the National War Labor Board.
The plan called for the establishment of labor grades and the
determination of the proper grade for individual jobs through factor
comparison. Points were assigned to each degree of each factor, and
the total points established the grade for the job. The system was
heavily weighted in favor of skill as compared with hazards and job
conditions. While the unions did not help devise the system, they
did help administer it. A similar plan was subsequently introduced
at Boeing. The National War Labor Board created the West Coast
Aircraft Committee to adjudicate disputes which arose in the applica
tion of the plan to individual jobs and problems. The job evaluation
system was completely established and reviewed at Boeing by the end
of the war, but the joint review was less than half completed in south
ern California.
The SCAI plan was spread to most of the airframe industry through
out the United States.43 It has formed the basis for job evaluation
plans in many other companies and industries and is one of the best
known job evaluation systems. In 1947, it is undergoing major
review, however, both at Boeing and in southern California.
The industry, despite its tremendous readjustments to postwar
levels, lias made the transition with a minimum of industrial-relations
strife. It has never experienced the bitter struggles which have
marked certain other industries on the coast. Collective bargaining
is relatively recent in origin and has been largely carried on under
Government encouragement and control through the National Labor
Relations Board and the National War Labor Board. These agencies
settled controversies which might otherwise have found more violent
solutions.
i
T E A M ST E R S
The Teamsters’ Union44 is a particularly powerful and influential
organization on the Pacific Coast. It has spread into many fields
outside of truck transportation. Its uniform pattern of bargaining
is with organized employers, and the standard contract is a master
agreement covering all the employers in the industry in the area.
The Teamsters’ Union deals with no single large industry, but with a
large number of relatively small industries-—baking, taxi service,
dairy products, cold storage warehousing, for example—each with its
own contracts and industrial relations history.
42 Robert Gray: Job Evaluation in the Southern California Airframe Industry (Pasedena, California
Institute of Technology, 1943).
43 Yearbook of American Labor (New York, Philosophical Library, 1945), vol. I, pp. 266-277.
44 International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chaffeurs, Warehousemen, and Helpers of America (AFL).
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The first joint action by teamsters occurred in San Francisco in
July 1850. Local teamsters organized to resist the encroachment of
Australians in the drayage business.45 They organized intermit
tently, but temporarily, for the next half century. The first perma
nent organization came about 1900. Following an unsuccessful strike
in 1901, contract negotiations were again undertaken in 1902, and an
agreement concluded with the Draymen’s Association. This is the
oldest continuing contract in the city. Shortly thereafter the milk
wagon and laundry wagon drivers and other teaming crafts began to
organize and establish contractual relationships.
In Seattle, which is now the headquarters for the union in 11 West
ern States, the first organization came in 1899 and lasted until 1907.46
It was revived in 1909, and a joint council established in 1910. The
great expansion in the influence of the union came after 1925, how
ever, and particularly after 1933. It now has 20,000 to 30,000 mem
bers in the Seattle area.
Unionization in Portland and Los Angeles came more slowly than
in San Francisco and Seattle, and the latter two cities still remain
the principal bases of the union on the Coast. Organization in Port
land and Los Angeles came partly through persuading chain enter
prises to accept the union in these new areas once it was recognized
in Seattle and San Francisco. The Western Conference of Teamsters
unites the teamsters’ locals in 11 Western States. Joint councils have
been established in each major area in the region.
The Teamsters’ Union has become a heterogeneous organization.
It has not confined itself to the teaming crafts, nor is it confined to
any one industry. It has become a “general union,” by organizing
many skills in many industries and wherever its influence through
control of truck transportation might lead it or permit it to go. Its
locals, in various areas, cover the following types of workers, among
others: All types of drivers, auto salesmen, brewery workers, ware
housemen, fresh fish handlers, packing shed workers, garage mechan
ics, filling station operators, office employees, taxi drivers, inside
workers in dairies, cannery workers, employees of can manufacturing
companies, wire rope factories, burlap bag plants, and mayonnaise
and potato chip producers, poultry handlers, embalmers, and whole
sale opticians. The union has “satellite” organizations which it
strongly supports and influences, including in some cities the depart
ment store clerks, the grocery clerks, the laundry workers, and even
the musicians and beauticians. The sphere of influence of the union
is most widespread in the State of Washington. It has lent its
« Cross, op. cit., p. 15.
46
Carl Gustaf Westine: The Seattle Teamsters (unpublished thesis, University of Washington, Seattle.
1937), p. 1.
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strength to groups which by themselves do not have as much power
as derives from the control of truck operations.
The expansion of the Teamsters’ Union has met resistance, not only
from employers, but from other unions. The Brewery Workers in
the Northwest strenuously resisted the inroads of the Teamsters, but
finally lost. The Teamsters have also come up against the Long
shoremen’s Union, which likewise has not confined itself to its original
jurisdiction. The “march inland” by the latter was matched by a
“march to the sea” by the former. The warehousemen in the port
cities of the Coast have been organized by both groups, and the lines
of demarcation are tightly drawn. In San Francisco, the Longshore
men have organized the majority of the warehousemen, and the
Teamsters in the other major ports.
The most recent conflict has been in the fruit and vegetable canning
industry. The canneries in the Pacific Northwest were almost ex
clusively organized by the AFL, originally, and jurisdiction was as
signed to the Teamsters in 1945. The AFL conducted a strong
organizing campaign in the large-scale canning industry of northern
California in 1937, which was supported by the Teamsters’ Union.
The AFL signed an agreement in 1937 with the California Processors
and Growers, representing most of the major canneries. The United
Cannery, Agricultural, Packing, and Allied Workers of America
(UCAPAWA—CIO) filed charges of company domination of the AFL
locals with the National Labor Relations Board, but no action was
taken. The UCAPAWA was replaced by the CIO Food, Tobacco,
Agricultural, and Allied Workers Union of America (FTA). When
the Teamsters were given jurisdiction over the cannery workers in
1945, this CIO union conducted an organizing drive in the industry.
The first National Labor Relations Board election in 1945 was declared
invalid. A second election in 1946 was won by the Teamsters, subject
to the recounting or rejection of a large number of challenged votes.
Final determination has not been made, but the Teamsters have
possession of the contract with the California Processors and Growers.
Some of the independent canneries have been organized by the FTA.
In almost every case the Teamsters ¡sign contracts with organized
employers: The Bakers’ Bureau of Seattle, the Associated Producers
and Packers of Washington, the Garage Owners’ Association, the Milk
Dealers’ Association, the Taxi Operators’ Association, and the Truck
Owners Association, to name only a few. Most of these associations,
and the resulting contracts, cover a single city, or in the case of the
canning industry, a producing region. The standard contract calls
for the closed shop. Many of the Teamsters’ strikes have been for
this objective. Once it is granted few strikes occur, and the union
follows a policy of strict contract observance. The union and the
736 0 3 9 — 47------ S
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individual employers’ association sometimes seek to “stabilize” the
industry. “In essence, it represents an arrangement whereby the
union and the employers’ associations cooperate to pay high wages, to
charge ‘standard’ prices, and to restrain or regulate competition.” 47
The union examines the ability of the employers to pay as an important
consideration in its wage policy.
The Teamsters’ Union has organized primarily in local market
industries where external competition is nonexistent or not severe and
contractual arrangements directed toward the local situation can be
worked out. Its membership is composed of settled local residents
with steady jobs, as compared with the more floating labor force of
the lumber, longshore, and maritime industries. It has emerged as a
leading example of “business unionism.”
Multiple-Employer Bargaining in San Francisco
Multiple-employer bargaining, widespread throughout the Pacific
Coast, is most fully developed in San Francisco. The master agree
ment has replaced the individual company contract to such an extent
that three-fourths of the employees in San Francisco are covered by
an area-wide contract. Employers’ associations not only negotiate
such agreements but also administer them.
Industry-wide agreements in San Francisco go back to the “Gold
Rush” days,48 but the modern master agreement which now char
acterizes collective bargaining largely dates from 1934. The ag
gressiveness of the trade-union movement encouraged employers to
organize to prevent the successful use of “whipsaw” tactics. An alert
union could play one employer against another and raise the level
of its contractual arrangements. When the employers organized,
this tactic was no longer so successful, for all strikes became industry
wide, and thus more costly to the unions.
The San Francisco Employers’ Council, which wTas formed in 1938
to unite employers generally, stated one of its principle purposes to
be: “To promote the recognition and exercise of the right of employers
to bargain collectively.” 49 The unions have not always been willing
to accept such organization by the employers and the resultant
bargaining on a multiemployer basis. The most recent and best
known act of resistance gave rise to the Oakland “general strike”
in the fall of 1946. The Retail Clerks’ Union50 had organized in two
department stores and demanded recognition. The more than 20
affiliated stores refused to recognize the union or to bargain with it
47 Richard A. Lester: Economics of Labor (New York, Macmillan, 1941), p. 150.
48 I ra B- Cross: A History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley, University of California
Press, 1935).
46 San Francisco Employers’ Council: Articles of Incorporation and Bylaws (1938).
50 Retail Clerks’ International Protective Association (AFL).
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on a store-by-store basis, but insisted that the union would need to
secure a majority of the employees in all the stores belonging to the
employers’ association before it was eligible for collective bargaining
rights. Out of this original dispute and the episodes which accom
panied it came the general work stoppage by the local AFL unions.
While new unions and rival unions have opposed the system because
it blocked their efforts to organize, established unions have generally
accepted it. Standardization of wages and conditions results, the
process of negotiation is simplified as only one contract must be
developed, and the union is protected from raiding by rival organiza
tions, which find it difficult to organize an entire industry all at once.
The more or less unique character of employer organization in San
Francisco developed as a second step. Once a uniform agreement was
signed, unions could still “whipsaw” employers through processing
grievances. By getting one concession here and another there, the
basis for an improved contract could be laid by standardizing the con
cessions at their highest levels. This led the employers’ associations
to administer, as well as negotiate, the contracts. Grievances, in
many instances, have been made the property of the association, and
no one employer can make a settlement which would disadvantage
other members. Job evaluation has, on occasion, been used to
standardize job titles, content, and rates as a method of keeping each
company in line with all the rest.
The master agreements cover various areas. The standard craft
agreement is usually confined to the local labor market area. The
industrial agreement tends to cover the geographical area within
which the product is competitively produced and may vary from a
single town, as in the case of bread, to a subregion, as in the case of
fruit and vegetable canning. Some agreements are not confined by
either of these locational forces. They span the area, without
reference to craft jurisdiction or product market, over which the union
has exercised its influence. Quite diverse groups of workers and pro
ducts may be covered.
The association which most prominently sponsors multiemployer
bargaining is the San Francisco Employers’ Council. It unites a
number of individual employers’ associations, as well as single firms
otherwise unaffiliated. It corresponds to the Central Labor Council
(AFL) and the Industrial Union Council (CIO). In addition to
other services, it attempts to coordinate the general approach of em
ployers in the city toward the trade-unions. The Council was
organized with a program of bargaining with the unions, not of destroy
ing them.
The plan of an area-wide association of employers has extended
outward from San Francisco. A number of cities in Northern Cali
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fornia have organizations patterned, in part at least, after the council.
Similarly oriented associations have been or are being developed in
Los Angeles, Phoenix, Reno, and Denver. A Pacific Coast associa
tion has been suggested. The expansion of this system, however, has
not gone unchallenged. It has been attacked by representatives of
the principal national association of industrialists, which is opposed
to multiple-employer bargaining. The plan has, however, exhibited
survival value in San Francisco, and its supporters can point to the
Nation-wide acceptance of industry-wide employer organizations in
Sweden and Great Britain.
Multiple-employer bargaining apparently has reduced the number
of strikes in San Francisco in the past decade, as compared with Los
Angeles and, indeed, with the United States. The greater size of
strikes and their augmented cost have encouraged the parties to
undertake greater advance deliberation before precipitating a work
stoppage. Although the number of strikes has decreased compara
tively, the average strike has lasted longer and involved more people,
so that man-days lost because of strikes have not been reduced
relatively. Resort to arbitration over the terms of a new contract
has increased.
The modern type of multiemployer bargaining in San Francisco
has not given rise to collusive actions against the consumer, nor have
small firms been exploited by the larger firms in each association.
The public, however, has been inconvenienced on occasion because the
strikes which do occur tend to shut off all sources of supply of goods
or services simultaneously.
In summarizing the development of collective bargaining on the
Pacific Coast, it is found that: (1) Trade-union agreements more com
pletely cover the “eligible” workers than in the Nation as a whole.
Pacific Coast labor is estimated to be 20 percent more fully covered by
written contracts then labor in other areas. (2) The unions have had a
history, in many important industries, of aggressive action, particu
larly in the San Francisco and Seattle areas. Some of this aggressive
ness originally developed on the water front and in the logging camps.
(3) Employers have organized widely, in earlier times to fight, and
more recently to bargain with the unions. Some of these associations,
especially in San Francisco, administer, as well as negotiate, the
collective agreements. (4) While there is great diversity in the
bargaining systems, industry-wide or area-wide labor agreements are
widely used. The trend is away from the single employer contract.
The multiemploj^er contract has, in several industries, helped bring
stability into industrial relations and has indicated maturity of
development.
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Labor Laws of California, Oregon, and Washington1
e v e l o p m e n t of irdustry in California, Oregon, and Washington at
a later period than in the Eastern and Middle Western areas afforded
an opportunity in these States for study of labor laws elsewhere and
for the adoption of accepted standards of labor legislation and adminis
tration.
Each of the West Coast States has followed recommended standards
by establishing a labor department. However, not all labor functions
are centralized in these agencies. In California, unemployment com
pensation and a public employment service are within the authority
of the Department of Employment, which is outside the Department
of Industrial Relations. In Oregon, five separate agencies, the Bureau
of Labor, the Wage and Hour Commission, the Industrial Accident
Commission, the Unemployment Compensation Commission, and the
Board of Conciliation, have responsibility for various labor functions.
In Washington, the Office of Unemployment Compensation and Place
ment is outside the Department of Labor and Industries.
Minimum-wage laws with coverage limited to women and minors
have been enacted by all three States. Wage orders issued under
wage board procedure cover most occupations, and in all three States,
orders may govern working conditions as well as minimum wages.
The hours legislation also applies primarily to the protection of
women and minors. As yet, the standard of an 8-hour day and 40hour week, recommended by the National Conferences on Labor
Legislation for all workers, has not been achieved.
Only California has an hours law (providing for 1 day’s rest in 7)
which applies to all workers; and, in that State, agriculture and alimited
number of other special classes of employment are excepted, dhe
three States regulate hours of men only in occupations recognized as
especially hazardous, or when the safety of the public might be
jeopardized by long hours of work.
California has a comprehensive industrial homework act, with power
to prohibit homework occupations. Oregon has no homework law
but has exercised some control of such work under its minimum wage
statute. Washington has no homework law.
California and Oregon provide by law for the prompt and regular
payment of wages in a quickly negotiable form. All three States also
make the services of the labor department available to help workers
in collection of unpaid wages.
Protection of workers’ safety in these three States is provided for
through exercise of rule-making authority, under which standards may
D
i Prepared by Marian L. Mel, of the Division of Labor Standards, U. S. Department of Labor.
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be established by safety codes or regulations which have the force of
law, to meet specific existing needs.
The workmen’s compensation laws of the three States follow in
general the standards recommended by the several National Confer
ences on Labor Legislation. However, while the California and
Washington laws provide for compulsory coverage (so that every
employer, with certain exceptions, is required to accept the terms of
the law) the Oregon law is of the elective type.
Of the three States, California, in 1868, first enacted a law relating
to the employment of minors. This early provision for a maximum
8-hour day for certain minors stands out alone in a period when the
few other States which had undertaken to protect minors had legislated
in terms of a 10-hour day.
The years since the early part of the century have shown continuing
advances, but none of these three States, even now, meets all the
minimum child labor standards that have been accepted as needed for
the protection of child workers. Briefly, these minimum standards
are a minimum age of 16 years except for work outside school hours
at 14 in nonfactory work; a maximum 8-hour day, 40-hour and 6day week for children under 18; prohibition of night work, provision
of meal periods, prohibition of hazardous employment for young
workers under 18; and requirement of employment certificates for
the employment of minors under 18.
Although none of these States has a comprehensive industrial re
lations act, Oregon has a State Board of Conciliation with some de
fined procedure, and limited powers as to conciliation exist in the
other two States.
Each of the three States has an unemployment compensation act,
the provisions of which vary as to coverage, amount of benefits, dura
tion of unemployment, and other factors.
A topical summary for each of the three West Coast States is given
below. Similarity in the legislation of these States is due largely to
the generally similar industrial conditions.
California
The Department of Industrial Relations, which is responsible for
the administration of California’s labor law, is in marked contrast to
the Bureau of Labor Statistics which, in 1883, was directed to collect
and report to the legislature biennially upon “every aspect of working
conditions in every occupation” (including sanitary conditions in
workshops and the number and size of rooms in homes occupied by
the poor), and was given an annual appropriation of approximately
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$5,000 to defray all expenses. To the fact-finding functions were
added, year by year, provisions for enforcement of labor laws as they
were enacted. In 1911, California joined the group of States which
enacted workmen’s compensation, and adopted a minimum-wage law
for women and minors. The special problems arising from an influx
of foreign workers and a need for controlling labor camps were bases
for specialized legislation. In the fashion of the day, each of these
functions was made the responsibility of a special commission which
had rule-making as well as administrative authority. However, in
1927, a reorganization by law brought practically all functions under
the Department of Industrial Relations, and in 1945, another reorgani
zation by law further clarified the functions of six divisions, all func
tioning within the framework of this single agency, under the author
ity of a director.
Workmen's compensation.—The compulsory workmen’s compen
sation law of California is more comprehensive as to coverage of work
ers than those of many other States, in that it specifically provides for
coverage of certain domestic and agricultural workers. It provides
full coverage of occupational diseases, instead of schedule coverage,
under which, in some States, compensation is paid only for specifically
listed diseases. The injured worker’s benefits depend on the amount
of his wages. Maximum benefits for permanent total disability are
$30 a week and these are payable for life. Total payments in death
cases, however, are limited to $6,000. Medical care must be fur
nished to injured employees without restrictions as to the amount or
cost. The waiting period, during which the injured worker does not
receive benefits, is 7 days. In California the employer has the option
of insuring either with a private company or in the State fund.
Safety and health.—Employers are required by statute to provide
for the safety of workers. When the Industrial Accident Commis
sion (responsible for workmen’s compensation administration) was
established in 1914, the Industrial Accident Prevention Bureau was
set up within the commission. The bureau was later made a separate
division, and today is the Division of Industrial Safety, having juris
diction over all places of employment in the State subject to the work
men’s compensation law. Within this division is the Industrial
Safety Board. Safety orders, developed after public hearings to
which all interested persons are invited for active participation, must
receive the formal approval of the Industrial Safety Board, after
which they may be legally enforced by the division. In addition to
a general safety order, orders relating to 27 specific occupations have
been issued. A staff of inspectors is provided for enforcement and
for the promotion of safety programs.
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The Industrial Welfare Commission has also issued two special
orders providing for working conditions relating particularly to women.
Minimum wage.—Under the broad authority of the 1913 minimumwage act, applicable to women and minors, the Industrial Welfare
Commission has applied minimum-wage rates and other standards
to practically all occupations employing women and minors. The
commission functions within the Division of Industrial Relations.
The regulations are in the form of orders, which result from recom
mendations by wage boards.
Seven orders of the commission (applying to manufacturing; per
sonal service; canning and preserving; professional, technical, clerical,
and similar occupations; public housekeeping; laundry, dry cleaning,
and dyeing; and mercantile industries) establish a minimum wage ol
$18 for a standard workweek of 40 hours. This represents a minimum
hourly rate of 45 cents, or $21.60 for 48 hours. In three orders issued
later (farm products, after harvest; transportation; and amusement
and recreation), a basic minimum wage of $20 a week or 50 cents an
hour was established. This represents a minimum wage of $24 for
48 hours. The higher rate reflected continued increases in the cost of
living subsequent to the Issuance of the earlier orders.2
In all these orders, part-time rates are established for work of less
than 40 hours a week; with one exception, the part-time rate is 5
cents higher than the full-time rate. Overtime rates are provided for
work in excess of 8 hours a day or 48 hours a week in industries to
which the general 8-hour state for women does not apply, as in the
handling of perishable fruit, vegetables, and fish, and in professional
offices. The orders also require certain standards for meal periods,
rest periods, maximum charge for meals and room when furnished,
premium rates for split shifts and for reporting for work when work
is not furnished. Deductions from wages for tools and for uniforms
or their maintenance are prohibited. Under the amusement and
recreation order, tips may not be counted as part of the minimum
wage. A special order for the motion picture industry makes provi
sions for such conditions as travel time, costume fitting, and time
spent in interviews.
An order covering all industries establishes minimum standards for
lighting, ventilation and temperature, water supply, washing, locker,
cloak room, rest room, and first-aid facilities, meals, lunchrooms, seats
and work tables, weights carried, elevator service, and fire exits.
Like the wage orders, these regulations apply only to women and minors.
Hours of work.—As has been pointed out, 1 day of rest, with broad
coverage, is the only hours standard applied generally to workers.
2 On February 7,1947, the Industrial Welfare Commission approved a minimum wage of 65 cents for these
industries, to be effective about June 1,1947.
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Women are subject to an 8-hour day, 48-hour week, by statute, the
most important exceptions from the law being for agriculture, domestic
service, and processing of perishable fruits and vegetables. To these
standards, the orders of the Industrial Welfare Commission add fur
ther limitations of hours and provisions for meal and rest periods
for women and minors (discussed under “Minimum Wage”). An
8-hour day applies to any employee in underground mines or workings.
Employees engaged in selling or compounding drugs are covered by
a limitation of 108 hours and 12 days in 2 consecutive weeks, and to an
average of 9 hours a day. Special provisions are applied to trainmen
and train dispatchers, and an hour for a noonday meal is required for
employees of sawmills, shake-mills, shingle mills, or logging camps.
Special time shifts relate to employees working under compressed air.
Industrial home work.—1The Industrial Homework Act of 1939 pro
hibited the manufacture in homes of specified articles, including
among others, food or drink, children’s clothing and toys, sanitary
goods, explosives, drugs, and poisons. Articles not prohibited may
be manufactured in homes, under permit, but the Division of Industrial
Welfare may prohibit such work in any industry, if, upon investiga
tion, it finds conditions injurious to health and welfare or inimical to
maintenance of existing labor standards. One such prohibition (ap
plying to garment manufacture) has been issued. Special authorization
provides for employment of aged and disabled persons as home workers.
Child labor.—California has established a minimum age of 15 for
work during school hours, with an exemption in cases of economic
need for children of 14 who have completed the eighth grade. For
work outside school hours during the school term, the minimum age
is 14, and for work during school vacation it is 12. These minimum
standards also apply to work in domestic service and in agriculture,
with an exemption of employment on premises owned or controlled
by the parent. Employment certificates, issued by school authorities,
are required for employed children up to 18 years of age. Maximum
hours are 8 a day, 48 a week for children under 16 in any occupation
and for minors between 16 and 18 in any occupation except agricul
ture, horticulture, viticulture, or domestic service. With certain
exemptions, the combined hours of school and work of minors under
18 must not exceed 8; a half-hour meal period is required, with exemp
tions; and night work between 10 p. m. and 5 a. m. is prohibited for
minors under 18. Employment under 16 is prohibited in specified
hazardous occupations, and the State Department of Industrial Helations is empowered to add to this list. Such action has been taken in
the case of a few occupations.
Wage payment and wage collection.—The California wage payment
law requires that employees (except agricultural or domestic employees
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living upon the premises) be paid regularly at least twice a month, and
promptly upon quitting or discharge. Payment must be in cash or
negotiable instruments payable in full in cash on demand. “Kick
back” to the employer of part of the wages earned is forbidden, as is
payment of less than wages agreed upon under collective bargaining.
The Division of Labor Law Enforcement (within the Department of
Industrial Relations) is empowered to prosecute civil actions for the
collection of wages, penalties, and claims of persons who are financially
unable to employ counsel.
According to the official reports, an average of more than 15,000
workers a year sought the division’s aid in collection of unpaid wages.
During that period the division succeeded in recovering an average
of more than half a million dollars a year in unpaid wages. Most of
the complaints filed are adjusted by hearings procedure; when this
method fails, resort is had to the courts.
Private employment agencies— Under the California law, private
employment agencies, including labor contractors, artists’ managers,
motion picture and theatrical agencies, must obtain licenses from the
Division of Labor Law Enforcement (within the Department of
Industrial Relations). In addition, these agencies must file with the
division surety bonds and schedules of fees charged for obtaining posi
tions. Fees in excess of those registered may not be charged. Agen
cies must report on placements made and fees collected, and the
division makes regular inspections to prevent violations of the law.
Housing of workers.—The Division of jHousing enforces the State
Housing Act and laws governing labor camps, auto courts, auto and
trailer camps. The Labor Camp Act of 1913 grew out of reports
describing intolerable living conditions in camps housing workers in
construction, agriculture, and allied industries. Standards estab
lished under this act, require that camps must be appropriately
located, with good drainage. Such features as proper spacing of
buildings and facilities, cleanliness, disposal of waste materials, pro
vision of pure water, and other essential features of camp construction
and maintenance, are specifically dealt with. California is estimated
to have the largest number of such camps—over 4,500—operated in
connection with ranch and industrial, lumber and mill, mining,
construction, railroad, cannery, packing house, and many other
industries. Camp operators are required to meet the established
standards, and inspections are made to secure compliance.
The division is responsible for enforcement of State housing re
quirements as they relate to hotels and apartment houses, and to
dwellings in rural districts. It also has a limited jurisdiction within
cities.
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A p p r e n t i c e s h i p .—The
California Apprentice Labor Standards Act
became effective in 1939. It repealed earlier laws, and created a
State Apprenticeship Council within the Department of Industrial
Relations in order to encourage the training of young men and women
to become fully skilled journeymen in trades taking from 1 to 6 years
to learn. The council establishes the policy of the apprenticeship
program governing such matters as minimum wages for apprentices,
standards for working conditions, and school attendance. The pro
gram is based upon voluntary acceptance by both employers and
employees of a plan for training apprentices to become skilled workmen
in a given trade or industry. At the end of 1946, there were 1,244
apprenticeship programs in operation throughout the State. These
covered 13,902 establishments and 19,688 apprentices.
I n d u s t r i a l r e la tio n s .—California does not have a labor relations act
of the National Labor Relations Act type. The Department of
Industrial Relations may investigate labor disputes and mediate,
arbitrate, or arrange for the selection of boards of arbitration. This
service, however, is dependent upon the further provision that all
bona fide parties to such a dispute join in a request for intervention
by the department.
A California “hot cargo” law prohibits the secondary boycott.
Yellow dog contracts are also prohibited.
L n e m p l o y m e n t c o m p e n s a tio n .—Under the California law, coverage
is based on the employment of 1 or more workers at any time and
wages in excess of $100 during a calendar quarter. In order to be
eligible for the minimum weekly benefits, the worker must have
earned $300 within a year period. The maximum weekly benefits in
California are $20; the minimum weekly benefits are $10.
Oregon
The original department of labor was established in 1903. The
act directly charged the Commissioner of Labor with the enforcement
of laws existing or thereafter to be enacted, and in addition, made him
responsible for collecting and reporting information on a wide range
of subjects relating to workers. The Commissioner was given power
to issue subpenas and a defined right of entry into workplaces. The
labor code at that time contained little more than a 10-hour-day law
for women, a child labor law, and a law prohibiting blacklisting.
The administration of labor laws in Oregon today is divided among
several agencies. General labor law enforcement (including the Wage
and Hour Commission and the Apprenticeship Council) is lodged in
the Bureau of Labor; the Industrial Accident Commission administers
the Workmen’s Compensation Act, and has rule-making authority
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for safety of workers; other agencies administering specific laws are
the Unemployment Compensation Commission and the Board of
Conciliation.
Workmen’s compensation.—The Oregon law, which is of the elective
type, was enacted in 1913. It applies only to listed “ hazardous” or
“ extrahazardous” employments, so that most employees in non
industrial employments do not receive benefits under the law. It
fully complies with the standards recommended for coverage of
occupational diseases; that is, it provides general coverage. Oregon
does not base the amount of compensation on the amount of wages
received by the injured worker, except in case of temporary disability.
Payments of benefits in both disability and death cases are for life,
but the amounts are low compared with benefits payable in other
States. The benefits range from $9.23 to $20.31 a week, based on
the number of dependents. The law does not provide for a waiting
period. It limits payments for medical care to $250, but authorizes
the administrative agency to extend this amount. The Oregon State
fund is exclusive and employers may not insure with private companies.
Safety and health:—The Industrial Accident Commission is vested
with power to make and enforce all necessary and reasonable rules to
insure safety of workplaces. Under this authority, the commission
has issued a general safety order and a number of regulations dealing
with specific hazardous occupations. Safety inspections are made
both by inspectors on the staff of the commission and inspectors from
the Bureau of Labo'. On request of the Industrial Accident Com
mission or the Bureau of Labor, the State Board of Health is required
to make surveys of sanitation, atmospheric contamination, lighting,
ventilation, and other conditions in industrial establishments and to
require the elimination of unhygienic practices.
Minimum wage.—In Oregon, the minimum wage law applies only
to women and minors. For these workers the Wage and Hour Com
mission has authority to establish not only minimum rates but also
maximum hours and conditions of employment. All nonagricultural
industries except domestic work are covered by minimum-wage orders..
With the exception of the canning industry, the orders estab
lish a minimum hourly rare of 40 cents for all experienced women
and minors. The canning order establishes a 66-cent hourly rate,
with payment of time and a half for the first 2 hours over 10 hours,
and double time for all hours in excess of 12 a day. Increased overtime
rates are required for work on the seventh consecutive workday, and
the order specifies the time to be allowed for meal periods.
These regulations result from the recommendations of wage boards
in the respective industries.
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Under the terms of the wage orders now in force (with certain
exceptions) hours of women and minors are limited to 8 a day, and 44 a
week. A 45-minute meal or rest period is required after from 5 to 6
hours of work, in all nonagricultural occupations except public house
keeping. A 10-hour day is permitted in the canning industry and in
beauty parlors and barber shops, and a 12-hour day in the packing of
fruits and vegetables.
Hours.—The hours laws are not of general application. A 10-hour
day applies to any mill or factory employee. The 10-hour day for
women in a number of employments has been superseded by provi
sions for shorter hours in orders of the Wage and Hour Commission,
which apply only to women and minors. A limit of 14 consecutive
hours has been provided by law for employees of common carriers of
railioads, a 9-hour day for certain employees in railroad towers and
stations, 10 consecutive hours for certain other railroad employees,
and an 8-hour day for employees in underground operations.
Industrial home work.—-Oregon has no specific law providing for the
regulation of industrial home work. Under the manufacturing order
of the Wage and Hour Commission, employees are prohibited from
allowing the manufacture of specified articles in private homes.
Child labor.—The general minimum age for employment is 14, with
provision allowing children of 12 to work during.school vacations of
2 weeks or more, on permits from the State Wage and Hour Commis
sion. Employment certificates (issued by the State Wage and Hour
Commission through the Commissioner of the Bureau of Labor) are
required for employment of minors up to 18. The maximum hours
are 8 a day and 44 a week with a 6-day week for minors under 18,
except that agricultural work is not covered, and a 10-hour day is
allowed in canning, dehydrating, and barreling occupations. Night
work is prohibited (between 6 p. m. and 7 a. m.) for children under 16.
A 45-minute lunch period is required for minors under 18. A few
hazardous occupations are prohibited by statute for children under 16
or under 18. The Wage and Hour Commission is authorized to deter
mine conditions of labor for minors under 18 and has established a
minimum age of 16 or 18 in a number of hazardous occupations.
Wage payment and wage collection.—In Oregon, the requirement as
to payment of wages every 30 days has a limited coverage; it applies to
mines and smelters, mill, logging, mercantile, or manufacturing
establishments. The use of nonnegotiable orders or other scrip as a
medium of payment is prohibited A discharged worker must be paid
immediately ; a quitting employee has the same right if he has given 3
days’ notice, otherwise payment must be made within 3 days after
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quitting. The Commissioner of Labor is required to assist workmen
in collection of wages due. This he may do by adjusting controversies
through his office, by taking assignment of such wage claims, or by
making complaints in criminal court of violations of the wage-payment
law. In 1944, of 244 workers’ claims amounting to $13,767, 15 were
adjusted, and 31 workers received between $5,000 and $6,000 through
court action instituted by the department.
Private employment agencies.—With the exception of agencies plac
ing teachers and professional and clerical workers, every fee-charging
employment agency is required to secure a license from the Commis
sioner of Labor. In addition, the agent must pay a license fee to the
State and secure a bond. The law limits the amounts of fees which
may be charged, prohibits certain practices, and permits the Commis
sioner of Labor to revoke the license of any agent who violates the law.
Industrial relations.—The State Board of Conciliation is directed
to ascertain the cause of any labor dispute and endeavor to persuade
the parties to come to agreement. If they cannot arrive at an agree
ment, the employer, the employees, or the local officials may request
the board to make an investigation of the causes. Some provision
is made for procedure to be followed. Oregon has no labor relations
act. There is a statutory limitation on the issuance of injunctions
in labor disputes. “Yellow dog” contracts are outlawed.
Apprenticeship.—The Oregon apprenticeship law enacted in 1935
was subsequently amended. The Apprenticeship Council, originally
an independent agency, is now a part of the Bureau of Labor, under a
full-time director. Twenty-five trade-wide programs (that is, none
dealing only with an individual plant) had been developed as of the
close of 1946. These programs are in operation in 583 establishments
and involve 2,488 apprentices.
Unemployment compensation.—The Oregon act provides for coverage
based both on the number of workers and the size of the pay roll; i. e.,
wages during a calendar quarter totaling $500 or more, and 4 or more
workers during such quarter. To establish eligibility for the minimum
weekly benefit of $10, a worker must have earned $200 in a 1-year
period. In case of incapability, this period may be extended by the
duration of such incapability, but for not more than 4 calendar
quarters.
Washington
In 1897, the Bureau of Labor (the first labor department of Wash
ington) was established. The Commissioner of Labor and his inspec
tors were authorized to enter workplaces at any time for the purpose
of gathering facts and statistics, and examining the methods used to
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protect the employees. In reporting on the accomplishments of the
first 2 years, the commissioner of labor wrote: “The duties for the
first year were much the most difficult, as subsequent inspections in
dicated that the managers of mills and factories had in time realized
that a few dollars expended in the way of safeguards and appliances,
prevented the loss of life^andjimb to their workmen, and lessened their
risk as being liable for damages. ”
The Department of Labor and Industries today has responsibility
for administration of all of the State’s labor laws, except those provid
ing for unemployment compensation and for an employment service.
The expanded activities of the department reflect the industrial
growth of the State.
W o r k m e n ’s c o m p e n s a tio n .—The compulsory workmen’s compensa
tion law of Washington, enacted in 1911, applies only to listed
“ hazardous” or “ extra-hazardous” employments, and provides for
complete coverage of occupational diseases. In all types of disabilities,
and also in death cases, benefits take the form of a flat pension of
$11.54 a week plus additional amounts for wife and children. Medical
care must be furnished, without restrictions as to amount or cost.
Washington has a 3-day waiting period. There is an exclusive
State fund.
S a f e t y a n d h e a lth .-—The original Factory Act, passed in 1903, was
very limited in scope. It provided for inspection of mechanical
equipment, made certain requirements for safeguarding machinery
and for ventilation and sanitation, and provided penalties for viola
tions. The safety law of 1919 provided much broader control and
coverage with regard to industrial accidents. Rule-making authority
was given to the State Safety Board, and by subsequent legislation
was granted to the Director of Labor and Industries. A Division
of Safety in the Department of Labor and Industries enforces both
statutory safety requirements and the general and special safety
standards relating to specific types of employment.
M i n i m u m w a g e .—In 1913 Washington followed Massachusetts, the
pioneer minimum-wage State, in enacting a minimum-wage law
applicable to women and minors. The Washington law,* like the laws
of California and Oregon, gives the power to establish stand ards not only
for minimum wages and hours, but also for conditions of employment.
Wage orders issued from 1913 to 1942 established varying minimum
wages and standards of hours and working conditions, in practically
all women-employing industries. A revision of orders, begun in 1937,
increased rates in six industries, to range from 32% cents an hour in
the mercantile industry to 52% cents an hour in the canning industry.
In 1946, an over-all order, governing minimum wages and minimum
standards of working conditions, provided for a minimum hourly rate
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of 65 cents, a maximum 8-liour day and 48-hour week, and required
payment of overtime at time and a half the regular rate of pay after
40 hours. This order was invalidated by the courts on the ground
that statutory procedural requirements had not been followed. As a
result, the old orders were automatically reestablished.
C h ild labor.-— In Washington, a minimum age of 14 is applicable in
factories, workshops, and stores, except that children 12 or over may
work at occupations not hazardous in the judgment of the superior
court, upon satisfactory evidence that their employment is necessary
for their own support or for assistance to their parents. The 14-yearage minimum applies also in a number of occupations specified by
order of the Industrial Welfare Committee, including work in fresh
fruit and vegetable packing industries and stock-room work in ware
houses. Employment certificates (issued by the Women’s Division
of the Department of Labor and Industries, or its branch offices) are
required up to 18 years of age, with a maximum 8-hour day and 6-day
week, and a prohibition (with certain exemptions) of night work
from 7 p. m. to 6 a. m., for minors under 18. A half-hour meal period
is required. Agriculture and domestic service in private homes,
however, are exempt from the hours of labor and certificates provisions,
and are not covered by the minimum-age standard. Certain hazard
ous occupations are prohibited for minors under 18 or under 16. In
addition, under the minimum wage law, the Industrial Welfare Com
mittee is authorized to determine conditions of labor for minors under
18 and under this authority has prohibited a number of hazardous
occupations for such minors.
H o u r s o j w o r k . —Washington has no hours law of general application.
Hours of women are limited to 8 a day in any mechanical or mercantile
establishment, laundry, hotel, or restaurant; employment in connection
with perishable fruit, vegetables, or fish or shellfish is specifically
exempt. Further limitations as to hours are established by orders
of the Industrial Welfare Commission. A 60-hour week is applied to
household or domestic workers, male or female, except in case of
emergency; the daily hours of streetcar operators or conductors are
limited to 10. Employees of common carriers engaged in the move
ment of trains may not remain on duty more than 16 consecutive
hours, after which they must have a 10-hour rest period.
I n d u s t r i a l h o m e w o r k . —Washington does not regulate industrial
home work.
W a g e p a y m e n t a n d w age c o lle c tio n . —The laws of Washington do not
require payment of wages at a regular, specified period. Wages must
be paid in lawful money or check, and workers must be paid immedi
ately in case of discharge or quitting. The labor commissioner is
authorized to take assignment of wages claims.
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LABOR LAWS— PACIFIC STATES
P r iv a te e m p lo y m e n t a g e n c ie s. —Washington has no legislation for the
regulation of private employment agencies. One section of the law
relating to false statements makes any employment agent or broker
who misrepresents matters in connection with the demand for labor,
the conditions under which labor or service is to be performed, the
duration of the work, or the wages, guilty of a misdemeanor.
A p p r e n t i c e s h i p . —The law which provided for a system whereby
voluntarily made agreements of apprenticeship would be encouraged
was enacted in 1941. It created an Apprenticeship Council within the
Department of Labor and Industries, and provided for a Director of
Apprenticeship. The council, with the consent of emplo3me and
employer groups, establishes standards for apprenticeship agreements,
issues such rules and regulations as may be necessary, and carries
on other activities in the interest of the program. The law establishes
a minimum period of 4,000 hours of reasonably continuous employment
as the basis for apprenticeship agreements. At the close of 1946, 152
programs—both single plant and group programs—were in operation
and covered 1,650 establishments with 2,304 apprentices.
I n d u s t r i a l r e la tio n s . —The Director of the Washington Department
of Labor and Industries is authorized to use his offices in mediation and
conciliation of labor disputes. In case of failure to settle a dispute
or failure of the parties to agree to submit the matter to arbitration,
the director may require the parties to file with him statements of the
facts involved in the dispute, which he may publicize. The law re
restricts the power of the courts in the issuance of injunctions in labor
disputes and forbids yellow dog contracts.
U n e m p lo y m e n t c o m p e n s a tio n . —The Washington act provides for
coverage of firms employing one or more workers at any time. A
worker, in order to establish eligibility for the minimum weekly bene
fits of $10, must have earned $300 within a year’s period. The maxi
mum weekly benefits are $25.
7 3 6 0 3 9 — 47 -
■9
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Cooperatives in the Pacific States1
in some form has been found in the Pacific States for
75 years or more. During the depression of the 1930’s, California and
Washington were leading States as regards the self-help cooperatives
formed among the unemployed. All these associations—except one
or two in each State which became consumers’ cooperatives—went
out of existence as employment opportunities opened up for the
members; while in operation, however, they were of great benefit to
the workers who participated in them. Communal colonies, of which
California and Washington also have had rather an unusual number,
were one of the earliest forms of cooperative effort. One such associa
tion dated back to 1854. None had a very long life except one, formed
in California, which later moved to Louisiana, where it maintained
existence from 1914 to 1938.
All three States shared in the cooperative efforts of the early
Granges (lodges of the Patrons of Husbandry) which were the chief
pioneers of consumers’ cooperation in this country. The consumers’
cooperative movement of Oregon has continued to be mainly that of
farmers (largely Grangers) and has its own wholesale association.
In California, the latter-day consumers’ cooperatives have been
largely those of the nonfarm groups; many have been appendages of,
or offshoots from, other economic, social, or political movements, and
have gone into eclipse when the latter declined. The present distribu
tive cooperatives are rather small and mainly of urban or town origin,
but there is a growing interest among farmers in consumers’ cooper
atives. The urban associations have a cooperative wholesale which
is extending its services to the farmers’ cooperatives.
The growth of urban cooperatives in Washington has been hampered
by a history of previous failure, especially in the early 1920’s. The
present retail distributive movement is small, but may be accelerated
by the formation recently of a new cooperative wholesale. The
farmers’ consumers’ cooperatives in this State are still predominantly
those of the Grange, and have their own wholesale association. NonGrange cooperatives are served by a cooperative wholesale whose
trading territory covers Idaho and Oregon also. This association and
the California wholesale are members of the nation-wide wholesale,
National Cooperatives, Inc.
The Pacific States have an active student cooperative movement—
mainly associations which provide low-cost board and rooms for their
members. Several of the student cooperatives are large organizations
operating a number of dwellings. Campus cooperatives of all three
C o o p e r a t io n
1 Prepared by Florence E. Parker, of the Bureau’s Labor Economics Staff.
688
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COOPERATIVES— PACIFIC STATES
689
States are affiliated with the Pacific Coast Student Cooperative League,
an educational federation formed in 1939. Of the other types of
service associations, housing cooperatives have had little development,
but California and Oregon together account for over a third of the
consumers’ water-supply cooperatives in the United States. In Oregon
and Washington the cooperative provision of medical and hospital
care is being actively promoted, and of seven associations at least
four were negotiating for—or had acquired-—hospital buildings, by
the end of 1946; in California the associations were generally providing
care on a contract basis with established agencies or were paying
sickness benefits.
In sum, these three States, with 7.4 percent of the population of
the United States, account for about 5 percent of the retail distributive
associations, 4 percent of the electric-power and telephone associations,
12 percent of the service associations, and nearly 8 percent of the credit
unions. The 693 credit unions in existence in these States at the end
of 1945 (7.8 percent of the total) had 7.7 percent of the total creditunion membership in the United States and 7.7 percent of the assets.
The membership of the credit unions, students’ cooperatives, and
medical-care associations is drawn very largely from urban industrial
workers, as is also the greater part of the consumers’ distributive
membership in California. In Oregon and Washington the distribu
tive cooperatives are predominantly farmer and rural in character,
although in the latter State consumers’ cooperation is expanding in
urban areas also.
Only recently has organized labor taken any active interest in the
consumers’ cooperative movement. Now, however, both AFL and
CIO leaders are stressing the fact that union organization and coopera
tive organization are twin safeguards for the working man, and in a
considerable number of places on the Pacific Coast, unionists are
sponsoring new associations or giving their support to established
cooperatives.
California
California has an interesting cooperative history, but one recording
a rather unusual amount of failure. The chart of cooperative devel
opment shows rapidly rising and as abruptly falling lines, the peaks
being separated by considerable periods of relative quiescence. With
some exceptions, consumers’ cooperative development in California
has been generally among nonfarm people and characterized by small,
weak associations that were insecurely rooted, with the result that
their average existence has been short. The present movement
seems to offer more promise than was true of its predecessors.
Local associations.—There were about 50 active nonfarm retail
cooperatives in the State at the end of 1946, of which about 30 were
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M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 194 7
store associations and the rest buying clubs. Several new associations
were in process of organization. There were also in operation about
20 farmers’ cooperatives purchasing consumer goods as well as farm
supplies.2 The Bureau of Labor Statistics has records of some 25
other associations whose present existence is doubtful, including buy
ing clubs at 4 Farm Security Administration migratory labor camps.
Of 72 existing cooperatives of various types for which the year of
formation is known, 46 were less than 10 years old, 19 were between
10 and 20 years old, and 7 had been in operation over 20 years. Their
average period of existence was 9.7 years. Although this indicates a
gradually lengthening cooperative life, it takes no account of the
many small ephemeral associations (mainly buying clubs) which have
come and gone, dying practically in their infancy.
Records for 12 of the larger nonfarm store associations for 1945 3
show an average membership of 403 and an average annual business
of $119,032. Of these, 1 association dates from 1923 and 1 from 1927;
6 were formed in the period 1935-40, and the others since 1940. For
4 farmers’ purchasing associations handling consumer goods, the
average membership was 1,072 and the average business $1,295,805.
Of the other types of consumers’ cooperatives, nearly a score were
students’ cooperatives running rooming and boarding houses. One
of these, on the University of California campus in Berkeley, was
operating 7 such houses, one of which (a large residential hotel accom
modating 150 women) it bought in 1946. On the University of
California campus in West Los Angeles, a similar organization oper
ated several houses. In addition there were a dozen or more students’
bookstores, most of which were only semicooperative in character.
Some half dozen housing associations have been organized, none
of which had reached the stage of actual construction by the end of
1946. At least 2 had acquired land and 1 had added so many new
members that it had to obtain an additional tract of 60 acres to
accommodate them. Other consumers’ cooperatives included a yearround recreation camp, and perhaps 10 associations supplying medical
care on a prepayment, contract basis. During the war, the war
relocation camps at Manzanar and Tulelake also had large coopera
tives, which dissolved when the camps were closed. The camps for
conscientious objectors also had buying clubs.
At the end of 1945, California had 444 credit unions with a com
bined membership of 171,391 and assets amounting to $26,986,463.
Other cooperatives include a few rural electricity associations, a
single burial-benefit association, and 2 cooperatives supplying water
2 The many such associations handling producer goods only are not here considered; California, of course,
leads the Nation in farmers’ large-scale cooperative marketing associations.
3 No later data are as yet available.
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COOPERATIVES— PACIFIC STATES
691
for their members’ households. The self-help productive associa
tions, formed during the depression by the unemployed, have all gone
out of business with the exception of 2 that have become partner
ships and 1 or 2 that were transformed into consumers’ cooperatives.
Of the distributive associations, 2 of the oldest in the State are
largely of Italian membership, 1 is Finnish, and 1 is Negro; in 2
(recently formed) the members are returned Japanese-Amerieans
who were evacuated to war relocation camps at the beginning of the
war.
Although as early as 1918 the California State Federation of Labor
joined with cooperative groups to form the California Producers’ and
Consumers’ Union, organized labor has not generally been so active
in the formation of cooperatives in California as in some other States.
Several of the San Francisco Bay region cooperatives were formed in
the late 1930’s by unionists of various trades, and one was started by
longshore workers. Recently there has been a renewal of interest
which may have concrete results. In Los Angeles, unions of auto
mobile and steel workers are reported to be organizing consumers’
cooperatives.
C o o p e ra tiv e w h o le s a le .—Under young and energetic leadership, the
Associated Cooperatives of Northern California, started in 1939, has
gradually expanded. In 1943 it removed the last three words from
its name, an action which symbolized the extension of service to the
lower half of the State. By the end of 1946 it was also serving
several associations in Nevada. In the year ending October 31, 1946,
its business totaled $ 5 1 9,100, on which its net earnings amounted to
$ 1 5 ,9 5 8 .
Although in volume the California wholesale is still one of the
smallest of the regional wholesales, it is a rapidly growing one, as
indicated by the 95-percent increase in its business in 1945-46 as
compared with the previous year. 4t the end of January 1947 it had
36 local associations in membership. Recently, the wholesale has
obtained the patronage of several farmers’ associations and the
affiliation of at least one. Primarily urban in membership, it is
nevertheless actively promoting the extension of cooperation in rural
areas which have no cooperatives, by the sale of “ co-op label” goods
(including cooperatively made farm machinery) through private
dealers acting as agents for the wholesale. This association is
steadily expanding its services. Those added in 1945 and 1946 in
clude insurance (agency) and accounting service for member asso
ciations.
The wholesale is a member of the Cooperative League of the USA
and of National Cooperatives, Inc.
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M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
Oregon
In Oregon even the consumers’ cooperatives have been, with very
few exceptions, organizations in which the membership consisted
almost entirely of farmers.
All the early cooperatives were formed by members of the Grange
(popular name of Patrons of Husbandry). Since 1900, however, other
farm organizations have been sponsoring cooperatives. The present
movement includes several connected with either the Farmers’ Union
or the Farm Bureau, but the Grange stores are still the most numer
ous. Of 23 present associations for which sponsorship is known, 15
are those of the Grange, 6 those of the Farmers’ Union, and 2 those
of the Farm Bureau.
In the city of Portland, consumers’ cooperatives have been formed
from time to time among industrial workers but, with one possible
exception, all are now out of business. As far as is known, none was
sponsored, or participated in, by organized labor. However, a new
association in which unionists were active was being organized in that
city at the end of 1946. The employees of the sawmill at Swisshome,
Oreg., owned by Consumers Cooperative Association (Kansas City,
Mo.), have recently formed a consumers’ cooperative, the membership
of which is also open to the farmers in the surrounding country.
Of the 50-odd store cooperatives handling consumers’ goods now
in existence, for which the year of formation is reported, none dates
back farther than 1920, and all but 5 have been formed since 1930.
The average age is 12.4 years.
The Grange stores have their own cooperative wholesale, Oregon
Grange Wholesale, in Portland, started in 1937. At the end of 1945,
it had in affiliation 13 associations, with a combined membership of
some 6,000 persons; 17 unaffiliated associations were also purchasing
through it. The wholesale’s business in 1945 totaled $659,034. It
handles petroleum products and various farm supplies.
Many of the non-Grange stores are affiliated with and served by
Pacific Supply Cooperative, a wholesale association with headquarters
in Walla Walla, Wash, (see p. 695).
In addition to the store associations, the Oregon consumers’ coop
erative movement includes 9 students’ associations providing rooms
and/or meals, and at least 2 (semicooperative) operating bookstores;
2 of the very few consumers’ cooperative creamery associations in the
United States; 5 associations supplying water for their members’
household needs; 1 association in a migratory labor camp; and 1
funeral cooperative. Three Civilian Public Service camps also had
buying clubs. As a result of the medical-care meetings held through
out the Pacific Northwest in 1945 and 1946, 1 hospital association
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
COOPERATIVES— PACIFIC STATES
693
(formed in 1939 but never actually in operation) took on new life and
increased its membership to some 500. It had not, by the end of
1946, acquired a building. Two other hospital associations had also
been formed in Oregon.
Other types of cooperatives in the State include about a dozen rural
electricity associations, 71 credit unions, and 3 fish-canneries.
The credit unions form the single exception to the prevailingly
farmer character of the cooperative movement in Oregon. Most of
the credit unions draw their membership from employees of industrial
companies (factories, mills, lumbering, meat-packing plants, etc.),
public employees, railroad men, and others. Very few of the credit
unions are of farmer membership.
One town in this State (Hermiston) has an unusual number of
cooperatives. These include an electricity association, a grocery
store, a Farm Bureau cooperative handling feed, seed, and petroleum
products, a Grange cooperative handling fuel, hardware and farm
supplies, a turkey-marketing association, a creamery association
which manufactures butter and has a cold-storage locker plant, a
credit union, and a cooperative telephone association. In these enter
prises not only the townspeople (about 800 in number), but also the
surrounding farm population, participate. An additional associa
tion—a combined laundry and cannery—is composed entirely of
women. In the laundry, 125 women use the facilities to do the wash
ing and ironing for their families. Some 500 women put up the
winter’s supply of fruits and vegetables in the cannery.
Washington
Local associations.—In addition to the distributive associations,
Washington has 10 water-supply associations, most of which date
back to the early 1920’s. It has several students’ rooming and
boarding houses, one of which is among the largest of its kind in the
United States, operating 5 houses and furnishing meals prepared in a
central kitchen. There are also several cooperative clubs started in
the late 1930’s, under the sponsorship of the State Department of
Social Security, by old-age pensioners who pooled their small incomes;
each group then rented a house in which to live cooperatively. At
least a dozen such homes were started, but some of these have gone
out of existence as the older members have died. A few workers’
productive associations—several shingle mills and a veneer plant—
were in operation in this State as late as 1942; their present status is
not known. At the end of 1945 there were also 178 credit unions.
Even before the inauguration of the Federal Government’s rural
electrification program, Washington State had nearly a score of
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694
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
cooperative electricity associations, some of which also supplied
water. Most of these were formed in the period 1920-25, but at
least one as early as 1914. After the beginning of the electrification
program, some of these became REA associations, using the loan funds
obtained thereby to extend and improve their facilities. Others went
out of existence. It is believed, however, that a few of these early
associations are still in operation. At the close of 1944 there were 14
REA associations in the State.
The present distributive movement consists of a few buying clubs
and about 100 associations handling groceries, petroleum products,
and farm and household supplies. All but about 15 of these are
farmers’ cooperatives (mostly those of Grange groups). Of the dis
tributive associations for which the year of formation is known, 14
were established before 1920, 8 in the decade 1920-29, 64 in 1930-39
(of these, 45 were formed in the 3-year period 1933-35), and 4 between
1940 and 1945. The average age of the whole group was 16.9 years—
considerably greater than the average for the present movement in
either California or Oregon.
As a result of a record of early—and costly—failure, nearly 25 years
ago, the cooperative movement has until recently had no support
from organized labor in this State, and some of the labor groups are
said by a Washington cooperative leader of long experience to have
been openly hostile. Within the past few years, however, some
unions (notably those of the CIO) have been friendly and have given
encouragement. At Everett, union workers (largely in the aircraft
industry) were organizing a store association in mid-1946, and various
union groups were reported to be participating in the formation of
one at Grays Harbor. An association had also been formed in
Spokane. At Bremerton, navy yard workers were reported to have
started an association to do construction work; this city has also had,
since 1937, a store association started by members of the International
Association of Machinists but now including unionists of many other
trades. At Olympia, trade-unionists—sawmill-plywood workers, mail
carriers, and leaders of the Central Labor Council—and Grangers
are reported to be working together with the idea of expanding the local
buying club into a supermarket.
Both labor and farm groups have been cooperating in the recent
drive for cooperative medical and hospital facilities. The Seattle
group has had the active participation of representatives of organized
boilermakers, milk-wagon drivers, aircraft mechanics, and a central
labor council, as well as of the Grange. It recently merged with a
doctor-controlled plan into a new consumers’ cooperative that will
provide clinical and hospital care in its own 60-bed hospital (owned
by the doctors’ group). Hospital associations at Sequim and Bremer-
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COOPERATIVES— PACIFIC STATES
695
ton (on the Olympic Peninsula) were negotiating for buildings at the
close of 1946, and a new association had been formed at Deer Park.
The Washington associations joined with those in Oregon and Idaho,
during the year, in the formation of the Northwest Cooperative
Hospital Association.
Wholesale associations.—The distributive associations are served
by two cooperative wholesales, both of farmer sponsorship and
membership. These are the Grange Cooperative Wholesale (started
in 1919), with a membership of 55 associations and a business in 1946
of over 4 million dollars; and Pacific Supply Cooperative (1933)
with 101 member associations and a business of some 12% million
dollars. The Grange Wholesale has a branch warehouse in Spokane;
in addition to its distributive business, it provides auditing service.
Pacific Supply Cooperative, which has 8 branch warehouses in
Washington, Idaho, and Oregon, provides trucking and automobilerepair services and manufactures feed and insecticides. It is an
affiliate of National Cooperatives, Inc.
The nonfarm associations in the State have been handicapped by
the lack of cooperative sources of wholesale supply. An effort made
to transform into a consumers’ cooperative wholesale a wholesale
started to serve the self-help groups came to naught, and the whole
sale was liquidated in 1939. At the end of 1945, by arrangement
between consumers’ cooperative groups and Pacific Supply Cooper
ative, a new wholesale—Cascade Cooperative W h o lesa le —was
formed. The starting of operations was delayed by the difficulty of
finding suitable quarters. However, late in 1946, a large building
was obtained in Seattle which is to house the headquarters of the new
association and a branch warehouse of Pacific. If the existing asso
ciations support the wholesale, the new facilities should strengthen
and accelerate the development of consumers’ cooperatives in the
Puget Sound area.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
P art 2. — Current Labor Statistics
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697
698
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
Current statistics of labor interest in selected periods1
[Available in reprint form]
1946
1947
Item
Unit or base
period
Feb
ruary
Jan
uary
Decem
ber
58, 010
42,100
15,910
55, 520
40, 090
15,430
48. 600
6, 920
2,490
58,430
41, 990
16, 440
56, 310
40,300
16,010
49,100
7,210
480
57,790
41,860
15, 930
55, 390
39, 910
15,480
48, 890
6, 500
2,400
1,950
450
39,386
15,114
826
1,325
3,925
7,838
5,198
Feb
ruary
1939:
Average
for year
Employment and unemployment
Civilian labor force (BC): Total------------- Thousands__
Male................ .............. - ....................... ....d o ........ .
Female....................................................
.do.
Employed 3---------- -----------------------.do.
-do.
M ale------------- -----------------------Female----------------- ----------------_do.
_do.
Nonagricultural________________
Agricultural................ ------- --------do.
Unemployed-........... ...... .......................
-do.
M ale................................ ................
-do.
Female-----------------------------------do.
Civilian employment in nonagricultural
.do.
establishments: T o ta l3_____ ________
.do.
Manufacturing...... .................................
_do.
M ining-.----- -------- ---------------------Construction 4_______ ____________
-do.
-do.
Transportation and public utilities----do.
Trade................................... .................
Finance, service and miscellaneous......
-do.
Federal, State, and local government,
excluding Federal force-account con
.do.
struction_______________ ______ _
M ilitary personnel............... ............. ..........
.do.
Production-worker employment:
.do.
M anufacturing------------- ----------------do.
Bituminous-coal mining____________
Class I steam railroads, including salaried
-do.
employees (IC C )------- ------ ------------ Hired farm workers (BAE)______ _____ _
-do.
1,690
430
53,890
37, 890
16, 000
51, 240
35, 750
15, 490
44, 300
6, 940
2, 650
2,140
510
3 54,230
2 40,950
213, 280
2 46, 930
2 35, 600
2 11.300
2 37, 430
2 9, 500
2 7,300
2 5,350
21, 950
39,470
15,048
827
1,435
3,933
7, 866
5,193
40, 726
15,026
819
1,617
3, 976
8, 589
5,260
36, 509
12, 536
808
1,260
3,907
7, 505
5,031
30, 353
10,078
845
1,753
2, 912
6,618
4,160
5,160
1,906
5,168
1,987
5,439
2,204
5,462
5, 956
367
12,329
336
12, 269
336
12, 271
326
9,989
341
8,192
371
1,325
1,587
1,334
1,525
1,353
2, 060
1, 367
1, 424
988
31, 784
$47. 28
$46.94
$69. 58
$34. 40
$59.97
$40. 58
$69. 56 « $54.16
$33.73 « $30. 77
$60.32 $53.04
$23. 86
$23. 88
$21.17
$30.39
40.5
«43.3
«40.5
37.3
37.7
27.1
43.0
32.6
$1,158
$1. 490
$0.951
$1. 594
$ 1. 002
$1.145
$1. 491 « $1. 259
$0.919 « $0. 835
$1. 569 $1. 422
$0. 633
$1.120
$1.104
$0. 622
2,010
2,120
Hours and earnings
Average weekly earnings:
Manufacturing............................... ........
Bituminous-coal mining...... ........... ......
Retail trade_______ _______ ___ ____
Building construction (private)______
Average weekly hours:
Manufacturing___ ________________
Bituminous-coal mining____________
Retail trade____________ _______ _
Building construction (private)............
Average hourly earnings:
M anufacturing_______ _____ ______
Bituminous-coal mining_____ ______
Retail trade______________________
Building construction (private)______
Average straight-time hourly earn
ings in manufacturing, using—
'
Current employment by industry..
Employment by industry as of
January 1941_________________
Quarterly farm wage rate, per day
without board (BAE)____________
$58.97
Hours..
___ do.
___ do.
___ do.
40.4
36.9
$1.170
$1. 599
40.5
46.7
39.9
37.6
$1.120
40.9
46.7
40.2
38.4 •
$1.106
$4.83
$0.886
$0. 536
$0. 933
i $0. 970
$0. 640
i $4. 40
« $1. 53
Industrial injuries and labor turn-over
Industrial injuries in manufacturing per
million man-hours worked____________
Labor turn-over per 100 employees in
manufacturing:
Total separations__________________
Quits________________________
Lay-offs........... ................ ................
Total accessions___________________
14.9
717. 0
15.4
4.9
3.5
.9
4.5
3.0
6.0
4.3
6.3
3.9
1.7
3 2.6
1.0
290
90
290
100
168
76
290
134
1, 225
1,250
3,127
22,919
1,484
0.2
0.2
0.5
4.2
0.28
4.4
3.1
0.8
4.9
6.8
3 0.6
3 1.9
3 3.1
Labor-management disputes
Work stoppages beginning in month:
Num ber_________________________
Number of workers involved________ Thousands..
All work stoppages during month:
Number of man-days idle___________ ----- do....... .
Man-days idle as percent of available
working time___________________
Footnotes at end of table.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
699
CURRENT LABOR STATISTICS
Current statistics of labor interest in selected periods 1— Continued
1947
Item
Unit or base
period
Feb
ruary
1946
Jan
uary
Decem
ber
Feb
ruary
1939:
Average
for year
Prices
Consumers’ price index (for moderate income families in large cities): All item s...
All foods_______________
Cereals and bakery products__ _.
M eats___________________
Dairy products_________ _____
Eggs--------------------------------------Fruits and vegetables______ . . . _
Beverages________ _____
Fats and oils____ _____________
Sugar and sweets_______________
Clothing________
R ent__________
Fuel, electricity, and ice___
Housefurnishings____
Miscellaneous_____
Wholesale price index: All commodities...
All commodities other than farm products___________
All commodities other than farm products and foods_____
Farm products________________
Foods___________
1935-39=100... 152.8
153.1
1935-39 = 100 ._ 182.3
183.8
1935-39 = 100... 144.1
143.4
1935-39 = 100... 196.7
199.0
1935-39 = 100... 183.2
190.1
1935-39 = 100... 169.9
181.7
1935-39 = 100... 191.7
187.9
1945-39 = 100... 182.8
178.3
1935-39 = 100... 201.3
201.9
1935-39 = 100... 178.1
176.2
1935-39 = 100... 180. 2
178.3
1935-39—100
8 108 9 8 108 8
1935-39 = 100... 117.5
117.3
1935-39 = 100. _. 179.6
178.5
1935-39 = 100... 136. 7
136.6
1926 = 100 ■» 144. 6 10141. 5
153.3
185.9
141.7
197.8
200.9
201.1
185.0
176.2
207.3
175. 3
176.5
129.6
139.6
109.8
131.3
136. 6
144.2
181.1
124.9
125.4
126.9
150. 5
99.4
95.2
94.5
96.6
95.9
91.0
94.5
95.5
87.7
100.6
100.5
115.5
177.1
136.1
■o 140. 9
111.0
149.7
125.6
107.7
99.0
101.3
100.7
77.1
1926 = 100 18138. 8 ■8136.1
■8134. 8
102.5
79.5
1926=100 ■8128. 6 ■8127. 6
1926 = 100
170.4
165.0
1926 = 100 162.0
156.2
■8124. 7
168.1
160.1
101.3
130.8
107.8
81.3
65.3
70.4
Millions $13,402 $14,402
$15, 852
$12, 068
8 $5, 319
National income and expenditures
National income payments (B FD C )..
Consumer expenditures for goods and services (B F D C )_____
Retail sales (BFD C)___
$7, 373
»$36,115 »$30 056 11 $16 651
$7,839 $10, 282 $6,208 8 $2, 749
Production
Industrial production index, unadjusted
(FR): Total_______ ______ .
M anufactures...
M inerals... .
Bituminous coai (B M )___
Car loadings index, unadjusted (FR) _
Electric energy (FPC): T o tal...
Utilities (production for public use). .
Industrial establishments___________
1935-39 = 100
1935-39 = 100
1935-39 = 100
Thousands of
short tons
1935-39=100
Millions of
kw-.hr.
184
192
140
184
192
140
179
188
131
148
151
134
100
109
106
50, 640
133
23, 698
58, 869
138
25,975
42, 320
131
24, 875
50, 248
119
19,449
32,905
101
(12)
19, 615
4, 083
21, 639
4, 336
20, 847
4,028
16,193
3,256
8 9, 433
(12)
Construction
Construction expenditures_______
Value of urban building construction
started____ .
New nonfarrh family dwelling u n its...
Millions
1,031
922
852
626
8 429
271
44,400
266
41, 000
226
35, 200
373
51,000
(13)
8 30,700
■Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics unless otherwise indicated. Abbreviations used: BC (Bureau of the
Census); ICC (Interstate Commerce Commission); BAE (Bureau of Agricultural Economics); BFDC
(Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce); FR (Federal Reserve); BM (Bureau of Mines); FPC (Fed
eral Power Commission). Most of the current figures are preliminary.
210-month average—March to December 1940—not comparable with later figures. Revisions are in
process.
3 Excludes employees on public emergency work, these being included in unemployed civilian labor
force. Civilian employment in nonagricultural establishments differs from nonagricultural employment
in civilian labor force mainly because of the inclusion in the latter of such groups as self-employed and
domestic and casual workers.
4 Includes workers employed by construction contractors and Federal force-account workers (nonmain
tenance construction workers employed directly by the Federal Government). Other force-account and
nonmaintenance construction employment is included under manufacturing and other groups.
5 February.
6 January.
7 December 1945.
8 All cities not surveyed: Rent index of January based on 5 cities and that of February on 6 cities.
8 March 1946.
18 Includes current motor-vehicle prices. See note on p. 717 of this issue.
11 Fourth quarter.
12 Not available.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Labor - Management Disputes
Controversies and Significant Developments,
March 1947
M arc h w i t n e s s e d the termination of two prolonged and bitter work
stoppages which had attracted considerable public attention. The
first of these disputes involved the United Automobile Workers (CIO)
and the J. I. Case Co., manufacturers of agricultural implements. It
arose over issues of wages and union security and resulted in stoppages
at four of the company’s plants, beginning on December 26, 1945.
Within 3 months, settlements were reached in two of the plants. The
stoppage at Rockford, 111., however, continued for almost a year; and
it was not until March 9, 1947—more than 14 months after the strike
began—that union members at the Racine, Wis., plant voted by a
ratio of 2 to 1 to return to their jobs despite their expressed dissatis
faction with the new contract terms. The agreement provided for
wage increases averaging 25 cents per hour, but contained no provision
for a closed shop or compulsory check-off which the union had orig
inally demanded.
The 11-month strike against the Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing
Co. plant in West Allis, Wis., which began April 30, 1946, was ended
March 23, following a 3 to 1 vote by local members of the United
Automobile Workers (CIO). Previously, there were separate settle
ments of stoppages, which lasted from 5 to 7 months, at six other
Allis-Chalmers plants. Striking workers at the West Allis plant went
back to their jobs without a union contract but with a wage increase
of 18% cents an hour, which nonstrikers had been receiving since
August 1946. The issues of a union shop and revised grievance pro
cedures were still unsettled.
Settlement of the J. I. Case and Allis-Chalmers’ strikes focused
attention on other postwar work stoppages of long duration still in
progress. Of these, the most significant is the strike of about 500
workers of the Toledo, Peoria and Western Railroad which began
October 1, 1945. This controversy was further high-lighted with the
fatal shooting of its president, George P. McNear, by unknown assail700
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
701
LABOR MANAGEMENT DISPUTES
ants on Monday evening, March 10, 1947. Thirteen months earlier
two union pickets were shot to death and three were injured by
T. P. & W. railroad guards. Thirteen railroad unions have insisted
that the carrier accept “standard” wage and rule provisions; manage
ment has steadfastly maintained that such rules would not be adopted.
Work Stoppages in February 1947
T h e l o w l e v e l of strike activity which has prevailed since early
December continued throughout February and March. About the
same number of stoppages (290) began in February as in the previous
month. These labor-management disputes involved approximately
90.000 workers or slightly fewer wage earners than the stoppages
which began in January. Including 170 stoppages which continued
from preceding months, a total of 460 stoppages, involving 145,000
workers, were in effect at one time or another in February.
In contrast with a year ago when postwar controversies reached
their peak, idleness in plants directly affected by shutdowns this
February totaled 1,230,000 man-days, or about one-eigliteenth of the
time loss recorded in February 1946 during the steel, electrical, auto,
and other large* stoppages. In the first quarter of 1947, only one
relatively large stoppage occurred—a 2-day dispute of approximately
14.000 Detroit auto workers—whereas, during the first 3 months of
1946 10 large stoppages began in which over a million and a quarter
workers were involved.
Work stoppages in February 1947 with comparable figures for earlier periods 1
Work stoppages beginning
in the month
Man-days idle (all
stoppages)
Month
Number
February 1947 2___________ ______ _ _ __
January 1947 2________________ _ ___
December 1946______________________ . _
February 1946_______________________ ___
January 1946_____________________________
290
290
168
290
337
Workers
involved
90,000
100, 000
76,000
134,000
1,370, 000
Number
1,230,000
1,250, 000
3,130, 000
22,900, 000
19, 700, 000
Percent of
estimated
working
« time (all
industries)
0.2
.2
.5
4.2
3.1
1 All known work stoppages, arising out of labor-management disputes, involving 6 or more workers
and continuing as long as a full day or shift are included in reports of the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Figures
on “workers involved” and “man-days idle” cover all workers made idle in establishments directly involved
in a stoppage. They do not measure the indirect or secondary effects on other establishments or industries
whose employees are made idle as a result of material or service shortages.
2 Preliminary estimates.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
702
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
Activities of the U. S. Conciliation Service
in February 1947
D u r i n g F e b r u a r y 1947 the United States Conciliation Service
closed 924 dispute cases involving 376,975 employees— approximately
11 percent fewer than were closed in the previous month.
The decline in the number of work stoppages throughout the
Nation since November 1946 is reflected in the decline in the number
of work stoppage assignments of the Service and consequently in the
number of work stoppages terminated. Only 143 strike assignments
were terminated in February 1947 as compared with 179 in the pre
vious month, 222 in February 1946, and an average of 286 per month
throughout the year 1946.
In February 1947 more than 62 percent of work stoppages closed
and 68 percent of all disputes closed involved the issue of wages.
Stoppages caused by unresolved grievances accounted for 17.5
percent of the total stoppages terminated as compared with a range of
from 10 to 15 percent in the preceding 3 months.
Cases closed by the U. S. Conciliation Service in February 1947 by type of situation and
type of disposition
Total
Work stop
pages
Type of disposition
Threatened
work stop
pages
Controver
sies
Other situ
ations
ork Cases W ork Cases W ork Cases W ork Cases Work
Cases Wers
ers
ers
ers
ers
All methods___ _______ . ____
1,144 447, 610
143 50, 759
432 130, 206
349 196,010
Agreement of the parties_____
Dispute called off______________
Unable to adjust______________
Referred to NLRB and other
Referred to arbitration_________
Consent elections and union memberships_________________
Decisions rendered in arbitration..
Technical services completed____
Miscellaneous services__________
770 345,102
65 13,181
1
5
44 10,197
39 7,823
120 41, 824
9 1,103
1
5
8 6, 434
5 1,393
380 117, 594
27 9, 913
0
0
17 1,928
8
771
270 185, 684
29 2,165
0
0
19 1,835
26 5, 659
5
667
i 79 12,089
20 2,156
121 56,390
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
667
0
0
0
220 70, 635
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
79 12,089
20 2,156
121 56,390
i This figure includes 3 arbitration cases in which settlements other than arbitration decisions were made.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Prices and Cost o f Living
Indexes of Consumers’ Prices in Large Cities,
February 19471
R e t a il p r ic e s of living essentials commonly bought b y moderateincome city families averaged 0.2 percent lower on February 15, 1947,
than on January 15. A decline in the family food bill more than
offset higher prices for all other major groups of items in the family
budget. Ketail food prices dropped 0.8 percent; all other living
essentials advanced 0.4 percent between mid-January and midFebruary.
This small over-all decline between January and February—the
second since the mid-December all-time high—is in contrast to the
rapid advances of 1 and 2 percent a month during the last half of
1946. The consumers' price index on February 15, 1947, was 152.8
(1935-39=100). In mid-February consumers’ goods and services
used by families in large cities were 17.9 percent higher than a year
ago and 51.6 percent above the January 1, 1941, level.
Retail food prices in large cities declined 0.8 percent over the month
and on February 15, 1947,‘were 2.9 percent below the mid-November
1946 all-time high of 187.7 (1935-39=100). A seasonal drop of 6.5
percent in egg prices was accompanied by a 3.6-percent decline for
1 The “consumers’ price index” for moderate-income families in large cities, formerly known as the “ cost
of living index,” measures average changes in retail prices of selected goods, rents, and services, weighted
by quantities bought by families of wage earners and moderate-income workers in large cities in 1934-36.
The items priced for the index constituted about 70 percent of the expenditures of city families whose income
averaged $1,524 in 1934-36.
The indexes are based on time-to-time changes in the cost of goods and services purchased by moderateincome families in large cities. They do not indicate whether it costs more to live in one city than in
another.
Data relate to the fifteenth of each month except those for January 1941 in tables 1 and 2, which have been
estimated for January 1.
January 1, 1941, is the wage base date for determining allowable “cost of living” wage increases under the
Little Steel formula and under the wage-price policy of February 1946. January 1, 1941, indexes in tables
1 and 2 have been estimated by assuming an even rate of change from December 15,1940, to the next pricing
period.
Food prices are collected monthly in 56 cities during the first 4 days of the week which includes the Tues
day nearest the fifteenth of the month. Aggregate costs of foods in each city, weighted to represent food
purchases of families of wage earners and moderate-income workers, have been combined for the United
States with the use of population weights. In March 1943 the number of cities included in the food index
was increased from 51 to 56, and the number of foods from 54 to 61.
Prices of clothing, housefurnishings, and miscellaneous goods and services are obtained in 34 large cities in
March, June, September, and December. In intervening months, prices are collected in 21 of the 34 cities
for a shorter list of goods and services.
736039 - 4 7 -
10
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
703
704
f-
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
dairy products and lower prices for meats, fish, and poultry. Fresh
fruit and vegetable prices advanced 2.8 percent on the average during
the month, as green beans increased 35 percent and lettuce rose 13
percent. Ketail prices of coffee and sugar continued to advance.
Clothing prices, advancing for the forty-fourth consecutive month,
were 1.1 percent higher in mid-February than in mid-January and
almost 80 percent higher than in August 1939. Higher prices re
ported for cotton housedresses, rayon dresses, hosiery, and under
garments were a reflection of earlier increases in manufacturers’
prices. Prices of men’s suits and topcoats, and work clothing also
rose in most cities. Footwear prices advanced 1.2 percent during the
month.
Housefurnishings prices increased 0.6 percent between mid-January
and mid-February, as prices of washing machines, gas stoves, and
floor coverings continued to rise. Miscellaneous goods and services
costs rose 0.1 percent. Higher prices for gasoline, newspapers,
motion-picture admissions, and beauty-shop services more than offset
slightly lower prices for household cleaning supplies.
T able 1.— Indexes of consumers’’prices for moderate-income families and percent changes,
February 15, 1947, compared with earlier periods
Feb. 15,
1947
Jan. 15,
1947
Feb. 15,
1946
Aug. 15,
1945
Jan. 1,
1941
Aug. 15,
1939
This
month
Last
month
Year ago
VJ-day
Wage
base
date *
Month
before
war in
Europe
Group
Indexes (1935-39=100)
___
152.8
153.1
129.6
129.3
100.8
98.6
Food_______________________________
Clothing------------------ --------------------Rent__ ________ ______
Fuel, electricity, and ice- __ . . . .. ___
Gas and electricity________________
Other fuels and ice________________
Housefurnishings______
.... __
Miscellaneous_______________________
182.3
180.2
108.9
117.5
92.2
142.1
179.6
136.7
183.8
178.3
108.8
117.3
91.9
142.0
178.5
136.6
139.6
150.5
140.9
146. 4
111.0
93.8
127.8
149.7
125.6
111.4
95. 2
127. 2
146.0
124.5
97.6
101.2
105. 0
100.8
97.5
104.0
100.2
101. 8
93.5
100.3
104. 3
97.5
99.0
96.3
100.6
100.4
All ite m s____ _________________
Percent change to Feb. 15 1947
All items_____ ___
____________
Food___________ ____
______ __ _ *
Clothing_____________ _______
Rent __
__________ . __
Fuel, electricity, and ice. . _
. . ....
Gas and electricity__ _____ _ .
Other fuels and ice_____
Housefurnishings________ .
. . . ___
Miscellaneous..“ ______ ______________
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
-0 .2
17.9
18.2
51.6
55.0
- .8
1.1
.1
.2
.3
.1
.6
.1
30.6
19.7
29.4
23.1
5.9
-1 .7
11.2
20.0
8.8
5.5
-3 .2
11. 7
23.0
9.8
86.8
78.1
3.7
16.6
,-5.4
36.6
79.2
34.3
95. 0
79.7
4.4
20. 5
-6 .9
47.6
78.5
36.2
705
PRICES AND COST OF LIVING
Based on rent changes in 6 cities, it was estimated that the rent
index for all large cities combined increased 0.1 percent to 108.9 on
February 15, 1947. Rents advanced 0.3 percent in Memphis and
New Orleans and 0.4 percent in Washington between September 1946
and February 1947 and 0.4 in Philadelphia between August 1946 and
February 1947.
Fuel, electricity, and ice costs rose 0.2 percent on the average.
Changes in rates increased the cost of gas to domestic consumers in
Philadelphia by 11 percent; rate reductions lowered electricity costs
to Denver consumers by 21 percent.
T able 2 .— Percent change in consumers'’ price index from specified dates to February 15,
1947, by cities
Indexes
1935-39=
100
City
Percent changes to February 15, 1947 from —
Feb. 15,
1947
Jan. 15,
1947
Feb. 15,
1946
Aug. 15,
1945
Jan. 1,
1941
Aug. 15,
1939
This
month
Last
month
Year
ago
VJday
Wage
base
date
Month
before
war in
Europe
A v erag e...... ___ ...................................... .
152.8
-0 .2
17.9
18.2
51.6
55.0
Baltimore, M d__ _____ _ . . .
. . . . ..
Birmingham, A la... _____ _ ___ _ . . .
Boston, M ass.. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _____ _____
Buffalo, N. Y_______________________
Chicago, 111___________________ ____
Cincinnati, Ohio_____________________
Cleveland, Ohio_____________________
155.8
157.5
146.8
152.0
152.6
153.2
155.4
- .3
-. 6
-1 .0
- .3
-. 2
.4
- .3
18.5
18. 5
17.4
17.1
19.4
18.8
18.1
17.5
17.6
16.8
17.5
19.3
18.5
17.6
54.7
55.0
48.1
49.2
50.8
53.8
52.4
57. a
59.9
51. 2
54.3
54.6
57.5
55.4
Denver, Colo________________________
Detroit, M ich .____ _________________
Houston, Tex_______ ________ _ _
Kansas City, M o___________________ _
Los Angeles, Calif____________________
Minneapolis, M inn. ___ _____ . . .
New York, N. Y ____________________
151.7
152.6
153.7
148.3
155.4
148.8
153.9
.5
1
0
.5
.3
.4
- .3
18.5
15.6
21. 2
16. 5
17.3
18.1
17.2
18.8
16.3
20.6
16.2
18.6
19.1
18.4
51.7
51.1
50.7
50.7
51.6
46.2
52.4
53.9
54.9
52.6
50.4
54.6
49.2
55.5
Philadelphia, P a___________ ____ _ _
Pittsburgh, Pa_______ . . . ____ ____
St. Louis, Mo_______________________
San Francisco, Calif__________________
Savannah, G a____ __________ __ ___
Seattle, Wash.
_______
Washington, D. C_ __________________
151.5
155.7
151.6
158. 1
162.3
155.0
151.3
- .5
_2
.4
- .6
.1
- .3
18. 1
18.9
18.3
18.4
17.3
16.0
16.1
18.0
19.6
18.9
19.3
17.4
16.6
17.4
52.7
53.9
50.1
55.3
60.1
51.8
51.5
54.9
58.2
54.5
59.2
63.4
54.5
53.4
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
-.
-.4
/
706
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
T able 3.—Percent change in consumers'1piice index from Jan. 15, to Feb. 15, 1947, by
cities and groups of items
Fue 1, electri city,
and ice
City
All
items
Food Cloth
Rent
ing
Average___________ _________ -0 .2
-0 .8
Atlanta, Ga_........ _ ___
Baltimore, McL __......................
Birmingham, Ala.._ ..............
Boston, Mass
Buffalo, N. Y ___
___ ____
Chicago, 111______
______ _
0
- .9
-1 .3
-2 .8
-1 . 5
-. 7
- .3
- .6
-1 .0
- .3
- .2
1.1
.3
0
1.8
1.4
1.3
Cincinnati, Ohio Cleveland, Ohio
_____
Denver, C o lo __
. ___
Detroit, Mich
Houston, Tex
- _ ___
Indianapolis, In d ___ ______
Jacksonville, Fla___ __ _____
.4
- .3
.5
-. 1
0
.2
-1 . 2
.4
- .8
-1 . 0
- .1
- .5
1.5
1.5
3.0
.7
1.4
Kansas City, Mo
_
__ __
Los Angeles, Calif
Manchester, N. H ............ ......
Memphis, T enn. _
Milwaukee, Wis_ __ _
Minneapolis, Minn_ __ _ __
Mobile, Ala______________
.5
.3
.7
-. 1
-3 .3
- .8
1.2
.3
- .3
2.1
.9
New Orleans, La _
____
New York, N. Y _____________
Norfolk, Va
................... . _
Philadelphia, P a___
_ ___
Pittsburgh, P a____
Portland, Maine__
Portland, Oreg______ _
__
Richmond, Va____________ ___
_
_
St. Louis, Mo__
San Francisco, Calif__________
Savannah, Qa_______ __
Scranton, P a ______ ____ _
Seattle, Wash . ___
Washington, D. C ____________
1 Change from August 15,1946.
2 Change from September 15,1946.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
.4
- .3
- .5
.2
.4
- .6
.1
-. 3
- .4
- .3
- .8
.2
-1 .4
.2
-3 .1
- .8
.3
.5
-2 .6
- .3
.9
-1 .2
-1 .3
0.1
2- . 1
2.3
.7
2.3
.2
.7
1.4
1.5
2.2
2.1
i.l
.7
- .5
2.4
Miscellaneous
Total
Other
fuels
and
ice
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.6
0.1
0
0
0
0
0
.1
0
0
0
- .1
0
0
0
0
0
.1
0
.1
1.6
- .6
.7
.8
.3
.2
0
.4
-. 1
-. 1
0
0
-11.4
-. 5
0
0
0
0
0
2.0
0
0
-. 1
0
2.4
.4
.9
.9
1. 5
-. 1
0
0
.3
.2
0
0
-. 1
0
1.3
.6
0
.1
1.6
0
.4
0
1.0
.4
0
0
0
0
0
.5
0
.1
0
1
0
2.0
.1
0
-1 . 5
0
0
0
5.7
.1
0
- .2
0
-. 2
0
0
0
0
-2 .3
0
0
0
0
0
.2
.7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.2
.9
0
0
-3 .1
-. 1
0
0
0
0
0
2.2
Housefurnishings
Gas
and
elec
tricity
1
- .3
-. 1
.1
- .3
.1
- .1
0
.2
- .6
.6
-. 7
.1
.5
.2
.6
LI,
.1
.1
707
PRICES AND COST OF LIVING
T able 4.— Indexes of consumers’’ prices for moderate-income families in large cities,
1935 to February 1947
Indexes (1935-39=100) of cost of—
Year and month
All items
1935_______________________
1936_______________________
1937_______________________
1938_______________________
1939_______________________
1940_______________________
1941_______________________
1942_______________________
1943_______________________
1944_______________________
1945_______________________
1945:
Jan. 15________________
Feb. 15________________
Mar. 15_ ___ ____ _ .
Apr. 15______________ _
May 15_______________
June 15 __ _
July 15_____ _________
Aug. 15_ _____ _____
Sept. 15____ _________
Oct. 15________________
Nov. 15____ _________
Dec. 15_______ __ _____
1946:
J a n .15________________
Feb. 15__________ ___
Mar. 15_ _ ___
...
Apr. 15______ _________
May 15_______________
June 15 _____ _ _ .. ..
July 15________ _____
Aug. 15____ _________
Sept. 15.._ ____________
Oct. 15________________
Nov. 15________
___
Dec. 15_______________
1947:
J a n .15________________
Feb. 15___ ___________
Clothing
Rent
Fuel, elec Housetricity, furnish
and ice
ings
Miscel
laneous
98.1
99.1
102.7
100.8
99.4
100.2
105.2
116.5
123.6
125.5
128.4
100.4
101.3
105.3
97.8
95.2
96.6
105.5
123.9
138.0
136.1
139.1
96.8
97.6
102.8
102.2
100.5
101.7
106.3
124.2
129.7<
138.8T
145.9
94.2
96.4
100.9
104.1
104.3
104.6
106.2
108.5
108.0
108.2
108.3
100.7
100.2
100.2
99.9
99.0
99.7
102.2
105.4
107.7
109.8
110.3
94.8
96.3
104.3
103.3
101.3
100.5
107.3
122.2
125.6
136.4
145.8
98.1
98.7
101.0
101.5
100.7
101.1
104.0
110.9
115.8
121.3
124.1
127.1
126.9
126.8
127.1
128.1
129.0
129.4
129.3
128.9
128.9
129.3
129.9
137.3
136.5
135.9
136.6
138.8
141.1
141.7
140.9
139.4
139.3
140.1
141.4
143.0
143.3
143.7
144.1
144.6
145.4
145.9
146.4
148.2
148.5
148.7
149.4
(»)
(>)
108.3
(>)
(')
108.3
(>)
0)
108.3
C1)
0)
108.3
109.7
110.0
110.0
109.8
110.0
110.0
111.2
111.4
110.7
110.5
110.1
110.3
143.6
144.0
144.5
144.9
145.4
145.8
145.6
146.0
146.8
146.9
147.6
148.3
123.3
123.4
123.6
123.8
123.9
124.0
124.3
124.5
124.6
124.7
124.6
124.8
129.9
129.6
130.2
131.1
131.7
133.3
141.2
144.1
145.9
148.6
152.2
153.3
141.0
139.6
140.1
141.7
142.6
145.6
165.7
171.2
174.1
180.0
187.7
185.9
149.7
150.5
153.1
154.5
155.7
157.2
158.7
161.2
165.9
168.1
171.0
176.5
0)
(0
108.4
(>)
0)
108. 5
(>)
108.7
108.8
0)
(0
(0
110.8
111.0
110.5
110.4
110.3
110. 5
113.3
113.7
114.4
114.4
114.8
115.5
148.8
149.7
150.2
152.0
153.7
156.1
157.9
160.0
165.6
168.5
171.0
177.1
125.4
125.6
125.9
126.7
127.2
127.9
128.2
129.8
129.9
131.0
132.5
136.1
153.1
152.8
183.8
182.3
178.3
180.2
108.8
108.9
117.3
117.5
178.5
179.6
136.6
136.7
1 Rents not surveyed in this month.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Food
708
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
Retail Prices of Food in February 1947
e t a i l p r i c e s o f f o o d in January 1947 in relation to those in selected
preceding periods are shown in the accompanying tables.
R
T a b l e 1. —Percent change in retail prices of food in 56 large cities combined, by commodity
groups, in specified periods
Jan. 15,
1947, to
Feb. 15,
1947
Commodity group
Jan. 15,
1941, to
Feb. 15,
1947
Aug. 15,
1945, to
Feb. 15,
1947
Feb. 15,
1946, to
Feb. 15,
1947
Aug. 15,
1939, to
Feb. 15,
1947
All foods______________________ ____-
-0 .8
+30.6
+29.4
+86.4
+95.0
Cereals and bakery products-----------------M eats.--------- - ---- ------- ----------Beef and veal__ _ ---------------------P ork___________________________
L a m b ...
------------ -- - ------Chickens - ___________________
Fish, fresh and canned - - - -------------Dairy products -,- - ---------------- ----Eggs------------------------------------------------Fruits and vegetables--------------------------Fresh-__ ---------- -------------- --------C anned.-. ______________________
Dried------------------ ---------------------Beverages-- - -------------------------- -----Fats and oils-.---- ------------- ------Sugar and sweets-- ----------- ------------ -
+ .s
-1 .2
- .5
+ .4
- .5
-5 .0
-4 .6
-3 .6
-6 .5
+2.0
+2.8
- .6
+ .3
+2.5
- .3
+1.1
+31.2
+49.8
+60. 6
+70.2
+49.2
+16.7
+14.0
+34.1
+17.8
+5.9
-1 .9
+31.9
+59.0
+46.4
+60.5
+40.3
+32.1
+49.2
+60.3
+70.2
+49.8
+12.2
+18.8
+37.3
- .9
+4.5
-3 .5
+32. 5
+60.1
+46. 6
+62.3
+40.7
+51.8
+94.6
+73.7
+122. 5
+107.0
+81.6
+117.9
+74.3
+74.4
+105. 5
+lu2. 7
+88.8
+171.0
+101.1
+150. 7
+86.9
+54.3
+105. 5
+90.8
+117.7
+106.8
+86.6
+159. 7
+96.8
+87.3
+107.5
+104. 0
+88.4
+198.9
+92.6
+138. 2
+86.3
T a b l e 2 . — Indexes of retail prices of food in 56 large cities combined,x by commodity
groups, on specified dates
[1935-39 = 100]
Feb. 15
1947
J a n .15
1947
Feb. 15
1946
Aug. 15
1945
J a n .15
1941
Aug. 15
1939
This
month
Last
month
Year
ago
VJ-day
Wage
base
date 2
Month
before
war in
Europe
Commodity group
Ail foods----- - ----------------------------------
182.3
183.8
139.6
140.9
97.8
93.5
Cereals and bakery products— ------- -M eats______________________________
Beef and veal____________________
Pork____________________________
Lamb___ .. ___________________
Chickens- ______________________
Fish, fresh and canned___ ______
Dairy products_____________________
Eggs-----------------------------------------------Fruits and vegetables__________
Fresh___________________________
Canned____________ ____________
-------- --D r i e d --------- ---------Beverages....... - __________ _ --------Fats and oils__________ ____________
Sugar and sweets____ __________ ____
144.1
196.7
190.0
191.6
204.3
176.5
258.7
183.2
169.9
191.7
189.3
172.6
269.9
182.8
201.3
178.1
143.4
199.0
190.9
190.8
205.3
185.8
271.3
190.1
181.7
187.9
184.1
173.6
269.2
178.3
201.9
176.2
109.8
131.3
118.3
112.6
136.9
151.2
226.9
136.6
144.2
181.1
193.0
130.9
169.8
124.9
125.4
126.9
109.1
131.8
118.5
112.6
136.4
157.3
217.8
133.4
171.4
183.5
196.2
130.3
168.6
124.7
124.0
126.6
94.9
101.1
109.4
86.1
98.7
97.2
118.7
105.1
97.4
93.3
93.4
91.4
99.6
90.9
80.3
95.3
93.4
95.7
99.6
88.0
98.8
94.6
99.6
93.1
90.7
92.4
92.8
91.6
90.3
94.9
84.5
95.6
1 Aggregate costs of 61 foods in each city, weighted to represent total purchases by families of wage earners
and lower-salaried workers, have been combined with the use of population weights.
2 The wage formulas apply to Jan. 1,1941. Jan. 15,1941, is the nearest date for which data on retail prices
of individual foods have been computed.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
AVERAGE FOR LARGE CITIES
1935-39 =100
PRICES AND COST OF LIVING
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
RETAIL PRICES OF FOOD TO CITY WORKERS
-1
O
CD
MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 1 7
710
RETAIL PRICES
FOR GROUPS OF FOOD
AVERAGE FOR LARGE CITIES
1935-39 » 100
INDEX
220
200
FFIUITS
AN D
NDEX
VEGETÀBLE s
____ l____
A
ISO
160
140
120
100
-VT
80
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
220
200
-ALL FOODS
M i s ^ ___ 1
cE R E /kLS
ISO
AND BAKi •RY
PROC)UCT
s
/
ALL FOODS^
EAT! 3
/
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
220
200
160
140
120
A U FOOD \ / \
100
T I T
80
220
D URY PRO DUCTS
L
200
l 1 ISO
180
!
160
160
140
140
^ *
120
120
L
100
100
^ALL FOODS
80
80
1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947
ENT OF LABOR
TICS
1 UBUNRITEEADUS0TATELASBODREPASRTATMTIS
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
|
711
PRICES AND COST OF LIVING
T able 3.-—Average retail prices of 70 foods in 56 large cities combined, February 1947,
compared with earlier months
Feb. 15 J a n .15 Feb. 15 Aug. 15 J a n .15 Aug. 15
1947
1947
1946
1945
1941
1939
Article
Year
ago
VJday
Wage
base
date 1
Month
before
war in
Europe
Cents
41.7
19.1
12.1
9.1
16.9
13.4
Cents
32.0
15.6
9.3
6.5
12.9
13.0
Cents
32.2
15.8
9.2
6.4
13.0
13.0
Cents
20.7
13.8
9.8
4.2
7.9
8.9
Cents
17.9
14.0
9.7
4.0
7.5
8.9
11.6
12.6
13.4
38.8
24.6
8.9
9.7
9.9
28.6
18.6
8.8
9.7
9.9
28.6
18.9
7.8
8.7
9.0
25.1
15.0
7.8
8.8
9.2
66.0
55.9
46.6
53.2
41.1
40.8
33.3
28.5
37.4
27.2
40.9
33.0
28.4
36.9
27.4
38.6
31.5
25.2
0
0
0
0
72.7
54.2
44.6
34.7
44.4
34.3
45.2
0
42.5
0
60.0
71.5
83.1
63.2
42.4
52.4
37.0
41.0
50.3
35.7
22.2
38.8
37.2
41.2
49.4
34.5
22.0
38.7
29.1
30.1
45.1
26.2
16.7
0
30.9
30.4
46.4
27.4
15.4
0
61.6
67.4
56.1
40.4
46.0
45.8
40.5
46.0
47.6
27.8
35.0
31.1
27.6
36.7
30.9
O)
35.1
59.0
0
24.8
42.9
0
23.4
39.7
0
15.7
26.4
0
12.8
23.1
79.5
63.5
20.1
19.3
14.0
63.0
54.7
37.3
15.4
14.5
9.9
50.1
49.9
35.7
15.6
14.5
10.1
60.6
38.0
27.0
13.0
11.9
7.1
34.9
30.7
24.7
12.0
11.0
6.7
32.0
12.5
14.7
37.8
7.9
14.5
10.9
44.9
8.3
13.1
10.5
51.3
11.0
5.2
6.6
27.3
0
4.4
6.1
31.5
0
18.7
6.3
10.6
13.6
4.9
63.8
14.0
10.4
21.1
6.3
8.7
11.0
8.4
72.2
12.7
10.4
18.7
6.0
9.1
12.5
7.9
73.8
11.6
11.4
14.0
3.4
6.0
8.4
3.6
29.2
7.3
5.0
7.2
3.9
4.6
8.4
3.6
34.4
7.8
5.5
32.2
32.2
11.8
28.1
27.5
14.1
27.2
26.3
14.4
16.5
20.9
0
17.1
21.0
0
15.8
18.1
15.8
21.3
14.3
25.7
21.2
13.6
14.8
13.8
13.1
13.3
17.8
11.7
13.2
14.8
13.2
12.2
13.2
17.4
11.5
10.0
10.7
13.2
8.4
0
9.6
6.5
10.0
10.4
13.6
8.6
0
8.8
5.8
This
Last
month month
Cereals and bakery products:
Cereals:
Cents
42.5
Flour, wheat............. ........... _____ 5 pounds..
19.2
Macaroni.............................. _______pound..
12.1
Cornflakes___________ . . . ____ 11 ounces..
Corn meal______________ _______pound..
9.0
17.0
Rice 3___________________ ________ do___
Rolled oats______________ ____ 20 ounces..
13.4
Bakery products:
11.7
Bread, white_________ __ _______pound..
Bread, whole-wheat______ ________ do___
12.6
13.5
Bread, rye_______________ ________ do___
38.6
Vanilla cookies...................... ________ do___
24.6
Soda crackers___ _________ ________ do___
Meats:
Beef:
Round steak_____________ ....... ......... do__ _
65.8
55.4
Rib roast_______ ________ ________ do___
Chuck roast_______ ____ ________ do___
45.1
Liver________ _________ ________ do_._
53.6
Hamburger______ _______ ________ do___
40.2
Veal:
75.2
Cutlets_________________ ________ do___
Roast, boned and rolled 2__ ________ do___
56.0
Pork:
Chops..... .................... _ __ ________ do___
63.2
Bacon, sliced_____________ ________ do___
68.9
Ham, sliced_________ ____ ________ do___
83.6
Ham, whole___ ________ ________ do___
61.7
Salt pork________________ ________ do____
38.7
Sausage 2......................... ...... ________ do.__
50.0
Lamb:
Leg----------- -------------------- ________ do___
60.8
Rib chops_____________
________ do___
67.6
Poultry: Roasting chickens ___ ___ _____do___
53.3
Fish:
Fish (fresh, frozen)___________ _______ .do___
0
Salmon, pink_______________ . 16-ounce can..
36.6
Salmon, red 2____ ___________ ______ __do___
58.8
Dairy products:
76.2
B utter_____________________ _______pound..
61.4
Cheese___ _____ __________ ________ do___
Milk, fresh (delivered).
19.4
................quart..
Milk, fresh (store)__________ ________ do___
18.6
Milk, evaporated............. . . . . . 14^-ounce can..
13.9
Eggs: Eggs, fresh ... . __ _____ ________dozen. _
58.9
Fruits and vegetables:
Fresh fruits:
12.9
Apples_________________ _______pound _
Bananas___________ ___ ________ do___
14.8
Oranees____ ____________ ________dozen..
37.9
Grapefruit2___________ __________ each..
7.6
Fresh vegetables:
Beans, green_____________ _______pound..
25.3
6.6
Cabbage________________ ________ do_ .
Carrots___ _________ __ _______ bunch..
9.0
15.4
Lettuce_______________ , ________ head..
Onions______________ __ _______pound..
5.0
Potatoes________________ ____ 15 pounds..
64.0
Spinach_________________ _______pound..
13.7
Sweetpotatoes__________ ______ -do__
10.4
Canned fruits:
32.2
Peaches___ _____ _______ ___No. 2H can...
32.1
Pineapple.- ____________ ________ do___
11.2
Grapefruit juice__________ ____ No. 2 can .
Canned vegetables:
Beans, green____ ________ ________ do___
16.0
Corn___________________ ________ do___
18.1
Peas____ _____ _______ _ ________ do___
15.9
_____ do___
Tomatoes_____ _________
21.1
Soup, vegetable2___ _____ . ..11-ounce can..
14.3
Dried fruits: Prunes__________ _______pound..
26.1
Dried vegetables: Navy beans.. .............. _-do___
21.0
See footnotes at end of table.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
0
14.8
36.4
28.9
22.5
712
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 194 7
T able 3.—Average retail prices of 70 foods in 56 large cities combined, February 1947
compared with earlier months—Continued
Feb. 15 Jan. 15 Feb. 15 Aug. 15 Jan. 15 Aug. 15
1947
1945
1939
1947
1946
1941
Article
This
Last
month month
Cents
Beverages:
45.9
___ _ . _______ . .pound,.
Coffee.-- -.24.1
Tea_______________ ____ _______ 34 pound..
Cocoa 2__. . . . . . ____ ____ . _____ }4 pound..
13.4
Fats and oils:
32.4
L ard_____ _ . -_ _____ _________ pound..
Shortening other than lard:
___________ do___
37.1
In cartons. . . . _____
In other containers....... . ___________ do___
44.3
Salad dressing,.- _ _______ .. --. ______p in t..
39.3
Oleomargarine___ ___ _ __________pound..
41.9
35.4
Peanut butter__ _____ __ ___________ do___
Oil, cooking or salad2............. ___________ p in t..
48.3
Sugar and sweets:
9.6
Sugar__________ _____ _ _________ pound..
Corn sirup_______________ _______ 24 ounces..
18.6
Molasses2 _____________ . .16 fluid ounces. _ 21.0
Cents
44.7
24.1
12.9
Year
ago
VJday
Wage
base
date 1
Month
before
war in
Europe
Cents
30.4
24.0
10.5
Cents
30.5
24.2
10.4
Cents
20.7
17.6
9.1
Cents
22.3
17.2
8.6
32.5
18.6
18.8
9.3
9.9
36.9
44.3
39. 5
42.3
35.5
48.7
20.2
24.8
27.9
24.3
32. 7
30.8
20.0
24.5
24.2
23.9
28.6
30.5
11.3
18.3
20.1
15.6
17.9
(3)
11.7
20.2
(3)
16.5
17.9
(3)
9.5
18.8
20.9
6.7
15.8
20.2
6.7
15.8
20.4
5.1
13.6
17.3
5.2
13.7
17.6
1 The wage formulas apply to Jan. 1,1941. Jan. 15.1941, is the nearest date for which data on retail prices
of individual foods have been computed.
2 Not included in index.
3 Not priced.
4 Composite price not computed.
T able 4.-—Indexes of average retail prices of all foods, by cities f on specified dates
[1935-39=100]
Feb. 15
1947
J a n .15
1947
Feb. 15
1946
Aug. 15
1945
J a n .15
1941
Aug. 15
1939
This
month
»
Last
month
Year
ago
VJ-day
Wage
base
date 2
Month
before
war in
Europe
City
United States__ _ - ____ ____________
182.3
183.8
139.6
140.9
97.8
93.5
Atlanta, Qa_. ______________________
Baltimore, Aid__________________
Birmingham, Ala________ ___________
Boston, M ass.. _ ________________ Bridgeport, Conn___________________
187.5
189.7
193.5
172.7
178.5
187.5
191.4
196.0
177.6
180.0
139.4
145.6
142.9
133.3
135.6
142.1
149.1
147.5
135.7
137.4
94.3
97.9
96.0
95.2
96.5
92.5
94.7
90.7
93.5
93.2
Buffalo, N. Y________________________
Butte, M ont________________________
Cedar Rapids, Iowa3__ ..
Charleston, S.' C_____________________
Chicago, 111_____ ______________ __
173.3
175.1
190.0
181.5
183.2
175.9
174.9
188. 6
180.5
184.5
136.1
135.2
141. 9
138.4
138.6
138.4
138.7
145.3
139.7
139.2
100.2
98.7
95.9
95.9
98.2
94.5
94.1
Cincinnati, Ohio_____________________
Cleveland, Ohio_____________________
Columbus, Ohio- __________ ____ _ _
Dallas, Tex__ ____________
________
Denver, Colo_____ _______ _____
182.8
186.9
170.0
186.5
185.7
182.4
189.1
171.6
186.3
185.0
136.1
142.7
131.1
4137.8
139.5
140. 0
145.6
134.0
138.9
139.3
96.5
99.2
93.4
92.6
94.8
90.4
93.6
88.1
91.7
92.7
Detroit, M ich_____ _________________
Fall River, Mass_____________________
Houston, Tex___ ________ _________
Indianapolis, Ind _____
Jackson, Miss.3
175.1
178.2
190.6
179.9
199. 0
176.5
180. 9
192.5
180.0
199 1
138.7
132.1
139.3
135.6
146. 6
138.4
134.1
141.2
137.7
151. 2
97.0
97.5
102.6
98.2
105.3
90.6
95.4
97.8
90.7
Jacksonville, F l a _________ ________
Kansas City, M o, _ ________ _____
Knoxville, Tenn.3 Little Rock, Ark____________
Los Angeles, Calif_______ ____ ______
189.3
176.6
213. 9
182.9
194.1
190.3
175. 4
216. 4
182.4
194.3
145.8
132.6
158.1
138.1
148.4
152.0
135.4
160. 6
140.4
145. 9
98.8
92.4
97.1
95.6
101.8
95.8
91.5
See footnotes at end of table.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
95.1
92.3
94.0
94.6
713
PRICES AND COST OF LIVING
T a b l e 4.- —Indexes of average retail prices of all foods, by cities,1 on specified dates— Con.
[1935-39=1001
Feb. 15
1947
J a n .15
1947
Feb. 15
1946
Aug. 15
1945
J a n .15
1941
Aug. 15
1939
This
month
Last
month
Year
ago
VJ-day
Wage
base
date 2
Month
before
war in
Europe
City
Louisville, K y____________ _ ________
Manchester, N. H _________ _________
Memphis, Tenn____ _________________
Milwaukee, W i s ____________ ______..
Minneapolis, M inn______ . . . ________
176.6
177.5
198.6
180.1
174.6
177.7
183. 6
200.2
178.0
174.0
132.7
135.8
149.2
136.3
132.5
135.0
136.4
150.9
139.4
133.2
95.5
96.6
94.2
95.9
99.0
92.1
94.9
89.7
91.1
95.0
Mobile, Ala________ ____ _______ _____
Newark, N. J
..............
New Haven, Conn_____________ ____
New Orleans, L a______________ ______
New York, N. Y _____________________
188.7
176.5
174.1
199.1
182.1
189.2
178.5
177.3
199.7
183.5
147.9
141.7
135.2
151. 1
141.8
152.3
143.4
137.2
156.5
141.7
97.9
98.8
95.7
101.9
99.5
95.5
95.6
93.7
97.6
95.8
Norfolk, Va___ ____________________
Omaha, N ebr_________________ _____
Peoria, 111____________ ____________
Philadelphia, P a ___________ _________
Pittsburgh, P a ... ___________________
191.6
178.3
183. 9
177.2
185.6
191.3
178.2
187.1
179.7
185.2
145.4
131.8
144.6
137.6
140.4
146.1
131.8
145.9
138.9
141.3
95.8
97.9
99.0
95.0
98.0
93.6
92.3
93.4
93.0
92.5
Portland, Maine_____________________
Portland, Oreg_______ ________
...
Providence, R. I _____________________
Richmond, Va . _ _____________ ____ _
Rochester, N. Y ___ ______________..
174.3
191.2
180.5
182.1
174.3
179.8
192.8
183.8
181.5
177.4
133.7
4 148. 7
139.1
137.5
134.4
135.7
150. 9
141.6
138.3
137.8
95.3
101.7
96.3
93.7
99.9
95.9
96.1
93.7
92.2
92.3
St. Louis, M o_______________________
St. Paul, M inn_________________
_
Salt Lake City, U tah_________________
San Francisco, Calif __
Savannah, G a___________ ____ __ . . .
188.4
172.3
184.1
195.4
203.1
187.4
173.1
183.9
200.6
203.8
142.3
131.0
141.7
147.7
155.6
144.0
132.1
143.9
147.1
157.5
99.2
98.6
97.5
99.6
100.5
93.8
94.3
94.6
93.8
96.7
Scranton, P a _____________ ______ . . .
Seattle, W ash_____
___. . . _ _ _____
Springfield, 111____ . . . __ _______ _
Washington, D. C___ ________________
Wichita, Kans.3 .
- ___
Winston-Salem, N. C J
182.6
187.4
194.5
181.3
190.1
189. 6
180.9
189.6
193.4
183.7
193.3
192.6
138.8
146.1
143.9
141.0
147.6
140.3
141.3
145.8
146.1
141.7
149. 8
143.4
97. 5
101.0
96.2
97.7
97.2
93.7
92.1
94.5
94.1
94.1
1 Aggregate costs of 61 foods in each city, weighted to represent total purchases by families of wage earners
and lower-salaried workers, have been combined for the United States with the use of population weights.
2 The wage formulas apply to Jan. 1,1941. Jan. 15,1941, is the nearest date for which data on retail prices
of individual foods have been computed.
3June 1940= 100.
4 Revised.
T a b l e 5 . — Indexes of retail food prices in 56 large cities combined, 1913 to February 1947
[1935-39=100]
Year
1913 1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920__________
1921
1922__________
1923....................
1924
1925
79. 9
81.8
80.9
90.8
116.9
134.4
149.8
168.8
128.3
119.9
124.0
122.8
132. 9
All
Year and month foods
index
Year
foods
index
Year and month
All
foods
index
1926 _
1927
1928 . .
1929.
1930..
1931
19321933__________
1934 _
1935 _________
1936__________
1937.1938-.
137.4
132.3
130.8
132.5
126.0
103.9
86.5
84.1
93.7
100.4
101.3
105.3
97.8
1939__________
1940 ________
1941__________
1942__________
1943_ _______
1944. ________
1945. ________
1946__________
95.2
96.6
105. 5
123.9
138.0
136.1
139.1
159.6
141.7
142.6
145.6
165.7
171.2
174.1
180.0
187.7
185.9
194ft
J a n u a ry _____
February.
M arch... .
April_________
M ay____ . .
June.
. . ..
July_________
August_______
September____
October______
November
December____
141.0
139.6
140.1
1947
January______
February____
183.8
182.3
All
foods
index
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
All
714
MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 194 7
Wholesale Prices in February 1947
S u b s t a n t i a l p r ic e i n c r e a s e s for most agricultural commodities
were chiefly responsible for a rise of 2.2 percent in average primary
market pi ices in February 1947. Industrial prices continued their
steady advance. The Bureau of Labor Statistics general index of
commodity prices in primary markets reached 144.6 percent of the
1926 average, the highest level since September 1920 and 13.5 percent
below the May 1920 peak. On the average, prices were 28.1 percent
higher than in June 1946 and 34.3 percent above a year ago.
Average prices of all commodities in February 1947 were 93 percent
above their level at the start of the war, with the sharpest advances
in farm products and foods (179 percent and 141 percent higher,
respectively). Prices of textile products and building materials were
about double those in August 1939; prices of hides and leather rose
87K percent; chemicals and allied products, nearly 75 percent; metals
and metal products, housefurnishing goods, and miscellaneous com
modities, about 50 percent; and fuel and lighting materials, 35 percent.
Prices of farm products and foods rose 3.3 percent and 3.7 percent,
respectively, during February, reversing the January declines. In
creases for nonagricultural commodities were led by building materials
which rose 3.0 percent. Housefurnishing goods and textile products
increased about 1 percent, and chemicals and allied products, metals
and metal products, fuel and lighting materials, and miscellaneous
commodities increased less than 1 percent. With a decrease of 0.7 per
cent, hides and leather products was the only major group to show a
decline during the month. As a group, prices of all commodities
other than farm products and foods rose 0.8 percent, reaching a level
26.9 percent above February 1946 and 60.5 percent above August 1939.
The substantial rise of 3.3 percent raised the group index for farm
products to 170.4 percent of the 1926 average, slightly higher than
its previous all-time peak in January 1920. Demand continued
high and bad weather throughout the country severely reduced
shipments of most agricultural commodities. The supply situation
was aggravated by the continuing shortage of box cars and crop damage
resulting from the early February freeze. Demand, particularly for
grains, was stimulated by increased buying for export. Eye quota
tions rose 11K percent, reaching an all-time high; corn and wheat rose
about 5}i percent. Supplies of hogs, shipped to a large extent by
motor truck, were especially limited and prices rose more than 12
percent to a new peak. Prices of beef animals moved downward
despite light shipments, reflecting resistance to high meat prices.
Prices of some fruits and vegetables, particularly citrus fruits, ad
vanced sharply because of light supplies resulting from the freeze in
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
PRICES AND COST OF LIVING
715
Florida. Spot quotations for raw cotton increased nearly 5 percent
as mill consumption continued well above normal levels. The
Commodity Credit Corporation’s selling price for domestic wools was
raised to meet parity requirements but prices of some South American
wools declined with weak demand.
Important in the average rise of 3.7 percent for foods were sharp
advances in meat prices, especially pork and veal, which continued
scarce during the month. Beef and mutton prices declined. Prices
of cereal products averaged 1.0 percent higher and scarcity caused
substantially higher prices for several other foods, including vegetable
and animal fats and oils, cocoa beans, and coffee. As a group dairy
products declined 1.7 percent in price. There were seasonal decreases
in fluid milk prices and lower prices for cheese and powdered and
evaporated milk. Short supplies, due to bad weather, caused an
advance in butter prices.
The average decline of 0.7 percent for hides and leather products
was caused by substantial decreases for goatskins, shearlings, and
steer hides, and some leather products. However, prices of cow
hides and calfskins rose again in February, reflecting light slaughterings
and release of hides for export. Average prices of shoes were slightly
higher.
Textile prices rose 1.0 percent on the average. Prices of cotton
goods and cotton clothing, worsted fabrics, and woolen apparel
increased as a result of higher raw fiber costs and increased wage
rates, as well as continuing heavy demand. Higher costs also caused
increases for rayon yarn and staple fiber. Raw silk prices dropped
more than 20 percent as the United States Commercial Company
lowered its prices to stimulate lagging demand. Raw jute and
Mexican sisal prices advanced but burlap and Manila hemp prices
were lower.
Fuel and lighting materials increased 0.2 percent, with coke prices
up because of higher production costs. Fractional advances occurred
in prices of anthracite and bituminous coal and petroleum products.
Metals and metal products rose 0.4 percent as shortages of primary
metals remained acute. Copper and lead quotations were higher,
and prices for a number of steel products advanced because of higher
costs. Quotations for bar silver and mercury declined.
Substantially higher prices for lumber and increases in certain other
building materials were responsible for the 3.0 percent rise for the
group as a whole. Some Douglas fir lumber increased as much as
20 percent and there also were sizable advances for southern pine and
western pine. Higher metal costs brought increased prices for lead
and zinc pigments, iron oxide, and some builders’ hardware. Rosin
quotations were up sharply following removal of export controls.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
716
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
Higher prices for millwork were due to the continuing shortage.
Delivered prices of cement were raised partly because of increased
freight rates.
The rise of 0.9 percent for chemicals and allied products reflected
higher raw material costs, shortage of containers, and limited supplies.
Among industrial chemicals, price increases occurred for tanning
extracts, coal-tar products, tribasic phosphate, and dynamite. Silver
nitrate prices dropped with lower silver costs and tank car prices of
muriatic acid declined. Shortages brought further price increases for
several inedible oils. There also were price rises for castor oil, ether,
and natural menthol. Prices for mixed fertilizer moved upward, but
organic fertilizer materials declined.
f
Miscellaneous commodities increased 0.5 percent on the average.
Average prices of crude rubber in January were higher than in Decem
ber, reflecting the December increase in selling prices by the Recon
struction Finance Corporation to cover purchase costs. Paper and
pulp prices advanced as supplies remained short, despite a high level
of production, and demand continued strong. There also were in
creases for other miscellaneous commodities including lubricating oils,
storage batteries, shipping cases, tobacco, and paraffin. Average
prices of cattle feed were lower, as cottonseed and soybean meal
dropped shaiply; bran and middlings were higher.
T abi.e 1.— Indexes of wholesale prices by groups and subgroups of commodities February
1947, compared with previous months
Percent changes to Feb
ruary 1947 from—
Indexes (1926=100)
Groups and subgroups
Febru Janu
ary
ary
1947
1947
Febru August Janu
ary
ary
1939
1946
1947
Febru August
ary
1939
1946
■141. 5
107.7
75.0
+2.2
+34.3
+92.8
Farm products_________________________
Grains_____ _______________ _____
Livestock and poultry_____ _________
Other farm products.____ ___________
170.4
171.1
201.5
150.6
165.0
162. 6
189.6
149.7
130.8
133.9
132.7
127.9
61.0
51.5
66.0
60.1
+3.3
+5.2
+6.3
+ .5
+30.3
+27.8
+51.8
+17.7
+179. 3
+232.2
+205. 3
+150.4
Foods_________________________________
Dairy products______________________
C ereal products____ ________________
Fruits and vegetables. . . ....... ........... ......
Meats________________________
Other foods_____ ___________ _______
162.0
161.8
141.3
134.2
199.5
146.0
156. 2
164. 6
139.9
131.6
183.4
141.1
107.8
115.8
96.1
127.5
108.1
96.5
67.2
67.9
71.9
58.5
73.7
60.3
+3.7
-1 .7
+1.0
+2.0
+8.8
+3.5
+50.3
+39.7
+47.0
+5.3
+84.6
+51.3
+141.1
+138. 3
+96. 5
+129.4
+170. 7
+142.1
Hides and leather products________ _____ _
Shoes_____ ___________ _
Hides and skins_____________________
L eather... ______________________
Other leather products______
______
173.8
171.5
191.4
181.1
137.1
175.1
170.6
198.5
181.6
140.3
119.6
128.2
117.6
103.9
115.2
92.7
100.8
77.2
84.0
97.1
- .7
+ .5
-3 .6
- .3
-2 .3
+45.3
+33.8
+62.8
+74. 3
+ 19.0
+87.5
+70.1
+147.9
+115.6
+41.2
Textile products _____ _________ _______
Clothing___________________
Cotton goods____ . _________ ______
Hosiery and underwear_______________
Rayon_______________ . ..............
Silk______________________
Woolen and worsted goods.. . . . . . . __
0 ther textile products._____ ______ . . .
138.0
132.7
193.7
100.0
37.0
80.2
121.9
170.1
136.6
132.4
184.6
99.3
33.8
101.2
120.8
169.9
102.2
109.4
125.8
75.3
30.2
67.8
81.5
65.5
61.5
28.5
44. 3
75.5
63.7
+1.0
+35.0
+21.3
+54.0
+32.8
+22.5
+103.5
+62.8
+195.7
+62.6
+29.8
+81.0
+61. 5
4 167.0
All commodities___ ______ ____________ i 144.6
See footnotes at end of table.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
112.7
102.0
+4.9
+ .7
+9.5
-20.8
+ .9
+•1
+8.2
+66.8
717
PRICES AND COST OF LIVING
T a b l e 1.— Indexes of wholesale prices by groups and subgroups of commodities February
1947, compared with previous months— Continued
Percent changes to Feb
ruary 1947 from—
Indexes (1926=100)
Groups and subgroups
Fuel and lighting materials____ _ ________
Anthracite__________ _ ___ _________
Bituminous coal____________________
Coke... _____________ - --. Electricity______ - - - - - ______
Gas - . . . . _
____
Petroleum and products___ ___________
Febru Janu
ary
ary
1947
1947
97.9
114.8
143.3
155.1
(2)
(2)
76.6
Febru August Janu
ary
ary
1939
1946
1947
Febru August
ary
1939
1946
97.7
114.7
142.6
152.5
(2)
80.8
76.5
85.1
104.0
125.1
134.9
71.3
79.1
61.6
72.6
72.1
96.0
104.2
75.8
86.7
51.7
+0.2
+ .1
+ .5
+1.7
+15.0
+10.4
+14.5
+15.0
+34.8
+59.2
+49.3
+48.8
+ .1
+24.4
+48.2
Metals and metal products___________ ____ i 138. 6 i 138.0
Agricultural implements______________ 117.6
117.5
Farm machinery, ___ ________ .. 119.0
119.0
Iron and steel____________________ .- 125.0
123.9
Motor vehicles. . . . _________ _____ i 151.2 i 151.3
130.5
Nonferrous metals___ ____ _ _ . . . . . . 131.3
Plumbing and heating-.. _______ ___
117.1
117.0
106.6
98.1
99.2
103.3
112.8
85.7
95.1
93.2
93.5
94.7
95. 1
92.5
74.6
79.3
+ .4
+ .1
0
+ .9
- .1
+ .6
+ .1
+30.0
+19.9
+20.0
+21.0
+34.0
+53.2
+23.1
+48.7
+25.8
+25.7
+31.4
+63.5
+76. 0
+47.7
Building materials. ____________________
174.8
Brick and tile_________ _________ .. 132.3
Cement_________ _______
109.9
L um ber... . . .
_________________ 263.6
Paint and paint m aterials.. . . . . _- „ _ 173.9
Plumbing and heating ___________ . . . 117.1
Structural steel______________________ 127.7
Other building m aterials... __________
141.5
169.7
132.2
108.3
249.9
171.2
117.0
127.7
139.0
120.9
116.9
101.5
160.1
107.8
95.1
113.7
107.2
89.6
90.5
91.3
90.1
82.1
79.3
107.3
89.5
+3.0
+44.6
+13.2
+8.3
+64.6
+61.3
+23.1
+12.3
+32.0
+95.1
+46.2
+20.4
+192. 6
+111.8
+47.7
+19.0
+58.1
Chemicals and allied products___ _____. . .
129.3
Chemicals__
... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
113.8
Drugs and pharmaceuticals____ ___ _ 182.5
Fertilizer materials__________ . . . ___
99.2
Mixed fertilizers_____ . .
96.3
Oils and fats__________ ________ ___
214.3
128.1
112.7
181.7
99.9
95.5
210.6
95.9
97.0
111.5
81.9
86.6
101.8
74.2
83.8
77.1
65.5
73.1
40.6
+ .9
+ 1.0
+ .4
- .7
+34.8
+17.3
+63.7
+21.1
+11.2
+1.8 +110.5
+74.3
+35.8
+136. 7
+51.5
+31.7
+427. 8
Housefurnishing goods__________ . . . . . . . . .
Furnishings_______________ ___ . . .
Furniture__________________________
124.6
129.6
119.5
123.3
128.4
118.2
106.5
110.1
102.9
85.6
90.0
81.1
+1.1
+ .9
+1.1
+17.0
+17.7
+16.1
+45.6
+44.0
+47.3
Miscellaneous_____ ____________ _____
Automobile tires and tubes....... ............
Cattle feed___. . . _.
Paper and p u lp .. ___ ______________
Rubber, cru d e... . . . _______________
Other miscellaneous__________________
110.9
73.0
178.6
143.4
52.9
118.8
110.3
73.0
181.7
141.9
51.2
118.1
95.6
73.0
159.6
113.7
46.2
98.9
73.3
60.5
68.4
80.0
34.9
81.3
+ .5
0
-1 .7
+1.1
+3.3
+ .6
+16.0
0
+11.9
+26.1
+14.5
+20.1
+51.3
+20.7
+161.1
+79.2
+51.6
+46.1
152.1
Raw materials_______ . - ______________ 154.9
138.8
Semimanufactured products______________
142.1
i 139. 9 i 136.7
Manufactured p ro d u cts________
All commodities other than farm products___ 1138. 8 i 136.1
All commodities other than farm products
and foods _________________________ _ i 128.6 i 127. 6
118.9
98.8
103.4
102.5
66.5
74.5
79.1
77.9
+1.8
+2.4
+2.3
+2.0
+30.3
+43.8
+35.3
+35.4
+132. 9
+90.7
+76. 9
+78.2
101.3
80.1
+ .8
+26.9
+60.5
+1.5
+5.5
+1.6
+ .1
0
+1.8
1 Includes current motor vehicle prices.
Motor vehicles.—The rate of production of motor vehicles in October 1946 exceeded the monthly average
rate of civilian production in 1941, and in accordance with the announcement made in the September release
the Bureau introduced current prices for motor vehicles in the October calculations. During the war, motor
vehicles were not produced for general civilian sales and the Bureau carried April 1942 prices forward in each
computation through September 1946.
If April 1942 prices of motor vehicles had been used after September 1946, the indexes for the groups of
which motor vehicles is a component would have been:
Indexes (1926—100)
February January December
139.5
139.0
142.6
All commodities_______________________ ______ _
120.5
123.7
124.3
Metals and metal products_____________________
132.5
133.5
136.7
Manufactured products_____________ __________
132.4
133.7
136.3
All commodities other than farm products________
121.6
125.5
124.4
All commodities other than farm products and foods.
These special indexes will be published as long as the need for them continues.
2 Not available.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
718
MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
,
Index Numbers by Commodity Groups 1926 to February 1947
Index numbers of wholesale prices by commodity groups for selected
years from 1926 to 1946, and by months from February^l946 to Febru
ary 1947 are shown in table 2.
T able 2.—Index numbers of wholesale prices by groups of commodities
[1926= 100]
Year and
month
1926_____
1929_____
1932.........
1933...........
1936_____
1937_____
1938_____
1939_____
1940_____
1941_____
1942_____
1943_____
1944_____
1945_____
1946.........
Farm
prod
ucts
Hides
Fuel Metals Build Chem
icals HouseAll
and Textile and
and
ing
and furnish Miscel com
Foods leather- prod lighting metal mate
allied
ing
modi
laneous
prod
ucts
mate Prod
rials
prod goods
ties
ucts
rials
ucts
ucts
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
104.9
99.9
109.1
90.4
100.5
95.4
48.2
51.4
80.9
86.4
68. 5
65.3
67.7
82.4
105.9
122.6
123.3
128.2
148.9
61.0
60.5
82.1
85.5
73.6
70.4
71.3
82.7
99.6
106.6
104.9
106.2
130.7
72.9
80.9
95.4
104.6
92.8
95.6
100.8
116.3
104.7
107.9
108.8
109.2
118.1
124.0
125.7
128.6
131.3
134.7
87.8
90.3
94.4
94.3
94.2
94.5
96.1
136.6
138.0
97.7
97.9
130.8
133.4
135.4
137.5
140.1
157.0
161.0
154.3
165.3
169.8
168.1
111.5
112.9
140.2
149.0
131.9
157.9
165.4
160.1
119.6
119.8
119.8
120.4
122.4
141.2
138.9
141.6
142.4
172.5
176.7
1947
Ja n u ary ...
February..
165.0
170.4
156.2
162.0
175.1
173.8
107.8
109.4
83.0
70.3
66.3
76.2
77.6
76.5
73.1
71.7
76.2
78.5
80.8
83.0
84.0
90.1
108.3
117.7
117.5
116.7
118.1
137.2
1946
February-.
M arch___
April____
M a y _____
•Tune_____
Ju ly -------August___
September.
October__
November.
December.
110.8
54.9
64.8
71.5
76.3
66.7
69.7
73.8
84.8
96.9
97.4
98.4
100.1
102.2
85.1
85.0
86.1
86.1
94.3
75.1
75.8
81.7
89.7
100.0
111.4
115.5
117.8
132.6
94.0
73.9
72.1
78.7
82.6
77.0
76.0
77.0
84.4
95.5.
94.9
95.2
95.2
101.4
113.3
114.0
114.2
125.8
130.2
134.7
120.9
124.9
126.5
127.8
129.9
132.1
132.7
133.8
134.8
145.5
157.8
95.9
96.0
96.1
96.5
96.4
99.3
98.4
98.4
99.9
118.9
125.7
120.2
115.3
118.2
104.0
106.5
108.9
112.9
124.7
129.1
124.0
134.1
139.7
140.9
138.0
138.6
169.7
174.8
128.1
129.3
123.3
124.6
110.3
110.9
141. 5
144.6
80.2
79.8
87.0
95.7
95.7
94.4
95.8
99.4
103.8
103.8
103.8
104.7
115.5
106.6
108.4
108.8
109.4
112.2
71.4
77.0
86.7
95.2
90.3
90.5
94.8
103.2
110.2
111.6
82.6
64.4
62.5
70.5
77.8
73.3
74.8
77.3
82.0
89.7
92.2
93.6
94.7
100.3
95.3
64.8
65.9
80.8
86.3
78.6
77.1
78.6
87.3
98.8
103.1
104.0
105.8
106.5
106.9
107.5
108.3
110.4
111.9
95.6
95.6
95.7
97.0
98.5
101.3
110.2
111.0
86.8
86.3
88.5
94.3
102.4
102.7
104.3
104.5
112.6 102.0
113.6
102.1
121.1
107.7
108.9
The price trend for specified years and months since 1926 is shown
in table 3 for the following groups of commodities: Raw materials,
semimanufactured articles, manufactured products, commodities
other than farm products, and commodities other than farm products
and foods. The list of commodities included under the classifications
“Raw materials,” “Semimanufactured articles,” and “Manufactured
products” was shown on pages 6 and 7 of Wholesale Prices, 1944
(Bulletin No. 870).
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
719
PRICES AND COST OE LIVING
T able 3.— Index numbers of wholesale prices by special groups of commodities
[1926=100]
All
com
modi
ties
other
than
farm
prod
ucts
and
foods
Semi
anRaw in
ufacmate tured
rials arti
cles
M an
ufac
tured
prod
ucts
All
com
modi
ties
other
than
farm
prod
ucts ,
1926_______
1929_______
1932_______
1933
1936
100.0
97.5
55.1
56. 5
79. 9
100.0
93.9
59.3
65.4
75. 9
100.0
94.5
70.3
70.5
82.0
100.0
93.3
68.3
69.0
80.7
100.0
91.6
70.2
71. 2
79.6
1937
1938
1939
1940_______
1941
84. 8
72. 0
70. 2
71.9
83. 5
85. 3
75. 4
77.0
79.1
86.9
87. 2
82.2
80.4
81.6
89.1
86. 2
80.6
79.5
80.8
88.3
85.3
81.7
81.3
83.0
89.0
1942_______
1943_______
1944_______
1945_______
1946_______
100.6
112. 1
113. 2
116.8
134.7
92.6
92.9
94.1
95.9
110.8
98.6
100.1
100.8
101.8
116.1
97.0
98.7
99.6
100.8
114.9
95.5
96.9
98.5
99.7
109. 5
Y ear and
month
Year and
month
Semi- M an
Raw manufac
ufac- tured
mate tured
rials arti prod
ucts
cles
All
com
modi
ties
other
than
farm
prod
ucts
All
com
modi
ties
other
than
farm
prod
ucts
and
foods
1946
February__
March_ ___
April______
M ay______
June _____
July.........__
A u g u st___
September.-October _ __
November.-.
December.
19^7
January___
February__
118.9
120.5
122.2
123.6
126.3
141. 7
145.7
141.4
148.7
153.4
153.2
98.8
100. 4
101.1
101.9
105.7
110.2
111.9
115.0
118. 2
129.1
136.2
103.4
104.5
105.5
106.1
107.3
118.9
123.9
117.2
129.6
134.7
135.7
102.5
103.4
104.5
105.1
106. 7
117.5
121.9
117.2
127.1
132.9
134.8
101.3
102.2
103.3
103.9
105. 6
109.5
111. 6
112.2
115.8
120.7
124.7
152.1
154.9
138.8
142.1
136.7
139.9
136.1
138.8
127.6
128.6
Weekly Fluctuations
Weekly changes in wholesale prices by groups of commodities
during January and February 1947 are shown by the index numbers
in table 4. These indexes are not averaged to obtain an index for the
month but are computed only to indicate the fluctuations from week
to week.
T able 4.— Weekly index numbers of wholesale prices by commodity groups, January
and February 1947
[1926=100]
Commodity group
All commodities__ ________ _______
Feb.
22
11
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Feb.
8
Feb.
1
Jan.
25
Jan.
18
Jan.
11
Jan.
4
-- 144.3
143.1
141.7
140.3
140.3
140.8
140.0
139.1
171.7
162.5
175.8
135.4
98.6
138.4
172.6
129.2
125.3
110.7
156. 2
141.3
140. 0
138.3
168.9
160.9
173.6
135.5
98.6
138.4
172.8
128.3
123.0
110.0
154.3
141.7
139.1
137.6
165.5
156.7
172.9
137.7
98.6
138.3
170.6
127.6
123.0
110.0
153.1
141.3
137.5
136.5
164.8
154.1
171.0
135. 8
98.5
138.3
168.6
127.8
122.8
109.9
152.6
139.5
135.6
135.0
164.2
155.9
170.7
135.7
98.5
137.7
165.5
127.4
122.5
110.0
152.1
138.6
136.0
135.1
166.0
157.8
171.7
135.7
98.3
136.7
164.5
127.1
122.4
109.5
153.3
137.8
136.4
135.3
165.8
158.1
171.2
133.2
98.0
135.5
158.1
126.8
121.4
109.0
153.1
135.9
135.4
134.4
166. 1
156.4
171.3
133.5
97.0
134.2
156.1
126.6
120.9
107.8
153.1
135.1
134.1
133. 2
128.1
128.1
127.5
127.0
126.6
125.0
124.1
Farm p ro d u cts_________
----- ---....... ...................
Foods_____
Hides and leather products---------------------Textile products------ ------------- ------ ------Fuel and lighting materials----_- - ----Metals and metal p ro d u cts...----- ------- -- _
Building materials . ___ . -------------------Chemicals and allied products-----------------Housefurnishing goods. ------------------Miscellaneous________________ ________Raw materials. ..
. .
----- --------Semimanufactured articles .... ....................
Manufactured p roducts,----------------All commodities other than farm products...
All commodities other than farm products
and foods______________ ___________ - 128.3
7360 3 9 — 47-
Feb.
15
Construction
Construction Activity, January-March 1947
The Housing Program
B u i l d e r s c o m p l e t e d 59,800 new permanent nonfarm dwelling units
in February 1947, and started 41,600. This makes the fourth succes
sive month in which completions exceeded new units started, bringing
down to 308,000 the number of homes under construction at the end
of the month. New permanent family dwellings completed in January
and February of this year totaled 119,100—over a fifth of the total of
nearly 573,000 built since January 1946, when the emergency housing
program got under way.
Two out of every three family-dwelling units (or equivalents) started
and completed during the Veterans’ Emergency Housing Program
have been of the permanent type. Other types of dwellings included
by the National Housing Agency in its report on the Program are units
created through conversion of existing structures, trailers, and tempo
rary re-use accommodations. With the tapering off of the Federal
re-use program in recent months, the ratio of new permanent dwellings
started has increased substantially until, in February, the proportion
was four-fifths.
About 418,000 workers were employed at the site of new residential
construction in February and 87 percent of them were working for
private builders. These figures do not include workers employed at
additions, alterations, and repair work nor those employed at the
central office of construction contractors or in the shops of special
trades contractors. New residential construction expenditures totaled
279 million dollars in February, 88 percent of which was privately
financed. These estimates of employment and expenditures on new
residential construction show a drop of 45,000 workers and 31 million
dollars from January. However, preliminary estimates, based on
increased permit valuations in January and February 1947 for resi
dential building, show increased expenditures and emplojunent for
March (296 million dollars and 429,000 workers, respectively)—fore
shadowing a rise in the volume of expenditures and employment on
housing.
720
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
721
CONSTRUCTION
T a b l e 1.—Estimated number of fam ily dwelling units or equivalent living accommodations 1
started and completed in nonfarm areas, January—December 1946 and January—February
1947 2
Number of units
Started
Year and month
Total
New per
manent
family
dwell
ings
Completed
Other
1946: T otal__________________________ 1,000,700 3 670,900 « 329,800
------------ ----------January----------February_____
___________________
M arch_______________________ _____
April_________ _____ _________ ___
M ay_______________________________
June_____________________ ___ ____
Ju ly ________________________________
August_____________________________
September--- . ___________
___
October___ ___________ __ _________
November__________ ___
_______
December---------------- ----------------------
49, 600
56,100
86, 400
97, 600
105, 600
93, 500
107,900
107, 100
101,000
80,000
64,000
51,900
36,100
43,100
60, 400
66,100
67, 600
63, 600
64,300
64,400
57,100
58, 100
49, 700
40,400
13, 500
13, 000
26, 000
31, 500
38,000
29, 900
43, 600
42,700
43, 900
21, 900
14,300
11, 500
1947: First 2 months 7_ - ---------------------
103,600
8 83, 700
« 19, 900
January________
...........------- ------February __________________________
53, 500
50,100
42,100
41, 600
11, 400
8,500
Total
New per
manent
family
dwell
ings
657, 700 3 453,800
24, 900
28, 000
31, 200
35, 600
39, 900
46, 600
54,300
59, 300
81,100
85, 000
81, 600
90, 200
Other
8 203,900
18, 700
20,300
22, 600
26, 400
30, 300
34,900
41, 000
42, 200
49,800
54, 500
55,100
58, 000
6,200
7, 700
8, 600
9,200
9, 600
11, 700
13, 300
17,100
31, 300
30, 500
26, 500
32, 200
185, 500 3 119,100
io 66,400
59,300
59, 800
35,000
31,400
94,300
91, 200
1 Excludes military barracks.
2 Source: Estimates for prefabricated units are from the National Housing Agency and Office of the
Housing Expediter; privately financed conversion units and Federal re-use (moved and converted) units
from the National Housing Agency; and trailers from the Bureau of the Census. All other estimates are
from the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
3 Includes 8,027 permanent units started by New York City Housing Authority, and 37,200 prefabricated
units.
* Covers 64,500 privately financed converted units; 191,000 Federal (Mead-Lanham temporary housing
program) re-use units (147,100 family dwellings and 43,900 family-equivalent dormitory units; a familyequivalent unit is defined as one family or two dormitory accommodations); 47,100 trailers; and 27,200
family-equivalent units financed by various State and local public bodies and educational institutions,
which are not included under the Federal Mead-Lanham temporary housing program. Of units started
in 1946, 600 family-equivalent dormitory units have been abandoned, but it is quite probable that work
on these units will be reactivated.
5 Break-down not available for conventional and prefabricated units.
« Covers 45,300 conversion units, 101,900 re-use units, of which 77,000 were family dwellings, 47,100 trailers,
and 9,600 local emergency family-equivalent units.
7 Preliminary.
8 Includes 1,084 permanent units started by New York City Housing Authority. Break-down not avail
able for conventional and prefabricated units.
2
Covers 4,300 conversion units, 10,200 trailers, 4,400 Federal (Mead-Lanham temporary housing program)
re-use units, and 1,000 family-equivalent units financed by various States and local public bodies and edu
cational institutions.
io Covers 11,500 conversion units, 10,200 trailers, 41,800 Federal re-use equivalent units, and 2,900 local
emergency family-equivalent units.
Total Construction Activity
Construction activity showed a marked upswing in March 1947,
reversing the downtrend which began in the fall of 1946. Expendi
tures for construction increased by 61 million dollars in March (7
percent) to reach a total of 913 million dollars; an estimated 66,000
more construction workers were employed, bringing total construction
employment to 1,605,000.
The dollar volume of residential building (including minor building
repairs) rose in March to 332 million dollars—an increase of 20 million
dollars since February, and 87 million dollars over March 1946.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
722
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
Private builders financed 88 percent (260 million dollars) of all new
nonfarm residential building in March, and their expenditures for
new home construction for the first 3 months of 1947 (778 million
dollars) was almost 60 percent over the figure for the same period of
1946.
T able 2.—Estimated construction employment 1 in the United States, selected months of
1946 and 1947
Estimated employment (in thousands)
Type of project
1947
March 2
1946
February 3 January 3
March 3
All types_______________________________________
1,605
1, 539
1,628
1,465
New construction.. ____________________ ___ _____
1, 409
1,342
1,429
1,226
Private construction_____ __
____________
Residential (nonfarm) building__ _
Nonresidential building_____ _____________
Farm construction________________________
Public utilities_____ _____________________
1,094
429
440
43
182
1,085
426
481
22
156
1,127
459
492
22
154
1,036
385
489
31
131
Public construction A. . _____________________
Residential building . . . _______ ______ .
Nonresidential building.._
_____________
Reclamation.. __________________________
River, harbor, and flood control_____________
Streets and highways. ___________________
All other 5________ ______ ______________
315
71
49
18
30
82
65
257
62
37
13
24
65
56
302
82
44
13
27
72
64
190
15
65
7
18
41
44
Minor building repairs___________________________
Residential__________________________________
Nonresidential.. _
______________ ________
Farm construction___ _ ___ ______ __ _ ...
196
59
84
53
197
58
92
47
199
51
94
54
239
79
115
45
1 Estimates include wage earners, salaried employees, and special trades contractors actively engaged on
new construction, additions, and alterations, and on repair work of the type usually covered by building
permits, whether performed under contract or by force-account. (Force-account employees are workers
hired directly by the owner and utilized as a separate work force to perform construction work of the type
usually chargeable to capital account.) These figures should not be confused with those included in the
Bureau’s nonagricultural employment series, which covers only employees of construction contractors and
Federal force-account workers, and excludes force-account workers of State and local governments, public
utilities, and private firms.
2 Preliminary.
2 Revised.
4 Includes the following force-account employees hired directly by the Federal Government: 16,600 in
March 1946, 21,500 in January 1947, 20,800 in February, and 22,000 in March.
« Includes airports, water supply and sewage disposal systems, electrification projects, community build
ings, and miscellaneous public-service enterprises.
Other sharp advances in construction volume during March took
place on privately financed public-utilities construction, which in
creased 17 percent over February to reach a total of 90 million dollars,
and on highway work. The dollar volume for this public-utilities
construction both for March and for the first 3 months of 1947 was
50 percent higher than for the same periods last year. The 51 million
dollars expended on highway-construction work under way in March
was 8 million dollars above the February total. A steep rise in this
type of construction occurred throughout 1946, and, while seasonal
contractions interrupted the program somewhat during winter months,
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
723
CONSTRUCTION
2% times as much (141 million dollars) was spent in the first quarter
of 1947 as in the first 3 months of 1946. Employment on both these
categories of construction shared in the uptrend. The number of
workers on public-utilities construction projects totaled 182,000 in
March 1947—an increase of 51,000 (39 percent) over March 1946—
and on street and highway construction 82,000—exactly twice as many
as in March last year.
Nonresidential building construction, which is limited under regula
tions to assist the Veterans’ Emergency Housing Program, was the
only category to show a decline over the month, both in expenditures
and employment.
T able 3.—Estimated construction expenditures 1 in the United States, selected months of
1946 and 1947
Expenditures (in millions)
1947
Type of construction
Janu
March2 Febru
ary 3 ary 3
March
1946 3
First
quar
ter,
1947 2
First
quar
ter,
1946 3
Total construction-------------- ------------------ --------
$913
$852
$922
$728
$2, 687
$1,941
New construction4 . .
..
- . . . -------------Private construction_ ----------------Residential building (nonfarm)________ ____
Nonresidential building..... ............. - ----------Industrial---------------------------- .. .. -Commercial- . . . _ - - - - - Allother--- . . . _ _ _ ---------------- ------Farm construction_______________________
Public utilities-,. --------- ---------------- ----Public construction___. . . ---------------------------Residential building.. -. --------Nonresidential (except m ilitary and naval
facilities)__ _ . --------- _ _ -_ . --------Industrial facilities__________________
All other---- ----------------------------------M ilitary and naval facilities_______________
H ighw ay.------------ -------- ------ --------------Other public____________________________
Federal3____
- ...
- ----------------------------State and local« ---------- - _ - --------------------- - Minor building repairs 7. _ .
------------------ ---Residential building (nonfarm)_______________
Nonresidential building... . -------------------------Farm construction__________________________
785
616
260
246
146
56
44
20
90
169
36
734
592
245
260
152
62
46
10
77
142
34
795
634
273
275
159
69
47
10
76
161
37
601
500
195
231
113
82
36
14
60
101
10
2,314
1,842
778
781
457
187
137
40
243
472
107
1,582
1,315
490
632
321
212
99
30
163
267
18
23
4
19
14
51
45
19
26
128
36
52
40
19
4
15
12
43
34
14
20
118
33
50
35
22
5
17
13
47
42
18
24
127
32
55
40
23
7
16
13
26
29
15
14
127
40
56
31
64
13
51
39
141
121
51
70
373
101
157
115
69
23
46
44
60
76
39
37
359
105
164
90
1 Estimated construction expenditures represent the monetary value of the volume of work put in place
in continental United States during the period indicated. These figures should not be confused with the
data on value of construction reported in the table on urban building construction (table 4).
2 Preliminary.
3 Revised.
4 Estimates of new construction were prepared jointly by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and the Office
of Domestic Commerce (a successor to the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce), and include ex
penditures for new construction, major additions, and alterations.
3 Mainly river, harbor, flood control, reclamation, and power projects.
6 Includes water supply, sewage disposal, and miscellaneous public-service enterprises.
7 Covers privately financed structural repairs of the type for which building permits are generally required
except “ farm construction” which also includes maintenance work.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
724
MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
Urban Building
In February 1947, the estimated permit valuation of building
construction in urban areas (including the value of Federal construc
tion contracts awarded) amounted to 271 million dollars—continuing
the uptrend which started in January.
Permit valuations of nonresidential building, which continues to
be limited to essential and nondeferrable projects, or projects not
requiring housing materials, dropped 4 million dollars between January
and February to an 80-million-dollar total. New residential building
valuations, however, increased 8 million dollars to a total of 140
million dollars. Additions, alterations, and repairs, at 51 million
dollars, remained at practically the January level.
Builders planned to start construction on over 27,000 new family
dwelling units in urban areas in February—-an increase of about 1,700
over January. All of these units were to be privately financed, and
82 percent of them were to be 1-family dwellings.
T able 4.—Estimated perm it valuation 1 of urban building construction 2 by class of
construction and by source of funds, selected months of 1946 and 1947
Valuation (in millions)
Class of construction
1947
1946
!
February3j.lanuary4 February4
First 2 months of—
1947 3
1946 4
Total
All building construction _______ .
New residential »_ . _
New nonresidential--- _ ___
Additions, alterations, and repairs---
..
$271
$266
$373
$536
$694
140
80
51
132
84
50
159
149
65
272
164
100
299
273
122
269
250
342
519
646
140
79
50
125
77
48
138
141
63
265
156
98
262
264
120
Non-Federal
All building construction____
-
New residential A __ _New nonresidential.. - _____
Additions, alterations, and repairs ..
Federal
All building construction__ New residential3____
New nonresidential-.- _ _ . . . _
Additions, alterations, and repairs____
(8)
2
« 16
31
6 17
7 48
1
1
67
7
2
21
8
2
67
8
2
7 37
9
2
1 Includes value of Federal construction contracts awarded.
2 Estimates of non-Federal (private, and State and local government) urban building construction are
based upon building-permit reports received from places containing about 85 percent of the urban popula
tion of the country; estimates of federally financed projects are compiled from notifications of construction
contracts awarded, which are obtained from other Federal agencies.
3 Preliminary.
4 Revised.
s Includes value of dormitories and other nonhousekeeping residential buildings in addition to house
keeping units.
6 Includes $7,264,000, the estimated cost of 1,084 dwelling units in New York City Housing Authority
project. This project, although financed solely with city funds, is included with Federal projects in order
to segregate public from private housing. All other types of building construction financed with State or
local government funds are included under “ Non-Federal.”
7 Includes $1,788,000, the estimated cost of 608 dwelling units contained in New York City Housing Au
thority projects.
8 Less than $500,000.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
725
CONSTRUCTION
Among the large housing projects for which permits were issued in
urban areas in February was a 564-unit project in Manhattan Borough,
New York City, to be financed by the Metropolitan Life Insurance
Co., at an estimated cost of 1% million dollars. Three large nonresidential projects for which permits were issued in cities were (1)
a factory to manufacture shipping containers at North Bergen, N. J.,
with an estimated valuation of a million dollars; (2) a factory valued
at about 2% million dollars at Cleveland, Ohio, to manufacture cook
stoves and ranges; and (3) a construction project at Norfolk, Va., to
provide 5 factory buildings, 2 terminal warehouses and a steel railroad
pier-—the entire project valued at 4% million dollars.
T able 5.- —Estimated number and permit valuation 1 of new dwelling units scheduled to
be started in all urban areas 2 selected months of 1946 and 1947
Source of funds and type of dwelling
February3 Januarv 4 F ebruary4
1946
1947
1947
i
First 2 months of—
1947 3
1946 4
Number of dwelling units
All dwellings_____ . _ ________________
27,074
25,383
35,762
52,457
67,301
Privately financed-.- . . - _____________
1-family___________ _____________
2-family «„ _____________________
Multifamily «___ ________________
Federally financed 7 ____ ..
- ...
27,074
22,156
1,615
3,303
0
24, 299
20, 537
1,496
2,266
1,084
28, 737
24,116
1,794
2,827
7,025
51,373
42, 693
3,111
5, 569
1,084
54,677
45,923
3,117
5,637
12,624
Valuation (in thousands)
______ . . . ----
$138,443
$131,771
$151,931
$270, 214
$287,101
Privately financed-.. _ _______
1-family_____ ________
________
2-familyA __ _ _
- _ - _ ......
Multifamily «_____________________
Federally financed 7. . ________________
138,443
118, 613
6,375
13,455
0
124,507
108,433
6, 342
9,732
7,264
132,884
116,934
6, 666
9,284
19,047
262,950
227, 046
12, 717
23,187
7,264
252, 269
222,195
11,677
18, 397
34,832
All dwellings..
----
.
1 Includes value of Federal construction contracts awarded.
2 See table 4, footnote 2, for source of urban estimates.
3 Preliminary.
4 Revised.
* Includes 1- and 2-family dwellings with stores.
6 Includes multifamily dwellings with stores.
7 For number of, and estimated cost of, dwelling units contained in New York City Housing Authority
projects, but included here with federally financed housing, see table 4, footnotes 6 and 7.
Hours and Earnings
In January 1947, average weekly earnings of $59.97 in private build
ing construction were only 35 cents under the December figure, when
a 7-year peak was reached. The workweek was shortened during
January by % hour and averaged 37.6 hours. Average hourly earn
ings edged up 3 cents to reach $1.59, an increase of 14 percent over
January a year ago and the highest hourly earnings figure reported
since January 1940, when monthly data first became available. Earn
ings reported are for all workers on construction-site pay rolls—skilled,
semiskilled, and unskilled; superintendents, time clerks, etc.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
726
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
Both general and special trades contractors reported wage increases
during the month, which were reflected in higher hourly earnings.
While the effect of a seasonal slow-down in construction work was off
set somewhat by overtime, the workweek declined on all types of
work as shown in table 6, resulting in lower weekly earnings. Average
weekly pay of $56.49 was reported by the general building contractors
for an average 37-hour workweek; for the special trades contractors,
average weekly pay of $64.00 was reported for a 38-hour workweek.
Contractors engaged in nonbuilding construction also reported in
creased hourly earnings which were, however, offset by a shortened
workweek, resulting in decreased average weekly pay—$56.67 in
January compared with $58.02 in December.
Over the year, average weekly earnings increased for all groups in
the special building trades, but principally for persons employed at
plastering, and plumbing and heating jobs. Wage increases during
the year, for the most part, caused weekly earnings to rise $14.50
(26 percent) from the level of a year ago for plastering, and $11.23
(20 percent) to $67.16 for plumbing and heating.
Reports are received monthly from over 11,000 different contractors.
Data published are summaries of all reports received during the months
shown but do not necessarily represent reports from identical firms
T able 6.—Average hours and earnings on private construction projects for selected types
of work, January 1947 1
[Subject to revision]
TypeT)f work
Average hours per week
Average weekly
earnings 2
Average hourly earnings
Janu Decem Janu
ary
ber
ary
1947
1946
1946
Janu Decem Janu
ary
ber
ary
1947
1946
1946
Janu Decem Janu
ary
ber
ary
1947
1946
1946
$59. 38
$59. 92
0
$1. 568
$1. 545
59.97
56.49
64. 00
60. 32
56.73
64.53
$52.89
49.83
55. 57
1.594
1.518
1.680
1.569
1.495
1.655
67.16
67.44
55.93
1.681
1.655
1.384
58. 83
73.85
56.49
61.05
74. 76
58.36
56.43
65.12
47.70
1.637
1.838
1.618
1.653
1.808
1.556
1.491
1.595
1.450
71.04
57.85
55.31
53.95
1.842
1.544
1.837
1.513
1.579
1.418
All types of work_________
37.9
38.8
0
Building construction_____
General contractors___
Special building trades L
Plumbing and heating------------------Painting and decorating_____ _____
Electrical work____
Masonry_________
Plastering and lathmg------------------Carpentry_____ __
Roofing and sheet
m etal________ __
E x c a v a tio n a n d
foundation______
Nonbuilding construction...
Highway and street___
Heavy construction... _
Other______
... _
37.6
37.2
38.1
38.4
38.0
40.0
37.7
36.8
38.5
39.9
40.8
40.4
35.9
40.2
34.9
36.9
41.4
37.5
37.9
40.8
32.9
37.9
37.7
38.7
38.2
35.0
38.1
69. 81
58.20
0
$1.402
1. 355
1.444
34.9
36.4
36.4
51.49
52.84
49.57
1.477
1.450
1.361
36.3
39.0
37.3
39.1
40.5
37.9
40.5
39.9
40.3
41.4
35.6
53.98
56. 67
52. 23
57.94
56. 61
54.94
58.02
55.19
59.11
57.44
47.06
1.487
1.451
1.401
1.482
1.398
1.450
1.434
1.383
1.466
1.387
1.322
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1 Includes all firms reporting during the months shown (over 11,000) but not necessarily identical estab
lishments. Data cover all workers on the construction-site payroll-—skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled;
superintendents, time clerks, etc.
2 Hourly earnings when multiplied by weekly hours of work may not exactly equal weekly earnings
because of rounding.
3 Not available prior to February 1946.
Includes types not shown separately.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Trends o f Employment and Labor
Turn-Over
Labor Force, February 1947
WHO IS COUNTED IN THE LABOR FORCE
Labor force.—Persons 14 years of age and over who are
employed or unemployed during the census week (the
week containing the eighth day of the month).
Employed.—Those who, during the census week (1) work
full or part time for pay or profit; (2) work without pay
in a family enterprise (farm or business) a t least 15 hours;
or (3) have a job but do not work because of illness, vaca
tion, labor-management dispute, bad weather, or lay-off
with definite instructions to return to work within 30 days.
Unemployed.—Those not working, but seeking a job.
Increases of 90,000 in unemployment and 130,000 in employment
combined to raise the civilian labor force by 220,000 between January
and February, according to the Bureau of the Census Monthly Keport
on the Labor Force. In early February, the civilian labor force num
bered 58,010,000, including 55,520,000 employed and 2,490,000
unemployed.
The increase in job seekers over the month occurred almost entirely
among veterans and reflected their flow into the labor market during
the winter slack season. Of the 2 million men unemployed in early
February, half were exservicemen•
The gain in employment between January and February represented
the net effect of an unusually large seasonal increase of 420,000 in farm
employment, partially offset by a decline of 290,000 among persons
working at nonfarm jobs.
The number of nonfarm workers in February (48,600,000) was about
500,000 below the Christmas seasonal high point but 200,000 above
last October’s level. Bad weather and fuel shortages along the eastern
seaboard early in February reduced the hours of work in nonagricultural activities during the census week. The total number of persons
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
727
728
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
working 35 hours or more in nonfarm jobs dropped 750,000 between
January and February, while those working 15-34 hours rose by
410,000.
The number of farm workers (6,920,000) was approximately the
same as a year ago, with an increase of 300,000 among veterans being
balanced by a decline of the same magnitude among women. The
upturn in farm employment between January and February marks
the beginning of a seasonal expansion as farming activity heightens
throughout the spring and early summer months.
Total labor force in the United States, classified by employment status, hours worked, and
sex, January and February 1947 and February 1946
[Source: U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census]
Estimated number (in thousands) of persons 14 years of
age and over 1
Item
Total, both sexes
Male
Female
Jan. Feb. Feb. Jan. Feb. Feb. Jan. Feb. Feb.
1947 1947 1946 1947 1947 1946 1947 1947 1946
Total labor force2------------------------------------ 59, 510 59,630 59,130 43, 560 43, 700 43,020 15, 950 15,930 16,110
57, 790 58,010 53,890 41,860 42,100 37,890 15,930 15,910 16,000
Civilian labor force------- ------- --------------450 480
510
Unemployment------------- -------------------- 2.400 2,490 2,650 1,950 2,010 2,140
Employment......................... ................... - 55,390 55, 520 51, 240 39.910 40,090 35,750 15,480 15,430 15,490
14,
770
14,
560
29,740
14,830
33,830
44,300
34,060
Nonagricultural-------------- -------------- 48,890 48,600
Worked 35 hours or more----------- 41, 500 40, 750 36,310 29.910 29,280 25,220 11,590 11,470 11, 090
2,110
2,070
2,080
2,150
2,200
2,540
4,180
4,690
Worked 15-34 hours____________ 4,280
770 730
660 670 620 740
1.400 1,440 1,350
Worked 1-14 hours 3__________
420 380 630
W ith a job but not at work i ------ 1,710 1,720 2,460 1,290 1,340 1,830
650 660 930
Agricultural_________ ____ ________ 6,500 6,920 6,940 5.850 6,260 6,010
130 230
190
Worked 35 hours or more----------- 4,040 4,320 4,480 3.850 4,190 4,250
370 430
540
Worked 15-34 hours___________ 1,700 1,890 1,850 1,330 1,460 1,310
220
110
230
330
250
280
300
(*)
(*)
Worked 1-14 hours 3___________
460 430 280 420 380 230 (*)
(*)
(*)
W ith a job but not at work *_.......
1 Estimates are subject to sampling variation which may he large in cases where the quantities shown are
relatively small. Therefore, the smaller estimates should be used with caution; those under 100,000 are not
presented in the table but are replaced with an asterisk (*). All data exclude persons in institutions.
2 Total labor force consists of the civilian labor force and the armed forces. Estimates of the armed forces
during the census week are projected from data on net strength as of the first of the month.
3 Excludes persons engaged only in incidental unpaid family work (less than 15 hours); these persons are
classified as not in the labor force.
. , . .,
, ,
,
4 Includes persons who had a job or business, hut who did not work during the census week because of
illness bad weather, vacation, labor dispute, or because of temporary lay-off with definite instructions to
return’to work within 30 days of lay-off. Does not include unpaid family workers.
Summary of Employment Reports for February 1947
m p l o y m e n t in nonagricultural establishments at mid-February 1947
was 39,386,000, about the same as in January.
While construction and trade continued to decline as a result of
unfavorable weather conditions and other seasonal influences, the
trend in manufacturing was definitely upward.
E
Industrial and Business Employment
The largest gains between January and February 1947 occurred in
the durable goods industries, of which the automobile industry alone
added 22,000 production workers on completion of year-end inventories.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TRENDS OF EMPLOYMENT AND LABOR TURN-OVER
729
The iron and steel and heavy machinery industries added 26,000 to
their industry pay rolls as the demand for their products continued
firm.
The soft goods industries, which usually show employment increases
in this period, remained practically unchanged. In food processing,
where more than 38,000 were dropped, greater than seasonal declines
T a b l e 1. —Estimated number of employees in nonagricultural establishments, by industry
division
Estimated number of employees
(thousands)
Industry division
F eb .1947 J a n .1947 Dec. 1946 F eb.1946
Total estimated employment L . .
39,386
39,470
40, 726
Manufacturing 2______ . . .
Mining________________
Contract construction and Federal force-account construction
Transportation and public utilities___
Trade_______________
Finance, service, and miscellaneous
Federal, State, and local government, excluding Federal forceaccount construction_____
15,114
826
1,325
3,925
7,838
5,198
15,048
827
1,435
3,933
7,866
5,193
15,026
819
1,617
3, 976
8,589
5,260
12, 536
808
1, 260
3,907
7, 505
5, 031
5,168
5,439
5, 462
5,160
.
36, 509
1 Estimates include all full- and part-time wage and salary workers in non-agricultural establishments
who worked or received pay during the pay period ending nearest the 15th of the month. Proprietors
self-employed persons, domestic servants, and personnel of the armed forces are excluded.
2 Estimates for manufacturing have been adjusted to levels indicated by final 1944 data made available
by the Bureau of Employment Security of the Federal Security Agency and are comparable with the pro
duction-worker estimates shown in table 2.
T
a b le
2.
— Estimated number of production workers and indexes of production-worker
employment in manufacturing industries, by major industry group 1
Estimated number of
production workers
(in thousands)
Production-worker in
dexes (1939=100)
F e b .1947
Feb. 1946
Feb. 1947
All manufacturing_____ _____________________
Durable goods___________ _______________
Nondurable goods................................ ................
12,329
6,310
6, 019
9,989
4,427
5,562
150.5
174.7
131.4
121.9
122.6
121.4
Iron and steel and their products______ ________
Electrical machinery___ _____________________
Machinery, except electrical___________________
Transportation equipment, except automobiles___
Automobiles________ ____________ ___________
Nonferrous metals and their products___________
Lumber and timber basic products_____________
Furniture and finished lumber products_________
Stone, clay, and glass products__________ _______
1,506
575
1,138
457
744
417
642
418
413
843
348
831
467
415
291
521
355
356
151.9
221.9
215.4
287.7
185.0
181.9
152.7
127.4
140.6
85.0
134.2
157.2
294.4
103.0
126.8
124.0
108.1
121.4
Textile-mill products and other fiber manufactures.
Apparel and other finished textile products______
Leather and leather products-—......... - ........... -........
Food..______ _______________________________
Tobacco manufactures................ ..............................
Paper and allied products_____________________
Printing, publishing, and allied industries..______
Chemicals and allied products_________________
Products of petroleum and coal________________
Rubber products........................ ...... ........ ..................
Miscellaneous industries______________________
1,254
1,135
368
1,042
89
383
403
510
151
246
438
1,157
993
348
1,045
81
348
367
491
138
214
380
109.7
143. 8
106.2
121.9
95.6
144.5
123.0
177.1
142.3
203.0
179.0
101.2
125.8
100.4
122.2
87.3
131.0
112.1
170.3
130.8
177.1
155.4
Group
'
¡
Feb. 1946
i
The estimates and indexes presented in this table have been adjusted to levels indicated by the final
1944 data made available by the Bureau of Employment Security of the Federal Security Agency.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
730
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
occurred in the canning and baking industries, in addition to normal
pre-Lent decreases in slaughtering and meat packing.
A pre-Easter rise of 24,000 increased the apparel industry total to
1.135.000. Preliminary reports indicate that the increase from Jan
uary to February 1947 is less than the prewar seasonal. Other
industries such as textiles and leather also reported considerably less
than seasonal gains.
Public Employment
A downward change of 22,000 in Federal employment in the month
ending February 1, 1947, left 2.3 million persons still on the rolls.
Of these 1 million, or 43 percent, were in the War and Navy Depart
ments, while an additional 166,000 persons were in other independent
agencies which were created especially for the war or reconversion
emergencies. During the month, peacetime agencies exclusive of the
Veterans’ Administration showed an employment increase of less than
1.000,
part of which resulted from the creation of the Office of Gov
ernment Reports under the Executive Office of the President and the
transfer to it of some personnel from the Office of Temporary Controls,
a reconversion agency. Employment in the Veterans’ Administration,
which trebled during the period of heaviest military demobilization,
September 1945-December 1946, reflected the tapering off of military
separations by showing only relatively small gains (5,000 and 2,500
respectively) in the first 2 months of 1947.
Although the number of Federal employees in areas outside conti
nental United States was 11,000 lower in February 1947, than in the
preceding month, it was higher than in December 1946, because of
the inclusion, on January 1, 1947, the officially declared end of World
War II hostilities, of 44,000 seamen on ships operated by the Mari
time Commission under contract. The inclusion of the seamen at
the conclusion of hostilities was in accordance with a provision of
the Federal Employees Pay Act of 1945. The same provision was
responsible for the addition of 2,800 merchant-marine trainees to
Federal employment within the continental area on the same date,
but this increase was overshadowed by important decreases in other
war agencies in the continental area.
Source of data:—Data for the Federal executive service are reported
through the Civil Service Commission, whereas data for the legisla
tive and judicial services and Government corporations are reported
to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment on Federal force-
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TRENDS OF EMPLOYMENT AND LABOR TURN-OVER
731
account construction is included in both the executive branch (tables
3 and 4) and in construction employment (table 2 in the section,
Construction).
Military personnel and pay figures are reported monthly to the
Bureau of Labor Statistics but are published here only quarterly.
Mimeographed tables giving civilian employment and military
personnel and pay, monthly, 1939 to date, and civilian pay rolls
monthly, 1943 to date, are available upon request.
T a b l e 3 . — Employment and p a y rolls for regular Federal services and for Government
corporations in selected months
Executive 1
Year and month
Contine ntal United
States
Total
All areas
Total
Legis
lative
Judicial
Washing
ton, D. C.
area
Govern
ment
corpora
tions 2
Em ploym ent3
February
February
February
February
February
February
February
1940_______
1941_______
1942_______
1943. __ ____
1944_____ __
1945_______
1946_______
December 1946_______
January 1947 4_______
February 1947 5______
992, 856
1,232, 956
1,813,014
3, 031, 830
3, 263.016
3, 516, 640
2, 926,050
958, 319
1,196, 876
1, 773. 533
2,988, 636
3, 2i7,941
3,473, 254
2, 882,635
910, 890
1,119, 891
1,621, 985
2, 730, 372
2,819.973
2, 888, 841
2, 373, 885
127, 836
159, 098
226, 259
285,477
263,126
256, 043
232, 981
5,889
5,985
6, 354
6,284
6.115
6,561
6,433
2.360
2,507
2,584
2,597
2,668
2,643
3,023
26, 288
27,588
30, 543
34, 313
36,292
34,182
33,959
2, 561,022
2, 326,034
2, 303,989
2, 518, 896
2,284,123
2, 261, 809
2, 220, 561
1,951,112
1,940, 207
226.460
221, 293
220, 207
6,806
6, 864
7,080
3,061
3,066
3,069
32, 259
31,981
32,031
Payrolls (inthousands)6
February
February
February
February
1943_______
1944 _______
1945_______
1946 3______
$623, 796
679, 826
662,047
502,043
$616, 563
671,930
654, 307
493. 818
(0
$618,090
601, 350
452, 929
$57, 824
54, 730
54, 239
49, 921
$1,415
1,491
1.621
1,768
$728
760
782
940
$5, 090
5,645
5,346
5,517
December 1946 5______
January 1947
___
February 1947 3____ -
564, 288
518,194
514, 535
554,962
508. 671
505,171
518,093
461,088
459,106
57, 648
57, 543
57, 207
2,169
2,345
2. 308
1,248
1,191
1,090
5, 909
5, 987
5,966
1 Includes employees on force-account construction. Beginning July 1945, data include clerks at thirdclass post offices who previously were working on a contract basis. Substitute rural mail carriers are ex
cluded from the employment.
2 Data are for employees of the Panama Railroad Co., the Federal Reserve banks, and banks of the Farm
Credit Administration. Data for other Government corporations are included under the executive service.
3 Employment is as of the first of the calendar month.
4Revised.
5 Subject to revision.
6Pay rolls cover the entire calendar month.
7 Data not available.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
732
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 194 7
T a b l e 4 . —Employment and p a y rolls for the executive branch of the Federal Government
in selected months 1
Other agencies 3
War agencies 2
Year and month
All agencies
Total
Conti
nental
United
States
•
Total
Conti
nental
United
States
Outside
conti
nental
United
States 4
Em ploym ent3
1940_______
1941.. ___
1942_____
1943_______
1944 _______
1945 . . . ___
1946_______
958, 319
1,196, 876
1, 773, 533
2, 988, 636
3, 217,941
3,473, 254
2, 882,635
241, 249
433,197
930,853
2,173,311
2,401, 552
2,625. 509
1,863,334
204, 848
368, 860
793,172
1,929,862
2,019, 816
2, 057, 409
1, 377,049
December 1946_______
January 1947 6________
February 1947 7 _____
2, 518, 896
2, 284,123
2, 261, 809
1,176, 596
1,176, 705
1,151, 308
906, 763
871, 273
857, 826
February
leb ru ary
February
February
February
February
February
Outside
conti
nental
United
j States 4
36,401
717,070
64, 337
763, 679
137, 681
842, 680
243,449
815, 325
816, 389
381, 736
568,100
847, 745
486,285 1,019,301
706,042
751,031
828, 813
800, 510
800,157
831,432
996, 836
11,028
12, 648
13,867
14, 815
16, 232
16, 313
22,465
269, 833 1, 342, 300 1, 313, 798
305,432 1,107,418 1,079, 839
293,482 1,110, 501 1,082, 381
28, 502
27, 579
28,120
Pay rolls (in thousands)8
February
February
February
February
1943.._____
1944_______
1945____ . . .
1946 7______
December 1946 7___
January 1947 7______ _
February 1947 7. ____
$616,563
671,930
654,307
493, 818
$464, 843
509, 618
488, 688
294,207
(9)
$459, 036
439,230
258,010
(9)
$50,582
49,458
36,167
$151, 720
162. 312
165,619
199,611
(9)
$159,054
162,120
194,919
(9)
$3, 258
3,499
4,692
554,962
508, 671
505,171
259, 235
252, 531
248,453
228,986
211,794
209, 027
30, 249
40,737
39,426
295, 727
256,140
256,718
289,107
249, 294
250,078
6,620
6,846
6,640
1 Includes employees on force-account construction.
2 Covers War and Navy Departments, Maritime Commission, National Advisory Committee for Aero
nautics, The Panama Canal, and the independent war emergency and reconversion agencies.
3 Beginning July 1945, data include clerks at third-class post offices who previously were working on a
contract basis. Substitute rural mail carriers are excluded from the employment.
4 Includes Alaska and the Panama Canal Zone.
5Employment is as of the first of the calendar month.
6 Revised.
7 Subject to revision.
8 Pay rolls cover the entire calendar month.
• Data not available.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TRENDS OF EMPLOYMENT AND LABOR TURN-OVER
733
Detailed Reports for Industrial and Business
Employment, January 1947
M o n t h l y r e p o r t s on employment and pay rolls are presented below
for more than 150 manufacturing industries and for 26 nonmanu
facturing industries including class 1 steam railroads. Data for both
manufacturing and nonmanufacturing industries are based on reports
of the number of employees and amount of pay rolls for the period
ending nearest the 15th of the month.
T able 1.—Estimated number of production workers in manufacturing industries 1
Industry group and industry
Estimated number of production work
ers (in thousands)
Jan. 1947 Dec. 1946 Nov. 1946 Jan. 1946
All manufacturing_____________________________________
Durable goods_____________________________________
Nondurable goods______________ _■___________________
12,269
6,249
6,020
12, 271
6,213
6,058
12, 212
6,203
6,009
10, 666
5,205
5,461
Durable goods
Iron and steel and their products___________________ _____
Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling mills____________
Gray-iron and semisteel castings_________________ _____
Malleable-iron castings______________________________
Steel castings_________ ______ ______________________
Cast-iron pipe and fittings_________________ __________
Tin cans and other tinware___________________________
Wire drawn from purchased rods______________________
Wire work_________________________________________
Cutlery and edge tools_______________________________
Tools (except edge tools, machine tools, files, and saws)___
Hardware—______ ________ _________________________
Plumbers’ supplies____ ____________________________
Stoves, oil burners, and heating equipment npt elsewhere
classified_________________________________________
Steam and hot-water heating apparatus and steam fittings _
Stamped and enameled ware and galvanizing_____ ______
Fabricated structural and ornamental metalwork________
Metal doors, sash, frames, molding, and trim ___________
Bolts, nuts, washers, and rivets__________________ ____
Forgings, iron and steel______________________________
Wrought pipe, welded and heavy-riveted________ ___ ___
Screw machine products and wood screws______________
Steel barrels, kegs, and drums________________________
Firearms__________________________________________
1,491
479.7
86.2
25.2
50.5
19.8
41.9
30.5
41.9
27.8
26.7
50.1
30.1
1,462
467.0
84.4
24.2
51.5
19.2
41.5
29.9
40.5
27.7
26.8
49.6
29.8
1,476
481.5
84.1
24.8
51.2
19.4
41.3
29.9
40.9
27.3
26.4
49.5
29.2
1,308
448.7
74.3
24.5
52.6
15.4
38.0
29.4
33.9
23.1
24.2
38.2
21.6
62.7
52.3
84.9
57.5
10.2
21.5
26.9
13.6
29.4
6.2
14.3
60.8
51.0
84.5
57.1
10.1
21.2
26.7
13.2
29.3
6.1
14.0
62.0
51.4
83.7
56.9
10.1
21.0
26.7
13.8
29.3
6.3
14.2
51.6
44.0
69.3
44.7
7.4
20.9
25.6
14.5
26.8
6.3
10.9
Electrical machinery____________________________________
Electrical equipment________________________________
Radios and phonographs_____________________ _____
Communication equipment___________ ______________
575
315.5
92.6
92.4
575
314.8
93.3
93.1
568
310.9
91.5
92.2
476
290.6
65.5
63.9
Machinery, except electrical_____________________________
Machinery and machine-shop products________________
Engines and turbines_______________________________
Tractors_________ _________ ________________________
Agricultural machinery, excluding tractors_____________
Machine tools____ _________________________________
Machine-tool accessories_____________________________
Textile machinery................_______ ____ ______ _______
Pumps and pumping equipment_____________________
Typewriters_______________________________________
Cash registers, adding and calculating machines_________
Washing machines, wringers and driers, domestic________
Sewing machines, domestic and industrial______________
Refrigerators, and refrigeration equipment______________
1.127
381.0
45.4
54.8
45.6
59.8
51.3
36.4
58.6
22.7
37.6
12.5
10.9
68.2
1,117
379. 6
45.6
54.5
44.8
60.6
51.5
35.5
58.9
22.3
37.3
12.4
10.7
65.2
1,107
377.7
45.6
53.7
43.5
60.3
51.8
34.7
58.3
22.2
36.4
12.6
10.5
64.2
956
333.7
39.0
53.3
38.9
58.1
45.7
29.0
52.8
14.7
29.5
9.9
8.1
47.4
Transportation equipment, except automobiles_____________
Locomotives___________________________ ____ ______
Cars, electric- and steam-railroad____ _________________
Aircraft and parts, excluding aircraft engines____________
Aircraft engines. _____________________________ _____
Shipbuilding and boatbuilding_______________________
Motorcycles, bicycles, and parts_______ ______: ________
456
26.6
50.2
144.7
29.8
142.1
12.2
456
27.1
50.4
144.7
29.0
142.8
12.1
447
27.1
50.3
146.3
29.3
133.8
11.7
519
23. 3
47.2
118.6
21.3
249. 0
8.5
See footnotes at end of table.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
734
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
T able 1.— E s tim a te d n u m b e r of,p r o d u c tio n w o r k e rs in m a n u fa c tu r in g in d u s tr ie s 1—Con.
Estimated number of production work
ers (in thousands)
Industry group and industry
J a n .1947 Dec. 1946 Nov. 1946 Jan. 1946
Durable goods—Continued
Automobiles________ ______________________
__________
722
733
742
416
Nonferrous metals and their products. _________
Smelting and refining, primary, of nonferrous m etals.. _ ..
Alloying and rolling and drawing of nonferrous metals except aluminum_______________ ______ ..
Clocks and watches. . . . . _ _______________ „ . ___
Jewelry (precious metals) and jewelers’ findings
Silverware and plated ware __________ __
______
__________ _____. . . _
Lighting equipment__
Aluminum manufactures.. ..
_
...
Sheet metal work, not elsewhere classified__________ ____
412
40.1
411
39.9
406
39.3
333
34.2
63.0
28.3
18.0
15.2
32.4
51.2
26.8
62.8
28.2
18.0
15.2
31.7
51.3
27.0
62.0
28.5
17.4
15.1
31.2
50.9
27.2
55.7
23.7
15.8
12.2
18.5
42.0
22. 5
Lumber and timber basic products_______________________
Sawmills and logging cam p s____________ . . . __ ______
Planing and ply wood mills_______ __________________
639
228.5
76.9
640
231.4
76.5
645
235.5
76.8
514
201.7
64.8
Furniture and finished lumber products_____________
Mattresses and bedsprings_______________________
F u rn itu re... . . _____________ . ____ ____
Wooden boxes, other than cigar.. . _____ _ . _ _
Caskets and other morticians’ goods___________ __ __
Wood preserving. _ _ . _ ____________ _ _____________
Wood, turned and shaped_________ _________________
413
23.4
173. 7
26.5
14.8
13.1
24.5
407
23.1
171.5
25.9
14.7
12.7
24.1
401
23.8
169.1
25.9
14.0
12.4
23.2
348
18.0
149.7
23.9
12.5
11.6
21.4
Stone, clay, and glass products____________ . ____________
Glass and glassware . _ . . . _____ ________________ ___
Glass products made from purchased glass. __________ .
Cement. _______________________________ ...
Brick, tile, and terra cotta________________ ______ . . . .
Pottery and related products______________
_______
Gypsum_______ _______________________ _ ______
Wallboard, plaster (except gypsum), and mineral wool... .
Lime_______ _______ __________________ _ . . . ___
Marble, granite, slate, and other products . . . ___ _____
Abrasives.. . _________________________ ____ . . . _
Asbestos products__________________________ • _____ _
414
104.1
13.2
28.9
63.2
49.6
6.1
11.1
8. 9
16.9
20.1
21.7
412
103.8
12.9
29.1
62.2
49.4
6.2
11.1
8. 9
17.3
20.1
21.7
411
104.2
12.7
28.7
62.3
48.6
6.1
11.0
9. 0
17. 2
20.0
21.6
335
86.9
10.9
21.8
52.0
41.6
4.7
10.1
8. 2
13.7
16.8
14.3
1,252
470.1
14.6
95.3
1,252
468. 8
14.5
95.6
1,240
465.3
14.3
94.8
1,127
428.7
13.5
87.5
163.0
119.2
10. 4
30.4
36.0
65. 5
26.7
12.0
3.8
15.0
164.4
118.5
10.9
31.7
36.0
65.0
26.4
11.9
3.7
15.4
162. 2
117.5
11.2
31.5
35.6
64.8
25.7
11.7
3.6
15.2
149. 1
106.3
10.7
28.7
33.6
60.5
20.1
10.3
3.8
14.7
Apparel and other finished textile products_________________ 1,111
M en’s clothing, not elsewhere classified_____ .. ______ _
205.6
Shirts, collars, and nightwear _________ ___________ __
57.7
Underwear and neckwear, men’s________________ _ . . .
12.5
Work shirts . _________
__________
14.0
Women’s clothing, not elsewhere classified.. ________ _
213.7
Corsets and allied garments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. . . . _
17.0
Millinery. ___________ ________ _________________
19.1
Handkerchiefs _____ ____ _________ ._ ____________
2.5
Curtains, draperies, and bedspreads_____________ ____
12.3
Housefurnishlngs, other than curtains, etc____ ________
10.4
Textile bags______ _________________ ____ . . . ___
14.5
1,099
205.5
57.8
12.9
13.8
211.2
16.9
17.8
2.5
12.8
10. 7
14.8
1,083
204. 3
56.8
12.8
13.5
208.9
16.6
16.5
2.4
14.5
10.7
14.4
956
180.6
50.5
11.3
12.7
207.1
15.0
19.6
2.3
11.8
9.6
14.7
360
42.9
18.1
194.8
10.6
14.7
354
41.1
18.2
192.2
10.9
14.8
338
43.5
17.1
182.1
11.2
12.6
Nondurable goods
Textile-mill products and other fiber manufactures__________
Cotton manufactures, except smallwares_____________ ._
Cotton smallwares _____ ____________ ______________
Silk and rayon goods________________ ___ . . . _____
Woolen and worsted manufactures, except dyeing and
finishing.. . . . _ . _________ ___ ______________
Hosiery.
________________ _____________________
Knitted cloth......
...................... ... _ _______________
Knitted outerwear and knitted gloves__________________
Knitted underwear_________________ ______ _______
Dyeing and finishing textiles, including woolen and worsted.
Carpets and rugs, wool_______ _ _ _________ _______
Hats, fur-felt________________ _____________________
Jute goods, except felts __________________ _ ________
Cordage and twine____________________ _________
Leather and leather products____________ . . . . . __
Leather_______________ . _________
Boot and shoe cut stock and findings_______ ________
Boots and sh o es_________ ____________
. . . _.
Leather gloves and m ittens.. _____ . . .
_______
Trunks and suitcases 2_. _______ ____________ _ ._
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
_
..
„.
_
365
43.2
17.8
199.6
10.1
14.0
TRENDS OF EMPLOYMENT AND LABOR TURN-OYER
735
T able 1.— E s tim a te d n u m b e r o f p r o d u c tio n w o rk e rs in m a n u fa c tu r in g in d u s tr ie s 1—Con.
Industry group and industry
Estimated number of production work
ers (in thousands)
J a n .1947 Dec. 1946 Nov. 1946 Jan. 1946
Nondurable goods—Continued
Food_______________ ____ __
Slaughtering and meat packing___________________
______ __
B utter. _____ _________
Condensed and evaporated milk.
Ice cream .. _________
F lour.. ___________________
Feeds, prepared____________ . _____
Cereal preparations_________ _______ _
Baking . .. . ______ _
Sugar refining, can e.._ ______
Sugar, beet____________ .
Confectionery____ . . . .
Beverages, nonalcoholic.. __________
M alt liquors.. _____________
Canning and preserving__ _______ . . . ._
Tobacco manufactures___ _________
Cigarettes—____ ____________
Cigars____________ ________
Tobacco (chewing and smoking) and snuff.. ___________
Paper and allied products __ __ _____
Paper and p u lp .. ________ ____ __
Paper goods, other____________
_____ ___ _
Envelopes____ __________
Paper bags______________________
Paper boxes____ _ ________ .
Printing, publishing, and allied industries__________________
Newspapers and periodicals_____ . . . _
Printing, book and job__________
Lithographing ______ _ ___
B ookbinding..____
Chemicals and allied products__ . . . .
Paints, varnishes, and colors.. ..
Drugs, medicines, and insecticides ...
Perfumes and cosmetics_________ ._
Soap____ ____ . . . . ______ .
Rayon and allied products____ . . . . . .
Chemicals, not elsewhere classified _. _
Explosives and safety fuses____________ .
Compressed and liquefied gases.................
Ammunition, small-arms______
Fireworks_______________ ______ ____
Cottonseed oil_____________ ____
Fertilizers______________ _ _____
Products of petroleum and coal__ .
_
Petroleum refin in g _________
Coke and byproducts.. __
Paving m aterials... . . . . . .
.
Roofing materials. . . _____ . . . _______
Rubber products_____ . ______________
Rubber tires and inner tubes__ . . .
Rubber boots and shoes..
______
Rubber goods, other__ _______
_______
Miscellaneous industries___ _ ______________ _
Instruments (professional and scientific), and fire control
equipm ent.. _ ______ _______ .
Photographic apparatus.. _____ . . . . . .
Optical instruments and ophthalmic goods
Pianos, organs, and parts___ ______
Games, toys, and dolls____________
_ _____
Buttons__________ _________________ ____
Fire extinguishers_____
_ _______ _. ____ _
1 080
153.9
22.2
13.1
16.1
30. 5
21.9
10.2
249.0
14.4
9.2
56.9
22.5
52.6
94.6
89
34.1
41.5
7.5
383
172.0
47.5
10.9
16.0
91.3
400
135. 2
166.2
30.3
33.7
508
36.3
54.5
11.0
14.6
58.9
124.3
13.4
5.8
6.6
3.0
17.4
25.6
150
98.3
25.5
1.6
12.4
246
110.6
19.9
76.6
436
1,121
150.7
23.5
12.9
16.4
30.7
21.2
10.8
252.7
14.7
16.1
58.6
23.1
53.7
115.8
92
34.5
42.9
7.8
383
171.8
47.9
11.0
15.8
92.6
403
136.7
166.3
30.5
34.1
504
36.4
53.8
11.6
14.3
58.6
122.9
12.9
5.7
6.6
3.5
19.0
23.1
150
99.4
25.0
1.6
12.5
248
112.1
19.7
77.0
446
1,123
138.9
24.4
13.1
lh. 8
30.9
21.8
11.0
249.0
12.5
22.0
57.1
23.2
53.3
131.9
91
34.5
42.3
8.0
380
170.6
48.0
10.9
15.4
91.8
399
135.0
165. 0
30.3
33.6
501
35.9
53.5
12.4
13.8
58.9
120.5
12.7
5.8
6.8
3.5
20.5
22.1
151
99.1
25.7
1.8
12.7
245
112.0
19.2
76.2
442
1,051
152.6
21.0
12.6
15.0
31.5
23.8
10.4
254.1
12.6
7.8
52.8
22.8
54.8
92.5
81
32.5
35.2
8.0
341
156.6
44.4
9.8
13.6
82.6
359
122.3
148.6
27-3
29. x
489
33.0
49.7
12.0
13. 6
59.4
114.6
17.3
5.6
9.6
2.1
17.7
24.9
142
96.1
23.8
1.4
10.4
209
98.8
16.3
65.7
368
20.1
25.3
21.8
10.4
21.5
10.1
2.1
20.4
25.4
21.9
9.5
24.2
10.5
2.2
19.4
25.4
21.6
9.9
25.2
10.2
2.1
22.1
22.0
20.2
6.8
17.6
9.6
2.3
1 January 1947 estimates are based on reports from 32,100 cooperating establishments covering 7,165,000
production workers. Estimates for the major industry groups have been adjusted to levels indicated by
final 1944 data made available by the Bureau of Employment Security of the Federal Security Agency.
Estimates for individual industries have been adjusted to levels indicated by the 1939 Census of Manu
factures but not to Federal Security Agency data. For this reason, together with the fact that this Bureau
has not prepared estimates for certain industries, the sum of the individual industry estimates will not agree
with the totals shown for the major industry groups.
2 Revisions have been made as follows in the data for earlier months: Trunks and suitcases.—October 1946
to 15.0.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
•<!
co
03
EMPLOYMENT AND PAY ROLLS
ALL MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
737
TRENDS OF EMPLOYMENT AND LABOR TURN-OVER
T able 2.— I n d e x e s o f p r o d u c tio n -w o r k e r e m p lo y m e n t a n d p a y ro lls in m a n u fa c tu r in g
in d u s tr ie s 1
|1939 average=100]
Employment indexes
Industry group and industry
All manufacturing.. . ............ ............ .....................
Durable goods_____________________________
Nondurable goods. _______________________
Durable goods
Iron and steel and their products________________
Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling mills__
Gray-iron and semisteel castings_____________
Malleable-iron castin g s______________ _____
Steel castings_____________________________
Cast-iron pipe and fittings________ __________
Tin cans and other tinware_____ ____________
Wire drawn from purchased rods..
.. . . . .
Wirework_____ _________________ . . . ____
Cutlery and edge tools____ _____ ____ _____
Tools (except edge tools, machine tools, files, and
______ . . . . . _______________
saws)..
Hardw are..
. ..
. . . . _________ ._
Plumbers’ supplies. . . . . ______ _____ ____
Stoves, oil burners, and heating equipment not
elsewhere classified_______________________
Steam and hot-water heating apparatus and
steam fittings 2_____ ____________ _____
Stamped and enameled ware and galvanizing__
Fabricated structural and ornamental metalwork.
Metal doors, sash, frames, molding, and trim ___
Bolts, nuts, washers, and rivets______________
Forgings, iron and steel .. . . . . ____
Wrought pipe, welded and heavy riveted______
Screw-machine products and wood screw s____
Steel barrels, kegs, and drum s._____ _________
Firearms_______________ ___________ _____
Electrical machinery__________________________
Electrical equipment. .
____ ___________
Radios and phonographs... .. _____________
Communication equipment ...................... ........
Machinery, except electrical.. _ ________________
Machinery and machine-shop products________
Engines and turbines_______________________
Tractors________ ________________________
Agricultural machinery, excluding tractors_____
Machine tools.. ...... ......... .............................
Machine-tool accessories- .. .................... ...........
Textile machinery____ . . _______________
Pumps and pumping equipment_____________
Typewriters______________________________
Cash registers, adding and calculating machines.
Washing machines, wringers and driers, domes
tic___________
. . . _________ . _____
Sewing machines, domestic and industrial_____
Refrigerators and refrigeration equipment_____
Transportation equipment, except automobiles___
Locomotives______ ____ ____________ ____
Cars, electric- and steam-railroad_____________
Aircraft and parts, excluding aircraft engines___
Aircraft engines __________________________
Shipbuilding and boatbuilding______________
Motorcycles, bicycles, and parts_____________
Automobiles______________________ __________
Nonferrous metals and their products__ ________
Smelting and refining, primary, of nonferrous
metals_____________________________ _ __
Alloying and rolling and drawing of nonferrous
metals except aluminum__ _
_________
Clocks and watches .
______ _ ______
Jewelry (precious metals) and jewelers’ findings..
Silverware and plated ware_____________ . . .
Lighting equipment_________ ___ _______ _
Aluminum manufactures____________ ______ _
Sheet-metal work not elsewhere classified______
See footnotes a t end of table.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Pay-roll indexes
Jan. Dec. Nov. Jan. Jan. Dec. Nov. Jan.
1947 1946 1946 1946 1947 1946 1946 1946
149.8 149.8 149.1 130.2 300.3 299.5 291.6 229.2
173.1 172.1 171.8 144. 1 329.2 327.3 321.3 243.0
131.4 132.2 131.2 119.2 272.0 272.4 262.6 215.7
150.4
123. 5
147.4
139.6
167.7
120.0
131.8
138.8
137.7
180.5
147.4
120.2
144.5
134.3
171.3
116.2
130.5
135.9
133.4
179.8
148.9
124.0
144.0
137.5
170.3
117.6
129.9
136.3
134.6
177.3
131.9
115.5
127.2
135.9
174.9
93.4
119.7
134.0
111.6
150.1
276.7
208.9
317.1
304.6
302.8
286.7
243.9
247.7
273.8
405.1
265.5
193.9
307.8
286.1
315.4
259.9
244.5
239.6
261.7
404.7
270.0
208.7
299.6
294.4
315.5
262.4
232.6
240.7
261.7
389.9
216.1
173.2
247.0
264.8
263.6
186.4
208.0
199.2
206.2
305.3
174.1 175.0 172.4 158.3 361.3 360.8 348.8 290.3
140.4 139.0 139.0 107.1 289.0 286.2 281.5 203.0
122.2 120.8 118.6 87.8 237.6 226.7 216.2 146.8
135.9 131.7 134.4 111.9 277.1 264.8 265.0 197.2
172.4
152.9
162. 0
131.2
150.1
175.0
161. 9
173. 9
102.9
285.2
222.0
174.6
212.7
287.5
213.2
188.3
243.5
175.2
164.1
163. 2
204.0
166.1
241.8
139.8
191.2
168.3
152.2
160.8
130.2
148.3
173.9
158.0
173.0
100.1
280.6
222.0
174.1
214.4
289.7
211.3
187.6
244.5
174.2
161.0
165.3
204.8
161.8
243.1
137.2
189.3
169.7
150.7
160.3
131.0
147.1
173.9
164.8
173.2
103.8
284.0
219.2
172.0
210.2
287.0
209.5
186.7
244.5
171.6
156.3
164.6
205.9
158.5
240.6
137.2
185.2
145.1
124.7
125.9
95.8
145.8
166.4
172.8
158.4
103.4
217.0
183.7
160.8
150.6
199.0
180.9
164.9
209.0
170.5
139.8
158.6
181.8
132.6
217.9
90.7
149.9
326.4
318.3
287.9
255.2
275.5
341.0
292.9
355.0
232.4
569.8
408.7
316.5
424.3
526.6
390.0
348.8
491. 7
273.3
296.0
282.7
342.7
330.9
464.8
276.2
355.7
312.7
320.9
293.0
257.4
272.9
333.2
285.8
351.3
231.9
568.0
414.3
317.0
448.9
537.6
384.8
346.7
500.8
271.3
291.1
290.7
351.0
315.8
467.8
270.1
347 2
328.4
303.2
275.3
250.2
270.3
323.6
295.5
349.6
237.2
569.9
400.6
308.3
427.3
521.3
375.5
336.8
492.4
269.9
280.7
285.5
343.4
301.1
451.1
279.0
352.0
238.6
227.5
193.5
158.0
248.4
294.4
281.8
290.1
191.5
398.1
302.6
258.9
271.9
327.4
297.5
272.8
371. 4
249. 2
233.7
262.3
284.1
247.5
394.6
166.2
262.0
167.7
138.6
194.1
287.1
410.9
204.7
364.8
334.7
205.2
175.0
179.4
179.9
166.5
136.2
185.6
287.2
418.8
205.4
364.8
326.2
206.2
173.6
182.3
179.1
168.2
133.6
182.6
281.6
419.4
205.2
368.8
329.8
193.2
168.1
184.5
177.2
133.1
102.8
134.9
326.9
360.8
192.3
298.9
239.7
359.6
122.0
103.5
145.3
316.9
277.3
345.7
543.0
797.2
412.4
674.8
541.7
394.2
315.1
306.4
341.5
302.7
273.0
306.4
550.0
876.0
408.4
683.3
533.7
399.1
346.7
316.6
343.1
291.7
260.5
301.9
511.5
836.8
406.6
680.4
484.3
336.8
318.4
313.6
332.5
213.1
185.3
164.1
559.1
735.5
323.8
514.3
356.6
602.5
204.4
153.5
256.1
145.2 144.4 142.1 123.8 267.4 269.2 256.8 216.4
162.2
139.3
124.7
125.2
158.3
217.6
142.8
161.7
139.1
124.4
125.5
154.8
217.7
144.1
159.7
140.5
120.3
124.5
152.5
216.3
145.2
143.5
116.7
109.5
100.7
90.3
178.5
119.8
301.4
296.0
236.5
271.9
285.9
383.6
281.3
301.9
306.3
250.3
275.8
272.7
384.5
282.6
290.0
309.6
231.0
261.4
271.2
373.7
278.0
253.9
219.8
196.6
198.2
141.7
269.1
214.1
738
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
T able 2.—Indexes of production-worker employment and p a y rolls in manufacturing
industries 1— Continued
[1939 average=100]
Industry group and industry
Employment indexes
Pay-roll indexes
Jan. Dec. Nov. Jan.
1947 1946 1946 1946
Jan. Dec. Nov. Jan.
1947 1946 1946 1946
Durable goods— Continued
Lumber and timber basic products____ _________ 152.0 152.3 153.5 122.3 315.5 313.5 306.9
Sawmills and logging cam ps.. . . . .. _ ______ 79.3 80.3 81.8 70.0 163.4 163.6 163.5
Planing and plywood mills___ ______ ____ 105.9 105. 3 105.7 89.2 216.2 215.4 204.7
207.7
118.2
148.9
126.0
127.6
109.1
104.4
119.0
116.1
111.5
123.9
125.9
107.8
102.2
117.8
112.6
109.6
122.1 106.0 269.6 266.9 256.8
129.8 97.9 258.9 259. 0 258.6
106.2 94.0 233.8 230.7 223 0
102.0 94.2 233.1 234.6 223.8
112.7 100.6 227. 3 225.1 206.1
110.7 102.9 280.5 278.1 267.8
105.6 97.3 236.7 237.0 222.4
192.9
173.2
169.3
185.4
169.8
206.8
180.2
Stone, clay, and glass products ______ ____ _ .. 140.9
Glass and glassware___ ____________ . . . . .. 149.1
Glass products made from purchased glass_____ 131.6
Cement__________ _____ _________ ___ 121.5
Brick, tile, and terra cotta___________________ 111.3
149.9
Pottery and related products___________
Gypsum__________________ ______________ 123.8
Wallboard, plaster (except gypsum), and mineral
wool_________________ _____ ___ . . . . .. 136.5
Lime___ _________ _ .. _ . . . . . . ______ . . . 94.1
Marble, granite, slate, and other products_____ 91.3
Abrasives_____ _________ . . . .
_ . _ 259.5
Asbestos products... ______________________ 136.8
140.5
148.6
129.0
122.2
109.6
149.1
124.8
140.0
149.3
127.1
120. 6
109.7
146.8
124.1
271.9
282.6
267.9
197.9
226.6
270.0
243.8
274.0
283.1
263.6
209.3
225.2
274.4
245.1
267.4
276.9
252.6
206.7
222.3
262.5
241.5
185.4
192.1
178.9
135.1
155.2
195.5
160.5
137.1 135.6 124.7 292.0
93.6 95.2 86.2 208.5
93.6 93. 2 74.0 152.9
260.0 259.0 217.6 471.1
136.4 136.0 89.9 305. 5
301.6
219.7
158.0
459.9
300.0
289.7
221.4
151. 5
440.8
293.4
233.2
169.8
109.6
325.3
177.8
109.4 108.4 98.6 256. 3 255.7
118.4 117.5 108.3 304.4 301.2
109.0 107.5 101.6 239.3 231.9
79.8 79.1 73.0 200.1 197.9
247.9
293.5
220.6
191.4
190.7
217.0
195.6
149.4
110.2 108.7 99.9 251.8
74.5 73.9 66.8 157.1
99.6 102.9 98.3 197.5
112.7 112.0 102.1 238.3
93.4 92.4 87.3 215.2
253.0
158.2
207.1
250.4
216.1
242.7
154.5
217.4
252.2
207.9
206. 6
115.7
190.8
196. 3
165.9
97.2 96.9 90.5 212.8
103.1 100.3 78.7 210.6
81.7 80.6 70.7 180.5
102.3 101. 2 105.0 240.1
127.2 125.8 121.4 271.8
210.4
214.3
191.0
236.4
278.4
201.6
204.0
185.2
228.6
268.0
167.7
135.1
151.9
205.0
229.2
137.2 121.0 308.2 298.3 288.5
93.4 82.6 209.0 210.7 206.7
80.6 71.7 193.1 198.1 188.3
79.0 70.1 193.7 200.8 205.8
100.7 94.2 246.7 254.1 242.6
76.9 76.3 171.9 159.1 154.2
88.3 79.9 186.0 185.9 182.1
67.8 80.6 140.0 116.7 100.4
50.6 47.2 113.3 124.7 118.8
86.0 70.1 154.6 164.9 190.5
101.2 90.6 197.2 207.5 209.3
120.1 122.5 245.9 242.7 226.9
228.0
148.0
135.9
147.5
181.6
149.4
147.5
146.6
87.9
138.8
165.9
204.2
Furniture and finished lumber products. __ ___ . . .
Mattresses and bedsprings_______ . . .
. ...
Furniture ___ _________ . . . _ __________
Wooden boxes, other than cigar ____________
Caskets and other morticians’ goods__________
Wood preserving.. . _ __ ___ ________ ___
Wood, turned and shaped__ _____________ ..
114.3
124.5
108.6
91.5
91.5
125.8
95.8
Nondurable goods
Textile-mill products and other fiber manufactures.. 109.5
Cotton manufactures, except smallwares___ . 118.7
Cotton smallwares ___ __ ____ ________ 110. 0
Silk and rayon goods._________ _________ _ 79.5
Woolen and worsted manufactures, except dyeing and finishing______ _ ______________ _ 109.2
Hosiery . . . _____ ____ _____ _________ 74.9
Knitted cloth_________ ___ ___ ___ ___ 95.6
Knitted outerwear and knitted gloves________ 108.0
K nitted underwear.. „ . . . . .
_ . . . . . . 93.4
Dyeing and finishing textiles including woolen
and worsted_________ __________________ 97.9
104.4
Carpets and rugs, w o o l................................
Hats, fur-felt. ________ _______ ____________ 82.5
Jute goods, except felts_______ ___________ 105.2
Cordage and twine_______ ____ ________ ___ 124.0
Apparel and other finished textile products________
M en’s clothing, not elsewhere classified_______
Shirts, collars, and nightwear________________
Underwear and neckwear, men’s ___________
Work shirts . . _______ _______ ______ __
Women’s clothing, not elsewhere classified... ._
Corsets and allied garments. . . . . _________
M illinery............... . . . . _______ _ _______
Handkerchiefs_______ _______ _______ ___
Curtains, draperies, and bedspreads__________
Housefurnishings, other than curtains, etc_____
Textile bags_______________________________
140.7
94.0
81.9
77.5
104.2
78.7
90.4
78.4
51. 5
73.0
97.9
120.9
Leather and leather products. _ ___ ___________
Leather
. . . ___
Boot and shoe cut stock and findings..
. ..
Boots and shoes_________ ______ . . . . . .
Leather gloves and mittens______ . . . ____
Trunks and suitcases2____ _____ _____ _
._
105.2 103.6 102.1 97.4
91.5 90.7 87.0 92.0
94.6 95.8 96.5 90.6
91.5 89.3 88.2 83.5
101.0 106.0 108.6 111.7
168.5 176.7 178.1 151.2
219.0
179.3
178.4
197.5
191.9
321.0
216.8
174.5
178.4
194.7
201.9
353.1
200.1
160.8
170.9
177.6
211.9
348.3
185.2
163.2
160.8
164.0
203.2
262.8
Food_________ . . . _________ ____ .. ________
Slaughtering and meat packing______________
B utter. _________ _____.. _______________
Condensed and evaporated milk_____________
Ice cream________________________ _____ _
See fo o tn o tes a t end of table.
126.4
127.7
123.7
134.6
102.3
252.4
267.5
235.0
269.8
181.6
259.2
236.9
246.6
256.2
185.5
248.1
215.7
243.4
253.7
183.2
215.0
217.9
195.1
219.3
146.2
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
139.2
94.0
82.0
79.6
102.2
77.7
90.0
73.3
51.5
75.9
100.5
123.5
131.2
125.0
130.6
132.5
104.4
131.4
115.3
136.1
135.4
107.2
123.0
126.7
117.2
130.2
95.3
739
TRENDS OF EMPLOYMENT AND LABOR TURN-OVER
T able 2.—Indexes of production-worker employment and p a y rolls in manufacturing
industries 1—Continued
[1939 average=100J
Employment indexes
Industry group and industry
Jan. Dec. Nov. Jan.
1947 1946 1946 1946
Pay-roll indexes
Jan. Dec. Nov.
1947 1946 1946
Jan.
1946
Nondurable goods—Continued
Food—Continued
Flour........ . _ ________ ________ _
Feeds, prepared____________ ______________
Cereai preparations________________
Baking__ _________ . . ___________ .
Sugar refining, cane ___ _ ___ . _
Sugar, beet________________________
_ __
Confectionery_______ ______________
Beverages, nonalcoholic_____________________
M alt liquors________ ________________.
Canning and preserving __________
123.2
142.1
137.0
107.9
101.6
88.0
114.3
105.8
145.7
70.3
123.9
137.6
145. 0
109.6
103.5
154.8
117.9
108.5
148.7
86.2
124.8
141.5
147.0
107.9
88.4
211.1
114.9
109.2
147.6
98.1
127.0
154.7
139.6
110.2
89.0
74.7
106.2
107.4
151.9
68.8
268.2
284.3
260.5
201.1
164.0
158.6
226.3
164.8
234.9
158.2
267.8
266.9
271.9
209.0
194.4
341.8
240.5
169.1
251.2
201.1
256.1
273.5
271.6
199.0
142.8
426.2
226.9
163.7
236.9
212.9
228.0
276.4
228.3
180.1
132.1
121.2
191.1
146.3
228.1
144.1
Tobacco manufactures_________ _____
95.8 98.3 97.6 87.0 209.4 222.0
Cigarettes. ______________________________ 124.2 125.9 125.7 118.3 241.5 254.7
Cigars. . _____________
_____________
81.6 84.3 83.0 69.2 194.4 206.7
Tobacco (chewing and smoking) and snuff __ 82.1 85.4 87.0 87.7 155.8 166.8
212.7
247.1
194.3
166.7
166. 7
201.4
145.7
137.4
Paper and allied products______________ ____ .
Paper and pulp __ ____________ ______ ____
Paper goods, other. _____________________
Envelopes.. ___ _ . . . _____ __________
Paper b ag s... _ __ _________ _______ . . .
Paper boxes__________________ ____
144.2
125.2
126.2
125.9
144.7
132.0
144.3
125.0
127.4
126.7
142.4
133.9
143.3
124.1
127.6
125.0
139.1
132.7
128.6
113.9
118.0
113.2
122.9
119.5
281.6
245.6
246.4
234.9
292.2
257.9
281.7
244.9
249.0
235.4
283.5
262.1
273.9
240.3
240.0
229.3
268.6
254.6
221.7
198.4
201.8
185.5
218. 5
204.2
Printing, publishing, and allied industries________
Newspapers and periodicals.. ____ _ . . . . . .
Printing" book and job_____________________
Lithographing.......................... ................
Bookbinding___ ______
_____ . . .
122.1
114.0
131.5
116.4
130.9
122.8
115.2
131.6
117.3
132.3
121.6
113.7
130.6
116.5
130.5
109.4
103.1
117.6
105.2
112.9
210.7
185.2
235.2
201.8
278.0
214.9
189.7
239.4
203.4
283.6
205.5
182.0
227.9
196.1
269.1
165.7
143.5
188.8
163.4
211.1
Chemicals and allied products.. ________________
Paints, varnishes, and colors ____ ____ . . .
Drugs, medicines, and insecticides________ ..
Perfumes and c o s m e t i c s . ____ _____ .
Soap _____
_________ _________________
Rayon and allied products ________________
Chemicals, not elsewhere classified
________
Explosives and safety fuses__________ _____
Compressed and liquified gases______________
Ammunition, small-arms_____ ________ _
Fireworks. ________ . _. _.
Cottonseed oil_____________________________
Fertilizers______ _____ _ _________ _____
176.3
129. 0
198.7
105.7
107.4
122.0
178.6
184.9
146.2
155.9
258.9
144.5
136.6
174.9
129.2
196.4
111.8
105.5
121.3
176.7
177.4
144.0
155.8
298.7
124.8
122.8
173.7
127.7
195.4
120.0
101.3
121.9
173.3
174.6
146.0
159.8
305.9
134.7
117.7
169.7
117.4
181.5
115.4
100.3
123.0
164. 7
238.7
141. 0
225.8
183.4
116.8
132.5
326.9
216.4
354.9
185.9
199.2
219.7
321.0
320.3
240.6
332.3
661.1
296.7
327.6
322.1
214.7
351.3
202.4
195.7
216.3
313.4
299.2
243.2
326.7
788. 6
328.7
304.9
311.8
208.2
341.9
215.5
170.8
215.2
301.3
282.7
242.5
332.3
824.6
341.3
276.6
285. 2
180.1
281.4
174.9
169.1
197.0
273.4
360.9
233.5
428.2
474.3
252.8
282.7
Products of petroleum and coal__________________
Petroleum refining _______________________
Coke and byproducts___ ______ __________
Paving m aterials.. .. . _ ______ ______ . . .
_
___
Roofing materials ________ ___
141.3
135.0
117.7
67.1
154.4
142.1
136.4
115.1
67.6
155.8
142.6
136.0
118.3
72.5
157.2
134.0
131.9
109.7
58.3
128.8
249.0
230.5
220.1
114.6
313.5
246.6
233.2
195.9
129..6
309.8
245.7
226.9
216.2
135.0
313.8
220.9
210.6
191.7
111.2
237.1
Rubber products._____________________________
Rubber tires and inner tubes________________
Rubber boots and shoes____________________
Rubber goods, other.._ _______ ____________
203.5
204.3
133.9
148.0
204.7
207.2
132.7
148.7
202.9
207.0
129.6
147.1
172. 7
182.4
109.7
126.9
396.3
363.7
276.0
303.4
402.3
371.5
272.6
308.6
385.1
360.3
253.7
292.4
290.1
272.6
203.6
231.8
Miscellaneous industries_______________________
Instrum ents (professional and scientific), and fire
control equipment__ __________ ________
Photographic "apparatus______ __ . ________
Optical instruments and opthalmic goods______
Pianos, organs, and parts___________________
Games, toys, and dolls2______________ ._ . . .
Buttons_________________ _______________
Fire extinguishers___________ _____________
178.2 182.1 180.8 150.4 354.6 361.2 351.8 271.0
182.0
146.5
187.9
137.1
115.4
91.7
208.8
184.3
146.8
188.5
124.7
129.9
95.5
219.6
175.9
146.8
185. 7
129.9
134.9
93.0
213.3
200.2
127.1
173.7
88.9
94.1
87.7
231.3
329.5
254.1
344.8
294.8
238.4
203.0
437.5
334.6
253.1
346.3
242.2
285.6
215.7
438.8
310.7
253.4
337.1
270.2
298.6
211.3
431.9
330.4
198.7
295.9
148.5
175.5
177.5
458.0
1 These indexes are based on reports from 32,100 cooperating establishments covering 7,165,000 full- and
part-time production workers who worked or received pay during any part of any pay period ending nearest
the 15th of January 1947. Indexes for the major industry groups have been adjusted to levels indicated by
final 1944 data made available by the Bureau of Employment Security of the Federal Security Agency.
2 Revisions have been made as follows in the indexes for earlier months: Steam and hot-water heating appara
tus and steam fittings.—January 1946 pay roll to 238.6. Trunks and suitcases.—October 1946 employment to
179.9; pay roll to 353.2. Games, toys, and dolls.—October 1946 pay roll to 280.1.
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740
MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
T able 3.—Estimated number of employees in selected nonmanufacturing industries 1
Estimated number of employees (in thousands)
Industry group and industry
J a n .1947
Dec. 1946
Nov. 1946
69.1
336
76.9
26.6
23.8
16.5
7.8
2.2
589
39.4
250
253
378
(9
0)
1,334
69.1
326
76.0
26.5
23.3
16.1
7.7
2.4
586
40.4
252
252
384
(4)
(4)
1,353
68.7
334
75.2
27.5
22.5
15.5
7.3
2.4
583
40.9
250
253
388
(4)
(4)
1,382
Mining: 3
Anthracite_________ ________________________
Bituminous coal_____________________________
M etal______ ___________________________
Iron______________________
________ .
Copper_______ _________________________
Lead and zinc____________________________
Gold and silver___________________________
Miscellaneous_________________________ __
Telephone_________ _____ ______________ ____ ____
Telegraph3------------------- --------- ------ ------------------Electric light and power_____________ ___ _ ______
Street railways and busses______ _________ ______
Hotels (year-round)_________________________ ____
Power laundries__ _________ ______ _________
Cleaning and dyeing. ___________________ . _____
Class I steam railroads «... __________________ _ . . .
Jan. 1946
65.7
338
67.3
22.9
20.5
14.9
6.7
2.3
465
42.3
227
240
378
(4)
(4)
1,393
1 See footnote 1, table 4.
2 Data are for production workers only.
3 Excludes messengers, and approximately 6,000 employees of general and divisional headquarters and of
cable companies.
4 The change in definition from “wage earner” to “production worker” in the power laundries and cleaning
and dyeing industries results in the omission of driver-salesmen. This causes a significant difference in
the data. New series are being prepared.
«Source: Interstate Commerce Commission.
T able 4.— Indexes of employment and p a y rolls in selected nonmanufacturing industries1
[1939 average=1001
Employment indexes
Industry group and industry
Mining:
Anthracite__________ _____ _______
Bituminous coal____________________
M etal______________
______ ____
Iron_____________ ____ __________
Copper_________________________
Lead and zinc___________________
Gold and silver_________ _______
Miscellaneous___________________
Quarrying and nonmetallic___________
Crude petroleum production 2___ ___
Public utilities:
Telephone_________________________
Telegraph_____ ___________________
Electric light and power,. ___________
Street railways and busses_____ . , _
Wholesale trade________________________
Retail trade___ ______ _______ ___ ____
Food_______________________ ______
General merchandise________ ________
Apparel___________________________
Furniture and housefurnishings_______
Automotive________________________
Lumber and building materials_______
Hotels (year-round)3______ , ___________
Power laundries________________________
Cleaning and dyeing____________________
Class I s’team railroads 4_________________
Pay-roll indexes
Jan.
1947
Dec.
1946
Nov.
1946
Jan.
1946
Jan.
1947
Dec.
1946
Nov.
1946
Jan.
1946
83.4
90.8
87.2
132.5
99.9
106.1
31.5
54.3
96.9
92.1
83.5
88.1
86.2
132.4
97.8
103.4
31.0
59.6
99.7
92.6
82.9
90.0
85.2
136.1
94.6
99.4
29.6
60.9
101. 2
93.0
79.3
91.2
76.3
113.9
85.9
95.6
27.2
56.9
83.3
90.0
188.9
251.2
159.7
236.6
192.8
231.4
48.4
84.7
204.8
152.6
212.3
258.3
159.3
239.7
192.2
220.1
50.0
93.3
221.9
147.9
182.3
233.1
146.9
238.6
170.0
192.1
44.5
99.9
222.4
151.0
149.3
209.9
118.0
170.8
137.1
180.4
35.8
83.7
150.9
139.0
185.4
104.6
102.5
130.6
112.2
110.3
108.5
125.9
110.3
84.3
96.4
113.4
117.3
111.0
118.2
135.1
184.6
107.4
103.0
130.1
114.4
126.5
111.8
171.1
135.7
90.4
100.2
116.1
119.1
110.9
120.9
136.9
183.4
108.7
102.5
130.6
112.7
117.4
108.6
145.2
124.1
85.5
98.4
115.1
120.2
109.9
123.0
139.9
146.3
112.4
92.9
123.7
104.7
104.1
106.6
116.8
105.5
70.9
85.8
101. 9
117.3
109. 3
120.3
141,1
286.9
189.1
159.5
216.6
189.7
187.7
189.4
213.4
188.3
144.1
166.7
193.4
215.1
201.8
213. 8
(f)
264.5
190. 5
161.6
213.6
197.2
211.1
194.6
272.4
230.6
165.7
178.8
200.5
218.8
201.0
219.5
(5)
273.0
194.2
157.6
210.9
189.7
191.7
185.7
225.0
207.6
148.6
169.3
191.9
218.5
191. 5
217. 0
(5)
205.2
155.3
133.7
181.4
161.2
154.9
159.7
165.8
163.2
107.1
139.0
158.6
196.4
178.7
201.7
(5)
1 These figures are based on reports from cooperating establishments covering both full- and part-time
employees who worked or received pay during any part of one pay period ending nearest the 15th of January
1947, as follows:
Mining.—2,600 establishments, 369,000 production workers.
Public utilities.—6,600 establishments, 751,000 employees.
Wholesale trade.—10,500 establishments, 303,000 employees.
Retail trade.—34,900 establishments, 907,000 employees.
Hotels {year-round).—1,200 establishments, 131,000 employees.
Power laundries and cleaning and dyeing.—1,500 establishments, 72,000 production workers.
2 Does not include well drilling or rig building.
3 Cash payments only; additional value of board, room, and tips not included.
4 Source: Interstate Commerce Commission.
* Not available.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
TRENDS OF EMPLOYMENT AND LABOR TURN-OVER
741
Labor Turn-Over in Manufacturing, Mining, and
Public Utilities, January 1947
H i r i n g i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g during January 1947 recovered from the
December seasonal slump. The increase in the rate of hires was
greater than the usual seasonal increase and reflected, in part, re
sumption of full-scale operations after the coal strike.
Increased hires, indicating further gains in industrial employment,
were reported for every major manufacturing group except food.
The greatest increase occurred in the automobile industry. This
was made possible, in large measure, by the increased availability of
foundry products and steel. For every 1,000 employees on the auto
mobile industry’s pay roll in January, 72 persons were hired.
Job shifting continued to reflect the relatively heavy demand for
labor, as 35 out of every 1,000 employees quit their jobs in January.
Although this rate is below the level of most of the war years, it is
substantially above prewar years.
Lay-offs in manufacturing industries, in general, were only slightly
below the December level. In several of the industries in the iron
and steel group, however, lay-off rates declined significantly after the
termination of the coal strike and the removal of the freight embargo.
On the other hand, lay-off rates increased in the aircraft industry,
where curtailments resulted in the elimination of third-shift operations
and the reduction of other schedules.
Although accession rates were higher for women than for men in
all nondurable- and in all but three durable-goods industries, women’s
quit rates were also relatively higher in these groups. The electricalmachinery industry, which is the largest employer of women in the
durable-goods group, continued to have one of the highest hiring
rates—-69 women were hired for every 1,000 women on the industry
pay rolls in January 1947.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
742
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
T able 1.—Monthly labor turn-over rates (per 100 employees) in manufacturing industries
Class of turn-over
and year
Jan.
Total separation:
1947. .
2 4.9
1946____________ 6.8
1945____________ 6.2
1943____________ 7.1
1939____________ 3.2
Quit:
1947—
2 3.5
1946____________ 4.3
1945____________ 4.6
1943____________ 4.5
1939____________
.9
Discharge:
1947____________ 2.4
1946_____ ____ —
.5
1945____________
.7
.5
1943____________
.1
1939____________
Lay-off:3
2.9
1947___________
1946____________ 1.8
1945____________
.6
1943____________
.7
1939____________ 2.2
Miscellaneous including m ilitary:4
1947___________ 2 .1
.2
1946____________
1945____________
.3
1943____________ 1.4
Accession:
2 6.0
1947...
1946____________ 8.5
1945____________ 7.0
1943____________ 8.3
1939_____ _____ _ 4.1
Feb. Mar. Apr. May June
July Aug. Sept.
Oct. Nov. Dec.
6.3
6.0
7.1
2.6
6.6
6.8
7.7
3.1
6.3
6.6
7.5
3.5
6.3
7.0
6.7
3.5
5.7
7.9
7.1
3.3
5.8
7.7
7.6
3.3
6.6
17.9
8.3
3.0
6.9
12.0
8.1
2.8
6.3
8.6
7.0
2.9
4.9
7.1
6.4
3.0
4.5
5.9
6.6
3.5
3.9
4.3
4.7
.6
4.2
5.0
5.4
.8
4.3
4.8
5.4
.8
4.2
4.8
4.8
.7
4.0
5.1
5.2
.7
4.6
5.2
5.6
.7
5.3
6.2
6.3
.8
5.3
6.7
6.3
1.1
4.7
5.6
5.2
.9
3.7
4.7
4.5
.8
3.0
4.0
4.4
.7
.5
.7
.5
.1
.4
.7
.6
.1
.4
.6
.5
.1
.4
.6
.6
.1
.3
.7
.6
.1
.4
.6
.7
.1
.4
.7
.7
.1
.4
.6
.6
.1
.4
.5
.6
.2
.4
.5
.6
.2
.4
.4
.6
.1
1.7
.7
.5
1.9
1.8
.7
.5
2.2
1.4
.8
.6
2.6
1.5
1.2
.5
2.7
1.2
1.7
.5
2.5
.6
1.5
.5
2.5
.7
10.7
.5
2.1
1.0
4.5
.5
1.6
1.0
2.3
.5
1.8
.7
1.7
.7
2.0
1.0
1.3
1.0
2.7
.2
.3
1.4
.2
.4
1.2
.2
.4
1.0
.2
.4
.8
.2
.4
.8
.2
.4
.8
.2
.3
.8
.2
.2
.7
.2
.2
.7
.1
.2
.6
.1
J2
.6
6.8
5.0
7.9
3.1
7.1
4.9
8.3
3.3
6.7
4.7
7.4
2.9
6.1
5.0
7.2
3.3
6.7
5.9
8.4
3.9
7.4
5.8
7.8
4.2
7.0
5.9
7.6
5.1
7.1
7.4
7.7
6.2
6.8
8.6
7.2
5.9
5.7
8.7
6.6
4.1
4.3
6.9
5.2
2.8
1 Month-to-month employment changes as indicated by labor turn-over rates are not precisely comparable
to those shown by the Bureau's employment and pay-roll reports, as the former are based on data for the
entire month while the latter refer, for the most part, to a one-week period ending nearest the middle of the
month. In addition, labor turn-over data, beginning in January 1943, refer to all employees, whereas the
employment and pay-roll reports relate only to production workers. The turn-over sample is not so exten
sive as that of the employment and pay-roll survey—proportionately fewer small plants are included;
l rinting and publishing, and certain seasonal industries, such as canning and preserving, are not covered.
Plants on strike are also excluded. For the month of December rates are based on reports from 6,900 estab
lishments, employing 4,532,000 workers.
2 Preliminary.
3 Including temporary (of more than 7 days’ duration), indeterminate, and permanent lay-offs.
* In 1939 miscellaneous separations were included with quits.
T able 2.—Monthly labor turn-over rates (per 100 employees) in selected groups and
industries,1 January 1947-
Group and industry
Total
separation
Quit
Discharge
Lay-ofl
Miscel
laneous
Total
including accession
military
Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec.
Manufacturing
Durable goods_______________ . . . 5.1
Nondurable goods................................. 4.9
4.6
4.2
3.4
3.6
2.9
3.1
0.4
.4
0.4
.3
1.1
.8
1.2
.7
0.2
.1
0.1
.1
6.4
5.5
4 . 4’
Iron and steel and their products . . .
Blast furnaces, steel works, and
rolling mills_________________
Gray-iron castings______ _ ___
Malleable-iron castings_________
Steel castings_________________
Cast-iron pipe and f ittin g s - ..___
Tin cans and other tinware_____
Wire products_______________
4.3
4.1
3.3
2.7
.4
.3
.4
.9
.2
.2
5.8
3.5
3.1
7.3
6.4
4.7
4.4
5.8
3.5
2.9
5.8
7.9
4.3
5.0
8.4
3.1
2.6
5.8
5.3
2.8
3.4
3.9
2.7
2.2
4.6
4.4
2.3
3.1
3.4
2.2
.1
.8
.6
.6
.5
1.1
.3
.1
.6
.5
.5
.2
.2
.5
.2
1.1
.4
.6
.3
.4
.4
2.8
1.3
1.6
3.9
.3
.2
.2
.3
.2
.1
.2
.2
.2
.2
.2
.2
.1
.1
.2
3.8
9.8
8.9
5.0
7.5
8.3
4.7
2.3
6.4
7.9
2.7
5.3
3.6
2.6
See footnotes at end of table.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
1.0
.4
4.1
743
TRENDS OF EMPLOYMENT AND LABOR TURN-OVER
T able 2.—Monthly labor turn-over rates (per 100 employees) in selected groups and
industries,1 January 19472— Continued
Group and industry
Total
separa
tion
Quit
Discharge
Lay-off
Miscel
laneous
Total
including accession
military
Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec.
Manufacturing—Continued
Iron and steel and their products—Con.
Cutlery and edge tools________
Tools (except edge tools, machine
tools, flies, and saws)...... ...........
H ard w are___ __ . . . . _____
Stoves, oil burners, and heating
equipment__________________
Steam and hot-water-heating ap
paratus and steam fittings____
Stamped and enameled ware and
galvanizing_________________
Fabricated s t r u c t u r a l - m e t a l
products____ _ . . . . . . . . . ..
Bolts, nuts, washers, and rivets..
Forgings, iron and steel. ................
6.1
4.9
4.4
3.6
1.3
1.1
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
8.7
5.5
3.8
5.7
3.2
4.5
3.1
4.8
2.2
3.6
.4
.4
.4
.4
.2
.2
.4
.3
.1
.3
.2
.2
4.7
8.0
3.1
5.0
6.5 10.5
4.5
4.1
1.0
.9
.5
5.2
.5
.3 11.0
9.2
6.9
4.5
4.8
3.4
.8
.3
1.2
.7
.1
.1
8.7
4.9
5.4
5.9
4.2
3.7
.6
.5
.4
1.5
.2
.2
8.0
4.5
4.9
3.1
3.5
6.7
2.6
4.8
3.5
2.4
2.3
3.4
2.0
2.0
.5
.4
.5
.4
.2
.3
.8
.2
.5
2.7
.3
2.4
.1
.1
.2
.2
.1
.1
7.6
4.9
5.5
5.8
3.1
3.2
Electrical machinery____ _________
Electrical equipment for indus
trial use_____ ________ ____
Radios, radio equipment, and
phonographs________________
Communication equipment, ex
cept radios__________________
4.8
3.8
3.5
2.6
.4
.3
.7
.8
.2
.1
5.5
3.6
3.3
2.6
2.1
1.7
.2
.2
.8
.6
.2
.1
3.9
2.1
5.7
5.3
4.2
3.3
.7
.6
.7
1.4
.1
(3)
6.8
5.1
2.9
2.6
2.5
2.3
.2
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
4.0
3.4
Machinery, except electrical_______
Engines and turbines. _
A g ric u ltu ra l m a c h in e ry an d
tractors.. _ _ _ _ _ ___ . ___
Machine tools .. . . . ___ _____
Machine-tool accessories.. _____
Metalworking imachinery and
equipment, not elsewhere clas
sified . . . _____
. ____ _
General industrial machinery,
except pumps_______________
Pumps and pumping equipm ent..
4.1
4.5
3.8
4.6
2.6
2.3
2.1
2.2
.4
.6
.4
.4
1.0
1.5
1.2
1.9
.1
.1
.1
.1
5.1
6.3
3.5
5. 5
4.2
4.1
5.3
2.9
3.4
3.9
3.0
1.9
2.4
2.3
1.4
1.8
.4
.3
.7
.3
.3
.3
.7
1.7
2.1
.2
1.5
1.7
.1
.2
.1
.1
.2
.1
6.1
2.5
4.0
3.2
1.8
2.7
4.1
2.9
3.2
2.3
.3
.4
.5
.1
.1
.1
4.5
2.9
4.0
4.1
3.2
3.7
2.7
2.7
2.1
2.3
.4
.8
.4
.7
.8
.5
.6
.6
.1
.1
.1
.1
4.6
5. 5
3.1
3. 5
3.8 3. 1 0.5
.3
3. 7 2.5
.4
2.4 2.2
.8
4. 9 4.6
0.4
.3
.5
.7
5. 2 4.4
4.1 2.5
3.0 2.6
7. 7 7.9
0.1
.1
.1
.1
0.1 8.9
. 1 6.6
(3) 5.2
.1 13.6
7.6
5.3
4.3
12.9
Transportation equipment, except
9.6 8.0
automobiles_______ _______ __
Aircraft.. ___________ _______ 8.2 5.4
Aircraft parts, including engines. _ 5.9 5.3
Shipbuilding and repairs... . . . . 13.5 13.3
Automobiles..
........... . .
Motor vehicles, bodies, and trail
ers________________ _______
Motor-vehicle parts and acces
sories__________ ___________
Nonferrous metals and their products.
Primary smelting and refining,
except aluminum and magnesi
u m ___________ ________ . . .
Rolling and drawing of copper
and copper alloys __ ____ _ .
Lighting equipm ent___________
Nonferrous-metal foundries, ex
cept aluminum and magnesium.
Lumber and timber basic products. .
Sawmills_____________ ______
Planing and plywood mills. ___
Furniture and finished lumber prodducts.
...
. . . . . _____ ..
Furniture, including mattresses
and bedsprings______ _____ _
Stone, clay, and glass products______
Glass and glass products________
C em en t________________ —
Brick, tile, and terra cotta____ _
Pottery and related products___
See footnotes a t end of table.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
3.9
3.8
2.7
2. 4
.4
.4
.7
.9
.1
.1
7.2
3.8
3.9
3.8
2.7
2.4
.3
.4
.8
.9
.1
.1
7.5
3.3
4.0
4.5
4.1
4.0
2.8
3.2
2.5
2.7
.5
.5
.4
.5
.5
.6
1.0
.7
.2
.2
.2
.1
6.8
5.8
4.8
4.2
3.1
3.5
2.2
2.3
.5
.5
.2
.5
.2
.2
4.7
3.1
3.1
4.4
2.4
3.8
2.6
3.4
2.1
2.5
.3
.5
.2
.6
.1
.3
.1
.5
.1
.2
(3) 4.2
. 2 10. 7
2.8
4. 9
5.2
6.5
6.5
4.3
4.1
7.5
7.8
3.9
3.4 2.9
4. 7 5.2
4. 7 5.1
3.5 2.8
.7
.4
.4
.4
.5
.4
.3
.4
.9
1.3
1.3
.3
.5
1. 7
2.3
.5
.2
.1
.1
.1
.2
.2
.1
.2
5.7
7.2
6.8
6.1
4.2
6.2
5.8
4. 4
7.2
5.2
5.6
4.1
.8
.6
.7
.4
.1
.1
9. 7
6.5
5.0
3.9
3.5
4.2
5.4
3.6
5.1 4.0
3. 2 2.7
2.6 2.0
3.6 3.5
4.3 4.0
2.8 3.0
.9
.4
.5
.4
.6
.4
.6
.5
.5
.3
.7
.4
.7
.5
.8
.3
.4
.2
.3
.5
.8
.2
.5
.1
.1
.1
.2
.1
.1
.1
.1
.2
.2
.2
.2
.1
9.3
4.8
4. 8
1 4.8
1 6. 5
1 4.0
5.8
3.9
3. 4
3. 9
5.3
4.
6.8
4.2
4.1
4.4
5.4
3.5
744
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
T able 2.-—Monthly labor turn-over rates (per 100 employees) in selected groups and
in d u strie sJ a n u a ry 19472— Continued
Total
separation
Discharge
Quit
Lay-off
Group and industry
Miscel
Total
laneous
including accession
military
Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec.
Manufact wring—Continued
5.3
6. 5
4.4
4.0
4.8
3. 7
3.3
4.1
3.1
0.4
.4
.4
0.3
.3
.3
0.6
.6
.4
0.3
.3
.2
0.1
.1
.1
0.1 6.1
. 1 7.2
. 1 5.1
4. 1
4.8
3. ö
4. 5
3.1
4.3
4.7
3.0 3. 2 2.2
2.6 2.6 2.1
3.2 3.8 2.9
3. 7 4.1 3. 1
.3
.1
.2
.4
.3
.2
.1
.4
.8
.4
.3
.2
.4
.3
.1
.1
.2
(3)
(3)
(3)
. 1 4.4
(3) 3.8
. 1 5. 8
. 1 6. 5
3.2
2.4
3.4
3. 9
3.0
2.4
2.0
1.5
.6
.4
.3
.3
.1
.2
4.1
2.9
Apparel and other finished textile
products........... . . . . --------------- 5.3
M en’s and boys’ suits, coats, and
overcoats_______ _ . . . ----- 3.9
M en’s and boys’ furnishings,
work clothing, and allied gar
ments______________________ 5.0
4.3
4.3
3.6
.3
.2
.7
.5
(3)
(3)
6.4
4. 1
3.0
3.5
2.5
.2
.2
.2
.3
(3)
(3)
4.9
3.5
3.8
4.4
3.6
.2
.1
.4
.1
(3)
(3)
6. 7
3.9
.5
.3
.6
.1
.5
. 7 ' .2
.4 .1
(3)
.1
(3)
5.6
4.2
5.8
4.5
4. 2
4. 5
6. 1
10. 4
4. 1
Textile-mill products ---- -------------Cotton_______ _______ _____
Silk and rayon goods---- ---------Woolen and worsted, except dye
ing and finishing------------------Hosiery, full-fashioned--------------Hosiery, seamless______________
Knitted underwear------------------Dyeing and finishing textiles, in
cluding woolen and worsted-----
4.2
5.4
3.5
Leather and leather products----------- 4.5
L eath er---------------------------- - 3.1
Boots and shoes----------------------- 4.8
3.8
3.2
3.8
3.6
2.3
3.8
3.1
2.2
3.2
.3
.3
.3
.2
.2
.2
Food and kindred products_________ 5.8
Meat products________________ 7.6
Grain-mill products__________ - 4.2
5.8
8.1
5.3
3.9
4.5
2.9
3.9
4.6
3.8
.4
.8
.5
.5
.9
.4
4.8
4.0
3.6
3.1
.2
.3
3.4 3.1
2.5 2.6
5. 7 4.6
.4
.4
.5
.4
.4
.6
.3
0)
(9
1.4
1.6
1.2
(9
.3
.3
.2
1.9
1.5
Tobacco manufactures......... ............. .
Paper and allied products__________ 4.3
Paper and pulp_______________ 3.4
Paper boxes . ______________ 6.7
4.0
3.6
5.4
Chemicals and allied products__ _ ... 2. 7 2.4
Paints, varnishes, and colors------- (9 2.4
Rayon and allied products______ (4) 2.6
Industrial chemicals, except ex
plosives---------- -------------------- 2.6 2.3
1.8
(9
1.4 1.3
2.1 2.3
. 7 .6
.1
.2
.1
.1 6.1
.3 10. 5
. 5 6.8
.8
.5
.2
,i
5.7
2.8
.3
.3
.3
.3
.4
.i
.2
.2
.2
.2
.2
.1
4.6
4.1
6.0
3.9
3.4
5. 5
.5
.6
.5
1.1
.1
(9
(9
.i
(3)
,i
3.9
(9
(9
(9
(9
2.4
2. 1
2.1
.4
.3
.2
.4
.1
,i
4.5
2.3
Products of petroleum and coal_____ 1.4
Petroleum refining_____________ 1.5
1.3
1.3
.8
.8
.7
.7
.1
.1
.1
.1
.3
.4
.3
.3
.2
.2
.2
.2
1.3
1. 2
1.0
.9
Rubber products. _ __ ___________
Rubber tires and inner tubes____
Rubber footwear and related
products. . ______________ .
Miscellaneous rubber industries. _
3.9
2.7
3.3
2.5
2.9
2.1
2.6
2.0
.3
.2
.3
.2
.6
.3
.3
.2
.1
.1
. 1 4.6
. 1 2.4
3.1
2.0
6.6
5.1
4.1
4.6
4.9
3.6
3. 7
3.2
.3
.f
.3
.5
1.3
.8
(9
.7
.1
.1
.1
.2
8.0
7. 5
5. 1
4. 4
Miscellaneous industries___________
4.8
3.9
2.9
2.2
.5
.4
1.2
1.2
.2
. 1 5.3
3.0
5.2
3.0
6.8
4.9
5.1
3.8
5.3
4.5
3.9
1.6
5.3
3.9
3.4
1.5
4.4
3.6
.4
.2
.6
.3
.4
.1
.6
.3
.7
.8
.8
.5
1.1
1.8
.2
.4
.2
.4
.i
.2
.2
.4
.i
.2
7.2
4. 0
9. 4
ö. 5
5.6
2.1
8. 1
6. 8
2.1
3.3
1.6
(4)
1.4
2.9
1.2
.1
.1
(3)
(9
.1
.1
.i
(9
.5
.2
.3
(9
(9
2.5
4.3
(9
(9
(9
(4)
0)
0)
(9
0)
0)
0)
(9
(9
(9
(9
(9
(9
(9
(9
Nonmanufacturing
Metal mining A . . _______________
Iron-ore____ ________________
Copper-ore___________________
Lead- and zinc-ore_____________
Coal m ining:5
Anthracite mining____ .. ____
Bituminous-coal mining________
Public utilities:
Telephone__________ ________
Telegraph ----- ------ ---------------
(9
(9
(9
0)
(9
1.7
(9
(9
1 Since January 1943 manufacturing firms reporting labor turn-over have been assigned industry codes on
the basis of current products. Most plants in the employment and pay-roll sample comprising those which
were in operation in 1939, are classified according to their major activity at that time, regardless of any
subsequent change in major products.
,
2 Preliminary.
3 Less than 0.05.
4Not available.
5
For the month of December rates for mining industries are based on reports from 188 establishments
employing 97,600 persons.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
745
TRENDS OF EMPLOYMENT AND LABOR TURN-OVER
T able 3 .— M o n th ly la b o r tu rn -o v e r ra te s f o r m e n a n d w o m e n in a ll m a n u fa c tu r in g a n d
se lected g r o u p s ,1 J a n u a r y 1 9 4 7 2
Women’s rates (per 100 women)
Men’s rates (per 100 men)
Industry group
Total
separa
tion
Quit
Accession
Total
separa
tion
Quit
Accession
Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec. Jan. Dec.
All manufacturing________________ 4.6
Durable goods
...
_______ 5.0
Nondurable goods_____________ 4.0
4.2
4.6
3.6
3.0
3.3
2.7
2.7
2.8
2.4
5.6
6.3
4.7
4.3
4.5
3.9
6.0
5.7
6.1
4.8
4.7
4.8
4.8
4.3
4.9
3.7
3.3
3.9
6.7
6.3
6.8
4.2
3.8
4.3
Iron and steel and their products____
Electrical machinery______________
Machinery, except electrical________
Transportation equipment except automobiles_________ _ ______ --Automobiles______________ _____
Nonferrous metals and their productsLumber and timber basic products—
Furniture and finished lumber products____________ _____________
Stone, clay, and glass products______
4.4
3.6
4.0
4.2
3.0
3.7
3.3
2.5
2.4
2.7
2.0
1.8
6.0
4.6
4.9
3.7
3.3
3.5
5.2
6.7
4.8
4.7
5.2
3.8
4.2
5.2
3.4
3.2
3.7
3.3
6.5
6.9
5.3
3.6
4.2
3.5
9.6
3.9
4.2
6.5
8.0
3.7
4.0
7.4
3.6
2.5
3.0
4.8
3.2
2.3
2.6
5.2
9.1
6.0
5.6
7.5
7.9
3.5
4.4
6.4
6.0
4.8
5.3
6.1
5.1
4.4
4.0
5.5
3.4
3.0
4.0
3.3
2.5
2.3
2.9
4.4
4.3
7.8
6.6
3.4
3.6
4.0
3.5
3.4
7.2
4.1
5.1
3.7
5.6
3.0
4.1 10.0
2.7 4.7
6.8
3.9
7.1
4.9
5.6
4.4
5.5
3.9
4.4
3.0
8.1
5.3
4.9
3.7
Textile-mill products______________
Apparel and other finished textile
products.. ____________________
Leather and leather products_______
Food and kindred p ro d u cts________
Tobacco m anufactures____________
Paper and allied products__ _______
Chemicals and allied products______
Products of petroleum and coal_____
Rubber products ______ _________
Miscellaneous industries.-...................
4.9
3.7
3.9
2.9
6.0
4.3
5.7
4.2
4.7' 3.7
6.4
3.8
4.0
3.9
4.9
3. 7
3.6
2.4
1.3
3.3
4.1
3.1
3.1
5. 1
3.2
3.7
2.2
1.3
2.9
3.3
2.5
2.9
3.0
2.2
2.8
1.6
.7
2.4
2.2
2.5
2.5
3.2
2. 1
2.7
1.2
.7
2.2
1.8
5.0
4.6
5. 24.0
4.4
3.7
1.2
3.9
4.4
3.6 5.3
4.2 5.7
5.6 10.2
2.6 5.2
3.9 6.3
2.2 4.1
.9 3.1
2.9 5.5
3.0 5.7
4.3
4.7
7.5
4.4
5.2
3.3
3.0
4.6
4.9
4.6
4.9
7.8
4.3
5.3
2.8
2.7
4.2
3.9
6.6
6.8
9.6
6.6
5.3
4.7
2.1
6.8
6.8
4.0
5.0
7.3
3.0
4.0
2.9
2.6
3.7
3.1
3.7
4.1
5.6
3.6
4.5
2.4
2.1
3.6
3.0
1 These figures are based on a slightly smaller sample than that for all employees, inasmuch as some
firms do not report separate data for women. Rates for December are based on 6,800 reports covering
4,317,000 employees.
2 Preliminary figures.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Trends o f Earnings and Hours
Summary of Earnings and Honrs Data for January 1947
A v e r a g e w e e k l y e a r n i n g s of production workers in manufacturing
industries in February 1947 remained at the $47 level for the third
successive month, according to preliminary estimates. The con
tinued upward trend of hourly earnings more than offset the decline
in the workweek.
Preliminary averages for February 1947 are as follows :
All manufacturing____
Durable goods___
Nondurable goods.
Weekly
earnings
Weekly
hours
Hourly
earnings
(in cents)
_____$47. 28
_____ 49. 72
____
44. 69
40. 4
40. 4
40. 4
117. 0
122. 9
110. 6
Final figures indicate that average weekly earnings in manufactur
ing industries advanced between December 1946 and January 1947,
despite holiday closings and plant shut-downs for year-end inventory
taking. Among the nonmanufacturing industries bituminous-coal
mining maintained the lead, with average weekly earnings of $70,
and earnings in anthracite mining and security brokerage remained
over $62 a week.
Increased coal and raw materials permitted fuller production sched
ules in heavy manufacturing industries. Of these, blast furnaces
and cast iron pipe in the iron and steel group, reported increases in
weekly earnings of $2.37 and $3.12. Other sizable increases since
December occurred in two consumers’ durable goods industries
refrigerators, $4.03, and washing machines, $1.86.
Among the nondurable goods industries, the largest increase
occurred in slaughtering and meat packing. Wage rate increases
and considerable overtime were responsible for the record weekly
earnings, averaging $57.38, a gain of $5.65 a week more than in
December.
Over the year, average earnings of production workers in manu
facturing industries increased over 15 cents an hour and almost $6
or 14 percent a week. During the same period consumer prices
rose 18 percent. All major industrial groups reported increases in
both average hourly and weekly earnings. The greatest percentage
increases in weekly earnings-—amounting to over 20 percent746
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
747
TRENDS OF EARNINGS AND HOURS
occurred in the lumber and textile groups, but in January 1947, they
still averaged under $40 a week.
Earnings and hours in manufacturing and nonmanufacturing industries, January 1947
MANUFACTURING
Average weekly
earnings 1
Average weekly
hours 1
Average hourly
earnings
Industry group and industry
Jan. Dec.
1947 1946
Nov. Jan. Dec. Nov. Jan. Dec. Nov.
1946 1947 '1946 1946 1947 1946 1946
$46.94 $46.86 $45. 79
49.47 49.46 48.62
44.33 44.15 42.87
40.5
40.5
40.6
40.9
40.8
41.0
Cents Cents Cents
40.2 115.8 114.5 113.9
40.2 122.2 121.3 121.0
40.3 109.2 107.6 106.5
50.63 49.67 49.91
40.1
39.8
40.0 126.2 124.8 124.7
50. 82
52. 78
51.74
51.87
45.92
42.68
48.94
46.41
38.2
42.7
41.0
39.0
43.6
40.0
41.3
42.7
37.0
42.6
40.6
39.8
41.8
40.8
41.0
43.3
38.8
41.8
40.4
39.9
43.0
39.1
40.6
42.7
50. 39 50. 02 49.03
46.41 46.42 45.65
51.27 49.68 48.06
43.3
41.6
42.3
43.3
41.7
41.4
42.4 116.4 115.6 115.8
41.3 111.9 111.3 110.6
40.7 121.9 120.2 118.3
50.25 49.61 48.64
40.9
41.3
40.6 123.0 120.1 119.9
49.73 48.78 50.83
40.4
39.9
40.6 123.0 122.2 125.3
47.61 48.30 46.10
40.5
41.1
39.7 117.6 117.6 116.1
49.82 51.10 48.06
40.5
41.7
39.6 122.9 122.5 121.3
52.68
48. 78
59.01
52.22
49.44
52. 67
53.54
48. 76
58.04
51.80
50.68
53.37
51.45
48. 87
56. 22
51. 50
50.16
52.89
42.0
40.2
41.3
42.7
39.9
40.0
42.8
40.8
40.9
42.8
42.8
40.5
40.8
41.0
40.1
42.5
42.3
40.7
125.5
120. 9
143.0
122.4
123.4
131.8
124.9
119.2
141.8
121.0
118.3
131.8
126.1
118. 9
140.1
121.2
118.5
130.1
Electrical machinery____________________
Electrical equipment...... ...........................
Radios and phonographs______________
Communication equipment___________
48. 66
49.79
42.42
51.21
49.27
49. 91
44.74
51.89
48.33
49.12
43.42
50.48
40.5
40.3
39.4
42.1
41.1
40.7
40.9
42.7
40.6
40.2
40.3
42.0
120.2
123.2
108.4
121.6
119.8
122.6
109.4
121.0
119.1
122.1
107.6
120.3
Machinery, except electrical.............. ...........
53.10
52.99
56.08
51.96
52.87
52. 62
56.88
51.99
52.06
51.38
55. 57
52. 53
41.4
41.8
41. C
39.5
41.4
41.8
41.5
40.1
40.9
41.1
40.5
40.3
128.3
126.2
136.8
131.5
127.7
125.7
137.1
129.7
127.3
124.9
137.0
130.4
50.19
56.17
58.43
51.98
47.56
50.31
56. 66
59. 71
50.91
47.41
50.09
55. 90
58.08
49.60
49. 98
39.9
42.2
42.5
42.4
40.8
39.8
42. S
43.2
42.6
40.6
39.8
42.3
42.1
41.8
42.1
126.9
132.6
137.9
122.7
116.5
127.2
132.2
138.1
119.7
116.9
126.8
132.2
138.0
118.6
116.5
57.16 56. 37 58. 42
41.1
40.6
41.8 140.4 139.5 140.6
42.2
41.7
40.4
41.4
41.8
38.1
39.6 118.1 115.9 115.5
40.8 130.1 129.7 129.1
38.4 126.7 124.9 124.1
40.3
39.8
41.8
40.7
41.5
41.8
38.4 135.5 136.2 136.4
39.9 139.7 144.5 143.3
41.2 128.0 126.0 127.2
39.9
41.4
39.9
40.2 1
40.4
41.!
40. (
43.2
39.6
37.2
35.7
41.2
All manufacturing___
Durable goods___
Nondurable goods.
Durable goods
Iron and steel and their products-........... ........
Blast furnaces, steel works, and rolling
mills________________ _____ _______
Gray-iron and semisteel castings----------Malleable-iron castings-----------------------Steel castings________________________
Cast-iron pipe and fittings____________
T in cans and other tinware____________
Wirework__________________________
Cutlery and edge tools-----------------------Tools (except edge tools, machine tools,
tools, files, and saws)____________ -Hardware__________________________
Plumbers’ supplies___________________
Stoves, oil burners, and heating equip
ment not elsewhere classified_________
Steam and hot-water heating apparatus
and steam fittings--------------------------Stamped and enameled ware and galvan
izing_____________________________
Fabricated structural and ornamental
metalwork________________________
Metal doors, sash, frames, molding, and
trim ___________ ________________
Bolts, nuts, washers, and rivets—. ------Forgings, iron and steel______________
Screw-machine products and wood screws.
Steel barrels, kegs, and drum s____
Firearms__________________ ____
Engines and turbines_________________
Tractors____________________________
Agricultural machinery, excluding trac
tors------------------ ------ --------------------Machine tools______________ _________
Machine-tool accessories______________
Textile machinery-----------------------------Typewriters.-----------------------------------Cash registers, adding and calculating
machines_________________________
Washing machines, wringers and driers,
domestic__________________________
Sewing machines, domestic and industrial.
Refrigerators and refrigeration equipment
50.96
54.43
53.13
50. 68
49. 32
44.03
50.05
47.19
48. 59
53.98
51.75
51.72
46.20
44.79
49.28
47.50
49.84 47. 98 45. 76
54.08 54.19 52. 63
51.59 47.56 47. 67
Transportation equipment, except automo
biles------------ ---------------- ---------------- 54.58 55.42 52. 37
Locomotives................................................. 55.6' 59.99 57. 22
Cars, electric- and steam-railroad_______ 53.47 52.64 52.46
Aircraft and parts, excluding aircraft en
gines----------- ------- ------------------------- 52.87 53.53 52.53
Aircraft engines------------- ------------------- 56.28 56.89 51.06
Shipbuilding and boatbuilding------------- 56.98 57.21 51.47
Motorcycles, bicycles, and parts.............. 49.84 55.23 52.39
See footnotes at end of table.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
133.3
127.5
128.8
129.8
112.8
111.2
121.3
110.4
132.0
135.8
142.1
123.5
131.4
126.6
127.7
130.0
110.4
110.4
120.2
109.5
132.7
135.7
143.0
127.8
131.0
126.3
128.2
129.8
106.7
109.7
120.5
108.6
132.6
137.3
144.1
127.0
748
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
Earnings and hours in manufacturing and nonmanufacturing industries, January 1947—
Continued
MANUFACTURING—Continued
Average weekly
earnings 1
Average hourly
earnings >
Average weekly
hours 1
Industry group and industry
Jan. Dec. Nov. Jan. Dec. Nov. Jan. Dec. Nov.
1947 1946 1946 1947 1946 1946 1947 1946 1946
Cents Cents Cents
Durable goods—Continued
Automobiles---------- ------- -------------
$54.00 $54.99 $53.83
38.9
39.4
38. 6 138.9 139.4 139.4
121.7 120.9 120.4
49. 98 50.33 49.24
41.6
49.19 49.77 48.25
40.5
41.0
39.8
53.73 53.69 52.21
43.94 45.41 45.46
41.4
39.7
41.7
41.2
40.6 129.4 128.6 128.7
41.6 110.6 109. 109.3
51.54
58.27
46.31
49.23
49.31
55.70
47.13
48.15
42.2
45.9
39.8
40.5
44.3
46.8
39.5
40.7
42.6
45.2
40.0
40.0
Lumber and timber basic products.................. 39.16 38. 79 37.74
37.52 37.05 36.37
Sawmills and logging camps.................
Planning and plywood mills....... ............. - 44.01 44.12 41.86
40.7
40.1
42.4
41.7
41.1
43.4
40.6 96.3 93.1 93.1
40.2 93.6 90
90.6
41.8 103.8 101.4 100.4
Nonferrous metals and their products......... .
Smelting and refining, primary, of nonferrous metals--------------------------------Alloying and rolling and drawing of nonferrous metals except aluminum---------Clocks and watches---------------- -----------Jewelry (precious metals) and jewelers’
findings............. ................. ........ .........
Silverware and plated ware-----------------Lighting equipment------------ -------------Aluminum manufactures--------------------
48. 71
57.58
47.48
49.14
121.5 121.2
114.1
125.2
119.5
121.3
114.9
124.9
117.9
120.9
114.9
123.4
117.8
120.4
Furniture and finished lumber products...
Furniture.................... ............................
Caskets and other morticians’ goods...
Wood preserving.................... ............ .
42.34
43.12
44.79
38.67
42.49
43.04
44.59
39. 53
41.62
42. 41
42.66
38.90
41.7
41.4
42.3
41.1
42.2
41.6
43.0
42.6
41.7 101. 5
41.4 104.5
41.5 105.0
94. 5
41.
Stone, clay, and glass products..................
Glass and glassware---------- ------ ----------Glass products made from purchased glass.
Cement---------- ----------- --------------------Brick, tile, and terra c o tta............. ...........
Pottery and related products---------------Gypsum 2.................. ............ ........... .........
Lime___________ ----------------------------Marble, granite, slate, and other products.
Abrasives_______________ ___________
Asbestos p ro d u cts................ - ....................
45.43
47.93
42.37
43.79
42.02
41.97
51.49
43.83
43.95
52.08
51.77
45.88
47.96
42. 54
46.12
42. 57
42.82
51.39
46. 43
44. 26
50.38
50.79
44.91
46. 72
41.35
46.18
42.08
41.56
50.
45.69
42.76
48. 45
50.18
40.4
39.5
42.0
40.
40.2
37.7
46.2
44.4
41.
41.9
42.
41.0
39.9
41.9
42.4
40.7
38.6
46.8
46.8
42.4
41.6
42.7
40.3
39.2
41.2
42.2
40.3
37.
46.2
46.2
41.6
39.9
41.9
39.29
37.06
40.48
40.16
39.26
36.85
39.64
39.57
38.38
36.14
38.09
38.69
40.5
40.6
41.0
41.1
40.9
40.9
41.0
41.8
40.2
40.3
39.7
41.1
43.10
38. 55
39.01
36.49
34.07
42.96
38.93
39. 26
36.74
34.26
41.67
38. 20
39.99
37.14
33.31
41.3
38.1
41.1
38.4
38.6
41.3
38.7
40.2
39.2
39.3
40.1 104.5 103. 103.8
38.4 101.1 100.6 99.5
94.8 97.2 96.7
40.
39.5 94.4 92.8 93.0
38.7 86.9 86.8 85.9
45.66
46. 51
50.15
40.09
39* 14
45.46
47.86
53. 70
40. 57
39.08
43.54
46.83
52. 83
39.68
37.94
43.1
40.7
39.1
43.9
41.1
43.6
41.8
41.3
44.4
41.4
42.2 105.0 104.3 103.3
114.5 114.7 113.9
41
40.2 127.7 129, 130.9
43.8 92.8 92.9 92.0
40.3 95.1 94.4 94.3
38.11
41.58
32.41
33. 54
25. 43
47.58
35. 24
43. 38
28.95
28.14
34.68
35.88
37.23
41.78
33. 22
33.68
26. 72
44.14
35.39
38.69
31.83
28.88
35.83
34.68
36.54
41.39
32. 04
34.78
26.01
43.28
35.29
35. 97
30. 89
29. 52
35.91
33.29
36.7
37.5
37.4
36.7
34.7
35.6
37.8
32.1
35.3
34.0
38.1
42.6
37.0
38.1
38.1
36.9
36.
35.3
38.
30.5
38.2
35.0
39.6
42.1
36.6
37.8
37.6
38.6
36.6
34:9
38.4
28.7
37.0
36.1
39.4
40.0
100. 7 99. 9
103.4 102.4
103.1 102.5
93.2 93.1
112.5 111.9
121.1 120.3
99.3 99.8
107.9 109.0
103.8 104.0
112.1
111.4
119.4
97.7
109.5
103.5
111.0 110.0
111.4 109.9 110.2
98.0 98.1 98.8
105.0 104.9 103.4
123. 5 121.2 121.4
120.0 118.8 119.'8
Nondurable goods
Textile-mill products and other fiber manu
factures..... ........... ...........................-.............
Cotton manufactures, except smallwares..
Cotton smallwares......................................
Silk and rayon goods---------- ------- -------Woolen and worsted manufactures, except
dyeing and finishing________________
Hosiery_____________ _____- ..................
Knitted cloth................... ............................
Knitted outerwear and knitted gloves......
Knitted underwear............................ .
Dyeing and finishing textiles, including
woolen and worsted.............................
Carpets and rugs, wool...............................
Hats, fur-felt.................... ..........................
Jute goods, except felts.......... ..................Cordage and twine.........................- ..........
Apparel and other finished textile products—
Men’s clothing, not elsewhere classified...
Shirts, collars, and nightwear....................
Underwear and neckwear, men’s ..............
Work shirts................................................ Women’s clothing, not elsewhere classified.
Corsets and allied garments----- -----------M illinery....................................................
Handkerchiefs............ ...... ......... ................
Curtains, draperies, and bedspreads........
Housefurnishings other than curtains, etc.
Textile bags.......................................- .........
See footnotes at end of table.
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
97.0
91.4
98.0
97.5
95.9
90.0
96.7
94.4
95.5
89.8
96.1
94.1
103.7 100.6
109,2 108.9 108.6
86.9 86.8 84.7
91.5 91.3 90.1
73.1 72.4 71.2
129.5 122.3 121.1
91.7 91.9
92.
110.9 104.6 104. 6
83.7
82.1 83.
82.5 82.8 82.3
90.6 90.2 90.5
84.3 82.4 83.1
749
TRENDS OF EARNINGS AND HOURS
Earnings and hours in manufacturing and nonmanufacturing industries, January 1947—
Continued
MANUFACTURING—Continued
Average weekly
earnings 1
Average weekly
hours 1
Average hourly
earnings 1
Industry group and industry
Jan. Dec. Nov. Jan. Dec. Nov. Jan. Dec. Nov.
1947 1946 1946 1947 1946 1946 1947 1946 1946
Nondurable goods—Continued
Leather and leather products____ _________
Leather_____________________ ______
Boot and shoe cut stock and findings____
Boots and shoes______ _______ _____
Leather gloves and mittens____________
Trunks and suitcases __________ _____
$40.15 $39.83 $37.24
48. 49 47.71 45.98
37. 84 37.32 35. 78
38.86 38. 65 35. 76
32.13 32.16 32.69
39.74 41.70 40.62
39.2
41.3
38.8
39.1
34.9
38.2
39.1
41.6
38.7
38.8
35.5
40.1
Cents Cents Cents
37.1 102.5 101.8 100.4
40.2 117.4 115.0 114.4
37.4 98.0 97.0 96.1
36.3 99.8 99.5 97.8
35.7 91.8 91.0 92.3
39.7 104.1 103.4 102.0
Food_____________ _______________ _____
Slaughtering and meat packing------------B utter________ . . . ___ __________
Condensed and evaporated milk_______
Icecream ---- ------------ - ----------------- .
Flour_____ _________ . . _____ ___ ____
Cereal preparations----------- ---------------Baking____ ________________________
Sugar refining, cane___ _____ _________
Sugar, beet_________________________
Confectionery_______________________
Beverages, nonalcoholic__ ___________
Malt liquors____ _____________ ___
Canning and preserving...... ................ ......
47. 27
57. 38
42.56
46. 32
48.91
54. 97
48. 48
46.32
38.38
44.34
37.06
41.29
57. 26
36. 55
46.93
51.73
42. 29
44. 50
48.84
54.58
47.81
47.55
44. 70
54.35
38.19
41.37
59. 79
37.93
44.84
51.15
40.09
43.16
46.86
51.77
47.12
46.01
38.90
49.59
36.79
39.66
56.68
35.28
43.6
47.6
45.7
46.6
46.7
49.9
40.5
43.9
38.0
40.5
39.8
42.9
41.8
37.6
44.4
46.4
46.9
46.5
46.6
50.4
40.9
45.3
43.1
52.1
41.4
43.2
43.8
38.8
42.9
44.9
44.7
46.3
46.0
48.2
40.7
44.0
39.1
48.6
39.8
42.4
42.5
37.3
108.3
120.3
93.4
99.5
100.3
110.1
119.6
105.6
101.0
109.5
91.4
95.7
136. 2
97.5
Tobacco manufactures. _ . _______________
Cigarettes, ______________ _____ . . .
Cigars. . . .
. . . .
...
Tobacco (chewing and smoking) and snuff.
36. 82
41.36
33. 88
33.16
38.12
43.26
34.85
34. 25
36.66
41. 74
33. 27
33. 58
39.3
39.7
39.2
37.6
40.2
41.0
39.9
39.1
39.7
41. 1
38.6
39.2
93.7 94.7 92.4
104.1 105.6 101.5
86.1 87.1 85.7
88.3 87.7 85.7
Paper and allied products----- -----------------Paper and p u l p _____________. . . ____
Envelopes_________ ________________
Paper bags_____ . . ________ _______ .
Paper boxes ____ ________________
46. 89
50.12
44.68
40. 93
43. 58
46.87
49.92
44.51
40.37
43.61
46.08
49.37
43.98
38.78
42. 74
43.2
44.2
42.8
40.3
42.3
43.7
44.6
43.0
40.9
43.2
43.3
44.4
42.6
40.1
42.4
108.5
112. 9
104.3
101.0
103.0
107.1
111.9
103.5
98.2
101.2
106.4
111. 1
103.1
97.0
100.9
Printing, publishing, and allied industries___
Newspapers and. periodicals____________
Printing, book and job.. _____ .. _.
Lithographing_________________ _____
56. 50
62.28
53.84
57.58
57. 03
62. 95
54. 77
57.55
55.11
61.11
52. 60
55.76
41.0
39.1
41.8
43.5
41.5
39.3
42.6
44.1
41.0
39.3
41.9
42.9
137.9
157.2
129.5
132.3
137.4
156.9
129.2
130.6
134.3
152. 8
125.9
129.9
Chemicals and allied products_____________
Paints, varnishes, and colors.. . . . . . ..
Drugs, medicines, and insecticides______
Soap... _ ___________ ______ ___
Rayon and allied products_____ ______
Chemicals, not elsewhere classified______
Explosives' and safety fuses____________
Ammunition, small-arms________ . . . .
Cottonseed oil___________ _____ _____
______________
Fertilizers_______ . .
47.36
49.69
41.88
52. 90
44.26
54. 74
53.08
48.14
35.91
33.44
47.13
49.17
42.01
52.93
43.76
54.15
51.68
47. 38
36. 52
34.64
45. 88
48.16
41.06
48.08
43.31
52. 96
49. 53
46. 98
35.14
32. 97
41.4
42. 1
40.4
42.7
39.6
41.3
41.0
41.5
51.8
41.3
41.6
42.2
40.6
43.3
39.2
41.2
40.7
41.2
53.2
42.1
41.3
41.8
40.2
40.8
39.1
41.1
39.8
40.9
52.6
40.1
114.3
118.1
103.7
124.0
111.9
132.6
129.5
116.1
69.3
81.0
113.3
116.6
103. 5
122.2
111.7
131.6
127.0
115.0
68.5
82.4
111.2
115.4
101.9
117.9
110.7
128.8
124.3
114.8
66.8
82.1
Products of petroleum and coal_______ _____
Petroleum refining._ . . . . . . .. ________
Coke and byproducts.. ______________
Roofing m aterials..___________________
55.69
58. 02
47.66
51.99
55.11
58. 55
43. 59
50. 92
54. 50
57. 11
46. 64
51.10
40.2
40.0
39.4
44.6
40.1
40.4
36.7
44.1
40.3
40.0
39.5
44.4
138.4
146.3
121.4
116.7
137.5
145.1
119.0
115.6
135.1
142.9
117.7
115.0
Rubber products. . . . _ _ _____ __ _____
Rubber tires and inner tubes.
Rubber boots and shoes___ _________
Rubber goods, other_____ __ _ _______
54. 26
60. 00
46. 06
48.18
54. 69
60. 55
45. 93
48. 68
52.93
58.87
43.80
46. 74
40.7
39.7
41.9
41.9
41.1
40.0
42.0
42.6
40.0
39.0
40.4
41.4
133.2
150.9
109.9
115. 1
132.9
150. 9
109.3
114.3
132.2
150.3
108.3
113.0
Miscellaneous industries__________________ 45.89 45. 85 45.08
Instruments (professional and scientific),
and fire control equipment___________ 52. 00 52. 20 51.01
Pianos, organs, and parts_____ _____
53.07 47.65 50.95
See footnotes a t end of table.
41.0
41.6
41.1 111.9 110.3 109.8
40.1
42.4
40.7
40.5
40.1 127.3 126.9 125.8
42.8 125.7 118.0 119.5
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
105.8
111.9
90.7
95.7
100.4
108.5
117.0
105.1
103.7
104.4
90.2
94.9
136. 5
98.2
104.6
113.7
89.5
93.3
97.6
107.5
115.7
104.5
99.6
102.1
90.5
92.8
133.3
95.0
750
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 19 47
Earnings and hours in manufacturing and nonmanufacturing industries, January
1947—Continued
NONMANUFACTURING
Average weekly
earnings 1
Average weekly
hours 1
Average hourly
earnings 1
Industry group and industry
Jan. Dec.
1947 1946
Nov. Jan. Dec. Nov. Jan. Dec. Nov.
1946 1947 1946 1946 1947 1946 1946
Mining:
Anthracite__________________________ $62. 58 $65.80 $56. 57
Bituminous coal. --------- - ------------- 69.58 69. 56 61.54
Metal _____
_
- 51.47 52.02 48. 59
47.21 47.89 46.36
Iron. ____
___ - ----Copper__________________________ 54. 77 55.46 50. 71
Lead and zinc ------------ ------------- 54.63 53.69 48.63
45.43 48.07 47.40
Quarrying and nonmetallic---- -----Crude petroleum production___________ 55.61 53.42 54.25
Public utilities:
- -_- -- --------------- 43.19 42.98 44.40
'Pelephone______
Telegraph L _ -------. ----------- ----- 46.83 45.94 46.25
Electric light and power. _ _ ---------------- 54.11 54. 58 53.61
Street railways and busses __ ------- --------- 56.22 55. 26 54.64
Trade:
---- ----------- 50.05 51.20 49.80
Wholesale
_
34.40 33. 73 33. 04
Retail
-----------Food ___ _________ - -------------- 41.50 41.19 40.42
30.13 28. 29 27.63
General merchandise _
. . _
Apparel___ - - -- ------- -------------- - 35.89 35. 52 34. 74
Furniture and houscfurnishings_____ 45.86 49. 39 47.26
Automotive---------- -------- ----------- 49.01 50.61 48. 74
Lumber and building materials_____ 44. 3C 44. 78 43.32
Hotels (year-round)4
_____
____ 28.62 28. 4C 28.15
32.46 32.13 31.05
Power laundries _ - - ________
Cleaning and dyeing--------------------- 36.29 36. 50 35. 32
___ - ------------ 63.83 64.48 62.00
Security brokerage.
Insurance__ ______ _____ -- ---- 52. 00 52.25 51. 24
39.4
46.7
41.9
39.7
44.4
42.7
43.3
41.3
40.7
46.7
42.2
39.7
45.1
42.3
45.8
39.5
35.7
41.7
39.9
38.4
41.7
39.5
45.4
40.4
Cents
158.9
149.0
122.8
119.0
122.5
127.9
106.0
134.3
Cents
161.3
149.1
123.2
120.7
122.9
126.8
105.2
135.3
Cents
158.2
147.7
121.9
120.7
121.7
123.2
104.5
133.4
38.5
43.8
41.9
47.7
38.0
43.2
41.4
47.9
39.3
43.5
41.6
47.3
113.3
106.9
131.3
116.5
113.2
106.2
133.7
114.2
113.1
106.3
130.2
112.5
41.5
39.9
40.0
36.1
36.9
42.1
45.6
43.0
43.8
43.3
42.3
(5)
(5)
42.3
40.2
40.7
36.0
37.0
43.7
47.2
43.5
43.7
43.5
42.8
(6)
(8)
41.6
39.7
40.3
35.5
36.4
43.6
46.1
42.3
43.8
42.6
41.9
(5)
(5)
119.7
95.1
101.1
80.1
96.4
112.2
109.5
104.4
64.8
74.5
87.4
(f)
(5)
120.2
91.9
97.8
76.5
97.1
115.6
109.3
103.8
65.1
73.9
86.7
(5)
(5)
118.6
91.7
97.2
76.0
96.2
110.1
108.7
104.0
64.2
72.9
85.4
(5)
(6)
i These figures are based on reports from cooperating establishments covering both full- and part-time
employees who worked or received pay during any part of one pay period ending nearest the 15th of January
1947. The figures shown below relate to firms reporting man-hour data in all cases except security brokerage
and insurance; weekly earnings are based on a slightly larger sample (see footnote 1 in tables 1 and 4).
Manufacturing.—31,000 establishments, 7,037,000 production workers.
M ining—2,400 establishments, 333,000 production workers.
Public utilities—6,300 establishments, 671,000 employees.
Wholesale trade—8,100 establishments, 228,000 employees.
Retail trade—25,600 establishments, 656,000 employees.
Hotels (year-round) .—900 establishments, 78,000 employees.
Power laundries and cleaning and dyeing.—1,300 establishments, 60,000 production workers.
Security brokerage and insurance—2,800 establishments, 112,000 employees. For manufacturing, mining,
power laundries, and cleaning and dyeing industries, the data relate to production workers only. For
the remaining industries the data relate to all employees except high paid executives and officials.
Data for the current and immediately preceding months are subject to revision.
Revisions have been made as follows in the data for earlier months:
Gypsum.-—October 1946 to $52.04, 47.8 hours, and 108.8 cents.
8 Excludes messengers, and approximately 6,000 employees of general and divisional headquarters, and
of cable companies.
4 Cash payments only; additional value of board, room, and tips, not included.
8Not available.
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TRENDS OF EARNINGS AND HOURS
751
Trend of Factory Earnings, 1939 to January 1947
of factory workers, summarized in the accom
panying table for selected months from January 1939 to January
1947,1 are on a gross basis (i. e., before deductions for social security,
income taxes, bond purchases, etc.).
Weekly earnings in all manufacturing averaged $46.94 in January
1947—102.4 percent above the average in January 1939, 76.2 percent
above January 1941, and 20.7 percent above October 1942. Weekly
earnings for January 1947 increased 14.1 percent above January 1946.
However, the average weekly earnings are still below the wartime
peak of $47.50 in January 1945, as the result of shorter working hours
and shifts of workers from the high paid war industries to the lower
paid consumer goods industries.
Gross hourly earnings in all manufacturing averaged 115.8 cents in
January 1947—83.2 percent above the average in January 1939, 69.5
percent above January 1941, and 29.7 percent above October 1942.
Average hourly earnings exclusive of overtime, as shown in columns
7 to 9, are weighted by man-hours of employment in the major divi
sions of manufacturing for January 1941. Overtime is defined as work
in excess of 40 hours per week and paid for at time and one-half. The
method of estimating average hourly earnings exclusive of overtime
makes no allowance for special rates of pay for work done on major
holidays or the effect of extra pay for work on supplementary shifts.
For all manufacturing, the average hourly earnings, exclusive of over
time, in January 1947 were 112.0 cents per hour—74.7 percent above
January 1939, 68.7 percent above January 1941, and 38.8 percent
above October 1942.
A v e r a g e e a r n in g s
i Compare Trends in Factory Wages, 1939-43, in Monthly Labor Review, November 1943 (p. 899), espe
cially table 4 (p. 879). For detailed data regarding weekly earnings, see preceding table.
73 6 0 3 9 — 47 ------ 18
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752
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 194 7
Earnings of factory workers in selected months, 1939 to January 194 7
Month and year
Average hourly earn
ings exclusive of over
time 1 weighted by
January 1941 employ
ment
Average hourly
earnings
Average weekly
earnings
All
manu
factur
ing
D u
rable
goods
Non
du
rable
goods
All
manu
factur
ing
D u
rable
goods
Non
du
rable
goods
All
manu
factur
ing
D u
rable
goods
Non
du
rable
goods
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
1939: January . _________ $23.19
j Q40: January __________ 24. 56
1941: January........................ 26.64
$25. 33
27. 39
30. 48
$21. 57
22.01
22.75
$0.632
.655
.683
$0.696
. 717
.749
$0. 583
. 598
.610
$0. 641
. 652
.664
$0. 702
.708
.722
$0. 575
. 589
. 601
1942: January____________
July_______________
October____________
33. 40
36.43
38.89
38. 98
42.51
45.31
26. 97
28.94
30. 66
.801
.856
.893
.890
.949
.990
.688
.725
.751
.751
.783
.807
.826
.863
.668
.888
.696
.718
1Q43* January
40. 62
42. 48
42. 76
44.86
44.58
46. 68
48. 67
48. 76
51.26
50. 50
32.10
33. 58
34.01
35.18
35.61
.919
.944
.963
.988
.995
1.017
1.040
1.060
1. 086
1.093
.768
.790
.806
.824
.832
.819
.833
.850
.863
.873
.905
.916
.939
.950
.962
.726
. 742
.753
.768
.775
1044: .Tanuarv _________
April__________ -July_______________
October
___
December_____ .. -
45. 29
45.55
45.43
46.94
47.44
51.21
51.67
51.07
53.18
53.68
36.03
36.16
37. 05
37.97
38. 39
1.013
1. 018
1.031
1.040
1.002
1.099
1.110
1.116
1.129
1.140
.838
.850
.862
.878
.883
.877
.889
.901
.908
.912
.965
.976
.993
.991
.997
.780
. 794
.802
. 817
. 820
1945: January____________
April______________
J u ly ....-----------------October
______
December__________
47.50
47.12
45. 45
40. 97
41. 21
53. 54
52.90
50. 66
44.23
44.08
38.66
38.80
38. 59
37.76
38. 52
1.046
1.044
1.033
.985
.994
1.144
1.138
1.127
1.063
1.066
.891
.899
.902
.909
.927
.920
.925
.933
.942
.957
1.005
1.007
1.017
1.014
1.028
.827
.836
. 842
.863
.880
1946: January____________
April______________
July_______________
October
_____
November _ ______
December 2_________
41.15
42. 88
43. 38
45. 73
45 79
46.86
43.67
45.71
46. 24
48.90
48.62
49. 46
38.75
40.13
40. 46
42.45
42.87
44.15
1.004
1. 058
1.093
1.130
1.139
1.145
1.070
1.131
1.177
.941
.988
1.009
1.056
1.065
1.076
.970
1.027
1.067
1.095
1.105
1.106
1.102
1.037
1.181
.895
. 946
.970
1.014
1.022
1947- January 2 __________
46.94
49. 47
44.33
1.158
1.092
1.120
1.188
1.046
_____
April______________
July----------------------December__ ... . . . -
1
1.202
1.210
1.213
1 1.222
1.155
1.169
1.177
1.028
1 Overtime is defined as work in excess of 40 hours per week and paid for at time and one-half. The
method of estimating average hourly earnings exclusive of overtime makes no allowance for special rates of
nay for work done on major holidays. Estimates for the months of J anuary, July, September, and November therefore, may not be precisely comparable with those for the_ other months, in which important holi?
days are seldom included in the pay periods for which manufacturing establishments report to the Bureau.
This characteristic of the data does not appear to invalidate the comparability of the figures for January
1941 with those for the preceding and following months.
2 Preliminary.
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Recent Publications o f Labor Interest
April 1947
Economic and Labor Conditions on West Coast
California looks ahead. Edited by Dean E. McHenry. {In The Annals, Amer
ican Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 248, Philadelphia, Novem
ber 1946, pp. 199-267. $2 (paper) or $2.50 (cloth) to nonmembers.)
Papers presented at a joint meeting of the Pacific Southjvest Academy and the
Southern California Economic Association, Occidental College, Los Angeles,
June 15, 1946. An introductory article on “California in perspective” is followed
by three papers each on social prospects (including housing of minority groups in
Los Angeles County), political prospects, and economic prospects (including
industrialization in southern California).
Postwar adjustment of aircraft workers in southern California. Washington, U. S.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1946. 6 pp. (Serial No. R. 1864; reprinted
from Monthly Labor Review, November 1946.) Free.
Report of ihe California State Reconstruction and Reemployment Commission for
the period from August 1943 through December 1945 and for ihe year 1946.
Sacramento, 1947. 108 pp.
In addition to summarizing the activities of the Commission and its recommend
ations, the report reviews the status of California’s economy with particular
reference to population, employment, income, industrial and commercial growth,
and construction, and discusses immediate and long-range prospects.
Small business and the community: A study in Central Valley of California on
effects of scale of farm operations. Report of Special Committee to Study
Problems of American Small Business, United States Senate, 79th Cong., 2d
sess., prepared by Walter R. Goldschmidt. Washington, 1946. 139 pp.,
maps, charts. (Senate committee print No. 13, 79th Cong., 2d sess.)
Detailed comparison of a small-scale farming area and a large-scale area, with
conclusions favorable to former as regards number of people supported per dollar
volume of agricultural production, labor requirements, standard of living, phys
ical and cultural services, and other factors.
Summary of California statutory provisions conferring quasi-legislative functions
upon State administrative agencies. Prepared for California Legislative
Committee on Administrative Regulation. Sacramento, State Printing
Office, 1946. 128 pp.
Functions touched upon include those of agencies dealing with labor matters.
Individual incomes of civilian residents of California, by counties, 1939-46. San
Francisco, California State Chamber of Commerce, 1947. 35 pp., charts;
processed.
Union labor in California, 1945. San Francisco, Department of Industrial Rela
tions, Division of Statistics and Research, 1946. 38 pp.
Characteristics of union locals shown in part I include distribution of union
members by industry, number of women members, and changes in male and
female membership, 1944-45. Part IT deals with collective-bargaining agree
ments and reproduces selected clauses on holidays, paid vacations and sick leave,
severance notice and pay, and night-work differentials.
E ditor ’s N ote .—Correspondence, regarding the publications to which reference is made in this list
should be addressed to the respective publishing agencies mentioned. Where data on prices were readily
available, they have been shown with the title entries.
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735
754
MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 194 7
Wage rate differentials— comparative data for Los Angeles and other urban areas.
' By Ruth Macfarlane. Los Angeles, Haynes Foundation, 1946. 164 pp.,
bibliography; processed. (Research memorandum No. 1.) $1.50.
The report is described as an effort to bring together available data on the
wage-rate structure of Los Angeles County for comparison with other urban
areas of the United States. Emphasis is placed upon the detailed occupational
wage-rate data compiled during the war by the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
The study indicated higher wages in the Great Lakes region and the Pacific Coast
region than in other sections, but generally lower rates in Los Angeles County
than in the other three major Pacific Coast urban areas of San Francisco, Port
land, and Seattle. Differentials in cost of living over the country were found to
be much smaller than differentials in wages.
Digest of Oregon labor laws, 1945. [Salem], Bureau of Labor, [1946?]. 71 pp.
Twenty-second biennial report and industrial directory of the Bureau of Labor and
Wage and Hour Commission of the State of Oregon, from July 1, 1944>t° July 1,
1945. Salem, [1947?]. 73 pp.
The industrial directory takes up 53 pages of the pamphlet, and lists 4,655
firms by type of business and county. The brief Bureau of Labor report contains
data on work permits for minors, collection of wage claims, and apprenticeship.
Labor force and employment. Seattle, Office of Unemployment Compensation and
Placement, 1946. 11 pp., maps; processed.
Estimates of the labor force and employment, by industry groups, in Washington
State, April 1940, July of 1944 and 1945, and January, April, and July of 1946.
Child Labor
State child-labor standards: A State-by-State summary of laws affecting the employ
ment of minors under 18 years of age. By Lucy Manning and Norene Diamond.
Washington, U. S. Department of Labor, Division of Labor Standards,
Child Labor and Youth Employment Branch, 1946. 182 pp. (Child-labor
series, No. 2.) Free.
Child labor laws of Georgia. Atlanta, Department of Labor, 1946. 8 pp.
Child-labor-on-farms program in operation [in New York] during summer season,
1946: Section I, Day-haul program; Section I I, Migrant farm workers. New
York, Department of Labor, [1947?]. 99 pp., map; mimeographed.
Family Allowances
Family allowances. Washington, National Catholic Welfare Conference, Family
Life Bureau, [1946]. 19 pp.
The discussion is in the form of answers to specific questions as to the nature
and extent of family allowances, their potential usefulness, and other points.
Some observations on the Canadian family allowances program.
By Edward
E. Schwartz. (In Social Service Review, Chicago, December 1946, pp.
451-473. $1.25.)
Account of operation of the program, which became effective in July 1945,
based on information obtained by the author (member of staff of U. S. Children’s
Bureau) from administrative officials, together with a review of results of and
attitudes toward the program as reflected in interviews with a variety of observers,
including social workers, school officials, and representatives of employer and labor
groups.
Memorandum on the effect of the Family Allowances Act [of Great Britain], 1945,
on the Workmen’s Compensation Acts, 1925 to 1945. London, Ministry
of National Insurance, 1946. 9 pp. 2d. net, H. M. Stationery Office, London.
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RECENT PUBLICATIONS OF LABOR INTEREST
755
Housing
Housing. (In Law and Contemporary Problems, Vol. X II, No. 1 , Durham,
N. C., winter 1947, pp. 1-208, charts. $ 1 .)
This special issue devoted to different phases of housing includes articles on
the housing shortage, the housing program for veterans, technical potentialities
in home construction, find legal aspects of cooperative housing.
Housing and construction. Report of chairman of complaints subcommittee to
Special Committee to Study Problems of American Small Business, United
States Senate, 79th Congress, 2d session. Washington, 1947. 33 pp.
(Senate subcommittee print No. 15, 79th Cong., 2d sess.)
The report is divided into three parts. Part I presents findings and recommen
dations; Part II deals with the original veterans’ housing program and the new
national housing program; Part III gives information on noteworthy housing ac
tivities of several local groups.
A housing program for America. By Charles Abrams. New York, League for
Industrial Democracy, 1947. 32 pp., bibliography. 25 cents.
A 10-point program for slum clearance and the provision of decent, modern
homes for all through public and private enterprise. The author states there is
need for 4 million dwelling units immediately and 12 to 18 million in the next 10
years.
The American Legion housing program. Indianapolis, American Legion, 1946.
28 pp.
Contains the findings of the American Legion’s special national committee on
veterans’ housing, and a program, based on these findings, which has been adopted
by the national executive committee of the Legion.
Report of the United States Advisory Housing Mission to the Commonwealth of the
Philippines. Manila, 1946. 40 pp.; processed. Limited free distribution
by U. S. National Housing Agency, Washington.
Critical examination of legislation and policies with respect to housing and
related problems in the Philippines, and recommendations concerning steps to
be taken in the formulation and execution of a long-range housing program.
Report of inquiry into the housing of the working classes of the city of Dublin, 1939-48.
Dublin, Government Publications Sale Office, [1945?]. 279 pp. 3s. 6d.
Bilan intermédiaire de la politique suisse en matière de logements. A propos de la
politique suisse en matière de logements: Un bilan intermédiaire qui est plutôt
un règlement de comptes. (In Revue Syndicale Suisse, organe mensuel de
l’Union Syndicale Suisse, Berne, May 1946, pp. 227-236; July-August 1946,
pp. 273-289.)
Survey of housing in Switzerland during World War II with some comparison
with World War I, including statistics of new units built from 1914 to 1919 and
1939 to 1945. Policies followed by Federal and communal governments are
evaluated.
industrial Accidents and Workmen's Compensation
Work injuries in the United States during 1945. Washington, U. S. Bureau of
Labor Statistics, 1947. 23 pp., charts. (Bull. No. 889; reprinted from
September 1946 Monthly Labor Review, with additional data.) 10 cents,
Superintendent of Documents, Washington.
Annual report on industrial accidents in Illinois for 1945: Part I, Summary of
industrial injuries reported in 1945 as compensable under the Workmen’s Com
pensation and Occupational Diseases Acts. Chicago, Illinois Department of
Labor, Division of Statistics and Research, 1946. 89 pp. ; processed.
A statistical study of all accident and occupational disease claims filed with the
Industrial Commission of Ohio during the calendar year of 1945 with a summary
of the years 1936-45, inclusive. Columbus, Industrial Commission of Ohio,
Division of Safety and Hygiene, 1946. 27 pp.
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756
MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
Estadística de accidentes del trabajo. Buenos Aires, Dirección de Estadística Social,
1946. 65 pp., charts ; processed.
Statistical analysis, with text discussion, of accidents in Argentine industry,
transportation, services, etc., 1939 through 1944. There is also a summary of the
principal legislation in regard to workmen’s compensation for industrial accidents
and occupational diseases.
Report of the 1946 convention and annual meeting of the Industrial Accident Pre
vention Associations, Toronto, April 8 and 9, 1946. [Toronto?], Industrial
Accident Prevention Associations, [1946]. 152 pp.
Petroleum industry safety standards, 1946 edition. Oklahoma City, Department
of Labor, Bureau of Factory Inspection, [1946?]. 130 pp., diagrams, illus.
(Book No. 11-A.)
Industrial Relations
Collective bargaining with associations and groups of employers. Washington,
U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1947. 14 pp. (Bull. No. 897.) 10 cents,
Superintendent of Documents, Washington.
Guarding the flanks: Collective bargaining in 1947■ By E. H. Van Delden. (In
Personnel, New York, January 1947, pp. 230-249. $1.)
Examines and evaluates, from the standpoint of management, the important
issues in collective bargaining for 1947, and makes suggestions as to the position
that should be taken by management in regard to them.
Industrial peace and the Wagner Act: How the act works and what to do about it.
By Theodore R. Iserman. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1947.
9Í pp. $1.50.
The author states th at the National Labor Relations Act has not promoted
industrial peace but has fostered unionization. In his opinion, a policy of more
collective bargaining and less striking should be the aim.
Industrial relations policy: Proposals to modify the law and practice of industrial
relations, and analysis of selected bills. By Gustav Peck. Washington, U. S.
Library of Congress, Legislative Reference Service, 1947. 94 pp.; processed.
(Bull. No. 48.) Available (free) only to libraries.
Analytical background intended to clarify 1947 Congressional proposals on
labor relations. Includes sections on national experience with collective bar
gaining, changes suggested in Federal and State bills, and discussion of major bills
of the 79th Congress pertinent a t present.
The labor crisis— its causes and cures. (In Factory Management and Mainte
nance, New York, January 1947, pp. 67-88, chart, illus. 35 cents.)
Contains a statement of labor problems faced, an evaluation of certain existing
labor laws and their shortcomings, and proposals th at have been made for revision
of these laws. Polls as to the wishes of factory workers on labor legislation are
summarized and the views of management and labor leaders are quoted. The
article closes with a summary of the action Congress is likely to take.
The question of outlawing the closed shop. (In Congressional Digest, Washington,
February 1947, pp. 35-64. 50 cents.)
Reviews briefly the history of the closed shop, Federal and State action against
it, and anticlosed-shop bills pending in Congress, and presents pro and con
statements by representatives of Government, management, and labor.
Reconversion in industrial relations. By Bryce M. Stewart and Walter J. Couper.
New York, Industrial Relations Counselors, Inc., 1946. 70 pp. (Industrial
relations monograph No. 13.) $1.75.
The writers distinguish between the reconversion of the Nation’s industrial
plant to a peacetime basis and the reconversion of industrial relations, which, they
assert in the foreword (dated November 15, 1946), has only begun. It is
stated th at the study “is designed as an aid to management in this phase of
reconversion.”
Union agreements in the cotton-textile industry. Washington, U. S. Bureau of
Labor Statistics, 1947. 64 pp., charts, illus. (Bull. INo. 885.) 20 cents,
Superintendent of Documents, Washington.
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RECENT PUBLICATIONS OF LABOR INTEREST
757
Classified, provisions of 40 collective bargaining agreements for wage earners in the
iron and steel industry. Classified provisions of 24 collective bargaining agree
ments for white collar workers in the iron and steel industry. New York,
American Iron and Steel Institute, 1946 and 1947. 737 and 294 pp. J
Labor dispute settlements in the telephone industry, 1942-45. Edited by Pearce
Davis and Henry J. Meyer. Washington, Bureau of National Affairs, 1946.
300 pp. $6.
Statement on the economic considerations affecting relations between employers and
workers. London, Ministry of Labor and National Service, 1947. 9 pp.
(Cmd. 7018.) -2d. net, H. M. Stationery Office, London.
This official statement was issued with the endorsement of the National Joint
Advisory Council, representing British employers and trade-unions. It outlines
the serious economic position of Great Britain, and stresses the need for the most
economical and efficient use of manpower and the necessity for keeping costs and
prices steady. It calls upon both sides to raise output, increase the efficiency of
industry, eliminate restrictive practices, and extend and develop joint consulta
tion between management and work people on production problems.
International Labor Conditions
International Labor Conference, 28th session, Seattle, 1946— record of proceedings.
Montreal, International Labor Office, 1946. xxviii, 411 pp. $3 (paper) or
$4 (cloth). Distributed in United States by Washington Branch of I. L. O.
Third labor conference of the American states which are members of the International
Labor Organization, Mexico, April 1946: Record of proceedings. Montreal,
International Labor Office, 1946. 308 pp. $3. Distributed in United States
by Washington Branch of I. L. O.
International labor legislation. By Henri Binet. (In Canadian Bar Review, Ot
tawa, December 1946, pp. 847-860; also reprinted.)
While national laws based on international agreements were enacted many
years before the International Labor Organization came into existence, the writer
points out, the nearest approach to international labor legislation today con
sists of the conventions or recommendations of the International Labor Con
ferences. Early labor laws and agreements and certain early international
conferences are discussed briefly, but the article deals mainly with the Interna
tional Labor Organization and its work.
Suggested charter for an international trade organization of the United Nations.
Washington, U. S. Department of State, 1946. 47 pp. (Publication No. 2598;
Commercial policy series, No. 93.)
The proposed charter includes employment provisions which recognize the
duty of member states to promote full domestic employment and to avoid meas
ures which would create unemployment in other countries. Detailed suggestions
are made concerning trade policies, business practices, and organizational
arrangements.
The world parliament of labor: A study of the International Labor Organization, its
past achievements and potentialities for the future, and proposals for its reorgan
ization. By R. J. P. Mortished. London, Fabian Publications, Ltd., and
Victor Gollancz, Ltd., 1946. 41 pp., bibliography. (Fabian Society research
series, No. 113.) 2s.
Labor Organizations and Conferences
Directory of labor organizations in Kansas. Topeka, Department of Labor, October
1946. 84 pp.
Report of the proceedings of the 61st annual convention of the Trades and Labor
Congress of Canada, Windsor, Ont., September 18-26, 1946. Ottawa, Trades
and Labor Congress of Canada, [1947?]. 444 pp.
Thirty-fifth annual report on labor organization in Canada (for the calendar year
1945). Ottawa, Department of Labor, 1947. 90 pp., charts.
Report of the 45th annual conference of the Labor Party, Bournemouth, June 10-14,
1946. London, Labor Party, 1946. 255 pp. 2s. 6d.
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758
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
Medical Care and Health Insurance
Recent State legislation concerning 'prepayment medical care. By Margaret C.
Klem. (In Social Security Bulletin, Federal Security Agency, Social Security
Administration, Washington, January 1947, pp. 10-16. 15 cents, Superin
tendent of Documents, Washington.)
Recent legislation in a number of States, it is pointed out, places the future of
voluntary, nonprofit, prepaid medical-care plans largely under control of the
medical profession to the exclusion of other groups. State legislation governing
nonprofit medical-care corporations, enacted during 1945 and early 1946, as well
as before 1945 in selected States, is summarized.
Le décret du 26 novembre 1946 sur Vorganisation des services médicaux du travail.
By Henri Desoille. (In Revue Française du Travail, Ministère du Travail
et de la Sécurité Sociale, Paris, January 1947, pp. 8- 12 .)
Analysis of law of October 11, 1946, which requires trade-unions and industrial,
commercial, and other establishments in France to institute medical services
with doctors in attendance.
The Manitoba health plan. By Ivan Schultz. [Winnipeg, Ministry of Health
and Public Welfare, 1945.1 40 pp.
Address by the Minister of Health and Public Welfare describing the purposes
of the Manitoba Health Services Act of 1945, together with the text of the Act.
Erkânda sjukkassor, dr 1944- Stockholm, Pensionsstyrelsen, 1946. 77 pp., map.
Statistical review of operations of registered sickness-insurance funds in Sweden
in 1944, covering membership, frequency and duration of cases of illness, and
financial status of each fund. It is shown th at 48.6 percent of the adult popula
tion of towns and 42.7 percent of the adult population of the provinces were
members of registered funds in 1944. A summary of the Swedish text is given
in French.
Occupations and, Occupational Adjustment
Choosing an occupation: Recent books and pamphlets in the reference department of
the New York Public Library. Compiled by Alice E. Plowitz and Martha L.
Hackman. New York, Public Library, 1946. 22 pp. 35 cents.
Employment opportunities in aviation occupations: Part 2, Duties, qualifications,
earnings, and working conditions. Washington. U. S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 1947. 45 pp., illus. (Bull. No. 837-2.) 20 cents, Superintendent
of Documents, Washington.
Establishing and operating an air-conditioning and refrigeration business. By
V. C. Kylberg, William L. Beck, Howard E. Way. Washington, U. S.
Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce,
1946. 84 pp., plans, illus. (Industrial (small business) series, No. 59.)
20 cents, Superintendent of Documents, Washington.
Businesses dealt with in other reports recently issued in this series include
book stores; bookkeeping services; brick and tile manufacturing; gift and art
shops; jewelry stores; laundries; mail-order business; motor courts; music stores;
paint, glass, and wall-paper stores; print shops; restaurants; sporting-goods
stores; stationery and office-supply stores; weekly newspapers; and small wood
working shops.
Dentistry as a professional career: A brochure for the use of guidance officers and
prospective dental students. Compiled and edited by Harlan H. Horner.
Chicago, American Dental Association, Council on Dental Education, 1946.
68 pp., bibliography.
Manual of job descriptions in the cotton textile industry [in Australia]. Melbourne,
Department of Labor and National Service, Industrial Welfare Division,
1946. 90 pp., illus.; processed.
Job evaluation. By Forrest Hayden Johnson, Robert W. Boise, Jr., Dudley
P ratt. New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1946. 288 pp., bibliography,
charts, forms. $3.75.
Tells how to establish and maintain an industrial job-evaluation program,
estimate the cost in terms of increased pay roll, evaluate jobs, assign workers to
jobs, etc.
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Prices Price Control and Rationing
Price control laws and executive orders as amended August 1946. Washington, U. S.
Office of Price Administration, 1946. 65 pp. 15 cents, Superintendent of
Documents, Washington.
Wholesale prices, 1944. Washington, U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1947.
125 pp. (Bull. No. 870.) 20 cents, Superintendent of Documents,
Washington.
Canadian wartime price controls, 1941—46• By K. W. Taylor. (In Canadian
Journal of Economics and Political Science, Toronto, February 1947, pp.
81-98. $1.)
Report of the Wartime Prices and Trade Board, Canada, January 1, 1946, to Decem
ber 31,1946, including important developments up to February 1, 1947. Ottawa,
1947. 92 pp., charts.
Prices in the Soviet wa.r economy. By Harry Schwartz. (In American Economic
^ Review, Menasha,_ Wis., December 1946, pp. 872-882. $1.25.)
Two categories of prices are discussed: ( 1 ) the relatively stable prices of raw
materials and commodities produced for the government; and (2) the highly
unstable, wartime inflated prices of unrationed consumers’ commodities in the
“free m arket” and in commercial stores. Current Soviet price policy of merging
the two categories of prices into one is discussed.
An experimental study of rationing. By R. A. McCance and E. M. Widdowson.
London, Medical Research Council, 1946. 61 pp., bibliography, charts.
(Special report series, No. 254.) Is. net, H. M. Stationery Office, London.
Description and results of an experiment to determine the effects on health
of drastic food rationing.
Production and Productivity of Labor
Production outlook, 1947. Washington, U. S. Office of Temporary Controls,
Civilian Production Administration, 1947. 44 pp., charts; processed.
The human aspects of methods improvement. New York, American Management
Association, 1947. 50 pp. (Production series, No. 170.)
One of the five papers in the pamphlet discusses workers’ attitudes toward cost
reduction and methods improvement, and another tells how a labor leader (the
vice president of the United Automobile Workers of America) looks at manage
ment’s efforts to lift output.
Industriel produktionsstatistik, 1945. Copenhagen, Statistiske Departement,
1946. 202 pp. (Statistiske meddelelser, 4. rsekke, 129. bind, 1. hsefte.l
Contains information on quantity and value of production in Denmark, and
on employment by age and sex of workers, for 74 industry groups. A translation
in French of the table of contents and French equivalents of the heads and other
text of main tables are provided.
Reconversion
Postwar economic policy and planning: Reconversion experience and current eco
nomic problems. Eleventh, and final, report of Special Committee on Post
war Economic Policy and Planning, TJ. S. House of Representatives. Wash
ington, 1946. 115 pp., charts. (Union calendar No. 855; House report No.
2729, 79th Cong., 2d sess.)
Review of progress made in the return to a peacetime economy in the United
States, and of the economic problems which remain, with recommendations of
the committee. One chapter is on employment and unemployment.
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760
M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 1 9 4 7
La main-d’œuvre et le plan de modernisation. {In Revue Française du Travail,
Ministère du Travail et de la Sécurité Sociale, Paris, January 1947, pp. 3253.)
Comprehensive study of manpower necessary to achieve levels of production
recommended by reports of various committees of the French Planning Com
mission of Modernization and Reequipment of Industry (popularly known as the
Monnet plan). This study by the manpower committee shows not only the esti
mated number of workers necessary to attain the production goals set for 1946,
1947, and 1950, but also the possible sources of increased manpower (immigration
from Algeria and foreign countries, and use of liberated prisoners of war, of women
not heretofore in the labor market, of older workers, and of workers newly trained
for productive industry), the need for longer hours of work, improved employment
service, occupational training, better working conditions, medical services, incen
tive payments, creation of model enterprises, and education of the worker.
Le rôle de la classe ouvrière dans la rationalisation du travail. By Georges Lefebvre.
{In Revue Française du Travail, Ministère du Travail et de la Sécurité
Sociale, Paris, January 1947, pp. 4-7.)
Discussion of the influence of invention, technology, division of labor, business
enterprise, etc., on the rationalization of industry. Points out (with an eye on
the works committees authorized in 1945) th at only through increased production
will workers attain shorter hours, easier work, and what they desire in a redis
tribution of wealth.
The battle for output, 1947. London, Central Office of Information, 1947. 49 pp.,
charts. 6d. net, H. M. Stationery Office, London.
Describes the British Government’s method of economic planning, reviews
progress in reconversion during 18 months, and outlines targets for 1947 in respect
to manpower distribution, exports, imports, and home production. Brief sections
are devoted to certain basic industries and services, including coal, power, steel,
railways, shipping, agriculture, building, and capital-equipment projects. Next
to the “central problem” of coal and power, the report states, is the problem of
expanding, allocating, and increasing the output of the labor force.
The pamphlet incorporates the full text of the White Paper (Cmd. 7046)
entitled “Economic survey for 1947.”
Men, management, and machines. {In Planning, a broadsheet issued by P E P
(Political and Economic Planning), No. 260, London, January 3, 1947, pp.
1-24. 25 cents, New Republic, 40 E. 49th Street, New York.)
The targets for production and the over-all tasks which the British ecouomy
has undertaken to perform, both at home and abroad, are set forth and contrasted
with the manpower available for performance. Various estimates (the majority
of which have already appeared in other sources) of trends in productivity in
different industries since before the war are summarized, and the causes of lowered
productivity reviewed. The pamphlet warns th at Great Britain cannot afford
to reduce working hours to 40 a week unless output is increased.
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Social Security General
Federal welfare legislation, 79th Congress, 1945-46: Legislation relating to social
security. Washington, Federal Security Agency, Social Security Administra
tion, Library, 1946. 82 pp.; mimeographed.
Includes digests of all bills presented, as well as of those enacted into law, in
social security and related fields.
The 1946 amendments to the Railroad Retirement and Railroad Unemployment
Insurance Acts. By Jack M. Elkin. {In Social Security Bulletin, Federal
Security Agency, Social Security Administration, Washington, December
1946, pp. 23-33, 49, 50. 15 cents, Superintendent of Documents, Wash
ington.)
For the first time in this country, it is pointed out, a major group of industrial
workers and their families are protected under a unified Federal program of social
insurance covering old age, disability, death, unemployment, and sickness (in
cluding maternity). Each of these types of insurance is discussed in the article
and there is a detailed summary of benefit provisions of the Railroad Retirement
Act. as amended.
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La situation financière des assurances sociales. Paris, Ministère du Travail et de la
Sécurité Sociale, Centre d’Études et de Statistiques, 1946. 6 pp. (Notes
documentaires et études, No. 288; série française, XCI.)
Financial report on operation of social-insurance organizations in France, show
ing receipts and expenditures for sickness, maternity, invalidity, old-age, death,
administration, etc., for two periods—1930-40 and 1941-44—with some explanation
of financial details on the general system, and on sickness and old-age insurance,
since January 1, 1945.
Incidenza degli oneri sociali sul salaria. (In Notiziario della Confederazione
Generale dell’Industria Italiana, Rome, January 5 , 1947, pp. 4-8.)
Analysis of the costs of social insurance (for invalidity, old-age, tuberculosis,
unemployment, and other insurances) borne by the wage-earner in Italy, 1938,
1942, 1945, and 1946, with some detail on various types of bonuses received by
such wage-earners.
Les rentes et la maniéré de les calculer. (In Revue Syndicale Suisse, Union Syndi
cale Suisse, Berne, January 1947, pp. 17-27.)
Shows different types of annuities provided under terms of the Swiss old-age
and^survivors’ insurance law (which is subject to national referendum in early
1947), and methods of calculating them for couples, wddows, orphans, etc.
Unemployment Insurance
Claimants [for unemployment benefits] awaiting recall— their special problems of
availability and suitability of work. By Olga S. Halsey. (In Social Security
Bulletin, Federal Security Agency, Social Security Administration, Wash
ington, October 1946, pp. 8-15. 15 cents, Superintendent of Documents,
Washington.)
State decisions on availability for wrork, and on suitable work and good cause
for its refusal, reveal marked differences in the policies applied to cases of laid-off
workers, the writer states. She suggests that information from the employer on
the duration of the lay-off W'ould clarify certain situations which threaten dis
qualification of the claimant for benefit.
Unemployment insurance goals—1947: Recommendations for improving State
legislation. (In Social Security Bulletin, Federal Security Agency, Social
Security Administration, Washington, January 1947, pp. 5-10. 15 cents,
Superintendent of Documents, Washington.)
Addressed to State agencies administering unemployment compensation, these
proposals for the most part discuss broad phases of the system, including coverage,
amount and duration of benefits, and disqualifications and eligibility for benefits.
Provision for temporary disability benefits under the unemployment-insurance
system is recommended, as well as administrative simplification, an advisory
council representing employers, employees, and the public, and a tripartite
appeals board.
Lnemployment benefits and beneficiaries, [railroad workers, 1945-46]. (In Monthly
Review, U. S. Railroad Retirement Board, Chicago, January 1947, pp. 2-5.)
In the year analyzed, about 163,000 railroad workers received unemployment
benefits, which averaged $138 and reached the record sum of over 22 million
dollars. Proportion of unemployed to number of railroad employees was highest
in the leading mining and industrial States of the eastern half of the country.
Wages and Hours of Labor
Hours and wages of employees of water carriers subject to jurisdiction of Interstate
Commerce Commission. Washington, U. S. Interstate Commerce Commis
sion, Bureau of Transport Economics and Statistics, 1946. 104 pp.; mimeo
graphed. (Statement No. 4629.)
The study_ shows trends, mainly from 1936 to 1945, in employment, hours
worked, earnings per hour and per year, and output per employee, and indicates
the relation of employee compensation to carrier revenue and expenses.
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M ONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 194 7
Wage structure, Series 2, No. 85: Copper alloying, rolling, and drawing, 1946.
Washington, U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1947. 19 pp.; mimeographed.
Free.
Other reports recently issued in this series, in addition to those previously
noted, show wages in the manufacture of cigarettes, chewing and smoking tobacco,
and snuff, 1946 (Series 2, No. 28), and of women's and misses’ dresses, 1945 (series
2, No. 29).
The budget approach to wage adjustments— a case study. By Jules Backman. (In
Journal of Political Economy, Chicago, February 1947, pp. 57-64. $1.)
This analysis of problems involved in the budget approach to wage adjustments
is based largely on the budget priced in five textile cities by the Textile Workers
Union of America (CIO) in connection with its demands for higher wages in 1944.
Portal-to-portal pay. By George Edward Cotter. (In Virginia Law Review,
Charlottesville, January 1947, pp. 44-69. $1.)
Considers certain procedural aspects of the Fair Labor Standards Act and the
components of work as defined by the courts in the cases dealing with portal-toportal pay. The conclusion was reached th at only Congress can prevent the
perpetuation of what the author describes as profound injustice.
Report of the Committee on Salaries and Qualifications of Public Health Personnel,
Canadian Public Health Association. (In Canadian Journal of Public
Health, Toronto, January 1947, pp. 1-37, charts. 25 cents.)
Summarizes results of a first-hand investigation covering 144, or all but 3, of
the official health agencies in Canada, and gives recommendations of the commit
tee. Information presented shows the number and salary ranges (including
revisions to October 15, 1946) of physicians, nurses, and other personnel, and
factors influencing their incomes.
Salaires, prix, et leurs rapports avec la^consommation. (In Etudes et Conjoncture,
Union Française, Ministère de l’Économie Nationale, Institut National de la
Statistique et des Études Économiques, Paris, August-September 1946,
pp. 19-33, charts.)
Study of average hourly wage rates of industrial workers, coal miners, and
white-collar workers in Paris and the French provinces, 1938-46, with indexes
based on October 1938. As a basis for estimating the proportion of the worker’s
income absorbed by food expenditures, the article includes data on retail prices
in Paris, and on food costs for a family of four in Paris, showing calories cost
and free and black market costs.
Wages, prices, and profits. London, Labor Research Department, [1946]. 29 pp.
' 6d.
About two-thirds of the pamphlet is on wages and one-third on profits, there
being only brief references to prices. In treating wages, the pamphlet argues for
increasing wages and shortening hours in Great Britain as a means of inducing
employers to install machinery and to use labor more effectively, as well as a
means of preventing unemployment. Discussion of the relation between wages
and the drive for production stresses the need for proper classification of skilled
workers, and for a fair differential between time rates and piece rates where
payment by results is used. The conclusion is reached that £5 is the minimum
adult weekly wage needed for a family.
Payment of wages for holidays. (In Ministry of Labor Gazette, London, Decem
ber 1946, pp. 344-348. 6d. net, H. M. Stationery Office, London.)
Summary of provisions of collective-bargaining agreements or statutory orders
concerning paid vacations and holidays in British industries.
Union scale of daily wage rates in Jewish establishments [in Palestine]. (In General
Monthly Bulletin of Current Statistics, Department of Statistics, Jerusalem,
December 1946, pp. 716-719. 4s.)
Daily wage rates prevailing in manufacturing industries and construction in
Jerusalem, Tel-Aviv, and Haifa at the end of September 1946, based on an 8-hour
workday.
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Wage rates in agricultural occupations [in Palestine], during the summer seasons of
1945 and 1946. (In General Monthly Bulletin of Current Statistics, De
partment of Statistics, Jerusalem, December 1946, pp. 711-715. 4s.)
Ranges in money wages of skilled and of unskilled workers in major types of
work are shown for Arab agricultural labor (in Arab and in Jewish employment)
and for Jewish agricultural labor.
General Reports
Thirty-fourth annual report of the Secretary of Labor, for the fiscal year ended June
80, 1946. Washington, U. S. Department of Labor, 1947. 218 pp. 40
cents, Superintendnent of Documents, Washington.
Branches of the Department of Labor whose work is covered in the report
include the Apprentice-Training Service, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Children’s
Bureau, Conciliation Service, Division of Labor Standards, U. S. Employment
Service, Retraining and Reemployment Administration, Shipbuilding Stabiliza
tion Committee, Wage Adjustment Board, Wage and Hour and Public Contracts
Divisions, and Women’s Bureau.
63d annual report of United States Civil Service Commission, fiscal year ended June30, 1946. Washington, 1946. 46 pp., charts.
The report shows that on September 30, 1946, the executive branch of the
United States Government had 2,469,860 civilian employees—2,154,109 in con
tinental United States and 315,751 in Territories, possessions, and foreign coun
tries. Executive departments in Washington, D. C., had 225,983 employees.
Activities of the Commission reviewed in the report include services for veterans,
placement of physically impaired persons, and administration of the retirement
acts coming under its jurisdiction.
Investigaciones sociales, 1943-45. Buenos Aires, Dirección de Estadística Social,
1946. 281 pp., charts; processed.
Subjects covered by this volume of Argentine statistics include employment
and unemployment, wages and hours, collective-bargaining agreements, strikes,
labor organizations, industrial accidents, prices, and cost of living.
Verslag over de werkzaamheden van de Stichtung-van den Arbeid in de periode Mei
1945-Mei 1946. The Hague, Stichtung van den Arbeid, [1946?]. 53 pp.
The first comprehensive account of operations of the Netherlands Labor
Foundation (composed of employer and labor representatives), which was con
ceived during the German occupation of the country and set up immediately
after its liberation. The report reviews the general economic situation during
the first year of liberation, outlines the wage policy of the Government, and
indicates the activities of the Foundation in the fields of wages, hours, vacations,
and social insurance. The Foundation is also assisting in planning the future
organization of industry in the Netherlands.
The evolution of the Netherlands Indies economy. By J. H. Boeke. New York,
Institute of Pacific Relations, Netherlands and Netherlands Indies Council,
1946. 180 pp. (I. P. R. international research series.) $2.
Reviews the influence of western economic penetration and colonial policies
upon native agriculture and enterprise, with special emphasis upon the period
since 1929 and upon the governmental policies initiated to cope with the depres
sion. A chapter on welfare and social care includes information on the coopera
tive movement, money lending, contract labor, unemployment-relief measures,
and European labor in the Netherlands Indies. Control of wages is discussed
in a chapter on regulation of the price level.
Annual report on the Department of Labor and on the resettlement of ex-servicemen
[in Nigeria], 1945. Lagos, 1946. 36 pp. Is. 6d., Government Printer, Lagos,
and Crown Agents for the Colonies, London.
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764
MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW— APRIL 194 7
Uévolution de la situation économique dans les pays étrangers: Pologne. (In Etudes
et Conjoncture, Économie Mondiale, Ministère de l’Économie Nationale,
Institut National de la Statistique et des Études Économiques, Paris, Novem
ber 1946, pp. 47-73, map.)
General survey of the national economy in Poland since the war, with a section
on the labor force and wages and one on prices and price policy.
Ekonomiska utredningar vâren 1946. Stockholm, Konjunkturinstitutet, 1946.
99 pp., charts. (Meddelanden, series B, No. 6.)
Contains three studies: a review of the price situation, a forecast of the possible
trend of national income to 1951, and a survey of building and construction during
the war years, in Sweden. A summary in English and English translations of the
table of contents and certain other items are furnished.
Konjunkturlàget hôsten, 1949. Stockholm, Konjunkturinstitutet, 1946. 74 pp.
(Meddelanden, series A, No. 13.)
This review of the economic situation in Sweden includes data on employment,
wage and salary paj^ments, individual incomes, and consumption in 1945, and
national income (preliminary figures) in 1944, with comparative data for earlier
years.
The Tasmanian economy in 1945-46. Hobart, State Finance Committee, 1946.
22, xvi pp., charts. (Studies of the Tasmanian economy, No. 24.)
Analyzes trends in production, employment, and social services. Appendixes
give statistics of employment, prices (indexes), and wages (indexes) in 1945-46,
and value of production in 1944-45, with comparative data for earlier years.
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11. S. G O V E R N M E N T P R I N T I N G O F F I C E : 1947
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