Full text of Monthly Labor Review : April 1917, Volume IV, Number 4

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MONTHLY REVIEW
OF THE

U. S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS
vol.

iv—n o .

4

WASHINGTON

a p r i l , 1917

COMPULSORY HEALTH INSURANCE PROPOSED BY SOCIAL
INSURANCE COMMISSION OF CALIFORNIA.1

The report of the Social Insurance Commission of California to
the legislature of 1917 is a sweeping indorsement of practically the
whole program of social insurance—health, unemployment, old age,
invalidity—as “ a practical and effective means of counteracting at
least some of the harmful results of modern industrial conditions
upon the well-being of the wage earners.” Compulsory health in­
surance is urged as the most logical first step in such a program (next
to accident compensation which has already been adopted by the
State), and the attention of the report is largely concentrated upon
this subject.
The commission was created by an act of 1915, following a period
in which unemployment and destitution in the State had been par­
ticularly acute. Its duties were to investigate u the various systems
of social insurance ” in use or proposed in other States and in foreign
countries and to report its findings to the legislature, together with
an estimate of the cost of any system it might recommend.
The creation of such a commission was in itself a noteworthy inci­
dent. As is generally known, the principle of social insurance, so
widely applied in Europe, has been accepted in this country only in
the case of accident compensation, laws on this subject being now in
operation in 35 States. The so-called mothers’ pensions laws, now
in force in a number of States, represent a somewhat analogous idea,
but are really public pensions and not insurance. Of other forms
of social insurance most consideration has been given to those con1 R e p o rt of th e C alifo rn ia Social In su ra n c e Com m ission, J a n . 25, 1917.
S acram ento,
1917. 329 pp. The com m ission of five m em bers appointed by th e governor consisted of
th e fo llo w in g : P au l H e rrio tt, ch airm an (succeeding Jo h n F. N eylan, resig n ed ), K ath erin e
C. F elton, Dr. F lo ra W. Sm ith, Mrs. F ra n ces N. Noel, and George H. Dunlop. The mem­
bers were u npaid, b u t th e sum of $20,000 w as allow ed for expenses.


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cerning old age and unemployment. Old-age insurance has been the
subject of official investigations by a few States, notably Massa­
chusetts and Wisconsin, and unemployment insurance has been re­
ported on by the Immigration and Housing Commission of Califor­
nia and by a special commission in Massachusetts. But up to 1917
the only State commissions appointed to investigate the subject of
health insurance and also of social insurance in its various phases
were those of California (1915) and of Massachusetts (1916). Both
of these have submitted reports to the 1917 legislature of their respec­
tive States. A summary of the California report is presented below.
ATTITUDE

OF COMMISSION TOWARD

SOCIAL INSURANCE IN

GENERAL.

The commission is convinced that social insurance in general is
practicable and desirable. It did not attempt original inquiries
regarding the success of such insurance in foreign countries, but
from the information collected it is led to the following opinions :
(1) Social insurance in its various branches represents a world-wide move­
ment which embraces not only all of Europe but a large portion of the British
Empire, and has made its beginnings in Asia and America. It is at the present
one of the most important movements in modern social apd labor legislation.
All modern civilized and industrial countries have some social insurance legis­
lation in force. The most important and progressive foreign countries also
possess the most comprehensive social insurance systems.
(2) Social insurance methods represent a practical and effective means of
counteracting at least some of the harmful results of modern industrial condi­
tions upon the well-being of wage earners, and especially of preserving those
persons who for some reason or other cease being independent producers either
temporarily or permanently.
(3) While no country in the world has as yet succeeded in abolishing poverty
or even destitution and the need for charitable relief, much has been accom­
plished toward that goal in several countries by means of the existing social
insurance systems.
(4) In addition to this relief of destitution, social insurance has proved to be
a powerful factor for the preservation of life and health, through the “ safety
first ” movement, through improved care of the sick and invalids, and through
regularization of employment. In several countries the increased span of life
and improved health conditions are largely ascribed to the influence of social
insurance institutions.
(5) The success of the social insurance institutions appears to be largely de­
pendent upon their compulsory character. Both in the number of the persons
protected and in the quality of service rendered compulsory insurance systems
appear to be vastly superior to the voluntary ones.
(6) Different racial and national conditions and different political organiza­
tion seem to have had little effect upon the existence and extension of social
insurance institutions in various countries.
(7) Next to compensation for industrial accident, compulsory health insurance
is the most highly developed form of social insurance in Europe, and it has
followed accident compensation in several countries as the next step in the
extension of social insurance.


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FINDINGS REGARDING H EA LTH CONDITIONS IN

499

CALIFORNIA.

The commission devoted most of its attention to investigations of
conditions in California, with particular reference to the subject of
health. Its object was to ascertain the amount and burden of sick­
ness among wage earners, their ability to carry the burden, the pro­
visions offered by public hospitals, clinics, and dispensaries, and the
success of private voluntary insurance methods, such as trade-unions,
fraternal orders, and insurance companies in meeting the existing
needs. As a result of these studies, the commission came to the fol­
lowing conclusions:
(1) While the rate of weekly wage is higher in California than in Eastern
States, the earning power of the majority of the wageworkers is not sufficiently
high to enable them to go through an attack of serious illness without a very
grave hazard to their economic well-being. The loss of earnings through
unemployment is very large, thus materially affecting the annual income.
[It is noted elsewhere in the report that available wage statistics indicate
that over 10 per cent of the adult males in manufacturing industries receive
less than $12 per week and some 60 per cent less than $18 per week. Of women
in all occupations 20 per cent receive less than $7 per week and 74 per cent
less than $12 per week. These figures take no account of loss through unem­
ployment. For an average family of five it is estimated that the minimum
cost of food and shelter alone is not less than $12 per week.]
(2) The expenses of treatment of the sick are heavy in California, as they
are throughout the Pacific coast, and considerably heavier than in other parts
of the country. The commission has no intention of criticizing the charges made
by the medical profession for its services. Comparison of the standards of
payment for medical services with the incomes of the large proportion of the
wageworkers leads to the conclusion that medical aid at the ordinary rate of
payment is not within the means of a large number of wageworkers.
The cost of private hospital service is beyond the reach of the paying
capacities of most wageworkers, and, with the exception of a very few county
hospitals and a few private hospitals to which free patients are admitted, the
available beds in the ordinary county hospitals offer facilities which are
recognized by the proper authorities to be unsatisfactory and are not acceptable
to the large number of wageworkers. As a result free hospital facilities are
decidedly inadequate. In comparison with the standard of five hospital beds
per thousand of population, California has only one free hospital bed per
thousand.
As a result of these conditions the commission finds there is a rapid increase
in the use of free clinics, lodge practice of medicine, mutual hospital associa­
tions and commercial hospital associations, patronized largely by wageworkers.
(8)
In investigating the relief work which charitable organizations, public
and private, are called upon to perform sickness was found to be the largest
single cause of dependency.
(4) Despite the hardship which illness brings to the individual wage earner
investigations disclosed the fact that California has a comparatively low sickness
rate—an average of six days per person is lost each year because of sickness.
(5) A full investigation of the existing insurance facilities shows con­
clusively that health insurance is an institution with which the people of
California, and especially its working men and working women, are familiar


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through fraternal orders, benefit societies, trade-unions, and to some extent
through commercial insurance companies.
Probably not more than one-third of California wageworkers have voluntarily
insured themselves against the hazard of sickness, and these voluntary efforts
reach only an extremely small proportion of the people who need it most.
In most cases the entire financial burden is placed upon the wageworkers
themselves, and therefore the funds collected are usually inadequate to provide
support during illness and scientific medical care. This is particularly true of
medical and hospital services furnished, except in a very few large corporations.
(6) As a result of these findings, the commission has arrived at the conclusion
that legislative provision for a State-wide system of compulsory health insurance for wageworkers and other persons of small incomes would offer a very
powerful remedy for the problem of sickness and dependency in the State of
California.
(7) In selecting health insurance as the particular branch of social insurance
best adapted for earliest action, the commission was guided by the following
conditions: (a) Health insurance appears logically to be the next step in develop­
ment after accident compensation, (ft) It offers the least actuarial and organi­
zational difficulties as compared with other more complicated branches of social
insurance which require provision of substantial reserves, (c) While the grave
character of the problem of unemployment can not be denied, no system of unem­
ployment insurance in California would appear practicable until further meas­
ures are taken to reduce the amount of unemployment. Moreover, unemploy­
ment insurance is a comparatively new institution with a very limited amount
of experience available at present, ( d) Old-age insurance presents such serious
actuarial and financial problems that the commission does not feel in a position to
make any recommendation concerning it at this time. Further study of the
problem, especially as to the comparative merits of the methods of compulsory
insurance and straight old-age pensions, would be required, (e) It is claimed,
and with some justice, that in both the field of old age and unemployment insur­
ance national action may be necessary, while the problem of dependency due to
sickness is largely a local problem amenable to State action..
RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE COMMISSION.

The commission does not submit in final form its opinions as to the
details of the system which it recommends in principle. It urges that
such an important subject deserves wide consideration by the people
of the State. Moreover, an amendment to the State constitution would
probably be necessary before a compulsory health-insurance system
could be adopted, and this the commission thinks desirable, as it would
bring the matter to popular attention and lead to valuable criticisms
and suggestions.
But, while the commission does not attempt to frame even a tenta­
tive draft of a bill, it does take occasion to sketch in a broad way cer­
tain opinions it has formed as to the essential features of a healthinsurance system for California. In so doing it points out what it
considers to be certain fundamental difficulties in the bill proposed by
the American Association for Labor Legislation and suggests meas­
ures by which it believes these difficulties can be avoided.


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501

OBJECTIONS TO THE STANDARD H EALTH INSURANCE BILL OF TH E AMERICAN
ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR LEGISLATION .

The objections which the commission offers to the bill of the Ameri­
can Association for Labor Legislation are expressed in the following
language :
1. The commission believes that unions, fraternal societies, and other volun­
tary organizations now engaged in health insurance should be given a place
under a State system and should be encouraged to continue and develop their
activities; that the compulsory system should not drive out the voluntary, nor
substitute purely formal units of organization for associations in which men
are bound together by ties of friendship, loyalty, and mutual interest. The plan
suggested in the bill of the American Association for Labor Legislation places
voluntary societies at such a competitive disadvantage as practically to bar
them out from any participation in health insurance; for while insurance in
these societies is permitted in lieu of other forms of compulsory insurance they
do not receive the employers’ contribution, which amounts to from 33s to 40
per cent of the entire insurance premium. Thus these societies are placed at a
competitive disadvantage so great as to be disastrous. Few of their members
will continue to insure with them when they can save one-third of the premium
by insuring elsewhere.
2. Knowing the many difficulties and complexities of its own with which health
insurance must grapple, the commission favors a form of organization which
does not force employers and employed to join in the administration of the system,
and for this reason opposes the plan proposed by the American Association
for Labor Legislation, which places the immediate local control of health insur­
ance in the hands of district mutual associations governed jointly by the em­
ployers and employed. Under such a system the commission fears that with
the administration in the hands of representatives of these two groups there
would be a likelihood of deadlocks on disputed issues.
3. The commission believes that the success of health insurance will depend
largely upon the efficiency of its management and, therefore, upon the ability
and integrity of those selected for executive and administrative positions. The
commission is, therefore, opposed to the plan of organization suggested in the
bill under discussion, because the method which it provides for selecting those
who are to administer the health insurance system gives no assurance that per­
sons of special fitness or ability will be chosen. For while the plan under
consideration provides for a State insurance commission appointed by the gov­
ernor, the duties of this commission are largely supervisory and judicial. The
direct administration of health insurance is intrusted to local mutual associa­
tions, to which all the employed, subject to the system and not otherwise insured,
and their employers belong.
Employed and employers meet separately and elect representatives to a central
committee. The representatives so chosen elect an equal number of directors.
These directors, chosen jointly by employers and employed, constitute the gov­
erning body of the local fund.
Under this system a new electorate is created. So far, at least, as the in­
sured are concerned, it is made up of persons who are practically strangers
to each other. Union and nonunion, skilled and unskilled, come together
simply for the purpose of this single election. Political experience suggests
the result to be expected from such a system of election.


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SUGGESTIONS AS TO CHARACTER OF SYSTEM.

In place of the methods objected to above the commission proposes
a system of health insurance in which cash and medical benefits
should be entirely separated and in which the form of administration
should conform to the present organization of industrial accident
insurance in the State. The proposed system is sketched in the
report, as follows:
Its central features are the separation of cash and medical benefits and the
provision that the insured shall pay the entire cost of the cash benefit. Under
such a system it obviously becomes a simple matter to provide that the work­
man who pays the entire cost of his money benefit may insure in any fraternal
organization, union, of voluntary society which he may select, provided that
such organization has been approved by the State as financially sound.
A State fund for carrying cash benefits will also be established as part of
the system, so that if the workman does not care to insure with a voluntary
organization he may insure with the State. In either case he pays the entire
cost of the insurance secured. Under this arrangement the State fund carry­
ing cash benefits receives no subsidy from employers or from the State. Fra­
ternal organizations and other voluntary societies are, therefore, not placed
in a position of competitive disadvantage in relation to it.
The State fund should set a rate fully covering all cost of administration,
but allowing for no profit. This would become the standard rate, checking
possible waste or inefficiency on the part of private societies.
While under this system the insured pay the entire cost of the money
benefit and select their own insurance carriers, the contributions of employers
and of the State are paid directly into the State fund and are used primarily
to meet the cost of the medical benefit. The administration of this fund and
the organization for medical aid will be vested in a State insurance commis­
sion which is also made responsible for the administration of the entire health
insurance system. This commission is to be composed of full-time salaried
members appointed by the governor. The employer, the insured, the medical
profession, and probably the public should be represented on it. This plan of
organization corresponds closely to the industrial accident commission, which
administers the system as a whole, and which also controls and administers
an insurance fund which is in competition with other funds.
Under the administration of industrial accident insurance the employer pays
the entire premium and therefore there is no necessity for the separation of
cash and medical benefits. Under health insurance, where there may be
necessity for such separation, the administration of the medical benefit is
centered in the State. The State health insurance fund, under this system,
therefore becomes (1) the sole and only carrier of medical benefits;1 (2) one
but not the sole carrier of cash benefits.
While under this system employers and employed are not arbitrarily brought
together in the administration of health insurance they should be allowed to
come together in establishment and trade funds when both employers and em­
ployed desire to do so. In such cases the employers’ contributions should be
paid to the fund and not to the State. The fund should be allowed considerable
freedom in the organization of medical aid. By allowing the voluntary organi­
zation of these trade and establishment funds, all the benefits and none of the
1 E xcept as tra d e and estab lish m en t funds are allow ed to ca rry th e ir own m edical
benefits.


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503

disadvantages of joint administration by employers and employed are secured,
and the administration of the system is made more elastic and flexible.
In order to simplify the statement of the plan only two principal benefits
have been referred to, namely, the cash and the medical. There are, of course,
other subsidiary benefits the cost of which should be apportioned by the insur­
ance commission between the insured, the employers, and the State, so that each
bears the approximate proportion of the' entire cost assigned to it. If this plan
is adopted the act should specify approximately and not absolutely the propor­
tion of cost to be borne by the three contributors.
According to the estimate of cost made by Dr. Rubinow and others the cash
benefit will probably range between 33 i and 37h per cent of the entire cost of
the prescribed benefit. Any of the various plans suggested require the insured
to pay at least 40 per cent of the entire cost of the insurance. It is therefore
reasonable' to suppose that the insured can always pay the entire cost of the
cash benefit and in addition the cost of some other subsidiary benefits.
According to Dr. Rubinow’s estimate the cost of medical care for the insured
ànd his family may be expected to range between 33J and 39 per cent of the
entire cost of the prescribed benefits. Under any of the systems this will be
less than the proportion of cost assigned to the employers and the State, while
under the bill prepared by the American Association for Labor Legislation the
employers alone are required to pay 40 per cent of the entire cost. It seems
reasonable then to expect that the contributions of the employers and the
State will always suffice to meet at least the entire cost of medical aid.
Under this system the organization of medical aid will be in charge of the
commission itself, which will, after conference with the physicians, fix the rate
of compensation for their services, and which will appoint a medical director,
who will be in charge of a corps of district medical inspectors. These in­
spectors will be in charge' of the work in the various districts established for
administrative purposes.
In each district a panel of physicians will be established and organized under
the direction and supervision of the district medical inspector. Under a system
of free choice, which will probably be the one established in California, all
licensed physicians willing to accept the compensation fixed by the commission
and to abide by the committee’s regulations may register on the panel, and the
insured may choose from any of the physicians so registered.
It can not be urged against the system here suggested that it fails to protect
the employers’ interests, for the employers will have representation on the com­
mission which will appoint the medical director and determine the rate of
compensation to be given to physicians. The cost of medical care will depend
upon the rate of compensation so fixed and the efficiency of the supervision
exercised by the medical inspectors. Employers will also be represented on
a central advisory committee appointed to work with the commission and any
district advisory committees working with the district medical officers. Again,
the employers’ interest is automatically protected by the insured themselves
in their unions and fraternal organizations who control the administration of
the cash benefit, for men do not malinger to get more attention from the
doctors but to secure the cash benefits. The insured, paying the entire cost
of the cash benefit, will have direct interest in preventing malingering, and
in so doing will automatically hold down the cost of medical service.
The plan of organization which is suggested here is supported by the best
political experience we have. In a democracy the greatest possible efficiency
of administration is secured by giving the governor a wide appointive power
and holding him strictly responsible for the result. This policy has been fol­
lowed in recent years in California, and the marked efficiency of the industrial

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accident commission and the railroad commission stands out in confirmation of
this theory. As health insurance will directly affect some 2,000,000 people in
the State, no governor will risk inefficient administration of the system, as it
would probably wreck his career as executive. Therefore we may reasonably
expect that great care will be exercised in the selection of the insurance com­
mission, and the commission in turn will use the same care in the selection of
its executive officers.
It can not be fairly urged that in the interest of efficiency this plan sacrifices
local interest and tends to establish a bureaucratic and centralized system—first,
because in the medical administration it provides for local advisory boards and
the free choice of physicians, thus bringing into the system the majority of
the medical profession ; secondly, in the administration of the cash benefit it
accepts as funds, lodges, fraternals, unions, etc., and so brings into the adminis­
tration of the system many local organizations and forces the State fund to
enter into competition with them.
In conclusion the commission does not wish its purpose misunderstood. It is
not, at this time, prepared to offer a plan for the organization of health insur­
ance. It sees what it believes to be serious objections to the plan of the Amer­
ican Association for Labor Legislation, which has been given the greatest pub­
licity. It believes that these objections can be obviated through other forms
of organization. In briefest outline it sketches a plan of organization which it
believes free from these objections. This plan may, however, be open to objec­
tions still more grave. It is submitted at this time simply for the purpose
of study and debate.
ESTIM A TES OF COST OF H E A LT H -IN SU R A N CE SYSTEM.

In attempting to estimate the probable cost of a health-insurance
system for the State of California the commission was handicapped
by the lack of precise information regarding most of the basic fac­
tors of cost. The conclusions arrived at, therefore, are recognized
as not scientifically accurate, but they are offered as probably suffi­
ciently dependable to serve as a basis for preliminary computations.
The necessary basic factors are estimated as follows :
1. Total number of wage earners in California possibly subject
to the act, 995,000. This number is estimated from occupation statis­
tics of the United States Census of 1910, with a loading of 25 per
cent to allow for the increase from 1910 to 1917.
2. The total weekly pay-roll expense is estimated at $17,146,000.
This is based upon somewhat fragmentary data from various State
and Federal reports.
3. The sick rate among wage earners in the State is estimated at
six days per person per year. This is based on such limited material
as was available regarding the sickness expenses of lodges and tradeunions, checked against certain foreign experience. It was impos­
sible to make separate estimates for sex or occupation.
4. The cost of medical aid alone is estimated at $4 per annum per
person insured. This is an extremely rough estimate, but is believed
to be ample, being twice the amount granted under the British system
and some four times as large as the amount paid by the Leipzig fund.

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505

In addition to medical aid, hospital care would average about $2
per annum per capita, and drugs an equal amount. Dental care
could he added for perhaps $1 per annum.
5.
The costs of other forms of benefit which an insurance system
might offer, such as maternity and funeral benefits, and sanitorium
treatment for tuberculosis may be estimated with reasonable accuracy
from available statistics.
With these basic factors of cost estimated in the manner suggested
above the commission works out various computations as to the cost
of a compulsory insurance system paying cash benefits of two-thirds
of the weekly wages, with a maximum of $15 per week, and covering
a total wage-earning population of 995,000.
The following table, reproduced from the report, shows the esti­
mates of net cost, by character of benefit and by industrial groups.
This statement contains no loading for expense and assumes that
every one under insurance is fully covered through the entire year.
The cost of medical aid is assumed at $4 per capita, but parallel
computation is made on the assumption of a $6 per capita for medical
aid.
ESTIMATED NET COST OF INSURANCE, BY CHARACTER OF B E N E FIT AND BY INDUS
TRIAL GROUPS.

Kind of benefit.

Manufac­
turing,
building,
mining,
transpor­
tation.

Insured persons:
1. Weekly benefit (§ wages).................. $4,838,000
2. Maternity:
18,000
Cash................................................
9,000
Obstetrics......................................
371,000
3. Funeral............ ...................................
4. Medical ($4)......................................... 1,884,000
942,000
5. Hospital...............................................
942,000
6. Drugs...................................................
471,000
7. Dental..................................................
930,000
8. Tuberculosis........................................

Commer­
cial,
clerical.

Profes­
Domestic,
sional and
agricul­
tural, mis­
public
service.
cellaneous.

Total.

$2,087,000

$605,000

$1,668,000

$9,198,000

51,000
22,000
152,000
904,000
452,000
452,000
226,000
381,000

36,000
12,000
31,000
216,000
108,000
108,000
54,000
80,000

43,000
21,000
169,000
976,000
488,000
488,000
244.000
295.000

148,000
64,000
723,000
3,980,000
1,990,000
1,990,000
995,000
1,686,000

Total.......................................... 10,405,000
Deduct—
592,000
Cost for hospital1.............................
First week’s cash2............................ 1,210,000

4,727,000

1,250,000

4,392,000

20,774,000

261,000
522,000

79,000
151,000

210,000
417,000

1,142,000
2,300,000

Total deduction.......................
Net (insured)........................................
Family:
1. Medical................................................
2. Hospital...............................................
3. Funeral................................................
4. Maternity.......*...................................

1,802,000
8,603,000

783,000
3,944,000

230,000
1,020,000

627,000
3,765,000

3,442,000
17,332,000

2,009,000
1,004,000
364,000
494,000

822,000
411,000
149,000
180,000

170,000
85,000
31,000
33,000

918,000
460,000
167,000
207,000

3,919,000
1,960,000
711,000
914,000

Total (family)..........................

3,871,000

1,562,000

319,000

1,752,000

7,504,000

Total cost.................................. 12,474,000
Cost (medical. $6):
W ith family............................................. 14,419,000
W ithout family....................................... 9,545,000

5,506,000

1,339,000

5,517,000

24,836,000

6,369,000
4,396,000

1.532.000
1.128.000

6,460,000
4,253,000

28,780,000
19,322,000

1 In making this computation it is assumed th a t a single person in hospital will require no cash benefit
and a person with dependents only one-half the usual cash benefit.
2 Estim ated saving in cash benefits which would result from a one week’s waiting period.


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Briefly, this table shows that for all groups of wage earners the
net cost, including the benefits for the insured, as well as a fairly
comprehensive scheme of medical benefits for the family, will amount
to $24,836,000, and without the benefits to the family, $17,332,000.
On an assumption of $6 per capita for medical aid, the total would be
$28,780,000, including the family, and $19,322,000 not including the
family. The reduction in cost which would follow the exclusion of
domestic service and agriculture or of other industrial groups can
be readily calculated from the figures given.
In the next table the total net costs for the several benefits (on a $4
per capita medical aid basis) are reduced to terms of per capita insured
and per cent of wages. Also calculation is made as to the cost added
by administration expenses, figured as 10 per cent of gross costs,
and a further loading of 7 | per cent is made for “ extended insur­
ance,” i. e., to protect the wage earner against arrears in his weekly
payments. A
per cent loading, it is estimated, will allow one
week’s extension in every five. Some such extension is necessary to
prevent injustice and to protect workers in those trades having long
periods of unemployment.
ESTIMATED COST P E R CAPITA AND P E R CENT OF WAGES, W ITH LOADING FOR
ARREARS AND EX PENSES.

Kind of benefit.

Total cost.

Annual
cost per
capita.

Weekly
cost with
7.5 per
Weekly cent load­
ing for
cost.
extended
insur­
ance.

Cost in
Cost in per cent
per cent of wages
of wages
with
(no load­ loading
7.5 per
ing).
cent.

Wftp.lvly benefit (§ wages')......................... $9,198,000
Maternity:
148,000
Cash......................................................
64,000
Obstetrics............................................
723.000
Funeral.......................................................
Medical ($4)................................................ 3.980.000
Hospital. . .
...................................... 1.990.000
Drugs.......................................................... 1.990.000
995.000
D ental.........................................................
Tuberculosis............................................... 1.686.000

$9.244

$0.178

«0.191

1.03

1.11

.149
.064
.727
4.000
2.000
2.000
1.000
1.695

.003
.001
.014
.077
.038
.038
.019
.033

.003
.001
.015
.083
.041
.041
.020
.035

.02
.01
.08
.45
.22
.22
.11
.19

.02
.01
.09
.48
.24
.24
. 12
.20

T otal................................................. 20, 774,000
Deduct:
Cost for h osp ital1 ............................... 1,142,000
First week’s cash 2.............................. 2,300,000

20. 878

.4015

.432

2.33

2. 51

1.148
.2.311

.022
.044

.024
.047

. 13
.26

. 14
.27

Total deduction...............................
Family:
Medical................................................
Hospital...............................................
Funeral................................................
M aternity.............................................

3,442,000

3.459

.067

.072

.39

.42

3.919.000
1.960.000
711.000
914.000

3.939
1.970
.715
.919

.076
.038
.014
.018

.082
.041
.015
.019

.44
.22
.08
.10

.48
.24
.09
.11

Total (family)..................................

7, 504,000

7.542

.145

. 156*

.84

.91

Grand to ta l.........- .......................... 24,836,000
Administrative loading: 8
Insured................................................ 1,926,000
834,000
Fam ily.................................................

24.961

.480

.516

2.79

2.99

1.936
.838

.037
.016

.040
.017

.22
.09

.23
.10

27. 735

.533

.573

3.09

3.33

Grand total cost...........................

27,596,000

1 I t is assumed th a t a single person in hospital will require no cash benefit and a person with dependents
only one-half th e usual cash benefit.
2 Estim ated saving in cash benefits which would result from a one week’s waiting period.
8 Estim ated at 10 per cent of gross costs.


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From these figures it appears that, if all benefits are allowed, the
average annual cost per capita insured would be $27.74, including
administration expenses. This is equivalent to $0,533 per week.
With the further loading of
per cent for “ extended insurance ”
the weekly cost would be increased to $0,573, which would represent
a cost of 3.33 per cent of total pay roll.
These two figures would be increased to $0,655 per week and 3.80
per cent of pay roll if medical aid was raised to $6. On the other
hand the costs might be reduced by excluding certain of the less
important benefits, such as dental aid, sanitarium treatment for
tuberculosis, all benefits to the family of the insured, etc. The effect
of such exclusion and substitutes upon estimated costs is shown in
the following table : 1
COST P E R CAPITA AND P E R CENT OF WAGES W ITH CERTAIN B E N E FIT S EXCLUDED.

Loading of 71 per
cent for arrears.

Net cost.
Item.

Loading of 7} per
cent for arrears
and 10 per cent
for a d m in is tr a ­
tion.

Per week Per cent Per week Per cent Per week Per cent
per
per
per
member. of wages. member. of wages. member. of wages.
Medical aid at $6—
Inclusive of family:
All benefits...........................................
No dental.............................................
No tuberculosis...................................
No dental or tuberculosis...................
Exlusive of family:
All benefits..........................................
No dental.............................................
No tuberculosis...................................
No dental or tuberculosis...................
Medical aid at $4—
Inclusive of family:
All benefits...........................................
No dental.............................................
No tuberculosis...................................
No dental or tuberculosis..................
Exclusive of family:
All benefits...........................................
No dental-..........................................
No tuberculosis...................................
No dental or tuberculosis..................

$0. 556
.537
.524
.505

3. 23
3.12
3. 04
2.93

10.598
.577
.563
.543

3.47
3.35
3:27
3.15

SO. 655
.634
.620
.600

3.80
3.68
3. 60
3.48

.373
.354
.341
.322

2 17
2.06
1.99
1.87

. 401
.381
.367
.346

2 33
2.21
2.14
1.99

. 441
.421
.407
.386

2 ofi
2.44
2.37
2. 22

.480
.461
.447
.428

2.79
2.68
2.60
2.49

.516
.496
. 481
.464

3.00
2.88
2.80
2.68

.573
.553
.538
.521

3.33
3.21
3.13
3.01

.335
.316
.302
.283

1.94
1.83
1.76
1.64

.360
.340
.325
.304

2.09
1.97
1.89
1. 76

.400
.380
.365
.344

2.32
2.20
2.12
1.99

As bearing upon the probable accuracy of these cost estimates the
report notes that they are in close harmony with “ the experience of
the most efficient funds in Germany for which the cost has been
recently running between 3 and 4 per cent.”
COMMISSION TO STUDY HEALTH AND OLD-AGE INSURANCE IN
OHIO.

The Legislature of Ohio, under date of March 10, 1917, enacted a
law providing for the creation of a commission to study the subject
1 T h is tab le is a su m m ary of T ables IV, V, VI, V II, X, and X I of th e rep o rt.


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of health insurance and sickness prevention and of olcl-age insurance,
and to submit to the next general assembly a full report of its work
and findings. The act appropriates $25,000 for the work of the com­
mission. The text of the act is as follows:
S ection 1. The governor be, and is hereby, authorized and directed to ap­
point, within 30 days after this bill becomes a law, a commission of seven mem­
bers to conduct a study of the subject of health insurance and sickness preven­
tion, and also of the subject of old-age insurance and of the application of health
insurance and old-age insurance to Ohio conditions.
Sec. 2. It shall be the duty of such commission to make an inquiry into the
subject of sickness and the causes thereof; the loss to individuals and to the
public thereby ; the adequacy of the present methods of treatment and care of
such sickness, and of meeting the losses caused by such sickness by existing
insurance companies or associations, or otherwise; and the influence of working
and living conditions upon the health of employed and unemployed persons and
methods for the prevention of such sickness, and other related subjects.
Sec. 3. It shall also be the duty of such commission to make an inquiry into
the subject of old age in its relation to industry and to the public interest and
of the adequacy of existing methods of caring for aged workers.
Sec. 4. The commission herein authorized to be appointed shall, within 30
days after its appointment, meet in Columbus and organize by the election of a
chairman, and it shall submit to the eighty-third general assembly a full report
of its work and findings on the subject of health insurance and sickness preven­
tion, and also a full report of its work and findings on the subject of old-age
insurance. Such commission, however, may issue partial reports on these sub­
jects during the progress of its work.
S ec. 5. The members of such commission shall serve without compensation,
except that each shall be entitled to his actual and necessary expenses incurred
in the performance of his duties under the provisions of this act, including his
necessary traveling expenses incurred in attending meetings or in performing
other duties incidental to the work of the commission.
Sec. 6. Such commission shall have the power to employ and fix the com­
pensation of a secretary and such investigators and other employees as may be
necessary to carry out the purposes of this act. Such commission shall have
the power to provide necessary office furniture, supplies, stationery, printed
forms, books, periodicals, maps, and other furnishings and equipment "necessary
to the performance of their duties.
S ec. 7. The secretary, investigators, and other employees of such commission,
in addition to the compensation herein provided for, shall be paid their neces­
sary traveling expenses and other expenses necessarily incurred in the per­
formance of their duties.
Sec. 8. The expenses incurred by such commission and the compensation and
expenses of its secretaries, investigators, and other employees for the purposes
specified herein, shall be paid from the State treasury upon the warrant of the
auditor of state when the vouchers therefor have been duly signed by the
chairman of such commission.
Sec. 9. Such commission and any subcommittee or member of such commis­
sion delegated to conduct hearings shall have power to administer oaths, issue
subpoenas, and compel the attendance of witnesses within the county of their
residence. In case of disobedience on the part of any person to comply with
any proper order of the. commission or any subpoena issued in behalf of such
commission, or on refusal of any witness to testify concerning any matters
regarding which he may be lawfully interrogated, the presiding officer shall
make complaint thereof, in writing, to the probate judge of the county in which
such witness resides, who shall issue a subpoena for the appearance of such
person forthwith before him to give testimony. If any person so summoned
fails to appear, or appearing refuses to testify, he shall be subject to like pro­
ceedings and penalties for contempt as witnesses in actions pending in the pro­
bate court.

Sec. 10. Such commission shall have free access to all public records neces­
sary for the carrying out of the duties herein prescribed and suitable rooms
shall be furnished to such commission either in the statehouse or in some other
building.
S ec. 11. There is hereby appropriated out of any moneys in the State treasury

to the credit of the general revenue fund, not otherwise appropriated, not to
exceed the sum of $25,000, to carry out the purposes of this act.

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509

SOCIAL INSURANCE AND THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSO­
CIATION.

The council on health and public instruction of the American
Medical Association has recently issued a series of five pamphlets on
social insurance.1 Pamphlet No. I deals with workmen’s compensa­
tion legislation, describing in general the operation of these laws,
their social and philosophic foundations, and what the trend at pres­
ent seems to be in their relation to the medical profession. The
report points out that the compensation laws recognize the fact that
human wastage of industry, invalidism, and death should be classed
in the same category as the wear and tear of other necessary means
of production and should be paid for by the industry which produces
the wastage. It then proceeds to trace the origin and growth of the
various kinds of social insurance in Europe, including accident in­
surance, old-age insurance, sickness insurance, widow and orphan
insurance, and maternity insurance, and notes the progress of work­
men’s compensation legislation in the United States. There is a brief
analysis of the features of the various State laws showing wherein
they differ. A table is presented showing the amount of compensa­
tion for death, permanent total disability, and temporary total disa­
bility (12 weeks) in the different States, also the maximum medical
attendance allowed. Following this is a brief review of accident
statistics in this country and in Europe.
The report discusses at length the relation that medical expenses
paid by sickness-insurance societies bear to the total expense, and as
illustrative of how the expenditure of the societies is divided a table
is given showing the following result in Germany in 1907 : Physicians,
23.11 per cent; medicines, 14.66 per cent; sickness benefit, 44.33 per
cent; lying-in benefit, 2.01 per cent; death benefit, 2.6 per cent;
hospital cost, 13.21 per cent ; care of convalescents, 0.08 per cent.
The report undertakes to refute the charge that there is a general
practice among surgeons working under compensation laws to over­
charge. The suggestion is made that it is profitable to employers to
hire high-priced surgeons, because it results in a reduction of com­
pensation costs. Recognizing the importance of establishing just
fees for industrial work, some of the State medical societies, it seems,
have reached an agreement to this end with their industrial or com­
pensation boards, thereby materially improving their mutual rela­
tions. A table is presented showing the fees which have been estab1
No. I, W orkm en’s C om pensation L aw s, re p o rt of ju d icial council, 71 pp. ; No. II,
Social In su ran ce, re p o rt of special com m ittee, 104 pp. ; No. I l l , H e a lth In su ra n c e in
R elatio n to th e P ublic D isp ensary, by I. M. Rubinow , 11 pp. ; No. IV, H e a lth In su ran ce
in R elatio n to P ublic H ealth , by I. M. R ubinow , 12 pp. ; No. V, Social In su ran ce, by
I. M. Rubinow, 27 pp. A m erican M edical A ssociation, 535 N o rth D earborn S treet,
Chicago [1 9 1 0 ],

80302°—17------ 2

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lished in certain States, and the opinion among medical men appears
to be generally favorable to this sort of an understanding.
Considerable space is given to a discussion of social insurance in
its direct relation to the medical profession, which must necessarily
be interested in the fact that 5 to 6 per cent of all workers will suffer
each year from some form of accident, while sickness will annually
affect 40 to 50 per cent of all wage earners. Of greater interest,
however, from the medical standpoint is the struggle of the profes­
sion in Europe to obtain what they regard as adequate compensation
in dealing with the various sickness-insurance systems, and the fact
is cited that physicians there have organized to protect themselves
against the practices of these societies. The most intense struggle
appears to have been over the question of free choice of physician
by the patient, the chief objection to this being the claim that the
amount of medical remuneration was too severe a drain upon the
sickness fund. In Germany the physicians’ organizations reached an
agreement with the sickness societies providing for the formation
of contract committees, composed of representatives of the medical
profession and of the insurance societies, free choice of physician
within the list of the insurance societies, and arbitration courts, com­
posed of representatives of the physicians and of the insurance so­
cieties, leaving the remuneration as a local issue. A similar fight in
| England resulted in the physicians partially gaining the rights for
which they contended.
, This matter is further discussed in pamphlet No. II, entitled
“ Social Insurance,” which describes 'in some detail the systems in
operation in Europe, with particular reference to England and Ger­
many. This report, it is claimed, is not an argument for or against
health insurance, but brings forward only those points which would
seem to be of interest to the medical profession and which would be
useful to them in preparing a study of the situation in any given
State where health-insurance legislation is likely to be enacted. As
to the relation of physicians to health-insurance laws and their
remuneration under such laws, the report says:
Many difficulties of administration and many failures in administration have
developed in both countries [Germany and England] through the employment
of the capitation plan of remuneration to the physicians. In Germany this has
resulted in bitter animosity between the medical profession and the insuring
societies, and bitter contests for increased remuneration in which, in the
enormous majority of contests, the physicians have won. In England it has
resulted in inadequate care being given to the majority of the insured under
the act. In this country it would seem to be useless to attempt to repeat the
inherent faults of capitation payment, and medical opinion and customs in this
country are already in vigorous antagonism to this form of contract practice.
It would seem unwise, therefore, to start with the bitter antagonism of the
medical profession against capitation. This would seem to force the necessity
in this country of a remuneration based on the visitation system. With this

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511

point of view clearly recognized, many difficulties experienced abroad will not
occur, and, in fact, the chief stumbling block to the successful carrying out of
the law is removed.
The effective administration of any health insurance law must be done
through limitation by trade or geographic area of its application. This is
clearly seen in the working abroad of the various laws in the different countries.
The English law is difficult of administration because it violates this fact.
Germany and Austria show marked effectiveness because their laws follow this
peculiarity. Furthermore, the results obtained in working out the details of the
law will be greatly influenced by the financial management of it. In Germany
the percentage of expense borne by each member—the employer, the employee,
and the State—is designated in percentage, the actual amounts necessary beingleft to experience and management to obtain. In England a definite monetary
amount was laid down by law, and with the errors of actuarial calculation it
has been found that these amounts are insufficient to give the desired results
to the workers. Eighteen cents a week as a premium was insufficient to give
a full measure of sick benefits to the workers or just remuneration to the physi­
cians and medical benefits to the sick, let alone the expenses for administration.
The English law fails to give more than the ordinary medical service and gives
but a minimum of surgical apparatus and appliances, with the result that the
sick do not receive the care they should, though the physician is justly remuner­
ated, and the lack of proper appliances keeps many sick on the sick-benefit funds
at the unnecessary expense of the insurance carriers. In Germany the generous
application of medical benefit and surgical appliances brings back the tremendous
saving in time and wages. As was pointed out by the judicial council last year,
the expense of $8,000 to specialists saved over $160,000 in wages and sick benefits.
However one may criticise the details, the insurance act has unquestionably
improved the condition of the working classes which have come under the law.

Dr. I. M. Eubinow, in pamphlet No. I l l , Health Insurance in Eelation to the Public Dispensary,1sees in the passage of such legislation
in New York the following possibilities as affecting the status of dis­
pensary practice:
1. The mass of the insured when freely furnished with medical aid on some
basis or other but paid medical aid in any case will cease to apply to dispensaries
or send their wives and children to them, so that at one stroke the necessity for
dispensaries will not altogether vanish but substantially decrease.
2. A certain proportion of the insured and their families having acquired a
dispensary habit, as it were, might continue to apply to you for medical aid,
reasoning that in view of the presence of many specialists in your institutions
the character of the medical aid furnished by you may be higher than that
furnished through the paid organization.
3. The associations might want to make arrangements with your organizations
for medical treatment on a paid basis either because they might expect to get it
cheaper or because they might expect to get better service in this way.

The opinion is expressed “ that free labor of a profession in such
institutions is not a normal condition and surely would be still more
abnormal under a health-insurance law, which must further deprive
them of a certain share of private practice and which in its very
nature provides remuneration for medical work.” It is admitted,
1 P ap er read a t th e an n u a l m eeting of th e A ssociated O u t-P a tie n t Clinics of th e City
of New York, A pr. 19, 1916.


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however, that an out-patient clinic lias some very definite technical
advantages in facilities for treatment and the possibility of special­
ized attention which it is desirable to preserve for the benefit of those
who can not pay high-priced specialists of consulting practice.
In pamphlet No. IY, on Health Insurance in Relation to Public
Health,1 Dr. Rubinow suggests the following ways in which health
insurance may be expected to benefit the public health:
1. It will relieve misery and destitution and give a better chance
for recovery.
2. It will give an opportunity for the patient to stay away from
work when in the opinion of the physician rest is necessary.
3. It will lead to the proper organization of medical aid.
4. It may include not only the workman but his family as well.
5. Its provision for maternity benefits will prevent a large number
of deaths on account of inefficient obstetric aid.
C. It will encourage the collection of sickness statistics so that the
amount of sickness to be combated may be definitely known.
The general subject of social insurance as a remedy for human
destitution and want is discussed by Dr. Rubinow in pamphlet No. V,2
in which he outlines the principles underlying this form of insurance
and declares that the people of this country are entitled to know why,
with an infinitely lower wage level in Germany, there is less destitu­
tion there than in the United States. A portion of the pamphlet is
devoted to a discussion of health insurance, showing how through a
sickness-insurance fund a family in need may receive medical or hos­
pital services and support during the extended illness of any member
and thus prevent the exhaustion of any possible savings the family
might have had at the beginning of the illness. The importance of
including members of the family in the benefits of health insurance,
and of providing for maternity insurance, was brought out.
SOME OBJECTIONS TO COMPULSORY HEALTH INSURANCE.

Although well established in many countries of Continental Europe
and in England, the principles of health insurance have not yet been
recognized in this country by legislative enactment. That there is
considerable demand for this type of social insurance, which is in­
tended primarily to be in the interests of the workingman, may be
inferred from the fact that several State federations of labor, a
1 T ap er read before tb e section on p reventive m edicine an d public h e a lth a t th e sixtysev en th a n n u a l session of th e A m erican M edical A ssociation, D etro it, June, 1916.
2 L ectu re before sum m er school of U n iv ersity of C alifornia, Berkeley, Ju ly 10, 1916.
3 F u rth e r o b jections in ad dresses before th e social in su ran ce d e p a rtm e n t of th e N a­
tio n al Civic F ed eratio n , in New Y ork C ity, J a n . 22, 1917, are published in a pam phlet
“ Com pulsory H e a lth In su ra n c e ,” received too la te fo r th is issue. T hese an d c e rta in
ad d resses in fav o r of com pulsory h e a lth in su ran ce a p p earin g in th e A m erican L abor
L eg islatio n Review for M arch, 1917, w ill be noted in th e May issue.


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number of international and local trade-unions, and individual lead­
ers of labor, and also the industrial betterment committee of the Na­
tional Association of Manufacturers,’ and the Association of Manu­
facturers and Merchants of New York State have indorsed the move­
ment. There is, however, some difference of opinion even among
those who approve the principle generally as to making health insur­
ance compulsory as proposed in a bill drafted by the American Asso­
ciation for Labor Legislation and presented to several of the State
legislatures now in session. This bill, v7hich has been defended by
the association in its 44Brief for Health Insurance,” noted in the
M onthly Review for October, 1916, page 472, would provide every
beneficiary with medical or surgical service, medicines, nursing, and
a cash benefit during illness amounting to two-thirds of his weekly
wage for not to exceed 26 weeks, the cost to be met by contributions
of one-fifth by the State and of two-fifths each by employers and
employees. A maternity benefit is also provided.
The need for health insurance, according to Prof. Irving Fisher,1
is twofold—the need of indemnity against loss, which is the essential
of the insurance principle, and the need of diminishing the loss itself.
Like education, it must be universal in order to function properly,
and to be universal it must be obligatory. It provides insurance for
those who need it most but who are unable because of poverty to
pay for other forms of insurance. Its great virtue, however, says
Prof. Fisher, will lie in the prevention of illness. 44Health insur­
ance will afford a very powerful stimulus to employers and employees
and public men to take fuller and speedier advantage of possible
health-safety devices.” At the same time the cash benefits will give
the workman a better chance for recovery, as well as more perfect
recovery if attained. Aside from preventing disease and disability,
health insurance, it is believed, will indirectly tend to reduce pov­
erty and raise slightly the entire wage level, for 44anything that
raises the physical stamina of workmen increases their productivity
and earning power.”
It appears, however, that much opposition has developed to the
principles of health insurance, and efforts are being made to prevent
the enactment of such legislation. The Chamber of Commerce of the
State of New York has vigorously protested against the health
insurance bill now pending in the State legislature,2 declaring that
the bill contemplates the creation of a very large overhead charge
1 P a p e r read before th e M edical Society of th e C ounty of New York, J a n . 22, 1917, and
published in th e New York S ta te Jo u rn a l of Medicine (17 W est F o rty -th ird S tre e t, New
York C ity ), for F e b ru ary , 1917, pp. 81-84.
2 Social In su ra n c e w ith Special R eference to Com pulsory H ealth In su ran ce. A re p o rt
p rep ared for th e com m ittee on in su ran ce of th e C ham ber of Commerce of th e S ta te of
New York, by Jo h n F ra n k lin Crowell. C ham ber of Commerce, 65 L ib erty S tre et, New
York, 92 pp.


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to be paid by the State, and commits the State to the payment, in
addition, of one-fifth of the fund necessary to carry out the in­
demnity provisions of the bill; that the law would lay a heavy bur­
den upon the taxpayers of the State; that any plan for health in­
surance should place emphasis on the prevention of sickness and not
on the payment of claims; that the expense of such a law, if enacted,
should be borne alone by the employers and the employees, the State
paying not more than the expenses of supervision; and then goes
on record as favoring the creation of a commission to investigate the
wages and living conditions of employees and the extent to which
sickness and accident can be reduced by existing State agencies, and
also to determine, as far as possible, the cost of such a law if divided
equitably between employers and employees.
The bill pending in the New York Legislature has also been the
subject of attack by the National Civic Federation in a statement
prepared by the legislative committee of its social insurance depart­
ment.1 This statement was prepared for the use of legislators, “ to
show the weaknesses, shortcomings, and dangers in the proposed
legislation,” which may be summarized as follow s :
Inaccurate definition of disability. The presumption that compulsion is essen­
tial. The scheme of insurance is neither compulsory nor voluntary, but a
mixture of both. Certain groups of workmen are excluded from membership.
There is discrimination against voluntary members. Benefits are not based on
accurate knowledge of cost. There is lack of uniformity in medital and surgical
care. There is failure to give funds necessary autonomy and power. Malinger­
ing is not controlled. Difficulties in administration exist. Fundamental in­
surance principles have been ignored. Distribution of cost is based on insuffi­
cient data. The cost of the benefits will be in excess of the provisions of the
bill. The administrative machinery is complicated and unnecessary. There is
no supervision by the insurance department. Prevention of disease is a sec­
ondary consideration.

One of the most elaborate criticisms of the act for health insur­
ance prepared by the American Association for Labor Legislation is
that written by P. Tecumseli Sherman, attorney, 15 William Street,
New York City,2 who objects to the compulsory feature of the bill
and advises, first, a careful study of the results of existing experi­
ments “ in the most democratic European countries,” but suggests
that if it is deemed necessary to resort to the immediate application
of compulsion “ it would be far more reasonable to copy the conserva1 Com pulsory H e a lth In su ran ce. S ta te m e n t issued by social in su ran ce d ep artm en t, th e
N atio n al Civic F ed eratio n , p rep ared by legislative com m ittee, D r. Lee K. F ra n k el, c h a ir­
m an ; A. P a rk e r Nevin, N atio n al A ssociation of M a n u fac tu rers ; H ugh F ra y n e, A m erican
F ed eratio n of L abor. 1 M adison Avenue, New York. 22 pp.
2 C riticism of a te n ta tiv e d r a ft of an a c t fo r h e a lth in su ran ce “ su b m itted fo r criticism
an d discussion by th e com m ittee on social in su ran ce of th e A m erican A ssociation for
L abor L eg islatio n ,” by P. Tecum seh S herm an, 15 W illiam S treet, New York. F eb ru ary ,
1917. 94 pp.


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tive features of the European precedents.” The direct benefits pro­
posed by the association bill—
would fall woefully below expectations and be more than offset by the effort,
waste, and expense involved, and that its indirect results—more particularly
those arising out of its elimination of individual rights, its attempt to subject
the people to a politico-medical despotism, its arrayal of class against class in
struggles over the political division of wealth, and its heavy multiplication of
bureaucracy—would be vitally injurious to the common welfare.

Insurance men, as a rule, find little to commend in the prin­
ciples of health insurance. Thus Frederick L. Hoffman, of the
Prudential Insurance Co. of America,1 declares such insurance to
be artificial, ill advised, and un-American; that it is wholly unneces­
sary, because the overwhelming majority of American wage earners
are fully able to provide for reasonable medical attendance and the
cost of sickness; that much more is to be gained by efforts in the direc­
tion of higher wages and shorter hours than by the establishment of
compulsory health insurance; that the demand for such legislation
conies from those who are not representatives of wage earners’ inter­
ests; that the alleged benefits in the direction both of pecuniary ad­
vantages to wage earners and of improvements in health and lon­
gevity would be obtained “ through a truly colossal bureaucratic ma­
chinery” that would be equivalent to a State medical service; that it
would result in a demoralization of the medical profession; that the
cost would be very large; that it would bring about a further regu­
larization, supervision, and control of wageworkers and their depend­
ents; and that existing forms of voluntary sickness and life insur­
ance are being taken advantage of by a large number of wage earners,
thus making health insurance unnecessary.
It is, therefore, decidedly to the interests of the American people that the propa­
ganda for compulsory health insurance should be intelligently opposed as unAmerican because of the vicious class distinction it implies, as uncalled for by the
special or economic necessities of our wage-earning population, as needless
because of our satisfactory health conditions, and as contrary to public policy
because of the resulting discouragement of any and every form of voluntary
thrift.

Another insurance representative to object to the introduction of
health insurance in this country is William Gale Curtis, chairman of
the educational committee of the Insurance Economic Society of
America, who, in a paper read before the Medical Society of the
County of New York, January 22, 1917,2 cited 21 “ economic disad1 An ad d ress delivered a t th e se v en teen th a n n u a l m eeting of th e N a tio n al Civic F e d e ra ­
tion, held in New York C ity on Ja n . 22, 1917, an a b s tra c t of w hich appeared in th e Eco­
nom ic W orld (C hronicle Co., L td., 48 W all S treet, New York C ity) fo r Feb. 3, 1917,
pp. 165, 166.
2 P u b lish ed in th e New York S ta te J o u rn a l of M edicine (17 W est F o rty -th ird S tre et,
New York C ity) fo r F eb ru ary, 1917, pp. 75-78.


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vantages” of compulsory health insurance, the more important of
which may be summarized as follows:
I t would not make up the loss occasioned by sickness among wage
earners—a loss that has been estimated at $600,000,000 per year.
Such a law could not be enforced without cumbersome and expensive
police powers.
It would place a burden of extra labor and expense on the employers
because of necessary record keeping in deducting from the wages of
employees their share of the expense.
It would involve an extraordinary amount of transfer accounting
from one association to another, on account of the constant shifting
of laborers. Interstate complications would rise.
It would be difficult for the State to determine the amount of its
20 per cent and to distribute the 20 per cent in ever varying amounts
to the 1,800 or more carrier associations.
The operation machinery of each carrier association would be topheavy.
There would be opportunity for corruption in a necessarily large
politically appointed State organization.
There would be many rejections under the law, and the time con­
sumed in examining these would be added to the time lost on account
of sickness, which it is expected the law would reduce.
The law would occasion loss of American spirit, individualism,
thrift, and self-dependence.
Taking away from the wage earner a per cent of his income would
tend to impoverish him. “ Compulsory thrift would be more rea­
sonable, more feasible, and more economical.”
“Any plan to pay out hundreds of millions in service and indem­
nity when the proper administration of various State and municipal
departments would save that money, is a plan to be condemned.”
It would “ deal a body blow to their [wage earners] most precious
possession—personal dependence and independence,” because under
the law they would receive a bounty from the employer and the
State.
The law would be unconstitutional and confiscatory, taking per­
sonal property from one man and bestowing it upon another.
Labor conditions in this country are not the same as in Europe,
and therefore such a law is not needed here.
Prevention of sickness by the development of existing agencies in
city and State should be promoted, thereby saving at least $400,000,000 of the present wage loss “ instead of a continuing loss of
$600,000,000 at an expense of at least half as much more.”
Such a law would interfere with national progress, destroy existing rela­
tions between wage earner and employer, between wage earner and physician,
between different branches of medical practice, between members of society,
between employer and State; would promote political and civil corruption.

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If sociological theorists will stop trying to devise and promote plans to pay
and continue paying more and more for social loss and turn their attention to
a campaign of prevention only, capital, business, industry, and labor will
stand united with them, and industry and labor will, as it always has done,
find a proper solution for its differences.

Samuel J. Kopetzky, chairman of the committee on medical eco­
nomics of the Medical Societj^ of the State of New York, has
analyzed the economic disadvantages presented by Mr. Curtis, point­
ing out briefly what in his opinion are the fallacies of the arguments
submitted, and concludes: 1
* * * Why should the conjoining of the interests of capital and labor
for mutual benefit destroy national progress? Does the National Civic Federa­
tion stand for a stoppage of national progress because employer and employee
and the public interest are represented in one organization? Will not this
act rather tend to multiply the very idea which underlies that organization?
We should like to see detailed proof of how such an organization could
stop national progress.

That health insurance would give the country a proportionately
small return for the tremendous outlay of money is the opinion of
Frank F. Dresser, counsel for the health committee, National Asso­
ciation of Manufacturers, in an interview granted by him to a repre­
sentative of the New York Times and published in its magazine
section of March 11, 1917. Mr. Dresser emphasizes this item of
cost, suggesting that in a State like Massachusetts the amount would
be about $23,000,000 annually, of which the workmen would con­
tribute nearly $9,000,000, the employers, $9,000,000, and the State
about $5,000,000, “ an increase of our present State tax by over 10 per
cent,” and that this cost would ultimately be passed on to the taxpayer in the form of additional taxes and a higher price for the
product.
Another objection cited by Mr. Dresser is “ its failure to disclose
responsibility for conditions which may produce illness and to assess
the cost of them where it belongs.” It was also pointed out that
there is about as much time lost on account of voluntary absences
as on account of absences due to sickness and accident, and yet, in
spite of this fact, about three-fourths of the wage earners are able
to carry insurance of some sort. “ The need of charitable relief,
therefore, is found not among all wage earners but only among
a portion.” Again, the proposed law makes the employer an in­
surance collector, which limits the scope of the measure to those
who are employed, thus automatically crowding out the unemployed,
1 “ Com m ents on th e arg u m en ts of Mr. W illiam Gale C u rtis,” by Sam uel J. K opetzky,
published in th e New York S ta te J o u r n a l of M edicine (17 W est F o rty -th ird S treet, New
York C ity ), for F eb ru ary , 1917, pp. 78-81.


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unemployable, the casual worker, and the aged. The self-employed
are also not covered by the law.
Another objection to the measure lies in the very troublesome problem of
supplying adequate medical care to those who need it at a proper cost.

Mr. Dresser also emphasized the fact that whereas the watchword
of medical science to-day is prevention, the bill itself and the cost
of it do not include preventive work.
EXPERIENCE OF A TYPICAL ESTABLISHMENT BENEFIT FUND.

A threefold plan of social insurance, embracing service pensions,
compensation for accidents, and health insurance, has been put into
operation by F. C. Huyck & Sons, woolen manufacturers, Albany,
N. Y for the benefit of its employees numbering approximately 400,
mostly from the families of railway engineers, firemen, and train­
men. The experience of this company, so far as the health insur­
ance phase of this plan is concerned, is described by Edmund N.
Huyck in the March, 1917, issue of the American Labor Legislation
Review (pp. 85-90). The employees contribute 1 per cent of their
wages to the fund, while the company contributes such additional
amount as may be necessary to pay the actual expenses of health
insurance. When the plan was put into operation on May 8, 1911,
about 98 per cent of the nearly 275 employees accepted it, and new
members, if under 45 years of age, are admitted after two or three
weeks service, upon passing a medical examination. The benefits
offered are briefly as follows:
For disability arising from illness or accident outside of work in the plant,
50 per cent of wages to be paid afte'd the third day for the entire time of
disability; free medical, surgical, and hospital treatment and medicines, and
in case of death 30 per cent of wages to the widow for life or until remarriage,
with 15 per cent for one child and 20 per cent for two or more children until
reaching the age of 16, and $100 funeral expenses.

There are two operating committees, one for men and one for
women, each consisting of a representative chosen by the employees,
with another representative chosen by the company, the secretary of
the company acting as the third member of each committee. A
physician is employed at a regular salary, who, in addition to treat­
ing the members at their homes and in his office, holds daily clinics at
the plant; he is consulted freely by the members. “ There has been
little or no malingering ” since the members themselves are contribut­
ing to the fund and “ do not purpose to see any one benefit unde­
servedly.”
The total amount that has been contributed for health insurance
is $16,758.67, of which the employees contributed $8,858.67 and the


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519

company $7,900. There was a balance of $2,476.21 at the end of the
fifth year, July 1, 1916, making1a total cost of $14,282.46, or “ 1.6
per cent of the pay roll." Disability and death benefits have
amounted to $8,618.69, which practically equals the 1 per cent of
wages contributed, and medical service, hospital treatment, and medi­
cines have amounted to $5,662.52.1
It may be interesting to note that the entire insurance plan has
involved a total contribution of $27,108.67, of which the company
has contributed $18,250 and the employees $8,858.67. On July 1,
1916, there was a balance of $8,133.01, making the entire cost
$23,975.66, “ which is 2.7 per cent of the pay roll for the period,”
instead of an approximate 3.5 per cent, with a maximum of 6 per cent
estimated at the time the plan was inaugurated.
Mr. Huyck suggests that a spirit of fairness and an appreciation
of the benefits of the plan have been shown by the employees from
the start and cites the following instance :
In case of illness there is no payment for the first three days. Some tim e1
after the plan was started a committee came to us and said they feared that
some advantage would be taken of this ; that a person having been out ill for j
three days might stay out the balance of the week because half pay could be 1
secured ; and, as they did not wish the plan to fail for any such cause, they
thought it would be better that there should be no payment for the first week.
There have also been cases where employees, having been out for some time
and having received more than the amount they had contributed, asked to have
payments stopped, as they did not think it fair that they should draw more
than they had paid.

The company appears to be well satisfied with the operation of the
plan and feels that the expense has been amply justified by the
results achieved.
There is not the slightest question in our minds but that, except that it does
not provide for those who leave the company’s employ, the plan has been in
every way successful ; that it has given us steadier, healthier, more contented
employees ; that it has made us more alive to the need of healthful, sanitary,
working conditions ; and that it has been worth to our company far more than
it has cost us.

There appears to have been very little difficulty in the administra­
tion of the plan.
The administration of the plan has been very simple. The entire records are
kept in two large check books, with divided stubs for description and distribu­
tion of all receipts and payments. The 1 per cent contributed by employees is
deducted each week from their wages and deposited in the mutual contribution
account. The whole thing is so simple and has been of such great value to
everyone concerned, and the cost has been so small, considering the number of
employees involved and the size of the business, that our conviction has become
1 T h ere is a slig h t discrepancy in these figures w hich a re ta k e n from Mr. H uyck’s
artic le . I t w ill be n oted th a t th e la s t tw o item s to ta l $14,281.21 in ste a d of $14,282.46.


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very strong that more employers would undertake such experiments if they
knew and understood the facts.

Mr. Huyck strongly indorses the general principles of health
insurance, stating that, in his opinion—
it is far more important than workmen’s compensation, and I feel that all
arguments against it must fall and that finally we in this country will take
the position of those countries that are so far ahead of us in social insurance
and demand of our State governments that the protection of health insurance
be given to working men and women.
INDUSTRIAL UNREST IN GREAT BRITAIN.

At the. Manchester meeting of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, held in 1915, an extended discussion devel­
oped on the subject of the promotion of industrial harmony,1 and
so important was the matter regarded as affecting economic condi­
tions after the war that a committee was appointed to investigate
the causes of industrial unrest and the attempts made to diminish it.
The report of this committee is embodied in Chapter I I of the vol­
ume, “ Labour, Finance, and the War,” recently issued by the asso­
ciation.2 Seven causes for existing industrial unrest were found, as
follows:
1. The desire of workpeople for a higher standard of living.
2. The desire of workpeople to exercise a greater control over their lives
and to have some determining voice as to conditions of work. These include a
consideration of the effects of speeding up on the one hand and of limitation of
output on the other.
3. The uncertainty of regular employment.
4. Monotony in employment.
5. Suspicion and want of knowledge of economic conditions.
6. The desire of some employers for more regular and satisfactory labor.
7. The effects of war measures.

The desire of workers for a higher standard of living finds expres­
sion in a demand for higher wages, resulting frequently in labor
disputes. In fact, it is noted that unrest among workpeople in recent
years has been coincident with the rise in the cost of living, and that
the revival of industrial strife after the truce of the early months of
the war followed upon a considerable and steady increase in prices,
especially of food. It is perhaps natural that workers, should desire
to raise their standard of living, “ but the extent to which improve1 A su m m ary of th is discussion is contained in th e volum e, C redit, In d u stry , and
th e W ar, issued by th e B ritis h A ssociation fo r th e A dvancem ent of Science. Ch. II, pp.
17-6 7 . London [1916]. P rice, 2s. 6d.
2 L abour, F in an ce, an d th e W ar, being th e re su lts of in q u iries a rra n g e d by the sec­
tio n of econom ic science an d s ta tis tic s of th e B ritish A ssociation for th e A dvancem ent
of Science d u rin g th e years 1915 an d 1916. Ch. I I, In d u s tria l U n rest, pp. 20-57.
L ondon [1 9 1 6 ]. P rice, 3s. 6d.


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521

ment is possible is limited by the industrial development of the
nation. It is impossible to raise the general standard of living
indefinitely by raising wages, without at the same time raising the
productivity of our industries.”
d he practice of speeding up by employers and the consequent
reduction of wage rates, and the retaliatory practice of limitation of
output by workers have been fruitful of considerable industrial unrest,
d he committee suggests the importance of employers realizing that
the cutting of piece rates may actually be uneconomical and that they
should give attention to the cost of labor and not merely to the
amount of wages paid. On the other hand, the workers should
remember that limitation of output can not increase the demand for
labor, but may even lessen it, and undoubtedly tends to lessen the
amount available for paying wages. It is pointed out that labor
also desires the right to determine the class of worker that shall be
employed on a particular job.
ddie uncertainty of regular employment appears to be one of the
main reasons for industrial unrest, and the committee suggests that
this condition may be minimized by the extension of unemployment
insurance with increased benefits to workers.
Monotonous work is recognized as a valid reason for unrest because
it constitutes a considerable nervous strain. But the committee thinks
that the evils of monotonous employment inside the factory may be
lessened by improved working conditions and also by varied condi­
tions of living outside the shop.
So far as workers being suspicious that they are being exploited is
concerned, it seems that this is due to their lack of knowledge of
economic conditions in the industry which, if known, would prove
-much of the suspicion to be baseless.
Thè àusi re of employers for more regular and satisfa-*--- 1 '
is natural, and Vney mo
fp rpor’1-»"" - «^pioyment and dis­
courage overtime, while the workers are urged to look ahead, exeicise
thrift when work is plentiful, and thus average their earnings so as to
enjoy the highest standard possible.
Mar measures, especially the Munitions of War Act, have operated
to curtail the freedon of action of employers and employed, while the
decisions of the tribunals have seemed too harsh to the workpeople.
The irritation thus caused has been intensified by the physical strain
involved in long hours of work at high speed. Furthermore, the
cost of living has increased materially ; many companies have appar­
ently made big profits, leading labor to believe that the nation was
being exploited for private gain. “ The fresh outburst of stiikes in
1915 was as much a protest against such exploitation as a demand for
higher wages.”


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The investigating committee found that this industrial unrest has
been met in a large degree more or less successfully (1) through the
activities of conciliation and arbitration boards; (2) by arbitration,
compulsory and voluntary; (3) by the industrial council, represent­
ing employers and employees, established in 1911 for the purpose “ of
considering and of inquiring into matters referred to them affecting
trade disputes; and especially of taking suitable action in regard to
any dispute referred to them affecting the principal trades of the
country, or likely to cause disagreements involving the ancillary
trades, or which the parties before or after the breaking out of a dis­
pute are themselves unable to settle” ; (1) by the application of profit
sharing and copartnership; and (5) by cooperation.
Tlie value of the work of the boards of conciliation is shown by
the small proportion of cases referred to them which ultimately
involve stoppage of work. In 1913, 195 boards and joint committees
took action in 4,070 disputes, of which 2,283 were settled, 291 were
referred to umpires appointed by them, and only 31 resulted in stop­
page of work. The committee suggests that the machinery of con­
ciliation boards should be extended and perfected and that these
boards should be made a permanent feature of each industry. Since
there are many differences that can not be settled by mutual agree­
ment, voluntary arbitration has been resorted to ; but arbitration has
proved unsatisfactory, to a certain extent, because of the difficulty of
finding an arbitrator who is impartial and who knows the industry
thoroughly. There is no way of enforcing an award, but “ as a
matter of fact, it is surprising how few awards are rejected on the
whole.” Compulsory arbitration was introduced by the Munitions
of War Act of 1915 and has been accepted as an emergency measure,

1

to be desired.”


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^ ic a ic i

JJIO -

c y smaH cost and to weaken trade-unionism,
at the existing systems of profit sharing and
meet the claims of labor for a share in the
As to cooperation, it is regarded as
as aa very
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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

523

The committee's recommendations are based upon a recognition of
the necessity for an industrial reorganization involving a revision of
methods of production, and are submitted in the hope that they “ may
prove helpful in the solution of the greatest industrial problem that
has ever faced a nation.” These recommendations concern (1) the
general attitude and outlook of employers and workmen; (2) the
machinery for dealing with disputes; (3) the organization of indus­
try; (4) post-war arrangements.
In the first place, the committee believes that there should be frank­
ness on both sides and that both employers and workers should dis­
cuss industrial matters together or through duly accredited repre­
sentatives. “ Only thus can they come to understand each other, and
such an understanding is the first essential to a solution of the prob­
lems of industrial unrest.” In the second place, employers should
1consider the collective cost of labor and not the total amount of wages
earned by workmen each week. If this is done it may be expected
that labor will abandon its position on limitation of output, already
mentioned. Employers appear to be recognizing this fact. “ It must
be said, however, that the majority of employers still adopt the
narrow attitude described, and it is necessary for the majority to
change before we can hope for a change in the policy of tradeunions.” Finally it is essential that the fundamental facts and prin­
ciples of economics be known by employers and employees in order
that each may have a better understanding of the problems of in­
dustry.
In considering the machinery for dealing with disputes it is rec­
ommended that workers and employers in each industry should ex­
tend and improve their organizations with a view to determining
jointly the conditions under which the special industry should be
carried on. It has been suggested that membership in these organiza­
tions should be compulsory, but the committee thinks that a wiser
solution would be for the State to recognize approved associations
of employers and trade-unions, and that when these organizations
in any trade have come to an agreement as to wages, hours, condi­
tions of employment, etc., the whole trade in the district affected,
both employers and employed, should be bound under penalty to
work in accordance with the agreement.
Interest and not legal compulsion would thus induce all to join their trade
organizations, and the many serious problems raised by compulsion would be
avoided.

The value of permanent joint boards and committees having been
mentioned heretofore, the committee recommends that they be estab­
lished in each industry to consider all matters of common interest to
both employers and employees, including not only questions in dis-


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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

pute but important problems concerning the organization of the in­
dustry. As a final arbitrator, in case these boards are unable to set­
tle disputes, a national joint board is proposed. But it is important
that both employers and workmen should be absolutely loyal to the
decisions and agreements made by their organizations.
Perhaps the most important factor in dealing with industrial un­
rest is the proper and effective organization of industry, involving,
first of all, the frank recognition of the necessity for cooperation
between employer and employee. This cooperation should not only
be concerned with distribution of product, but should cover also a
determination of conditions under which work is carried on, includ­
ing hours of labor, rest periods, working shifts, speed of machinery,
discipline, etc. It would then better the standards of work, leading
employers to refrain from excessive speeding up and employees to
modify their policy of restriction of output.
Special attention was given by the committee to conditions where
labor-saving machinery or new processes have been introduced which
diminish the amount of labor required for a given operation. Here
an economic situation is created which affects the employer by caus­
ing a decrease in the cost of production; lower prices and increased
demand for the special commodity manufactured, and hence reduction
of overhead charges; the employment of less labor, but possibly some­
what higher pay for those employed; and increased profits. So far
as workers are concerned, a few skilled, semiskilled, or unskilled may
be retained to operate machines; some men will be advanced in pay,
while others will be forced out of emplojunent. To meet this emer­
gency, the committee suggests that employers should make a forecast
as to the exact effect of the new methods, this forecast to be consid­
ered by both employers and workers; that an arrangement should be
agreed upon with due regard to the fact that capital takes all the
financial risk of the new methods, but has heretofore had the advan­
tage of any immediate gain; that labor at the outset may be dimin­
ished in number, although eventually more men will be employed;
that some labor may benefit immediately, and that labor is employed
in making and designing the machines; and that employers should
consider to what extent temporarily displaced labor can or ought to
be compensated by means of unemployment insurance or by a per­
centage of the increased product.
The report thus summarizes its recommendations for the improve­
ment of existing industrial unrest:
Employers should be organized into—
(a) Associations of one trade in a given district.
(ft) National association of one trade.
(c) Local federations of trades.
( d ) National federations of trades.


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Of these, (a) and ( d) would be organized under a system of representation.
Workpeople should have unions and federations corresponding to those of the
employers, and in both cases the national federations should he carefully organ­
ized councils enjoying a large measure of authority, tempered by the necessity
to win and preserve the confidence of their electors. From these two representa­
tive bodies there could he elected an industrial council as a court of appeal
representative of the whole industrial activity of the country. So far as these
various bodies were approved by the State, they would enjoy far-reaching powers.
Approval by the State should depend on the observance of moderation and the
working in conformity with carefully devised regulations, for the State, in
this matter, would be the representative of the consumer and of the national
interest.

To deal with the problems that will arise in connection with the
demobilization of the troops after the war the committee recom­
mends the establishment of district boards of practical men, who
shall have power to handle each case as it arises, their special work
being to supervise the reinstatement in industry of those who left
their employment either to fight or to make munitions. It is be­
lieved that representative business men who know conditions as to
markets, etc., should make a forecast of what may be expected in
home and foreign trade, that such forecast, after thorough considera­
tion and test, should be submitted to labor, and that both parties
should meet and endeavor to agree upon a policy to meet whatever
is anticipated—either increased or decreased business, less or keener
competition in the markets, and the sharing of gains or the meeting
of losses.
Appended to the report is a note expressing the views of two
members of the committee who think that the report is deficient in
that it suggests improvements within the existing industrial system,
whereas a movement that aims at far-reaching economic reform must
involve a change in the system itself. It is urged that in any scheme
for coping with the industrial situation the State must be a third
party to any agreement, carrying a step further the plan of the com­
mittee for cooperation between employers and employees. Industry
“ must be self-managed but State regulated,” if it is to be standardized
and if the workman is to secure that status in industrial democracy
to which he is entitled as a citizen.

GOVERNMENT CONTROL OF FOOD SUPPLIES IN FRANCE.

With respect to maintenance of a sufficient supply of food during
the present war France, until very recently, was apparently in a
situation more favorable than either Great Britain or Germany;
more favorable than Germany, since until February 1, 1917, she had
no blockade to undergo, and has been able to maintain free access to
86302°— 17-----3


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all her ports. Her position was, in certain respects, more favorable
than that of Great Britain, since normally France is almost selfsufficient, and does not have to resort to importation from abroad for
so large a part of her food supply.1 But on the other hand it must
not be forgotten that France has a part of her territory invaded, not
very large in area, but very considerable in industrial production;
for it is there that most of her coal and iron mines, her mills and fac­
tories of wool and cotton, her fields of beet roots, and her sugar re­
fineries, are located. Even the wheat and potato crops have suffered
considerable diminution from this cause. It is for this reason that
the general rise in prices for foodstuffs has on an average been hardly
less than in England, but much more for products peculiar to the
invaded area.
Nevertheless the French Government has not had to resort to the
same extreme measures as the German, notably to rationing. No food
product has yet been rationed in France. The fixing of a maximum
price has been employed up till now only for a few commodities.2
MAXIMUM PRICES FOR WHEAT, FLOUR, AND BREAD.

So far as bread and meat are concerned, fixing prices is not an inno­
vation due to the war. It is authorized by an old law dating from
1791; indeed, this law is the oldest weapon in the French legislative
arsenal, and it empowers mayors to fix prices for these two commodi­
ties whenever they judge prices to be too high. The law has been in
force since its adoption, in spite of the protests of economists, who
for more than a century have continually agitated for its repeal.
Mayors have made use of this power in regard to bread fairly often,
though rarely in regard to meat. But the Government rightly
thought that the authority of the mayors to fix the price of bread
would be useless in practice, or quite unfair to the bakers, if at the
same time prices were not fixed for wheat and flour, the rawTmaterials
of bread. The mayors could not have maintained the price of bread
at 40 centimes a kilogram (3.5 cents a pound) if the price of wheat
1 In 1913, o ut of a to ta l im p o rta tio n a m o u n tin g to 8,231,000,000 fran c s ($1,589,000,000), F ra n ce im p o rted 1,803,000,000 fra n c s ($348,000,000) of foodstuffs, of w hich
th e re w ere 613,000,000 fran c s ($118,000,000) of w h eat an d flour, w hile in 1912 G reat
B rita in im p o rted £262,000,000 ($1,275,000,000) of foodstuffs, an d G erm any 3,170,000,000
m ark s ($754,000,000) of foodstuffs. T he above im p o rta tio n am o u n ts to scarcely 12 per
cen t of th e to ta l F re n c h consum ption of foodstuffs. I t m u st he observed, m oreover, th a t
u n d er n o rm al co n d itio ns F re n ch exports am o u n t to 833,000,000 fran c s ($161,000,000).
I t would th e re fo re have been perm issible to suppose t h a t d u rin g th e w ar F ra n c e would
n o t have ex p o rted an y foodstuffs and would have im ported only a sm all q u a n tity . B u t
th is w as n o t th e case, for in 1915 th e to ta l im p o rts of foodstuffs am ounted to 2,549,000,000 ($492,000,000) an d th e to ta l ex p o rts of foodstuffs to 544,000,000 fran c s
($105,000,000). T he increase of im p o rts w as due to th e bad h a rv e sts of 1915 an d de­
creased acreage. The la rg e r p a r t of th e ex p o rts w ent to G reat B rita in an d S w itzerland.
2 Gide, P ro f. C harles. “ The p rovisioning of F ra n c e an d m easures tak en by th e Gov­
e rn m en t to t h a t en d .” The E conom ic Jo u rn a l, London, M arch, 1916, pp. 35 ff.


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527

had risen above 40 francs per 100 kilograms ($3.50 per 100 pounds).
For this reason the law of October 16, 1915,1 fixed the price of wheat
weighing 77 kilograms per hectoliter (59.8 pounds per bushel) and
not containing foreign admixtures in excess of 2 per cent at a maxi­
mum of 30 francs per hectoliter ($2.04 per bushel), and provided for
an increase of this price by 1 per cent for each additional kilogram
of weight per hectoliter and a deduction of 1 per cent for each addi­
tional per cent of foreign admixtures. The same law gave the Gov­
ernment the right to requisition wheat from the farmer, or from the
merchant, at that price. Actually the State only uses this right
very exceptionally, but the possibility of making use of it is sufficient
to keep wheat practically at this price of 30 francs, since no one is
willing, in buying it at a higher price, to run the risk of having it
requisitioned by the State at 30 francs. The law leaves the regulation
of prices for flour to the prefects of Departments, because condi­
tions of milling and transport vary a little in different districts, but
the prices which they may fix range within narrow limits, which are,
roughly, within 40 and 42 francs per 100 kilograms ($3.50 to $3.68
per 100 pounds) of flour. Beginning with the date of the promulga­
tion of the law, millers were prohibited from producing any other kind
of flour than a 74 per cent whole-wheat flour. During 1916 the mini­
mum percentage of extraction was increased by law first to 77 and
finally to 80 per cent.2
The production of home-grown wheat not having been sufficient in
1915, as much owing to the invasion as to the scarcity of agricultural
labor, importation of foreign wheat has been necessary. Empowered
by the above law the Government has bought foreign wheat and
resold it to those Departments which were in need of it. A body
called “ The Supply Commission,” established by a decree of Sep­
tember 8, 1914,3 has been intrusted with this important work. It
acts under the authority of the Ministry of Commerce. As a rule the
commission does not resell the wheat directly to consumers, but to the
chambers of commerce, which exist in all the large towns, and which
undertake to distribute it as they receive orders for it. Between May
and the end of December, 1915, the commission bought 5,758,000
quintals4 of imported wheat at prices much higher than 30 francs
per hectoliter ($2.04 per bushel), the price charged the consumer.
The resultant loss is borne by the State, a credit of 200,000,000
francs ($38,600,000) having been voted for the purpose. In order to
minimize this loss the State has chartered a large number of ships,
which are used for the transport of cereals. A considerable saving
1 J o u rn a l Officiel de la R épublique F ra n çaise. P a ris , Oct. 17, 1915, p. 7441.
2 B u lletin du M in istère du T rav ail. P a ris, Ju ly -A u g u s t, 1916, p. 330.
3 J o u rn a l Officiel, Sept. 9, 1914.
4 A q u in ta l= 1 0 0 k ilogram s (220.46 p o u n d s).


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was thus effected, for, as is well known, the high price of wheat is in
part due to the enormous rise in freight rates.
Thanks to these measures, the French consumer does not have to
pay appreciably more for his bread than before the war, and con­
siderably less than in England. In France the price of a 2-kilogram
(4.4 pounds) loaf has so far not gone beyond 85 centimes (16.4 cents),
while in England the consumer pays 10 pence (20.2 cents) for a 4pound loaf.
As may be imagined, the farmers were not altogether satisfied with
seeing themselves prevented from asking the maximum price for
their wheat which the law of supply and demand would give them.
When the enactment of the law of October 16, 1915, was impending,
the farming interests made the claim that if the Government for­
bade them to exact a higher price for their product than that fixed
by this laiv it should for the same reason prevent farm laborers from
exacting the maximum wages for their services. The Government
granted to the farming interests some compensation by reestablish­
ing (by a decree of Oct. 16, 1915x) the import duty of 7 francs per
100 kilograms (61 cents per 100 pounds) of wheat, which had been
abolished at the beginning of the war (by a decree of July 31, 1914).
This reestablishment of the customs duty, which at first sight ap­
pears absurd in view of the problem of combating the rise in price
and even the risk of famine, is, however, explained if one reflects
that, as the law, by fixing prices, prevents the farmers’ profiting from
the rise, it is fair that it should guarantee him against a possible fall
in prices which might result from the importation of foreign wheat.
In this instance the fixing of a maximum limit implied the fixing of
a minimum limit. In any case the question is now of less interest
since, the price of foreign wheat being much higher than the
national price of 30 francs, there is no importation except that which
the State introduces at a loss.
The fixing of the prices of wheat and flour has had, moreover,
certain unexpected and vexatious results. Thus it has happened that
oats, not having come under the regulation of prices, have, without
hindrance, risen in price above the price of wheat—at the beginning
of 1916 to 40 francs per hectoliter ($2.72 per bushel). But as at
this price it is much more advantageous for the farmer to produce
oats than wheat, it has come about that the farmer has preferred to
sow his field with oats rather than with wheat, to the great detriment
of the wheat harvest; or that he has even preferred to feed his horses
on his wheat and keep his oats for sale. This latter abuse has been
stopped by the law of April 25, 1916, which prohibits the feeding
of wheat, wheat -flour, or wheat bread to horses, asses, and mules.


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1 J o u rn a l Officiel, Oct. 17, 1915.

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529

MAXIMUM PRICES FOR OTHER COMMODITIES.

Two laws, dated April IT and 20, 1916,1 respectively, while not
actually fixing maximum prices, gave to the Government authority
to fix maximum prices for certain commodities.
The first of these laws provides that during the present war maxi­
mum prices may, on proposal of the minister of the interior, agricul­
ture, and commerce, be decreed for oats, rye, barley, bran, and grain
offals, with proper consideration of specific weight and of foreign
admixtures.
The second law provides that during the present war and for three
months after cessation of hostilities maximum prices may be fixed by
decree for the following articles: Sugar, coffee, potatoes, milk, mar­
garine, alimentary fats, edible oils, dried legumes, paraffin and petrol,
commercial fertilizers, copper sulphate, and sulphur. Wholesale
prices at the port of entry or place of manufacture for coffee, sugar,
paraffin, and petrol are to be fixed by decree on proposal of the minister
of commerce. In all other cases covered by the law the maximum
prices are to be fixed by the prefects of the Departments after con­
sultation with a commission to be formed for that purpose in each
Department. In the war zone prices may be fixed by the military
authorities for all articles of food and drink for military consump­
tion, even if not mentioned in this law. The same applies to the civil
population in the war zones after the military authorities have con­
sulted the prefects of the Departments concerned.
The departmental commissions provided by the law are to consist
of 4 members appointed by the prefect, 4 members appointed by
the general council of the Department, 4 representatives of the
chambers of commerce, 4 representatives of agricultural societies,
the departmental director of the agricultural service, and the depart­
mental veterinary.
Appeal against maximum prices fixed in accordance with this law
may be made by any mayor of a commune of the Department af­
fected, and by any merchant or producer affected. Merchants and
producers must make appeals within 10 days after the promulga­
tion of the prices fixed. Appeals must be made by registered letter
to the minister of the interior or to the minister of commerce and the
appellant must notify the prefect of the appeal, who in turn must
bring the appeal to the notice of the public by insertion in an official
paper. Appeals of this kind have no suspensive action. The minister
must render a decision within two weeks after the receipt of the ap­
peal.
The law further provides that retailers shall conspicuously post the
prices fixed by the prefect and fixes penalties for all infringements of
its provisions.
1J o u rn a l

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Officiel, A pr. 19 an d 21, 1916.

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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

The British Board of Trade Journal1 reports that in November
butter, cheese, and oil cakes were added to the commodities subject to
requisition and to the regulation of prices in France.
To what extent the prefects have made use of their power to regu­
late prices in accordance with the law of April 20, 1916, can not be
stated here for the reason that orders issued by prefects are being
published only in the provincial papers, and not in the Journal
Officiel, the only official source available for the present article.
MAXIMUM WHOLESALE PRICES FOR SUGAR.

Based on the authority of the law of April 20, 1916, three decrees
have been issued by the President regulating wholesale prices of sugar.
The maximum prices fixed by the last of these three decrees, published
in the Journal Officiel of January 3, 1917, are the following:
MAXIMUM PRICES OF VARIOUS KINDS OF SUGAR, AS F IX E D BY DECREE PU BLISH ED
IN JANUARY, 1917.
Price (inclusive of ex­
cise duty).
Kind of sugar.

Refined lump sugar:
In packages of 5 kilograms (11 pounds) or over........, .........................................
In packages of 1 kilogram
..................................’.............................
Refined pulverized....... ).............................................................................
Loaf............................................... .
.
Broken..........................................................
Granulated or crystal:
Of every origin (inclusive of customs d uty).........................................................
Pulverized..................................................'. '......................
Crystals, ex tra..................................................................

Per 100 Equivalent
per 100
kilograms. pounds.
Francs.

146. 00
148. 25
146.00
142. 50
151.00

$12. 78
12.98
12.78
12.47
13.22

134.00
137. 00
137. 00

11.73
11.99
11.99

These prices are for cash on delivery f. o. b. factory, refinery, or
storage house, and do not include the refining tax of 2 francs per 100
kilograms (17^ cents per 100 pounds), nor the inspection fee of 8
centimes per 100 kilograms (0.7 cent per 100 pounds). In the case
of refined sugar, manufactured in the refineries of Nantes, Bordeaux,
Chalon-sur-Saône, Briénon, Sermaize, St. Beauzire, Chappes et
Chagnat, and Bresles, the above prices may be increased by the car­
load (5,000 kilograms) freight rate from these localities to Paris.
A decree of December 5, 1916,2 established in the Ministry of Agri­
culture a commission for the study of problems relating to increasing
the production of sugar in France.
MUNICIPAL AND COOPERATIVE MEAT MARKETS.3

With respect to meat, mayors of French communities have not
made use of their right to regulate prices. They probably abstained
1Issu e of Nov. 23, 1916, p. 582.
2Jo u rn a l Officiel, Dec. 10, 1916.
3Gide, P ro f. C harles. “ T he p rovisioning
m ent to th a t en d .”

of F ra n c e an d m easures tak en by th e G overn­
The E conom ic Jo u rn a l, London, M arch, 1916, pp. 39, 40.


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531

from exercising this right because meat has not risen in price above
the average rise of all foodstuffs. It is, moreover, relatively easy to
apply a fixed price to bread, as it is a homogeneous product, but the
fixing of prices for meat is more difficult, because of the many dif­
ferent qualities of meat.
In some towns municipal meat markets have been opened. That
is an indirect system of fixing prices which has the advantage over
direct regulation in that no coercion is applied to privately owned
meat markets, though it is as effective, or more so, as it acts by the
pressure of competition. In the town of Nîmes, where a municipal
meat market was opened on November 24, 1915, the experiment suc­
ceeded so well that it was necessary to open six branches in different
parts of the town. Meat is sold by them 15 to 20 per cent below com­
mercial prices.
In Paris the municipality, instead of opening butcher shops on
its own account, has preferred to delegate this task to the cooperative
societies of the city of Paris and of the Department of the Seine,
or, to be more exact, to the Wholesale Cooperative Federation, which
represents these societies. In point of fact, the enterprise does not
extend to all kinds of meat, but only to frozen meat. It must be
pointed out that until the war frozen meat did not enter France;
it was shut out by the prohibitive customs duty of 36 francs per 100
kilograms ($3.15 per 100 pounds). The protests of consumers in
general, and of the cooperative societies in particular, had not been
able to obtain the abolition or the reduction of this duty for a simple
reason : The Chamber of Deputies dared not rouse the discontent
of the agricultural interests. It is only through the war that the
door has been opened to frozen meat.
But as there was no organization for the transport of this meat,
for which special ships are necessary, the Government was obliged
to apply to England. It is from England that it buys frozen meat
to hand over to the cooperative societies, to whom it is delivered at
1.62 francs per kilogram (14.2 cents per pound), and, in addition,
a discount of 20 centimes per kilogram (If cents per pound) sold is
granted by the State as subsidy. Some anxiety was felt as to whether
the working classes, who patronize the cooperative societies, would
appreciate this meat. But the experiment, which dates only from
the end of January, 1916, appears destined to be a great success. The
population of Paris has given a warm welcome to the “ frigo,” as
they already call it familiarly, and the sales are all that could be
desired.
This experiment with frozen meat is of twofold interest for
France : First, because it introduces a new product which may in the
future considerably reduce the cost of living to the French consumer;
and, above all, because it gives a semiofficial status to the cooperative

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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

societies, which up till now have been regarded unfavorably in
France. It makes them almost a national institution.
As regards meat also, it should be mentioned that various orders
have been issued forbidding the slaughter of calves and lambs, to
permit the flocks and herds in the country to make good their num­
bers, which have been greatly reduced by the abundant supply of
meat to the armies. But from all accounts these orders have re­
mained almost a dead letter.
ESTABLISHM ENT OF A M INISTRY OF FOOD SU PPLIES AND TRANSPORTATION.

Among the recent changes in the personnel of the Briand cabinet,
the one in which the public took the keenest interest—because it
concerns most vitally their daily welfare—is the substitution of
Edouard Herriot, former, mayor of Lyons, with the new title of
“ Minister of public works, food supplies, and transportation,” for
Marcel Sombat, the outgoing minister of public works. A decree
published in the Journal Officiel of January 1, 1917, gives to the new
minister and his assistant, Albert Claveille, appointed as under secre­
tary of transportation, almost autocratic control over the distribution
of the necessaries of existence among their fellow countrymen. The
new minister controls the provisioning of the civilian population as
well as of the army.
PROPOSED RATIONING OF SUGAR.1

The sugar commission convened on January 12, 1917, in the Min­
istry of Food Supplies and discussed ways and means for the regula­
tion of the consumption of sugar. As two-thirds of the sugar con­
sumed in France is imported and transportation by sea is daily be­
coming more difficult and dangerous, the commission proposes to
limit the consumption of sugar to 750 grams (If pounds) per person
per month, this ration to be supplemented by an additional 3 kilo­
grams (6.6 pounds) per person per year for household use in the
making of pastry, preserves, etc. Sugar cards will be introduced to
enforce the proposed measure.
LIM ITATION

OF THE

SALE

OF CONFECTIONERY

AND PA STR IE S.2

A further measure enacted for the purpose of reducing the con­
sumption of sugar is contained in the decree of January 21, 1917.
This decree provides that after February 1, 1917, all confectionery
establishments must close Tuesday and Wednesday of each week ex­
cept holidays. During these two days the sale of cakes, tarts, and
candies is also strictly prohibited in bakeries, hotels, cafés, and
groceries.
1L a Republique
2Idem , Ja n . 27,


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F ra n çaise, P a ris, J a n . 13, 1917.
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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS,

533

LIMITATION OF COURSES IN RESTAURANTS.1

During the latter part of January, 1917, the minister of food sup­
plies called a meeting of representatives of the hotel and restaurant
trade to lay before them and discuss plans for restricting the con­
sumption of food in all places where meals are sold to the public.
The result of this consultation was the promulgation of a decree pro­
viding that after February 15, 1917, no hotel, boarding-liouse, restau­
rant, saloon, café, club, dining car, lunch room, etc., may serve at
any one meal more than two courses to a patron, only one of which
may be a meat course. In addition to these two courses a patron
may order soup, one side dish (the choice of which shall be limited
to four kinds), and cheese or dessert (fruit, preserves, pastry, etc.).
Cooked or raw vegetables consumed separately, i. e., not served as
side dishes, are to be counted as a separate course. The serving of
“ entremets ” is prohibited.
In order to do away with the waste of food consequent to elaborate
menus the decree provides that bills of fare may not include more
than two soups and the following nine courses : One course of eggs,
two of fish, three of meat, and three of vegetables. The owners or
managers of the establishments included in the decree must each
day submit copies of their lunch and dinner bills of fares to the
police authorities.
GOVERNMENT CONTROL OF COAL MINES IN GREAT BRITAIN.

From the beginning of the war questions in regard to the profits
of coal operators, the prices of coal,2and the wages of the coal miners,
especially in the South Wales district, have been a source of concern
to the Government. The demands of the miners for increased wages
have been based largely upon the belief that the coal-mine operators
were making large profits out of the increases in prices since the
beginning of the war.
A year ago the minister of munitions intervened and secured for the
miners a 15 per cent bonus, and recently a further 15 per cent in the war
bonus was demanded.. The Board of Trade attempted by intervention
to procure a settlement, but the operators objected to an investigation
of their affairs with a view to ascertaining whether they could justifi­
ably meet the miners’ demands. No agreement being in prospect
and the demand for coal being imperative, the Government assumed
control of all the coal mines in the South Wales and Monmouthshire
districts December 1, 1916, and a committee, representing the Board
1 L a R epublique F ra n çaise, P a ris, J a n . 27, 1917.
2 See a rtic le on “ In cre ases in re ta il prices of coal in G reat B rita in ,” in M o n t h l y
R e v i e w of Ju ly , 1915, p. 45, e t seq.


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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

of Trade, the Home Office, and the Admiralty, were appointed for the
administration of the mines, the operators being ordered to continue
working the mines under the usual conditions until further orders
were given.
According to an announcement in the British Board of Trade
Labour Gazette for February, 1917, the Government has decided that
the Board of Trade shall take possession of all the coal mines in
the United Kingdom for the period of the war, in addition to those
in South Wales which have already been taken over under the De­
fense of the Realm Act. The president of the Board of Trade has de­
cided to set up a new department, which will control the coal mines
and will also exercise the other powers and duties of the Board of
Trade with regard to coal.
EFFECT OF THE WAR ON THE COAL MINING INDUSTRY IN
GREAT BRITAIN.

The first report of the departmental committee appointed to in­
quire into the conditions prevailing in the coal mining industry due
to the war, dated May 27, 1915, indicated the probable loss of output
as a result of the heavy enlistment of miners and suggested measures
which should be adopted to prevent further decrease in production.
In its second report dated December 10, 1915, the committee brought
out the effect on the industry of the first. 12 months of the war and
the results achieved by the remedial measures suggested in the first
report. The third report of this committee was issued on September
1, 1916.1 In it the situation is reviewed up to the. 1st of March,
1916, and a statement is made as to what further measures have been
adopted in order to meet the changed conditions during the second
year of the war.
This report shows that the coal production in the United Kingdom
for the year ending July 31, 1916, was 254,748,000 tons, or a decrease
of 9.38 per cent as compared with 1913-14, but a slight increase (1.7
per cent) over 1914-15. In order to turn the decrease of output
into an increase it was found necessary, under certain conditions, to
arrest the recruiting of miners and to provide for the replacement of
those already in the army. At the end of March, 1916, 282,200 had
joined the colors, but the replacement numbered 116,900, leaving a
net reduction of 14.8 per cent of the labor at the outbreak of the war.
On June 16, 1916, the Government prohibited all recruiting from
miners and decided further that all miners in the ranks of home
1 G re a t B rita in . Hom e D ep artm en t. Coal M ining O rganization C om m ittee. T h ird gen­
eral re p o rt of th e d e p artm en tal com m ittee appointed to in q u ire into th e conditions pre­
v ailin g in th e coal m ining in d u stry due to th e w ar. London, 1916. 17 pp. Price, 2Jd.
T5 c e n ts). D igests of th e first an d second re p o rts ap p ear in th e M o n t h l y R e v i e w for
Ju ly , 1915, p. 56, an d for Ju ly , 1916, p. 151.


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MONTHLY EEVIEW OF THE BUEEAU OF LABOE STATISTICS.

535

service units, who were unfit for foreign service, should be returned
to the mines, which would, it was estimated, make available between
15,000 and 16,000 workers and add about 4,000,000 tons to the output.
A serious factor with which the Government has had to cope is
the large amount of absenteeism due to avoidable causes, which, if
wiped out, would add, the committee estimates, about 14,000,000 tons
to the total production. The report notes little encouragement along
this line. It is stated, however, that a reduction of nearly 1 per cent
in the absenteeism, as compared with the prewar period, represents
about 20 per cent on the avoidable absenteeism, that the collieries
have been worked more days, and that the men who joined the forces
were among the young and strong of the miners, the men who have
come into the mines not being their equal in point of endurance. An
effort is being made to reduce absenteeism by the appointment of
“ absentee ” committees at the mines, but no tangible results are noted.1
So far as days lost by collieries is concerned, the first quarter of
1916, according to the report, shows up better than any other of the
10 preceding quarters. Thus the days lost per week in the first
quarter of 1913, 1914, and 1915 were 0.53, 0.40, and 0.41, respectively,
while in the first quarter of 1916 the number was 0.29. Holidays are
given as the chief cause of lost time, but these, it is stated, have been
reduced about 50 per cent as compared with prewar days.
The committee notes that “ export of coal has been reduced to a
dangerously low figure ”—43,534,771 tons in 1915, as compared with
59,039,800 in 1914 and 73,400,168 in 1913. This, together with the
reduced production—which, however, seems to be slowly increasing
in amount—presents a situation which, in the opinion of the com­
mittee, is being met by the action of the Government in stopping re­
cruiting of coal miners, the curtailment by the miners of holidays,
the abandonment of stop days, and more regular attendance at work.
However, it is believed that absenteeism is capable of much greater
reduction and that the situation would be improved if economies in
the consumption of coal were practiced.
ESTABLISHMENT BY BRITISH GOVERNMENT OF A NEW DEPART­
MENT FOR THE ENCOURAGEMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUS­
TRIAL RESEARCH.

The following excerpt from the British Board of Trade Journal
for December 7, 1916 (pp. 716, 717), relates to the establishment by
the British Government of a new department designed through
research to aid the industries of the nation :
The [British] Government have decided to establish a separate department
of scientific and industrial research for Great Britain and Ireland under the
lord president of the council, with the president of the board of education as


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vice president. They have also decided, subject to the consent of Parliament,
to plaœ a large sum of money at the disposal of the new department to be used
as a /and for the conduct of research for the benefit of the national industries
on a cooperative basis.
The board of inland revenue have decided, with the approval of the chan­
cellor of the exchequer, that no objection shall be offered by their surveyors
of taxes to the allowance as a working expense for income-tax purposes, of
contributions by traders to industrial associations which may be formed for
the sole purpose of scientific research for the benefit of the various trades,
and the allowance would be equally applicable as regards traders’ contributions
specifically earmarked to the sole purposes of the research section of an adapted
existing association.
In both cases the allowance would be subject to certain conditions, e. g., the
association or the research section to be under Government supervision and
the traders’ contribution to be an out-and-out payment made from his trade
profits and giving him no proprietary interest in the property of the asso­
ciation, etc.
In order to enable the department to hold the new fund and any other money
or property for research purposes a royal charter * * * has been granted
to the official members of the committee of the privy council for scientific and
industrial research, under the title of the “ Imperial trust for the encourage­
ment of scientific and industrial research.” The trust is empowered “ to accept,
hold, and dispose of money or other personal property in furtherance of the
objects for which it has been established, including sums voted by Parliament
to that end.” The trust can take and hold land and can “ accept any trusts,
whether subject to special conditions or not, in furtherance of the said objects.”
A substantial gift has already been made to the trust by two members of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers for the conduct of a research in mechanical
engineering to be approved by the department in the hope that this example
will be followed by other members of the institution.
Mr. H. Frank Heath, C. B., has been appointed permanent secretary of the
new department.
ANTHRAX AS AN OCCUPATIONAL DISEASE.

Anthrax is primarily a disease of animals such as cattle and sheep,
but is transmitted to men in a number of industrial pursuits, includ­
ing among its victims hide and skin handlers and other tannery em­
ployees, longshoremen, woolsorters, hair workers, brush makers,
farmers, ranchmen, and veterinarians. The relative importance of
this disease is indicated by the fact that for every five deaths from
lead poisoning in the United States registration area there is one
death from anthrax. A study of anthrax as related to various occu­
pations has just been published by the United States Bureau of Labor
Statistics in its Bulletin No. 205.
According to this bulletin, anthrax in the United States is frequent
among animals in the lower Mississippi Valley, in the Gulf States,
in the East (chiefly on the banks of the Delaware River), and in
some of the Western States, and public attention has been drawn
recently to human anthrax by the startling increase in the number

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of cases in seaports and tannery towns in New York, Massachusetts,
and Pennsylvania. Among European countries, Russia and Italy
are reported to be the most seriously affected by both animal and
human anthrax.
In man, contagion commonly occurs, among persons handling ani­
mal materials, through an abrasion of the skin, resulting in the socalled “ malignant pustule,” or “ malignant edema.” Cases have been
caused by bites of insects and of pet animals which have fed on dis­
eased materials, and even by spores found in shaving brushes. Woolsorters’ disease or pulmonary anthrax is a less frequent but almost
invariably fatal form of the malady, caused by the inhalation of dust
or particles of hair'or wool from diseased animals. The anthrax
bacillus is one of the largest and most easily recognized of the diseaseproducing organisms; it is not, however, so much to be feared as a
cause of the disease as the spore, which is able to survive for as
long as 17 years without nutriment. This spore is easily carried
about and, under favorable conditions, rapidly germinates and sets
up a focus of infection.
Inoculation resulting in the malignant pustule is the most common
form of anthrax. This begins with a red pimple about the size of a
pin's head, which at first causes little pain. The pimple rapidly in­
creases in size and becomes surrounded by a peculiar resilient swell­
ing. In the center of the pustule is a black spot around which the
skin rises in blisters. On the third or fourth day the lymphatic
glands in the vicinity of the pustule are usually swollen and painful.
The complete cycle of the disease occupies, on the average, 9 or 10 days.
The necessity of prompt diagnosis and treatment for the affected part
is emphasized by leading authorities.
In malignant edema, the other form of external anthrax, the pus­
tule is absent. The swelling usually covers an extensive surface and
is most frequently situated on the eyelid, neck, or forearm. In severe
cases there is redness, vesication, and a gangrenous appearance of the
skin. This form is much less frequent than the pustule.
Internal varieties of anthrax, including pulmonary anthrax or
woolsorters’ disease, are comparatively rare, but are usually fatal.
Symptoms are not characteristic and diagnosis is very difficult.
The bulletin traces the history of anthrax in the United States
from the first record of human cases, in Philadelphia in 1834, down
to the present day, showing its rapid increase in comparatively re­
cent years. During the six years from 1910 to 1915 there were 132
deaths from anthrax officially reported in the United States regis­
tration area. In about 50 of these cases the connection between occu­
pation and disease was obscure, while 77 represented occupations
where the menace of anthrax is well recognized. Of the latter, 23
were tannery employees, the largest occupational group among the


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fatal cases; 21 were farmers, ranchmen, or women living on farms;
13 were transportation workers (including 9 longshoremen) ; 6
worked with wool, hair, or bristles ; 2 were rag handlers in paper
mills; 2 were liverymen; 1 was a veterinarian; and 9 were laborers,
probably in one or another of the foregoing branches of industry.
There were five deaths of infants from anthrax.
In the absence of comprehensive records it is difficult to ascertain
the proportion of fatalities among anthrax cases, but from hospital
records, which are the most valuable data available for this pur­
pose, it is estimated that about one in every five cases is fatal.
In the field of prevention this country has lagged far behind Euro­
pean countries, although 24 States now require the reporting of cases
of anthrax. Two States authorize workmen’s compensation for an­
thrax arising in the course of employment, and in a few of the States
compensation payments have been made for anthrax contracted as the
result of a definite injury received while at work. Laws and regula­
tions for the suppression of animal anthrax have been enacted in all
the large stock-raising sections of the country. The prevention of an­
thrax among industrial workers has received very little attention.
There has been a tendency to relax the precautions governing the im­
portation of animal materials, so that, so far as human anthrax is con­
cerned, the situation appears to be growing worse instead of better,
and much more energetic action than has been taken will be needed if
this occupational disease is to be stamped out.
The awarding of compensation to victims of occupational anthrax
has made very little progress in this country, Massachusetts being the
only State that is consistently following this principle.
The bulletin contains an account of the prevalence of anthrax in
European countries and a statement of the regulations in force there
to control the disease.
EFFECT OF INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS UPON THE EYESIGHT OF
MUNITION WORKERS IN GREAT BRITAIN.1

A considerable increase at the hospitals in the number of eye cases
among munition workers in Great Britain led the health of munition
workers committee, which was appointed by the minister of muni­
tions “ to consider and advise on questions of industrial fatigue,
hours of labor, and other matters affecting the personal health and
physical efficiency of workers in munitions factories and workshops,”
to make a special inquiry into the causes thereof, with a view to sug1 G reat B rita in . H e a lth of M unition W orkers C om m ittee. M em orandum No. 15. T he
E ffect of I n d u s tria l C onditions upon E yesight.
L ondon, 1916.
8 pp.
P rice Id.
(2 c e n ts ). S e e a lso , M o n t h l y R e v ie w ,, Decem ber, 1 9 15, p. 8 8 ; Ju n e , 1916, pp. 8 1 - 8 3 ;
Ju ly , 1 9 16, pp. 1 0 1 -1 0 7 ; an d Novem ber, 1916, p, 98.


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gesting, if possible, preventive measures and methods of treatment.
A brief report on the subject was submitted by the committee in
October, 1916.
It was found that the increase in the number of hospital cases was
due to an increase in the number of munition workers and also to
their inexperience of metal and engineering works. Specifically,
however, the committee discovered three chief causes of the impair­
ment of eyesight: (1) injuries due to exposure to intense heat or
industrial poisons; (2) accidents due to flying particles, etc.; and (3)
eyestrain due to uncorrected errors of refraction or other causes.
The first of these causes is dismissed without comment, save for a
brief statement that the effects produced by poisons or heat are so
slow in manifesting themselves that they may be considered as of
no great consequence in their bearing upon the efficiency of the
workers employed primarily in occupations incident to the war.
On the other hand, accidents caused by pieces of metal flying off in
lathe turning and entering the eyes appear to have increased during
the war, the records of one hospital in Liverpool showing that be­
tween three and four times as many cases per annum have been
treated since the war began. Many of the injuries, according to
reports of surgeons, are slight in character and should give rise to
no permanent damage, but there is a certain proportion of serious
accidents which cause permanent injury. Some of the more grave
conditions arise from infection.
Speaking of these cases, an ophthalmic surgeon in Glasgow writes: “ In most
instances the actual physical damage is slight, and the worker will be able to
resume his duties in a few hours, or utmost in one or two days, if only the injury
to the eye he promptly and skillfully treated. If, on the other hand, the injury
be neglected, or if it be treated by anyone who is unskilled or careless, sepsis
will almost certainly occur; and all experience teaches that infection of the
wound is a far greater danger than the actual physical damage to the ocular
structures. The occurrence of sepsis at once transforms a very trivial injury
to the cornea into a suppurative keratitis, which may run a prolonged course,
lead to more or less impairment of sight, and in serious cases even destroy
the eye.”

Eyestrain, broadly speaking, may be due to defects of vision or to
the nature or conditions of the work. It may be accentuated, it
seems, by the age, fatigue, or unsatisfactory physical health of the
worker, by near-distance work, insufficient or excessive illumination,
abnormal position, or long hours. Since output is dependent upon
good eyesight, the committee felt that the question is not receiving
adequate attention by employers of munition workers. Instances
are noted of headaches and eyestrain resulting from (1) inadequate
light, both artificial and natural; (2) artificial lights adequate in
amount but so placed as to throw a glare on the eyes of the workers;


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(3) employment of workers (whose eyesight should be aided by suit­
able glasses) to carry out fine work without first testing their eye­
sight.1
The matter of the supervision of the eyesight of workers is regarded
by the committee as very important. Its investigations disclosed
that in one factory where workers were employed on a fine process
involving close attention, 8 per cent had been obliged to obtain glasses
since starting work, 12 per cent found sight difficult at night, another
7 per cent complained of eyestrain, and 2 per cent found ei^estrain
increasing in severity, while “ 10 per cent appeared to have latent
eyestrain as shown by severe eyestrain and conjunctivitis.”
The diseased conditions arising from eyestrain or accidents are numerous
and include not only the presence of foreign bodies, metal dust, or steel splinters
in the eye, but various forms and degrees of inflammation, ulceration, myopia,
astigmatism, and visual deterioration.

There would appear to be very little reason for injuries to the eyes,
either by accidents or eyestrain, because of the preventive methods
that may be adopted. These consist of general measures designed
to improve the physical health of the workers and so enable them to
resist the effects of fatigue, and include suitable lighting of factories,
the provision of canteens, and adequate time for sleep and rest. Spe­
cial measures intended to avoid undue strain upon the eyesight or to
reduce the liability to accidents to a minimum may include (1)
testing of eyesight of operatives to be employed on close work and
supplying them with glasses where necessary; and (2) guarding the
eyes from flying particles of metal by the use of goggles.
The report emphasizes the careful treatment of all eye injuries, as
much if not more attention being paid to slight injuries than to
serious accidents because of the great likelihood of infection and its
dangerous consequences.
Brief mention is made of the large amount of time lost on account
of eye injuries. Thus, in 15,000 cases annually seen at the Birming­
ham Eye Hospital and 1,500 cases at the Coventry Hospital, the
majority of all these cases being slight injuries, it is estimated that
the loss of time to each man averages one-half a day, or from 500 to
700 days’ work annually, as a result of these trivial accidents in one
district. In another hospital it is stated that of the 100 eve cases per
week coming from munition and armament factories, “ each man
will lose not less than 3 days from this, in most cases, preventable
accident, representing 300 days’ work, or, say, 40 men idle per week
from this cause.”
1 So im p o rta n t w as th e question of lig h tin g considered th a t th e h e a lth of m unition
w o rk ers com m ittee published a m em orandum (No. 9) on th e subject, “ V en tilatio n and
lig h tin g of m u n itio n facto ries an d w orkshops,” w hich w as noted in th e M o n t h l y R e v i e w
fo r .Tune, 1916, pp. 81-83.


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541

RECENT REPORTS RELATING TO WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION
AND ACCIDENT INSURANCE.
MASSACHUSETTS.1

At the 1916 session of the Massachusetts Legislature a joint special
recess committee was appointed to investigate workmen’s compensa­
tion insurance rates, and also to inquire into the possibility of more
efficient accident-prevention work by the State. The committee was
composed of nine members. Its report, submitted under date of Feb­
ruary, 1917, consists of a majority report, concurred in by seven of
the nine members, with a separate minority report from each of the
two dissenting members.
The majority report recommends several fundamental changes in
the compensation and accident-prevention systems now in effect in
Massachusetts. As regards compensation, its two principal recom­
mendations are :
1. That compensation be made absolute^ compulsory for all em­
ployers of five or more persons, except employers of domestic servants
and farm laborers.
The present law is an elective one. Employers refusing to elect
are denied important defenses in case of damage suits, but this pres­
sure is not sufficient to induce all employers to accept the act. In
addition, the committee notes that increasing insurance rates may
make it more economical for employers to take their chances under
the common law even with their defenses removed.
From the decisions of the supreme judicial court of the State the
committee feels that a compulsory act would be declared unconstitu­
tional, and therefore recommends immediate steps for the adoption
of the necessary constitutional amendment.
2. That all compensation insurance be carried in a single Statecontrolled company, but with self-insurance permitted under rigid
restrictions.
The compensation act of Massachusetts, as it first came before the
legislature, provided for a single insurance carrier known as the
Massachusetts Employees’ Insurance Association. Before enactment,
however, the law was so amended as to give other incorporated insur1 M a ssach u setts. R ep o rt of th e jo in t special recess com m ittee on w orkm en’s com pensa­
tio n in su ran ce r a te s an d accident prevention, F e b ru ary , 1917. B oston. 88 pp. T he com­
m ittee con sisted of th ree m em bers from th e se n a te an d six from th e house of re p re se n ta ­
tiv es, as fo llo w s: S en ato rs Ja m e s F . C avanagh, George H. Jack so n , an d Jo h n F . S h e e h a n ;
R e p resen tativ es W illiam W. K en n ard , E ssex S. A bbott, Jo h n G. F axon, R obert T. K ent,
W illiam H. S ullivan, an d C h arles F . G a rrity . S en ato r Ja ck so n an d R e p resen tativ e F axon
su b m itted m in o rity re p o rts opposing th e m a jo rity recom m endations fo r a single S tatecontrolled m u tu al com pany, th e form er favoring a S ta te fund like th a t of Ohio, th e la tte r
fav o rin g th e ex istin g com petitive system . R e p resen tativ e S ullivan signed th e m ajo rity
rep o rt, b u t opposed its recom m endation in favor of self-insurance.

86302° — 17-

4


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ance carriers, stock or mutual, the same privileges as the so-called
“ State company." The present recommendation, therefore, coincides
with the original proposal regarding the concentration of compensa­
tion in a single carrier.
The committee bases its recommendation in this matter upon its
belief that the present competitive system is unduly expensive with­
out any corresponding gains. From the reports of the various car­
riers, as made to the State insurance commissioner, it concludes that
the present stock company expense ratio is, on the average, about 40
per cent of the earned premium; that the present mutual company
expense ratio is about 16 to IT per cent; and that the expense ratio of
a single company doing all the business would be, on the average, only
some 12 per cent of earned premiums. This latter estimate is based
largely upon study of the Ohio State fund. The committee wTas
“ strongly impressed with the advantages of the Ohio system,” but is
unwilling to recommend its adoption by Massachusetts through its
fear that “ with a State fund, managed and controlled by employees
of the State, appointments would not always be made for efficiency,
but would sometimes be prompted by political expediency, and the
best results could not possibly be obtained.”
These difficulties, it believes, would be avoided by having a “ single
insurance carrier, operated by business men, insuring their work­
men therein, and controlled by the Commonwealth to an extent suffi­
cient to safeguard the interests of all concerned.” The control
suggested is that the governor appoint the majority of the board of
directors. The fact that the organization would be entirely mutual
is counted upon to solve all the present difficulties regarding rates
and rate making.
As regards the subject of accident prevention, the committee finds
existing methods seriously inadequate. In view of the safety laws
of the State, the work of insurance companies, and the efforts of
many private employers, “ it is somewhat disconcerting,” it states,
“ to learn from the statistics of the industrial accident board that
the number of injuries sustained by employees in this State has in­
creased in the four and a half years during which the compensation
act has been in operation.” It suggests two measures in remedy:
1. That an industrial commission similar to that of Ohio be
created, combining and unifying the administration of all the labor
laws now divided among the industrial accident board, the board of
labor and industries, the district police, and numerous other agencies.
A law of 1913 attempted to centralize accident-prevention work
by providing for a joint board, composed of the industrial accident
board and the board of labor and industries, to which very exten­
sive authority was granted. The committee reports that this effort


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has not been satisfactory, quoting a passage in a message of the
governor to the 1916 legislature :
The operations of this joint board have not proved effective in any material
degree * * * The meeting of the joint board is held only once in a fort­
night, and the statistics that have been collected relating to accidents and to
occupational diseases have not even been digested and intelligent deductions
drawn from them.

2. The adoption of a system of “ experience ” rating in fixing
compensation insurance rates as an incentive to more effective acci­
dent-prevention work by employers.
There are-two possible systems of merit rating: (1) “ Schedule”
rating, in which the rate is determined in advance upon the basis of
probable hazard due to installation or lack of safetj^ devices, safety
organization, etc.; and (2) “ experience” rating, in which the rate is
based upon the actual accident frequency as developed by the estab­
lishment. The committee believes that experience rating is by far
the more preferable system both on the ground of accuracy and
justice to the employer and as stimulating every employer to pre­
vent accidents in order to profit from the consequent reduction in
his premium rates.
WASHINGTON.

The Workmen’s Compensation Act of Washington was one of the
earliest in this country, and was the pioneer in the principle of
compulsory State insurance. This, together with the fact that the
law has undergone no important changes since its enactment in 1911,
makes of particular interest its experience of five years as reviewed
briefly in the recent report of the industrial insurance department for
the year 1916.1
The scope of the act has remained substantially unchanged, apply­
ing by compulsion only to a specified list of employments declared
to be extrahazardous. The commission is authorized to add to the
list, but it reports that it has seldom exercised this authority “ other
than to rate and classify minor operations that were incidental to
industries that were enumerated under the law.” Agriculture in all
its branches remains excluded, the commission holding that this
“ was tacitly understood at the time the act was passed.” As a result
such dangerous occupations as those connected with “ thrashing ma­
chine outfits, hay balers, combined harvesters and thrashers ” are
unprotected.
Persons in employments not in the extrahazardous list are at
liberty voluntarily to accept the act, and the law makes provision
1 W ash in g to n ( S ta te ), F ifth A nnual R eport of th e In d u s tria l In su ran ce D epartm ent,
Olym pia. 1916. 175 pp.


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for thus extending the scope of compensation. However, in practice,
voluntary acceptances have been extremely few. At the end of the
five years of operation only 63 employers have done so. This seems
to be due partly to the fact that the law fixes a uniform premium
rate for all the so-called nonhazardous occupations and partly to the
fact that the method of election is cumbersome. The agreement must
be signed by every employee, and any new employee who succeeds
to a position left vacant by a former employee who had signed the
elective agreement is not within the scope of the act unless a new
agreement is signed.
While, however, the number of employments under the act has re­
mained substantially the same, the number of employers on the books
of the State fund has shown a rapid increase, and the number of
employees thereby brought under compensation has also shown a
fairly regular growth. The following table, reproduced from the
report, shows the respective numbers of emploj^ers and workers
under the State fund in each of the five years, the lumber industry
being shown separately because of its importance in the State. The
figures for employees are apparently no more than estimates, based
upon pay-roll information reported, but they may be accepted as
indicating roughly the importance of the compensation system.
NUM BER OF EM PLOYERS AND EM PLOYEES U N DER TH E STATE FUND IN EACH
YEAR, 1912 TO 1916.
Year ending Sept. 30—
item.

Number of employers....................................................
Number of men employed in lumber industry ...........
Total number of men employed in all extrahazardous
employments................................................................

1912

1913

1914

1915

5,750
46,468

8,891
52,652

9,980
67,832

13,020
71,031

14,257
1106,262

138,084

162,970

176,820

158,351

1236,892

1916

1 These figures for th e year ending Sept. 30, 1916, are estimated, the increase of accidents reported over
previous years being used as a basis for such estimate.

Thus in the year 1916, a very active business year, the total number
of employees subject to compensation was estimated at 236,892. There
is no means of knowing how large a proportion this number is of the
total number of wage earners in the State. But from estimates pub­
lished in a recent bulletin of this Bureau it seems reasonable to con­
clude that it constitutes probably not much over 50 per cent of the
total wage-earning population, leaving the other 50 per cent still
unprotected by compensation.1
The scale of benefits payable under the Washington law has also re­
mained unchanged from the beginning. This scale is based on the
1 B u lletin of U nited S ta te s B ureau of L abor S ta tistic s, No. 203,- “ W orkm en’s Compen­
sa tio n L aw s of th e U n ited S tates a n d F oreign C o u n tries,” 1917, p. 66.


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principle of a continuing monthly pension during the whole period of
disability and during the life of a widow, the minimum being $20 a
month, increasable according to size of family, up to a maximum of
$35 per month, with a flat 50 per cent increase under certain condi­
tions. The commission, in this report, does not recommend any fun­
damental changes in this scale, but it does urge that where the dis­
ability is such as to require constant nursing the monthly payment
should be increased by $20 to pay for the services of an attendant. I t
also urges most forcibly that the law be so amended as to provide for
medical service. The Washington act is one of the two in this country
which make no provision for medical service, the whole expense of
medical, surgical, and hospital treatment falling on the injured
worker. In addition to the heavy burden thus placed upon the worker,
the commission notes that the system results very often in improper
treatment, with consequent prolongation of disability and increased
compensation. “ Hundreds of cases before the department,” it re­
ports, “ demonstrate the fact that lack of such attention following
injuries results in prolonged suffering and time loss, increased perma­
nent disability and, consequently, an increase in compensation both
temporary and permanent.”
The State compensation insurance fund has probably been the most
discussed feature of the compensation act of Washington. This fund
is made up of compulsory premiums from all employers under the
act, and out of it are payable all claims for. compensation. What
particularly distinguishes it from other exclusive State funds is the
use of the “ class fund ” system. The contributing industries are
divided into a number of classes, according to presumed similarity
of risks. The premiums paid by the employers in each class are
segregated in a special class fund, which is to be entirely self-support­
ing and which may not be drawn on to meet a deficit in another class.
Originally the law prescribed 48 fixed classifications, but the rigidity
of the classes proved unsatisfactory and later the commission was
authorized to combine and regroup classes as the need arose.
At present there are 40 separate class funds, each with its own
income and its own reserves. At the end of the fiscal year 1916 three
of these class funds showed a deficit, although the total for the com­
bined funds showed a balance of $355,828. Two of the three deficits
were considered by the commission as purely temporary, premiums
called for being in process of collection. The third, in the powdermill class, is the relic of the so-called Chehalis disaster of 1911,
when a serious powder-mill explosion, causing several deaths, made a
heavier demand than the class fund could bear. The largest powder
company in the group flatly refused to pay the necessary contributions
to meet the deficit, and pending the test of the act’s constitutionality


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before the United States Supreme Court the commission made no
effort to enforce payment and the fund remained in arrears. The
recent decision of the United States Supreme Court in favor of the
act’s constitutionality will probably reopen this question.1
Another loss to the State fund resulted from frauds committed by
the chief claim agent in 1915, some $20,000 being involved. As the
claim agent was bonded for $2,000, the total loss was reduced to
about $18,000. The frauds were perpetrated by an ingenious system
of forgeries. In some cases the claims were entirely fraudulent, the
whole series of notices, physicians’ certificates, etc., being forged by
the agent and a confederate and then passed upon and allowed by
the agent as chief of the claim department. In other cases the claims
were genuine but were lying unpaid because the rightful claimants
had not appeared to receive the warrants. In these cases the names
of the claimants were forged to the voucher and the warrants issued.
In order to safeguard against similar occurrences in the future,
the commission devised a check on claim payments by comparison of
the signatures of physicians. All physicians in the State are now
requested to file with the commission a sample of their handwriting
and their autograph signature. With these on file, the reports of
accidents submitted by attending physicians (and there must be such
a report in every accident claim) may be checked as to handwriting
and signature. Also, all physicians are now requested to mail all
their reports direct to the commission. Formerly these were often
turned over to the claimant or employer for mailing and opportunity
thus offered for changes to be made therein.
One of the serious difficulties of the commission has been the locat­
ing of certain employers, particularly small contractors and employ­
ers of casual labor. Under the law every employer in extrahazardous work, whether casual or not, is required to contribute a fixed
premium on his pay roll to the State insurance fund. But, in prac­
tice, unless the employer is actually located by the commission and
the proper contribution demanded, he may, entirely escape until an
'accident occurs to a workman in his employ. Thereupon a penalty
may be imposed of three times the regular premium, but in the case
of casual employers this may amount to only a few cents. The
results are unfair to those employers who are in fixed business and
who pay their contributions regularly. Also, a very heavy expense
is imposed upon the commission in keeping traveling auditors “ in
constant search for small contractors, contractors from other States,
and shifting enterprises.” To meet this difficulty the commission
urges that all employers be required to make a monthly report of
their pay rolls under a heavy penalty for failure. The commission
1 See p. 550 of th is num ber of th e R ev iew fo r th e decision of th e S uprem e C ourt.


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also reports that many subterfuges are resorted to by employers in
the attempt to evade the law. One of the methods adopted is de­
scribed in some detail:
D u rin g th e p ast year m any coop erative com panies h ave been form ed appar­
en tly for th e sole purpose o f ev a d in g th e p aym en t o f con trib u tion s. T he com­
m issio n h as co n sisten tly tak en th e p osition th a t a ll such o rgan ization s w ere
b u t another m ethod o f th e p aym en t o f w a g es and th a t th e pay ro lls o f such
com panies should be listed .
A case in point recen tly presen ted to th e com m ission is th a t o f an em ployer
w ho had sold som e la n d in 10-acre tra cts, r e ta in in g th e ow n ersh ip o f th e tim ber.
E ach p u rch aser w a s given a job o f cu ttin g wood a t a fixed p rice p er cord, oneh a lf to be applied on th e p aym en t o f th e lan d and on e-h alf to be paid in gro­
ceries. E ach one o f th ese m en w orked by h im se lf and w h en he p leased and
fu rn ish ed h is ow n tools. T he ow ner o f th e lan d assu m ed no control o f th e m en
and w a s only in terested in th e r e su lts o f th e labor, m easu rin g th e cordw ood
and provid in g for th e paym ent.
T h e q u estion a t issu e w a s w h eth er th ese p u rch asers o f th e la n d w ere em ­
p loyed by th e oth er p a rty as p iecew ork ers or w h eth er th ey w ere indep en d en t
operators. T he dep artm en t took th e p osition th a t th e ow ner o f th e property
ex ercised a certain su p ervision over th e m en w ho w ere rem ovin g h is tim ber,
and held th a t th e w oodchoppers should he considered as p iecew ork ers and th e
ow n er o f th e tim ber held for contrib u tion to th e accid en t fund.

A very interesting table of the report shows the distribution of
compensated accidents according to. marital condition of the injured.
The Washington law makes the payments in case of married workers
with dependents very much larger than in case of single workers.
Thus when the act was passed concern was felt by some that em­
ployers as a result might hire unmarried men to the exclusion of men
with families. The fear, however, was apparently without founda­
tion, as the detailed data, presented in the table below, indicate that
the proportion of injured workment with families has steadily in­
creased from 1913 to 1916.
CONJUGAL CONDITION OF IN JU R ED W ORKMEN, 1913 TO 1916.

Num­
ber.

Single...................................................... 6,778
........................................ 5,602
Total . . . .
.......................... 12,380

Married -

1916

1915

1914

1913
Conjugal condition.

Per
cent.

Num­
ber.

Per
cent.

Num­
ber.

Per
cent.

Num­
ber.

54.7
45.3

6,698
5,888

53.2
46.8

5,704
5,486

51
49

7,467
7,351

50.4
49.6

100.0

12,586

100.0

11,190

100

14,818

100.0

Per
cent.

The number of accidents reported to the commission shows con­
siderable fluctuation from year to year, with a very marked increase
of from 13,162 to 19,494 in the latest year, 1916. This is attributed
solely to the increase in industrial activities. Owing to lack of exact
data regarding the number of workers and the period of their em-


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ployment it is impossible to compute accurate accident rates, and thus
impossible to learn whether the compensation act itself or the acci­
dent-prevention work of the State bureau of labor has been effective
in reducing the rate of accident occurrence.
The following table, summarized from a table of the report, shows
the number of accidents reported, claims for compensation, and dis­
position of those claims, for each of the five years the act has been
in effect.
COMPARATIVE STATEMENT SHOWING T H E NUM BER OF ACCIDENTS RE PO R T ED
AND CLAIMS ADJUDICATED DURING EACH FISCAL Y EAR, ENDING SEPTEM BER
30, 1912 TO 1916.
Fiscal year ending Sept. 30—

Total
to Sept.
30,
19167

Item.
1912

1913

1914

1915

1916

15,965
371

14,765
324

12,947
215

19,180
314

74,474
1,503

11,896

16,336

15,089

13,162

19,494

75,977

6,356
257
2
378

12,180
319
13
747

12,584
347
13
807

11,190
210
9
570

14,818
296
22
1,016

57,128
1,429
59
3,518

1,552
348

2,989
519

1,914
356

1,224
259

1,693
291

9,372
1,773

314
33
953

471
196
462

422
89
469

210
22
496

574
38
947
1,139

574
38
947
1,139

Accidents reported:
N onfatal....................................................................... 11,617
F atal..........................................
279
Total...........................................................
Claims adjudicated.

Claims allowed (total temporary disability; full and
final award).................... .......................... ..
F atal accidents............................................................
Total permanent disability (pensions).................... .....
Claims rejected (for cause)................................................
Claims suspended:
(A) Claims not made by workmen; injuries trivial.
(B) Unable to locate claimants, etc.........................
Monthly payments (continued monthly accoimt of tem­
porary disability still existing).....................................
Partial paym ents...............................................................
Claims in process of adjustm ent......................................
Files incomplete................................................................
Total.........................................................................

75,977

________ _

Under the Washington law the whole cost of compensation pay­
ments is borne by the employers through their contributions to the
State fund. All administrative expenses, however, are borne by the
State. The ratio of the cost of administration to the total premiums
collected has varied from year to year, depending principally upon
the amount of premium paid for the period covered, as shown in
the following table:
E X PE N S E RATIO FO R EACH SPEC IFIED PER IO D .
Period.

Expense.

Receipts.

Expense
ratio.

Oct. 1,1911, to Mar. 31,1913..........................................................
Apr. 1,1913, to Mar. 31, 1915.........................................................
Apr. 1,1915, to Sept. 30,1916........................................................

$155,000.00
221,971.00
168,581.83

$1,703,556.90
3,174,168.26
1,946,232.79

9.10
7.02
8.61

Oct. 1,1911, to Sept. 30,1916.........................................................

545,552.83

6,823,957.95

7.99


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549

WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION CASES IN THE UNITED STATES
SUPREME COURT.

Some account was given in the December, 1916, issue of the
R e v i e w (pp. 27, 28), of a number of cases involving the
constitutionality and construction of workmen’s compensation laws
in the United States Supreme Court. Decisions were announced on
three of these cases on March 6, involving the constitutionality of the
laws of Iowa, New York, and Washington. The laws were upheld
in each instance, though in the case involving the Washington stat­
ute four judges dissented, but made no statement of the grounds of
their dissent. Mr. Justice Pitney delivered the opinion in each case.
The first opinion presented bore on the New York statute, the case
being entitled New York Central Railroad Co. v . White. The em­
ploying company made the claim that the case should be determined
under the Federal liability law of 1908, but as the employee had been
engaged as watchman over materials for new construction work not
yet brought into interstate commerce, this contention was rejected.
In this, as in the other cases before the court, the courts of last
resort of the respective States had held the acts constitutional, so that
no question of conflict between these acts and the provisions of the
State constitutions was under consideration. However, questions
under the Federal Constitution, and specifically under the fourteenth
amendment thereto, remained. The principal objections interposed to
the constitutionality of the New York law were the alteration of the
test of negligence as the basis of the employer’s liability, the abro­
gation of the common-law defenses, the casting of liability upon the
employer without fault, and interference with freedom of contract.
As to negligence, it was held that this is merely the disregard of
some duty imposed by law and is subject to change by legislative
action. As to the abrogation of the common-law defenses, it was
pointed out that this power belonged to the States, as had been
held repeatedly by the court. The present act was considered as an
effort to provide a just settlement of a difficult problem, substituting
for the abrogated methods of procedure the new method attempting
to reach a better solution. The fact that wear and tear of ma­
chinery is an ordinary charge upon the business was noted, together
with the inherent probability of accidental injury to employees.
The question was then considered as to who should bear the expense
of such injuries, the pain and suffering not being transferable; i. e.,
as to whether certain money costs should not be borne by the industry,
the same as for damaged equipment. The conclusion was reached
that it was neither arbitrary nor unreasonable to fix a reasonable and
definite scale by which the employer should contribute in all cases of
injury, negligence being disregarded, while the employee is relieved
M

onthly


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of the assumption of ordinary risks, receiving in such cases a definite
and easily obtained compensation, but assuming losses exceeding those
compensable under the prescribed scale.
As to the specific point of liability without fault it was pointed out
that statutes imposing such liability have been sustained as against
carriers, innkeepers, persons employing fire or other dangerous
agencies, etc. It was held that the establishment of a compulsory
compensation system, as provided for in the New York law, could
not be deemed an arbitrary and unreasonable application of the
principle of the responsibility of the superior, since the undertaking
was one in which the workman served for the employer’s benefit, the
parties being coadventurers, the profits beyond the employee’s wages
going to the employer. Since an employee is subject to hazards in
the employment, and the more so if he gives himself unreservedly
to labor without extreme caution as to his own safety, the State
may properly impose an absolute duty upon the employer to make a
moderate and definite compensation in all cases of disability.
It was recognized that the act in question limits the freedom of
contract in a measurable degree, but it was held that in so doing there
was a reasonable exercise of the police power of the State, since the
public has a direct interest in the matter of compensation for human
life or limb lost or disability acquired in pursuit of a hazardous em­
ployment. Though the act imposes no rules of conduct or safety, it
does contemplate “ the prevention of pauperism, with its comcomitants of vice and crime,” which are matters affecting public welfare.
The question of classification or equal protection was not pressed
but was noticed by the court as not being objectionable in the law
under consideration.
The final consideration bore upon the method of securing payments,
and it was held that to require security to be given in some one of the
forms offered by the law was not open to criticism, since if the law
itself was valid, it was proper to establish reasonable regulations as
to financial ability to make payments, or otherwise to secure the com­
pensation that might fall due. Such arrangements also did not
affect the employee injuriously, so that the law in its entire bearings
was found to be valid.
The Washington case (Mountain Timber Co. v . Washington),
involved the construction of a law which, besides the provisions of
the New York law, contained other features calling for separate dis­
cussion, and in particular one as to a State insurance fund. Frequent
reference was made to the decision in the New York case, but so far
as the establishment of a State fund is concerned, to which all em­
ployers under the act must contribute whether or not there are acci­
dents in their establishments, independent consideration was necessary.
Three main questions were involved: First, whether the act was of such

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o51

general and public moment, rather than of private and particular
interest, as to furnish a just basis for such interference with personal
liberty and freedom of contract as appeared in the law ; second,
whether the charges were reasonable, or burdensome and oppressive;
and, third, whether the burden laid is fairly distributed.
I t was held on the basis of the reasoning in the New York case that
such laws lie within the police power of the State, so far as their
principle is concerned, and it was then argued that the State itself
might provide for industrial employees, suffering injury in their
occupations, and their dependents, as well as for disabled soldiers and
their widows and dependents; nor is it necessary that the persons
aided should be reduced to extremity before the benefits could be
legally provided.
As to whether or not the imposition of the tax for the insurance
fund was so excessive as to constitute deprivation of liberty or
property without due process of law, it was pointed out that the
question of undue compensation had not been raised, and unless there
was undue compensation there could not be an excessive burden on
the industry. The distribution of the burden was next taken up,
and the method of computing the premium rates on pay rolls was
spoken of as customary in insurance practice and adopted by legisla­
tive declaration. The regulation of assessments for the various in­
dustry groups on the basis of experience was held to obviate any
difficulty that might be met in regard to the statutory amount of the
rates, since assessments would be made only as found necessary.
Since industry as a whole is subject to hazards, it is not unreasonable
that industry as a whole should bear the burden, and not merely such
establishments as might furnish the occasion for individual acci­
dents, the general welfare being best subserved by the provision of
an adequate fund for indemnifying injured persons and their de­
pendents.
The Iowa statute is elective in form, and falls, for the most part,
within the limits of law set up by the New York statute, the consti­
tutionality of which had been already upheld when the case in hand,
Hawkins v . Bleakly, was decided. Specific provisions of the act,
however, required consideration, one being the requirement that an
employee rejecting the act shall indicate whether or not he has
been advised so to do, and if so, by whom; and where it appears that
the employer or his agent advised rejection, the employee’s rejection
is to be held void. This was held to be a permissible regulation in
aid of the general scheme of the act, being intended for the employee’s
benefit, to protect him from possible coercion in the matter of his
election. Another provision deprives the employer of his commonlaw defenses, «Lot only where he elects to reject the act and his em-


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ployee does not, but also in eases where both parties reject its pro­
visions. This also was said to be unobjectionable from a constitu­
tional standpoint, since all members of each class are treated alike,
and there is no discrimination.
The objection that the requirement that the employer shall insure
his liability was an interference with freedom of action was disposed
of by pointing out that no one need insure unless he were a voluntary
acceptor of the act, and as the appellant in this case had not accepted
the act, he was not qualified to bring this point before the court.
By these decisions the Supreme Court has established the validity
of practically every form and essential feature of the compensation
laws now on the statute books of approximately three-fourths of the
States of the Union. The question as to the validity of the construc­
tion of the laws adopted by the courts of New York and New Jersey
with regard to interstate commerce remains undecided so far as these
decisions are concerned, and there are doubtless other points that will
be raised which will require the authoritative interpretation that this
court alone can render. The interstate-commerce question has been
argued before the court, and its decision thereon may be expected on
any opinion day, but in so far as the fundamental principles of com­
pensation laws, elective or compulsory in form, and including State
monopoly of a required insurance fund are concerned, no Federal con­
stitutional obstacle could seem to be interposed; and in view of the
authoritative statement of the principles involved, which have been
frequently discussed by the State courts, it may also be anticipated
that legislatures will feel free to proceed with amendments and en­
largements of the scope and effectiveness of the laws where they have
felt hesitation heretofore.

INSURANCE MONOPOLY FOR THE OHIO WORKMEN’S COMPENSA­
TION FUND.

Some account was given in the M o n t h l y R e v i e w o f August, 1916
(pp. 60, 61), of the legal discussion as to the status of indemnity
insurance companies under the Ohio laws. Certain points were then
decided, including the constitutionality of section 22 of the act (sec.
1465-69), which requires every employer of five or more workmen
regularly in the same business to pay into the State insurance fund
the amount of premium determined and fixed by the State authori­
ties, only self-insurers approved by the commission being excepted.
Such self-insurers, however, must contribute to the surplus fund for
the purpose of maintaining a guaranty for the State insurance fund.
Section 54 of the act (sec. 1465-101) was also construed, and the


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553

fact that it did not repeal by implication section 9510 of the General
Code was pointed out. As section 54 then stood, it was construed to
permit the writing of insurance under the compensation law by stock
companies for accidents other than those inflicted by the willful acts
of the employer, his officers or agents, or by the failure of such persons
to observe the provisions of safety laws.
It was announced that certain points would be decided only after
further deliberation. The final decision was rendered in January
of this year, when certain conclusions were announced as to the con­
struction of this section 54, defining more strictly the limits within
which insurance could be written by companies other than the State
fund. These are set forth under the following heads:
A. E very such con tract o f in d em n ity o f an em ployer for lo ss or d am age on
accou n t o f in ju ry o f an em ployee by a ccid en ta l m ean s or on account o f the
n egligen ce o f such em ployer, or such em ployer’s officers, agents, or servan ts,
sh a ll co n ta in a specific p rovision a s a part o f its term s for the p aym en t to such
in ju red em ployee “ a ll such am ou n ts for m edical, nurse, and h osp ital serv­
ices and m ed icin es and such com pensation as is provided by th e act o f w h ich
th is sectio n is a p art for in ju red em ployees, and in th e even t o f death sh a ll
pay such am ounts as provided by said act for fu n eral exp en ses and for com­
p en sa tio n to th e d ep endents or th o se p a rtia lly dependent upon su ch em ployee.”
T h is p rovision o f th e con tract h a s referen ce only to ca ses o f in ju ry w h ere
th e inju red em ployee elec ts to accept com pensation for h is in ju ry d irectly from
h is em ployer according to th e stan d ard fixed in section 22 o f th e in d u strial
com m ission act.
B. T h e con tract o f in d em n ity sh a ll not con tain any agreem en t to in d em n ify
an em ployer for any civil lia b ility fo r or on account o f th e in ju ry to his
em p loyee by th e w illfu l a ct o f such em ployer, or any o f such em ployer’s officers
or agents, or th e fa ilu r e o f such em ployer, h is officers or agen ts, to observe
any la w fu l req u irem en ts fo r th e sa fe ty o f em ployees.
T h is p rovision o f th e con tract h as e x c lu s iv e referen ce to ca ses o f injury
w h ere the in ju red em ployee does not ele c t to receiv e a s com p en sation for h is
in ju ry eith er th e ju d gm en t or aw ard o f th e in d u stria l com m ission sittin g as
a board o f aw ards, or from h is em ployer d irect, but elec ts to and does e x ercise
th e righ t to en force h is ca u se o f action in th e cou rts a g a in st h is em ployer.
C. N o con tract o f in d em n ity sh a ll be w r itte n in b e h a lf o f an em ployer o f five
or m ore em ployees for loss or d am age nor an agreem en t to in d em n ify an
em ployer for any civ il lia b ility on account o f an in ju ry o f an em ployee by
accid en tal m eans or on accou n t o f th e n egligen ce o f such em ployer, h is officers,
agen ts, or servan ts, w h eth er th e n egligen ce be th a t o f th e w illfu l act or fa ilu r e
to com ply w ith la w fu l req u irem en ts o f th e sa fe ty o f em p loyees or n egligen ce
o f any oth er kind or ch aracter, if such em ployer is n ot a contributor to th e
com pensation fund or h a s n ot leg a lly exercised th e option o f carryin g h is ow n
in su ran ce under section 22 o f th e act.

The court concluded with awarding a judgment terminating the
right of indemnity insurance companies to write policies other than
those indicated in the foregoing opinion. The entire subject is dis­
posed of, however, by an amendment of date of February 19, 1917,
repealing the original section 54 (sec. 1465-101) and substituting


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therefor the following, which came before the legislature as a bill
proposed by initiative petition:
S ec . 1465-101. A ll con tracts and a greem en ts sh a ll be ab so lu tely void and o f
no effect w h ich u n d ertak e to in d em n ify or in su re an em ployer a g a in st loss or
lia b ility fo r th e p aym en t o f com pensation to w orkm en or th eir d ep endents for
death , in ju ry, or occu p ation al d isea se occasion ed in th e cou rse o f such w ork ­
m en ’s em ploym ent or w h ich provide th a t th e in su rer sh a ll pay su ch com pen­
sation , or w h ich in d em n ify th e em ployer a g a in st d am ages w h en th e injury,
d isea se, or d eath a rises from th e fa ilu r e to com ply w ith any la w fu l requirem ent
fo r th e protection o f th e lives, h ealth , and sa fe ty o f em ployees, or w hen the
sam e is occasion ed by th e w illfu l act o f th e em ployer or an y o f h is officers or
agen ts, or by w h ich it is agreed th a t th e insurer sh a ll pay any su ch dam ages.
N o licen se or au th o rity to en ter into any such a greem en ts or issu e an y such
p o licies o f in su ran ce sh a ll be g ra n ted or issu ed by any public au th ority.

The obvious effect of this amendment is to secure to the State fund
a complete monopoly of insurance under the workmen’s compensation
law of the State, and also to forbid employers insuring any risks
other than those provided for by this act.
WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION IN THE UNITED STATES AND
FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

In the rapid spread of workmen’s compensation legislation in this
country the fact is often overlooked that many of the laws adopted
are far less comprehensive than their mere titles would indicate.
Because 35 States and Territories, with some 75 per cent of the em­
ployed population, have adopted such laws it is frequently assumed
that a similar proportion of the wageworkers of the country are now
fully and properly insured against the loss and suffering occasioned
by industrial accidents. That this is not true is emphasized in Bul­
letin No. 203 of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics entitled
“ Workmen’s Compensation in the United States and Foreign Coun­
tries.”
The bulletin presents a detailed comparison of the principal fea­
tures of the various State compensation laws. The comparison
brings out most striking differences, particularly as regards the pro­
portion of workers covered and the scale of compensation benefits.
No State compensation act covers all employees. In the first place
most of the acts are elective. Employers who do not accept are pe­
nalized, but in spite of this there are always some who refuse to
elect. In the second place, all of the acts purposely exclude certain
classes of employees. Thus agricultural workers, domestic servants,
and casual employees are almost everywhere excluded. Also there
is an important group of acts which apply only to certain employ­
ments declared to be especially hazardous, although in practice they
may be no more hazardous than others not included. Again, a con
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siderable number of acts apply only to employers having less than a
certain number of employees, the minimum being in one case as high
as 11.
The result of these limitations and exclusions is to restrict the
benefits of compensation very often to only a rather small fraction of
the total number of workers. A rough estimate of the proportion
covered in each State, based on the liberal assumption that election
has been made by all employers affected in States having elective
laws, shows that in only two instances, New Jersejf and Hawaii, do
the acts include at best as many as 90 per cent of the total workers,
and only seven States cover 80 per cent or over. One covers less than
20 per cent and nine less than 50 per cent.
Similarly striking are the differences between the several acts as
regards the benefits paid in case of injury. A few extreme instances
may be cited. Thus, in the case of a fatal injury occurring in the
State of Oregon the widow and children may receive in total as much
as $13,480, whereas in Vermont the maximum would be $1,830, and
under the Oklahoma act no benefits at all are paid in case of death.
For loss of a hand the Alaska act allows as much as $2,400, while the
maximum for the same injury in Colorado is but $832. Again, in
Oregon and Porto Eico cash benefits are paid for injuries of how­
ever brief duration, whereas in Colorado no cash benefits are paid
for disabilities of less than three weeks. Further, Washington and
Wyoming, at one extreme, make no provision for medical service, this
expense falling entirely on the worker; whereas, at the other extreme,
in several States, as Connecticut, Massachusetts, and California, pay­
ment may be made for all necessary medical and hospital service,
without limit as to time or amount.
The words “ accident” and “ injury” have different meanings in
different places. Generally speaking, the practice has been to limit
compensation to accidental injuries in the strict sense. There is a
tendency, however, to broaden the term so as to take in the more
subtle injury of occupational diseases, such as lead poisoning, wood
alcohol blindness, and anthrax. Massachusetts is the only State in
which this has been regularly done and approved of by both the ad­
ministering board and the courts. But the California act was re­
cently amended so as to include occupational diseases, and in certain
other States the commissions have so interpreted the law only to be
overruled by the courts.
I t appears, therefore, that practically all of the State compensa­
tion acts now in force need enlarging and liberalizing before they
can be regarded as furnishing adequate protection to the whole body
of wage earners. This, the bulletin points out, has been a general
tendency of recent amendments. In no case has a compensation sys­
tem once introduced been repealed. But in a number of instances in
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ferior acts have been superseded by better ones, and in all cases where
the courts have held particular acts unconstitutional the States
affected have proceeded to enact new laws that would meet the
necessary legal tests and, if no other way offered, State constitutions
have been amended.
At the beginning of 1917 there were 35 compensation laws in effect
in the United States, including those of Hawaii, Alaska, and Porto
Bico, but not including the new Federal act of 1916, which was not
yet in operation, due to delay in the appointment and confirmation of
the commission. Of the 17 noncompensation States, 10 are in a single
group of ‘Southern and south Central States—Virginia, North Car­
olina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Ten­
nessee, Arkansas, and Missouri. The other seven are the two Dakotas ;
the three mountain States of Idaho, Utah, and New Mexico; Delaware and the District of Columbia. In several of these, investigating
commissions are now at work and in some it is probable that compen­
sation acts will be adopted at the current sessions of their legislatures.
In addition to reproducing in full the text of the American laws
now in force the bulletin summarizes the important features of the
laws of foreign countries. It also presents a comprehensive analysis
of the decisions of the courts and of the various administrative com­
missions
WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION LAW OF CHILE.

On December 30, 1916, there was published in the Diario Oficial of
Chile a law providing for the compensation of accidental injuries to
workmen in designated lines of employment, the act to become effec­
tive six months after such publication. The industries and trades cov­
ered include mining and metallurgical work; the manufacture or use
of explosive, inflammable, or poisonous or otherwise injurious sub­
stances; loading and unloading freight; employment on public
works—railways, harbor work, roads, bridges, aqueducts, sewers, and
similar undertakings; transportation by land, sea, or internal water­
ways ; in general, employment in factories and workshops where other
than hand power is used, and agricultural work of like nature. Acci­
dents due to force majeure, or not arising out of the employment, and
those intentionally caused or due to criminal attempts or serious
offenses of the injured person or an outsider are excluded.
Medical aid and supplies are to be furnished until earning capacity
is restored or a permanent disability is determined. If death ensues,
an allowance for burial expenses up to 100 pesos ($36.50) is pre­
scribed.
The compensation for temporary disability is one-half the wages
from the date of the accident until ability to resume work; for per
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manent total disability, the same amount during life; and for per­
manent partial disability, an 'indemnity not exceeding two years’
earnings. Death benefits are payable to the widow, widower, legiti­
mate children, or recognized natural or illegitimate children of the
deceased employee. The widow or dependent widower (if the mar­
riage status existed at the time of the accident) receives 20 per cent
of the wages of the deceased until death or remarriage. Children
under 16 years receive benefits until that age, 20 per cent if one child
or 30 per cent if more than one, where a parent survives, or 50 per
cent if there is no surviving parent, the amounts being distributed
equally among the children.
Annual earnings in excess of 2,000 pesos ($730) are excluded from
consideration, and a minimum basis of 600 pesos ($219) is fixed by
the act. Employers may insure their risks, give a mortgage to secure
payments, or deposit a suitable capital in a State savings bank. Third
persons liable for an injury may be proceeded against at common law ;
suit may also be brought against an employer where fraud or grave
fault can be proved against him.
Administration is in the hands of the civil judges, under regula­
tions to be issued by the President of the Republic.

ADMINISTRATION OF LABOR LAWS IN THE PACIFIC STATES.

Irregular employment is emphasized as the most striking labor
characteristic of the Pacific States in a report dealing with labor
laws and their administration in Washington, Oregon, and Cali­
fornia, just issued by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics
(Bulletin No. 211). Most of the important industries, such as lum­
ber, fruit growing, construction work, fruit and fish canning, are
highly seasonal. In the winter months one-quarter at least of all
the workers, and in some sections a much larger proportion, are
without jobs or the possibility of getting jobs. In California alone
there are some 20,000 “ floaters,” workers with no fixed residence,
constantly wandering from place to place.
The demoralizing effect of these conditions has only recently come
to be regarded as a matter of possible State concern, and as yet State
efforts at remedy have been rather limited. Washington, in 1915,
abolished all private employment agencies because of the sins of
many of them, but it did not provide any substitute system. Oregon
has done little or nothing. The California Legislature, in 1915, made
an important beginning by the creation of a system of free State
employment offices. But it recognized that at best such offices could
do no more than bring together the worker and the job, whereas
the major problem was the fact that at recurrent periods there are
86302°—17----------- 5


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vastly more workers than there are jobs. With this larger problem
in mind, the legislature provided for extensive investigations and
has now under serious consideration such far-reaching measures as
social insurance and the encouragement of land colonization through
the breaking up of the immense speculative land holdings now so
prominent in that State.
A by-product of the seasonal, shifting industry of the Pacific
coast is the widespread use of labor camps. These camps are almost
universal in logging operations and construction work, where the
roving character of the business makes necessary the housing of the
labor force in temporary quarters. They are also not uncommon
among lumber mills, canneries, and many agricultural employments,
such as hop picking. Probably as many as 100,000 workers on the
Pacific coast, including a number of women and children, live the
greater part of the year in camps of various kinds. Some of these
camps are well maintained, but the normal tendency is for them to
be of the flimsiest construction, insanitary and morally degrading.
California is making serious effort to improve the character of its
numerous labor camps. Strict sanitary regulations have been
adopted and supervision placed in the hands of the Immigration
and Housing Commission. Washington and Oregon have as yet
done little in this matter.
The exploitation of labor through nonpayment of wages is in no
way limited to the Pacific coast, but conditions there are favorable
to its existence—the casual, seasonal character of so much of the
work, a large body of immigrant labor, ignorant of their rights and
often fearful of the law, the constant shifting of workers from job
to job, and the location of much of the work in isolated districts.
That the evil is widespread is evident from the experience of the sev­
eral State bureaus of labor in handling wage complaints. Thus, the
California bureau, in a three-year period, received over 12,000 com­
plaints from workers and succeeded in making collections in some
8,000 cases, the total amount collected being no less than $171,000.
In the attempt to protect the worker against such wage losses all
three of the States have enacted laws requiring prompt and honest
payment of wages. That these have been only partially successful is
due, in part, to defects in the laws themselves, but still more to the
fact that the basic evil remains, namely, that a large body of workers,
unaided and unadvised, is unable to avail itself of the benefits of
such legislation. With very few exceptions no special provision
was made for the enforcement of the wage laws. To the extent that
active enforcement has been undertaken it has been by an assumption
of jurisdiction on the part of the State bureaus of labor, none of
which has any adequate authority or equipment for this kind of work.


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In many highly important forms of labor legislation the Pacific
States have been pioneers in this country. This is particularly true
of laws regarding the employment of women. As early as 1913 there
was created in each of these States an industrial welfare commission,
with authority to determine what particular regulations are neces­
sary for the health of women and children in industry, and thereupon
to issue such regulations as orders with the force of law. This
authority covered wages, general working conditions, and, except in
Washington, hours of labor. These commissions thus become of
dominant importance in determining the attitude of their States
toward the labor of women and children, with power virtually to
write the laws upon these subjects. This power has already been
extensively exercised in Washington and Oregon. The Washington
commission has fixed minimum wage rates for women and children
in practically all industries. The Oregon commission has gone fur­
ther and also fixed the maximum hours of labor. I t is interesting
to note that the minimum wage scale thus fixed by the commissions
in two adjoining and economically similar States are rather widely
different. The Washington scale varies from $8.90 per week in
factory work to $10 per week in stores and offices, whereas the Oregon
scale varies from $8.25 for all employments in small towns to $9.25
for stores and offices in the city of Portland.
The principle of workmen’s accident compensation also had an
early development on the Pacific coast, the Washington act being the
first absolutely compulsory act in this country, and also the first to
provide for State-managed insurance. The compensation acts of the
three Pacific States as now in force are of entirely different adminis­
trative types, and also differ rather widely as to the benefits offered
and the number of workers covered. On the whole, the Oregon act
is the most liberal in its awards for injuries. There is no waiting
period required, medical service up to $250 per case is allowed, and
monthly pensions of from $30 to $50 are granted for the whole period
of disability, and, in fatal cases, for the life of dependents. On the
other hand, the California act is the more liberal as regards scope.
It covers all personal injuries, whether of accident or disease, whereas
the Washington and Oregon acts are limited to accidents, in the nar­
row sense of the word. Also it applies to a much larger proportion
of the workers of the State. Thus the Washington act applies only
to extrahazardous employments and is estimated to cover not much
over 50 per cent of the workers in the State. The Oregon act also
applies only to hazardous employments and covers considerably less
than 50 per cent of the total wage earners. The California act is
compulsory upon all employments except agriculture and domestic
service, and covers between 75 and 80 per cent of the total workers
in the State.


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The report estimates that the annual expenditures for the enforce­
ment of the State labor laws amount to about $144,000 in Washing­
ton, $105,000 in Oregon, and $314,000 in California. These, amounts
are roughly equivalent to 10 cents per capita in Washington, 14
cents in Oregon, and 11 cents in California. And if consideration
be limited to the part of the population which is gainfully employed
these per capita figures would be slightly more than doubled—that
is to say, in Washington 22 cents per person employed, in Oregon 31
cents, and in California 24 cents.
OPERATION OF THE MINIMUM-WAGE LAW IN THE STATE OF
WASHINGTON.

Eleven States of the Union now have laws that in some degree
advance the standards of hours of labor and wages paid to women
and children. Among these is Washington, where the minimumwage law, effective on June 12, 1913, is administered by the Industrial
Welfare Commission which has extended its provisions to the six
leading industries, in which approximately 75 per cent of the women
and children employed in the State are found.1 In its second biennial
report, for the years 1915 and 1916, the Commission states that the
period covered “ has been one of practical demonstration of the law,
of its principles and standards, which thus far have proven helpful in
raising the general standard of conditions that surround those who
toil for wages. Further extensions are contemplated, and it is both
desired and expected that the next biennial period will witness the
extension of the beneficial effects of the law to every occupation and
industry coming under the j urisdiction of the Commission within the
confines of the Commonwealth.” 2
This report of the Welfare Commission gives in detail the results
of a somewhat extended survey of the operation of the minimumwage law in Washington. In making this survey it was necessary for
the Commision to keep constantly in mind one important point,
namely, what is necessary properly to care for the maintenance of a
woman, to keep her in comfort and decency, and therefore in good
health ; “ it is such considerations as these that cling about the ques­
tion of the minimum wage; in fact, it is all there is to the question.”
Therefore, much attention was given to the cost of living at the time
the latest estimates were made—December, 1914. At that time the
average annual and weekly expenditures of a self-supporting woman
working in each specified industry were as shown in the following
1 M ercantile, facto ries, lau n d rie s an d dye w orks, telephone an d teleg rap h , h o tels and
r e s ta u ra n ts , an d offices.
2 W ashington. Second B iennial R ep o rt of th e In d u s tria l W elfare Com m ission, 1915-16.
O lym pia, 1917. 251 pp.


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table, in which is also given the minimum wages subsequently fixed
applicable to workers over 18 years of age and to minors.
AVERAGE ANNUAL AND W E EK L Y E X PE N D IT U R E S OP SELF-SU PPO R TIN G WOMEN
IN DECEM BER, 1914, IN SIX SPEC IFIED IN D U STR IES CO VERED BY TH E WASHINGTON
MINIMUM-WAGE LAW, T O G ETH ER W ITH TH E MINIMUM WAGE APPLICABLE TO
EACH IN D U STR Y .
Minimum wage.1
Industry.

Mercantile................................................................................
Factory....................................................................................
Laundry and dye w orks.......................................................
Telephone and telegraph.......................................................
Hotels and restaurants.........................................................
Office occupations...................................................................

Annual
expendi­
ture.

Weekly
expendi­
ture.

$520.00
462.80
468.00
468.00
2 468.00
520.66

$10.00
8.90
9.00
9.00
2 9.00
10.00

Over 18
years.
$10.00
8.90
9.00
9.00
2 9.00
10.00

Under 18
years.
$6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
2 7.50
37.50

1 Based on an 8-hour day and a 6-day week.
2 Except for waitresses. When lodging is furnished, not more than $2 per week may he deducted; when
board or meals are furnished, not more than $3.50 per week may be deducted; when both board and lodging
are furnished not more than $5 per week may be deducted.
3 The minimum for those under 16 years of age is $6.

Where the wages received so nearly approximate living costs the
Commission very pertinently asks:
W h at o f th e fu tu re if there be no p rovision for th e em ergen cies th at m ay
arise from tim e to tim e? * * * W h at can be said o f a cond ition o f servitu d e
su ch as th is th a t provides m erely, and but m eagerly, for th e p ressin g need s of
th e in d iv id u a l from day to day.

At the time the Commission fixed the minimum wTage in these in­
dustries it also required establishments to provide proper ventilation
and heating and sanitary toilet facilities; prohibited the employment
of females under 18 years of age later than 7.30 p. m. (9 p. m. in
telephone and telegraph offices), except in offices and hotels and
restaurants; established a lunch period of not less than one hour for
mercantile, telephone and telegraph, and office workers; and ordered
establishments employing females “ to maintain adequate facilities
and arrangements so that such employees may obtain rest when in a
state of fatigue or in case of illness, such requirements being de­
manded for the health and morals of such employees.” 1
Under the law the Commission is empowered to issue licenses to
applicants authorizing their employment at less than the established
minimum wage. This, it was found, presented a difficult problem,
which was met in the first place by a decision to limit the number of
apprentices that would be allowed each establishment, thus providing
for the beginners and protecting the experienced workers. The next
step was determined by arranging for a beginning wage at a reason1 This order was not entered in the case of laundries, hotels and restaurants, and
offices, although clean and sanitary facilities were specifically required to be furnished
for laundry and hotel and restaurant workers.


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able figure, then providing a sliding scale of compensation which
would take into consideration the nature of the particular occupation
involved, as to whether skilled or unskilled, thus advancing the
learner step by step, at intervals varying from one month to six
months, until she should reach the full minimum wage. Under this
system, in the period June 27, 1914, to December 1, 1916, 7,997
licenses were issued, the largest number, 34.2 per cent, being for work
in factories; on December 1, 1916, 2,328 licenses were in force, 36.7
per cent being for work in factories. Of 46 licenses issued because of
physical disability, June 27, 1914, to November 20, 1916, nearly onethird of the applicants had passed their fiftieth year.
It appears from the report that in the matter of law enforcement
the Commission has been quite effective in prosecuting cases in the
settlement of which other means have failed. This has included the
collection of wages due through underpayments, and “ while its func­
tions are not those of a collection agency, no opportunity has been
neglected to see that right and justice is done in this way.” During
three years 214 cases of underpayment of wages were settled out of
court and 10 cases in court, 11 were pending at the time the report
was prepared. The 214 cases involved a total of $6,263.61, or an aver­
age of $29.27 each, and the court cases amounted to $423.18, or an
average of $42.32 each. The amount due in the other 11 cases is
$1,274.98.
The most interesting part of the report gives the results of an
inquiry into the working of the minimum-wage law, with special
reference as to whether it had led either to a reduction in the number
of women employed or to a reduction of wages for those previously
getting more than the minimum. Question blanks were sent to all
employers in the six industries for which minimum-wage standards
had been declared, asking how many women in the establishment under
consideration had been displaced when the minimum wage came into
effect and how their places had been filled. Also, the employer was
asked to state how many males and how many females had been
regularly employed and what was the average wage of the females
during each half year from the beginning of 1913 to the end of 1915.
This covered approximately 18 months before and 18 months after
the minimum wage went into effect in the leading industries.
It was not compulsory upon employers to answer these questions,
and unfortunately many of them preferred not to do so. The extent
to which the replies were representative varied with the industry.
The first six months covered by the inquiry was so near the time at
which the census was taken that a comparison between the two sets
of figures may fairly be made. The census classifications do not


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563

coincide entirely with those of this report, but, roughly, the following
table shows what proportion of the female workers in the various
industries were covered by the replies :
NUMBER AND P E R CENT OF FEMALE W ORKERS IN SPEC IFIED INDUSTRIES.

Industry.

Mercantile.....................................................................................................
Manufacturing..............................................................................................
Laundry and dye works.............................................................................
Telephone.....................................................................................................
Office.............................................................................................................
Hotels and restaurants................................................................................

In specified
industry
in 1910.1

3,371
7,242
1,555
1,550
9,680
2,315

In 1913 in establish­
ments covered.
Number.
1,382
297
92
1,351
135

101

Per cent.
41.0
4.1
5.9
87.1
1.4
4.3

1Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910, Vol. IV, Occupation Statistics, p. 529. The census figures
given above are for laundry workers only; those for office occupations represent both those given as in
clerical occupations and as clerks in stores; the figures for hotel and restaurant workers are for waitresses
only.

Evidently the replies as to the mercantile and telephone employees
are the only ones covering a sufficient proportion of the State’s
workers to have much significance. The others have a certain inter­
est, however, as representing the testimony of employers as to the
working of the law. The total number of employers or firms answer­
ing was 107, of whom only 13 reported the discharge of any female
employee as a result of the law. Twenty-one women or girls were
discharged by these employers. The places of six of these were filled
by men or boys, the places of six more by other women, the employer
undertook the work himself in one instance, in six the place was left
unfilled, and in two no answer was given as to what was done.
Apart from these statements the data given below show plainly that
in the establishments covered there was no general discharge of female
employees, nor does there seem to have been any tendency to cut down
wages to the minimum allowed by the law. Comparing the figures
for the last six months before the minimum wage became effective in
any industry1 with those for the last six months covered by the re­
port, it appears that the number of female employees had increased
in all but two of these industries. The laundry and dye works estab­
lishments reported a falling off of 9, and those reporting on office
occupations, a falling off of 10 in the total number of female em­
ployees. The telephone exchanges in small towns and country dis­
tricts reported a falling off of 3, but this was more than offset by an
increase of 17 in the exchanges of the three large cities. As to wages,
the average amounts reported for the two periods were as follows:
1
The first m inim um -w age d eterm in atio n becam e effective Ju n e 27, 1914. The six
m o n th s tak en for co m p arative purposes includes, th erefo re, as f a r as m ercan tile estab ­
lish m en ts are concerned, th re e days of its o peration.


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AVERAGE W E EK L Y WAGES IN FIR ST SIX MONTHS OF 1914 AND IN LAST
MONTHS OF 1915.

Industry.

Mercantile.............................................
Manufacturing......................................
Laundry and dye works......................
Telephone industry:
Seattle, Spokane, Tacoma............
Other exchanges............................
Office occupations.................................
Hotels and restaurants........................

First six
months
of 1914.

SIX

Last six
months
of 1915.

$11.95
10.18
8.15

$12.47
10. 40
8. 50

9.81
7. 75
13.70
9.96

10.33
9.04
13.96
10.00

It must be borne in mind that these figures relate for the most
part to groups too small to be taken as indicative, but in spite of
this there is a certain significance in the fact that in not one instance
is there a decrease in the average wage. It is even more significant
that the greatest increases are found in the two industries reporting
upon the largest number of employees—the mercantile and the tele­
phone industries.
The answers relating to the employees of retail stores cover a suffi­
cient number of workers to be given more detailed attention.
Twenty-seven employers or-firms answered. The smallest establish­
ment represented had but one woman employee, the largest had 640.
The average wage of the female employees for each of the six halfyear periods was as follows:
First half of 1913_______________________________
Last half of 1913_________ ________________!________
First half of 1914_________________________________
Last half of 1914_________________________________ .
First half of 1915_________________________________
Last half of 1915_______ __________________________

$11. 46
11. 81
11. 95
12. 35
11. 91
12. 47

The minimum wage became effective at the close of the first half
of 1914. The wage level thereafter is distinctly higher than before,
in spite of the fact that for the first half of 1915 the average sinks a
little below that for the first half of 1914. Wages had been rising
from the beginning of 1913, so that the higher level at the close of
the period covered can not be attributed wholly to the working of
the minimum wage. It is evident, however, that the adoption of the
minimum wage did not check the tendency already manifested.
As to the effect of the minimum wage on the employment of
women, the situation is not so clear. The last half of 1914, the first
six months after the minimum wage became obligatory, shows fewer
women employed than the last half of 1913, and the last half of 1915
shows a further decline from the standard of 1913. Even though
there were no general discharge of female employees as a result of
the adoption of the minimum wage, it might prove harmful to them


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in a less direct way. The women already employed might be re­
tained, but as the need for new workers arose the employer might
give the preference to men, to whom the minimum-wage legislation
does not apply. If this were done, no women would be discharged,
and yet women would form progressively a smaller proportion of
the total force. The following table shows by half-year periods the
total number of male and of female employees and the percentage
women form of the total force in the establishments covered by the
employers’ replies:
NUM BER OF MALES AND FEM ALES REGULARLY EMPLOYED AND P E R CENT FEM ALES
FORM OF TOTAL EM PLOYEES.
Females.
Period.

Males.
Number.

First half of 1913................................................................
Second half of 1913...............................................................................................
First half of 1914................................. ................................................................
Second half of 1914...............................................................................................
First half of 1915..................................................................................................
Second half of 1915...............................................................................................

939
1,085
1,021
L 079
977
1,059

1,382
1 624
1,423
1,519
l' 324
1,462

Per cent
of total
force.
59.5
59.9
58.2
58.5
57.5
58.0

It would be rash to draw any decided conclusions from these figures
without much fuller knowledge of the business changes during the
three years covered, which may account for the fluctuations shown
above, and also of the make-up of the force, and of the classes in
which changes occurred. All that can be said is that these figures
seem to indicate a slight decrease in the proportion of women em­
ployed. It is quite true that the first half year after the adoption
of the minimum wage—the second half of 1914—shows a slightly
larger proportion of women than the preceding six months; but this
is only in accord with what seems to be the rule throughout the three
years studied, that the second half of a year shows more female
employees, absolutely and relatively, than the first. For the two
succeeding six-month periods the proportion of women employed
does not rise quite to the level of the first half of 1914 and is dis­
tinctly below the proportion of 1913.
In addition to the questionnaire conducted among employers, the
commission made an investigation among the women and girls em­
ployed by retail stores, obtaining schedules from 2,587 adult em­
ployees and 426 apprentices and minors. Of the adults, 31 per cent
claimed that they had been benefited by the minimum-wage law, 1
per cent thought the law had kept them from getting increases, and
48 per cent felt that the law had made no difference to them in either
way. The remainder gave no information on the subject. Of the


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812 whose wages had been raised as a result of the law, 159 had re­
ceived an increase of $1 or less per week; 168 an increase of from
$1.25 to $2, inclusive; 140 an increase of from $2.25 to $3, inclusive;
101 an increase of from $3.25 to $4, inclusive; and 27 an increase of
$4.25 or over; 217 did not report the amount of their increase.
Among the apprentices and minors, 14.6 per cent said that they had
been benefited by the law, 0.2 per cent claimed that it had operated to
keep their wages clown, and 5.6 per cent thought it had made no dif­
ference either way; the great majority gave no information on this
point.
Inquiry among the whole 3,013 women and girls covered in this
investigation brought out reports of 58 girls who had lost their
places as a result of the minimum-wage law. Of these, 14 were known
to have secured other places.
The investigation among the employees brought out another point
of interest. It has been feared that employers might take advantage
of the provisions concerning apprenticeship to defeat the ends of the
law, employing apprentices largely, and as soon as they had been at
work long enough to claim the minimum wage, discharging them
and taking on new learners. On this point the report states:
A mercantile establishment is allowed apprentices to the extent of 17 per
cent of the total number of adult females employed, whereas above tables show
that the apprentices and minors combined constitute only 14.1 per cent, or 2.9
per cent less than that allowed. It is therefore evident that some establishments
are not employing as many apprentices as the law permits.

Summing up the situation, then, as to the effect of the minimumwage law on female employees of retail stores, there is abundant
evidence from both employer and employed that it has worked to
increase the wage level and that there has been no tendency to make
the minimum the standard wage. I t is also evident that the adop­
tion of the minimum wage has not led to any general or widespread
discharge of women nor to the substitution of apprentices and minors
for adult women. Whether or not the law has tended to make em­
ployers prefer to take on male rather than female employees as new
help is needed is not certain; there are some indications that such is
the case, but the data from which these are drawn do not cover a long
enough period nor a sufficient number of employees to be conclusive.
In addition to gathering information as to the effect of the mini­
mum-wage law, the investigation among retail store workers col­
lected data on a number of points relating to the workers themselves.
Of the total number questioned, 85.2 per cent were native born, 9.9
per cent foreign born, and for 4.9 per cent no information on this
point was obtained. The age division was as follows:


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NUMBER AND P E R CENT OF EM PLOYEES IN SPEC IFIED AGE GROUPS.
Age group (years).

Number. Per cent.

Under 18.........................................
18 to 21, inclusive..........................
22 to 25, inclusive...........................
26 to 30, inclusive...........................
31 to 40, inclusive...........................
Over 40............................................

247
539
635
372
451
i 769

8.2
17.9
21.1
12.3
15.0
25.5

Total......................................

3,013

100.0

i This includes those whose age was not given, these mainly consisting of “ elderly women not caring to
state their age or out of respect by the investigator were not questioned.”

The age distribution here shown differs widely from that found
in similar studies in eastern cities. Of 1,154 retail store employees
in Boston in 1914, for instance, 23.4 per cent were under 18 years,
39.7 per cent were 18 but under 25 years, and only 8.9 per cent were
40 or over.1 In New York State, among 30,526 women and girls
employed in retail stores, 5 per cent were under 16 and 35 per cent
16 but under 21.2 The higher age level may be in part explained on
the ground that the Washington group is predominantly native born.
The wage distribution was as follows:
NUMBER AND P E R CENT OF EMPLOYEES IN SPEC IFIED WAGE GROUPS.
Wage group.

Number. Per cent.

Apprentices and minors:
Receiving $6 or less..............................
$6 to $7.50...............................................
Over $7.50 but under $10.....................

292
115
19

Total, apprentices and minors.........
Adults:
$10 .......................................................
$10.50 b ut under $15.............................
$15 but under $20..................................
$20 and over............. : ...........................
Not reported..........................................

1,392
684
341
156
14

46.20
22.70
11.31
5.17
.56

Total...................................................

3,013

100.00

9.69
3.82
.63

426

The largest single group is that receiving the $10 a week demanded
by the minimum-wage law, but nearly as large a proportion (39.18
per cent) are receiving more. As compared with eastern conditions,
the wage level seems high. In the group of Boston store employees
already referred to only 14.3 per cent had wages of $10 or over per
week, while 41.5 per cent received under $7 a week.3 Among 15,716
saleswomen in New York stores 72.5 per cent received under $10 a
week and 47.3 per cent under $7.50.4
1 U nem ploym ent am ong women in d ep artm en t an d o th er re ta il stores in B oston, U nited
S tates B u reau of L abor S ta tis tic s B u lletin No. 182, p. 33.
2 F o u rth R e p o rt of th e New York S ta te F a c to ry In v e stig a tin g Com m ission, 1915, Vol.
I I, p. 55.
3 U nem ploym ent am ong wom en in d e p artm en t an d o th e r re ta il sto res in Boston, U nited
S ta te s B u reau of L abor S ta tistic s , B u lletin No. 182, p. 26.
4 F o u rth R ep o rt of th e New York S ta te F a c to ry In v e stig a tin g Com m ission, 1915, Vol.
II, p. 64.


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The following statement shows the grouping of the Washington
employees with regard to experience:
NUM BER AND P E R CENT OF EM PLOYEES, BY CLASSIFIED YEARS OF E X PE R IE N C E .
Classified years of experience.

Number. Per cent.

Less th an 1 year..........................................
1 to 4 years....................................................
4 to 10 years..................................................
10 to 20 years................................................
Over 20 years (including those not giving
inform ation)................... : ........................

446
900
1,120
379
168

5.6

T otal...................................................

3,013

100.0

14.8
29.8
37.2
12.6

Those with less than one year’s experience are almost without
exception minors and apprentices. The others make a fair showing
as to continuity with nearly one-lialf (49.8 per cent) of the total
group who are known to have kept to their work for from 4 to 20
years. This showing as to experience is probably connected with
both the higher wage level and with the age level, older women being
notoriously less fond of change than are girls in their teens.
Of the 2,587 adults, 68 per cent were wholly, and 23 per cent par­
tially, self-supporting; no report was received from the remaining
9 per cent on this point. Among the minors and apprentices, 20.4
per cent were wholly self-supporting, 74.4 per cent said they were
partly self-supporting, and 5.2 per cent made no report on the subject.
A special survey was made of the employment of 130 janitresses
in four of the large cities of the State. It was found that these
women were receiving an average wage of $32.05 per month with an
average of 5.8 hours’ work per day, and that the average length of
service in the occupation is 4.8 years. A large proportion of the
native-born women are of Scandinavian descent, while of those of
foreign birth Sweden contributed the highest number. Their average
age was 44 years. Over 78 per cent had dependent children.
The report gives some instances of sweatshop methods where
forms of extortion are practiced by employers and where women are
able to earn through hard work a mere pittance, but states that “ the
home work or sweatshop evil does not, to any appreciable extent,
menace the good and welfare of our people, our women and children,
who have to engage in work because of the necessity of earning a
livelihood.”
A number of other industries in which women are employed, not
yet covered by the minimum-wage law, were made the subject of in­
vestigation , notably the hop industry, the cranberry industry, fruit
and other canning industries, and berry picking. Hop picking is
done largely by women and children who receive an average of not


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569

more than $1.50 per day of 10 hours or more. Many receive only $1
per day, and some receive as high as $2.50. In the fruit and berry­
canning industry, women in the field are usually paid 30 cents per
crate, working 12 to 14 hours. Inside the canneries the pay is some­
times by the hour, usually ranging from 12% to 15 cents, with the
result that the majority of women do not earn fair wages. Only
about 1 in 8 make $1 per day at sorting and stemming, and only
about 1 in 40 make $2 per day for working 10 or more hours. Sani­
tary conditions about the canneries were found to be reasonably good,
and living quarters for the pickers, while not of the best, were not
found to be particularly objectionable. The usual complaint among
workers was of long hours and low wages, and some complained of
living and working conditions generally.
In a clam cannery visited the women were being paid from $1.19 to
$2.19 per eight-hour day, depending upon ability. A salmon cannery
was paying to women workers, during the season—May to October—
at the rate of $1.50 for packing 1,000 cans, the women averaging dur­
ing July $30.90, and during August $59.17 each. Prune packing
engages the time of many women, the wage being on a piecework
basis and ranging from $1.29 to $1.93 per day in the three plants
visited, where the number of hours work per day varied from 8 to
10. The Commission decided, after some inquiry, that prune packing
was subject to the provisions of the minimim-wage law.
The Commission strongly recommends vocational instruction for
all children in school over 14 years of age, as well as compulsory con­
tinuation and night vocational schools, with such academic work as
may be advisable for all persons over 14 years of age in industry and
agriculture.
The creation of a child-welfare department, subject to the Com­
mission, is recommended, one of its duties being to issue all work
permits upon recommendation of school authorities of the district
in which the child resides, thus taking the matter out of the hands
of the court, who, because of other duties, can not possibly investi­
gate the merits of each case. The Commission also recommends that
the age of compulsory school attendance be raised from 15 to 16
years.1
An increased appropriation for the work of the Commission is also
urged, particularly in order that an agent of the Commission may
be kept in the field to visit places where disputes arise and obtain at
first hand the facts relating thereto.
1 T he com pulsory school law provides th a t children sh all a tte n d school u n til 15 years
of age, while th e child-labor law p ro h ib its th e em ploym ent of boys u n d er 14 an d g irls
u n d er 16 y ears of age, except u nder special perm it. T hus a m inor girl of 15 is beyond
th e a u th o rity of th e school law an d not privileged to en te r in d u stry w ith o u t a special
perm it. The recom m endation here noted is m ade to rem edy th is situ atio n .


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OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN IN DOMESTIC SCIENCE.

Domestic science as a profession is a development of recent years.
That it offers for women attractive opportunities and a gradually
widening field of endeavor seems apparent from the increasing num­
bers who are entering it as a vocation, and the fact that many tech­
nical schools and colleges are offering special courses in home eco­
nomics to a constantly increasing enrollment. To ascertain the best
line of approach to this new profession, the different lines of work
that are open, and the demands made by them, and what the pro­
fession offers in advancement and development, a study was under­
taken in the fall of 1914 by the Women’s Educational and Indus­
trial Union of Boston, with the cooperation of the National Associa­
tion of Collegiate Alumnæ and the American Home Economics Asso­
ciation, the results of which are presented in a pamphlet1 recently
published.
There appears to be ample opportunity, for those who desire, to
enter upon a course of instruction in domestic science, including all
activities having to do with food and with household and institu­
tional management. Thirty colleges, fairly well distributed geo­
graphically except in the far West and South, were found repre­
sented in the 964 replies as to preparation received. Fifty-eight per
cent of those reporting received their instruction in the large group
of technical institutions of college rank and these represent “ the
better prepared, more highly educated women in the profession of
domestic science.” Instruction in domestic science was received by
362 women in the institutes and extension courses, which emphasize
the practical side of the training. Practically all of the colleges and
institutions require high-school training. It was found that 550
women, or 54.5 per cent, of those holding domestic science positions
had received no education beyond the high-school course before
undertaking professional training, but that a very large proportion
of the 964 (745 or 77.3 per cent) had pursued studies leading to a
degree, certificate, or diploma, and that 323, or 33.5 per cent, had
attained degrees, of whom 114 had received a college degree previous
to the professional course. There seemed to be general satisfaction
with the courses offered, although in reply to specific questions on
this point quite a number indicated a desire for more practical ex­
perience in connection with the studies and a better foundation in
the sciences. Most of the women (77 per cent) claimed some or
much advantage gained from home occupations.
The data as to salaries received by women in the profession of
domestic science are presented in a series of tables showing the
1 O p p o rtu n ities for W omen in D om estic Science, by M arie F rancke, A. B.
C ollegiate Alum nae, P h ilad elp h ia, 1916. 64 pp.


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relation of previous experience to the initial salary, the initial salary
received according to the type of work, the increase in salary with
years of experience for a 10-year period, the final salary of 960
women according to the type of work and length of experience, the
relation of age and experience to final salary in teaching and man­
agerial positions, and the relation of training to salaries. It seems
that one-half of the women considered received initial salaries rang­
ing from $600 to $1,000, the greatest number being in the $600 to
$700 group; that the first salaries in managerial work averaged, for
the largest group, about $100 more than in teaching; and that in
vocational and technical schools the initial salary was greater than
in college and academic courses, while hospitals seemed to pay the
highest initial salary. The following table shows the number receiv­
ing each specified initial salary according to the type of work and the
number receiving each specified final salary according to their
training:
NUMBER IN DOMESTIC SCIENCE POSITIONS RECEIVING EACH SPEC IFIED INITIA L
SALARY ACCORDING TO T Y PE OF W ORK, AND NUMBER RECEIV ING EACH SPECI­
F IE D FIN AL SALARY ACCORDING TO YEARS OF TRAINING.
Number receiving each
initial salary in—
Salary group.

Teach­
ing
posi­
tions.

Man­
age­
rial
posi­
tions.
1
5
8
17
30
54
50
39
50
14
9
6
1

$200 and under $300
$300 and iinder $400
$400 and under $500...........
$500 and under $600...........
$600 and under $700...........
$700 and under $800...........
$800 and under $900...........
$900 and under $1,000........
$1,000 and under $1,100__
$1,100 and under $1,200---$1,200 and under $1,300__
$1,300 and under $1,400__
$1,400 and under $1,500__
$1,500 and under $1,600__
$1,600 and under $1,700__
$1,700 and under $1,800__
$1,800 and under $1,900__
$1,900 and under $2,000__
$2,000 and under $4,100__
Unclassified........................

12
2 12
s 41
2 79
3155
3107
76
62
36
16
16
2
2
1

1
42

7

Total.........................

650

293

1 1 worked p art time.

Number receiving each final salary, by years of
training.

College trained.
Institute trained.
Mas­
cella­
ri e- Total.
to Over
to Over
ous
1st 2d
1st 2d
5th
5 Total.
5th
5 Total. year.
posi­
year. year.
years.
year. years.
tions.
3
17
51
96
187
166
127
101
187
30
27
9
5
1
2

1
2
4
11
23
10
13
3
10
5
9
1
1

5

1
54

21

964

2
2
5
1
1
2
1
2

2

1
4

1
1
2
8
21
36
44
40
39
26
26
19
11
13
1
1
4
2
1
18

1
3
5
8
9
15
10
15
15
6
13
6
3
9
4
11
4

12
13
16
2 20
1 47
51
65
52
1 64
41
50
35
18
1 26
7
4
13
6
13
26

98

314

137

549

2 3 worked part time.

5
6
4
7
6
7
7
6
1

4

11

1
7
9

9
HI
1 22
33
42
35
53
36
38
22
10
10
5
1
1
3
7
24

54

180

128

362

1

4
3
15
20
29
17
31
19
14
7
3
1
2
1
1
2

2
3
6
7
11
15
11
23
15
7
9
2

3 2 worked part time.

Of 2,130 regular positions held by 1,028 women, 1,357 were po­
sitions in teaching and supervising home economics, of which 32.8
per cent were in the public elementary and secondary schools. The
bulk of the salaries ranged between $400 and $1,000, while most of
the salaries of teachers in the private schools, numerically much less


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important, ranged between $300 and $1,300, the median being in the
salary group of $700 and under $800. In vocational schools, where
23.1 per cent of the teaching positions were held, the salaries ranged
between $300 and $1,500, with the largest number receiving between
$600 and $1,100. In extension work, embracing 12.2 per cent of all
teaching positions, the initial salaries for the largest number were
in the $600 to $700 group. Enumerated in the order of decreasing
importance, the managerial positions are offered by educational insti­
tutions, philanthropic institutions, hospitals, lunch and tea rooms,
and clubs and private homes. These managerial positions may in­
volve some teaching, only a small proportion being exclusively
managerial. The greatest number of salaries in educational and
philanthropic institutions were in the $700 and under $800 group.
In hospitals the salaries for initial positions as dieticians ranged
from $400 to $1,400, with the median in the $900 to $1,000 class. This
median also applies to those in the lunch and tea room group.
So far as the positions of lecturing, demonstrating, writing, and
research work are concerned, it was found that the first two named
pay from $75 per month and expenses to $1,800 per annum with
expenses. No estimate is given of the salaries received by those en­
gaged in the other types of domestic science work. It appears that
college-trained women predominate in teaching positions and in
lecturing, demonstrating, writing, and research work, while those
trained in the institutes are more frequently to be found in the
managerial positions. The report concludes with the following
paragraphs:
With increasing numbers of women entering the profession and with increas­
ing scientific knowledge of all that concerns the home and its processes, there
has arisen an increasing demand for thorough, specialized training of domestic
science workers. The time has passed when any woman of average ability with
average home experience can compete professionally with the scientifically
trained woman. Side by side, with the broadening foundation in training,
whether as cause or as effect, we find a broadening in the field to which that
training leads. New types of positions are constantly developing, calling for
new qualities and relating to different interests. For example, the woman with
special aptitude for social service is not out of place in most domestic science
fields, while the woman with decided business ability need not let it rest unused
because she is trained for home economics.
From the types of positions which have been enumerated it can be seen that
any woman whose interests lie in the sphere of the home has ample opportunity
to find the particular channel through which she can best express that interest.
At a time when many people are prophesying the downfall of the home as it now
exists, the opportunities are constantly increasing for women to build that home
and all that it stands for on a firmer and broader foundation.


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573

PRIZES FOR ESSAYS ON SOCIAL INSURANCE AND CHILD LABOR.

Last year Dr. Charles Mclntire resigned the secretaryship of the
American Academy of Medicine after 25 years of faithful service.
In appreciative commemoration the American Academy of Medicine
decided to raise a fund the income of which should be expended in
accordance with Dr. Mclntire’s suggestions. As a consequence the
academy now announces two prize offers, the prizes to be awarded
at the annual meetings for 1918 and 1921, respectively.
The subject for 1918 is “ The principles governing the physician's
compensation in the various forms of social insurance.” The mem­
bers of the committee to decide the relative value of the essays award­
ing this prize are Dr. John L. Heffron, dean of the College of Medi­
cine, Syracuse University; Dr. Reuben Peterson, professor of ob­
stetrics and diseases of women, University of Michigan; and Dr.
John Staige Davis, professor of pediatrics and practice of medicine,
University of Virginia.
The subject for 1921 is “ What effect has child labor on the growth
of the body ? ” The members of the committee to award this prize
are Dr. Thomas S. Arbuthnot, dean of the Medical School of the
University of Pittsburgh; Dr. Winfield Scott Hall, professor of
physiology, Northwestern University; and Dr. James C. Wilson,
emeritus professor of practice of medicine and of clinical medicine,
Jefferson Medical College.
The conditions of the contests are:
(1) The essays are to be typewritten and in English, and the con­
tests are to be open to everyone.
(2) Essays must contain not less than 5,000 nor more than 20,000
words, exclusive of tables. They must be original and not previously
published.
(3) Essays must not be signed with the true name of the writer,
but are to be identified by a nom de plume or distinctive device. All
essays are to reach the secretar}7of the academy on or before January
1 of the years for which the prizes are offered and are to be accom­
panied by a sealed envelope marked on the outside with the fictitious
name or device assumed by the writer and to contain his true name
inside.
(4) Each competitor must furnish four copies of his competitive
essay.
(5) The envelope containing the name of the author of the win­
ning essay will be opened by Dr. Mclntire, or in his absence by the
presiding officer at the annual meeting and the name of the success­
ful contestant announced by him.
(6) The prize in 1918 for the best essay submitted according to
these conditions will be $100; that in 1921 will be $250.
86302°— 17----- 6


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(T) In case there are several essays of especial merit, after award­
ing the prize to the best, special mention of the others will be made,
and both the prize essay and those receiving special mention are to
become at once the property of the academy, probably to be pub­
lished in the Journal of Sociologic Medicine. Essays not receiving
a prize or special mention will be returned to the authors on appli­
cation.
(8) The American Academy of Medicine reserves the right to de­
cline to give the prize if none of the essays are of sufficient value.
The present officers of the American Academy of Medicine are
George A. Hare, M. D., Fresno, Cal., president; J. E. Tuckerman,
M. D., Cleveland, president-elect; Charles Mclntire, M. D., Easton,
Pa., treasurer; and Thomas Wray Grayson, M. D., 1101 Westinghouse Building, Pittsburgh, Pa., secretary.
EMPLOYMENT PROBLEMS IN INDUSTRY.

More and more industry is realizing the importance of the applica­
tion of systematic and carefully thought out methods in the employ­
ment and handling of labor. Job analysis, the selection of workers,
problems connected with the advancement and training of employees,
and the promotion of harmonious personal relations between the
management and the productive force, all of which operate to reduce
labor turnover, have become such important factors in the successful
administration and management of industrial activities that many
large concerns have organized employment departments, in charge of
expert managers, to study the problems presented and to develop
the most practicable ways of making labor efficient and'productive.
In order to accomplish this purpose effectively an interchange of
measures adopted and results achieved is essential. To this end three
employment managers’ conferences have been held—one at Min­
neapolis in January, 1916, one at Boston in May, 1916, and the
third at Indianapolis in February, 1917, in connection with the
meetings of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial
Education.1 At the Indianapolis meeting there were two sessions,
at which the following papers were presented:
The new order in business which demands and brings into focus the study
of employment problems, by James P. Munroe, president of the Munroe Felt &
Paper Co., Boston Mass.
The new profession of handling men, by Meyer Bloomfield, director Vocation
Bureau, Boston, Mass.
XA b rief acco u n t of th e M inneapolis m eeting appeared in th e M o n t h l y R e v i e w for
A ugust, 1916, pp. 189-193, an d th e proceedings in full w ere p rin te d as B u lletin of th e
U nited S ta te s B u reau of L abor S ta tistic s No. 196. A b rief account of th e B oston m eeting
ap p eared in th e M o n t h l y R e v i e w for Ju ly , 1916, pp. 62-70, an d th e proceedings in full
were p rin te d as B u lletin of th e U nited S ta te s B ureau of L abor S ta tistic s No. 202


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575

The new type of employment department which brings together all the
problems of personal relations involved in the selection, adjustment, advance­
ment, and training of employees, by L. H. Weir, field secretary of Playgrounds
and Recreation Association of America, New York City.
How the Fore River Shipbuilding Co. determined the kind of employment de­
partment it needed and how it was put into operation, by J. M. Larkin, Fore
River Shipbuilding Co., Quincy, Mass.
Activities which should be promoted by the employment department, by Mer­
cia E. Hoagland, director of welfare, Diamond Chain Co., Indianapolis, Ind.
Methods of determining the cost of labor turnover, by Boyd Fisher, vice
president Executives’ Club, Detroit Board of Commerce, Detroit, Mich.
The relation of education to labor turnover in department stores, by
Olma Steeg, educational director, L. S. Ayres Co., Indianapolis, Ind.

The new order or transformation in business, during the past 25
years, declared the first speaker, is due to conservation or “ the safe­
guarding and developing of basic values and powers,” and to effi­
ciency or “the economical mobilization.” The growth of both has pro­
duced a large fund of experience which may be profitable to employ­
ment managers. The speaker traced the evolution of this new order
in business from the days when industrial waste was primarily char­
acteristic, down through the years of “ political bargains,” “ secret
rebates,” and “ mutual distrust and suspicion ” that were “ enormously
expensive and enormously wasteful,” of “ unfair competition,” of con­
solidation and the development of “ captains of industry,” of the
elaboration and perfection of machinery resulting in a multiplicity
of machines and much “ inconvenience ” in manufacturing, down to
the present time when efficiency has entered industry and new methods
are being applied which have at least “ waked us up to the idea that
business is a science.” Coupled with this era of efficiency has been
the recognition of the human element as the essential factor of suc­
cess in business. There must be teamwork—a coordination of indi­
vidual working units, directed by a skilled man, together with a
feeling of mutual confidence—if a business is to succeed. Here the
employment manager enters, for “ it is he who controls this question
of the human element ” ; it is he who must grapple with the problems
of finding good working material for the business, of giving it a
chance to make the most of itself, of keeping it after it is properly
trained, and of inspiring loyalty. Employment managers should
determine the fundamental things needed in their business and then
influence the schools to provide instruction along those lines.
Recognition of the real importance of the employment function in
industry has come in comparatively recent years, and may be said to
be the outgrowth of a feeling on the part of those interested in voca­
tional education and employment of workers that young people
trained for industry, perhaps inadequately in many cases, are denied
the advantage of a proper avenue between the school and the job, to


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the economic loss of the employer and the defeat of the purposes of
industrial education. With a view to remedying this situation, Dr.
Meyer Bloomfield, in his paper on “ The new profession of handling
men,” stated that about five years ago a group of 50 men who did the
hiring came together to talk over the matter of taking children from
school and assigning them to work. It developed at this conference
that apparently little attention had been paid to the importance of
the employment department as a means of preventing friction in an
establishment and promoting a more fruitful working together of the
school occupations. No definite idea was brought out as to the extent
or cost of labor turnover, but it was apparent that both factors were
abnormal and productive of much waste. The employment depart­
ment should embrace more than the mere hiring of men—it should
exercise great care in the selection of men and should take personal
interest in them after they are hired. Furthermore, because of the
opportunities offered for instruction and for developing their
minds, employees are becoming more intelligent, so that employment
managers and other executives “ must do some tall thinking to keep
up intellectually with the under dogs who are being educated in this
twentieth century by social forces, by reconstructive ideas, that we
have to understand if we are going to manage intelligently.”
Many of the problems confronting an employment manager have
to do with personal relations involved in the selection, adjustment,
advancement, and training of employees. In showing how the new
type of employment department brings together all these problems,
L. H. Weir, field secretary of Playgrounds and Recreation Associa­
tion of America, New York, dwelt almost entirely on the question
of personal relationship arising in the organization and manage­
ment of any given establishment, without taking up the other mat­
ters suggested in his subject. He first emphasized the great impor­
tance of recognizing the human element in social organizations for
industrial purposes and social organizations for commercial purposes,
for “ capital and labor are merely another expression for men with
money and men with muscle and sometimes with a reasonable degree
of skill.” If these organizations are true to their purposes they in­
volve fundamentally mutual interests and equitable service to each
other. Unfortunately, however, “ a feeling of antagonism has
grown up between the interests of the men with money and the
men with muscle, leading to distrust, suspicion, ofttimes the bit­
terest hate and ofttimes the bitterest of strife, resulting in the lack
of equitable service on the part of one to the other.” That this
antagonism is inevitable should not be admitted, for if it is, the
purpose and plans of the employment managers’ conference become


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577

useless. The large attendance of employment managers at this con­
ference, however, indicated to the speaker their belief—
that there is a possibility of working out and developing some plan by which
the interests of all parties concerned can be gradually and slowly promoted.

Such a plan for dealing with the human factor in industry may
be outlined as follows:
I. Employment or selection of workers’ division.
1. Standardization of specifications of all positions to be filled.
2. Keeping in touch with sources of labor supply.
3. Personal selection of applicants for positions.
4. Personal following up of applicants chosen in so far as related
to positions occupied, involving—
{ a )
Fitness for the particular position to which assigned;
( b ) Transfer from one job to another;
(c ) Promotion;
(d ) Matters having to do with wages, and various other means
of finding an equitable basis of sharing the results of joint coopera­
tive efforts of the two great divisions of people engaged in industry.
5. Termination of term of service, or leaving employment.
II. Medical division.
1. Physical examination of applicants for employment.
2. Medical care in cases of accidents and sickness.
3. Hygiene and ventilation.
IIP “ Vocational recreation” division.
1. Embraces all facilities and activities provided and organized
for the utilization of the leisure time of the employees, and for their
benefit as well.
These divisions were not amplified, but the great value of facilities
for vocational recreation was emphasized—their value in stabilizing
the labor force and in developing the higher and finer natures of
the workers themselves, and their relation to the problems of hous­
ing, of juvenile and adult delinquency, and to the question of civic
and social training and the question of wages.
In order to increase efficiency, reduce excessive labor turnover,
conserve the labor force, and have in readiness the machinery to
build up its force to meet further needs, the Fore River Shipbuilding
Co., according to Mr. J. M. Larkin, its representative at the confer­
ence, made a careful study, through a committee of employees, of
the physical, moral, and intellectual welfare of employees in large
manufacturing establishments throughout the country. This com­
mittee subsequently recommended—
That the personnel of the employment department be made as effective and
efficient as possible; that better shelter for applicants for positions be pro-


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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

vided; that greater care should be taken in the selection and weeding out of
applicants, emphasizing at all times the necessity for courtesy; establishment
of an eligible list of applicants; a more careful analysis of men quitting and
discharged; the inauguration of grievance machinery; the follow-up and grad­
ing of men; the adherence to a policy of promotion from within the plant; con­
sideration of a pension scheme; the lighting, sanitation, heating, and safety of
all working places; reorganization of the medical department; supervision of
the lunch rooms; and consideration of housing the employees.

In line with the above recommendations a new service building,
including a hospital, has been completed; a new restaurant is in
operation; all workers leaving the employ of the company now pass
through the employment department, where many grievances are
adjusted and workers are transferred to other positions, thus reduc­
ing the labor turnover; the company is cooperating with the State
and city in maintaining evening trade schools and classes in English
for foreigners; welfare work is being carried on; and an effective
campaign in the reduction of accidents has been carried on through
safety committees.
In the general discussion that followed these papers Mr. C. H.
Howard, president of the Commonwealth Steel Co., St. Louis,
brought out the fact that Americanization of workers and safety
first are the two most important factors in reducing labor turnover,
and that the foundation of these is fellowship.
Fellowship understood and practiced establishes the brotherhood of man—
good will toward all men—and that is the basic platform of our organization
and our work and I believe it is the only safe one and it is the foundation
of human engineering.

Mr. Howard briefly related how this policy of fellowship as applied
in a plant where many foreigners are employed has resulted in
greater significance to the safety-first idea and has given satisfactory
commercial returns. The company expended $11,500 to provide
sanitary drinking facilities, which “ was the best investment we could
possibly have made.”
You can take 30 per cent of safety first and fight with mechanical appliances.
The other 70 per cent has to come from fellowship, and we brought our expenses
of accidents from $30,000 a year down to $3,000. Does it pay? Sure it pays,
and wouldn’t you rather know that every man that comes to work is going
home to his little family safe and sound? Sure we would, and so with Ameri­
canization—men who understand your language better carry out your orders,
and I say that fellowship is at the bottom of it all.

Dr. Pearson, of the Tuck School of Business, agreed with Mr.
Howard’s idea of fellowship, but stated that its successful operation
depends upon organization and the proper selection of managers
who are familiar with the technique of employment, sources of sup­
ply, etc. Some industries do not know they have employment prob­
lems until an expert employment manager analyzes the situation.


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579

The employment management function must be considered as impor­
tant as any other administrative function.
The subject assigned to Mr. Boyd Fisher was “ Methods of deter­
mining the cost of labor turnover,” but he confined himself more par­
ticularly to measures for reducing labor turnover,1 citing one factory
in Detroit, employing between 10,000 and 12,000 men, which required
25 per cent more equipment and 25 per cent more employees, involv­
ing a total investment of $1,800,000, to get out their work than they
would have needed if they had had no labor turnover. To reduce to
a minimum this constant changing of employees it is necessary first
to have a cost system and a record system of turnover which should
reveal its causes and the parallelism between high turnover and low
efficiency. Men should be hired wisely, provided with steady work,
paid an adequate wage, and not fired too hastily. Industrial educa­
tion which fits a man in the plant for promotion or transfer from one
job to another is important. As supplemental remedies, it was sug­
gested that men should be started right and at a definite wage and
understanding as to advancement; efficiency should be promoted and
good habits fostered; work should be made an unfolding career with
the encouragement of self-expression not only by complaints but by
suggestions and cooperative interests and activities, this last being
regarded by the speaker as of extreme importance in reducing labor
turnover. The medical examination of applicants with periodical
examination after employment, together with medical supervision of
the plant conditions, was recommended. Other measures that might
be adopted for increasing efficiency and reducing turnover were plant
restaurants, shorter hours of work, athletics, rest periods, and yearly
vacations with pay.
It appears that department stores have been slower than factories
to recognize the problems of labor turnover, but they are now begin­
ning to realize that these problems must be met if a preventable eco­
nomic loss is to be reduced. The educational department of a store
may help in this respect, according to Miss Olma Steeg, educational
director of the L. S. Ayres Co., Indianapolis, first by analyzing the
positions to assist the employment manager in knowing just wliat type
of worker is needed and second by careful instruction of the em­
ployees in the rules and policy of the management so as to start them
right and thus encourage them to remain. It may also be a part of the
work of the educational department to watch for misfits, so that work­
ers may be transferred from one department to another instead of
1 See “ How to reduce lab o r tu rn o v e r,” an address by Boyd F ish er, vice president,
E x ecu tiv es’ Club of D etro it, Mich., before th e P h ilad elp h ia A ssociation for th e D is­
cussion of E m ploym ent Problem s, a t P h ilad elp h ia, P a., Ja n . 8, 1917. The E m ploym ent
M an ag ers’ A ssociation, a t B oston, M ass., Ja n . 9, 1917. The E m ploym ent M anagers’
Group, th e M an ag ers’ Council of th e Cham ber of Commerce, R ochester, N. Y., Ja n . 11,
1917. P rice, 25 cents.


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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

being allowed to leave. Miss Steeg also emphasized the importance
of the careful supervision of workers to keep them interested in their
jobs, of having one man to do all the employing and discharging of
employees, and of having courses of salesmanship in the high schools.
Finally, if care is not exercised in the employment of workers, the
educational department will become a very expensive part of the
business.
This subject of labor turnover was continued in the general dis­
cussion which followed Miss Steeg’s paper. C. II. Winslow, State
director of vocational research, Indiana, thought it important, first, to
find out and analyze the real reasons why men quit their j obs; second,
to adjust rates of wages so that employees may not “ smell the limit of
the per hour rate or the piecework rate,” but instead have a chance to
earn more money; third, to train workers in the factory; and fourth,
to give employees opportunity to air their grievances.
Mrs. Lucinda W. Prince, of Simmons College, Boston, and director
of the department of education of the National Detail Dry Goods
Association, took occasion to emphasize some of Miss Steeg’s state­
ments as to the place of education in handling labor turnover, and
added a word as to the importance of a centralized employment
department to make more effective the work attempted by the educa­
tional department and the necessity of studying processes and of
developing the resources within the store instead of going outside
for help when needed. Labor turnover is costly, not only to the estab­
lishment but also to the girls themselves and to the community.
Workers should be trained for work in department stores just as they
are for other vocations, and when employed and placed in positions
they like should be given a chance to make good and be encouraged
in every possible way. •
The application of psychology to salesmanship was briefly dis­
cussed by Prof. Bingham, of the Carnegie Institute of Technology,
who stated that “ human engineering will not really be a science of
engineering until the methods of science are applied to the measure­
ment of the human traits with which we are dealing.” He referred
to the fact that 30 large industrial organizations are now financing a
five-year experiment to try to find out whether or not mental tests
and the methods of applied psychology really have any value in help­
ing employment managers to determine in advance the likelihood of
success of the applicant for the position, and noted some of the meth­
ods being used in his institution for checking up the results of tests
along this line. The best way of proving the value of a test, he stated,
was to follow up an applicant after employment and see if his record
coincides with the test made previous to employment. The tests used
for salesmanship are to determine the applicant’s native intelligence,


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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

581

general ability, alertness, range of information, systematic methods,
speed, and foresight.
Mr. Fisher in his paper laid very little stress on how to determine
the cost of labor turnover, but, upon request, referred to this matter
more specifically in the general discussion. lie quoted evidence to
show that it costs from $8 to $73.50 to hire a new man, but admitted
the difficulty of evolving a system for determining this cost definitely,
because of the intangibility of the proposition itself. The following
items, however, distributed over the total number employed, were
suggested as entering into the cost:
1. Expense of physical examination of applicants.
2. Membership dues in an employers’ association or other labor
bureaus from which the supply is drawn.
3. A certain portion of the salaries and other expenses of the em­
ploying department.
4. Cost of advertising, trips out of town, rent of offices, etc.
5. Cost of printing records, etc.
6. Cost of instruction of new employees.
7. Cost of wear and tear on machinery and tools used by new
employees.
8. Cost of premature depreciation of machinery.
FEDERAL AID FOR THE PROMOTION OF VOCATIONAL EDUCA­
TION.

By an act approved February 23, 1917. the United States Congress
provided for Federal aid to the States in the promotion of education
in agriculture and the trades and industries and in the preparation
of teachers of vocational subjects. Annual appropriations are made
commencing with $500,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1918,
for the payment of salaries of teachers, supervisors, and directors of
agricultural subjects in accordance with the provisions of the act.
increasing by annual gradations until the year 1926, when the sum of
$3,000,000 is to be set aside for this purpose, and a like amount
annually thereafter. Identical provision is made as to amounts and
increments for teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial sub­
jects; while for the purpose of preparing teachers, supervisors, and
directors of agricultural subjects, and teachers of trade, industrial,
and home economics subjects, the sum of $500,000 is appropriated
for the first year, gradually increasing until 1921, when $1,000,000
is to be appropriated, and a like sum annually thereafter. Money
for teaching agricultural subjects is to be distributed among the
States on the basis of the proportion of rural population to the total
rural population of the continental area of the United States; the


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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

sums for teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects
are to be apportioned on the basis of the proportion of the urban popu­
lation of the several States to the total ; while the sums for assisting
in preparing teachers, etc., are to be distributed on the basis of the
proportion of the State to the total population. State allotments for
the respective purposes shall not be less than $5,000 annually under
each of the three heads at the beginning, nor less than $10,000 after
the further development of the system. All equipment, buildings,
etc., are to be furnished by the State and local communities, and
State and local authorities shall furnish dollar for dollar of Federal
aid for the maintenance of the work of instruction.
Administration is to be by a Federal Board for Amcational Edu­
cation, consisting of the Secretary of Agriculture, the Secretary of
Commerce, the Secretary of Labor, the United States Commissioner
of Education, and three citizens of the United States to be appointed
by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate,
Of these three appointees, one shall represent the manufacturing and
commercial interests, one the agricultural interests, and the third
shall be a representative of labor ; these receive a salary of $5,000 per
annum. State boards, either the State board of education or another
board established by State law, shall cooperate with the Federal
board in the administration of the work for which the appropriations
named are made. Courses of study are to be drawn up, methods of
instruction developed, and qualifications of 'teachers established,
all plans to be submitted by the State board to the Federal board,
and if approved by it, to be carried out. All institutions receiving
Federal money shall be under public supervision or control. The
instruction is to be of less than college grade, and designed to meet
the needs of persons over 14 years of age who have entered upon,
or are preparing to enter upon, the respective vocations named in
the act. Agricultural instruction must be for not less than six months
in the year, and trade, home economics, and industrial instruction
shall be continued for not less than 9 months per year, and not less
than 30 hours per week, though for this group of courses at least onethird of the sum appropriated to any State for salaries of teachers
shall be devoted to part-time schools or classes for workers over 14
years of age who have entered upon employment, the subjects to be
such as will enlarge the civic or vocational intelligence of workers
over 14 and less than 18 years of age. Evening industrial classes for
pupils at least 16 years of age may also be provided, and shall con­
fine their instruction to that which is supplemental to the daily
employment.
Funds are to be in the custody of the State treasurer, but provision
is made for accounting and for reimbursement and deductions where


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MONTHLY REVIEW OP THE BUREAU OP LABOR STATISTICS.

583

there is misappropriation or failure to make use of allotments. Two
hundred thousand dollars is appropriated annually for adminis­
trative purposes.
RETAIL PRICES OF FOOD IN THE UNITED STATES.

According to reports received by the Bureau of Labor Statistics,
the retail price of the principal articles of food, combined, was 4
per cent higher on February 15 than on January 15. The greatest
increase, 77 per cent, was shown by onions, while potatoes were 30
per cent higher. Of the 27 articles for which prices are given, eggs
alone showed a decrease, 7 per cent, while five articles, namely,
flour, rice, raisins, coffee, and tea made no change.
The following table shows the average money prices and the
relative prices of the principal articles of food on January 15 and
February 15, 1917:
AVERAGE MONEY R ETA IL PRICES AND RELA TIV E R E TA IL PRICES OF FOOD JAN. 15
AND FEB . 15, 1917.
[The relative price shows the per cent th at the average price on the 15th of each m onth was of the
average price for the year 1916.]
Average money
price.

Sirloin steak. ________. . . . . . . . . . .
Rm ind s^eak
___ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rit) roast
_______ __ __ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chuck roast
............................... .........................
Plate Roiling Roof ..................................................
Pork chops
....... .................................... .
Bacon
.................................... .

1/fird

...........................................................

......................................... ...........
TTon q
Salm on panned
..................................................
Rggc; cOyioil y fresh
...........................................

Butter creamery ..........................................
Cheese
....................................................
Milk
.........................................................
Bread.........................................................................
Flour..........................................................................
Corn mea 1
......................
R j 00
.
.......................................................
Potatoes
.............................
Onions
.............................. .
Beans navy
___________ . . . . . . . . . . .
Prunes
.................... .
.................................... .
R aisins seeded
Sugar
................................................
Coffee

Tea

.......................................................................

............................................................

A ll articles nonibinftd

Relative price.

Unit.

Article.

P ound.........
....... do..........
....... do..........
....... do..........
....... do..........
....... do...........
....... do..........
....... do..........
....... do..........
....... do..........
....... do...........
Dozen..........
P ound.........
....... do..........
Q uart...........
16-oz. loafl . .
J-barrel bag.
P ound.........
....... do..........
Peck............
P ound.........
....... do..........
....... do..........
....... do..........
....... do..........
....... do..........
....... do..........

Jan. 15,
1917.

Feb. 15,
1917.

$0. 276
.247
.216
.174
.132
.236
.296
.306
.214
.255
.214
.544
.453
.312
.099
.070
1.369
.040
.091
.587
.069
.145
.139
.141
.080
.299
.546

$0.287
.260
.225
.186
.141
.261
.307
.318
.219
.267
.216
.506
.469
.315

.............................

.100

.071
1.369
.041
.091
.761

.122
.149
.141
.141
.081
.299
.546

Jan. 15,
1917.

101
101
102
101
103
104
103
104

122

108
106
145
115

121
109
108
127
118

100

Feb. 15,
1917.
105
* 106
106
108

110

115
107
108
125
113
107
135
119

122
110
109
127

120
100

145
141
132
104
109

188
249
135
105
109

112

117

100
100
100

101
100
100

116 ounces (weight of dough).

A comparison of prices on February 15, 1913, and February 15,
1917, shows an advance of 38 per cent in the price of all articles com­
bined.


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MONTHLY REVIEW OP THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

All of the articles for which information is given for the four-year
period were higher on February 15, 1917, than on February 15, 1913,
the greatest increase, 224 per cent, being that of potatoes. Flour,
with an increase of 69 per cent, and eggs, 61 per cent, are the two
articles showing the greatest increase next to potatoes.
Comparing February 15, 1916, with February 15, 1917, onions
show the greatest increase, 177 per cent, while potatoes increased 107
per cent and beans 61 per cent. Rice, coffee, and tea show no change
in price, and no article shows a decrease as between the two dates.
The table following shows in detail the average and relative retail
prices for February 15 of each year from 1913 to 1917.
AVERAGE MONEY RETA IL PRICES AND RELA TIVE RETA IL PRICES ON FEB . 15 OF
EACH Y EAR, 1913 TO 1917.
[The relative price shows the per cent th a t the average price on the 15th of February was of the average
price for the year 1916.]
Average money price Feb. 15.
Article.

1913
Sirloin steak..................
Round steak.................
Rib roast.......................
Chuck roast..................
Plate boiling beef.........
Pork chops...................
Bacon............................
H am ..............................
L ard ..............................
H ens..............................
Salmon, canned...........
Eggs, strictly fresh...... .
B utter, cream ery.........
Cheese............................
Milk...............................
B read............................
Flour.............................
Corn m eal.....................
Rice...............................
Potatoes........................
Onions..........................
Beans, navy..................
P runes..........................
Raisins, seeded............
Sugar.............................
Coffee......... ..................
Tea.................................

Relative price Feb. 15.

Unit.

P ound. . .
. .do........
..d o ........
.do.
do.
do.
,do.
do.
.do.
do.
.. .do........
Dozen__
P o u n d ...

. . . d o .........

188
255
253
154
208
315
414

Q uart__

089

J-bbl. bag.

809
030

Peck.......

235

16-oz. loaf i

Pound...
.. .d o.........

P o u n d . ..
.. .d o.........
.. .d o.........
.. .d o.........
.. .d o.........
.. .d o.........

. . .do........

1914

1915

1916

1917

254 $0. 248 80. 257 $0. 287
.223
.228
.260
228
.201
. 197
199
.225
.162
.162
.186
169
124
. 123
.122
. 141
.179
.193
.261
209
26-1
.273
.307
.267
.297
265
.259
.318
.177
.152
.219
158
.222
.267
222
.208
.200
.216
.198
364
.338
.349
.506
.378
359
.378
.469
.315
.235
.248
.100
091
.089
.089
055
.063
.062
.071
787 1.100
1.003
1.369
031
.033
.033
.041
.091
.091
.091
284
.219
.369
.761
.044
.034
.122
.092
.149
.076
.137
.133
.141
.125
.126
.141
.068
051
.064
.081
.299
.299
.299
.546
.546
.546

All articles combined.

1913 1914 1915 1916 1917
88
84
89
83
89
86
88
88

93
93
94
98
97
92
92
90
90
94

84
105

97
91

98
75
87

100
85
73
92

58

70

69

64

85

88

91
91
93
94
96
79
93
88
87
88
98
90
96
91
98
97
102
98
100
54
69
69
102
97
80
100
100

94
93
95
94
95
85
95
101
101
94
99
93
96
96
98
95
93
96
100
91
90
84
99
98
85
100
100

109
127
120
100
188
249
135
105
109
101
100
100

89

93

117

105
106
106
108
110
115
107
108
125
113
107
135
119
122
no

116 ounces (weight of dough).

UNION-WAGE SCALES AND RETAIL PRICES OF FOOD.

The Bureau of Labor Statistics has in press a bulletin (No. 214)
entitled “ Union Scale of Wages and Hours of Labor, May 15, 1916,”
giving the scales in force on the date stated, for the principal trades
in 48 of the leading cities of the United States. Summary figures
back to the year 1907 appear in this bulletin.


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585

Another bulletin (No. 219) about to go to press relates to “ Retail
Prices, 1907 to December, 1916.”
From these two sources and current returns as to retail prices re­
ceived by the bureau, index numbers have been computed for unionwage rates and hours of labor and for retail prices of food for
each year, 1907 to 1916, with the retail prices continued to January
and February, 1917. The union-wage scales are for May each year.
The yearly retail-price figures are computed from an average of the
monthly prices of the year. The year 1907 is taken as the base (100
per cent) in the computation of the index numbers. The index
numbers appear in the following table, where it will be seen that
while wage rates have increased materially and hours of labor have
slightly decreased since 1907, the retail prices of food have advanced
to a much greater extent, especially in 1916, thus reducing the pur­
chasing power of wages. The retail-price figures for the two months
of 1917 show a still further decided advance over the average for
the year 1916.
IN D EX NUMBERS OF UNION-W AGE RATES AND HOURS OF LABOR, 1907 TO 1916, AND
OF R E T A IL PRICES OF FOOD, 1907 TO FEB R U A R Y , 1917.

Year.

1907........................................................................................
1008........................................................................................
1909........................................................................................
1910........................................................................................
1911........................................................................................
1912.......................................................... ..........................
1913........................................................................................
1914.......................................................... ..........................
1915........................................................................................
1918........................................................................................
January, 1917.......................................................................
February, 1917.....................................................................

Rates of
wages per
hour.

Full-time
hours per
week.

Rates of
wages per
week, full
time.

100
101
102
105
107
109
111
114
115
119

100
100
99
99
98
98
97
97
97
96

100
101
102
104
105
107
109
111
112
116

Retail
prices of
food.
100
103
108
113
112
119
122
125
123
139
156
162

WHOLESALE PRICES, 1890 TO 1916.

The annual report on wholesale prices of the Bureau of Labor Sta­
tistics, which will be transmitted to the printer at an early date, will
bring the Bureau’s series of wholesale prices down to the end of 1916.
The index numbers of the various groups of commodities and for
all commodities combined, computed upon a basis of average prices
of 1916 equal 100, are given in the table presented herewith.


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IN D E X NUM BERS OF W HO LESA LE PRICES, BY GROUPS OF COMMODITIES, 1890 TO
1916.
[1916=100.]

Year or month.

1890............................
1891............................
1892............................
1893............................
1894............................
1895............................
1896............................
1897............................
1898............................
1899............................
1900............................
1901............................
1902............................
1903............................
1904............................
1905............................
1906............................
1907............................
1908............................
1909............................
1910............................
1911............................
1912............................
1913........................
1914....... ....................
1915............................
1916............................
1916.
January.....................
February..................
March........................
April..........................
May...........................
Ju n e..........................
Ju ly...........................
August......................
September................
October.....................
November................
December.................

Lum­
ber
All
Drugs House
and
fur­ Miscel­ com­
and
build­ chemi­
nish­
lane­ modi­
ing
ing
ous.
ties.
mate­ cals. goods.
rials.

Food,
etc.

Cloths
and
cloth­
ing.

Fuel
and
light­
ing.

Metals
and
metal
prod­
ucts.

56
60
54
55
48
49
44
48
50
50
56
59
66
62
66
53
64
70
69
79
84
76
82
82
85
86
100

70
70
63
69
60
58
53
56
60
59
62
63
67
64
68
68
66
70
74
78
79
78
85
79
81
83
100

73
71
70
70
62
61
59
60
62
65
70
65
66
70
70
72
77
82
75
78
79
76
78
79
78
78
100

59
59
56
56
52
59
59
52
53
61
70
68
80
92
79
75
78
81
78
76
72
70
77
87
80
75
100

77
68
63
57
48
52
54
48
48
73
71
66
66
65
60
66
76
81
63
62
63
60
67
67
59
65
100

71
69
66
67
65
64
62
61
64
70
75
72
76
79
80
84
93
96
91
96
100
100
98
99
96
93
100

63
65
64
63
58
62
64
62
65
67
68
69
68
67
68
67
66
67
70
71
72
72
71
70
72
80
100

109
108
106
106
105
99
97
90
96
95
101
112
112
111
106
99
99
99
95
96
94
90
90
91
94
92
100

76
76
73
75
71
68
66
67
66
68
75
74
76
78
78
78
80
84
80
90
96
86
84
83
81
81
100

66
66
61
63
56
57
54
54
56
60
65
64
69
69
70
69
72
76
74
79
81
77
82
81
80
81
100

89
89
91
93
95
95
96
103
107
111
118
116

90
90
91
93
94
94
96
101
106
111
119
115

87
89
92
94
96
97
99
100
103
108
114
122

88
89
90
91
90
91
91
92
96
111
130
141

85
89
95
99
102
101
98
98
100
102
108
125

98
99
100
100
101
100
98
99
99
100
103
105

98
101
103
105
107
105
100
92
92
95
99
100

95
95
95
99
99
99
101
101
101
104
104
104

89
88
91
92
95
100
101
103
105
110
112
113

89
90
92
94
96
96
97
100
103
108
116
118

Farm
prod­
ucts.

WHOLESALE PRICES IN GREAT BRITAIN.

According to the British Board of Trade Labor Gazette for Jan­
uary, 1917 (p. 6), the general level of wholesale prices continued to rise
throughout 1916, and the index number1 for the year, 186.5 based
on the index numbers of 47 separate articles weighted in accordance
with their estimated consumption,2 was the highest on record. In
the following table the index numbers of 47 articles are classified into
four groups, showing the total averages for 1916 as compared with
those of every year back to 1900, which is taken as the base, or 100
1 A fu ll ex p lan atio n of th e B ritish B oard of T rad e index num bers m ay be found in
B u lletin 173 of th e U nited S ta te s B u reau of L abor S ta tistic s , p. 255 et seq.
2 The am o u n t of consum ption of an a rtic le is th e p roduction plus th e im ports, if any.
m inus th e ex p o rts, if any. (See B u lletin 173, p. 259.)


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587

IN D EX NUMBERS OP 47 ARTICLES, CLASSIFIED BY GROUPS, FOR EACH Y E A R ,
1900 TO 1916, INCLUSIVE, T H E YEAR 1900 BEING TA K EN AS T H E BASE YEAR OF
THE SER IES.
[Source: Board of Trade Labor Gazette, January, 1917, pp. 6, 7.]

Year.

1900 ...............................................................................
1901....................................................................................
1902 ................................................................................
1903
.
...........................................................
1904
.
................................................
1905
....................................................
.
...............................................
1906 ___
1907....................................................................................
1908...................................................................................
1909...................................................................................
1910...................................................................................
1911...................................................................................
1912...................................................................................
1913...................................................................................
1914 (January to Ju ly )....................................................
1914 (August to December)1.........................................
1914 (year)........................................................................
1915.7.. _ ........................................................................
1916 2.................................................................................
Per cent of increase, 1916 over 1915...............................

Food,
All arti­
Textiles drink,
Miscella­ cles
Coal and (raw
com­
ma­
neous.
and
metals. terials).
bined.
tobacco.
100.0
82.2
76.1
74. 1
70. 9
71.3
78. 3
86. 9
78.5
73.6
76.6
74. 7
84. 9
92. 5
86. 2
88. 8
86. 7
116. 7
166. 1
42.3

100.0
93.3
92.3
101.7
112.9
106. 7
121.1
127.4
109.8
112. 4
136.2
128.9
119.6
135.0
135.1
116.8
128.8
119. 8
180.2
50.4

100.0
100.1
101. 4
100.6
101.2
101.2
101.0
105.5
107.0
108. 7
109.2
111.6
119.9
117. 7
114. 8
130. 4
120.9
154.1
189.2

22.8

100.0
96.3
92.5
91.7
88.3
91.1
95.6
99.7
94.8
96.5
104.3
105.5
110.1
109.4
106.2
119. 1
111.3
143.8
204. 7
42.4

100.0
96.7
96.4
96.9
98.2
97.6
100.8
106.0
103.0
104.1
108.8
109.4
114.9
116.5
113.6

122.6

117.2
143.9
186.5
29.6

1 First 5 months of the war.
2 The figures for 1916 are preliminary and subject to correction.

It will be noted that since 1908 the upward movement has pro­
gressed continuously, with a sharp advance in the years 1915 and 1916,
incident to the war. The greatest increases, 1916 over 1915, were in
the following commodities: Cotton, 59 per cent; British wool, 63 per
cent; jute, 45 per cent; silk, 47 per cent; petroleum, 94 per cent;
paraffin wax, 64 per cent; cotton seed, 63 per cent; wood and timber,
56 per cent. In foods the percentage of increase is not given for each
commodity, but the general increase was approximately 23 per cent,
as shown in the table. This is less than in the other groups, but is
significant, since the index number of this group had already reached
a high level in 1915. The most noticeable increases in foodstuffs were
on potatoes, foreign spirits, rice, maize, and British barley.
In the Economist for February 17, 1917 1 (pp. 293 and 343), the
index numbers of commodity prices are presented on a somewhat dif­
ferent basis and in a slightly different grouping from those pub­
lished by the Board of Trade. Here the average prices of the various
commodities in each group (5 groups instead of 4, as in the table
above) in the five years 1901 to 1905 are totaled and divided by 2,2
the result being taken as the group basis. The market prices at the
various dates given are relatives of the basis price. The following
1 The Econom ist, Weekly Commercial Times, Bankers’ Gazette, and Railway M onitor;
A P olitical, Literary, and General Newspaper. Granville House, Arundel Street, Strand,
London, W. C.
2 At the time the Econom ist began to publish index numbers there were 22 commodities
included. These have been increased to 44, and in order to make the present index
number comparable w ith those based upon 22 articles, the totals are here divided by 2.


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table is a record of movements in various commodity groups, month
by month, from the outbreak of the war down to the close of 1916:
IN D E X NUM BERS OF COMMODITY PRICES, BY GROUPS, MONTH BY MONTH FROM
JAN. 1, 1914, TO DEC. 31, 1916, TH E AVERAGE FOR TH E YEARS 1901 TO 1905 BEING
TAKEN AS TH E BASIS, 100; SHOWING ALSO TH E PERCENTAGE OF CHANGE FROM
MONTH TO MONTH.
[Source: The Economist, Feb. 17, 1917, p. 293.]

Date.

Basis (average), 1901-1905.
Jan. 1, 1914........................
Apr. 1, 1914........................
July 1,1914........................
End July, 1914..................
End August, 1914.............
E nd September, 1914.......
E nd October, 1914............
End November, 1914........
E nd December, 1914.........
E nd January, 1915............
E nd February, 1915.........
End March, 1915...............
End April, 1915.................
E nd May, 1915..................
End June, 1915..................
End July, 1915..................
End August, 1915.............
End September, 1915.......
End October, 1915............
End November, 1915........
E nd December, 1915.........
E nd January, 1916............
End February, 1916.........
E nd March, 1916...............
End April, 1916.................
End May, 1916..................
E nd June, 1916..................
End July, 1916..................
E nd August, 1916.............
End September, 1916.......
End October, 1916............
End November, 1916........
End December, 1916.........

Cereals Other food
and
products Textiles
meats (tea, sugar, (10 arti­
(10 arti­
etc.) (6
cles).
cles).
articles).

500
563
560
565£
579
641
646
656J
683
714
786
845
840
847
893
818
838J
841
809|
834
871J
897
946 i
983
949J
970J
i 024
989
961
9993?
1,018
1,124*
1,177*
1,294

300
355
350*
345
352
369
405
400|
407*
414*
413
411
427
4393?
437
428
440*
438*
4703?
443*
444
446
465
520*
503
511
529
520
525
5311
536*
543
558
553

500
642
626*
616
616*
626
611*
560
512
509
535
552*
597
594*
583
601
603
628
667
681
691
731
782|
805|
796|
794*
805
794
797
882
937
990*
1,091
1,124*

Minerals
(8 arti­
cles).

Miscella­
neous
(rubber,
timber,
oils, etc.)
(10 arti­
cles).

Total
(44 arti­
cles).

Percent­
age of
change.

400
491
493
4714
4643?
474
472|
458
473
476
521
5614
644
630
600
624
625
6103?
6194
6314
667|
711|
7614
8014
851
895
942
895
881
873
8584
8504
8504
8244

500
572
567
551
553
588
645
657
6844
6S64
748
761
797
816
814
779
774
778
7694
781
826
8484
8844
8974
913
1,019
1,019
1,015
1,040
1,086
1,073
1,0874
1,102
• 1,112

2,200
2,623
2,597
2,549
2, 565
2,698
2,780
2,732
2,760
2,800
3,003
3,131
3,305
3,327
3,327
3,250
3,281
3,296
3,336
3,371
3,500
3,634
3,840
4,008
4,013
4,190
4,319
4,213
4,204
4,372
4,423
4,596
4,779
4,908

100.0
119.2
118.0
115.9
116.6
122.6
126.4
124.2
125.5
127.3
136.5
142.3
150.2
151.2
151.2
147.7
149.1
149.8
151.6
153.2
159.1
165.1
174.5
182.2
182.4
190.5
196.3
191.5
191.1
198.7
201.0
208.7
217.2
223.0

i Taken from the table published in the Economist. The num ber probably should be 1,024.

Cereals and meats, minerals, textiles, and the miscellaneous group
share generously in the upward jump.
In a sentence, the main causes of the aggravated advance of 1916 were the
deficiency of tonnage, the immense withdrawal of men from production, and
inflation.

COAL PRODUCTION, DISTRIBUTION, AND CONSUMPTION IN
THE UNITED STATES, 1915 AND 1916.

Two pamphlets issued by the United States Geological Survey,
one on December 16,1916, and the other on December 28, 1916, present
statistical information, respectively, on the production and distribu-


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589

tion and consumption of coal in 1915,1 both pamphlets being reprints
from the volume on mineral resources of the United States in 1915,
also issued by the Geological Survey. A supplemental statement was
issued on January 24, 1917, bringing this data down to the close of
1916. According to this statement, the production and consumption
of coal in 1916 broke all records, the quantity of bituminous coal
mined being estimated as 509,162,000 net tons,2 which is an increase
of 66,537,574 tons, or about 15 per cent, over 1915. The production
of anthracite coal is estimated at 88,312,000 net tons, or 683,061 tons
less than in 1915. This gives an estimated total output in 1916 of
597,474,000, or an increase of 12.4 per cent over 1915. Only |hree
States, it appears (Maryland, Oklahoma, and Texas), show a decrease
of production in 1916. The largest increase was in Ohio-—65 per
cent. The statement suggests a shortage of labor in 1916, and reports
from many operators seem to indicate that the scarcity of labor,
notably in the last half of the year, was such as to have restricted
production even had the supply of cars been greater. However, from
the evidence available it is believed that the number of men employed
in the production of bituminous coal in 1916 was slightly greater than
in 1915, and that the average number of days worked was more than
230, compared with 203 in 1915 and 232 in 1913.
The consumption of coal by the railroads in 1916 is estimated to have been
17,500,000 tons greater than in 1915, the use of coal in the manufacture of coke
was greater by 20,500,000 tons, exports increased about 2,500,000 net tons, the
coal mines used 500,000 tons more for steam and heat, and the increase in con­
sumption, mainly by the manufacturing industries, was 25,500,000.

The pamphlet relating to coal production in 1915 shows a total
tonnage of 531,619,487 valued at $686,691,186, an increase over 1914
of 3.5 per cent in quantity and 0.8 per cent in value. The increase
in production of bituminous coal alone was nearly 5 per cent. “ The
returns to the producers were, however, lower, the average price per
ton at the mines declining from $1.17 in 1914 to $1.13 in 1915, with
the result that the total value increased less than 2 per cent.
Pennsylvania anthracite, production and value, decreased about 2
per cent,” but the State is credited with the largest production of
any State—46.5 per cent of the total tonnage and 51.3 per cent of
the total value.
Attention is called to the fact that although the production was
greater in 1915 than in 1914, accompanied by greater number of
active days, there was a notable decrease in the number of em­
ployees—734,008, as against 763,185 in 1914. In spite of this fact,
B.

1 United States Geological Survey. Coal in 1915 : P art A. Production.
Distribution and Consumption. 81 pp. W ashington, 1916.
2 Throughout the reports the short ton of 2,000 pounds is meant.

86302°—17---- 7


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Part

• 590

MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

the average annual output of bituminous coal per employee, which
is the index of the labor supply, increased from 724 tons in 1914 to
794 tons in 1915, which may be explained by the fact that the average
number of days worked in 1915 was 7 more than in 1914. Most of
the bituminous mines reporting (59.5 per cent) operated 8 hours
per day. Approximately 23 per cent worked 10 hours. The aver­
age days worked by all mines was 209. Reducing the 734,008 em­
ployees to a 300-day basis, the number of employees in 1915 was
511,359, which, divided into the total production, gives 1,039.0 tons
as the average tonnage mined per man per year, or 3.46 tons per day.
The report states that the number of fatal accidents in 1915 was
2,266, as compared with 2,454 in 1914, and was the lowest since 1907;
that the death rate per 1,000 employed was 3.1, as compared with
3.22 in 1914, and was the lowest since 1898; that the production was
234,607 tons per death in 1915, against 209,261 in 1914, and was,
in fact, the greatest -on record. Reduced to the basis of 300-day
workers, the fatality rate per 1,000 was 4.43; in 1914 it was 4.66,
and in 1913 it was 4.7. No information is given as to the number
of nonfatal accidents.
During 1915 there were 36,865 men affected by strikes in the bitu­
minous mines and 30,325 in the anthracite mines, the total number
of days lost being 2,467,431, or an average of 37 days per man.
In Ohio alone, 15,048 men were on strike, involving a loss of 1,722,013
days, or an average of 114 days each.
As to the distribution of coal mined in 1915, it appears that of the
442,624,426 tons of bituminous coal approximately 33 per cent was
used in the State where mined, 27 per cent was shipped to other
States, 26 per cent was used by railroads, 8 per cent was shipped
to tidewater, and 5 per cent was shipped to the Great Lakes for
cargo. Part of the latter, however, was ultimately used by rail­
roads. The bituminous coal imported amounted to 1,709,205 tons,
while 18,776,640 tons of bituminous and 3,965,255 tons of anthracite
were exported.
Taking up the matter of consumption of coal in 1915, the report
states that of the total amount of bituminous coal used—-443,492,509
tons1—approximately 70 per cent was used for making steam, of
which amount 33 per cent was used by industrial plants, 28 per cent
by railroads, 16 per cent by domestic and small steam trade, includ­
ing dwellings, apartments, etc., and 14 per cent in making coke.
The per capita consumption of coal was about 5 tons and the con­
sumption per square mile was 123 tons, ranging from 1 ton in Ari­
zona to 1,968 in Pennsylvania.
1 The to ta l consum ption of coal in 1915, obtained by su b tra c tin g from th e sum of th e
p ro d u ctio n an d im p o rts of b itum inous an d a n th ra c ite coal th e exports an d foreign bunker
fuel, w as 502,220,104 tons.


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591

CONVICT LABOR FOR ROAD WORK.

Contrary to popular belief the use of convict labor for road work
is not a new practice, for it has long been followed in all countries,
and in the United States dating probably from 1658, when the
Virginia Colonial Assembly passed a law providing for the employ­
ment of prisoners on public works. However, the growth in num­
ber and size of our penal institutions and the consequent increase
in the cost of maintenance has led a number of the States actively
to employ convicts on road work and is prompting other States to
seek information on the subject. In an effort to meet this demand
for authoritative and practical information the United States De­
partment of Agriculture, through its Office of Public Roads and
Rural Engineering, in cooperation with the Public Health Service,
undertook to make an exhaustive investigation during 1914 and 1915
of the subject of convict labor for road work as the principle has
been applied in a number of the States, to determine—
Whether it is profitable to use convicts for road construction, and if so, under
what conditions.
The systems of discipline and management productive of the best results.
The character and economy of structures and equipment best adapted to
conditions in various sections of the country.
The character, preparation, and cost of food.
The steps necessary to secure proper sanitation and hygiene.
The most suitable system of cost keeping and record.
Detailed and comparative cost data on every phase of the subject.

The results of this investigation are set forth in Bulletin 4141
of the Department of Agriculture, issued under date of December
15, 1916, the purpose of this report being “ to cover as nearly as
possible all questions that might arise in connection with either the
adoption of a policy relating to the use of convict labor in road work
or the actual working out of such a policy.”
There are six systems of convict labor in operation: (1) The lease
system, under which the State disposes of its convicts to private
lessees; (2) the contract system, under which the State sells the labor
of convicts, but does not relinquish its care or control; (3) the pieceprice system, under which the contractor pays an agreed amount for
each piece or article manufactured, the State usually supervising the
work; (4) the public-account system, under which the State conducts
all the industries in which convict labor is used and sells the product;
(5) the State-use system, which is the same as the last named, except
that the product is not sold, but is used in State institutions; (6) the
public works and ways system, involving the use of convict labor on
i C onvict L abor fo r R oad W ork. U nited S ta te s D ep artm en t of A g riculture, B u lletin
414. C o n trib u ted from th e Office of P ublic R oads an d R u ral E ngineering. W ashington,
Dec. 15, 1916. 218 pp. 2 in se rts . Illu s tra te d .


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public works rather than in the production of marketable articles or
merchandise; this system includes road work. The following table
shows the number of convicts employed under each system in specified
years and the number of States in which each system is practiced in
whole or in p a rt:
CONVICTS EM PLOYED U N D ER T H E VARIOUS SYSTEMS IN SPEC IFIED YEARS, AND
T H E NUMBER OF STATES IN W HICH EACH SYSTEM WAS PRACTICED.
1903-4
1885
System of work.
Num­ Per
ber. cent.
Lease..................................................... 9,104
Contract................................................ 15,670
Piece price............................................ 5,676
Public account..................................... 14,827
State use...............................................
Public works and ways.......................

20.1
34.6
12.5
32.8

Total........................................... 45,827 100.0
Total of public account, State use,
public works and ways system i . . . 14, 827 32.8

1914-15

296 institu­
tions.

186 institu­
tions.

186 institu­
tions.

Num­ Per
ber. cent.

Num­ Per
ber. cent.

Num­ Per
ber. cent.

3,652
16,915
3,886
8,530
12,045
6,144

2,925
12,126
2,000
6,128
7,152
4,542

8.4
34.7
5.7
17.6
20.6
13.0

950 1.4
6,981 10.6
1,193
1.8
11,807 18.0
33 805 51. 4
ll'063 16.8

51,172 100.0

34,873 100.0

65,799 100.0

26,719

17,822

7.1
33.1
7.6
16.7
23.5
12.0
52.2

51.2

56,675

States
using
system.

1
18
4
19
35
27

86.2

1 This grouping shows the total number of convicts employed for the benefit of the State and is given in
order to render comparison practicable, since in 1885 the State-use and public works and ways systems
were not reported separately, all such work being classified under the public-account system.

From this table it will be seen that the State-use system is more
widely followed than any other and that the trend has been toward
those si^stems under which the convicts are employed for the benefit
of the State.
The main opposition to the employment of convict labor in the
manufacture of trade articles appears to come from skilled free
labor, making “ the abandonment of such competition almost neces­
sary, and the adoption of either or both the State-use system and
the public works and ways system has seemed the only alternative.”
Finder the latter system “ there is less competition with free labor
and none with manufacturers, but, on the contrary, the creation of
public utilities by means of convict labor is more than likely to
give greater employment to free labor and to create a greater de­
mand for the products of the manufacturer.”
The report takes up briefly the advantages and disadvantages of
the employment of convict labor on road work and notes among the
first (1) that such work is undoubtedly more healthful than indoor
work; (2) that, based on reports from 22 States, 65.5 per cent of
the prisoners were skilled and unskilled outdoor laborers before
imprisonment, as against 23.09 per cent who were shop workers and
indoor laborers; (3) that work on the road has no degenerative
mental effect as has shop work; (4) that it removes the convict as
far as possible from competition with free labor; (5) that it is


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593

extremely productive to the public and is a benefit to the convict
himself; (6) that progression from the restraint of the bars to the
greater freedom of outdoor life, with self-restraint and proper living
under guidance in the camps, tends to fit him to conduct himself
properly after discharge; (7) that it is a very useful factor in the
discipline of the penal institution.
Against these advantages the opponents of road labor urge (1) that
it exposes the convict to the public gaze and not only advertises his
shame but has a tendency to harden the public feeling by permitting
it to grow accustomed to spectacles which constantly suggest crime;
(2) that the congregate life of the road camps exposes the better
convicts to the physical, mental, and moral contamination of their
more depraved associates; (3) that road labor is not suitable to the
ability or physical strength of all prisoners; (4) that public work
affords opportunity for escape; (5) that road work can not prove to
be a solution of the prison-labor problem because it is impracticable
to provide such employment during the winter; (6) that outdoor em­
ployment entails a larger expense for the maintenance of prisoners
than work done inside; (7) that such use of convicts is economically
bad because the same work can frequently be done at less expense
by free labor on account of the comparative inefficiency of convict
labor.
The report disposes of the first four of these objections by suggest­
ing that they lose their serious aspect if the selection of convicts for
road work is based upon their conduct in the institution, and if they
are then classified and graded according to character, ability, and
habits.
The investigators found it very difficult to determine the relative
efficiency of convict and free labor on road work, but it is stated that
as a class the convicts “ undoubtedly possess a lower order of intelli­
gence and less initiative, ability, and willingness in the performance
of honest work than free laborers.”
The causes of this inefficiency and remedies to be applied are at
once suggested in the following paragraph, which indicates that
economic interests may be subserved—
First, by strict attention to the cost of maintenance and by honest effort
to reduce it to the minimum amount consistent with proper living conditions and
discipline; second, hy the reduction, so far as possible, of all losses of working
tim e; third, by providing a positive incentive to industry to offset the negative
fear of punishment; fourth, by the elimination of politics as a factor in the
selection of officials; fifth, by offering to officials such salaries as to command
- the services of capable men; sixth, by combining the responsibility and au­
thority for the direction of road work and convicts in one person at each camp;
seventh, by such a diversification of labor and employment as to provide for the
large body of prisoners the kind of work in the performance of which they
manifest the greatest ability; eighth, by judicious selection of the work to be


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performed by convicts; ninth, by the proper adjustment of the size of the force
to the requirements of the work and by the formation of camps of economical
size; tenth, by adopting a more mechanical kind of work for short-term pris­
oners, or, if they must be employed at road work, the separation of long and
short term men.

But if less efficient, the work of convict gangs may be more pro­
ductive than free labor at the same cost. A table is given showing
for 15 States the cost of maintenance of productive convict labor per
calendar day and per working day, with a column indicating the
daily wages paid to free labor. The record is admittedly inadequate,
but shows in some cases a very slight margin in cost of these two
types of labor, while revealing in other instances a very wide differ­
ence (as much as $1.61 in Colorado) in cost. “ Because of this appar­
ent cheapness,” declares the report, “ with which convicts are fed,
clothed, and housed, officials have been led, through lack of adequate
records, into a false sense of security in regard to the economy of
convict labor, and there has been a tendency to condone and overlook
lapses from a standard of high efficiency because of a feeling that
the margin between the daily cost of convict and free labor was
wide enough to allow a certain amount of waste.” I t is stated that
the cost of maintaining one productive road laborer one workday will
be found to be 40 to 50 per cent greater than the maintenance cost
per convict per calendar day.
Taking up the matter of management and operation it was found
that a thorough test of the county control of convicts, as distinguished
from State control, seems to point to the advisability of the adoption
of the latter plan. If this is done it is believed—
1. That the total overhead expense for the administration of all the convict
labor of the State will be reduced by the elimination of a large number of
small offices and the consolidation of the supervision in one central office;
2. That the wide outlook of State officials will lead to the practical adoption
of more scientific methods;
3. That the greater financial means of the State will permit of the employ­
ment of a more able class of officials;
4. That the counties will be relieved of the expense of maintaining small
convict forces which produce inconsequential results;
5. And that the force of convicts will be available for work in the counties
where there is a demand for the heavy road work best suited to the employ­
ment of convict labor, while slight repairs and maintenance not economically
done with convict labor may be performed by free labor, supplemented, per­
haps, by small forces of paroled convicts.

The difficulty of placing the control in the proper State department
is recognized because of the dual aspect of the work, and it is believed
that the best results may be obtained under a system which clearly
defines and separates the responsibilities of the prison and highway
departments. The report briefly suggests how this division of re­
sponsibility may be accomplished to the best economic advantage;


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outlines a method of keeping records and cost accounting, the hitter
to show the daily and total itemized costs of maintaining the con­
victs and the unit and total costs of the work; and enters into an
extended discussion of discipline and methods of control which must
be well adapted to the special conditions of the work and the peculiar
character of the convicts in order to minimize the chance for escape
which has been suggested as one of the greatest objections to convict
labor on road work. Two systems of discipline are noted—the
guard system, under which the convicts wear suits of striped mate­
rial, are chained, are punished by whipping, and are restrained by
armed guards; and the honor system, involving none of these prac­
tices but under which the security of the convict is placed largely in
his own hands. In one form or another, 21 States practice the
former and 16 States the latter. The systems appear to be about
equally effective in preventing escapes, but it is clear from the report
that the honor system is much to be preferred, although it is admitted
that under average conditions only about 25 per cent of any force
respond favorably to a reasonable measure of trust, which makes
this system, perhaps, less productive of results in work accomplished
than the guard system. It is very important that care be exercised
in the selection of men for road work and in the substitution of
rewards for penalties, and to accomplish this result a graded system
of discipline is advocated in which both the guard system and the
honor system have a place.
Camp location is an important factor. The sanitary conditions,
water supply, bathing facilities, and living quarters should be care­
fully planned and developed, and suggestions to effectuate the best
results along these lines are presented in some detail. Comparatively
little sickness was found in convict camps, the daily sick rate at 40
camps in different parts of the country varying from less than 1 per
cent to 6 per cent. All convict camps have arrangements whereby
the services of a physician may be secured when necessary. Many
camps are well equipped with first-aid outfits., As to camp structure,
the first esssential is stated to be economy, the second is good appear­
ance, the third is convenience, the fourth is comfort, the fifth is
provision for easy cleaning, and the sixth is good ventilation and
screening. Supplying and equipping a convict camp was found to
be a difficult problem. It is estimated that about $19.75 per man per
year is required for clothing. Another important matter is the rations
provided for these workers and much attention should be given to
food values so that the body may be properly nourished for the work
to be done. Suggested diets are given and meals provided in specified
camps are presented, with the approximate cost.
The report closes with an appendix giving a digest of the State
laws relating to the use of convict labor for road work.


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NEW LEGAL REGULATION OF THE LABOR CONTRACT IN
AUSTRIA.

Up to the present date Austrian legislation, like that of the greater
part of European countries, has made no efforts toward a uniform
codification of the labor laws. Therefore, such laws are found chiefly
as constituent parts of nearly all codifications of larger branches of
the law, though there are also special laws regulating labor.
Until recently the labor contract was regulated in Austria by the
General Civil Code enacted June 1, 1811. Only a dozen short articles
of this code were given over to the regulation of the labor contract,
and this small portion of the code has never done full justice to the
importance of the labor contract. It had become generally acknowl­
edged in Austria that the Civil Code was particularly defective in
its failure to keep up with the general economic and industrial
progress, and for this reason several amendments of important por­
tions of the code wTere lately enacted. The third amendment, enacted
March 19, 1916 (It. G. Bl. No. 69), includes the provisions relating
to the labor contract. Briefly outlined, the labor contract is now
regulated as follows:
N a t u r e a n d e s s e n t i a l s .—According to article 1151, a contract of
employment (Dienstvertrag) is formed if a person obligates himself
for a specified period of time to perform services for another person.
A contract for work (Werkvertrag) is formed if a person obligates
himself to the performance of a piece of work for a compensation.
If the contract does not determine a compensation and gratuitous
services have not been agreed upon, a suitable compensation shall be
considered as agreed upon. Unless otherwise stipulated in the con­
tract, the employee must perform the contractual services in person.
Neither can the employer transfer his claim to the services of the
employee. In so far as no agreement has been made as to the exact
nature and extent of the services, ordinary services appropriate to
the circumstances must be performed.
C o m p e n s a t i o n .—Unless otherwise stipulated or customary in the
case of the services in question, the compensation becomes payable
after the performance of the services. If the compensation is being
computed by months or shorter periods of time it becomes payable
at the end of the individual period; if computed by longer periods,
the compensation becomes payable at the end of each calendar month.
Compensation computed by the hour, by the piece, or by individual
performances becomes payable at the end of each calendar week for
all completed performances, and in the case of services of a higher
nature at the end of each calendar month. In case of termination
of the service relation, the earned compensation in any case becomes
payable immediately.


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597

Employees compensated by the piece or by individual performances
are entitled to an advance corresponding to the services performed
and to the expenditures incurred before the compensation becomes
due.
An employee having been employed at least two weeks, who,
through sickness or through injuries suffered through an accident,
is for a relatively short period, not exceeding a week, prevented from
performing his services, retains claim to compensation for .this
period, provided his disability was not purposely caused by him or
brought about by gross negligence on his part. He likewise retains
his claim to compensation when, without his own fault, he is pre­
vented from performance of his services by other important reasons
relating to his person. If the employee during the period of his
disability receives a compensation from a legal insurance carrier
the employer may deduct from the claim made upon him by the em­
ployee a portion of this compensation corresponding to the relation
of his own actual contribution to the total premium.
The employee also has a claim for services not rendered, provided
he was ready to render services and was prevented from rendering
them by circumstances due to the employer. Savings made by the
employee in consequence of his prevention of rendering services or
earnings made in other employment, or wdllfully neglected to make,
during his prevention may, however, be deducted from such a claim.
The employee is likewise entitled to compensation for any loss of time
caused by similar circumstances.
D u t i e s o f e m p l o y e r d u r i n g s i c k n e s s o f t h e e m p l o y e e .—In case of
sickness of an employee who is a member of the household of his
employer,‘the law provides that unless this sickness has been brought
about purposely by the employee or through gross negligence on his
part, the employer, in addition to paying him wages, must furnish
him medical care and the required curatives for a period up to two
weeks if the service relation has been effective at least two weeks, and
up to one month if the service relation has been effective at least half
a year. Care in a medical institution or care by third parties may,
under conditions specified in the law, be substituted for care in the
household. The employer is exempt from the above obligation if the
service relation is of a temporary nature and has been in effect less
than one month.
Cash expenditures of the employer for medical or institutional care
or for care by third parties may be deducted by him from the wages
due to employee for the period of his sickness. If the employee
receives a cash sick benefit from a legal insurance institute, the em­
ployer may deduct from the wages such a portion of this benefit as
corresponds to his share of the total contribution. The employer is


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exempt from all the above obligations if the employee is insured in an
institute granting him the same benefits which according to this law
are due him from the employer.
The obligations of the employer to pay wages and provide medical
care during disability caused by sickness or accident become extinct
if the service relation is terminated on account of expiration of the
contractual period or on account of previous notice or discharge not
caused by sickness of the employee or other serious reasons relating
to his person.
O t h e r d u t i e s o f t h e e m p l o y e r .—The employer must so regulate the
performance of the services and provide at his own expense such
rooms and tools that life and health of the employee are protected
as much as the nature of the services make it possible. If the em­
ployee is living in the household of the employer, the latter must,
with due consideration of the employee’s health, morals, and reli­
gion, provide suitable lodging, board, hours of labor, and periods of
rest and recreation.
T e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e s e r v i c e r e l a t i o n .—The service relation termi­
nates on the expiration of the period for which it was contracted. A
temporary or probationary service relation may be terminated by
both parties during the first month. A service relation contracted
for life or a period in excess of five years may, after the expiration
of five years, be terminated by the employee on six months’ notice.
If a service relation has been contracted or continued for an indefi­
nite period, it may be terminated on proper notice as provided below.
N o t i c e .—In case of a contract of employment not relating to serv­
ices of a higher nature, in which compensation by the hour or day or
by the piece or individual performances has been agreed up'on, notice
of the termination of the service relation may be given at any time, to
take effect on the subsequent day. If such a service relation forms the
principal occupation of the employee and has been in effect for three
months, or if compensation by the week has been agreed upon, notice
must be given on the first day of a calendar week in order that termi­
nation of the contract takes effect at the end of the same week. In
case of compensation by the piece or single performances, the notice
does not take effect until the performance of the work on which the
employee has been engaged at the time of giving notice has been
completed.
If a service relation comprising services of a higher nature forms
the principal occupation of the employee and has been in effect three
months, notice must be given at least four weeks in advance without
consideration of the method of compensation. The same is applicable
to all service relations in which compensation by the year has been
agreed upon.


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599

In all other cases the service relation may be discontinued by giving
at least two weeks’ notice.
The term for giving notice must always be the same for both par­
ties. If unequal terms were agreed upon, the longer term is applica­
ble to both parties.
After notice has been given, an employee who lives in the household
of the employer, or who by his service relation is prevented from look­
ing for other employment, must be granted suitable leave with pay to
obtain other employment. The length of time for which he shall be
granted leave may be determined for individual localities and districts
by administrative order.
P r e m a t u r e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e s e r v i c e r e l a t i o n .—For weighty rea­
sons a service relation entered for a specified period may be termi­
nated before the expiration of this period, and one entered for an
indefinite period may be terminated by both parties without notice.
If the employee, without weighty reason, prematurely terminates
his service relation, the employer may demand either his reentrance
into the service relation or claim damages for breach of contract.
The employee is likewise liable for damages for breech of contract
if, through his own fault, he has brought about his premature dis­
charge. For work performed for which compensation is not yet
due the employee, in case of premature termination of the service
relation, has a claim to corresponding compensation only in so far
as the work is not entirely or largely worthless to the employer.
If, on the other hand, the employer without weighty reason pre­
maturely discharges the employee, or, if the employer is at fault for
the premature leaving of the employee, the latter, without prejudice
to a claim for damages, is entitled to his contractual compensation
for the full period until the contract is terminated through expiration
or proper notice. The employer may, however, deduct from the
claimed compensation any amount which the employee has saved
on account of services not performed or the amount of wages earned
through other employment or which he willfully neglected to earn.
If, however, the above period does not exceed three months, the em­
ployee may claim full compensation for this period without any de­
duction.
If both parties are at fault for the premature termination of the
service relation, the decision as to the validity and amount of a claim
for compensation shall rest with the court.
To be valid, claims on account of premature leaving or discharge
of the employee must be presented to a court within six months from
the date on which they could be made.
C e r t i f i c a t e .—On the termination of the service relation the em­
ployee must on his request be given a certificate as to the duration


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and nature of his services. If the employee request a certificate while
still in service, it is to be given him at his expense. Statements and
remarks in the certificate which would make it difficult for the em­
ployee to obtain other employment are not permissible. Certificates
of the employee which are in the custody of the employer must be
delivered to the former on demand.
M a n d a t o r y P r o v i s i o n s .—Rights of the employee contained in the
above regulation of the contract of employment may neither be
waived nor restricted in the contract.
The above amendment of the Civil Code became effective on Janu­
ary 1, 1917, and is applicable to all service relations in effect on this
date. It is not applicable to the service relation of persons in the
service of the Imperial Court, the State, a State instituition, a Prov­
ince, district, or commune, or of a public fund. The amendment does
not prejudice the effectiveness of provisions regulating the service
relation which are contained in the general mining law, the industrial
code, the law of July 28, 1902, the domestic servant laws, the mercan­
tile employees’ act, the service and disciplinary regulations of super­
visory railroad authorities, and the organic law of the State rail­
road administration. The above amendment of the Civil Code be­
comes applicable to service relations regulated in the enumerated spe­
cial laws only in so far as these laws do not regulate the contract of
employment.
STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1916.

During the past three years the United States Bureau of Labor
Statistics has kept a record of such strikes in this country as have
come to its attention. This information has been obtained from 25
daily papers printed in the more important industrial cities of the
country, from about 100 labor papers, nearly as many trade-union
periodicals, and a dozen or so trade papers, and has been supple­
mented by statements made in response to schedules of inquiry sent
to employers whose employees were on strike and to officials of unions
whose members had been concerned in or wTere believed to hâve
knowledge of labor troubles. In all, 3,513 circulars were sent, of
which number 1,385 were returned answered in whole or in part, 389
were returned undelivered for various reasons, and the remainder
were unanswered. This report is based on the data secured from
the sources above mentioned in addition to information voluntarily
furnished by correspondents of the bureau.
The following table shows the number of strikes and lockouts
begun in each of the months of 1916 and 1915. In comparing these


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figures it must be borne in mind that, although the number of strikes
in 1916 has undoubtedly been larger than those of the corresponding
months of 1915, the sources of the data in regard to strikes have also
been increased, and the difference between the two years is therefore
not so great as the figures would tend to show. The strikes and lock­
outs were distributed as follows:
NUM BER OF STR IK ES AND LOCKOUTS BEGINNING IN EACH MONTH, 1915 AND 1916.
Kind of dis­
pute.
Strikes:
1916.........
1915.........
Lockouts:
1916.........
1915.........
Total:
1916..
1915..

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Month
not Total.
stated.

148
60

156
48

226
83

334
96

517
129

286
66

255
112

274
164

216
174

253
106

187
113

136
76

8
13

3
12

5
14

15
16

13
11

14
6

3
14

8
8

5
15

4
8

4
10

2
8

24
38-

108
173

156
73

159
60

231
97

349
112

530
140

300
72

258
126

282
172

221
189

257
114

191
123

138
84

193
231

3,265
1,593

169 3,157
193 1,420

The large increase in number of strikes during the month of May
is accounted for by the fact that the trade agreements in many indus­
tries terminated on the 30th day of April, and the unions very gen­
erally asked for an increase in wages in making the new agreement.
The increase in number during the summer and fall is doubtless due
in part to the increased demand for labor and to the increased cost
of living which was so apparent during the latter part of the year.
The decrease in November and December is probably due to the fact
that reports for those months are incomplete, since reports, aside
from those obtained from the daily and weekly papers and periodi­
cals, frequently do not reach the bureau until two or three months
after the strike has ended. Corrected figures for these two months
will therefore undoubtedly show a large increase over those here
given. The total number of labor disturbances shown in the above
table is 3,268, a number that will very likely be increased to at least
3,400 when corrected figures are received.
The disturbances for the year do not seem to have been confined to
any district or industry. Ten per cent of the strikes occurred in New
York City, where upward of 300,000 persons were involved. Of
these, several strikes involving large numbers of garment workers
occurred during the year, as follows: Children’s dressmakers, in
January; embroidery workers and needleworkers, in February; tail­
ors, in March; ladies’ garment workers, in May; men’s clothing work­
ers, in August; garment workers, in October; and men’s and boys’
clothing workers, in December. Strikes of painters and carpenters
occurred in April; hod carriers, in October; and button workers, in


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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

March. The New York street-railway strike that occurred during
the fall was accompanied by several sympathetic strikes. Other New
York strikes that attracted attention were those of the paper-box
makers in August; machinists, in March; metal workers, in June;
ironworkers, in May; barbers, in September; insurance agents, in
July; grocery clerks, in September; longshoremen, in May; jewelry
workers, in March; cigarette makers, in September; brickmakers, in
May; sugar refiners, in January; and waiters, in March.
In New Jersey several important strikes occurred in the vicinity
of New York City: Those of the embroidery workers in Hudson
County, in February; the machinists of Newark, in June; oil refiners
of Bayonne, in October; and the can makers at Edgewater, and
freight handlers in Jersey City, Hoboken, and Weehawken.
Coal strikes were prevalent throughout the country, involving up­
ward of 350,000 men. Many of those in the anthracite region were
in regard to the interpretation of the eight-hour agreement or the
price of powder. Seventy-five were of the variety known as “ button.”
Strikes also occurred in the bituminous region of Pennsylvania, and
in West Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas.
There were also strikes of metal miners in the Morenci district in
Arizona and the Messabe range in Minnesota.
In Philadelphia, the strikes of the hat makers in May, the ladies’
garment workers in January, the men’s clothing workers in February,
and the machinists in June, attracted attention, as did the Westinghouse strike in April, and later the street car strikes in Pittsburgh.
In Chicago occurred strikes of a harvester company in April, the
building trades in May, and the teamsters in January. Other strikes
deserving mention were those of the longshoremen on the Pacific
coast from Alaska to San Diego; the culinary workers and ship­
builders in San Francisco; cigar makers in Chicago, Porto Rico, and
Florida; the butchers in Chicago, St. Louis, and Sioux C ity; the lum­
ber workers in Minnesota and Washington; the-building trades in
Omaha and St. Louis; the machinists in Milwaukee; textile strikes
in various points in Rhode Island; the agricultural laborers in Porto
Rico; and the strikes in Youngstown, Ohio.
The following table shows the number of strikes and lockouts in
1915 and 1916 by States and by sections of the country; in making
comparisons, the incompleteness of the figures must be taken into
consideration.


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

603

MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

N U M B E R O F S T R IK E S A N D L O C K O U T S, B Y S T A T E S A N D S E C T IO N S , 1915 A N D 1916.

Strikes.

Lockouts.

State or section.
1916
Alabama..........................
Alaska...............................
Arizona.............................
Arkansas..........................
California..........................
Canal Zone.......................
Colorado...........................
Connecticut.....................
Delaware..........................
District of Columbia.......
Florida.............................
Georgia.............................
Hawaii.............................
Idaho................................
Illinois..............................
Indiana.............................
Iowa.................................
Kansas.............................
K entucky.........................
Louisiana..........................
Maine...............................
Maryland..........................
Massachusetts..................
Michigan__ ....................
Minnesota........................
Mississippi.......................
Missouri............................
Montana...........................
Nebraska..........................

Strikes.

Lockouts.

S tate or section.

14
3
8
17
54
4
17
129
12
6
9
8

1915

1916

1915

2

1

2

1

1
1
7

4
2
20
6
145
14
1

1

9

2

4
5

148
69
24
12
11
7
25
37
339
60
24
4
89
13
21

8

1

53
21
11
6
14
3
6
12
153
30
11
1
38
3
4

2
1

21
9
2
1
1
1

3
9
5
6

1
7
3
4

7
1

5

10
5
1

New H am pshire...............
N ew Jersey.........................
N ew Y o rk ...........................
N o rth C arolina..................
Ohio.....................................
O klahom a...........................
O regon.................................
P en n sy lv an ia....................
Porto R ico.........................
R hode Islan d .....................
South C arolina..................
Tennessee...........................
T ex as...................................
U ta h ....................................
V e rm o n t.............................
V irginia..............................
W ash in g to n.......................
W est V irginia...................
W isconsin...........................
W y om ing...........................
In te rsta te ............................

1916

1915

19
224
511
7
272
23
22
564
23
75
5
24
28
3
10
14
57
39
60

5
191
200

4

119
5
6
149
12
38
4
4
30
9
2
5
31
24
15
1
1

T o ta l......................... 3,157 1,420
N o rth of th e Ohio and
east of th e M ississippi.. 2,564 1,155
S outh of th e Ohio and
east of th e M ississippi.. 158
75
W est of th e M ississippi. . . 435
190

1916

6
15
1
14
1
8
1

1915

9
22
IS
1
1
U
9
o

2

3
9

2
1
1
2

1
6
3
5

108

173

80

120

9
19

14
39

The largest number of disputes occurred in the leading manufac­
turing States: Pennsylvania, New York, Massachusetts, Ohio, and
New Jersey, more than one-half of the strikes being in the first four
States named.
The following table shows the number of strikes and lockouts in
cities in which 15 or more disputes occurred during 1916, with the
number of disturbances occurring in the same cities for the year 1915:
C IT IE S IN W H IC H 15 OR M ORE S T R IK E S O C C U R R ED IN 1916, W IT H N U M B E R F O R 1915.

Strikes.

Lockouts.

City.

New York, N. Y ..............
Philadelphia, P a ..............
Chicago,*111.......................
Boston, Mass....................
Cleveland, Ohio...............
St. Louis, Mo...................
Pittsburgh, P a.................
Baltimore, M d.................
Newark, N. J ...................
Buffalo, N. Y ...................
Springfield, Mass.............
Milwaukee, Wis...............
Detroit, Mich...................
Jersey City, N. J ..............
Youngstown, Ohio...........
Cincinnati, Ohio..............

Strikes.

Lockouts.

City.
1916

1915

1916

1915

341
73
71
58
55
54
45
35
34
32
30
29
28
27
27
25

128
36
25
29
33
14
21
15
21
9
22
5
16
26
3

11
1

15
6
15
3
3
2

9

5
2
3
2
3
1
2
1
3
3

1

2
2
1
3
3
1
1
2

Holyoke, Mass.................
Trenton, N. J .
San Francisco, Cal__
Bridgeport, Conn
Paw tucket ’ R. I ........
Providence, R. I __
Bayoime, N . J ..............
Hartford, Conn.............
Lawrence, Mass................
Kansas City, Mo
Fall River, Mass...........
Omaha, N é b r..................
Portland, Oreg__
Scranton, P a............
New Bedford, Mass.........

1916

1915

25
24
23
21
20
20
19
19
19
17
16
16
16
16
15

3
12
5
51
11
15
12
18
4
12

1916

1
1

3
2
6
6 ..........
3
1
2

1915

1
3
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
1

In 2,691 strikes and 76 lockouts the employees concerned in the
strike were men, in 112 strikes women, in 225 strikes and 9 lockouts
men and women, and in 129 strikes and 23 lockouts the sex was not


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

604

MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

reported. In 1915 the corresponding figures were 1,085 strikes and
131 lockouts, 37 strikes and 4 lockouts, 122 strikes and 15 lockouts, and
176 strikes and 23 lockouts.
The following tables show the number of strikes and lockouts in
the leading industry groups and individual occupations in which the
largest number of strikes occurred in 1915 and 1916. In comparing
the two years allowance should be made for the incompleteness of
the figures.
NUMBER OF STR IK ES IN TH E LEADING INDUSTRY GROUPS IN W HICH T H E LARGEST
NUM BER OF STR IK ES AND LOCKOUTS OCCURRED, 1915 AND 1916.
Lockouts.

Strikes.
Industry.
1916
Meta] trad es

..........................................................................................

Thudding trades
. . ............................................................................
Textile work
- - .............................................................
Transportation
- - - - ............................- ....................
C] nth in g i n d n st.ri es
...................................................................................
.................................. ......................................................
Teaming
.
Baking
. . .
..........................................................................
Tron and stool w opiror^
__.
............................
Tobacco industry
..................................................................
Ptone workers
- - ................................................
Furniture industry
............................................................................
T.pmhAr industry
_ _ _ ................................................
"Paper mannfaot.nring
..............................................................
tllass manufacturing
...........................................................
B.nhher workers
...................................................................................
Afeat cutting
................................................
T oath op ygnplfpr*5
■ • . .......................... .
Printing end publishing
..............................................................
Shipbuilding
...........................................................

1915

487
395
348
222
205
187
94
65
67
59
56
47
44
40
39
34
32
28
23
23

289
65
259
93
20
131
33
31
33
8
21
16
13
14
15
10
7
5
5

1915

1916
14
3
18
3
4
5
6
15

41
2
28
7
1
13
2
33

2
2
2

1
4
1
1
2
1
2

2
1
4

3

NUMBER OF STR IK E S IN INDIV IDUAL OCCUPATIONS IN W HICH T H E LARGEST NUM­
BER OF STR IK E S OCCURRED, 1915 AND 1916.
Lockouts.

Strikes.
Occupation.
1916
Miners, coal......................................................................................................
Machinists........................................................................................................
Molders .........................................................................................................
Teamsters.........................................................................................................
B a k e rs.............................................................................................................
Carpenters........................................................................................................
Tobacco workers..................................................... .......................................
Street railway employees...............................................................................
Building laborers....................... ...................................................................
Plumbers and steam fitters... ........................................................................
Longshoremen
........................................................................................
Painters
.................................... «...........................................
Paper makers ...............................................................................................
Class workers
_
.......................................................................
Metal po lish ers..........................................................................................- - Boot and shoe makers .................................................................................
Rubber w o rk ers.............................................................................................
Tnside wiremen
_
.......................................................................
Tailors .........................................................................................................
Leather workers
__
.......................................................................
Freight handlers
- ............................................................
Structural ironworkers
.......................................................................
Boiler makers
....................................................................................
Corset- makers
..............................................................................
B r ip.kmakers
....................................................................................
H at and cap makers
.................................................................................
Sh eet-m etal workers ....................................................................................
Brewery workers
................................................................


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

367
236
130
94
65
65
59
53
51
48
48
42
40
39
36
34
34
29
30
28
26
23
23
23
20
20
20
19

1915
55
167
43
32
31
50
10
22
21
36
18
24
14
15
37
12
10
23
26
5
19
10
14
6
8
21
21
18

1915

1916
3
8
3
6
15
2
2
3
1
1
2
2
1
1
4
2
1
1
1
1
2

2
16
6
2
33
8
1
2
9
1
4
1
2
13
1
1
2

3
2

605

MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

In 2,246 strikes and 94 lockouts the employees were connected with
unions; in 439 strikes and 5 lockouts they WTere unconnected with
unions; in 70 strikes and 1 lockout they were not so connected at the
time of striking, but organized almost immediately thereafter; in
402 strikes and 8 lockouts the relation of employees to unions was
not reported. In 1915 the corresponding figures were 798 strikes and
131 lockouts; 173 strikes and 3 lockouts; 29 strikes; and 420 strikes
and 39 lockouts.
The causes of the strikes and lockouts were numerous. In few cases
was the cause confined to one matter in dispute. The principal causes
are shown in the following table:
PR IN CIPA L CAUSES OF STR IK ES AND LOCKOUTS, 1915 AND 1916.
Strikes.
Matter of dispute.
"For increase of wages
.............................................................................
F nr decrease nf wages
.............................................................................
Nonpayment, of wages
......................................................................
Increase of hours
_ .....................^ ........................................
Decrease of hours
.............................................................................
For increase of wages and decrease of h o u rs ...............................................
....................................................... .
pond it ions
P,on dit inns and wages
...................................................................
Conditions and hours
..........................................................................
Conditions wages and hours ...................................................................
Recognition of the union...............................................................................
Recognition and wages
.......................................................................
Recognition and hours ...............................................................................
Recognition wages, and hours.....................................................................
For organizing .............................................................................................
discharge of foreman wanted
..............................................
Because of discharge of em ployees.............................................................................................
Penalise of em p loy m en t of nonunion m e n ..........................................................................
In regard to the agreement
..............................................................................
F o r a. new a g r e e m e n t...........................................................................................................................
"Discrimination
S y m p a th y
Ju risd ictio n
M iscellaneous

..............................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................

Not reported.......................................................................................
Total ....................................................................................

Lockouts.

1915

1916
1,031
32
13
3
107
374
55
53
2
25
257
119
21

355
97
10
8
73
156
37
29
6
12
66
28

6

68

11

17

16
67
55

121
70

. 38

1915

1916

12
10
1

11
2
4
2
2

7
3
4
1

2

1
17
1

21
2
1
5
1

1
12

5

13
5

4
2

35

10
12

32

1

116
540

28
99

i

19

16

22

215

7
33

62

3,157

1,420

108

173

9

8

3

The number of persons involved in strikes and lockouts in 1915
and 1916 is shown in the following table:
NUMBER OF STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS, BY CLASSIFIED NUM BER OF PERSONS
INVOLVED, 1915 AND 1916.
Group of persons
involved.
6 10
ll tn IS
3.0 90
2] to 95
2fitnSn
3i tadfl
4l fr> SO
f»1 AO
61 frv7fl
71 In 80
Rl +n QO
91 inn
101 to 195
l25to 150............
1 £1 i r»17s»
176 to 200............
au1 lu Zo\j . . . . . . . .
251 to 300............
301 to 350............

Lockouts.

Strikes.
1916

1915

Group of persons
involved.

1915

1916
11
2
4
4
2

17
13

9
4
4

12
9

53
37
87
70
72
29
113

32
57
33
48
25
32
45
50
25
19
29
9
33
44
46
13
52

1

6

95
43

30
15

2

1
2

68

82
87
102
61
74
120
112
76
68

86302° — 17—

8


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

2

2

1

2

1

8
6

7
2

2
2

4
1
1
5
9
1

351 to 400............

Strikes.
1916
58

21

451 to 500............
501 to 600............
601 to 700............
701 to 800............
801 to 900............
901 to 1,000..........
1,001 to 1,200.......
l'201to 1,500.......
l,501to 2,000.......
2 001 to 3,000.......
3,001 to 5^000.......
5*001 to 10,000__
10,001 to 30,000...
Over 30,000 .. .
Not reported___

79
60
43
59
17
43
28'
36
35
48
33
33
15
4
1,034

Total.........

3,160

Lockouts.

1915
18
10
23
19
14
16
8

12
15
16
10
15
11
9
7

1916

1915
1

1

3
1

2

1
1
2

1
1
1

2
2
2

2
1
1

1

645

44

49

1,420

108

173

606

MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

In 2,126 strikes and 64 lockouts the number of persons involved
was reported to be 1,546,428 and 53,182, respectively, or an average
of 722 and 831, respectively. Omitting the 145 strikes and 4 lock­
outs, in which the number of persons involved exceeded 2,000, the
average number involved in the remaining strikes was 253 and in
the lockouts 148. In 1915 the average number of persons involved
in 872 strikes, of less than 2,000 persons each, was 227 and in 123
lockouts it was 144.
In 2,749 disturbances the number of establishments involved in
each was stated. In each case only 1 establishment was involved
in 2,313 strikes and 64 lockouts, or 86 per cent of the disputes for
which this information was available ; 2 establishments in 106 strikes
and 3 lockouts; 3 in 63 strikes and 5 lockouts; 4 in 28 strikes; 5 to 10
in 65 strikes and 3 lockouts; 11 to 100 in 78 strikes and 2 lockouts;
over 100 in 17 strikes and 2 lockouts.
RESU LTS OF S T R IK E S AND LOCKOUTS, 1915 AND 1916.
Lockouts.

Strikes.
Result.
1916
In favor of employers......................................................................................
In favor of employees.....................................................................................
Compromised. . .............................................................................................
Employees returned pending arbitration....................................................
Not re ported....................................................................................................
T o ta l__

.

.

................................................

1915

1916

1915

471
706
542
70
171

128
193
322
31
69

21
16
11
3
2

16
18
28
2

1,960

743

53

64

NUM BER OF STR IK ES AND LOCKOUTS, BY MONTHS IN W HICH ENDED, 1915 AND 1916.

Kind of dis­ Jan.
pute.
Strikes:
1916.........
1915.........
Lockouts:
1916.........
1915.........
Total:
1916..
1915..

Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Month
not Total.
stated.

94
30

90
21

133
45

221
53

246
78

173
50

160
68

181
111

178
118

154
63

142
57

69
49

119

1,960
743

3
7

3
1

3

3
7

7
12

3
2

7

4
4

6
5

2
9

5
2

1
8

13

53
64

97
37

93
22

136
45

224
60

253
90

176
52

160
75

185
115

184
123

156
72

147
59

70
57

132

2,013
807


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

607

Thirty-seven strikes and 17 lockouts beginning in 1914 or former
years were settled in 1915 and 54 strikes and 1 lockout beginning in
1915 or former years were settled in 1916. One hundred and fortynine strikes and 31 lockouts starting in 1915, and 248 strikes and 5
lockouts starting in 1916 were believed to be pending at the end of
the year stated. In addition, in 172 strikes and 6 lockouts starting
in 1915, and in 122 strikes and 6 lockouts starting in 1916 new em­
ployees were hired and the work became normal in a few days, but
the bureau has no record that these strikes were ever formally de­
clared off.
D U R A T IO N O F S T R IK E S A N D L O C K O U TS.

Strikes.

Strikes.

Lockouts.

1916
L ass than 1 day
1 d a y ....................
2 days...................
3 days...................
4 da vs_
5 days.................
6 days...
7 days.................
8 days...................
9 d ays..................
10 days.................
11 days.................
12 days.................
14 days.................
15 to 18 days.......

Lockouts.

Duration.

Duration.

36
105
129
105
92
105
67
71
73
41
82
34
26
23
46
116

1915
15
61
59
56
33
39
* 29
35
22
15
25
14
7
13
21
23

1916

1916

1915

1

2
1
1
1
3
2
i
2
2
1

1
2
2
1
3
2
1

3
6

1
5

1

1915

19 to 21 days........
22 to 24 days.......
25 to 28 days.......
29 to 31 days.......
32 to 35 days.......
36 to 42 days.......
43 to 49 days.......
50 to 63 days.......
64 to 77 days.......
78 to 91 days.......
92 to 199 days___
Over 200 days__
Not reported.......

73
34
50
46
21
44
21
45
35
26
79
16
319

24
22
15
13
14
21
11
21
14
13
24
15
69

Total..........

1,960

743

1916
1
1
1
2
2

1915

3
1
2
1
4

1
1
12
6

4
2
2
7
2
14

53

64

The total duration of these strikes was 40,801 days and of the
lockouts 3,375 days, the average duration of the strikes being 25
days and of the lockouts 64 days. If, however, the disturbances
lasting more than three months are omitted from consideration, the
average was 16 days for the former and 19 days for the latter. The
average duration of the strikes ending in 1915 and lasting less than
3 months was 15 days and of the lockouts 27 days.
The table following shows the number of strikes and lockouts in
the various industries by States.


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

608

MONTHLY REVIEW OP THE BUREAU OF LABOR

STA TISTICS.

NUM BER OF STR IK E S AND LOCKOUTS IN SP E C IF IE D OCCUPATIONS, BY STATES, 1916.
S T R IK E S .

Building trades.

States, etc.

Alabama
Arizona. ...
California...
Canal Zone__
Colorado..........
Connecticut.. . .
Dist. Columbia.
Idaho.................
Illinois........
Indiana.............
Iowa........
Kansas
Louisiana..........
Maryland..........
Massachusetts..
Michigan
Minnesota.. .
Missouri.......
Montana__
Nebraska. .
New Hampshire
New Jersey.
New Y ork..
Ohio.............
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania..
Porto Rico
Rhode Island ..
Tennessee.. .
Texas__

Brass
Agri­
and Brew­ Brick Broom
cul­ Bak­ Bar­ brass
and
ery
tural ers. bers. goods work­
m ak­ brush
Car­ Elec­
work­
ers. work­ Brick­ pen­
trical L ath­
work­
ers.
ers.
ers.
ers.
layers.
ers.
ters. work­
ers.

2
4
1
3
4
2

1
3

1
3
2
2

2
2
2

4
1
1
1

6
15
8
1
2

2

1
2
8

1

2

1
2

1

2
1

1

2
2

3
2
3

i

1
2

3

1

1

1 .
i

65

14

10

19

20

8

1

6

5
1

i

5

2
1
1

1
1
1
1

i

7

1
7
1
1
2

3

2

2

1
2

1

2

’.

2
5

1

9

3

3

2

1
1
3
1

1

1

3

1

65

29

11

1

Ce­
ment
work­
ers.

4

16

4
11
8

i

5

1
1

3
1

3
1

W ashington
Wisconsin
Total.......
*

6
2

9

1
2

La­
bor­
ers
and
hod
car­
riers.

1

3
8
1
1
1

1
5

51

6

LO CK O UTS.

Alabama...........
Illinois.. .<.......
Louisiana..........
Maryland..........
Massachusetts..
Michigan...........
Minnesota.........
Missouri............
New Jersey__ .
New York"........
Pennsylvania...
Virginia.............
Wisconsin.........
Total.......


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1
1
2
1
1
1
1
5
1
1
15

1
1

1
1

1

1

2

1

1

1
i .: ...

1
1
1

1

2

1

1

2

4

1

1 |.........
1

609

MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

NUM BER OF S T R IK E S AND LOCKOUTS IN S P E C IF IE D OCCUPATIONS, BY STATES,
1916— Continued.
S T R IK E S .

Building trades—Concluded.
States, etc.

Arizona..........
Arkansas_.
California
Colorado
Connecticut. . .
Delaware ..
Idaho ..
Illinois...........
Indiana
Io w a ..
Kansas
Kentnoky .
Louisiana
Maine. . .
Maryland
Massachusetts.
MicVhigan
Minnesota
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
New Hampsh ire
New Jersey__
New York
Ob io
Oklah om a
Oregon
Pennsylvania .
Porfo P ieo
Rhode Island..
South Carolina
HPpnnosspp

Clothing.

Car-

and Chem­
ical Clerks
Struc­
Plumb­
(re­ Boot
ut­
wag­
Sheet
work­ tail).
and Bton
tural
Tile
Mis­
ers Roof­ metal
on
Paint­ Plas­
shoe- mak­
ers.
cella­
iron
lay­
ter­
and
work­
ers.
mak­
work­
ers.
neous.
ers. steam ers. work­
ers.
ers.
ers. ers.
ers.
fitters.

1
i2
2

1

22
1
1
2

1
3
1
3
i
i
i
i
i

ii
2

8
1
1

1
1

2

3

1

2

3

3

1

1

1
1

1
3

1

1
1

1
1

1

1
2

1

1
1

1

1

2
2
1
6
2
2

1

3

4
4

1
4
5
1

4
4
3

2

1
1

1

2

3
1

16
1

2
2

1
8
1

1

31

6

2
1

1
4
3
2
4

1

1
2

T pvas

i

Total__

42

1
2
3

•>48

1
2

18
12
1

1

6

20

23

2

1

....... .......
2 ......

1

11

42

39

1

1

1
12

34

L O C K O U T S.

2

T11in ois

Tndiana
Mftssft phn softs
Afinnosota

T otal__

2

1
i
1


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1

1
1

1

1
1

1
1

1

2

4

3

1 1 of glaziers.

2 Paper hangers.

1

1

3

3

7
2
1

3

2

1

i

Utah
Virginia
YVash in gt on
West Virginia
Wi soon sin

At issonri
M"ont ftn ft
New Torspy
Ohio
Pennsylvania

3

8 Glaziers.
4 22 of plumbers, 13 of steam litters only.

1

4

610

M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS,

NUM BER OF S T R IK E S AND LOCKOUTS IN S P E C IF IE D OCCUPATIONS, BY STA TES,
1916— C ontinued.
S T R IK E S .

Clothing—conclude d .

States, etc.

Arkansas...........
Colorado............
Connecticut. . . .
Georgia..............
Illinois...............
Indiana..............
Maryland..........
Massachusetts..
Michigan...........
Minnesota.........
Missouri............
M ontana...........
New Hampshire
New Jersey.......
New York.........
Ohio..................
Oklahoma.........
Pennsylvania...
Texas................
Virginia............
Washington. .
Wisconsin .
Total.......

Cloak,
waist,
and
skirt
mak­
ers.

3

Chil­
Hat
Cor­ Glove and
Rain­ Shirt dren’s
set m ak­ cap Milli­ coat mak­
dress­
m ak­ ers. mak­ ners. mak­ ers. mak­
ers.
ers.
ers.
ers.

1
1

1

4

1

2

1
20

4

1

j

1

5

1

2

1

Electrie
La­ Men’s
Coop­ and
dies’ cloth­
gas
ers.
cloth­ ing Tai­
supply
ing m ak­ lors.
work­
m ak­ ers.
ers.
ers.

1

i

3

2
1
6
3
1

1

1

I

3
10

9

2

1

1
1

1
6

1
3

2

23

2

20

10

3

11

4

3
1
2
1
1

i

1

3
2
1
1

1
1
1
1

2
22

3
9
2

1
6
5

1

1
2

3

3
1
1

2

2

2
1

11

12

..........

1

1

1
1
4

32

35

30

1
17

1
1

1

L O C K O U T S.

California..........
Slew York.........

i

2

2

Total____

i

2

2


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

t

M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

611

NUM BER OF S T R IK E S AND LOCKOUTS IN S P E C IF IE D OCCUPATIONS, BY. STATES,
1916— Continued.
S T R IK E S .

Freight handling and Furniture workers.
teaming.

States, etc.

Arka.nsa,s...........
Cali forni a ..........
Colorado............
Connecticut,. . .
District of Co1nmhi a .........
Florida ...........
Georgi a
TTawai i ............
Illinois...............
I n d ia n a ............
Towa, ................
K entucky.........
Maine
.........
Maryland........
M assachusetts..
Mieh igan
Minnesota
Missouri
Mon tan a. . _
Nebraska- New Jersey
New Y ork.........
Ohio
Oregon
Pennsylvania..
Porto Pico
Rh od e Tsi an d
Tennessee

CabiFish­ Food
neter­ han­
men. dlers. Freight Long­ Team­ makhan­ shore­ sters. ers
dlers. men.
and
carv­
ers.

3
1

2

i

1
2

3

Total.......

1
1
2

i
1
i

2

i

1
2
3
2

7

3
10

2

2
4
1
1

1

2
2

3

2

i
3

1

6

1
2
8

2
8

Texas

Virgi n ia.
W ashington___
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Interstate . .

2
2

20

26

48

Upholsterers.

Glass
Occu­ work­
pa­ ers.
tion
not
speci­
fied.

2
1

1
2

Total


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

2
i

1

1
1
1
7

4

2
1
1

1

7

6

1
1

1

1

14
1

1

4

1
1

2

2
10
2
1
5
23
6
7
1
2
2
1
5
i
2

2
1

2

1
1

4
4

9

1
1

1

2
1
3
1

.........
1
2
7

3
5
6

1

9

5

3

1

1

2

1
5
1

1

2

19
4
8
21
3

......
5

1

1

1

94

30

11

6

L O C K O U T S.

Kentucky
Minnesota.
Missouri
New V ork
Ohio
Pennsy 1vania.

Iron,
Hotel steel,
Hard­
ware Horse- em­ •find
work­ shoers. ploy­ wire
ers.
ees. work­
ers.

1
2
1
1
1
6

2

1
2

39

31

8

6

67

612

M O N TH LY BE VIEW OP TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS,

N U M B E R O F S T R I K E S A N D L O C K O U T S IN S P E C I F I E D O C C U P A T IO N S , BY S T A T E S ,
191 6 — C o n tin u e d .
S T R IK E S .

States, etc.

Alabama............
California...........
Colorado............
Connecticut.......
Delaware............
Florida...............
Idaho.................
Illinois................
Indiana..............
Iowa...................
Kansas...............
Louisiana...........
Maine.................
Maryland...........
Massachusetts...
Michigan............
Minnesota..........
Mississippi.........
Missouri.............
Nebraska...........
New Hampshire
New Jersey........
New Y ork.........
North Carolina.
Ohio...................
Oklahoma..........
Oregon...............
Pennsylvania .
Porto Rico__
Rhode Island. .
Tennessee..........
T e x a s .........
Vermont............
Virginia..............
Washington.. ..
West Virginia__
Wisconsin..........
Total........

Metal trades.
Lum­
ber
Meat
Laun­ Leather and cutters
dry
tim ­ and
work­ work­
Ma­ Metal
ber butch­ Black­ Boiler
ers.
ers.
chin­ pol­ Moldwork­ ers.
smiths. mak­
ers.
ists.
ishers. ers.
ers.

1

4
2

2
1

1

2

1
1

2

6
1

4

2

2
1
2
1

2
1
2

21
29

6
2

4

40

4

4

1
30

1

23

3

6

28

44

3
2

3
.3

1
1
1

2

4

4
5

2

12

6
3

1
9
6

2
9
10
1
26

2

2

2

1

1

1

32

15

23

!
!
5
1
1
!

i
i
2

1

2

1

5

2
3

1
2
2

o
2

1

1
1
7
31
8

2

3
5

1

11
6
2

5
2

6
1
10

1

5
6

1

2

1

2

8

1
1

4
7

23

3

2

1
1
1

1
1

1

3
2
1
17
3
1

Occu­
Pat­ Stove pa­
tern mount­
tion
mak­
not
ers. speci­
ers.
fied.

3
1

1

1
8

2

3
2

2

2

1

1
1

2
6

4

2

236

36

130

1

1
1

8

10

29

L O C K O U T S.

Illinois..............
Indiana..............
Iowa...................
Massachusetts..
Michigan............
Minnesota..........
Missouri.............
North Carolina
Ohio
Oregon .
Pennsylvania
Tennessee..........
W isconsin
Total........

1 .......

1
1
1
1
1

1


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

2

1
1

1

1
1

1 .........

1
3

1 !............

.......................
1

8

2

1

3

1

2 .........
1

613

M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

NUM BER OF S T R IK E S AND LOCKOUTS IN S P E C IF IE D OCCUPATIONS, BY STATES,
1916— C ontinued.
S T R IK E S .

Musicians and the­
atrical employees.

Miners.

States, etc.

Ala.ska.
Ala,hama
Arizona
ArTransas
California
Col orado
Connpotiont

Railroad employees.

Pa­
Pa­ per
per goods
Mov­
Stage mak­ mak­ La­ Sec­
ing
pic­ Musi­ emers. ers. bor­ tion Shop­ Train­ Yard­ Clerks.
Coal. Ore. ture
men. men.
cians. ployers. hands. men.
ees.
opera­
tors.
3
7

5
2
4
3

District of Co-

lnmhia
Illinois
Indiana
Towa
Kansas
Kentneky
TvOnisiana

4
18
1
3
6

1
1

i

1

i

1

i

New Hampshire

New Jersey

New York.........

Ohio
Oklahoma

Pennsylvania...

Porto Rieo
Rhode Island
Tennessee
Texas

i

1

i

i

3
15
1

2
3

3

.........
28
5
266

i

1
1

l
2

i

Total.......

367

TAoLItt ae lll

... . .

2
1

2

2
4
4

1

i
i
i

1

12

7

7

40

4

2

6

9

1
1
1
8

1
1
1
1

2

1

17

!

2
1
1
5
2

1
1

1


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1

i

2

1

3

3

4
2
1

5

2

i

1
6
1

1
2
2

28

i

i

LO C K O U TS.
R"on trick y
ATichiptm
N ew J e r s e y
P e n n sy lv a n ia ...
■Washington
W est V ir g in ia ..

3

1

1

2
14
1

2

1
1
4

i

3

1
2

Washington
West Virginia..
Wisconsin

1

1
i

4

Vermont
Virginia
Interstate

4

2

Maine

ATaryl and
ATassaoh11softs
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Nehraslra

2
1

35

8
1
1
1

1
I
i...........
!...........

1

1
! .

1
2
22

1
2
2

i

l
16

6

614

M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

N U M B E R O F S T R IK E S A N D L O C K O U T S IN S P E C I F I E D O C C U P A T IO N S , BY S T A T E S ,
1 916— C o n tin u e d .

S T R IK E S .

States, etc.

Alabama............
Arkansas............
Cali'ornia...........
Canal Zone.........
Connecticut.......
Delaware...........
Dist. Columbia..
Florida...............
Georgia...............
Hawaii...............
Illinois................
Indiana...... .......
Iowa...................
Kentucky..........
Louisiana...........
Maine.................
Maryland...........
Massachusetts...
Michigan............
Minnesota..........
Missouri.............
Montana............
Nebraska...........
New Hampshire.
New Jersey........
N ew Y ork..........
N orth Carolina..
Ohio...................
Oklahoma..........
Oregon...............
Pennsylvania...
Porto Rico.........
Rhode Island. . .
South Carolina..
Tennessee..........
Texas..................
U tah...................
Vermont............
V irginia..............
Washington.......
West Virginia. - Wisconsin..........
Total........

Stone
Sta­
workers.
Print­
tion­
Photo- ing Rub- Ship­ ary Steam­
and ber
engi­ boat
Pot­ en­
Gran­
ters. grav­ pub­ work­ build­
ers. neers
ers. lish­ ers.
and men. ite Quarry
ing.
cut­ work­
fire­
ers.
men.
ters.

3
i
i

3
1
1

1

1
1

2
1

1

1
2
1
1
1
1

\

9

2
1
1

4

i
i

9

1

2

5
1
2
3

7
3

3
4

3
3

2
1

6

1

2

2
4
19

2

3

i

i
i
i
2

2

2
1

15

50

1
2

223

34

23

4
1
1
1
1
1

2
1
i

2

2

4
1

2

1
5

3

5

3
11
1
3
2
1
5
1

i

i
3
2
3

3

2
4

2
1
i

1

i

i

5

18

2
2

1
2
3

1

338

2

2
i

i

1

2

1
i
i

4

4

1
3

2
2

1
1

5

.......

119

1

ii

1
1

i

1

1

1
2

1
1

1
2

1

2

1
3
2

i
4
1

2

i

2

Tele­
Street graph
railand
way
tele­
em­ phone
ploy­
em­
ees. ployees.

i

1

i
1

Street
and
sewer
em­
ploy­
ees.

35

53

423

L O C K O U T S.

f!on n eetiei 11.......
Dist Columbia..
Illinois................
Indiana..............
Maryland...........
M issachusetts...
Michigan............
New Jersey........
N ew Y ork..........
Ohio............ ......
Virginia.............
Total........

1
1

1
i
............

1
1

4

............
1
1
2
1 ............

i
i !...........
1

i

52

............ !

1 Including 2 of aluminum workers.
2 6 of printers, 3 of pressmen, 11 of bookbinders, 2 of newsboys, and 1 of electrotypers.
3 Including 14 of paving cutters and 3 of marble cutters.
4Including 13 of linemen, 8 of messengers, and 1 of telephone operators.
s Including 1 of paving cutters.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1

2

1

1

1 ............

i

1

3

4

MONTHLY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

615

NUM BER OF S T R IK E S AND LOCKOUTS IN S P E C IF IE D OCCUPATIONS, BY STATES,
1916— C ontinued.
S T R IK E S .

Textile workers.

States, etc.

Alabama...........
Arizona.............
California..........
Colorado............
Connecticut___
Delaware...........
District of Co­
lum bia...........
Florida..............
Illinois...............
Indiana.............
Iowa..................
Maine................
M aryland..........
M assachusetts..
Michigan...........
Mississippi........
Missouri............
Montana...........
Nebraska...........
New Hampshire
New Jersey.......
New York.........
North Carolina
Ohio..................
Oklahoma.........
Oregon..............
Pennsylvania...
Porto Rico........
Rhode Island .
South Carolina
Tennessee. . .
Texas. . .
Virginia. .
West Virginia.
Wisconsin__
Total.......

Ho­
Cot­
siery
ton
Car­ and
Silk
and Lace
pet
Dyers. knit- work­ Print­
ers. work­
mak­ wool­
ers.
goods
ers.
en
ers. work­
work­
ers.
ers.

7

i

2

4

1
4
1

1
1

1

52
1
1

2
12
3

1

4

2

13
3
2

1

100

2
1
1

1
1

7
2

2
2
2

4

3

4
1

7
10

21

4

6

7

7
5

1

5
1

3
7

16

2

7

53

1

1
2

27

59

1

3
3
1
2
19
1
1

1
9

7
37

1
2

13
3
19
1
3

3
1
2

2

Oc­
cupa­
tion
not
re­
port­
ed.

1
2
1

1
1
1
2

4
4

3
4
3
2
1

16
6

1
1
3
1
1

2

1
4

1

4

Wait­ Misers, celTo­ Trunk cooks,
bacco and
bag
and Ianeous
work­ mak­ barers.
ers. tend­ work­
ers.
ers.

3

1

1

2

Oc­
cupa­
tions
not
speci­
fied.

2
2
1
1
3

3

1
1
2

i 40

120

14

LO C K O UTS.

Illinois
Massachusetts.
New Jersey
New York
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island .
Total.......

1

1

1

1
i

i

1
1

1

1

2

i
2

i
1

i Including 11 of waiters, 15 of waiters and cooks, 3 of cooks, and 3 of bartenders alone.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

616

M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

E M P L O Y M E N T IN S E L E C T E D I N D U S T R I E S IN F E B R U A R Y , 1917.

Current reports received by the bureau from representative estab­
lishments concerning volume of employment show that in 11 of the
13 industries covered by the inquiry the number of employees on the
pay roll was greater in February, 1917, than in February, 1916. The
greatest increase shown (21 per cent) is in the iron and steel in­
dustry. The two industries showing a decrease are cotton manu­
facturing and woolen manufacturing. The figures in the men’s
ready-made clothing industry are somewhat affected by strikes occur­
ring in February, 1917, in two establishments, in one instance caus­
ing a total shutdown. One establishment in this industry also had
the manufacturing department closed in February, 1917.
The amount of money paid to employees in February, 1917, was
greater than in February, 1916, in each of the 13 industries. The
greatest increase reported is 37.8 per cent for the iron and steel
industry.
COMPARISON OF EMPLOYMENT IN IDENTICAL ESTABLISHM ENTS IN FEB RU A R Y ,
1916, AND FEB RU A R Y , 1917.

Industry.

Estab­
lish­
ments
to
which
inquir­
ies
were
sent.

Boots and shoes...........
Cotton manufacturing.
Cotton finishing...........
Hosiery and underwear...........................
Wooien..........................
Silk................................
Men’s ready - made
clothing.....................
Iron and steel...............
Car building and repairing.......................
Cigar m anufacturing...
Automobile manufactu rin g ........................
Leather manufacturm g..............................
Paper m aking..............

Number on pay
Estab­
roll in February.
lish­
ments
report­ Period of
ing for
Febru­ pay roll.
1916
1917
ary,
both
years.

Per
cent
of in­
crease
(+ ) or
de­
crease
(-)•

Amount of pay roll
in February.

1916

1917

Per
cent
of in­
crease
(+ ) or
de­
crease
( -) •

85
89
19

68 1 week.. 56,499
53 . ..d o ---- 53,904
14 ...d o ---- 12,413

60,226
53,242
13,007

+ 6.6
- 1.2
+ 4.8

733,745
485,170
143,066

865,498
570,032
177,467

+18.0
+ 17.5
+ 24.0

82
56
64

56 . -.d o ---- 28,895
50 .. -d o .. . . 46,741
46 2 weeks. 21,753

29,913
46,341
22,528

+ 3.5
- 0.9
+ 3.6

276,728
519,449
472,771

311,839
617,981
537,239

+ 12.7
+ 19.0
+ 13.6

+ 9.2
277, 839 327,019
+21.0 5,962,473 8,218,899

+ 17.7
+37.8

38,268
17,636

+ 8.1 1,076,431 1,188,528
+ 3.4
191,913
230,208

+ 10.4
+20.0

69

35 ...d o ----- 93,555 111,971

+19.7 1,816,689 2,432,572

+33.9

44
68

30 .. .d o .. . . 13, 855
46 ...d o ---- 23,634

+ 7.8
+ 11.3

+ 29.8
+ 23.6

87
142
79
104

35 1 week.. 19,333 21,109
103 J m onth. 165,299 199,931
27 .. .do‘. . . . 35,406
53 1 week.. 17,053

14,937
26,304

175,209
309,466

227,343
382,401

The following table is based on reports from a very much smaller
number of establishments as to the number of employees actually
working on the last full day of the reported pay period in February,
1917, and February, 1916. All industries are covered, but some are
poorly represented.


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M O N T H L Y R E V IE W O F T H E B U R E A U O F LABOR S T A T IS T IC S .

617

COMPARISON OF EMPLOYMENT IN IDENTICAL ESTABLISHM ENTS ON LAST FU LL
DAY’S OPERATION IN FEB R U A R Y , 1916 AND F EB R U A R Y , 1917.
Establish­
ments re­
porting Period of
for Febru­ pay roll.
ary both

Industry.

26
29
9
9
38
27
9
95
23
22
16
10
13

Boots and shoes
................................................
Cotton manufacturing .
....................................
Cotton finishing.
.
.................................
Hosiery and im d eriv ear..................................................
Woolen
................................................
............................................................
Silk
.
Men’s ready-made clothing
......................................
Tron and steel
.............................................Car building and repairing.............................................
Cigar manufacturing ..
........................................
An torn obile manufacturing .
.................................
T.eat,her manufacturing..................................................
Paper mairing .
..................................................

Number actually
working on last Per cent
full day of re­
of in­
ported pay pe­ crease
riod in Febru­ (+ ) or
ary—
decrease
(-)•
1917
1916

1 w eek ..
. ..do.......
. ..do.......
. ..do.......
...d o .......
2 weeks.
1 w eek ..
\ month.
. ..do.......
1 w eek..
. ..do .......
. ..do.......
...d o .......

17,161
17,584
6,065
7; 439
34,827
11,078
1,739
139,297
31,428
4,281
46,604
6,122
8,348

17,160
19,884
6,157
7,686
34,332
12,123
1,581
165,184
31,097
4,561
61,817
6,529
8,492

- (> )
+ 13.1
+ 1.5
+ 3.3
- 1.4
+ 9.4
- 9. 1
+ 18.6
- 1.1
+ 6.5
+32.6
+ 6. 6
+ 1.7

1 Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent.

The figures in the next table show that in 7 of the 13 industries
listed there were more employees on the pay roll in February, 1917,
than in January, 1917, while a decrease in the number on the pay roll
is shown in six industries. The figures in the men’s ready-made
clothing industry are somewhat affected by two strikes, one occur­
ring in February, 1917, and one in January, 1917. The number of
employees out on account of these strikes was greater in February,
1917, than in January, 1917.
In seven of the listed industries employees received more money
in February, 1917, than in January, 1917. The greatest increase was
9 per cent in automobile manufacturing. In six industries less
money was paid to employees in February, 1917, than in January,
1917. The greatest decrease was 1.6 per cent for the iron and steel
industry.
COMPARISON OF EMPLOYMENT IN IDENTICAL ESTABLISHM ENTS IN JANUARY, 1917,
A N D 'FEBR U A RY , 1917.

Industry.

Boots and shoes...........
Cotton m anufacturing.
Cotton finishing...........
Hosiery and underwear
Woolen..........................
Silk...............................
Men’s
ready-made
clothing.
Iron and steel...............
Car building and re­
pairing.
Cigar m anufacturing...
Automobile manufac­
turing.
Leather manufacturing
Paper making..............

Estab­
lish­
ments
to
which
in­
quiries
were
sent.
85
89
19
82
56
64
87

Amount of pay roll
Number on pay
Estab­
in—
roll in—
lish­
Per
ments
cent of
report­ Period of
increase
ing for pay roll.
(+ ) or
Janu­ Feb­ decrease
Janu­
January, February,
ruary,
ary,
ary and
1917.
1917.
( -) •
1917.
1917.
Feb­
ruary.

Per
cent of
increase
(+ ) or
decrease
(-)•

946,761
503,615
179,134
287,780
525,262
418,464
354,546

962,607
511,437
178,123
283,694
519,256
429,057
373,281

+ 1.7
+ 1.6
- .6
- 1 .4
-1 .1
+ 2.5
+ 5.3

.s 7,936,830
+ .8 1,232,396

7,812,613
1,215,185

-1 .6
- 1 .4

76
48
14
52
44
46
37

1 week..
.. .do ----...d o .......
...d o .......
...d o .......
2 w eeks.
1 w eek..

66,553 66,714
48,347 48,409
13,177 13,070
27,717 27,953
38,235 37,952
18,392 18,242
24,604 24,497

+0.2
+ .1
- .8
+ .9
- .7
- .8
- .4

142
79

99 i month 190,213 191,847
28 ...d o ....... 38,758 39,049

104
69

54 1 week.. 18,130
30 ...d o ....... 90,222

18,340
90,717

218,072 221,022
+ 1.2
+ .5 1,815,946 1,979,962

+ 1.4
+9.0

44
68

25 ...d o ....... 12,856
40 ...d o ...... 21,471

12,552
21,255

- 2 .4

186,659
312,492

+2.5
- .6


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

+

-

1.0

182,032
314,325

618

M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

The next table gives in comparable form for the 13 industries the
number of employees reported as actually working on the last full
day of the reported pay period in January and February, 1917. It
should be noted that a much smaller number of establishments re­
ported for this item than the number of establishments reporting in
the table immediately preceding.
COM PARISON OF EM PLOY M ENT IN ID E N T IC A L E ST A B L ISH M E N T S ON LAST
FU L L DAY’S O PER A TIO N IN JA NUARY AND FEB RU A R Y , 1917.
Number actually
Estab­
working on last
lishments
full day of re­ Per cent
reporting
ported pay pe­ of increase
for
Period of
riod in—
(+ ) or
January pay roll.
decrease
and
( -) •
Febru­
January, February,
ary.
1917.
1917.

Industry.

Boots and shoes..............................................................
Cotton m anufacturing....................................................
Cotton finishing..............................................................
Hosiery and underwear..................................................
Woolen.............................................................................
Silk...................................................................................
Men’s ready-made clothing...........................................
Iron and steel..................................................................
Car building and repairing............................................
Cigar manufacturing.......................................................
Automobile m anufacturing...........................................
Leather m anufacturing..................................................
Paper m aking..................................................................

29
32
10
17
38
24
9
94
26
21
16
9
11

1 week..
. ..d o .. . .
. ..d o ----...d o ---...d o ---2 weeks.
1 week..
i month.
...d o ---1 week..
. ..d o .. . .
...d o ----.. .do-----

18,173
23,431
8,875
11,277
34,278
11,285
12,151
163,505
32, 724
4,422
70,477
5,694
8,689

18,084
23,497
8,842
11,255
34,487
11,067
12; 027
165,277
33,983
4, 480
69, 814
5,511
8,481

- 0 .5
+ .3
- .4
- .2
+ .6
- 1 .9
- 1 .0
+ 1.1
+3.8
+ 1.3
- .9
- 3 .2
- 2 .4

CHANGES IN WAGE RATES.

The changes in wage rates reported as occurring in the month
January 15, 1917, to February 15, 1917, in the 13 industries from
which volume of employment schedules were received, were limited
to 10 industries. The three industries in which -no changes were
reported were cotton manufacturing, cotton finishing, and silk manu­
facturing. In the case of establishments that failed to answer the
inquiry as to wage-rate changes, it is probably safe to assume that
no changes were made.
The industry of leather manufacturing furnished the greatest
number of reported changes. An increase of 5 to 20 per cent to about
20 per cent of the force was reported by one establishment in this
industry. Another establishment reported an increase of 15 per cent
to about 10 per cent of the force, still another an increase of 20 per
cent to about 1 per cent of the force, while an increase of 15 cents a
day to each man was reported in one instance. An attendance bonus
of 5 per cent on the month’s wages was provided by one establishment
with the further provision of an additional bonus of 5 per cent for
steady attendance of three months or more beginning with January
1. 1917.


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M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

619

In the industry of men’s ready-made clothing, one establishment
reported an increase of 2 per cent to about 68 per cent of the force.
Three establishments reported an increase of 10 per cent. In one case
this increase was applied to all except foremen, in another in­
stance to 75 per cent of the force, and in the third case, where there
was also a reduction of hours from 50 to 48, the proportion of the
force receiving the increase was not stated.
Two establishments in the industry of boot and shoe manufactur­
ing reported an increase of 10 per cent. One establishment applied
the increase to 80 per cent of the force and the other establishment
to foremen only. An increase of 20 per cent to dressers and packers—
about 2 per cent of the force—was reported by one establishment.
In the car building and repairing industry one establishment
granted an increase of 4-J per cent to a ll; another establishment an in­
crease of 5^ per cent to all, and a third establishment an increase of
11 cents an hour to all hourly men.
In the manufacture of automobiles, an increase of 20 per cent to
all was made by one establishment, while another establishment made
an increase of 6 per cent to trimmers and machinists principally—
about 30 per cent of the force.
In the iron and steel industry, one establishment reported an in­
crease of 5 per cent, but did not state the proportion of the force re­
ceiving this increase, while another establishment reported a “ small
increase ” to all tonnage men. ,
In the manufacture of paper a “ bonus ” is reported by two estab­
lishments. In one case it was a 5 per cent bonus on 1916 wages, this
bonus payment being in addition to previous bonus payments of 20
per cent on wages for 1916. In the other instance it was a bonus of
10 per cent on January wages. One establishment reported an in­
crease of wages of 7 to 10 per cent to 60 to 75 per cent of the force.
The cigar manufacturing, hosiery, and underwear, and woolen in­
dustries each reported an increase in one establishment. In cigar
manufacturing it was a 10 per cent increase to all employees. There
was a like increase in the hosiery and underwear establishment, while
in the one woolen mill there was an increase of 85 cents a week to 15
burlers, about 5 per cent of the force.
Reports from six clothing establishments show $16,494 paid for
contract work in February, 1917, as against $16,007 in February,
1916. Reports from six clothing establishments, not entirely identical
with the six that reported for February, 1917, and February, 1916,
figures show $17,066 paid for contract work in February, 1917, as
against $15,973 in January, 1917. Owing to the small number of
clothing establishments answering the inquiry as to contract work,
the bureau reluctantly will discontinue it from future monthly in­
quiries.


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

620

MONTHLY REVIEW OE THE BUREAU OP LABOR STATISTICS,

E M P L O Y M E N T IN T H E S T A T E O F N E W Y O R K IN F E B R U A R Y , 1917.

The labor market in New York State is reviewed in the following
statement issued by the Bureau of Statistics and Information of the
New York State Department of Labor:
MANUFACTURING ACTIVITY IN FEBRUARY.
[R ep o rted by 1,600 re p re se n ta tiv e firm s w ith over a h a lf m illion em ployees, or oneth ird of th e facto ry w orkers in th e S tate, an d a weekly pay roll of over $8,000,000.]

M an u factu rin g a c tiv ity in N ew Y ork S ta te in F eb ru ary w a s slig h tly greater
than in Jan u ary. A n in crease o f le ss th an 1 per cent in num ber o f em ployees
and o f 1 per cen t in am ount o f w a g es paid w a s reported. T he m ore or less
gen eral ob servan ce o f a h olid ay d u rin g th e p ay-roll period included in th is
report had som e effect on th e volum e o f w ages. S ix o f th e groups reported
in creases both in em ployees and in w ages, w h ile tw o groups only reported
d ecreases in both resp ects. T he chan ges o f m ost im portance w ere in creases
o f 3 per cen t in em ployees and 9 per cent in w a g es in th e c lo th in g group, and
a d ecrease (n eg lig ib le in am ou n t) in em ployees, and o f m ore th an 1 per cent
in w a g es in th e m etals-m ach in ery-con veyan ces group. T h e la tte r is m uch th e
la r g e st o f th e groups, both in em p loyees and in w a g es, and clo th in g is th e
second la rg est, h ence th e se tw o groups h a v e large w eig h t in th e returns.
W ith th e excep tion o f D ecem ber, 1916, a c tiv ity in a ll th e groups com bined w a s
greater, how ever, th an in an y other m onth sin ce th ese retu rn s h a v e been
received b egin n in g in June, 1914.
A s com pared w ith F eb ru ary o f la s t year, th ere w a s an in crease o f 8 per cent
in num ber o f em ployees and 20 per cen t in volu m e o f w ages. A s com pared
w ith F eb ru ary, tw o yea rs ago, th e in creases w ere 29 and 58 per cent,
resp ectively.
T he avera g e earn in gs for one w eek o f a ll em ployees, in clu d in g fem ales, w ere
in F ebru ary, $15.31 a s a g a in st $15.26 in Jan u ary. T h e average earn in gs for
one w eek in F eb ru ary, one y ea r ago, w ere $13.77, and in F ebru ary, tw o yea rs
ago, $12.41.
T he stone, clay, and glass products group em ployed in F eb ru ary 1 per cent
m ore w ork ers and paid out 3 per cen t m ore w ages th an in Jan u ary. T he in ­
crease w a s chiefly in th e m iscellan eou s ston e and m in eral in d u stry. A s com­
pared w ith F ebruary, 1916, th e group as a w h ole had 19 per cent m ore em ­
p loyees and paid out 44 per cent m ore w ages.
T h e m etals, m achinery, and conveyances group reported in F ebruary a
n eg lig ib le d ecrease in em ployees and a d ecrease o f m ore th an 1 per cent in
w ages a s com pared w ith Jan u ary. P ig iron and ro llin g m ill p roducts w ere
m ore active, as w e ll as th e m an u factu re o f au tom ob iles and parts. T here w a s
lessen ed a c tiv ity in other in d u stries, notably in th e m an u factu re o f firearm s.
A s com pared w ith F eb ru ary, 1916, th e group as a w hole, em ployed 13 per cent
m ore w orkers and paid out 23 per cent m ore w ages.
T he wood m a n u fa c tu re s group u n d erw en t alm ost no chan ges in F ebruary.
In creased a c tiv ity in th e m an u factu re o f m u sical in stru m en ts w as offset by a
d ecrease in th e sa w in g o f lum ber and th e m an u factu re o f h ou se trim . As
com pared w ith F ebruary, one year ago, the group had 5 per cent m ore em ployees
and paid out 15 per cent m ore w ages.
T he fu rs, leather, and rubber goods group reported a volum e o f w ages nearly
1 per cent larger and a n egligib le in crease in em ployees. T h e only in d u stries
w ith a sm aller volum e o f w ages w ere fu rs and fu r goods and th e m an u factu re
o f pearl buttons. T he m an u factu re of footw ear, w h ich is th e dom inant ind u stry
in the group, reported an in crease o f 1 per cen t in w ages. A s com pared w ith


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

621

F ebruary, 1916, th e group had 7 per cent m ore em p loyees and paid out 23 per
cen t m ore w ages.
T he chem icals group reported an in crea se of 1 per cent both in em p loyees
and w a g es in F eb ru ary a s com pared w ith Jan u ary, thereb y esta b lish in g a new
high record for em ployees and eq u alin g th e high record o f D ecem ber, 1916,
for w ages. T he in crease w a s chiefly in th e production o f p h otographic m a teria ls
and m otion-picture films. T h ere w a s in th e group as a w h o le an in crease of
13 per cen t in em p loyees and 29 per cen t in w a g e s as com pared w ith F eb ru ary
one y ea r ago.
T he paper in d u stry reported in F eb ru ary a d ecrease o f n early 1 per cen t in
em ployees and n early 3 per cent in w a g e s a s com pared w ith Jan u ary. T h is
group em ployed 16 per cent m ore w ork ers th an in F eb ru ary o f la s t year and
paid out 30 per cent m ore w ages.
The p rin tin g and paper goods group reported no ch an ge in num ber o f em ­
p loyees in F ebru ary, but a d ecrease o f n early 2 per cen t in w ages. A s com ­
pared w ith F eb ru ary o f la s t year, th e group h ad 4 per cent m ore em ployees
and paid ou t 30 per cent m ore w ages.
T he te x tiles group in F eb ru ary reported in crea ses a s com pared w ith Jan u ary
o f ap p ro xim ately 1 per cent in em ployees and 2 per cent in w ages, thereby
esta b lish in g new high records in both resp ects. E ach in d u stry ex cep t cotton
goods reported in creases in both em ployees and w ages. A s com pared w ith
F eb ru ary one year ago, th e group had 4 per cent m ore em p loyees and paid out
16 per cen t m ore w ages.
T he clothing, m illinery, and laundering group had, in F eb ru ary, 3 per cent
m ore w ork ers and paid out 9 per cent m ore w a g es th a n in Jan u ary. T h is
esta b lish ed a new high record in w ages for th e second la rg est rep ortin g group.
T h e in crease w a s shared in gen erally by th e in d u stries com posing th e group but
w a s esp ecia lly pronounced in w om en ’s cloth in g. T he group a s a w h ole had 4
per cent m ore w ork ers and paid out 16 per cent m ore w a g es th a n in F eb ru ary o f
la s t year.
T he food, liquors, and tobacco group had, in F ebruary, ap p ro x im a tely 1 per
cen t m ore em ployees and paid ou t 1 per cen t m ore w a g es th an in Jan u ary.
Sugar refineries, d esp ite in terferen ce caused by strik es, paid out m ore w a g es
th a n in th e previou s m onth, w h ich w a s som ew h at b elow norm al. B read and
bakery prod u cts w e r e m ore a c tiv e but flour and cereals w ere le ss active. As
com pared w ith F ebruary, 1916, th e group em ployed 2 per cen t m ore w ork ers and
paid ou t 14 per cen t m ore w ages.
T he w ater, light, and pow er in d u stry reported no change in em p loyees and a
slig h t d ecrease in w ages as com pared w ith Jan u ary. A s com pared w ith F eb ru ary
one year ago, th ere w ere 7 per cent m ore em p loyees and 15 per cen t m ore w ages
w ere paid.
BUILDING ACTIVITY IN PRINCIPAL CITIES.
[R eported by building d ep artm en ts.]

T he estim ated cost o f b u ild in g w ork (o f w h ich new b u ild in gs co n stitu ted 85
per c e n t), for w h ich p erm its w ere issu ed in F ebru ary, 1917, in th e 10 first and
second cla ss c itie s o f th e S tate, w a s 21 per cen t greater th an in th e previous
m onth and 13 per cent greater th an in th e sam e m onth one year ago. T he v a lu e
o f th e p erm its issu ed in F eb ru ary o f th is y ea r in N ew York C ity w a s 88 per
cent o f th e total issu ed in th e en tire S tate. A s com pared w ith Jan u ary, four
c ities on ly— R ochester, T roy, U tica, and Y onkers— reported d ecreases. A s com ­
pared w ith F ebruary, 1916, five c itie s— B in gh am ton , B uffalo, R ochester, U tica,
and Y onkers— reported decreases.
86302°— 17------9


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

622

MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

WORK OF STATE AND MUNICIPAL EMPLOYMENT OFFICES IN
THE UNITED STATES AND OF PROVINCIAL EMPLOYMENT BU­
REAUS IN CANADA.

Data are presented in the following table for February, 1916,
and February, 1917, relative to the operations of public employ­
ment offices. Figures furnished for the United States are for State
employment bureaus in 14 States, municipal employment bureaus in
7 States, State-city employment bureaus in 2 States, and a city-private
employment bureau in 1 State. Figures are also given for 2 Canadian
employment bureaus.
O P E R A T IO N S O F P U B L IC E M P L O Y M E N T O F F IC E S , 1916 A N D 1917.

U N ITED S T A T E S .

State and city.

California (municipal):
Berkeley—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................
Sacramento—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................
California (State-city):
Los Angeles2—
February, 1916.............................
February j 1917.................................
California (State):
Oakland—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................
Sacramento—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................
San Francisco—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................

Appli­ Persons
cations asked for
from em­ by em­
ployers. ployers.

Persons applying
for work.

Total:
February, 1916.......................
February, 1917.......................
Connecticut (State):
Bridgeport—
February, 1916.....................
February, 1917..........................

Positions
filled.

146
229

146
229

234
(!)

234
220

New
regis­
trations.

Re­
newals.

150
229

189
137

553
496

220

55
62

C1)
(l)

(l)
2,255

4,514
3,590

2 22Q
L950

(i\

0)

3,462

2 ,874

116
581

132
697

1,140
419

(1)
(!)

116
687

93
521

40
214

53
471

809
302

i1)
(!)

52
392

43
347

161
1,106

224
2,121

3,359
1,718

(1)
m

225
2,045

136
1,259

142
206
175
143

0)

Total:
February, 1916...................
February, 1917.......................
Colorado (State):
Colorado Springs—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................
Denver No. 1—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................
Denver No. 2—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................
Pueblo—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................

Persons
referred
to posi­
tions.

fi 417
3 6,815

(0

348
383

590
519

CD
C1)

337
519

(i)

50

145
50

186
150

(!)
(1)

95
150

(i)

36

159
74

277
160

C1)
(!)

159
160

C1)

189

156
189

187
261

(6
C1)

149
261

(i)
' 184

383

(U
C1)
0)

740
1,090

1 343

m
V/

82
74

683

383
(■)
C)
(!)
G)
335
554
493
0)
0)
0)
0)
1 Not reported. 2 Includes Los Angeles district, S' counties. 3 Exclusive of Sacramento, not reported.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

623

MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
O P E R A T IO N S

OF

P U B L IC

EM PLO YM EN T

O F F IC E S ,

1916

AND

1 917— C o n tin u e d .

U N I T E D S T A T E S — C o n tin u e d .

Appli­ Persons
cations asked for
from em­ by em­
ployers. ployers.

State and city.

Connecticut (State)—Concluded.
Hartford—
February, 1916..
.....................
February, 1917.................................
New Haven—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.......................... .
Norwich—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................
W aterbury—
February, 1916.................................
February ^ 1917.................................

Persons applying
for work.
New
regis­
trations.

Re­
newals.

550
636

0)
(l)

(P)

P)
P)

451
711

C1)
M

P)

161
192

p>
p>

179
154

ci )
0)

P)
P)
P)
P)
P)
P)

0)

P)
P)
P)
P)
P)

Total:
February, 1916 .
February, 1917 ..

460
470
325
598
156
180
92
123
1,368
1,864

P)
P)
31
15

725
34

600
500

(i)
3,448

4,481
11,644

11,158

(l)
466

725
34

0)

P)

P)

2 5,673
1,018

1,288
871

P)

(l)
592

677
733

P)

485
15

P)

4,085
9,048

2 1,327
457

P)

781
725

P)

2 645
574

P)

550
650

504
552

P)

2 488
224

P)

349
80

P)

419

879
693

P)

2931
193

P)

681
455

(l)
250

320
311

P)

2 438
187

P)

320
262

14,630

P)

7,251
11,235

125
296

118
238

134
517

119
467

30

155
672

145
643

30

248
350

228
282

662
1,835

1,630

289

348
118
288

418
153

............

Indiana (State):
Evansville—
February, 1916.................................
F ebruary 1917.................................
Fort Wayne—
February, 1916.................................
February' 1917.................................
Indianapolis—
February, 1916.................................
February”1917.................................
South Bend—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................

Positions
filled.

P)
P)
P)
P)
P)
P)
P)
P)

Total:
February, 1916.........................
February, 1917 .......................
Illinois (municipal):
Chicago—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................
Illinois (State):
Chicago—
February, 1916.................................
F ebruary 1917
.......................
East St. Louis—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................
Peoria—
February, 1916............................ .
February, 1917.................................
Rock Island-Moline—
February, 1916.................................
February' 1917.................................
Rockford—
February, 1916.................................
F ebruary 1917..
Springfield—
February, 1916.................................
F ebruary 1917.................................

Persons
referred
to posi­
tions.

(l)

202

123
238

3212

P)

P)

331

138
547

3 197
161

P)

C1)

704

162
704

3 300
705

P)

(l)
125

311
713

3413
379

P)

117

19

306

Total:
February, 1916.
February, 1917..

11,993
788

655
366
512
282

610

Iowa (State):

Des Moines—
February, 1917.................................

70

Kansas (State):
Topeka—
February, 1916.................................
February' 1917.................................

95

1 N ot reported.

18

123

97

19

103

25

26

108
130

30

5

101

17
90

110

2 N ew registrations and renewals.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

3 N um ber applying for work.

624

MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
OPER A TIO N S OF PUBLIC EM PLOYM ENT OFFIC ES, 1910 AND 1917—Continued.
UNITED STATES— Continued.

State and city.

Appli­ Persons
cations asked for
from em­ by em­
ployers. ployers.

Kentucky (citv private):
Louisville—
February, 1916...................... ...............
February, 1917.......................................
Kentucky (State):
Louisville—
February, 1916......................................
February, 1917..............................

(*)
(')
60
no

Persons applying
for work.
New
regis­
trations.

Re­
newals.

112
333

317
430

802
698

60
no

2 278
219

Persons
referred
to posi­
tions.

Positions
filled.

114
358

62
141

60
no

60
no

174
468

122
251

(»)
0)

Total:
February, 1916..........................
F eb ru ary , 1917...........................
Massachusetts (State):
Boston—
F ebruarv, 1916...................................
F ebruary, 1917.......................................
Fall River—
February, 1916..................................
February, 1917..................................
Springfield—
F ebruary, 1916..................................
February, 1917..............................
Worcester—
F ebruary, 1916..................
February, 1917..............................

1,462
1,434

1,782
1,673

3 1,008
3 871

0)
(>)

4 2,914
<2,541

1,366
1,134

126
110

148
119

3 33
3 15

0)
(1)

4 134
4 96

117
90

578
661

765
930

3 270
3 267

(!)
C1)

4 958
4 973

637
681

734
745

943
930

3 526
3 431

(!)
0)

4 1,182
4 1,145

563
619

4 5 18S
4 4 ,755

2,683
2 524

Total:
F ebruary, 1916......................
February, 1917......................
Michigan (State):
Battle Creek—
F ebruary, 1916..................
February, 1917..................
Bay City—
February, 1916............
February, 1917......................................
Detroit—
F ebruarv, 1916............
February, 1917.....................
Flint—
February, 1916........................
February, 1917..............................
Grand Rapids—
F ebruary, 1916..........................
February, 1917................................
Jackson—
F ebruary, 1916..................................
F ebruary, 1917..........................
Kalamazoo—
F ebruary, 1916......................................
February, 1917......................................
Lansing—
F ebruary, 1916..........................
February, 1917............................
Muskegon—
F ebruary, 1916..............................
F ebruary, 1917..................................
Saginaw—
February, 1916................ ...................
February, 1917....................................

97
30

309
96

2189
2 70

(i)
(1)

169
63

155
63

20
33

144
no

2 73
2128

(l )
(!)

26
79

24
76

1,562
297

3,984
540

2 3,615
2 538

(!)
C1)

3,596
514

3,596
'514

564
380

564
380

2 564
C1)

C1)
0)

564
380

380

464
309

676
3,083

2 681
2 3,007

(1)
C1)

647
3,007

647
3,007

501
328

689
516

2 640
2 540

(!)
0)

620
512

585
506

265
200

265
268

2 265
2 300

(!)
(1)

265
267

265
267

34
37

194
85

2 207
2 73

0)
(i)

135
56

135
56

128
52

333
119

2 324
2 132

(1)
0)

258
117

237
100

601
94

601
469

577
480

(1)
0)

577
450

577
450

Total:
F ebruary, 1916..............................
F ebruary, 1917..............................

6, 857

Minnesota (State):
D uluth—
February, 1916.......................................
February, 1917.......................................
1 S ot r,ePorted,-

2 Number applying for work.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

(»)

(‘)
.

1

C1)
C1)

(i)
(1)
C1)
C)
(*)
(D
3 Number who were registered.
4 Number of oilers of positions.

485
604

625

MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
OPERATIONS O F PU BLIC EMPLOYMENT OFFICES, 1916 AND 1917-Continued.
UNITED STATES— C ontinued.

State and city.

Appli­ Persons
cations asked for
from em­ by em­
ployers. ployers.

Minnesota (State)—Concluded.
Minneapolis—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................
St. Paul—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................

(’)
(»)
0)
(*)

(»)
(D

Total:
February, 1916..........................
February, 1917..........................

(»)
0)

0)
0)

Missouri (State):
Kansas City—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.......................... .
St. Joseph—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................
St. Louis—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................

0)
0)

Persons applying
for work.
Re­
newals.

(*)
(*)
0)

(>)
C1)
0)
0)

1,266
1,126

(l)

0)
(>)
(>)
<0

0)
0)

(!)

0)

0)
(*)

2,466
2,357

715
627

0)

135
923

2 192
807

(')
(>)

i1)

132
674

(>)
(')
(0

432
798

2 361
734
2 451
435

0)
(>)
0)

359
727

364
831

(*)
(*)
0)
0)

(!)

0)

774
2,018

1,958

536
3,310

1,356
2,124

484

396

834

634

283
617

1,467
2,374

1,639
2,737

1.805
2,186

260
407

311
501

394
415

265
326

446
645

208
368

940
1,355

1,559
1,728

1,447
968

428
579

1,659
1,806

902
1,174

540
815

779
1,795

646
1,284

357
165

855
1,571

520
1,131

644
1,078

959
1,582

619
709

381
363

1,005
1,397

439
793

477
870

624
1,260

493
727

123
260

621
1,172

460
766

5,122
9,901

3,885
6)356

(»)

Total:
February, 1916..........................
February, 1917..........................
Ohio (State-city):
Akron—
February, 1916.................................
(>)
February, 1917................ .................
C1)
Cincinnati—
February, 1916..............................
- 0)
February, 1917.................................
0)
Cleveland—
February, 1916.................................
(')
February, 1917.................................
(>)
Columbus—
February, 1916................................. .. (!)
February’ 1917.................................
( 1)
Dayton—
February, 1916.................................
(*)
February, 1917.................................
(»)
Toledo—
F ebruary,1916.................................
(’)
February, 1917.................................
0)
1Not reported.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

Positions
ftlled.

New
regis­
trations.

Total:
February, 1916..........................
February, 1917..........................
New York (municipal):
New York City—
F ebruary,1916.................................
February, 1917................................
New York (State):
Albany—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................
Brooklyn—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................
Buffalo— '
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................
Rochester—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................
Syracuse—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................

Persons
referred
to posi­
tions.

1,309
1,860

619
735

1,662
1,682

1,149
1,545

880
1,298

1,288
1)376

1,614
1,101

4,488
2,703

1,274
1,403

776
976

6,267
6,216

2,006
2,307

8,166
6,787

4,485
5,434

3,484
4,315

1,474
i) 787

777
569

2,506
2)032

1,465
1,677

1.129
1,419

959
840

684
498

1,209
1,011

769
729

719
616

2.076
1,619

1,544
1,380

2,291
2,559
1,029
908
2,179
1,730
5 Number applying for work.

626

MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
OPERATIONS OF PUBLIC EM PLOYM ENT OFFICES, 1916 AND 1917—Continued.
UNITED STATES— C ontinued.

State and city.

Ohio (State-city)—Concluded.
Y oungstown—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................

Appli­ Persons
cations asked for
from em­ by em­
ployers. ployers.

973
1,106

0)
0)

Persons applying
for work. "
New
regis­
trations.

Re­
newals.

720
669

960
787

Total:
February, 1916..........................
February, 1917..........................
Oklahoma (State):
Enid—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................
Muskogee—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................
Oklahoma City—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................
Tulsa—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................

73

0)

191

0)

206
C)

(')

C1)
0)

0)
(“)

8,930
510

765
997

12 190
13,522

9 297
n ,o ö i

0)
0)

0)

90

64
85

282

2 199
2 249

0)
(1)

C1)
242

167
218

446

2 301
2 450

(>)
0)

0)

429

166
368

230
874

2 216
2 808

0)
0)

0)

805

211
806

(1)
1,566

fiOS
1,477

8,717
(!)

8, 717
'665

569
259

2,000
C)

229

35

33

54

50

0)

131
375

176
207

11
95

304
268

228
223

(!)
P)

53
177

59
74

25

44
78

31
64

(*)
(l)

777
1,173

442
726

314
610

446
1,132

311
953

0)

606

536

214

459

499

794
3 1,991

570
« 1, 789

(l)
38

C)
768

157
198

180
299

4 72
298

12
18

1S4
383

180
286

100
152

152
291

211
6 1,554

106
17

158
249

149
238

342
632

329
524

343
465

120
213

Total—
February, 1916.......................
February) 1917.......................
Virginia (municipal):
Richmond—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................

972
1,115

2165
2 123

Total—
February, 1916.......................
February, 1917.......................
Texas (municipal):
Dallas—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................
Fort Worth—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................

Positions
filled.

96

Total:
February, 1916..........................
February) 1917..........................
Oregon (municipal):
Portland—
February, 1916.................................
F eb ru ary ,1917.................................
Pennsylvania (State):
Altoona—
February, 1917.................................
Harrisburg—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................
Johnstown—
February, 1916.................................
February) 1917.................................
Philadelphia—
February, 1916.................................
February, 1917.................................
Pittsburgh—
February, 1917.................................

Persons
referred
to posi­
tions.

227
241

306
389

519
406

(!)
(>)

Washington (Federal-municipal):
Tacoma.6
1 Not reported.
2 Number applying for work.
2 Including figures for offices at Altoona and Pittsburgh opened since February, 1916.
4 Includes 180 transient applicants.
6 Includes 1,295 unwritten registrations.
6 Figures for this office are carried regularly in the Review under the subject “ Federal employment
work of the Department of Labor,” to which the reader is referred.


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

MONTHLY REVIEW OP THE BUREAU OP LABOR STATISTICS.

627

OPER A TIO N S OF PU BLIC EM PLOY M ENT OFFIC ES, 1916 AND 1917—Concluded.
UNITED STATES—Concluded.

State and city.

Washington (municipal):
E verett—
February, 1916......................................
February, 1917.......................................
Seattle—
February, 1916.................................. -..
February^ 1917......................................
Spokane—
February, 1916.......................................
February, 1917......................................

Appli­
cations
from em­
ployers.

Persons
asked for
b y em­
ployers.

P)
0)

Persons applying
for work.
New
regis­
trations.

Re­
newals.

0)
i1)

0)
0)

1,251
2,173

3,253
3,296

P)

C1)
P)
0)
0)

750
760

1,165
1,780

Total:
February, ]916 .......................
February, 19X7..............................

370

P)
0)

75
10

160
75

1

Persons
referred Positions
filled.
to posi­
tions.

498
242

3,246
3,362

1,244
2,957

1,131
1,650

1,131
1,640

P)
P)

2,873
4,839

D O M IN IO N O F C A N A D A .

Quebec (Province):
Montreal—
February, 1917................... .............
Quebec—
February, 1916.................................
February^ 1917.................................
Total:
February, 1916..........................
February, 1917..........................
1 Not reported.

209

C1)
P)

423

2 307

89
49

2 101
2 101

P)
P)
P)

311

354

22
36

P)
P)
P)
0)

C1)

347

2 Number applying for work.

FEDERAL EMPLOYMENT WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR.

During January, 1917, the Division of Information of the Bureau
of Immigration of the Department of Labor placed 19,735 persons
in employment, as compared with 19,260 during December, 1916.
Incomplete returns for February—reports from the important office
in Newark, N. J., and its subbranches, and from the office in Helena,
Mont., not having been received in time to be tabulated—-show a total
of 15,673 persons placed during the month.
The following statement of the work of the 19 different zones, cov­
ering the whole country, gives details for December, 1916, and
January, 1917;


https://fraser.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

628

MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

SUMMARY OF ACTIVITIES OF UNITED STATES EMPLOYMENT SERVICE
MONTHS OF DECEMBER, 1916, AND JANUARY, 1917.
Opportunities received.

Zone number and office.

Applications
for help.
Dec.,
1916.

1. Boston, Mass..............
Portland, Me..............

2

Total....................

Jan.,
1917.
6

Applications for employment.

Persons
applied for.
Dec.,
1916.
101

FOR TH E

Jan.,
1917.
16

Applications
received.

Referred to
employment.

Number actually employed.

Dec.,
1916.

Dec.,
1916.

Dec.,
1916.

35

Jan.,
1917.
49

7

Jan.,
1917.
7

7

Jan.,
1917.
7

2

6

101

16

35

49

7

7

7

7

2. New York, N. Y.1__ 4,881
Buffalo, N. Y.2........... 1,031

6,148
948

6,756
2,739

8,268
1,574

6,257
2,445

8,067
1,508

7,653
2,723

9.093
1,808

4,798
2,145

5,503
1,402

Total.................... 5,912

7,096

9,495

9,842

8,702

9,575 10,286

10,901

6,943

6,905

2a. Newark, N. J ............. 1,420
Orange, N. J ...............
116
185
Jersey City, N. J ........

1,323
150
287

2,426
316
429

3,263
375
826

3,145
171
470

3,140
317
621

2,171
136
322

2,814
255
521

1,831
102
238

2,125
'223
460

Total.................... 1,721

1,760

3,171

4,464

3,786

4,078

2,629

3,590

2,171

2,808

3. Philadelphia, P a ........
Pittsburgh, P a ...........
Wilmington, Del.......

113
18
19

127
40
19

336
1,079

313
1,549
56

340
721
81

549
1,149
157

328
354
102

441
504
157

265
319
79

330
443
132

Total....................

150

186

1,415

1,918

1,142

1,855

784

1,102

663

905

4. Baltimore, Md............

125

107

186

125

205

294

157

214

157

214

5. Norfolk, V a................

11

23

14

44

124

121

81

79

26

23

18
96
20
155
6

7
19
32
4

2
30
15
137

7
14
20

6. Jacksonville, F la ........
Miami, F l a ................
Savannah, G a............
Charleston, S. C.........
Mobile, A la.................

14
4

24
1
2

26
30

29
25
2

32
88
46
14
4

Total....................

18

27

56

56

184

295

62

184

45

171

7. New Orleans, L a .......
Gulfport, Miss............
Memphis, T enn.........

55

65

225

125

295
59
37

363
83
70

237

341

52

75

2

130

18
14
137

*

5

Total....................

57

65

355

125

391

516

237

346

52

80

8. Galveston, Tex...........
Houston, T ex...........
Albuquerque, N. Mex
San Antonio, T e x ...

7

13

31

13

32
23
3

34
35

10

29

10

19

T otal....................

7

13

31

13

58

70

10

29

10

19

6

18

314

22

104

81

84

62

32

14

10. Chicago, 111.................
Detroit, Mich.............
Sault Ste. Marie, Mich
Indianapolis, In d .. ..

389
115
8
195

666
111
7
199

2,398
774
295
542

3,484
454
438
592

2,440
593
60
566

3,646
470
71
774

2,320
593
41
479

3,088
470
44
511

2,283
571
41
395

2,892
454
44
423
3,813

9. Cleveland, Ohio.......

1

T otal....................

707

983

4,009

4,968

3,659

4,961

3,433

4,113

3,290

11. Minneapolis, Minn__

11

20

24

26

47

39

18

12

18

12

12. St. Louis, Mo.............
Omaha, Nebr.............
Kansas City, Mo........

241

707

639

827

656
22fi
697

492

799

590
829
812

513

660

1,060
336
620

555

374

322
182
411

815

606

Total....................

615

915

1,367

2,016

1,354

2,231

1,340

1,679

1,307

1,528

33

24

33

75

78

18

53

18

18

8

4
1

1

8

5

1

1

1

13. Denver, Colo..............

24

14. Helena, Mont...........
Moscow, Idaho..........

1

Total....................

1

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

1 Inclusive of activities in cooperation with the State and municipal employment offices.
2 Inclusive of activities in cooperation with the State employment office.


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MONTHLY REVIEW OE THE BUREAU OE LABOR STATISTICS.
SUMMARY OF ACTIVITIES OF UN ITED STATES EMPLOYMENT SERVICE
MONTHS OF DECEMBER, 1916, AND JANUARY, 1917—Concluded.
Opportunities received.

Zone number and office.

Applications
for help.
Dec.,
1916.

Jan.,
1917.

FOR T H E

Applications for employment.

Persons
applied for.
Dec.,
1916.

629

Jan.,
1917.

Applications
received.

Referred to
employment.

Number actu­
ally employed.

Dee.,
1916.

Jan.,
1917.

Dec.,
1916.

Dec.,
1916.

Jan.,
1917.

Jan.,
1917.

15. Seattle, W ash.............
Aberdeen, Wash........
Bellingham, Wash__
Colfax, Wash..............
Everett, W ash...........
North Yakima,"Wash.
Spokane, Wash..........
Tacoma, W ash...........
Walla Walla, Wash ..
Sumner, W ash...........
Puyallup, Wash.........
W enatehee, W ash. . . .

102
7
16

114
12
106

183
21
34

218
38
237

1,776
297
49

1,560
114
307

118
21
32

150
36
201

91
21
31

122
36
182

1
207
25
427
35

2
201
30
335
34

1
358
42
1,222
68

3
296
60
677
58

7
598
225
2,501
350

5
595
199
1,424
321

1
287
35
1,204
75

4
257
56
656
45

1
258
34
1,176
38

2
232
55
650
32

Total....................

820

834

1,929

1,587

5,803

4,525

1,773

1,405

1,650

1,311

16. Portland, Oreg...........
Astoria, Oreg..............

707
31

601
20

1,015
79

829
37

2,066
412

1,278
484

1,059
65

838
35

1,006
61

796
33

Total....................

738

621

1.094

866

2,478

1,762

1,124

873

1.067

829

17. San Francisco, C al....
Reno, N ev..................

312
27

471
24

448
68

786
44

860
46

1,171
36

467
47

620
36

297
46

371
36

Total....................

339

495

516

830

906

1,207

514

656

343

407

18. Los Angeles, Cal........
San Diego, Cal...........
Nakersfield, Cal.........
Douglas, Ariz.............

42
439
1

47
436

46
1,257
6

52
661

482
1,596
7

315
893

52
1,665
6

47
1.028

22
1,432
6

27
612

Total....................

482

484

1,309

714

2.085

1,209

1,723

1,076

1,460

670

26,382 19,260

19,735

Grand to tal......... 11,746

1

13,687 25,411

1

27,666 31,146

1

32,951 24,281

1

1

CONCILIATION WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, FEB­
RUARY 16 TO MARCH 15, 1917.

Under the organic act of the department, which gives the Secre­
tary of Labor the authority to mediate in labor- disputes through the
appointment, in his discretion, of commissioners of conciliation, the
Secretary exercised his good offices between February 16, 1917, and
March 15, 1917, in 18 labor disputes. The companies involved, the
number of employees affected, and the results secured, so far as
information is available, were as follows:


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630

M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

N U M B E R O F L A B O R D IS P U T E S H A N D L E D B Y T H E D E P A R T M E N T O F L A B O R
T H R O U G H IT S C O M M ISSIO N ER S O P C O N C IL IA T IO N , F E B . 16 TO M A R . 15, 1917.

Workmen affected.
Name.

Result.
Directly. Indirectly.

Strike of polishers, Remington Arms Co., Bridgeport, Conn..............
Strike of silk horizontal warpers, Paterson, N. J ...................................
Strike of employees, MeAlester-Edwards Coal, Co., McAlester, Okla.
Strike, Viseoe Silk Mills, Marcus Hook, P a ...........................................
Controversy between New York, New'Haven & Hartford R. R. Co.
and its clerks, New Haven, Conn.—reopened...................................
Strike of cigar makers, Philadelphia, P a ...............................................
Strike of sliirt-waist makers, Philadelphia, P a ....................................
Lockout, Thos. A. Edison Phonograph Co., West Orange,N. J .......
Strike of car department employees, New York Central Lines, Buf­
falo and other points in New York.....................................................
Strike, National Silk Dyeing Co., Allentown, P a ................................
Threatened lockout of laboring men in Montana.................................
Strike of coal miners, Blossburg Coal Co., Arnot, P a ..........................
Controversy between Gulf & Ship Island R. R.'C. and its carmen,
Gulfport, Miss........................................................................................
Strike of freight clerks and freight handlers, Baltimore & Ohio R. R.
Co., Cincinnati, Ohio............................................................................
Strike of freight clerks and freight handlers, Cincinnati, Hamilton &
Dayton R. R. Co., Cincinnati, Ohio...................................................
Strike, Atha Tool Co., Newark, N. J ................................................ .
Strike, Robert Palmer Shipyards, Noank, Conn..................................
Strike, actors, Boston, Lynn, and Haverhill, Mass..............................

11,000

Adjusted.
Pending.
Do.
Do.

250
2,250

Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.

5,000

2,000

Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.

90

Do.

250

Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.

250

The following cases have been disposed of :
Controversy between Illinois Central R. R. Co. and its maintenance of way
employees, Chicago, 111. : Adjusted.
Strikes of shirt makers, Philadelphia, Pa. : Adjusted.
IMMIGRATION IN JANUARY, 1917.

The number of immigrant aliens admitted to the United States
during the year 1916 was 355,767, as compared with 258,678 for the
year 1915, an increase of 97,089. There has also been an increase
from month to month during 7 of the 12 months. The figures for
January and February, 1917, show a decrease of 19.9 and 22.3 per
cent, respectively. These facts are brought out in the following table:
IM M IG R A N T

A L IE N S

A D M IT T E D

IN T O

THE

M O N TH S, 1 9 1 3

U N IT E D

STATES

IN

S P E C IF IE D

TO 1 9 1 7 .

1917

Month.

J a n u a r y ...
F e b ru a ry .
M arch........
A pril.........
M ay ...........
J u n e ..........
J u ly ...........
A ugust___
Septem ber
O c to b er...
N ovem ber.
Decem ber.


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1913

1911

46,441
59,156
96,958
136,371
137,262
176, 261
138,244
126,180
136,247
134,140
104,671
95,387

44,708
46,873
92,621
119,885
107,796
71,728
60,377
37,706
29,143
30,416
26,298
20,944

1 Decrease.

1915

1916

15,481
13,873
19,263
24,532
26,069
22,598
21,504
21,949
24,513
25,450
24,545
18,901

17,293
24,740
27,586
30,560
31,021
30,764
25,035
29,975
36,398
37,056
34,437
30,902

Per cent
increase
N um ber. over pre­
ceding
m onth.
24,745
19,238

i 19.9
i 22.3

M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

631

Classified by races, the number of immigrant aliens admitted to
and emigrant aliens departing from the United States during Janu­
ary, 1916 and 1917, was as follows:
IM M IG R A N T A L IE N S A D M IT T E D TO A N D E M IG R A N T A L IE N S D E P A R T IN G FR O M T H E
LTNITED ST A T E S , JA N U A R Y , 1916 A N D 1917.

Admitted.
Race.

Departed.

January, January, January, January,
1916/

African (black).......................................... .......................................
Armenian...........................................................................................
Bohemian and Moravian.................................................................
Bulgarian, Servian, Montenegrin....................................................
Chinese.......................................... ..................................................
Croatian and Slovenian....................................................................
Cuban.................................................................................................
Dalmatian, Bosnian, Herzegovinian..............................................
Dutch and Flem ish..........................................................................
E ast Indian........................................................................................
English...............................................................................................
F innish..................................................... .........................................
French................................................................................................
German..............................................................................................
Greek
.
.
.
............ .
Hebrew..............................................................................................
Irish ....................................................................................................
Italian (n o rth )...................................................................................
Italian (south)...................................................................................
Japanese.............................................................................................
K orean...................................................... .........................................
L ithuanian........................................................................................
Magyar................................. ................... ........................................
Mexican.................................................... .........................................
Pacific Islander.......................... ............ , .......................................
Polish........................................................................... *....................
Portuguese.........................................................................................
Roum anian........................................................................................
Russian...............................................................................................
Ruthenian (R ussniak).....................................................................
Scandinavian........................................... .................... ....................
Scotch.................................................................................................
Slovak.............. .................................................................................
Spanish...............................................................................................
Spanish-American............................................................................
Syrian............................................. .......... ......................................
Turkish...............................................................................................
W elsh.................................................................................................
West Indian (except Cuban)...........................................................
O ther peoples....................................................................................
Not specified.............................................. .......................................

131
74
46
108
146
61
105
5
367
7
2,499
284
1,034
911
1,619
1.477
953
429
1,923
'651
14
59
108

T otal........................................................................................

1917.

265
127
32

86

1916.

66
11
3
8
266
3
120

1917/

112
8

4

42
131

15

152
38
143
2
651
3
3,139
757
1,751
1,020
1,494
2,714
1,341
347
2,405
731
18
79
52
1,508
1
331
414
70
409
134
1,684
1,258
31
910
147
142
32

57
47
49

52
207

55
226
12
139
222
2,253
65
2
1
15
50
1
14
71
3
230
2
104
219
2
163
41
4
8
18
30
27

700

37
694

17,293

24,745

5,915

4,285

57

363

714
122
519
76
604
977

99

421
104
58

68

52
20
496
39

230
43
2
370
97
100
47
136
78

74

661
24
2
71

2
139
4
420
5
247
102
1
269

68
4
3
7

44

OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS RELATING TO LABOR.
UNITED
A

STATES.

— B u rea u o f Labor and S ta tistic s. Second B ie n n ia l R ep o rt, fo r th e
years 1915 and 1916. [L ittle R o ck, 1917.] 62 pp.

r k a n s a s

.

Contains report of operation of the minimum-wage and maximum-hour law
enacted in 1915, the child-labor law, and the 10-hour law applicable to saw
and planing mill employees; gives statistics of fatal and nonfatal accidents,
and of mining operations; and recommends new legislation on various sub­
jects and amendments of existing laws; concludes with suggestions for accident
prevention.
C a l i f o r n i a .— F irst

R eport on th e P ublic E m p lo y m e n t B u rea u s o f th e S ta te o f
C alifornia. F rom the 17th biennial report o f th e bureau o f labor sta tistic s.
1915-1916. Sacram ento, 1916. 64 pp.

Reviews operations under an act of the legislature which became law August
8, 1915. This law, appropriating $50,000 for the purpose, authorized the estab-


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

632

MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

lish m en t and operation for tw o yea rs o f public em ploym ent bu reau s a t San
F ran cisco, L os A n geles, Sacram ento, and Oakland.
S ix teen pages are devoted to such top ics a s opening o f offices; a im s and
p o lic ie s; relation to c h a r ity ; fo r m s; r e g istr a tio n ; r e n e w a ls; kind o f p o sitio n s
fu r n is h e d ; perm anency o f p o s itio n s ; cost o f p o s itio n s ; a d v e r tis in g ; ru les for
conduct o f offices, etc.
. — In d u stria l A ccident Com m ission.
Logging and S a w m ill S a fe ty
Orders, effective M arch 15, 1917. Sacram ento, 1917. 35 pp.

C

a l if o r n ia

C

o lo rado

. — B ien n ia l R ep o rt o f th e B u rea u o f L a b o r S ta tistic s, 1915-16.
ver, 1916. 270 pp.

D en­

R ep orts briefly th e a c tiv itie s o f th e bureau in en forcin g th e w om en ’s eighthour law , th e child-labor law , th e la w covering em ploym ent in m ines, m ills,
sm elters, and underground w orks, and th e factory-in sp ection la w , a ll o f w h ich
seem to h ave proved beneficial to labor gen erally. V io la tio n s o f th ese la w s
h ave been reported to th e bureau, but th ese h a v e been d ea lt w ith sa tisfa c to r ily .
T h e num ber o f p erm its issu ed to ch ild ren d esirin g to go to w ork w a s 1,002.
B etw een M arch 1, 1915, and N ovem ber 50, 1916, 1,993 orders w ere sen t out
req u estin g th a t certain sa fe ty d evices be in sta lled in fa c to r ie s for th e protec­
tio n o f th o se em ployed. T h e m an u fa ctu rin g in d u stries o f th e S ta te in spected
a t th e tim e o f th e report em ployed 29,898 m en and 3,733 w o m e n ; m ercan tile
e sta b lish m en ts em ployed 11,891 m en and 4,527 w om en. D u rin g th e period
M arch 1, 1915, to N ovem ber 30, 1916, $20,920.01 in w a g es due to w ork ers w a s
collected by th e bureau w ith o u t cost to th e p lain tiffs. T h ere is no specific
au th o riza tio n to m ake such collection s and the com m issioner ask s th a t he be
given th e legal righ t to do so. T h e free-em ploym ent b u reau s o f th e S tate,
d u rin g 1915 and dow n to N ovem ber 30, 1916, secured stea d y and season al
em p loym en t for 21,136 m en and 6,654 w om en. In th is connection it is recom ­
m ended th a t sufficient fu n d s be ap propriated to m ain tain sp ecial fr e e em ploy­
m ent agen cies d uring sea so n a l em ploym ent. T h e com m issioner a lso ask s for
p olice p ow ers in th e enforcem en t o f th e fire-escape la w and a ll sa fe ty p rovision s
in connection w ith m a n u fa ctu rin g ; also in the en forcem en t o f th e eigh t-h ou r law .
F

. — Second and T h ird A n n u a l R ep o rts o f th e S ta te Labor In sp ecto r
[Jan. 1, 1915, to Dec. 31, 1916]. Ja ckso n ville, 1917. 76 pp.

l o r id a

T he S ta te labor in sp ector recom m ends th at th e age lim it for n ew sb oys be
ra ised from 10 to 12 y e a r s ; th a t th e hours o f labor o f fem a les be lim ited to
9 per d ay and 54 per w eek, and for child ren to 8 per day and 48 per w eek ;
th a t th e age for em ploym ent o f m inors in 5-and-10-cent sto res be raised from
12 to 14 for boys, and 16 for g i r l s ; th a t school textb ook s be fu rn ish ed fr e e o f
cost to c h ild r e n ; and th a t a m ore in clu siv e fire-escape la w be enacted. D u rin g
th e tw o y ea rs, 2,185 in sp ection s w ere m a d e ; 1,200 ch ild ren w ork in g in v iolation
o f th e child-labor la w w ere rem oved from em p lo y m e n t; sa feg u a rd s w ere ordered
on 132 dangerou s m achines, e t c .; sa n ita ry con d ition s w ere ordered im proved in
126 p la c e s ; w ork in g h ours o f em ployees under 16 y e a r s o f age w ere reduced to
9 in 38 m ills and f a c t o r ie s ; se a ts for fem a les w ere ordered in 38 sto res and
f a c t o r ie s ; 7 boys w ere rem oved from op eratin g m otion-picture m a c h in e s ; and
1.201 v io la tio n s o f la w w ere discovered, p rosecu tion s bein g n ecessary in only a
fe w o f th ese cases.
I

. — In su ra n ce
D ep a rtm en t. A ddresses and P apers on Insurance, by
R u fu s M. P otts, insurance su p erin ten d en t, S ta te o f Illinois. Springfield,
Ja n u a ry, 1, 1917. 489 pp.

l l in o is

T h is volum e, according to th e preface, con tain s ad d resses,
papers from th e files o f th e in su ran ce d epartm ent, w h ich “ d eal
fu n d a m en ta l and presen t-d ay con d ition s in variou s branches
O f p a rticu la r in terest to labor, th e volum e in clu d es a d d resses


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

rem arks, and
both w ith th e
of in su ran ce.”
on w orkm en’s

MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

633

com pen sation , w e lfa r e or social insurance, and u nem ploym ent in surance. T here
are also le g isla tiv e recom m endations to the fiftieth gen eral assem bly, 1917
session , r e la tin g to all branches o f insurance.
I

. — Io w a
W o rkm en 's Com pensation. 1916. L egal O pinions on V arious
P hases o f the Io w a W o rk m e n ’s C om pensation A ct. B y H e n ry E . Sam pson,
a ssista n t a tto rn ey general o f Iow a, special counsel to the Io w a in d u stria l
com m issioner. 69 pp., in cluding ind ex.

o w a

T h e p reface to th is pam phlet sta te s th a t “ th is sm all collection o f opinions on
th e com p en sation sta tu te has been selected from th e m any given d uring th e
cu rren t year, and are now being published in th is con ven ien t form for d istri­
bution am ong th e jud ges, law yers, com pensation in su ran ce ad ju sters, em ployers,
and em ployees, a ll o f w hom are freq u en tly called upon to in terp ret the com pli­
cated p rovision s of th is revolu tion ary le g isla tio n .”

----- R ep ort o f the B u rea u o f L abor S ta tistic s fo r the biennial period ending
Ju n e 30, 1916.

D es M oines.

307 pp., including index.

T h is is th e seven teen th b ien n ial report o f th e bureau, and about on e-h alf o f
th e volum e (pp. 180-303) is d evoted to th e r e su lts o f a sp ecial in v estig a tio n
r e la tin g to w om en a s w a g e earn ers in lau n d ries and telep h on e exch an ges.
E x te n siv e ta b les are given.
Other su b jects on w h ich tab les and d iscu ssion are presented are as fo llo w s :
B u reau o f labor sta tistic s, a d m in istration , d u ties of, e t c .; sta tis tic s o f m anu­
fa ctu res ; fa cto ry in s p e c tio n ; child la b o r ; w a g es o f farm h e lp ; trade-unions,
arb itration and c o n c ilia tio n ; S ta te and p rivate em ploym ent bureaus.
M

. — D istric t Police.
B oiler In sp ectio n D epa rtm en t. S team -B oiler
R u les fo rm u la ted by th e B oard o f B o iler R ules. B oston, 1916. 11f pp.,
including index.

a s s a c h u s e t t s

C on sists o f th ree p a r t s : P a rt I sta te s the ru les w hich, in ad d ition to th e rules
con tain ed in P a rt II, apply to b oilers in sta lled on or before M ay 1, 1908; P a rt
I I sta te s the ru les ap p lyin g to “ all b oilers now or h erea fter in stalled , u n less
o th erw ise sta ted ” ; P a rt I I I sta te s th e ru les w hich, in ad d ition to ru les con­
tain ed in P a rt II, apply to b oilers in sta lled a fte r M ay 1, 1908.

----- R ep o rt of the jo in t special recess com m ittee on w o rk m e n ’s com pensation
insurance rates and accident p revention, F ebruary, 1917.
R e v ie w e d
M

on

p ages

541

to

543

o f th is

is s u e

o f th e

R

e v ie w

B oston.

88 pp.

.

. — R ep o rt o f th e T uberculosis S u rv e y of th e S ta te B oard o f H ea lth fo r
the 12 m o n th s fro m October 1, 1915, to October 1, 1916, u n d er th e provisions
o f act 238 o f the P ublic A cts of 1915. L ansing, Mich., 1917. 89 pp.

ic h ig a n

Is divided into eigh t ch ap ters and an appendix, as fo llo w s : C hapter I, A ct
a u th orizin g th e s u r v e y ; C hapter II, O r g a n iz a tio n ; C hapter II I, A stu d y o f
h ou sin g c o n d itio n s ; C hapter IV, T he p u b licity c a m p a ig n ; C hapter V, C ounty
su rv ey s in d e t a i l; C hapter VI, M iscellan eou s in fo r m a tio n ; C hapter V II, R ecom ­
m en d ation s by th e b o a r d ; C hapter V III, In d orsem en ts o f th e s u r v e y ; A ppendix,
Sum m ary o f cases studied.
M

. — F ifth A n n u a l R ep o rt o f th e C itizen s’ C om m ittee on U nem ploy­
m en t and the P ublic E m p lo ym en t B u rea u o f M ilw a u kee to th e Comm on
Council, C ity of M ilw a u k e e ; B oard o f S uperm sors, C ounty o f M ilw a u k e e ;
and the In d u s tria l C om m ission of W isconsin, yea r ending October 31, 1916.
t M ilw aukee, 1917.] I f pp.

il w a u k e e

S ta tes th a t th e num ber o f orders received, num ber o f ap p lican ts registered
and m en w an ted , referred to p osition s, and a ctu a lly placed m ore th an doubled
over the p reced in g year, and th a t w a g es w ere prop ortion ately in creased. T he
w a g es per hour for comm on laborers d u rin g th e year ranged from 2 7 f cen ts to
32J cents. In all, 34,603 ap p lication s for w ork w ere received a t th e M ilw au k ee


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M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

em ploym ent office, and 40,674 ap p lication s for h e lp ; 34,917 w ere referred to p osi­
tions, and 25,945 p o sitio n s w ere secured. T h e fo llo w in g ta b le se ts fo rth th e
b u sin ess o f th e M ilw au k ee public em ploym ent office fo r th e y ea r en d in g October
31, 1916, as com pared w ith 1914 and 1915, sh ow in g also per cent o f increase,
1916 over 1915:
SU M M A R Y O F T H E B U S IN E S S O F T H E M IL W A U K E E P U B L IC E M P L O Y M E N T B U R E A U
F O R T H E Y E A R S E N D IN G OCT. 31, 1914, 1915, A N D 1916, S H O W IN G P E R C E N T OF
I N C R E A S E , 1916 O V E R 1915.

Item .

Per cent
of in ­
crease,
1916 over
1915.

1914

1915

1916

A p p lication s for work:
M en..............................................................................................................
W o m en ........................................ ..............................................................

26,157
7,633

27,086
8,572

26,818
7,785

i 1.0
i 9 .2

T o ta l........................................................................... ...........................

33,790

35,658

34,603

i 3 .0

H elp w anted:
M en..............................................................................................................
W o m en ................................................................ •.....................................

16,255
6,273

17,965
6,995

30,310
10,364

68.7
48.2

T o ta l.......................................................................................................

22,528

24,960

40,674

63.0

Referred to positions:
M en..............................................................................................................
W o m en ....................................................................................................

16,660
7,349

IS, 173
7,917

25,830
9,087

42.1
14.8

T o ta l.......................................................................................................

24,009

26,090

34,917

33.8

11,349
3,731

14,336
4,575

19,316
6,629

34.7
45.0

15,080

18,911

25,945

37.2

P osition s secured:
M en............................................................................................................
W o m en ..........................................................................................
T o ta l.....................................................................................
1 Decrease.

M ost o f th e p osition s secured in 1916 w ere fo r ca su a l w ork (13,270, or 51.1
per c e n t), w h ile th e n ex t la rg est num ber o f p o sitio n s affected gen eral laborers
(5,674, .or 21.9 per c e n t). T he to ta l cost o f each p o sitio n secured w a s 45 cents
in 1914, 43 cen ts in 1915, and 33 cen ts in 1916.
M

B u rea u of Labor S ta tistic s. Red Book, being the Thirty-second
A n n u a l R eport, fo r the fiscal yea r ending N ovem ber 5, 1915. Jefferso n C ity
[1916 ]. 322 pp. Illu stra ted .

i s s o u r i .—

G ives “ sta tis tic a l d e ta ils and in form ation rela tin g to a ll dep artm en ts o f
labor, S ta te o f M issouri, and esp ecia lly in relation to th e com m ercial, in d u s­
tria l, social, ed u cation al, and sa n ita ry con d ition s o f th e lab orin g c la sses and to
th e p erm anent prosp erity o f th e p rod u ctive in d u stries o f th e S ta te .” P a rt II
c o n ta in s reports o f th e w ork o f th e fr e e em ploym ent b u r e a u s ; g iv es consider­
able d a ta a s to unem ploym ent, sh o w in g the estim a ted num ber o f w age earners
ou t o f w ork, th e du ration and ca u ses o f u n e m p lo y m e n t; p resen ts th e sca le o f
w a g es in certain selected tra d es in St. L ou is and K a n sa s C ity, and oth er fa c ts
rela tin g to organized la b o r ; in clu d es d a ta a s to sa n ita ry con d ition s and en viron­
m en ts in grad in g and con stru ction ca m p s; and g iv es sta tis tic a l d a ta as to
accid en ts in m ines. T here is a lso a section on reta il p rices o f im p ortan t food
com m odities from 1907 to 1915.
(K a n sa s
C i t y ) .- —R ep o rt o f In v e stig a tio n o f T hree H undred In d u stria l
A ccidents in K ansas City. B y th e F actory in sp ectio n D ep a rtm en t o f the
B oard o f P ublic W elfare, K a n sa s City, Mo. 23 pp.

R e la te s to 300 accid en ts reported to th e p resid en t o f th e board o f public
w e lfa r e as required by city ordinance. T h ese accid en ts occurred to w orkm en


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MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

635

w h ile en gaged in th eir ordinary occu p a tio n s; for th e m ost p art in fa cto ries,
m ercan tile estab lish m en ts, lau n d ries, and in b u ild in g operation s. T he r a il­
roads declin ed to give an y sta tis tic a l in form ation concerning accid en ts to th eir
w orkm en and com pensation paid them .
T w elv e tab les and th eir d iscu ssion occupy pages 5-22. T he figures sh ow
th a t resp on sib ility fo r th e in ju ry rested on th e injured em p loyee h im se lf ip
about one-third o f th e cases, on th e em ployer in about on e-fourth o f th e cases,
and in about one-third o f th e ca ses on th e ordinary risk s o f th e indu stry.
F orty-th ree o f th e 800 accid en ts w ere fa ta l. In 17 o f th e fa ta l cases th e
h eirs and d ep endents h a v e su its p en d in g ; in 2 ca ses no action w a s taken, and
in 1 case th e am ount o f settlem en t is unknow n. In th e rem ain in g 23 cases th e
h eirs and dependents h ave obtained settlem en t by su it or com prom ise, th e
a verage com pensation bein g $988 a fte r su b tra ctin g a tto rn ey ’s fees, doctor,
h osp ital, and fu n eral exp en ses.
T he so cia l cost o f in d u stria l accid en ts becom es a ll th e m ore apparent w h en
it is sh ow n th a t 418 persons w ere w h olly dependent and 129 p a r tia lly d ependent
upon th e earn in gs o f th e 300 p erson s k illed or in ju red in in d u stry. M ost o f
th o se w h olly dependent w ere w iv es and ch ild ren under 16 y e a r s o f age.

Missouri (K ansas City ).— S e v e n th A n n u a l R ep o rt o f th e B oard o f P ublic W el­
fa re o f K a n sa s C ity.

A p ril 20, 1915-A pril 19, 1916.

176 pp.

Is te x t m atter for th e m ost part. T he tab le o f con ten ts is as fo llo w s : R oster
o f officers and em ployees ; th e sta tu s o f th e w ork o f th e board o f public w e lfa r e
(gen era l su p erin ten d en t’s report) ; th e sch ool o f social se r v ic e ; gen eral report
o f th e research bureau ; report on d esertion and nonsupport ; report on hom eless
m en ; fa cto ry in sp ection departm ent ; recreation d epartm ent ; w e lfa r e loan
agen cy ; leg a l aid bureau ; d epartm ent o f h om eless and unem ployed ; p arole
departm en t ; w om en’s reform atory ; m u n icip al farm .
N

e w

H a m p s h i r e . — E le v e n th B ien n ia l R e p o rt o f th e B u re a u o f Labor.
P a rt I,
fo r th e fiscal period ending A u g u st 31, 1915. 96 pp. P a rt I I , fo r th e
fiscal period ending A u g u st 31, 1916. 211 pp. Concord, N. H., 1915-16.
[Tw o p a rts bound in one vo lu m e A

P a rt I in clu d es a directory o f local u n ion s ; a d irectory o f m an u factu rin g
and m ech an ical esta b lish m en ts ; in form ation rela tin g to unem iiloym ent secured
from secreta ries o f local u n ion s th rou gh ou t the S ta te ; d a ta concern in g in d u s­
tr ia l accid en ts a s reported by em p loyers w ork in g under th e com p en sation pro­
v isio n s o f chap ter 163, L aw s o f 1911. P a rt I I c o n ta in s s ta tis tic s o f m an u fac­
tu rin g esta b lish m en ts arran ged by in d u stries, and also by cou n ties ; num ber o f
hours w orked per day, per w eek, and per y ea r ; num ber o f em p loyees and to ta l
w ages paid ; sta tis tic s rela tiv e to la u n d ries and b u ild in g and con tractin g ; and
sta tis tic s o f m ercan tile esta b lish m en ts arran ged by em ploym ents. A lso c la s si­
fied ta b les o f w eek ly w a g es paid in m a n u fa ctu rin g and m ercan tile e sta b lish ­
m ents.
C om plete retu rn s w ere secured from 775 e sta b lish m en ts, sh ow in g
50,517 m a les and 20,163 fem a les em p loyed ; to ta l w a g e s paid, $36,15S,018. Space
is also devoted to in d u stria l accid en ts, unem ploym ent, and a d irectory o f th e
labor o rgan ization s o f th e S tate, in clu d in g th e S ta te F ed era tio n o f Labor,
cen tral labor unions, and the local u n ion s o f th e va rio u s to w n s and cities.
P

. —D ep a rtm en t o f Labor and In d u s try .
M o n th ly B u lle tin s, No.
11, N ovem ber, 1916, 38 pp., and No. 12, D ecem ber, 1916, 1^6 pp. H a rris­
burg, 1916.

e n n s y l v a n ia

T he N ovem ber b u lletin con tain s a rticles on in d u stria l illu m in ation , m ech an i­
cal dan gers th a t m enace the eyes, in d u str ia l sa fe ty v ersu s h igh cost o f livin g,
and ou tlin e o f th e proposed S ta te b u ild in g code. I t also rev ie w s th e w ork o f
th e b u reau o f m ed iation and arb itration w hich, d uring Septem ber, a d ju sted
12 o f th e 16 str ik e s in force, th e se ttle m e n ts in v o lv in g 4,093 m en ; th e w ork


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636

MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

o f th e bureau o f em ploym ent, w h ich p laced 1,730 person s in p o sitio n s during
S ep tem b er; and th e bureau o f w orkm en’s com pensation. T h is la tte r bureau
receiv ed reports o f 1,827 fa ta l accid en ts from Jan u ary 1 to October 1, 1916,
and approved 757 com pensation a greem en ts in volvin g a to ta l o f $1,646,630.74,
or an average o f $2,175.20 each. T he la rg est death claim w as $7,500. In the
a n th ra cite coal fields d u rin g th e eig h t m onths en d in g Septem ber 1, 1916, 333
w ork ers w ere k illed and 6,958 other w ork ers disab led for period s greater than
14 days. T he to ta l com p en sation cost in 181 o f th e fa ta l ca ses is estim ated at
$453,499.08, or an average o f $2,505.51 per case.
T h e D ecem ber b u lletin in clu d es a rticles on th e P e n n sy lv a n ia w orkm en’s
com p en sation system , ey e in ju ries cau sed by e x c e ss or deficiency o f ligh t, and
in q u iry into equipm ent fo r ren d erin g first aid. A tab le is given sh o w in g a
to ta l o f 2.334 p erson s k illed and 227,887 p erson s in ju red up to D ecem ber 1,
1916, or an average o f 825 per d ay k illed and injured. D u rin g October, 1916,
2,659 p erson s w ere ask ed for by em p loyers and 1,688 person s w ere placed in
p o sitio n s by th e bureau o f em ploym ent.
V

.— B u r e a u
o f L a b o r a n d I n d u s tr ia l
R e p o r t , 1916. R ic h m o n d , 1916. l i t 7 p p .

S ta tis tic s .

ir g in ia

N in e te e n th

A nnual

G ives in form ation rela tin g to m an u factu res, fa cto ry and m ine in spection,
m ine accid en ts, and p rosecu tion s by th e bureau for v io la tio n s o f sta tu te s for
th e p rotection o f w age earners.
W

. — I n d u s t r i a l W e l f a r e C o m m is s io n .
O ly m p ia , 1917. 251 p p .

a s h in g t o n

16.

S e c o n d B ie n n ia l R e p o r t, 1916 -

For a review of this report see page 560 of this number of the R eview .
-------I n d u s t r i a l I n s u r a n c e D e p a r t m e n t.
1916.
W

is c o n s in

F ifth

a n n u a l r e p o r t, 1916.

O ly m p ia ,

o f h e a r in g ,

la b o r f o r

175 pp.
.— I n

w om en .

d u s tr ia l

C o m m iss io n . N o t i c e
1/0 p p .

h o u rs

of

[ M a d is o n , 19 1 7 .]

Reviewed on pages 543 to 548 of this issue of the R eview .
C on tain s copy o f p etitio n and sta tem en t o f fa c ts filed w ith th e in d u strial
com m ission Jan u a ry 13, 1917, r e la tiv e to th e w e lfa r e o f w om en w ork ers in the
in d u stries o f th e S ta te w ith p a rticu la r referen ce to hours o f labor. The
p etitio n con ten d s th a t th e in d u stria l com m ission h as th e pow er to fix hours of
labor for w o m en ; th a t w om en are e n titled to greater p rotection o f la w than
m en, m any o f w hom en joy an eight-hour d a y ; th a t n igh t labor should be cur­
ta ile d as fa r a s p ossib le and proh ib ited in certa in em p loym en ts; and th a t a
sh orter day is con d u cive to th e h ea lth o f w om en w ork ers and should be pro­
vid ed as esse n tia l in th e in te r e sts o f th eir gen eral w elfare.
U

S t a t e s . — C o n g r e s s.
H o u se . R e p o r t r e l a ti n g to S e c tio n 10 o f th e A c t
c r e a tin g th e D e p a r t m e n t o f L a b o r . D o c u m e n t N o . 1906 (61f th C on g., 2 d
s e s s .) . W a s h in g to n , 1917. 11 pp .

n it e d

T h is is a letter from th e S ecretary o f Labor prepared in p u rsu an ce o f sec­
tio n 10 o f th e a ct c rea tin g th e D ep artm en t o f Labor, w h ich requires him to
report a plan o f coord in ation o f th e a c tiv itie s, d u ties, and pow ers o f th e office
o f th e S ecretary o f Labor w ith th ose o f oth er governm ental agencies, so fa r as
th ey re la te to labor and its con d ition s, w ith a view to fu rth er le g isla tio n to
fu rth er define th e d u ties and pow ers o f th e D ep artm en t o f Labor. T he letter
n o tes th e overlap p in g o f th e w ork o f th e v a rio u s bu reau s o f th e D ep artm en t
o f Labor and oth er G overnm ent a c tiv itie s, notably th e P u b lic H ea lth Service,
th e B u reau o f M ines, the Office o f M arkets and R u ral O rganization, th e
S team b oat-In sp ection Service, th e B u reau o f N avigation , th e In te r sta te Com­
m erce C om m ission, and th e B oard o f M ediation and C onciliation. In clu d es a


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

637

d ra ft o f a proposed la w to give the S ecretary o f Labor au th o rity to call upon
oth er d ep artm en ts for su p p lem en tal d a ta p erta in in g to labor gath ered by them ,
and also au th o rizin g oth er dep artm en ts to c a ll upon th e S ecretary o f Labor for
sim ila r d a ta gath ered by h is departm ent, and m ak in g su ch in form ation a v a il­
able to an y dep artm en ts, if requested, before its u se by th e departm ent col­
le c tin g it.
S t a t e s .— D ep a rtm en t o f A g ricu ltu re.
Office o f P ublic R oads and R u ra l
E ngineering. B u lle tin 414- C onvict labor fo r road w ork. W ashington,
1916. 218 pp.

U

n it e d

R

e v ie w

A d ig est o f th is report appears on p ages 591 to 595 o f th is issu e o f th e
.

----- D ep a rtm en t o f Commerce. A n n u a l reports fo r 1916. R ep o rt o f th e Secre­
ta ry o f C omm erce and reports o f bureaus.

W ashington, 1916.

1064 pp.

■
----------- C ircular o f th e B u rea u o f S ta n d a rd s, No. 5 4 . N a tio n a l E lectrical
S a fe ty Code fo r exam in a tio n , trial, and co n stru ctive criticism . 2d edition,
issued N ovem ber 15, 1916. W ashington, 1916. 323 pp.
T h is code co n sists o f fou r p rin cip al p a r ts: (1 ) R u les for th e in sta lla tio n o f
m achinery, sw itch b oard s, and w irin g in cen tral sta tio n s and su b sta tio n s; (2)
ru les for th e con stru ction o f overhead and underground lin e s for th e tra n s­
m ission and d istrib u tion o f elec trica l e n e r g y ; (3 ) ru les for th e in sta lla tio n of
elec trica l a p p aratu s and w ir in g in fa cto ries, resid en ces, and w h erever e lec tricity
is u tilized fo r ligh t, h eat, or p o w er; (4 ) ru les fo r sa feg u a rd in g em p loyees w hen
w ork in g on or near elec tr ic a l m ach in es or lin es. T he bureau recom m ends th a t
th is code be adopted a t presen t only fo r u se on tria l, and criticism s o f th e ru les
and su g g estio n s for th eir im provem ent eith er by w ay o f ch an ge or ad d ition are
in vited .

----- D ep a rtm en t o f the In terio r.
P roduction, 87 pp.
1916. 81 pp.

Geological S u rre y . Coal in 1915: P a rt A :
P a rt B : D istrib u tio n and consum ption. W ashington,

A d ig est o f th is report appears on p ages 588 to 590 o f th is issu e o f the
R

e v ie w

•

.

In te r s ta te C omm erce Com m ission. D ivisio n o f S ta tistic s. A P relim in a ry
A b stra ct o f S ta tis tic s of Common C arriers, fo r th e yea r ending J u n e 30,
1916. W ashington, 237 pp.

T h is a b stract for th e year en d in g .Tune 30, 1916, covers “ a ll steam ra ilw a y s
th a t reported an n u a l op eratin g reven u es above $1,000,000, sh ow in g fo r each
com pany m ileage, gen eral b alan ce sh eet figures, incom e account, profit and loss
account, op eratin g reven u es and exp en ses in d etail, sta tis tic s o f rail-lin e oper­
ations, p a rticu la rs o f equipm ent in service, reven u e fr e ig h t carried, reca p itu la ­
tion o f h ire o f fr e ig h t cars, and an a n a ly s is o f gen eral op eratin g exp en se ac­
cou n ts w ith resp ect to c la ss o f serv ice as required in th e C om m ission’s R u les
G overning th e S ep aration o f O peratin g E x p en ses b etw een F r e ig h t S ervice and
P a ssen g er S ervice, e ffectiv e on Ju ly 1, 1915,” also sta tis tic a l a b stra cts from
the an n u al rep orts o f th e p rin cip al ex p ress com panies and th e P u llm a n Co.

-----

R ep o rt o f the U nited S ta te s B u rea u o f E fficiency fo r th e period from
March 25, 1913, to October 31, 1916. W ashington, 1917. 27 pp.

R eports a to ta l sa v in g in G overnm ent ex p en se from M arch 25, 1913, to June
30, 1918, a s a resu lt o f th e B u rea u ’s w ork, o f $1,381,680, th e la rg est sin g le
am ount, $576,800 or 41.6 per cent, rep resen tin g an in crease in clerical labor and
p rin tin g th a t h as been avoided. In October, 1914, th e B u reau o f Efficiency took
up th e q u estion o f esta b lish in g a sy stem o f efficiency ra tin g s for th e en tire P ost
Office D ep artm en t, and its recom m en d ation s w ere form a lly prom ulgated by
e x e c u tiv e order sign ed June 23, 1915. A s a resu lt o f th e op eration o f th is
86302°— 17---- - 1 0


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638

MONTHLY REVIEW OE THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

system th e avera g e sa la ry o f th e em ployees o f th e P o st Office D ep artm en t has
been in creased from $1,190, in 1914, to $1,229, in 1917, a n e t gain o f $39 per
em ployee. D esp ite th is in crease in a v e r a g e p ay o f d ep artm en tal em p loyees th e
to ta l exp en se o f op era tin g th e d ep artm en t h a s been reduced in th e sam e period
by $160,000.
FOREIGN
F

COUNTRIES.

. — In d u s tr is ta tis tik 30 A r 1913. B id ra g till F in la n d s OfflcieUa S ta tis tik .
H elsingfors, 1915. 58, 222 pp.

in l a n d

S in ce 1884 th e sta tis tic a l b u reau o f F in la n d h a s issu ed an an n u al report on
in d u stria l con d ition s. In 1909, how ever, cer ta in ch an ges w ere m ade w hich
render th e issu e s before th a t y ea r not e n tirely com parable w ith th o se sub se­
q u en tly issued.
T he report sh ow s th a t th ere h a s been a con tin u ou s grow th in in d u stria l esta b ­
lish m en ts, m otor force, num ber o f w orkers, and v a lu e o f ou tp u t year by year
sin c e 1909.
T h e four m ost im p ortan t bran ch es o f in d u stry based on num ber o f em ployees,
esta b lish m en ts, and v a lu e o f ou tp u t are : W ood w ork in g and lu m b erin g ; prep ara­
tion o f food s and d rin k s ; paper ; and te x tile s.
T h e to ta l num ber o f p erson s em ployed in 1913 in th e 4,709 m an u factu rin g
e sta b lish m en ts w a s 109,238 ; o f th e se 740 estab lish m en ts, em p loyin g 34,123 per­
sons, w ere en gaged in w ood w ork in g an d a llie d in d u stries.
G

B r i t a i n . — D ep a rtm en ta l C om m ittee on J u v e n ile E ducation in R e la tio n to
E m p lo ym en t A fte r th e W ar. In te r im report. London, A u g u st 2 b 1916.
h PP-

r e a t

T h is in terim report is m ade for th e purpose o f recom m ending th a t th e board
o f ed u cation ta k e step s at, th e e a r lie st opportu n ity, in cooperation w ith th e B oard
o f T rade, to stren g th en and ex ten d th e sy stem o f ju v e n ile em ploym ent b u reaus
and local com m ittees in connection th erew ith . T he com m ittee had in m ind th a t
d u rin g th e w ar large num bers o f ch ild ren h ave been p laced in em p loym en ts w h ich
can not be p erm anent, th a t oth ers h a v e been p laced in u n su ita b le em ploym ents, and
th a t som e d islocation , and probably a very e x te n siv e d islocation , o f in d u stry w ill
ta k e place, a ffectin g th e con d ition s o f ju v e n ile em ploym ent. In norm al tim es
m ore th an 500,000 child ren enter in to em ploym ent for th e first tim e each year.

----- H ea lth o f M u n itio n W o rkers C om m ittee. M em orandum No. 15. T he effect
o f in d u stria l conditions upon eyesight.

London, 1916.

8 pp.

P rice Id .

R eview ed on p ages 538 to 540 of th is issu e of th e R eview .

•----- H om e D epartm en t.
report.

Coal M ining O rganisation C om m ittee.
London, 1916. 17 pp. P rice 2%d.

R eview ed on p ages 534 and 535 o f th is issu e o f th e

----- T he Local G overnm ent B oard.

R

e v ie w

T h ird general
.

M an-Poiver D istrib u tio n B oard.

London,

O ctober 6,1916. Jf pp.
C on tain s m em orandum o f d ecision s to a ss ist trib u n als in d ecid in g q u estion s o f
exem p tion from m ilitary duty. S u g g ests th a t no certificates o f exem p tion should
be given to m en alread y decertified by a G overnm ent d epartm ent, w h ose ca ses
are pen d in g before th e trib u n als, to w hom trib u n als h ave refu sed exem p tion ,
to w hom trib u n als h a v e given tem porary exem p tion s, or w ho are alread y under
n otice to join th e arm y. T he trib u n als are a lso req u ested to avoid e x ten d in g
th e e x is tin g tem porary exem p tion s, num bering n early 400,000 and to ex p ed ite
th e settlem en t o f o u tsta n d in g ap p lication s and th e h ea rin g o f appeals, o f w h ich
200,000 are pending. T he m em orandum sta te s th a t “ it is esse n tia l th a t a large
part o f th e labor now engaged on p rivate w ork should be d iverted to G overnm ent
orders or released for th e arm y.”


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

MONTHLY REVIEW OE THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

639

H ag s k y r slu r Isla n d s 10. F isk isk y rs lu r og H lu n n in d a A r id 1914- G af id
fit a f H a g sto fu isla n d s. R e y k ja v ik , 1916. 18*, 46 pp.

I c e l a n d .—

A report on th e fishing and h u n tin g in d u stry in Iceland, in clu d in g num ber of
boats o f variou s c la sse s and ton n age and q u a n tities and v a lu es o f variou s kin d s
o f fish and gam e cau gh t in 1914.

----- H ag s k y r slu r Isla n d s 11. B m ia d a r s k y r slu r A r id 1915. Gefid fit a f H a g sto fu
isla n d s. R e y k ja v ik , 1916. 13*, 26 pp.
A s ta tis tic a l report on agricu ltu re in Icelan d in 1915. T ab les are given sh ow ­
in g th e e x te n t o f farm in g op eration conducted, num ber o f farm ow ners, cattle,
etc., and q u a n tity o f farm products.
I t a l y . —M inistero

di A gricoltura, Industriel e Convmercio. D irezione Generate
della S ta tistic a e del Lavoro. Ufflcio del C ensim ento. C ensim ento della
Popolazione del regno d’lta lia al 10 giugno 1911. V olum e IV . R om e, 1915.
vi, 553 pp.

C ensus o f Ita ly , classified by sex, occupation, and in d u stria l sta tu s o f person s
over 10 yea rs o f age.
J

— F orty-first A n n u a l R ep o rt o f th e M in ister o f S ta te fo r E ducation.
1913-1914. A bridged. T ra n sla ted and published by th e D ep a rtm en t of
E ducation. Tokyo, Japan, Ju ly , 1916. 349 pp. and 4 charts.

apan

T h is report con tain s a record o f ed u cation al affairs a s tran sacted by the
d epartm ent o f ed u cation d u rin g th e s ta tis tic a l year en d in g M arch 31, 1914. It
is d ivid ed in to th ree p a rts : P a rt I con tain s a gen eral sketch o f a ffa irs tran sacted
by th e departm en t ; P a rt I I g iv es a sum m ary o f ed u cation th rou gh ou t th e
cou n try ; P a rt I I I trea ts briefly o f affairs rela tin g to religion.
N

— D ep a rtm en t v a n Landbouw , N ijv e rh e id en H andel, C entraal
V erslag der A rbeidsinspectie, over 1915. A rnheim , 1916. Ixiii, 464, x v i pp.

e t iie b l a n d s .

T h is volum e con tain s a report o f th e a c tiv itie s o f th e labor in sp ection force
o f th e S ta te L abor B u reau for th e year 1915, and a sp ecial d iscu ssion o f in ­
d u str ia l con d ition s due to m ob ilization and its effect on fem a le em ploym ent.

------------ Verslag o m iren t den S ta a t der R ijk sv e rze k e rin g sb a n k , 1915, T he
H ague, 1916.

243, v ii pp.

A report o f th e op eration o f th e S ta te in su ran ce bank, organ ized for th e
ad m in istra tio n o f th e D u tch com p en sation a ct o f 1901. (S e e M onthly R eview ,
A u gu st, 1915, p. 60.)
T here w ere 8,882 in su red estab lish m en ts, coverin g 99,264 p o lic ie s; 78,523
accid en ts w ere reported, cau sin g 576,515 d a y s o f d isa b ility for th e 75,254
in ju ries com pensated.
T h e fo llo w in g table sh ow s th e recognized in su ran ce agencies, w ith d istrib u ­
tion o f com pensation as paid by each.
A M O U N T P A I D I N B E N E F I T S (M E D IC A L C O STS, B U R I A L E X P E N S E S , A C C ID E N T COM­
P E N S A T I O N , T O D E P E N D E N T S , E T C .), C L A S S IF IE D B Y IN S U R A N C E C A R R IE R S , U N ­
D E R T H E D U T C H C O M P E N S A T IO N L A W , 1905, 1910-1915.

Y ear.

1905.................
1910.................
1911................
1912.................
1913.................
1914..............
1915............


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

S tate
Insurance
B an k .

E m p loyers
carrying
ow n risk.

Stock
com panies.

$266,430
604,290
648,025
709,039
757,056
752,866
736,059

$37,543
46,825
56,569
66,074
75,677
83,903
90,107

$534,558
661,634
738,967
840,805
971,141
1,008,301
1,058,174

T otal.

$838,531
1,312,749
1,443,561
1,615,918
1,803,874
1,845,070
1,884,340

640
N

MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

. — M a a n d sc h rift van h et C entraal B u rea u voor de S ta tis tie k .
11, No. 12 (D ecem ber, 1916), T h e H ague.

e t h e r l a n d s

Yol.

Labor con d ition s in th e N eth erla n d s in va rio u s in d u stries, N ovem ber and
D ecem ber, 1916: E m ploym en t o f intern ed sold iers to supply th e lack o f labor
In N eth erlan d s in d u s tr ie s ; u n e m p lo y m e n t; str ik e s and lo c k o u ts ; em p loyers’
and em p loyees’ fe d e r a tio n s ; c o llectiv e agreem en ts, etc.
Q

R

. — R eg istra r G eneral’s Office.
V ita l S ta tistic s, 1915. F ifty -s ix th
A n n u a l R eport o f the G overnm ent S ta tistic ia n . B risbane, 1916. 54 pp.
e p u b l ic
o f
C o sta
R i c a . — M inisterio
de F om ento. D irección G eneral de
E sta d ística , A ño 1915. V olum e 19. S a n José, 1917. xl, 460 pp.
u e e n s l a n d

T h is volum e c o n stitu te s th e sta tis tic a l yearbook o f th e republic for th e year
1915, con tain in g a com p ilation o f th e m ost im p ortan t sta tis tic a l d a ta collected
d u rin g th e year r ela tin g to p opulation, v ita l sta tistic s, com m erce, etc. I t con­
ta in s a lso a list o f books, p am phlets, and p eriod icals issu ed by th e n ation al
p rin tin g office and a com m ercial and in d u str ia l census.
S

. — Consejo Sup erio r de E m igración.
B o letin s. Nos. 84 and 85.
D ecem ber, 1916. M adrid. 401 to 624 PP-

p a in

J u ly to

L aw s and reg u la tio n s concern in g em igration and im m igration in Spain and in
N ic a r a g u a ; em igration s t a t is t ic s ; la w s r e la tin g to in d u stria l accid en ts in Cuba
an d in A r g e n tin a ; and variou s oth er ch ap ters on im m igration .

— — I n s titu to de R efo rm a s Sociales.
1917. M adrid, 1917. 104 PP-

B o le tín (m o n th ly ). N ú m . C LI.

E nero de

T h is num ber o f th e rev ie w o f th e B u reau o f S ocial R eform s o f S pain con­
ta in s a report of th e a c tiv itie s o f th e secretary's office, an a rtic le on child labor
in in d u s tr y ; résum é o f le g is la tio n ; te x t o f la w s and d ecrees fixin g m axim u m
p rices o f coal, grain, e t c .; G overnm ent control over m ine o r g a n iz a tio n ; sa n ita ­
tio n o f e sta b lish m en ts and p rotection o f laborers engaged in the m an u factu re
o f m atches.
S

. — Rilcsf or sdlcringsanst alten
Stockholm , 1916. IV , 288 pp.

w e d e n

Ár

1915.

S ve riges

Offieiella

S ta tis tik .

A report o f th e op erations o f th e n ation al in su ran ce office for the y ea r 1915,
and a sum m ary o f its experience, 1908 to 1913.
D u rin g the y ea r th ere w ere 8,757 in su ran ce con tracts issu ed , covering 146.452
w o rk in g people. A n n u ities w ere purch ased for 69 in ca p a cita ted persons, for 13
w id o w s and 20 children o f laborers w ho died a s resu lt o f accid en ts. Compen­
sa tio n h as been gran ted under th e sickn ess-b en efit clau se in 10,903 ca ses for
in ju r ie s la stin g not more th an 60 days. A n n u ities h ave been gran ted in 455
c a se s o f in v a lid ity o f d u ration exceed in g 60 days, and in 60 ca ses w h ere death
resu lted a n n u ities h ave been gran ted to 35 w id o w s and 81 children. T he to ta l
num ber o f a n n u ities in force a t th e end o f th e year 1915 ivas 3,264.
T he fo llo w in g tab le sh ow s th e receip ts and exp en d itu res for th e year 1915:
Item .

R eceip ts.

P rem iu m s..................................................
Purchase of a n n u ities............................
Interest, e tc...............................................

$244,389. 74
32,323.21
85,274.92

T o ta l................................................

301,987.87

Item .

E x p en d itu res.

Sickness benefits
B u rial ex p en ses.................. ..................
A n n u ities.
T otal . .

$87,863.53
948.72
105,255.12
194,067.37

T h e financial cond ition o f th e fu n d on D ec. 31, 1915, w a s as fo llo w s :
P rem ium s p aid in a d van ce____________________________
$64, 320. 00
R eserved for p aym en t o f in ju ries under in v e s tig a tio n .
144, 720. 00
R eserve for con tin gen t a n n u itie s____________________1, 614,148. 46
G u aran ty f u n d s ---------------------------------------------------------84, 630. 38
T otal


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

1, 907, 818. 84

M O N TH LY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

641

D u rin g th e 5-year period, 1908-1912, com pensation am ou n tin g to 126,799
crow ns ($83,982.13) w a s paid in 2,127 ca ses o f in ju ries producing in v a lid ity for
m ore th an 60 days. T he a v era g e com pensation paid for each ca se equaled
59.61 crow n s ($15.98). In 1,346 ca ses o f perm anent in cap acity, p artial or
total, th e to ta l cap italized v alu e o f com pensation am ounted to 1,425,671 crow ns
($382,079.83), or 1,059 crow ns ($283.81) per person. C om pensation h as been
paid in 23,438 ca ses fo r in ju ries e n ta ilin g le ss th an 61 d a y s’ in cap acity, am ount­
in g to 449,026 crow ns ($120,338.97), or an average for each case o f 19.16 crow ns
($ 5 .1 3 ).
D eta il tab les by in d u stry and ch aracter o f d isa b ility for th e 5-year period and
sim ila r tab les for th e year 1913 h ave been prepared sh ow in g th e exp erien ce o f
th e fund.
A t th e close o f th e year 1915 there w ere 2,036 persons covered by th e fisher­
m en’s in su ran ce fu n d , th e a sse ts o f w h ich am ounted to 75,302 crow ns
($20,180.94).
T here w ere 119 accid en ts com pensated from th is fund, o f w h ich 111 received
sick n ess benefits, 4 sick n ess and in v a lid ity benefits, and 4 ca ses o f com pensation
for death.
S

. —Socialstyrclsen.
Sveriges Offlciella S ta tis tic , A rb cta rtillg d n g , A rb etstid och A rb etslo n inom S veriges J o rd b ru k A r 1915. S to ckh o lm , 1916. 39 pp.

w e d e n

A report on ag ricu ltu ra l labor in 1915, sh ow in g th e proportion o f th e popula­
tion in rural com m unes em ployed as farm laborers,- and th eir w ages, hours o f
labor, etc. C om plete or sa tisfa c to r y d a ta w ere secured from 1,679 com m unes,
513 w ere incom plete, and 14 fa iled to fu rn ish any in form ation . T he average
hours w orked on farm s, properly sp eaking, w a s 12.5, from w hich th e average
rest period o f 2.2 h ours should be deducted. T he average w a g e is b ased on
. str ic tly farm labor and does not in clu d e w ages o f sp e c ia lists or sk illed laborers.
M ale lab orers w ork in g under a yea rly con tract are p a id on an average 343 crow ns
($91.92) and board estim a ted a t 412 crow ns ($110.42), a to ta l o f 755 crow ns
($202.34) ; fem a le help receives 212 crow n s ($56.82) and board valu ed at 335
crow n s ($89.78), a to ta l o f 547 crow ns ($146.60). P erson s w ork in g under a
cash p aym en t p lu s goods in kind ( salaire m ix te ) , in clu d in g d w ellin g and fu el,
receiv e 833 crow ns ($223.24), and 939 crow n s ($251.65) is p aid th ose w ho
atten d liv e stock. D a y laborers under a con tract to w ork s ix m onths or m ore on
one farm are paid 2.72 crow ns (73 cen ts) in sum m er and 2.07 crow n s (55 ce n ts)
in w in ter. C asual laborers are paid 3.13 crow ns (84 ce n ts) in sum m er and 2.34
crow ns (63 cen ts) in w in ter.
M arked in crease in th e w a g es o f d ay lab orers is show n, and if th e v a lu e o f
goods in kind is com puted a t th e p resen t se llin g prices th e m ost m arked in creases
are fou n d in th e ea rn in g s o f th ose paid p a rtly in m oney and p a rtly in supplies.

•----- ----- —

A rb etstid e n s L d n g d V id F risersalonger och B a d in rd ttn in g a r.
Stockholm , 1916. 130 pp.

A t th e close o f th e y ea r 1913, th ere w ere 994 barbershops, and 502 h a ir ­
d ressers’ shops, and 588 b ath in g esta b lish m en ts in op eration in Sw eden. An
in v e stig a tio n w a s m ade r ela tiv e to hours o f labor per day and hours w orked
per w eek, hours d uring w h ich th e shops w ere open, and num ber o f em p loyees
and o f app ren tices em ployed.

------------------ O lycksfall i A rb e te A r 1913. Sto ckh o lm , 1916. 69 pp.
S eriou s accid en ts occurring in in d u stry, lan d tran sp ortation , and com m erce
are required by la w o f 1912 to be reported to th e local police. T h is is th e
second report under th is act and sh ow s an in crease in the num ber reported
from 18,857 in 1912 to 21.048 in 1913. T he h ig h est accid en t ra tes are found
in m in in g (3 8 .1 ), fo restry (1 4 .3 ), and tra n sp o rta tio n (1 3 .2 ). M achines are


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

642

MONTHLY REVIEW OE THE BUREAU OE LABOR STATISTICS.

resp on sib le for 20 per cent, hand loading, carrying, etc., in tra n sp o rta tio n for
19.5 per cent, and tools for 14.6 per cen t o f a ll accid en ts reported for 1913.
M ost o f th e in ju ries produced w ere follow ed by recoveries, and on ly 1.4 per
cent o f a ll m ale and 0.8 per cen t o f fem a le p erson s in ju red died as a r e su lt o f
in ju ries. O f th e 20,525 ca ses reported in 1913, 14,405 w ere insured, o f w h ich
5,775 w ere insu red in th e S ta te in su ran ce fund, 2,845 in regu lar in su ran ce
so cietie s, and 5,785 in sp ecial fu n d s esta b lish ed by th e em ployers.
S

. —Socialstyrelsen.
S ko g sa rb eta rn a s L evnads- och A rb etsfo rh d lla n d en i
V drm land, D alarna och N orrland. S to ckh o lm , 1916. 2 ^ * , 399 pp.

w e d e n

A report m ade by th e labor office o f th e D ep artm en t o f Com m erce, o f an
in v e stig a tio n o f con d ition s o f fo rest w ork ers in 1913.
T he report covers
a ll p ortion s o f Sw ed en in w h ich fo restry form s an im portant in d u stry, and
in clu d es su b sid iary occupations, a s ra ftin g , ch arcoal burning, etc.
T he
d a ta a v a ila b le for th e report refer to 173 fo r e st ex p lo ita tio n s fu r n ish in g
em p loym en t to 8,360 laborers, and 10 charcoal-burning esta b lish m en ts em ­
p loyin g 151 laborers, w h ich w ere assu m ed to he ty p ica l o f a ll region s and
a ll c la sse s o f w ork.
T he q u estion s in v estig a ted w ere w ork in g con d ition s, housing, and v ic t­
ualing.
V

( A u s t r a l i a ) . — R ep o rt of th e G overnm ent sta tistic ia n fo r th e year
1915.
T h irty-eig h th A n n u a l R ep o rt on F rien d ly Societies. M elbourne
(1916). x x v ii, 63 pp.

ic t o r ia

T he report sh ow s th a t for th e la s t 30 years th ere h as been a stead y in crease
in th e num ber o f so cietie s, branches, m em bership and fu n d s, and in fu n d s per
m em ber. T he num ber o f m em bers h as in creased 46 per cent and th e fu n d s 78
per cen t p er m em ber. T he num ber o f m ales 16 y e a r s o f age and over in th e
P rovin ce in 1915 is reported as b eing 481,000, o f w h ich 145,210, or ap p roxim ately
one-third o f th e m ale p opulation, w ere m em bers o f th e se so cietie s. T h ere w ere
11 fe m a le societies, o f w h ich 10 w ere a sso cia ted w ith m ale societies.
A bout 15,000 m em bers h ave en listed , and it is im p ossib le to e stim a te th e
am ou n ts w h ich w ill be p ayab le b ecau se o f th is service, but som e o f th e so cietie s
h ave tak en p recau titon a g a in st p ossib le abnorm al p aym en ts by reason o f th e
w ar th rou gh rein su ran ce schem es.
T h ere are fou r ju v e n ile so cietie s, h a v in g 33 branches, w ith a m em bership o f
376 and fu n d s am ou n tin g to £2,101 ($10,225).
T he num ber o f sick p erson s per 1,000 m em bers w a s 205.7; th e average dura­
tion o f sick n ess w a s 8 w eek s and 2 d a y s per sick m em ber and 10.3 d a y s per
e ffectiv e m em ber; sick n ess benefits paid averaged £5 15s. 3d. ($28.04) per sick
person, £1 5s. 6d. ($6.20) per effectiv e mem ber, and 14s. Id . ($3.43) per w eek.
T h e d eath rate o f m em bers w a s 10.07 and th a t o f m em bers’ w iv e s w a s 4.3 per
1,000 m em bers.
U N O F F I C I A L P U B L I C A T I O N S R E L A T I N G TO L A B O R .
L abor.
L eg isla tive achievem ents o f th e A m erican
W a shington, 1916. 16 pp.
B u r e a u o f R a i l w a y E c o n o m i c s ( W a s h i n g t o n , D. C.) L i b r a r y .
L is t o f refer­
ences to books and a rticles on th e A dam son law o f S e p tem b er, 1916. 19
ty p e w ritte n pages. 1917.
C a s u a l t y A c t u a r ia l a n d S t a t is t ic a l S o c ie t y o f A m e r ic a .
Proceedings. Octo­
ber 27-28, 1916. V olum e 3, p a rt 1, No. 7. 230 F ifth A venue, N ew Y ork.
127 pp. Price, $1.
A

m e r ic a n

F

e d e r a t io n

o f

F ederation o f Labor.

A m ong th e su b jects o f papers presented in th is volum e a r e : Scheduled
exp erien ce r a tin g ; Som e p rin cip les of com p en sation m erit r a tin g ; A p p lication
of B a y e s’s ru le in th e cla ssifica tio n o f h azard s in exp erien ce r a t in g ; T em porary


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643

M O N TH LY REVIEW OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

and perm anent d isa b ility reserves. A n ab stract is also given o f th e d iscu ssio n
o f papers read at th e p reviou s m eetin g o f th e society rela tin g to th e fo llo w in g
s u b j e c ts : S hould th e com p en sation prem ium reflect th e exp erien ce o f th e in d i­
vid u a l risk? T h e exp erien ce r a tin g o f w ork m en ’s com pensation r is k s; V al­
u ation o f pen sion fu n d s ; P relim in ary lis t o f th e coal-m ine ra tin g sch ed u le o f
th e asso cia ted c o m p a n ie s; O utline o f a m ethod for d eterm in in g b asic pure pre­
m ium s ; R ela tio n o f accid en t freq u en cy to b u sin ess a c t i v it y ; Office p ractice in
th e v a lu a tio n o f com p en sation losses.
C

r o w e l l

,

J

o h n

F

r a n k l in

.

p u l s o r y h e a lth in s u r a n c e .

S o c ia l in s u r a n c e w i t h s p e c ia l r e f e r e n c e to c o m ­
N e w Y o r k C h a m b e r o f C o m m e rc e . 1917. 92 pp .

F or referen ce to th is p u b lication see p. 513 o f th is issu e o f th e
D

R

e v ie w

.

S e l e c te d a r t i c l e s on m in im u m w a g e .
M ary
K a t h a r i n e R e e l y , c o m p ile r . H . W . W ils o n Co., W h it e P la in s , N . Y ., a n d
N e w Y o r k C ity . 1 9 1 7 . 2 0 2 pp .

e b a t e r s

’

H

a n d b o o k

S

e r ie s

.

T h e a r tic le s h ave been grouped roughly as fo llo w s : T h ose b earin g on condi­
tio n s th a t call for a regu lation o f w a g e s; d iscu ssio n s on econom ic theory o f
m inim um w a g e s ; rep orts on m inim um w a g e in operation. T he d iscu ssion is not
lim ited to th e m inim um wrage fo r w om en. A com prehensive b ibliography g ivin g
both affirm ative and n e g a tiv e referen ces is included in th e volum e.
------

S e le c te d a r t i c l e s on tr a d e -u n io n s . E d n a D e a n B u llo c k , C o m p ile r . 2 d a n d
e n la r g e d e d itio n , 1916. H .. W . W ils o n C o., W h ite P la in s , N . Y ., a n d N e w
Y o r k C ity . 280 p p .

T h is book u n d ertak es to g iv e com prehensive referen ces for u se on both sid es
o f th e question , “ R e s o lv e d , T h a t trad e-u n ion s a s th ey now e x is t are, on th e
w hole, b eneficial to so ciety in th e U n ited S ta te s.” I t a lso con tain s a b ib lio­
graphy design ed to be com prehensive enough for advan ced stu d en ts o f th e
su b ject a s w ell a s for th e gen eral public and th e debater. T h e first ed ition w a s
published in 1913.
D

e u t s c h e

g e se l l sc h a f t

v o n

C

h ic a g o

.

26. J a h r e s b e r ic h t.

1916.

16 pp .

S ixty-secon d A nnual R eport o f th e G erm an A id S ociety o f C hicago. In ad d i­
tion to r e lie f in cash and oth erw ise, am ou n tin g to $11,237.09, th is society through
its em ploym ent dep artm en t su p p lied w ork to 5,765 p erson s d uring 1916.
F

, B oyd.
H o w to r e d u c e la b o r tu r n o v e r .
A n a d d r e s s b y th e V ic e - P r e s i­
d e n t o f th e E x e c u tiv e s ' C lu b o f D e t r o i t, M ic h ., b e fo r e th e P h ila d e lp h ia
A s s o c ia tio n f o r th e D is c u s s io n o f E m p lo y m e n t P r o b le m s , P h ila d e lp h ia , P a .,
J a n u a r y 8, 1 9 1 7 ; th e E m p lo y m e n t M a n a g e r s ' A s s o c ia tio n , B o s to n , M a ss.,
J a n u a r y 9, 1917, a n d th e E m p lo y m e n t M a n a g e r s ' C o u n c il o f th e C h a m b e r
o f C o m m e rc e , R o c h e s te r , N . Y ., J a n u a r y 11, 1917. 23 p p . P r ic e , 25c.

is h e r

F or sta tem en t concerning th is ad d ress, see a rticle on “ E m ploym ent problem s
in in d u stry ,” p. 579, o f th is issu e o f th e M o n t h l y R e v i e w .
F

, L e e K.
M a t e r n i t y in s u r a n c e . R e p r i n t e d fr o m th e N e w Y o r k M e d ic a l
J o u r n a l f o r D e c e m b e r 18, 1915. M e t r o p o l it a n L if e I n s u r a n c e Co. 1916.
2Jt p p .

r a n k e l

P ap er read a t th e m eetin g o f th e N a tio n a l A ssociation for th e Stu d y and
P reven tion o f In fa n t M ortality, P h ilad elp h ia, N ov. 10, 1915. D isc u sse s (1 )
h isto ry o f m otherhood p rotection th rough v o lu n tary p h ilan th rop ic ag en cies and
th rough m atern ity in su ran ce, (2 ) le g isla tio n affectin g m otherhood (both in th e
U n ited S ta tes and in foreign c o u n tr ie s), (3 ) p hilosophy o f m a tern ity in su r ­
ance, (4 ) p resen t m ethods o f p rotectin g m otherhood, p a rticu la rly alon g lin es o f
so cia l in su ran ce in E uropean cou n tries, (5 ) cost o f m a tern ity in su ran ce, (6 )
develop m en ts in th e p rotection o f m oth ers in th e U n ited S ta tes, and p o ssib ility
o f organ izin g a schem e o f social in su ran ce under w h ich cash benefits and m edi­
cal a tten d a n ce w ill be given to w om en d u rin g th e period o f m atern ity.


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

044

M O N TH LY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
S e r ie s .
P r is o n r e f o r m .
C o rin n e B a c o n , c o m p ile r .
The
W ils o n C o., W h it e P la in s , N . Y ., a n d N e w Y o r k C ity . 1917. 309 p p .

H

a n d b o o k

II .

IT.

A collection o f selected a r tic le s on p rison reform , w ith a com prehensive
bibliography. T he sectio n on con vict labor covers 84 p ages and r e la te s to the
con tract system , th e a ttitu d e o f trad e u nions to prison labor, con vict cam ps, good
road s and con vict labor, p rison ers’ \vages, outdoor trea tm en t o f crim e, th e
econom ic sta tu s o f pen al servitu d e, etc.
S t e e l C o.
S p e c if ic a tio n s a n d d e v ic e s f o r s a f e t y o f w o r k m e n o n a n d
a b o u t m a c h in e r y to be c o n s tr u c te d a n d in s t a l le d , a n d o p e r a tin g c o n d itio n s
to be m a in ta i n e d a t i t s p la n ts . 1916. 135 p p .

I

l l in o is

I

n t e r n a t io n a l

A s s o c ia t io n fo r L a b o r L e g is l a t io n .
A m e r ic a n s e c tio n .
So­
c ia l in s u r a n c e c o m m itte e .
H e a l t h in s u r a n c e .
S ta n d a r d s a n d te n ta tiv e
d r a f t o f a n a c t s u b m i t te d f o r c r itic is m a n d d is c u s s io n b y th e C o m m itte e on
S o c ia l I n s u r a n c e o f th e A m e r ic a n A s s o c ia tio n f o r L a b o r L e g is la tio n , 3d
e d itio n . N e w Y o r k , M a y , 1916. 32 p p .

------------------------ M e d ic a l p r o v is io n s o f th e t e n t a t i v e d r a f t o f a n a c t f o r h e a lth
in s u r a n c e d e v e lo p e d in c o n fe r e n c e w i t h p h y s ic ia n s a n d s u b m i t te d f o r
c r i ti c is m a n d d is c u s s io n b y th e C o m m itte e o n S o c ia l I n s u r a n c e o f th e
A m e r ic a n A s s o c ia tio n f o r L a b o r L e g is la tio n . N e w Y o r k , D e c e m b e r , 1916.
llf pp.
K

, W il l ia m
F retz.
C h o o s in g e m p lo y e e s b y m e n ta l a n d p h y s ic a l t e s ts .
T h e E n g in e e r in g M a g a z in e Co. N e w Y o r k , 1917. 333 pp .

e m b l e

A m ong th e specific top ics d iscu ssed are p ra ctica l p o ssib ilitie s o f in crea sin g
profits th rough ch oosin g em p loyees by te s t sy stem , te s tin g th e e x e c u tiv e and
a d m in istr a tiv e staff, em ploym ent form s, p erso n a lity , stren g th o f m em ory, age
and sex, environm ent, ed u cation , and reading, m en tal and p h ysical tr a its, accu ­
racy, m en tal speed, sk ill and con cen tration , a r tistic sen se, econom y and re­
lia b ility . F u ll d escrip tion s are given o f te s t m ethods.
L

, J. L .
L a t t e r - d a y p r o b le m s . R e v i s e d a n d e n la r g e d
n e r ’s, N e w Y o r k , 1917. 361 p p . P r ic e , $1.50.

a u g h l in

e d itio n , S c r ib ­

T he scope o f th is book is in d icated by th e fo llo w in g lis t of su b jects tr e a te d :
T h e hope for labor u n io n s; so cia lism , a .p h ilo so p h y o f fa ilu r e ; th e ab olition of
p overty ; social s e ttle m e n ts ; p o litic a l econom y and C h r is tia n ity ; la rg e fo r tu n e s ;
th e v a lu a tio n o f r a ilw a y s ; w om en and w e a lth ; m onopoly o f la b o r; cap italism
and social d is c o n te n t; b u sin ess and d e m o c r a c y ; econom ic lib erty.
M

a c a r a

,

C

W.
C a p ita l a n d
M a n c h e s te r , 1915. If pp .

la b o r.

h a r l e s

peace.

M e a n s f o r p r o m o tin g

in d u s tr ia l

P aper read before th e B r itish A sso cia tio n for th e A dvan cem en t o f Science.
Septem ber 8, 1915.
M

, K a t h e r in e .
J u s ti c e to A ll. T h e s t o r y o f th e P e n n s y l v a n ia S t a t e P o lic e .
P u tn a m , N e w Y o r k , 1917. 364 PP- P r ic e , $2.50.

a y o

H isto ry o f th e w ork o f th e P e n n sy lv a n ia D ep artm en t o f S ta te P olice sin ce
its o rgan ization in 1905. C on tain s a com plete lis t o f arrests and con viction s
for specified crim es and an accou n t o f th e m ethods u sed by th e S ta te police
in h an d lin g crim in a ls and d ealin g w ith rio ts and in d u stria l d istu rb an ces.
M

e t r o p o l it a n

L

if e

I

n s u r a n c e

C

o

.,

N

e w

T iv e n ty - f iv e y e a r s o f a d m in is tr a tio n .
N

a t io n a l

C

iv ic

in s u r a n c e .

F e d e r a t io n .
S o c ia l in s u r a n c e d e p a r t m e n t c o m p u ls o r y h e a lth
N e w Y o r k , 1917. 22 pp .

For referen ce to th is pam phlet see
v ie w

Y ork.
A n e p o c h in l if e in s u r a n c e .
N e w Y o r k , 1917. 110 pp.

.


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p.

514 o f th is issu e o f the

M

o n t h l y

R

e

­

MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
N

a t io n a l

C

o m m it t e e

fo b

t h e

2d annual report, 1915-16.

P

r e v e n t io n

o f

B

l in d n e s s

.

N ew Y ork, N ovem ber, 1916.

645

P ublica tio n No. 11,
36 pp.

P a rtic u la r a tten tio n is given to th e su b ject o f th e m edical in sp ection o f
children, and a sta tem en t is given o f cau ses of blin d n ess am ong p u p ils enrolled
in sch ools for th e blind w ith th e proportion blind from op h th alm ia neonatorum
(b a b ies’ sore e y e s) in 31 S ta te sch ools for th e blind in 1915-16. Som e d ata
are also given o f b lin d n ess cau sed by w ood alcohol.
N

a t io n a l

I
N

C

r e l a n d

o u n c il

.

a n d

U

n io n

o f

W

o m e n

W

o r k e r s

H andbook and report, 1915, 1916.

o f

London.

G

r ea t

B

r it a in

a n d

191 pp.

S o c ie t y f o r t h e P r o m o t io n o f I n d u s t r ia l E d u c a t io n .
B u lle tin No.
19. The selection and tra in in g o f teachers fo r S ta te-a id ed in d u stria l
schooli. (R evised edition.) N ew Y ork, F ebruary, 1917. 6ft pp.

a t io n a l

D ea ls w ith q u alification s, m ethods o f selection, and tr a in in g o f teach ers for
sch ools p reparing for sk illed trad es. C overs not only sch ools fo r m en and
boys, but also in d u stria l or trad e sch ools for g irls and w om en. D oes not cover
v ocation al schools o f household arts. T h e con clu sion s reached are th a t trad e
teach ers should be m asters o f th eir craft, tech n ical teach ers sh ou ld h a v e trad e
exp erien ce and ad eq u ate tech n ical know ledge, and n on vocation al tea ch ers
should h a v e sp ecial tra in in g in th e su b jects th ey are to teach. N o schem e o f
certification can he o f p erm anent valu e th a t is n ot based on accu rate kn ow led ge
o f th e req u irem en ts for teach ers. T h e S ta te should be th e so le certificatin g
au th ority, and ex a m in a tio n s should be conducted by S ta te agents.

----- B u lletin No. 23.
York.

E ven in g vocational courses fo r girls and w om en, N ew
F ebruary, 1917. 73 pp.

T he aim o f th is report is to define th e purpose and ou tlin e p lan s o f in stru c­
tion and ad m in istra tio n o f voca tio n a l sch ools for g irls and w om en. I t does
not attem p t to cover th e w h ole field o f v ocation al ed ucation, but is lim ited to
a d iscu ssion o f in d u stria l and hom e-m aking courses, p lacin g em p h asis on cou rses
related to th e d aily life and occu p ation s o f th e pupils.
m i n i m u m -w a g e c a s e s .
F ra n k C. S teelier, p la in tiff in error, v. E d w in V.
O 'Hara et al., co n stitu tin g In d u s tr ia l W e lfa re C o m m issio n ; E lm ira S im p ­
son, p la in tiff in error, v. E d to in V. O 'H ara et al., co n stitu tin g In d u s tria l
W elfare Com m ission. T he Su p rem e C ourt o f th e U nited S ta te s. October
term , 1916. Nos. 25 and 26. B r ie f fo r d e fen d a n ts in error upon reargu­
m ent. F elix F ra n k fu r te r, counsel fo r the In d u s tria l W e lfa re Com m ission,
assisted by Josephine G oldm ark, p ublication secretary, N a tio n a l C onsum ers’
League. R ep rin ted by N atio n a l C onsum ers' League, 289 F o u rth A ve., N ew
Y o rk C ity, 1917. 783 pp.
T h is b r ie f w ill be review ed at len gth in th e M ay, 1917. issu e o f th e M o n t h l y

O

reg o n

R

e v ie w

O

r eg o n

.

t e n -h o u r l a w .
F ra n k 0 . B u n tin g , p la in tiff in error , v. S ta te o f Oregon,
d efen d a n t in error. Su p rem e C ourt o f the U nited S ta te s. O ctober term ,
1916. No. 38. S u p p lem en ta ry brief fo r d e fen d a n t in error upon reargu­
m ent. F e lix F ra n k fu r te r, counsel fo r th e S ta te o f Oregon, a ssisted by
Josephine G oldm ark, p ublication secreta ry fo r th e N atio n a l C onsum ers'
League. R ep rin ted by N atio n a l C onsum ers’ League, 289 F o u rth A ve., N ew
Y o rk C ity, 1917. 77 pp.

T he original b rief for d efen d an t in error to w h ich th is b r ie f is supplem entary
w a s review ed in th e Monthly R eview for June, 1916, pp. 23-29. T h is supple­
m entary b rief w ill be review ed at len gth in th e M ay, 1917, issu e o f th e Monthly
R

e v ie w

R

ic h a r d s o n

.

, A lex.
The m an-pow er o f the nation. S u ggestions as to in d u s­
tria l efficiency fo r em ployers and w orkers. R ep rin ted fro m “ E n g in eerin g .”
London, 1916. 111 pp.


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

646
R

MONTHLY REVIEW OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
, J o h n A.
D istrib u tiv e ju stice. T h e rig h t and w rong o f our p resen t dis­
trib u tio n o f w ealth . M acm illan, New- Y o rk, 1916.. 442 pp.

y a n

T h is volu m e “ rep resen ts an attem p t to d isc u ss sy ste m a tic a lly and com pre­
h en siv ely th e ju stic e o f th e p rocesses by w h ich th e product o f in d u stry is
d istrib u ted .” T h e m oral a sp ects o f d istrib u tio n are stu d ied w ith referen ce
to four groups— lan d ow ners, ca p ita lists, b u sin ess men, and laborers. In th e
d iscu ssio n o f th e la s t group ch ap ters are given on som e unaccep tab le th eories
o f w a g e ju stice, th e m inim um o f ju stice, a liv in g w age, th e problem s o f
com plete w a g e ju stice, and m eth od s o f in crea sin g w ages.
, P. T e c u m s e h .
C riticism o f a te n ta tiv e d r a ft o f an act fo r health
insurance su b m itte d fo r criticism and discussion by th e C om m ittee on
Social Insurance o f th e A m erica n A sso cia tio n fo r L abor L egislation. 15
W illiam S treet, N ew Y ork. F ebruary, 1917. 94 pp.

S

h e r m a n

U

n io n e

See p. 514 o f th is issu e o f th e
C

o o p e r a t iv a

,

M

il a n

.

M

o n t h l y

R

for sum m ary o f th is pam phlet.

e v ie w

S to ria d ell’ Union C ooperativa.

M ilan, 1916.

160 pp.
D escrib es th e d evelopm ent o f th e U n ion e C ooperativa o f M ilan, th e la rg est
Ita lia n coop erative store society. T he so ciety w a s foun d ed in 1886 w ith th e
ob ject o f se llin g a r tic le s o f c lo th in g to its m em bers. T o-day it op erates a
m odel cen tral departm en t store, sev era l branch stores, popular-priced h otels
and resta u ra n ts, w in e cellars, a bakery, p rin tin g estab lish m en t, and a b u ild ­
in g and loan so ciety w h ich h as b u ilt m odel hom es fo r its m em bers in M ilanino,
a suburb o f M ilan.
In 1915-16 th e m em bership o f the society w a s 15,087, paid-in cap ital 6,294,706
lir e ($1,214,878), sa les 14,896,398 lire ($2,875,005), and profits 621,579 lire
($119,965).
U

n it e d

S

t a t e s

S

t e e l

C

o r p o r a t io n

.

B

u r e a u

S

o f

a f e t y

, S

a n it a t io n

T he S to ry o f Steel. B u lle tin No. 6, D ecember, 1916.
N ew Y o rk C ity. 1917. 63 pp.
f a r e

,

a n d

W

e l

­

71 B roadw ay,

.

T h is is a con cise and graphic story in t e s t and p ictu res o f th e m ining,
shipping, and sm eltin g o f ore and coal, and th e m a n u fa ctu re o f finished steel
products. I t is illu stra ted by photographs collected from m otion -p ictu re film s
sh ow n a t th e P an am a-P acific E x p o sitio n in 1915. It co n ta in s a grap h ic ch art
sh o w in g th e p ercen tage o f d ecrease in a ccid en t ra tes for th e em p loyees o f
th is corporation from 1907 to 1915 as com pared w ith 1906.
W

o m e n

’s

E

R eport.

d u c a t io n a l

a n d

1915-16.

1917.

I

n d u s t r ia l

U

n io n

,

B

o st o n

,

M

a s s

.

38th A n n u a l

58 pp.

T h is is an organ ization “ to prom ote th e ed u cation al, in d u strial, and social
ad van cem en t o f w om en .” D u rin g th e year en d in g Septem ber 30, 1916, th e
u nion gave d irect em ploym ent to 765 p ersons and secu red em ploym ent th rough
an appoin tm en t bureau and a social serv ice agen t for 880 p e r s o n s ; in ad d ition
it afforded ed u cation al op p ortu n ities to about 250 stu d en ts in salesm an sh ip
and oth er v ocation al train in g, gave legal, social, and v ocation al ad vice to over
4,000, and rendered oth er social service.


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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis