Full text of The Merchants' Magazine and Commercial Review : September 1860, Vol. XLIII, No. III

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B U S T ’S

MERCHANTS’ MAGAZINE.
E s t a b li s h e d J u l y , 18 39? b y F r e e m a n H u n t .

VOLUME XLIII.

CONTENTS

SEPTEMBER,

OF

NO.

1 86 0.

III.,

NUMBER III.

VOL.

XLIII.

ARTICLES.
A rt.
pack
I. R E V IE W , H ISTO R IC AL A N D C R ITIC AL , OF T H E D IF F E R E N T SYSTEM S OF
SOCIAL P H IL O SO P H Y ; OR, INTRODUCTION TO A MORE COM PREHENSIVE
SY ST E M . P a r t v ii i . The Intellectual Night or Dark Age of Europe briefly remark­
ed upon, and its Five Distinguishing Features—The Dawn of Modern Science Glanced
at—The Commonly Supposed Influence of Lord Bacon on the Cause of Science Crit­
ically Considered —His System of Philosophy Critically Examined— Descartes and Leib­
nitz Briefly Noticed, as the Great Representative Men of France and Germany, and
to some extent, of the Age, though less so than Bacon—Distinguishing Characteristics
of the Present Age—The necessity of henceforth rendering our Review more strictly
Critical, as it has been hitherto more peculiarly Historical, and of adopting the Syn­
thetic instead of the Analytic Method of considering the Sociological Ideas passing un­
der our Review...............................................................................................................................
275
II. V A L U A T IO N OF L IF E INSUR ANC E PO LIC IES. No. v . By Prof. C. F. M oCa y , of
Georgia........................................................................................................................................................ 301
III. FO R G E R Y .

By the author of “ Commercial Commodities Characterized ” ........................ 306

IV. OPIUM T R A D E OF IN D IA . Origin of Trade— Present Amount— Poppy— Process of
Manufacture— Dealers— Chinese Purchases-American Captain— Steam Citidels—Gam­
bling Nature— Large Capital— Use of Opium................................................................................. 313
V. F IN A N C IA L H ER ESIES.

By Ch arles H. C a rr o l l , Merchant, of Boston...................... 317

J O U R N A L OF M E R C A N T I L E

LAW.

Delivery of Cotton................................................................................................................................................ 322
Marine Insurance— Breach of Warranty in Marine Policy— W hen only “ Deviation” Allowable 324

C OMME RCI A L CHRONI CLE AND R E V I E W .
Business of the Month— Imports— Exports— Wheat—Crops— Large Wheat Deliveries—Corn—
Elements of Demand—Export and Prices for Ju ly—Cotton and Harvests—Supply too Large
—No Speculation-W est Sells all its Surplus— No Home Demand—Railroad SecuritiesRates of Money - Fall ih Value—Specie—Foreign B ills-Specie Shipments - California Bills
— United States Mint—Assay-Office—Current of Specie— Bank Reserve— Bank Discounts—
Representative Value—TheTnflation of Prices— Legislative Enactments.......................... 826-333
VO L. X L III.-----N O . I I I .




18

274

CONTENTS

OF

N O . I I I .,

J O U R N A L OF R A N K I N G .

V O L . X L III.

CURRENCY,

AND

FINANCE.

British Specie Imports and Exports, six months, to June 30.................................................................. 334
English customs D uties... ................................................................................................................................ 335
Banks of the United States, January, I860........................................ ; ........................................................ 386
City Weekly Bank Returns— Banks of New York, Boston, Philadelphia, New Orleans, Pitts­
burg. St. Louis, Providence............................................................................................................................. 337
New York City Banks, quarterly statement, June 25, I860.— New York City Banks.................... 340
Valuation and Taxation in Cincinnati.— Taxable Valuation of M ississippi.... .............................. 342
Failures in London in 1858-59.— Statistics of Poverty.............................................................................. 343
Debt of Russia.—Bank Profits.—July Dividends........................................................................................ 344

STATISTICS

OF

TRADE

AND

COMMERCE.

Wool Trade.. . ...................................................................................................................................................... 345
Sugar and Coffee in Hayti................................................................................................................................... 346
Distribution of the. Navy................................................................ ................................................................. 347
Canada Trade........................................................................................................................................................... 348
Cuba and Porto Rico............................................................................................................................................ 349
Silk.............................................................................................................................................................................. 350
Mouths of the Mississippi —Tobacco— Its Growth and Consumption........................................ ......... 351
British Exchange of Cotton Goods for Cotton............................................................................................. 352
Annual Coffee Circular.—Exports from New Orleans................................................................................ 353
Exports of Charleston, 8. C., quarter to June 3 0 ,1S0U.............................................................................. 353
The Cotton Trade.—Stock of Wheat ............................................................................................................. 354
African Laborers.— Canadian Reciprocity........................................................................................................ 355

NAUTICAL

INTELLIGENCE.

The Harbor of New Y o rk ...................................................................................................................................
Ships Building on the Lakes...............................................................................................................................
Lake Tides.—Tonnage on the Lakes....................................
Disasters on the Lakes— The New Route between the "West and England ....................................
New Lights at Civita Vecchia and Ancona.— Montauk Point Lighthouse, Long Island, N. Y . . .
Lighthouse on Merrill Shell Bank, Coast of Mississippi...........................................................................
Single Revolving Light in the Gull Stream, England................................................................................

POSTAL

356
357
358
358
359
359
359

DEPARTMENT.

Local Dispatch Posts Suppressed.—The Newspaper "Window at the London Post-office.............. 360

JOURNAL

OF

INSURANCE.

Insurance Dividends....................................
361
New Hampshire Fire Insurance Companies................................................................................................. 362

COMMERCIAL

REGULATIONS.

Rates of Pilotage in and out of the Mississippi Passes.— Certificate of Origin..................................
Siam D u tie s............................................................................................................................................................
Plaques.— Caustic Soda.........................................................................................................................................
Copy Books with Printed Headings.— Human Hair.— Cuban Manifests of Cargoes........................

RAILROAD.

363
364
365
366

CANAL, AND S T E A M B O A T S T A T I S T I C S .

German Rail w ays............................................................................................................... ............................ 867
Railroads of the State of New York...................... ........................................................................................ 368
Railway Statistics................................................................................................................................................... 370
Railroad Receipts for July.— A Method of Testing the Strength of Steam Boilers........................ 371
Performance of Locomotives.— Louisville Canal........................................................................................ 372
New York City Railroads— Railways of Connecticut.............................................................................. 373

JOURNAL

OF M I N I N G ,

MANUFACTURES,

AND

ART.

Tin—Its Uses and Commerce............................................................................................................................. 374
Engraving on Glass ............
375
Manufacture of Room or Wall Paper............................................................................................................. 376
R a g s .............................................
377
Cotton Spindles......................................................................................................................................................... 3/8
Silvering Lead Tubing.— Gas-light Companies of the United States.................................................... 379
Thimble Manufacturing..........................................................................................................................................3S0
Cooling of Metal Causing it to Heat Itself.— The American Pump...................................................... 881

STATISTICS

OF

AGRICULTURE,

&c.

Vinyards of France ................................................................................................................................................382
American Agriculture........................................................................................................................................... 383
Sugar Estates of Cuba. —Forests—Their Decrease....................................................................................... 384
Parceling of Land in France.......................................................
885
The Japanese Silk Worm.— Silk of Zurich.— Flax and Silk in Great B ritain.................................. 386

STATISTICS

OF

POPULATION,

&e.

Emigration from the British Isles.— Pennsylvania C ities.........................................................................387
Russian Emancipation.— Immigration into the West Indies.....................................................................388
Population of Maryland in 1782......................................................................................................................... 389

MERCANTILE

MISCELLANIES.

Governors of Cuba.— Trading Too Much.................................................................................................. 390-391
The Cost of Recovering a Debt.— No Excellence Without Labor.................................................. 392-393
Benefits of Advertising Illustrated.—Trade and Population aim.ng the Chief European States.394-395
Tobacco— One Price...................................
396-397
The Restless and Dissatisfied.—Freak of Trade.......................................................................................... 398

THE

BOOK T R A D E .

Notices of new Books or new Editions.................................................................................................... 399-4 Oo




HUNT’S

MERCHANTS’ MAGAZINE
AND

COMMERCIAL REVIEW.
S E P T E M B E R , 1 860.

Art. I .— REVIEW , HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL, OF TnE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS
OF SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY :*
OR, INTRODUCTION TO A

MORE COM PREHENSIVE

SYSTEM .

P A R T V III.
TIIE IN T E L L E C T U A L N I G H T O R D A R K A G E O F E U R O P E

B R I E F L Y R E M A R K E D U P O N , A N D IT S F I V E D I S ­

T I N G U IS H IN G F E A T U R E S — T H E D A W N O F M O D E R N S C IE N C E G L A N C E D A T — T H E C O M M O N L Y S U P P O S E D
IN F L U E N C E O F L O R D

BACON

O N T H E C A U S E O F S O IE N O B C R I T I C A L L Y C O N S I D E R E D — H IS S Y S T E M O F

P H IL O S O P H Y C R I T I C A L L Y E X A M I N E D — D E S C A R T E S A N D L E I B N I T Z B R I E F L Y N O T IC E D , A S T H E G R E A T
R E P R E S E N T A T I V E M E N OF F R A N C E A N D

G E R M A N Y , A N D , TO

SO M E E X T E N T , O F T H E A G E , T H O U G H

LESS SO T H A N B A C O N — D I S T IN G U IS H I N G C H A R A C T E R I S T IC S O F T H E P R E S E N T A G E — T n E
H E N O E F O R T II O F R E N D E R IN G O U R R E V I E W
M OR E

P E C U L IA R L Y

H IS T O R I C A L , A N D

M O R E S T R IC T L Y C R I T I C A L , A S I T

OF A D O P T IN G

T n E S Y N T H E T IC

HAS

IN S T E A D

N E C E S S IT Y

B E E N H IT H E R T O

OF T H E

A N A L Y T IC

M ET H O D O F C O N S ID E R I N G T n E S O C I O L O G I C A L I D E A S P A S S IN G U N D E R O U R R E V I E W .

T h e intellectual night which overspread Europe from the latter part
of the fifth to that of the fifteenth century was not one o f utter dark­
ness. The reflected sunshine o f former science threw a dim and solemn
light, resembling twilight, and which may be assimilated to the protract­
ed twilight of the northern latitudes, (if indeed it may not properly be
compared to moonlight,) over the darkened landscape of European soci­
ety, by which considerable attainments were made in architectural science,
though chiefly in the departments of church building and castle building,
and in other sciences which appertain to a state o f society considerably
elevated above that of rude or simple barbarism.
For in the intellectual night, to which mankind are liable, and in which
they seem often to remain for a considerable period, without the fact be­
ing male apparent to common observation— as a native of the torrid
zone might pass through a summer night in the arctic regions, without

* Entered according Loan act of Congress, in the year 1859, by G eo . W . & J no . A. "Wood , in the
Clerk’s O.hee of the District Court of the United ritates, for the southern district of New York.




276

,

Review H istorical and Critical,

realizing that it was night— the functions of the intellect are not by any
means suspended, not any more so than are those o f the natural world,
by the terrestrial night to which it is subject; although the functions of
nature in both cases— th&physical in the one, and the psychological in the
other— are performed with much less vigor and healthful manifestations
during the period of night.
Nor was this intellectual night of Europe unrelieved by such transient
and partial illuminations as often relieve the darkness of the terrestrial
night. Intellectual lights o f uncommon magnitude, like splendid meteors,
(if indeed they may not more properly be compared to blazing comets,)
among the brightest of w'hieb may be named Charlemagne, Alfred the
Great, Abelard, Aquinas, and Roger Bacon, gleamed occasionally across
the benighted sky, causing partial and transient illuminations, though
diffusing no steady light amidst the general darkness. During the same
period, the light shed from the far North, by the poets and historians of
Iceland, then considerably in advance of other European countries, has
been beautifully compared to the Aurora Borealis o f their native skies,*
diversifying the gloom of the European night. During the same pe­
riod, also, the lingering civilization o f Greece, then concentrated around
Constantinople, and which may be assimilated to a huge lamp, fed by the
oil of a former science, cast a pale and sickly light, in the region o f the
southwest, though penetrating but a little way into the surrounding and
general gloom.
During this period o f European history, which has been sometimes
designated as the “ Middle Age,” and sometimes as the “ Dark Age,”
there were five prominent influences, or causes, powerfully operating upon
the condition of European society, and which have chiefly engaged the
attention of those who have treated this portion o f general history, either
as mere historians, or as critical inquirers into the anatomy of human soci­
ety— the Feudal System, the Spirit of Chivalry, the Crusades, the Ecclesi­
astical Authority of the Romish Church, and the Scholastic Philosophy.
Neither of these influences, however, need detain us long, in this place,
and simply because the ideas which they prominently suggest in relation
to the philosophy of society are not o f sufficient importance to demand
..particular consideration, in our Review, which, in the more peculiarly
historical portion o f it, on which we are now engaged, does not aim to
notice any other ideas in Sociology than those which have been either
theoretically announced, or else practically and prominently illustrated by
actual occurrences or institutions, in former times, and before the present
age, in which sociological ideas have assumed so much defiuiteness and
form, in a theoretical point o f view, as to admit o f a more systematical
and strictly critical examination.
It is true, that from a critical and searching examination o f these in­
fluences, or indeed any one o f them, in relation to their remote, as well as
their immediate bearings on the condition of society,we might deduce many
highly important principles in Sociology. For as Burke has justly remark­
ed, “ every theme branches off into infinity;” and, as Carlyle, a more pro­
found thinker even than Burke, though a far less accurate and precise
one, has said much to the same point, “ all objects are as windows,
* See Sir George Mackenzie’s Travels in Iceland, in 1809; also, American Keview, vol iv., p.
586, October No. of 1812.




O f the Different Systems o f Social Philosophy.

277

through which the philosophic eye looksvinto Infinitude itself
both of
which remarks are in accordance with our own fundamental observation,
that “ all sciences are but the different spires o f the same common tem­
ple whose foundation is all knowledge.” ! A profound inquiry, therefore,
into the bearings of any one o f the influences in question would readily
enough lead us into all the infinitudes of social philosophy. But this
would he, as it were, preaching a sermon of very great significance from
altogether too inconsiderable a text, whereas the very a’ m of the present
undertaking, of this R e v i e w , H i s t o r i c a l a n d C r i t i c a l , o f t h e D i f f e r e n t
S y s t e m s o f S o c i a l P h i l o s o p h y ' , is to condense what has been already
stated at large, to compress sermons into texts, volumes into paragraphs,
and to express, as it were, in a literal sense, the very marrow, or most in­
terior essence, of all that is Valuable, either iu the speculation or practice
of former times, and of the various races o f men, in relation to the phi­
losophy and science of human society.
In regard to the Scholastic Philosophy of “ the Dark Age,” after mak­
ing due allowance for the remark of Ilallam, that “ Few, very few, for a
hundred years past, have broken the repose o f the immense works of the
schoolmen,’’^ and for the consequently limited information which the
present age may be supposed to have in regard to their philosophy, we
may venture, pretty safely, to assert, that it is eminently unworthy of
any special consideration. This philosophy appears to have been mainly
concerned in the unprofitable attempt to compass the most incomprehen­
sible of all knowledge to man, and which must, most probably, ever re­
main “ a sealed b o o k ” to him, knowledge o f the essential nature of God,
or what we may venture to style the metaphysics o f theoloyy, and that
too by the most false system o f philosophizing. In the language of Tennemann, in regard to this Scholastic Philosophy, “ The human mind thus
endeavored at once, without any substantial knowledge or previous disci­
pline, to grapple with the greatest of all questions, the Nature of the Divin­
ity, and by a course, the reverse of that pursued by Grecian philosophy, be­
ginning with this great principle, sought, in its descent, to embrace the
circle o f all acquired knowledge.” § In short, these scholastic philoso­
phers, in common with a great many others, though these more especially
than any others, adopted, in their search after truth, the preposterous
mode of proceeding, or attempting to proceed, from the unknown to the
known, instead o f the very reverse, which is undoubtedly the only true
mode of philosophizing, in every department of knowledge, that of pro­
ceeding from the known to the unknown. It should be superfluous to re­
mark that such a mode o f philosophizing, especially when applied to
such objects as were mainly aimed at by the Scholastic Philosophy, must
ever prove barren o f useful results.
In regard to the Ecclesiastical Authority of the Romish Church, du­
ring “ the Dark Age,” nothing special need be said in this review. That
it was adapted to the times, Yvithout which it could not well have flour­
ished, that it exerted in the main a.salutary influence during those times,*§
* See Carlyle’s Sartor Resartns, book i., chap. 11. The writer is not able to refer to the work
speech, or essay of Burke, in which the idea cited in the text was used by him.
t See Part i of this Review, in October No. of Merchants' Magazine, for 1859.
X See Middle Ages, chap, ix., part ii.
§ See Tenneman’s Manual of the History of Philosophy, as translated by Arthur Johnson and
revised J. R. Morell, section 239.




,

Review H istorical and Critical,

278

and more potential than had ever been exerted before, or has been since,
on human society, by any form o f theocracy, and that it was, neverthe­
less, substantially the same kind of authority to which mankind in the
earlier and ruder stages of society are generally prone to pay homage,
are propositions which should be too generally recognized to need com ­
ment here.
lit regard to the Crusades, very much might be said, of grqat and rare
interest to the social philosopher, as well as to the mere critical inquirer
into European history. But that which might thus be said is hardly sug­
gested with sufficient prominence to be dwelt upon here, consistently
with the scope of this review, as already indicated.
The Crusades not only illustrate, like the wars o f the Saracens, the
power of the religious sentiment, or of religious enthusiasm, on the gen­
eral movements of society, but they illustrate the generalizing and sys­
tematizing influence which Christianity had already begun to exert on
Europe— uniting all its different nationalities in a common enterprise.
They illustrate also the influence of external causes on the development
and growth of society, bringing Europeans into contact with foreign na­
tions of Asiatic origin, and with nations much more advanced in civiliz­
ation, at that time, than themselves, the beneficial effects of which on
their manners and customs were manifestly displayed. They illustrate
also a much more general fact, the close and intimate analogy between
social and individual organism, intimating the general fact that social, as
well as individual, life requires more vigorous exercise in youth, than in
mature age, consistently with which fact, it may be observed that no hu­
man society, so far as history informs us, has ever yet attained to any
considerable growth, or eminence in the family of nations, which did not,
dunng its youth, have to sustain, in some form or other, desperate wars
with other nations. The Crusades, in short, were, to Europe in general,
what the Trojan war was to Greece, the Carthaginian and other early
wars to Rome, the Tartar invasion to Russia, and the desperate struggles
with the Danes and afterwards with the Normans were to the Saxons of
Britain.
The important effects of the Crusades on European society are observ­
able, externally, in the general improvement of manners and customs
consequent thereupon, and, internally, in important changes in the ana­
tomical structure of the society. For anything like an adequate deline­
ation of these internal effects of the Crusades on Europe, reference must
here be made to those justly renowned inquirers into the anatomy of
European history, Hallam, in his “ Middle Ages,” and Guizot, in his “ His­
tory of Civilization in Europe.” One effect only will here be particular­
ized— a great abatement o f the nuisance o f predatory lordly barons, whose
prerogatives and privileges were absorbed by the central lord, or king,
on one hand, aud by the communities of mechanics and artificers, on the
other. On this point the language of Guizot, in reference to the Cru­
sades, cannot easily be condensed or improved: “ It has been shown in
what manner they had reduced a great number of feudal proprietors to
the necessity of selling their fiefs to the king, or to sell their privileges to
the communities, in order to raise money for the Crusades.” *
The Spirit o f Chivalry, highly interesting and remarkable feature in
* See Guizot's General History of Civilization in Europe, lecture viii., p. 208.




O f the Different Systems o f Social Philosophy.

279

human history as it is, need not detain us long. It may be disposed of
■with the remark, that it was Christianity taking the form adapted to the
then existing state of society in Europe— Christianity applied to war, and
a war-scourged state of society, or, at least, that it was the highly wrought
spirit of a naturally brave and noble race of people elevated, softened,
and refined by the spirit of Christianity, and aroused to the necessity of ex­
traordinary efforts to redress extraordinary grievances.
In no similarly
unsettled and habitually war-scourged state of society was such a noble
spirit ever exhibited by mankind.
Nor can it reasonably be doubted
that the rude warriors of Europe, during that age, were indebted, for
much of that noble spirit o f chivalry which has rendered them illustri­
ous, to the beneficent influence of Christianity, on which having already
dwelt at some length* in a former article, it would be unnecessary repe­
tition to dilate again in this.
It may indeed be said, that true courage is nearly always chivalrous,
magnanimous; but it is never so much so as when chastened and refined
by the religion of Christ, as when imbued with Christian principles,
as when it has been baptized, as it were, not with water, but with the
genuine spirit of Christianity.
If the justly renowned chivalry and magnanimity of the Saracen war­
riors of the same age should be urged against the view here presented,
as to the influence of Christian ideas in begetting the Chivalrous spirit, it
is to be replied that the Saracens themselves were quasi Christians, being
imbued with the Mohammedan religion, which, as we have before had
occasion to remark, may be regarded as a kind of spurious Christianity,f
embodying many of its noblest principles, and that the Saracens of that
age had the advantages of a much more advanced stage of civilization
than that of the Europeans, to illustrate and embellish their chivalry.
The Feudal System, so often the theme of loose and superficial remark,
not only in common conversation, but in essays, historical treatises, and
even in works of more scientific pretension, may rather afford us occa­
sion here to criticise the prevailing misapprehension as to its essential
character, than for any particularly noteworthy observation which it sug­
gests in relation to the philosophy of society.
The idea has prevailed hitherto, almost universally, notwithstanding
some faint disapprovals of it, by eminent authority, that the Feudal Sys­
tem was, in some sense or other, an essentially different arrangement of
society from any that had existed before T>r has existed since, that it was
a peculiar institution, and that it was one of the prominent causes of the
disturbed and distracted state o f society which existed in Europe during
the greater part of the Middle Age. The truth is, on the contrary, that
the Feudal System was essentially, and to all intents and purposes, sim­
ply that kind of political arrangement which has always existed, and
must always exist, to a greater or less extent, in such a rude, unsettled,
and warlike state of society as then existed in Europe, and it was the
effect rather than the cause of the existing condition of European society.
Nay, in a larger sense, we might venture to say it was, essentially, pretty
much the same arrangement of society that now exists in Europe, and in
America, the real difference between the two states of society being in
* See sixth No. of this Review, in May No. of Merchants'1 Magazine.
t See seventh No. of this Review, in July No. of Merchants’ Magazine.




280

,

Review H istorical and Critical,

the different modes in which the activities of the social arrangement were
manifested.
It seems to be commonly imagined, and so it is expressly laid down,
by the superficial law writers,* that the distinctive peculiarity of the
Feudal System was in respect to landed tenures, and consisted in this,
that all lands were held ot some superior, and, only upon certain condi­
tions ; most commonly those of military service— the barons holding
ing directly of the king, or “ lord paramount,” on such conditions, and
the vassals holding of the barons, on similar conditions. But in what
essential or substantial respect did this species of landed tenure differ
from that which is genetically termed allodial, as contradistinguished
from jeudal, and which now generally prevails in Europe, and universally
in the United States of America?
Is not land everywhere, in these
countries, and, in short, universally throughout civilized society, held by
individuals, o f some superior, as recognized by law, for example of the
State, primarily, and, in a multitude o f instances, of some individual
landlord, secondarily? Is not land, universally throughout civilized soci­
ety, held, moreover, upon conditions — upon the condition that the taxes
be paid, and, to a very great extent also, upon the further condition, that
the rent be paid ? Or is it supposed that the nature of landed tenure is
essentially varied by the fact, that the condition on which land is held,
as under the Feudal System, is, for the most part, military service ; that,
in short, the rent is to be paid in shields and lances, or in so many “ horse,
foot, and dragoons ?”
W hat real or essential difference does it make
whether the rent to be paid for land, whether to the State, through its
tax gatherer, or to the landlord, through his bailiff, be so many lances,
so many raccoon skins, or so many dollars in cash ? Is not the real dif­
ference between these several cases rather in the different conditions o f
society, which render lances a paramount commodity of exchange in the
one case, raccoon skins in the other, and cash in the other.?— thus again
verifying the great fundamental truth so often before remarked upon in
this review, (substantially, if not in so many words,) and which we shall
find repeatedly cropping out in Sociology, like the fundamental granite of
geology, that it is the condition o f society which determines and gitpesform
and direction to the political arrangements o f the society, rather than those
political arrangements which determine or give jorm and direction to the
condition o f the society.
Hallam, in his remarks on th6 Feudal System, has recognized, to some
* See Coke, Blackstone, Kent, et id omne genvs of superficialists in Social Philosophy—a remark
not intended to disparage these justly renowned names, in respect to their contributions to mere
jurisprudence. But h«*w extremely superficial is the influence of the mere jurist on the condition of
society and how equally superficial are the ideas o f such, for the most part, in respect to the philos­
ophy of society. Kent, for example, in his remarks on Feudal Tenuies, stumbled on the tiuth In
question, in one place where it projected above the. surjace, but he had not the discernment to re­
cognize it. He says, in the very commencement of his remarks on 1 his topic, “ some writers have
supposed that the sources of feuds were not confined to the Northern Gothic nations who over­
turned the Western Empire of the Romans, and that an image of feudal policy had been discover­
ed in almost every age and quarter of the globe.”
See Kent's Commentaries on Law, vol. ili., p489, third Am. ed., and authorities cited in note thereto, which abundantly sustain this opinion,
which precisely coincides with that expressed in our own text. Yet Kent, like a host of others,
ignores the opinion, and passes very lighily over it. In fact, Chancellor Kent seems to have been
a man who staggered under the vast weight of his learning, and tumbled to the right and left, not
unfrequently, with confused and devious stops. He does not appear to have possessed that hercu­
lean frame of mind which can move forward, unencumbered and unimpeded, by the most proc’.iious load of knowledge—steadied and rendered more direct in his motion, rather than unsettled
y its weight. The learning of Chancellor Kem has often served to obscure rather than to illus­
trate his native talent—a remark not exclusively applicable, by any means, to that highly merito­
rious jurist and scholar.

f




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extent, the truth o f the observations here made, although with rather
too timid hesitancy, and without that decisiveness and boldness of enun­
ciation which should characterize one who is thoroughly master of the
idea. He says, “ I f the view that I have taken of those dark ages is correct,
the state of anarchy which we usually term feudal, was the natural result
of a vast and barbarous empire feebly administered, and the cause rather
than the effect of the general establishment of feudal tenures.” *
One other remark on the Feudal System it is proper here to make, as
having a direct and important bearing on the philosophy of society.
The two principal kinds of feudal tenure, tenure by knight service, and
socage tenure, were distinguished from each other, chiefly by'this circum­
stance, that the services incident to the former were uncertain, while those
incident to the latter were definite and certain. How it was precisely this
former species of tenure— that by knight service—-which was essentially
uncertain as to its requirements, that was universally held to b9 by far
the more oppressive and injurious, so that when, in the 12th year of
Charles II., a statute was passed abolishing tenure by knight service, and
converting all landed tenure into “ free and common socage,” with some
modifications of the tenure in socage, the feudal system, or all that has
been commonly held to be peculiarly injurious in that system, was con­
sidered virtually abolished in England. This great prominent fact, con­
cerning the Feudal System, it must be obvious, is a powerful corrobora­
tion of the fundamental remark made in the foregoing part of this re­
view, that the essential nature o f the immediate evils of all bad govern­
ment is u n c e r t a in !’y.j W e find that so soon as the previously uncer­
tain conditions on which lands were held, for the most part, under the
Feudal System, became stable, fixed, and certain, the evils of that system
vanished.
The intellectual night o f Europe was however far spent before the Feu­
dal System had released its hold on the land, or the Scholastic Philoso­
phy its hold on the mind of Europeans ; and streaks o f the morning had
reddened the intellectual horizon before the Spirit of Chivalry had quite
subsided, or the Ecclesiastical Authority of the Romish Church, which
still brooded, like a nightmare, over the mind of Europe, had been sen­
sibly' abated, although the stirring clamor o f the Crusa les had then com­
pletely died away. And if this intellectual night was long and dreary,
it was undoubtedly the precursor of a sp le n d id d a y . “ The-morning
star of religious reformation ” shone brightly over the isles of Britain
in the 14th century. The gladdening beams of returning day, discerni­
ble in the revival of ancient learning, and a wide spread spirit of inquiry,
lighted up the horizon toward the latter part o f the 15th, and in the
commencement of the 16th century the sun of civilization, after a pro­
tracted night of ten centuries, rose once more on Europe, and ushered in
a d a y , destined beyond doubt to be one o f far greater splendor and far
more important achievement, than either of the preceding days of human
enlightenment.
It has been long customary to compute the dawn of modern science
from Sir Francis Bacon, and to attribute its most distinguished achieve­
ments mainly to the influence exerted by his extraordinary mind on the
* See Ilallam's Middle Ages, chap, ii., part ii. of the chapter,
t See Part yii.




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philosophy of the age. The former of these ideas is undoubtedly errone­
ous, and the latter has been greatly exaggerated.
The printing press had been invented, America had been discovered,
Copernicus had promulgated his theory of the solar system, and Luther
had triumphantly preached the doctrines o f religious reformation, before
Bacon appeared upon the stage of existence, the last and latest of which
events had transpired fully a century before the Novum Organum, the
greatest of the works of Bacon, was published in 1620.* Moreover,
Galileo and Kempler, both contemporaries of Bacon, though somewhat
younger men, had both promulgated their celebrated ideas in astronomy
before the Novum Organum appeared.
Nay, Bernard Telesius, an Italian, who may not inaptly he styled the
Bacon of Italy, who was born in 1508 and died in 1588, had, nearly a
half century in advance of Bacon, attempted a reformation in philosophy
very similar to that attempted by Bacon, seeking, like him, to ground
knowledge on experience, or perception through induction, and attacking
the system of Aristotle on the very ground on which Bacon attacked it,
that it laid down as principles mere abstractions, and not real existences—
abstracta et non entia.f It is manifestly erroneous, therefore, to compute
the dawn of modern science, or even the su n rise of the present d a y of
human enlightenment, from the time of Sir Francis Bicon, although it
may be very just to say that the real business o f the day fairly commenced
with him.
Were it important to the purposes o f this review to fix the time when
the present day of human enlightenment may be regarded as having be­
gun, we need have little hesitation in saying, that it began with the reli­
gious reformation inaugurated by Luther, early in the 16th century,
when the minds of men became, in some degree, generally illuminated
with the idea of their own individuality, and rights o f independence, as
sentient and rational beings. W e might venture, moreover, to designate,
as the very moment of su n r ise to the present civilization, that ever-memorable occasion, the 10th of December, 1520, when Luther, before a
great concourse of people, at the Elster gate of Wittemhurg, indignantly
burnt the Pope’s fire decree, while “ Witteinburg looked on with shout­
ings,” and “ the whole world was looking on.”
It is therefore with pe­
culiar felicity that Carlyle, some o f whose words, in reference to this
event, we have borrowed, in the foregoing sentence, says, in relation to
the shout which arose on that occasion, “ it was the shout of the awak­
ening nations.”!
Loftier intellects had, indeed, before this, caught the
rays of the rising sun, but then, for the first time, it may be said, the sun­
* This statement, that the triumphant preaching of the doctrines of religious reformation, by
Luther, was later than the promulgation of the theory of Copernicus, concerning the solar system,
may appear liable to censure, as an historical error, since Luther m aybe said to have virtually
triumphed when he burnt the Pope’s tire decree, before the Elster gate of Witteinburg, in 1V2U,
whereas the treatise Du, orbium. cdestiwu reoolutioni.bus of Copernicus was not completed until
1530, ten years later, nor published until 151:1. But it appears that Copernicus had conceived and
developed his ideas on astronomy as far back as 1507, although he had not as yet verified them
sufficiently by mathematical calculations. In our text it is assumed that his ideas were nrumidffated, from the moment they were formed and developed, and the work of preparing them for
publication, through the printing press, was begun. In this, we do but follow the maxim of the
court of chancery, that “ what is to be done is to be considered as done,” from the time when it is
legally directed to be done.
t See Tenneman's Manual of the History of Philosophy, translated by Johnson and revised by
Morell, sections ti98 and 316.
X See Carlyle on Heroes, p. 119.




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light descended upon the eyelids o f the multitude, and they recognized it
with a shout.
As to the influence exerted by Bacon on the achievements of modern
science, it does not appear to have been so marked or important as ap­
pears to be commonly supposed, nor is there any good reason to believe
that it has been very much greater than that of other transcendent minds,
whose contributions to philosophy have been far less bruited, mainly be­
cause they did not, like those of Bacon, have the destiny to appear at a
time when the attention of mankind was but little distracted by multi­
plicity of authors, and when their ideas might well present the appearance
of novelty— a circumstance not to be lightly regarded in attempting an
estimate of the influence exerted by the philosophical writings of Bacon ;
since it is obvious, that, amid a crowd of authors, one o f great merit is
less likely to be recognized, than when he stands up, alone, like Pom pey’s pillar amid the solitudes o f the modern Alexandria, and siuce the
melody even of the swan is apt to go unheeded, if she be doomed to sing
when every goose is cackling. The philosophical writings of Bacon
have had the fortune to obtain pre-eminence in reputation, rather than to
have merited it— another testimony to the truth of the poet’s line,
“ One Ctesar lives, a thousand are forgot,”

— a reflection which should curb the ambition o f men to reign as Icings,
either in statesmanship, or fundamental philosophy, since it shows that
few, if any, are really more gifted than a thousand of their fellows, and
that, moreover, it is very uncertain whether the merit which they really
possess, of deserving to be regarded as one o f a thousand, will ever be
recognized.
The merits of Bacon, as a leader in philosophy, were undoubtedly very
great. But he is indebted largely for his 'pre-eminent reputation, to the
point o f time at which he appeared, and to the place which he occupies
in the grand column o f advancing humanity. He owes it largely to the
fact that he belongs to the vanguard of modern philosoply— that he
stands in the front rank o f that grand army o f scientific explorers and
conquerors, who seem to be marching forward to the conquest of the uni­
verse, and the mastery of its grandest mysteries— to the fact that he stands
foremost, or among the foremost, in that long and brilliant retinue o f in­
tellectual giants, whose prodigious strength and wonderful achievements
might well lead an enthusiast to imagine that we are approaching the
reign of gods, or at least of demigods, rather than men, in the intellectual
sphere of earth.
For this, merit must be accorded to Bacon, that he was among the fore­
most, and most prominent among the foremost, of these giants. It is
true that Columbus, Copernicus, and Luther were slightly in advance of
him on the field of action. But their aims and achievements, though
highly important, were far more circumscribed. Columbus aimed merely
at an extension of knowledge in Geography, Copernicus in Astronomy,
and Luther in respect to the more interior and occult relations o f man to
Deity, or what is commonly called religion. But Bacon, to use his own
terse and sententious language, took all knowledge fo r his province.* He
was, moreover, the first of all philosophers who seems to have done so,
* See Bacon’s letter to his uncle, Lord Burliegh—also Macaulay's Essays, article on Lord Bacon.




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or at least to have done so from deliberate design, and with a clear con­
ception o f the fitness and propriety, as well as the vastness, of such an
undertaking.
It is true that earlier philosophers, and particularly those of Greece,
had attempted to compass the bounds of all knowledge, as in all ages
there seems to have been a desire, on the part o f all true philosophers,
to grasp the all— the to pan of the Greeks. Accordingly, we find Plato and
Aristotle,though more particularly the latter, tugging at all the then known
sciences — Aristotle having treated not only of Ethics and Politics, but
also Physics, Metaphysics, and Logic— which last, Logic, or the science
o f the formal processes o f the mind in reasoning, he treated with dis­
tinguished success. But neither Plato, nor Aristotle, nor any other
philosopher before the time of Bacon, seems to have had a clear concep­
tion of the idea, that all knowledge has an intimate relationship, and a
vital connection of parts, which give it a homogeneousness and entirety
of nature— that, in short, the tree o f knowledge is one and indivisible.
It was Bacon who first distinctly announced, that “ the distributions and
partitions of knowledge are like the branches of a tree, that meet in a
stem, which hath a dimension and quantity of entireness and continu­
ance;” * and who laid it down as a rule, “ that all partitions of knowledge
be accepted rather for lines and veins, than for sections and separations,
and that the continuance and entireness of knowledge be preserved.” !
Bacon may be regarded as the first philosopher who gave distinct ut­
terance to this great and eminently valuable idea, o f the necessity o f at­
tempting to grasp all knowledge as a whole, even when considering any
one of its parts, an idea which has been subsequently developed, much
more prominently, in the grand conceptions of Swedenborg, Fourier,
Comte, Humboldt, Scbelling, and other German philosophers, who, like
Schelling, have regarded the universe, and perhaps more properly, from
the metaphysical or subjective stand point, rather than from the physical
and objtctive, from which Bacon almost exclusively regarded it, although
these German metaphysicians have been altogether too much immersed
in the mere conceptions o f reason, as was Bacon too much immersed in
the mere perceptions o f sense.
Bacon was the first philosopher who, with deliberate design, made this
vast effort to compass all knowledge, who strove to sustain, like the fabled
Atlas of antiquity, the world of knowledge, the universe of thought, upon
his shoulders. What, though, in attempting to shoulder the universe, he
tugged at it with only one shoulder, the shoulder of Induction, which is
undoubtedly the right shoulder. Philosophers before had been tugging
at it with the other shoulder, almost exclusively— the shoulder of Deduc­
tion. It was something, and of no small consequence, to shift the effort
from the left to the right shoulder, the more especially as the consequence
has been to bring both shoulders into service.
Much has been said as to the merits o f the Inductive or Experimental
system of Philosophy, recommended and elaborated by Bacon, in his
Novum Organum, and many writers have expressed themselves, in rela­
tion thereto, as if they supposed that to Bacon was due the credit of hav­
ing invented that method or process of reasoning. The truth should,
* See Advancement of Learning, as published in 1605, book ii., p. 93, of London edition, of 1824.
t Same, p. 114.




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285

however, be obvious enough, that neither Bacon nor any one else ever in­
vented the process of inductive, any more than of deductive reasoning—
both processes being as natural to the human mind, as the process of re­
spiration to the body, by one of which the mind breathes in, as it were,
and by the other breathes out ideas, as bv the double process of respira­
tion the body inhales and exhales air. Every system of Philosophy,
moreover, it should be obvious enough, comprehends, to some extent, both
the inductive and deductive methods of reasoning, that is, ascends from
particulars to generals, as well as descends from generals to particulars;
for a system o f mere induction, without any synthesis or generalization,
would be the most barren empiricism, while one o f mere generalization,
without any previous induction, or subsequent testing o f the generaliza­
tion or hypothesis, by experiment, would be the most empty dogmatism.
Nay, moreover, it should be obvious enough, that, “ there is,” asMorell
has remarked, in his history of Modern Philosophy, “ a logic of induction,
as well as of deduction, having rational axioms at its foundation, and tha ,
without these axioms, or the truths which they embody, being in the
mind, the outward observation, whereon they, (the sensationlists like Ba­
con) so firmly rely, would be altogether nugatory” ;* and that, therefore,
the difference between the inductive mode of reasoning, which Bacon is
erroneously supposed to have invented, and the deductive, which had, be­
fore his time, been much more generally employed, is not essentially or
really so great as is commonly imagined.
What, then, did Bacon really accomplish for the cause of science and
philosophy, that he should have acquired such great celebrity, as a leader
in Philosophy, and that he should have been so commonly regarded as
“ the Father, of the Inductive Philosophy” ? If the author of this review
is right, in regarding all sciences as but the different members of the same
common body ; nay, if Bacon himself was right, in regarding them as but
the different branches of the same common stem or trunk, then this in­
quiry is not out of place in a “ Review, Historical and Critical, of the
Different Systems of Social Philosophy.” For in such an inquiry, we shall
be but considering the condition of the body7 or trunk of general philoso­
phy, before proceeding to examine that of its separate members or branches,
or rather, we shall be but considering what lias been done by modern
philosophers, for the body or trunk of general philosophy, before proceed­
ing to inquire what lias been done by them for that particular member
or branch of the common body or trunk, which is specifically the subject
ot the present undertaking.
What Bacon has accomplished for science and philosophy, may be sum­
med up in one sentence. He enlarged the conceptions of philosophers
in general, by his comprehensive, all-embracing plan o f regarding the
sciences, and has thereby enlarged and invigorated the general body of
Philosophy; he illustrated, with an overwhelming force, the importance
of a more enlarged induction of facts and observations, as a basis of
generalization or scientific conclusion, than had before been adopted ; and
he exerted a powerful influence in turning philosophic attention from the
contemplative pursuits, to which it had been, before, altogether too much
addicted, to the active, from the theoretical to the practical, from the
speculative to the actual, from the internal to the external, from the mere
* See J. D. Morell’s History of Modern Philosophy, chap, iv., sec. i., sub-sec. C., p. 821.




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conceptions of reason to the perceptions o f sense— in short, from the too
purely spiritual to the material.
This much Bacon has accomplished for science and philosophy, and
but little if an}' more. It is evident, however, that it was something
more than this which he aimed to accomplish, and which he flattered
himself with the idea that he had accomplished. He aimed at confering a specific benefit, as well as exerting a general influence, on Philoso­
phy. He aimed at furnishing it with a new method, fo r acquiring know­
ledge of extraordinary virtues— the Inductive method; and he has, more­
over, acquired the reputation of having effected what he aimed at, though
he has not merited it. For not only is there nothing specifically new, in
the Inductive method of reasoning, recommended by Bacon, (as we have
already remarked,) but there is no specific virtue in that method of in­
vestigating truth, no talismanic power that it possesses, as Bacon seems
to have imagined, which could insure us against error in our conclusions.
Indeed, the history of Lord Bacon, as a philosopher, affords another and
striking illustration of the truth, that men often aim at one end and at­
tain another, either essentially different, or else more or less comprehen­
sive than that at which they aimed. And this remark naturally leads us
to inquire, with somewhat more particularity, what it was, then, Bacon
aimed to accomplish, and what it was that he actually accomplished for
the cause of Philosophy ?
O f all the manifold writings o f Lord Bacon, not excepting his masterly
essays, in which his peculiar genius is really more conspicuous than in
any other, the greatest, though not the most unexceptionable, are un­
doubtedly those which he aimed to make the greatest, and which he
evidently regarded as the great business o f his life, those which he has
comprehended under the august title of the “ Magna Instauratio,” or
“ Grand Instauration,” in which, essaying to set aside or disregard all pre­
viously acquired knowledge, or supposed knowledge, nay, to pull down
the whole structure of the sciences, as they then stood, he proposed to
set mankind to work to obtain knowledge upon a new method, and to re­
construct the whole edifice of science, upon a new and more reliable basis.
This great undertaking Bacon divided into six parts, which, like other
great undertakers, he never completed, having been overtaken by death,
the great destroyer of all the vaulting aspirations of man, before he had
completed more than the first three parts of his great design. These three
parts of the “ Grand Instauration,” which Bacon actually completed, were,
first, the “ Advancement o f Learning” — first published, in English, in
1005, divided into two books, and subsequently published in Latin, under
the title of “ De Augmentis,” somewhat enlarged in body, and divided
into nine books— second, the “ Novum Organum,” first published in 1520,
in Latin, and divided into two books, and third, the “ Sylva Silvarum,”
literally, “ Leaves o f the W oods,” or less literally and poetically,
“ Phenomena of the Universe,” a miscellaneous collection o f facts, with­
out order, and of no great value. It is in the first of these works, the
“ Advancement of Learning,” that Bacon makes the classification of the
sciences, which has already come under our review, in the present under­
taking.* It is in the second, or the Novum Organum, that he develops,
more particularly, the Inductive method, with which his name has been
* See part ii. of this review, in November number of Merchants’ Magazine, for 1839.




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so intimately associated, and which it is now proposed to subject to a
brief review. To develop and establish this Inductive method, was evi­
dently the grand aim of Bacon’s philosophical writings. In seeking to
carry out this cherished aim, while he rendered signal services to the cause
of philosophy, though incidentally, rather than directly, he was betrayed,
by that overweening importance which men are so apt to attach to their
own cherished ideas, into great errors— errors, which, had not the
good sense of the age corrected, or refused to imitate them, would have
led philosophy into almost as unprofitable a method o f inquiry, though
of an opposite character, as that from which it was his aim to divert it.
In short, Bacon enjoined a far too rigid adherence to induction or experi­
ment, and he vastly overestimated its efficacy, as a method o f acquiring
knowledge.
I.
Bacon enjoined a too rigid adherence to induction and experiment.
There is no necessity for dwelling so long on experiment, as he recom­
mended, in order to arrive at new facts or principles. It is sufficient
to withhold assent to any conclusion, or theory, until it has been verified
by experiment. Had philosophers adhered strictly to the directions of
Lord Bacon, as to the true method for seeking to obtain knowledge, the
human mind would have continued, almost as entirely, to mark time
merely, instead of making a foreward march, in modern, as in ancient
times.
By shutting up the mind, as Bacon recommended, against all theory or
generalization, until there has been a long series of experiments and sub­
experiments, we deprive ourselves of many rare and valuable opportuni­
ties for enlarging the boundaries of our knowledge. By so doing, we
deprive ourselves o f the advantages to be derived from those moments of
sudden inspiration, of transient illumination, when, by an immediate re­
velation from the great source o f intelligence, it is permitted us to see,
or when, by a spontaneous flash o f intelligence, the mind gives itself light
to see, clearly, into the surrounding darkness of the unknown. 'It. was
precisely in one of those moments of sudden inspiration, or transient
illumination, as common report informs us,* that Newton discovered the
great law of universal gravitation, which completed the grand and
brilliant series of modern discoveries in Astronomy. It was not by follow­
ing out the rigid and elaborate system of induction, recommended by
Bacon, that he made the discovery; nor was it by such a tardy and awk­
ward process that Copernicus, Kepler, and Gallileo made theirs. In a
moment, in the twinkling of an eye, as Newton lay there, in the orchard,
the revelation came upon him, the great thought flashed upon his mind,
that the same law, which caused the apple to fa ll, extended throughout the
universe, and sustains the planets in their spheres, and starting up, like
Archimides of old, he mentally exclaimed, “ eureka,” and set himself at
once to work, to ascertain whether the idea was sustained by the known
facts of planetary motion, w'hether the revelation from above, was in ac­
cordance with the revelation from below, the conception of reason with the
perception of sense, the deduction with the induction. Had Newton acted
strictly upon Baconian principles, he might be still experimenting upon
the grand problems o f Astronomy, (had life been permitted him so long,)
* Brewster, in his Life of Newton, throws some doubt upon the apple story.
son to doubt, however, that the story is substantially, if not literally, true.




There is little rea­

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with but little prospect, perhaps, o f a solution ; nor is it easy to say, at
how tardy and snail-like a pace scientific discovery would have progressed,
under a strict adherence, universally, to those principles.
Bacon has, indeed, furnished us with a practical illustration, how little
fitted he was, with the aid o f his cherished method o f philosophizing,
for the work of specifically advancing the sciences, and how, in his vast
general plans for the “ Advancement of Learning,” he contributed, in
some particulars, to its retardation. For in the very work o f his, styled,
“ The Advancement o f Learning,” we find him, in allusion to the now
familiar idea, which had been then but recently demonstrated by Gallileo,
and defended by Gilbert, that the earth revolves on its axis, stigmatizing
it as “ the extravagant idea of the diurnal motion of the earth, an opinion
which we can demonstrate to be most false.” *
This rejection of the truth, as to the diurnal motion of the earth, may
he regarded as the legitimate fruit of rigid Baconianism. In short, Ba­
con dwelt altogether too much on outward observation. He did not duly
considertbat knowledge comes from above as well as from, below, from within
as well as from without, from the internal as well as the external world,
and that the intuitions of reason, not less than the reports of the senses, often
reveal to us important truths, which we may very safely accept, subject
to revisal and correction by subsequent examination and experiment.
II,
Bacon vastly overestimated the efficacy o f Induction as a method o f
acquiring knotvledge. He seems, indeed, vainly to have imagined, that,
by the rigid system o f experimenting in quest o f knowledge, which he
prescribed, in the second book of the Novum Organum, he had invented
a sort of rule or compass, which would equalize all minds, in their capa­
cities, to acquire new knowledge, and destroy those different degrees of
sagacity, which nature, in her eternal constitution of things, has pre­
scribed for different minds, and which make the philosopher differ from
the dunce.f He does not seem to have duly considered, what we have
before remarked,J that there is a logic of induction, as well as o f deduc­
tion, and that unless the process o f this logic be rightly performed, nay,
unless the fundamental propositions on which it is grounded be correct,
it may lead us just as far from the truth as the logic of deduction, which
he labored so habitually, in all his philosophical writings, to depreciate.
Nay, Bacon does not seem to have discerned, what should have been
apparent to an intellect so gifted as his, that the inductive method had
not been neglected by philosophers before his time, so much because they
did not recognize its value, as because their attention was mainly direc­
ted to pursuits to which the deductive method o f reasoning was better
adapted— to abstract speculation rather than to practical inquiry; a fact,
which Macaulay, in his criticism on the life and character o f Lord Ba­
con, has not failed to point out with his usual felicity and force §
Having said this much, as to what it was that Bacon aimed to accom­
plish, and tbe„errors into which he was led in the prosecution of that*§
* See Advancement of Learning, enlarged edition, book iii., ch. iv. It is a little singular, that
Macaulay, in his somewhat searching and severe review of Bacon’s life and character, does not notice
this great mistake of his lordship.' But Macaulay, though very sever© upon Bacon, as a
politician and man of integrity, was rather too deferential to him, as a philosopher—possibly be­
cause Macaulay was better qualified to judge of Bacon the politician, than of Bacon the philosopher.
t See Novum Organum, book i., aphorism 122; also preface to same work.
X See ante., page 285, of this article.
§ See Macaulay’s Essays, article on Bacon—also Edinburg Review for 1837.




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aim— errors which consisted mainly in the exaggerated and too exclusive
importance which he attached to intrinsically valuable ideas— it remains
that we should notice, somewhat more particularly than we have as yet
done, what it was that he really accomplished for philosophy.
In addition to what we have already said on this point,* or as amend­
atory thereto, it may he said, that while Bacon failed to accomplish the
specific end at which he aimed, o f furnishing a new method for acquiring
knowledge, of special and extraordinary virtues, he effected a general
end, of vast importance to Philosophy, by calling attention, generally, to
a hitherto too much neglected method o f inquiry— the Inductive method.
It is not any specific work that Bacon achieved for science, or philoso­
phy, that merits commendation, but rather a general influence which he
exerted on the spirit of philosophy— a new general habit of philosoph­
ical inquiry, which he promoted and encouraged, and which he may be
said to have permanently established. W hile he did not invent the In­
ductive method, he developed it into a prominence which it had never
before attained. He fixed and established it so firmly in philosophical
regard, that there is no danger that it will ever again be generally or ex­
tensively disregarded. In short, in the fashionable parlance of the day,
Bacon may be said to have crystalized the Inductive method. As the
previously unfixed and floating carbon of the mineral kingdom was,
during the carboniferous period of geological history, crystalized and
condensed into the vast coal deposits, which have remained ever since,
and will remain for ages yet, to warm and vivify the inhabitants o f earth,
so the great mind of Bacon crystalized and condensed the previously
floating and unsettled ideas of the intellectual kingdom, respecting the
Inductive method of acquiring knowledge, into that great depository o f
his largest thoughts, the Novum Organum, where they will remain, for
ages to come, a vast mine of thought and suggestion to subsequent phil­
osophers.
Nor is it so much in exhibiting the specific utility of the Inductive
method that the great merit o f Bacon’s greatest work, the Novum Or­
ganum, is conspicuous, as in exhibiting the importance, in general, o f
disabusing the mind of hastily formed notions, or idols, as he (or rather
his translator into English) has styled them,f and submitting it patiently
to observation, with a view to its taking in the real form of things. In
other words, the most distinguishing merit of the work consists in its in­
junctions as to the importance o f striving patiently and laboriously to
interpret nature, rather than, by anticipation, to guess at her meaning.
His remarks on the various species of idols, or false appearances, by
which the human mind is infested, and which he fantastically enough,
though not inaptly, styles Idols of the Tribe, Idols of the Den, Idols of
the Market, and Idols of the. Theater, are among the most valuable to
be found in the compass of human language.^ As intimately related to
* See ante, pages 285 and 286 of this article.
t The term used by Bacon, in his Latin text, is idoln, the plural of idolum, which comes from
the Greek eidolon, which signified, with the Greeks, simply an illusion, or false appearance, and
not an image worshiped witli religious reverence. It is doubtless in the former sense that idola
was intended by Bacon, and that the English word idol, as translated from it, should be under­
stood iu the No own Organum. So also argued Hallam, but others have thought otherwise.
X See Novum Organum, book i., aphorisms 39, 49, 41, 42, 43, 44, and 45.
By Idols of the Tribe,
Bacon means those false notions that are common to mankind in general; by Idols of the Den,
those that are peculiar to particular individuals; by Idols of the Market. those which are formed
from reciprocal intercourse; by Idols of the Theater, he means those false notions or dogmas
which have been authoritatively promulgated by particular systems of philosophy.
VO L. X L I I I.-----N O . I I I .




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these, and in the same connection, are thrown out certain guards or cau­
tions to the human mind, against too hasty conclusions, and with special
reference to some of its peculiar predispositions to error, and liabilities
to be deceived, which are deserving of the highest consideration. These
are the really valuable ideas— the truly grand features of the Novum
Organum.
In short, the real and essential tendency of Bacon’s philosophy, espe­
cially as developed in its great culminating effort, the Novum Organum,
is towards skepticism, doubt, and the suspension of judgment; audits
true motto is well expressed, in the words of the illustrious sage himself,
to be found in the Advancement of Learning, “ If a man will begin with
certainties, he shall end in doubts; but if he will be content to begin
with doubts, he shall end in certainties.” *
By guarding the mind so rigidly against false impressions, his philoso­
phy inevitably has this tendency, to skepticism, which is undoubtedly
the right tendency, since every true philosopher is skeptical, if he be not
a positive skeptic, and the beginning o f wisdom is to doubt. For the
evils of positive error are really greater than those o f a mere negation
of knowledge; and it is far better to have no notions at all than to have
false ones, for these false notions stand in the way o f receiving true ones.
Finally, and still more in brief, the essential work of Bacon as a phil­
osopher, consisted mainly in guarding the mind against false notions, ra­
ther than in aiding it (as he erroneously supposed he was doing upon a
grand scale) to acquire true ones. It was to that extent, at least, a grand
preparatory to a true and complete system of philosophy, since nothing
better prepares the mind to receive truth than to clear it of error, and
guard it against the intrusion of error. Moreover, his efforts have, indi­
rectly rather than directly, contributed in no inconsiderable degree,
doubtless, to the positive advancement of knowledge; for the good sense
of the age has rejected his counsel to discard altogether the deductive or
dogmatical method o f inquiry, while it has accepted his instructions, to
the extent of recognizing the importance of bestowing more attention
on the inductive or empirical.
After this somewhat severe criticism on the philosophy of Bacon, it
should be superfluous to remark, that the distinguished achievements of
modern science are attributable, only in a very partial degree, to his ex­
ertions— that he serves rather to mark the character of the philosophy
o f the age than to have determined it— that he embodied, in an extra­
ordinary degree, its leading characteristics, (as did Aristotle those of his
age,) rather than moulded the age into an embodiment of his character­
istics— that he was, in short, the outgrowth of his age, rather than his
age the outgrowth of him.
That such was the true relation of Bacon to his age is abundantly
proved by the fact, already adverted to, of the distinguished discoveries
that had been already made before the publication o f his philosophical
works ; and by the further fact, that many of the most distinguished con­
tributors to science subsequently thereto, have not testified to any im­
portant suggestion that they derived from him, and do not appear to
have been at all indebted to him for their ideas. For, as Brewster, in
his recent Memoirs o f Sir Isaac Newton, tells us, that truly great discov­
* See Advancement of Learning, book i., p. 88, of original work, and London edition of 1824.




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291

erer in science did not, in his philosophical writings, once allude to the
Novum Organum, nor to Lord Bacon.* All that was really valuable in
the Novum Organum, or in the Inductive method, however, Newton at­
tended to, most probably without having read that renowned work, or
being aware what it contained, and he would no doubt have done so,
jnst as much, had his own Principia Mathematica been written before as
after the publication o f the Novum Organum.
In view of these significant facts, it would surely be preposterous to
assert that the present age is indebted to the philosophy o f Lord Bacon
for its most distinguished achievements, or its most distinguishing ideas
— that Descartes or Leibnitz was the outcome o f Bacon, or that the
Principia of Newton was attributable to the Novum Organum.
But while Bacon is to be regarded rather as the outgrowth of his age
than as the moulder of its character, it is to be borne in mind that, like
other outgrowths, he reacted on the soil from which he sprang, and im­
parted to it no inconsiderable fertility. For, as Guizot has justly said of
governments, that “ they are, saving a powerful reaction, what the people
make them,” so it may be said of Bacon, that, saving a powerful reac­
tion, he was what his age made him, or, to speak with more scientific
precision, what the race from which he sprang, and the circumstances o f
the age, made him. And as the reaction of government on the society
from which it springs is powerful, so was the reaction of Bacon on his
age; and his influence has rather grown than diminished with time, hav­
ing been greater, probably, during the 18th and 19th centuries than du­
ring the 17th, when it was first communicated.
By having embodied to so great an extent, and with such extraordi­
nary power, many of the great characteristic ideas o f his age, Bacon
seems destined to exert an influence somewhat similar to that exerted by
Aristotle, who so long reigned over the intellectual kingdom of man,
though not by any means so great as that exerted by the philosopher of
antiquity. A striking resemblance may indeed be detected between these
two distinguished characters, in the parts which they have played in the
intellectual history o f mankind, and in the position which they occupy
in the geographical profile, so to speak, o f humanity— looming up into
lofty prominence, the one near the close of the ancient, and the other
near the commencement of the modern age, and both serving as conspic­
uous landmarks to indicate the progress o f the race, and by which they
have, to a great extent, shaped their course.
No two minds, perhaps, scarcely excepting that o f Confucius, have
ever exerted a greater or more lasting influence on the direction and
character of human thought than Aristotle and Bacon. From the time
of Aristotle to that of Bacon, human activity, in matters of philosophical
speculation, as well as o f scientific endeavor, with some partial exceptions,
took its direction from the former, scarcely ever venturing out of the
track which he pointed out, as, sinc3 the time of Bacon, it seems des­
tined, although to a far less extent, to take the direction mapped out by
him.
Indeed, it may be said, without any very great or questionable stretch
* See Brewster’s Memoirs of Newton, chap. 27, of vol. ii., pp. 403-4, of Boston edition of 1855.
In this connection, the biographer of Newton makes some very just observations on the futility
of Bacon's philosophy, as to its specific virtues as a method of acquiring knowledge, which fully
sustain the ideas of our text. On this point, see particularly page 405 of vol ii. of the Memoirs.




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o f fancy, that the progress o f mankind in knowledge stopped at Aristo­
tle, and began again at Bacon, leaving a great chasm o f two thousand
years, through which the human race groped their way in many devious
wanderings, or leaving, at best, a great level waste, across which the race
marched without making any ascent, except a partial one during the pe­
riod of the great Arabian enlightenment.
This simile would be entirely unexceptionable if we might adopt the
theory of those who imagine that the human race are moving forward,
and steadily advancing, as across a level plain, or rather up an inclined
plane, and that they neither move, nor are moved, in any other direction
than in that forward or upward one. But the better opinion seems un­
doubtedly to be, that mankind are moving in a spheroid, or, rather, to
speak with more scientific precision and completeness, the better opinion
seems undoubtedly to be, that the intellectual or moral world, which is
outwardly manifested in man, is, like the material, spherical in its mo­
tion— all motion, indeed, seeming evidently to he spherical, moral as well
as physical— and that, in addition to its own inherent activities, it is
whirled through the realms of moral space by laws o f revolution which
subject it to periodical visitations of day and night, or periods more or
less favorable to the development o f intellectual activity— these periods
of day and night varying from one to twenty centuries, as the period o f
terrestrial day varies from one to twenty hours, or even six months, as at
the poles— and that, in each returning period of day, the flora, or vege­
tation, so to speak, of the intellectual world, depends upon its peculiar
intellectual adaptabilities, which are different in different periods of the
intellectual world, as the geological stratifications o f the terrestrial world
are different in different geological epochs— a day or night in the intel­
lectual world being considered equivalent to a geological epoch in the
terrestrial.
According to this idea, Aristotle may be regarded as the most com­
manding and prolific elevation in the geological stratification, so to speak,
of the intellectual world of antiquity, in which Were matured, in rare ex­
cellence and great profusion, the seeds of thought peculiar to that epoch,
and which were destined to prevail until a higher order of intellectual
vegetation should be developed, to supplant or overshadow them. A c ­
cording to this idea, likewise, Bacon is to be regarded as the most com­
manding and prolific eminence in the modern stratification of the intel­
lectual world, on which, the earliest sunlight of the modern day falling,
the fruits and flowers of the intellectual flora o f the modern age were
first ripened into a general harvest, whence the seeds have been wafted
and scattered, far and wide, over the modern world
W hile we thus accord to Bacon the distinction o f having been the
most commanding intellect in the intellectual stratification of modern
society', on which, as on some commanding eminence, the superior ideas
of the present age were first ripened into a general crop, and from which
they were extensively propagated and disseminated, we should form a
very incorrect notion of the real measure and extent of his influence, and
of the true philosophical history o f the age, if we should regard him as
the only such intellect. Others there were, scarcely less illustrious, to
whom the like distinction is to be accorded, though somewhat later in
yielding their ideas. Prominent among these are to be named Descartes
and Leibnitz, the former o f whom illustrated, most conspicuously, French,




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and the latter German, intellect, and these three characters— Bacon,
Descartes, and Leibnitz— merit the distinction o f being regarded as the
great representative men of the Anglo-Saxon, French, and German races
respectively.
Descartes, who was the junior o f Bacon by only thirty-five years,
(having been born in 1596, while Bacon was born in 1561,) apparently
without having taken any suggestion whatever from Bacon, was moved
by a like desire to reform Philosophy, upon a grand, comprehensive
scale, and under a like conviction o f the futility of the methods o f phil­
osophizing which were, at that time, extensively cultivated, and which
had hitherto generally prevailed. Like Bacon, too, he proceeded by the
Inductive method,* but upon a different plan, or perhaps we should ra­
ther say, from a different stand-point. W hile Bacon regarded phenom­
ena almost exclusively from the objective or physical stand-point, Des­
cartes regarded them almost exclusively from 'he subjective or metaphys­
ical. Bacon, like the commonalty of mankind, assumed, or took for
granted, the reality of sensuous appearances, and the reliability of the
testimony o f the senses, for although he admitted the fallibility of the
senses, yet he sought to guard them against error merely by extending
the range of sensuous observation ; Descartes, with a more truly philo­
sophical spirit, began his search after knowledge with a profound inquiry
into the qualities o f the mind, or knowing principle, the nature o f its
ideas, and its faculties of cognition, starting with the famous aphorism,
which has been so intimately associated with his name— cogito ergo sum.\
Bacon proceeded upon the dogmatic plan, of taking outward appearances
for granted ; Descartes, more profoundly and wisely, proceeded upon the
critical plan, of closely questioning our internal consciousness as to the
reliability of outward appearances. Yet Descartes, not less than Bacon,
proceeded upon the Inductive method, and most probably without having
ever seen the Novum Organum, and certainly without making the slight­
est allusion to it in any of his philosophical writings, either in his great
work, the “ Principia,” first published in 1644, or in his “ Meditations on
Primary Philosophy,” first published in 1641, or in his “ Discourse on
Method,” first published in 1637— thus affording another evidence how
little the age is specifically indebted to Bacon for any of the ideas he
inculcated as to the Inductive method.
Descartes did not, like Bacon, write any elaborate treatise to demon­
strate the importance o f attending to induction or experiment, yet he at­
tended to it quite as rigidly as was necessary,J directing his attention
quite as closely to the simple facts of consciousness, in his endeavors to
* The writer must here deplore, in common with a multitude of others, who aspire to accurate
thinking and speaking, the lamentable lack of accuracy and precision in language. He here uses
the term method in a somewhat different sense (and a inure restricted one) from that in which it
has been sometimes used. For example. Tennemann, in his History of Philosophy, as translated
by Johnson, uses the term method, or philosophical method, in the same sense in which the writer
here uses plan. He speaks of the dogmatic method, and the critical method, of philosophizing,
whereas, we should here rather term it the dogmatic or critical plan, or system, which might
either proceed by the Inductive or Deductive method.
t These are the very words of Descartes, for, like the philosophers of his century, he wrote his
greatest works in Latin. For the non-Latinized English reader, it may be proper to render this
famous maxim of his into its English equivalent of words— I think, therefore I am.”
t This remark must be understood as applicable to the general plan and method of his philoso­
phy, rather than to his practical applications of it; for in these, like a host of other philosophers,
Descartes wandered greatly from his own theoretical principles, which, indeed, it is very difficult
to avoid. D'Alembert has well said of Descartes, that “ he began with doubting everything, and
ended with believing that he had left nothing unexplained.”




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ascertain the real nature of mind, as did Bacon to the simple facts of
sensuous observation, in his endeavors to ascertain the real nature of
matter, or, more particularly, of heal, to which he specifically addressed
his inquiries (by way of illustration) in his Novum Organum. In short,
Descartes is quite as much entitled to be regarded as the father o f Ex­
perimental Philosophy in metaphysics, as Bacon in physics; or, rather,
as Bacon is, with some propriety, styled the “ father o f Experimental
Philosophy,” in general, so Descartes may, with equal propriety, be styled
the father of Metaphysics,* in particular. For, before his time, meta­
physics not only had none of the well defined characteristics of a science,
which, indeed, it can scarcely claim to have now, but it scarcely possessed
any of the incipient characteristics o f a science, although, of course,
metaphysical questions had been extensively discussed before; although
Plato had been profoundly metaphysical, and Aristotle had written a
treatise on metaphysics, or rather a treatise to which that name was at­
tached, and from which the name took its origin.)
As science in general is indebted to Bacon for the first clear, distinct,
and widely proclaimed announcement, that, if we would make any sure
attainments in knowledge, we in st attend to facts, to observations in
general, so metaphysical science is indebted to Descartes for the first
clear, distinct, and widely proclaimed announcement that, if we would
make any sure attainments in knowledge as to the nature of soul or
mind, and of real being, either in the realm o f matter or of spirit, we
must attend to the facts of consciousness, to inward observations.
It may be worthy o f remark, moreover, that Bacon and Descartes bear
very nearly the same relation to each other as do two of the most re­
nowned philosophers of antiquity— Aristotle and Plato. Bacon may,
with considerable propriety, be considered the Aristotle of the modern
age, notwithstanding he more frequently assails the ideas of Aristotle
than those o f any other ancient philosopher; and Descartes may, with
equal propriety, be considered its Plato, although there are other char­
acters in the present age who may, with still more propriety in some im­
portant respects, be compared to Plato, without possessing, however, the
same immediate relationship to its Aristotle as does Descartes— as, for
example, Swedenborg and Fourier, who, in the overtowering grandeur of
their conceptions, however delusive, in the vastness of their generaliza­
* The term metaphysics is here used in its largest sense, as comprehending both Psychology and On­
tology, or both the doctrine of soul and-of rtnl being. Hitherto, the term has been commonly and
improperly understood as a synonime of Psychology only, although of late some have attempted,
on the other hand, to restrict its meaning to Ontology, or the doctrine of reul being, or substantial
essence, as contradistinguished from sensuous appearance. But quite obviously Psychology and
Ontology are too intimately related to admit of separation. For what can we ever know of real
being as contradistinguished uom sensuous apptamnce; nay, what can we ever know of sensuous
appearance itself, except as it is levealed to us by the soul or mmd ? Quite evidently, Psychology
is the rest/bule to Ontology, the door-wuy by which alone we can gain admission, or rather insight, and
very dim and impel feet at that, into the grand temple of real Being—seeing, through the muddy
medium of our sensuous-steeped faculties, only “ as through a glass, darkly.”
+ It is doubtless known to many, though not probably to nil, that the origin of this word—
“ Metaphysics” — was accidental, and owing to a rather trivial circumstance. After Sylla had
brought the manuscripts of Aristotle from Athens to Rome, and when Andronicus of Rhodes un­
dertook to publish them, being somewhat at a loss what general title to give to fourteen books of
the Aristotle manuscripts, which treated of those abstruse, obscure matters, now commonly called
metaphysical, he prefixed to them the title, Ta meta taphysica, which signifies, literally, nothing
more than matters or things after those which relate to physics. It is uncertain whether Andronicus
meant, by this title, merely to denote the place which these matters occupied in his general ar­
rangement o f the works of Aristotle, or the place which they occupy in the natural or logical in­
quiry of the mind after knowledge. Whatever Andronicus* may have intended, posterity have
adopted the latter interpretation, and, ever since, those abstuise inquiiies have borne the title of
meta ta physica, or meta-physica, which has been readily Anglicized into metaphysics.




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295

tions, and the exalted purity of their rationalism, or spiritualism, as
contradistinguished from materialism, much more nearly resemble Plato
than does Descartes, or perhaps any other character either in modern or
ancient times.
The points in which Bacon and Descartes respectively resemble Aris­
totle and Plato are, in fact, their proximity to each other in point of
time, their pre-eminent distinction as exponents and representatives of
the philosophy of their respective times, and the like general influences
which they respectively imparted to the philosophy and general ideas of
their respective times— Aristotle and Bacon having both imparted to
their respective ages the spirit o f materialism, with its cognate meta­
physical tendency to sensationalism, while Plato and Descartes both deeply
tinctured their times with the spirit o f spirituality, or pure rationalism,
with its cognate metaphysical tendency to idealism.
It may be also worthy of remark, as a matter o f curiosity, however,
rather than of any practical importance, that the Aristotle and Plato of
the modern age, (as we have respectively styled Bacon and Descartes,)
appeared at very nearly the same distance from each other, in point of
time, as did the Aristotle and Plato of antiquity, but in reverse order—
the Plato of antiquity having been born 40 years before its Aristotle, or
430 years before Christ, while the Plato of modern times was born just
35 years after its Aristotle, or 1596 years after Christ.
It is important, in this connection, to remark, that, in personating the
Plato of the modern age, Descartes does not answer well as the repre­
sentative of his nation, or embodiment of its characteristic traits, not­
withstanding we have styled him the representative roan of France; for
France is decidedly more Aristotelian than Platonic in its tendencies, is
decidedly material rather than spiritual in its general character, and sen­
sational rather than idealistic in its metaphysical proclivities. Descartes
is, in these respects, far more properly the representative o f German
than French ideas, while Condillac, the disciple of Locke, and legitimate
offspring of ultra Baconianism, with his extreme sensationalism, is the
true representative of France in respect to metaphysical ideas.
But in this respect Descartes well represents France, and in its per­
haps most peculiarly characteristic trait, that he was intensely exact, in­
tensely mathematical, in the order of his mind— mathematics having
been, indeed, his great forte, in which he made his most specifically val­
uable contributions to general science.
And this brings us to notice an important discrepancy between the re­
spective characters o f the Aristotle and Plato o f antiquity and of modern
times. The Aristotle of antiquity was not only great in his comprehen­
sion of the principles of fundamental philosophy, but also in his applica­
tion of them to particular sciences, having instaurated logic as a science,
inaugurated zoology, and made valuable contributions to political science,
while Plato was great, though transcendently so, only in fundamentals,
failing decidedly in the details necessary to systematize any science.
On the other hand, the Aristotle o f modern times, (or Bacon,) though
he discoursed with great ability about the fundamental principles of
philosophy, miserably failed in all his attempts to make specific contri­
butions to science, while the Plato of the modern age, (or Descartes,)
not only discoursed with vast ability and profundity upon philosophy in
general, but made important contributions to science in particular, hav­




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ing contributed highly valuable specific ideas both in mathematics and
metaphysics.
Of Leibnitz, the great representative man of the German race, and
true High Priest o f modern science, who was the junior o f Descartes by
just half a century, and of Bacon by (ighty-five years, (having been born
in 1646,) and who enjoyed the advantages o f the philosophical writings
of both Bacon and Descartes, as well as of his illustrious contemporary,
(though senior b}rfourteen years,) Locke, and others, before he delivered
the thoughts of his own transcendent intellect, it would be impossible to
speak worthily in a transient review, like the present, o f the most con­
spicuous magnates o f the intellectual kingdom of the modern age. Yet
after what we have already said of Bacon and Descartes, and of their
respective affinities wilh Aristotle and Plato, we may find it the less
difficult to do justice to Leibnitz in a few words.
W e cannot well style Leibnitz either the Aristotle or the Plato of the
modern age, as we have respectively styled Bacon and Descartes, for he
was both combined. Whatsoever was truly great, either in Aristotle or
Plato, in Bacon or Descartes, was pre-eminent in Leibnitz. In him the
human intellect truly towered up.- Leibnitz was indeed “ Pelion on Ossa
piled ”— Bacon heaped on Descartes— Aristotle standing at full height
on the shoulders o f Plato, and looking far beyond the boundaries-of the
known into the realms o f the unknown.
W hat Bacon aspired to do, and vainly strove to accomplish, Leibnitz
accomplished apparently without effort— he took all knowledge Jor his
province— thus verifying, to some extent, the questionable remark of
Ruskin, in his recent pamphlet on Pre-Raphaelitism, that “ no great in­
tellectual thing was ever done by great effort; for a great thing can only
be done by a great man, and he does it without effort.” *
In mathematics, Leibnitz stood shofilder to shoulder with Newton, his
great contemporary.
In metaphysics, he overtopped Descartes, and
dwarfed Locke. In general range of observation and scope of thought,
he towered above Bacon, and threw him into shade, as some mightier
Alp towers above and overshadows his lesser brother.,
The most distinguishing characteristic of Leibnitz was, in fact, the
universality of his genius— his wide range o f observation and vast scope
of thought, which fitted him pre-eminently to reign as sovereign in the
dominions of science. Bacon aspired to this dignity, but with an order
of mind not adequate to the position, and which frequently betrayed in
him the marks of the pretender. But Leibnitz assumed the dignity as
his legitimate birthright, and as “ one to the manor born.” Bacon, in­
deed, aspired to a dignity for which the race to which he belonged are
not well qualified. It is not in contemplative, but administrative, talent
that the Anglo-Saxons particularly excel. In fundamental philosophy
Germany reigns over the present age— Anglo-Saxondom in the practical
arts of industry, in statesmanship and war. It is to the Anglo-Saxons
* This rather pernicious, as well as questionable, remark of Buskin, we shall not attempt here to
criticise. Like many piquant epigrams, it has its points of truth, which tend to obscure, or throw
into shade, its more important points of error. Doubtless, the greatest conceptions of men, whether
as poets, philosophers, or inventors, come unhidden, and without effort, from the “ vasty deep” of
the intellectual universe; but to systematize them, to bend them into shape for practical uses, is
generally the result of effort, often protracted and laborious. In short, though it may be true that
no great intellectual thing was ever done by great effort, as its chief efficient cause, yet it is equally
if not still more true, that no great intellectual thing of extensively practical utility was ever done
without great effort.




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that we must look for the Cromwells and Washingtons of humanity;
but the Leibnitzes and Humboldts come from Germany.
It was in the prolific and commanding intellect of Leibnitz that were
first matured, on a large scale, those seeds of thought which have since
developed and expanded into the grand conceptions o f Kant, Fichte,
Sclielling, and Hegel.
It was in Leibnitz that we find the first clearly
defined phototype of Humboldt. Yet, in vastness o f intellectual com­
pass, Leibnitz far excelled Humboldt, though less of a mere scholar in
philosophy, or man o f detail in positive science. Humboldt reigned
only in the physical kingdom o f universal science— Leibnitz alike in the
physical and psychological. Humboldt and Schelling must alike pay
homage to Leibnitz as their rightful master. To his transcendent intel­
lect the realms o f matter and o f mind alike disclosed their deepest mys­
teries— the deepest, indeed, that any human intellect can ever hope to
fathom. Before his stupendous powers o f analysis, the universe was re­
solved into its elementary monads, the more inert and stupid o f which,
before the sublime constructiveness o f his genius, segregated into all the
manifold forms o f matter, while the more active and sensitive were de­
veloped into the thousand-fold manifestations of mind, spirit, God.
These three extraordinary men, Bacon, Descartes, and Leibnitz, may
be regarded not only the great representative men of their respective
nations, or races, but also of the age, or epoch o f philosophy, to which
they belong. These were the three great commanding and prolific emi­
nences, in the intellectual stratification of modern society, on which the
seeds of thought, peculiar to the present a^e, were first extensively ripened,
and from which those seeds have been scattered far and wide over the
modern world, which, falling upon the like congenial soil, have 3 ielded
the vast and teeming harvest of ideas which render the present age il­
lustrious.
Of these three great representative men o f the present age, (Bacon,
Descartes, and Leibnitz,) it may be fairly claimed, that Bacon is, more
peculiarly that either o f the other two, the representative man o f the
age, although he was decidedly their inferior intellectually, or at least in
the purely rational powers o f intellect. For this distinction, indeed, Ba­
con is indebted to his race, or rather to the fact that his race, the great,
rugged, stern, indomitable, practical, matter-of-fact Anglo-Saxons, have
given character to the age, have so impressed their leading characteris­
tics upon the age, as to render themselves the great representative race of
the age; so that Bacon, by being the representative man o f his race, be­
comes, ipso facto, the representative man of his age.
And this brings us to remark upon the distinguishing characteristics
of the present age. This is a highly important consideration, now that
we are about to enter upon the consideration of the sociological theories
and systems that have been developed during the present age. For as
the character of the soil determines that of its vegetation, so do the fun­
damental characteristics of a nation, race, or age, determine the charac­
ter of its ideas, and shape the course of its destiny.
The distinguishing characteristics of the present age, or among the
most prominent of them, are its greater comprehensiveness of thought
than any previous age has manifested, its larger infusion of ideas, and
the diversity and intrinsic superiority of its nationalities or races.
I. As to the greater comprehensiveness o f thought, which distinguishes




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the present age. This is conspicuously manifested in the aspiration o f
Bacon to take “ all knowledge for his province;” in the vast scope of
thought which has been displayed by the German metaphysicians, in
their daring attempts to solve the whole problem of the universe ; and
in the disposition which has been extensively manifested, though chiefly
among German and French philosophers, to realize the idea o f Bacon,
that the tree of knowledge is one and indivisible, and that “ all partitions
of knowledge should be accepted rather for lines and veins than for sec­
tions and separations.” It should be obvious enough that this greater
comprehensiveness of thought, which characterizes the present age, is
highly favorable to true discovery and real progress in knowledge, since
nothing is more conducive to correctness of thought than comprehensive­
ness of thought.
II. As to the larger infusion o f ideas, which distinguishes the present
age. This is discernible in the Inductive method o f inquiry, which has
been extensively infused into modern reasonings, in addition to the De­
ductive, (and upon which we have already dwelt at sufficient length,)
and in the introduction of the religious element, or the idea o f a Divine
right, which has mingled, to a very important extent, in modern discus­
sions, especially those of a sociological bearing. This is indeed one o f
the most distinctive characteristics of the present age— the large infusion
of the idea o f right in the general current of its thoughts. In no respect,
perhaps, will the discerning student of the distinguishing characteristics
of different ages of human development, discover a more marked or more
important and fundamental difference between ancient and modern times,
than in this. It is true that, in all ages of the world, the idea of right,
as contradistinguished from mere expediency, and from the mere arbi­
trary caprice of superior power, has been recognized to some extent;
but that recognition has been feeble in former times, and in a great meas­
ure restricted to the philosophical portion of mankind.
The great prominence which the idea o f right has received in the pres­
ent age, may, without question, be attributed mainly to Christianity. For
although the idea undoubtedly existed before the time of Christ, as did
the Inductive method of reasoning before the time of Bacon, yet it was
unstable, unsettled, and floated vaguely in the minds of men. In short,
as Bacon crystalized the Inductive method, it may, with still greater force
and propriety, be said that Christ has crystalized the idea o f a Divine
right in human affairs. If, indeed, this justly revered character had
achieved for mankind no other good than this, his fife and death would
have been o f incalculable benefit to the race. For whatever o f truth
there may be in the sublime idea of Pope, that “ whatever is is right,”
and however true it may be that, in the higher sphere in which the gods
move, and some philosophers, the distinctions between good and evil have
no existence, and all things are absolutely right, yet in this lower state
in which men live, and move, and have their being, there is, beyond all
doubt, a right, as contradistinguished from wrong, and wdiich it is of great
importance to men that they should recognize and strive unceasingly to
realize.
III. As to the diversity and intrinsic superiority o f the nationalities or
races o f the present age. This is, of all the distinguishing characteristics
of the age, beyond all question, by far the most important, as it is the
most fundamental and comprehensive. It has been remarked by a late




O f the Different Systems o f Social Philosophy.

299

writer, witli a justness o f perception which it has been rare to witness
hitherto, that “ ail history, in its ultimate analysis, is a history, not of
kings and laws, but o f races.” * Bearing in mind this profound and em­
inently just observation, we shall be the better able to appreciate the
vast advantages which the present age derives from the diversity and in­
herent superiority o f its races.
In the first age of philosophy and civilization, although there were
three distinguished races, the Egyptian, Grecian, and Roman, yet they
did not flourish together, or co-exist in the vigor of manhood, Egypt
having declined before Greece attained its full development, and Greece,
in like manner, before Rome. In the second age, the Arabians were the
only distinguished race. But in the present, or third age o f philosophy
and civilization, there are three distinguished races, all flourishing to­
gether, and all enjoying, at the same time, the vigor of intellectual man­
hood, the Germanic, French, and Anglo-Saxon ; and in addition to these
predominant races, the Scandinavian and Italian. These three predomi­
nant races, the Germanic, French, and Anglo-Saxon, may be regarded as
the three grand divisions of the great central column, while Scandinavia
and Italy may be respectively considered as the right and left wing of
humanity, as it is at present displayed, on the great field o f creation, to
do battle for the truth and scientific discovery.
Each one of these three predominant races, moreover, may be regarded
as intrinsically superior, both intellectually and morally, to any other
race that has preceded them, unless, indeed, we should except the Gre­
cian. Nor are the Scandinavians or Italians to be despised, or lightly
regarded, as contributors to the great intellectual force that is now ope­
rating in the field of science; for Scandinavia has contributed Sweden­
borg and Oxienstern, and Italy its Dante, Angelo, Campanella, and Macchiavelli.
Each one of these three predominant races, moreover, seems to be en­
dowed with a peculiar genius, or order o f talent, which peculiarly fits it
to blend and harmonize with the other two, so as to give to all three one
homogeneous, consistent, and united character, thus illustrating', in the
intellectual structure of the present age, the grand formula upon which
the universe, and every integral part of it, seems to be organized, of
“ Trinity in Unity.”
Germany is metaphysical, France mathematical,
Anglo-Saxondom practical. Germany is profound, France exact, AngloSaxondom efficient. Germany cogitates, France experiments, AngloSaxondom executes. Great, earnest, deep thinking, oracular Germany
utters her grand oracles, like voices from the unfathomable depths o f
creation; subtil, ingenious, skillful France analyzes and dissects them ;
grave, thoughtful, cautious Anglo-Saxondom passes judgment upon them,
and decides how far they may be relied upon or turned to useful account,
either in the speculative or practical sciences. In short, Germany is the
great Delphic Temple of the present age, where the high priests of na­
ture, the German philosophers, give out their obscure but deeply signifi­
cant oracles; France is its great polytechnic school, with vast laboratory
and experimental apparatus; while Anglo-Saxondom is the great prac­
tical, efficient workshop of the age, with its sturdy mechanic-kings,
trade-princes, and State-philosophers.
* See Harpers’ Magazine for May, 1856, article on “ The Rise of the Dutch Republic.”




300

Review o f the Different Systems o f Social Philosophy.

W hile remarking on the distinguished nationalities or races o f the
present age, allusion should not, of course, be omitted to the great Rus­
sian nation, or the Slavonic race, o f which it is the great embodiment.
It is difficult to determine what are the precise relations o f this race to
the age, the more especially as their character has not as yet been fu'ly
developed. This much, however, we may safely venture to say, that they
are so essentially different from the three predominant races already no­
ticed, as to constitute an antagonistic force in the sociological system of
the present age, and so that, considering this triune force, of the Ger­
manic, French, and Anglo-Saxon nationalities in its unitary character,
and designating it, as we may well enough do, the great Teutonic ele­
ment or force of the present age, the Slavonic race will constitute the
other and opposing element or force, thus illustrating the grand dual
principle, which, not less than the “ trinity in unity” principle, seems to
pervade creation, and is ever to be detected in the sociological, not less
than in the physiological and astronomical, system of the universe.
The Slavonic element in modern society may be said to be related to
the Teutonic, as the Roman element, in ancient society, was to the Gre
cian, and if this element should overrun Europe, as it threatens to do,
and superimpose upon the present Teutonic stratum, o f European socie­
ty a layer of Slavonic material, civilization in the present age, unless,
indeed, it should be rescued from that fate by America, would experience
a depression and deterioration similar to that which was occasioned by
the superimposition of Roman on Greci&n civilization in a former age.
It was, doubtless, with a profound appreciation of the great vital an­
tagonism between the Teutonic and Slavonic races, that Napoleon the
First, who was an eminently sagacious observer, not less than illustrious
actor, made that famous remark, so often since quoted, “ In a half-century,
Europe will be Republican or Cossack.” lie would have spoken with
moie scientific precision, if not more philosophical profundity, though to
the same result substantially, had he said— it will be Anglo-Saxon or
Cossack. This Anglo-Saxon family, into which the whole destiny of the
Teutonic race seems destined to merge, is the true antagonist of the
Slavonic race. As goes the battle between these two races, so goes the
character of civilization, the cause of science, and the general destiny of
humanity for many centuries to come.
W ith these very general remarks on the different nationalities or races
now most prominently developed on the surface of human society, we
must take leave o f the more peculiarly historical method which we have
hitherto followed in our review. In contemplating the vast field upon
which we are now about to enter, of modern ideas, theories, and specu­
lations in Sociology, it would be preposterous to attempt to consider
them in detail, or with any special reference to the historical order of
their development, or with any other than very slight regard for the per­
sons to whom they may be attributable. W e must, in short, totally
abandon the analytical method, and adopt the synthetical. Instead of
considering different nations or races in detail, with a view to extracting
their peculiar ideas in Sociology, as we have hitherto done, we must hence­
forth seize upon the ideas, without any regard to the time, or place, or
manner of their development, in doing which we shall strictly conform
to the order of synthetical classification which we have heretofore laid




oOl

Valuation o f L ife Insurance Policies.

down,*' and in which we have regarded all sociological theories, or ideas,
as belonging either to the Political, Politico-economical, or Malthusian
schools. Our review, which has been heretofore more peculiarly H is ­
t o r ic a l , becomes henceforth more peculiarly C r it ic a l .

Art. I I.— VALUATION OF LIFE INSURANCE POLICIES.
NUM BER V .

To determine the true value of a life policy, we must have correct rates
of mortality for every age o f life. The nearest approximation to this is
to be obtained by an average of the best tables. In making this average
we shad exclude all the early tables that were founded on deaths only,
because the hypothesis o f a stationary population, or one increasing in
geometrical progression, by which the numbers of the living were ob­
tained, is too uncertain and unreliable for the determination of this es­
sential element in the rate of mortality.
W e must also exclude all those places where the mortality is known to
be excessive because of climate, local peculiarities, or antiquity of observa­
tions. Our offices do not insure at their regular premiums south o f the
thirty-fifth degree of latitude, and as this corresponds to the forty-fifth in
Europe, following the isothermal lines, we shall exclude Italy, Austria,
and the south of Prance from our average. The depressing effects of
cold do not setm as important as the malarious influences o f heat. Eng­
land has a lower mortality than Prance, and even in Norway the chances
of living are as good as in Hanover or Prussia.
It is generally believed there has been a great improvement in the
value of human life since the seventeenth century, but as the lowest
mortality of any of our tables is in the Carlisle, where the observations
were made about 1780, we must not confine our inquiries to the present
century. The tables of Mr. Pinlaison seem to show that some improve­
ment has taken place between his earliest and latest observations, as ap­
pears by the following comparison :—
Rate of mortality at the age o f

20.

30.

Tontine, Irom 16y3 to 1783, (1,002 persons)...............0169 .0212
From 1745 to 1826, (2,562 lives, 156 still living)
.0073 .0130
From 1773 to 1826, (3,557 lives, 1,564 still living)
.0106 .0110
From 1789 to 1826, (3,518 lives, 2,203 still living)
.0109 .0101
Farr’s English, 1838 to 1844 ....................................... 084 .0100
English registration, 1845 to 1854..................................086 .0102

40.

.0230
.0136
.0119
.0121
.0127
.0133

50.

.0301
.0187
.0145
.0150
.0166
.0192

A v ’age.

.0237
.0132
.0120
.0120
.0119
.0128

This comparison seems to show some improvement since the first half
of the eighteenth century, but none in the last hundred years. The
observations in Sweden indicate a change in the mortality since 1750, but
if the returns be analyzed, it will be seen that the whole improvement is
in early life, which does not affect the business of a life company. In
Dr. Price’s observations, which extended from 1754 to 1775, the ratio o f
the living to the dying was 1 in 35 ; in Milne’s, from 1775 to 1795, it was
1 in 37 ; in Farr’s, from 1795 to 1815, it was 1 in 37 ; and from 1815 to
See No. ii. of this review, in November number of Merchants' Magazine for 1S59.




302

Valuation o f L ife Insurance Policies.

1835 it was 1 in 42. But if the children be excluded, these differences
disappear. Here is the comparison :—
1 754- 7 5 .
Average population over 15........... . . .
Average deaths over 15..................
Ratio;. one death in.........................
Average population between 20 an* 50
Average deaths between 20 and 5<
Ratio, or one death i n ................... .

1,510,602
46
929,687
11,505

1775- 9 5 .
1,904,153
38,065
50
1,184,190
13,821
86

1795- 1815. 1815- 1 5 .
1,622,650
36,958
44
986,572
12,126
81

1,813,244
37,951
48
1,108.151
12,713
87

These returns show no change from the last century to the present, for
in the forty-one years from 1754 to 1795 the deaths were 1 in 48, while
from 1 795 to 1815 they were 1 in 46, taking the whole population over
15. If the numbers between the ages o f 20 and 50 be considered, the
ratio for the first period is 1 in 84, and for the second, 1 in 84.
It would seem, therefore, objectionable to introduce any observations
before 1750, but since that time no restriction appears to be necessary.
W e have given in the last number the mortality for Carlisle. This
being a large toun, has been thought to be well suited to give the average
mortality for an insurance company. In the larger cities the chance of
dying is greater; in the country districts smaller; so that this affords a
fair average for the whole country. The liabilities to mistakes and errors
are supposed also to be smaller than for a whole nation. But in an old
country, where the government is strong and respected, if a system of
registration is carefully devised, and continued for a long period, the re­
turns for a whole nation would deserve more confidence than for a single
city. The wide extent of country, and the long continuance o f the ob­
servations, increase the probability of a fair average.
W e shall introduce into our average the observations of Sweden, Nor­
way, Prussia, Hanover, Saxony, and England, with much confidence in
our results. Of these the greatest weight should be given to England,
because so many of our people are sprung from this stock, and race is
supposed to have some influence on longevity. The Swedish observa­
tions seem, however, to be well suited for obtaining a reliable table of
mortality. The country is not so far north as to be injuriously affected
by c o ld ; it is free from the malarious diseases o f southern latitudes ; it
is inhabited principally by a rural population, with only one considerable
city ; the people are industrious, religious, and intelligent; the census is
taken frequently, and the reports for each province scrutinized most care­
fully for errors; the returns of the deaths have been kept up for more
than a hundred years; they have been made with great care and labor;
the population is large; they have been exposed to every variety of sea­
sons, of epidemics, o f war and peace, of famine and abundance; surely
such returns are entitled to much confidence.
The expectation o f life in Milne’s Swedish table is, however, nearly two
years less than at Carlisle from 15 to 50, and. continues below it to the
end of life. It is more than a year below Dr. Farr’s. The Swedish table
of Dr. Price is still lower. But this is no good reason for excluding these
observations, for we do not know beforehand whether the American
mortality will conform most to the English or the Swedish experience.
The probabilities are, that the deaths here will be greater than in either
country. But whether this is true or not, the Swedish observations de­
serve much esteem bv our life offices, and we shall not hesitate to allow




Valuation o f L ife Insurance Policies.

303

them considerable weight in our average. Dr. Price’s is so old, and so near
the limit where we have thought proper to exclude the observations, that
we shall allow it less weight than the others, but we shall not feel at liberty
to exclude it entirely.
In column second at the end o f this article is Dr. Price’s Swedish
table, and in the third column is the adjusted rate o f mortality. The
influence of adjustment is very slight, as the large numbers observed and
the quinquennial intervals of ages o f the living and the dying have pre­
vented any serious anomalies.
In column fourth is Mr. Milne’s Swedish table, and in the next column
its adjusted mortality. Both adjustments are made in the same way, by
taking the geometrical mean of five successive rates as the true amount
for each age.
In the next two columns are the rates of mortality for the next two
periods of twenty years, obtained from the observations published bv
Dr. Farr in the sixth volume of the registrar general’s reports. The
mode of construction which we have adopted is that proposed by Dr.
Farr, but in adjusting we have taken the mean o f seven consecutive
rates of mortality instead of five, because the observations being given
for every five years, the adjustment by fives was not so satisfactory.
The next table we will introduce (column eighth,) is founded on the
observations in Norway, published by Dr. Farr in the same volume of
his reports. These were officially communicated, and seem to be made
with care. They extend from 1800 to 1840, but the ages of the living
are only given for the last census in 1840. The table we have construct­
ed is, therefore, only for the last ten years, from 1830 to 1840.
The
mode of construction we have employed is the same we have used for
the Carlisle observations, which, though more laborious, is more reliable
than any of the methods proposed. The actual number o f the living at
each age being approximately obtained, the rates of mortality that will
give the observed deaths for these numbers o f the living are more likely
to be correct than the rates that give the proper number of deaths in a
stationary population.
The numbers of the living and the dying being smaller than for Swe­
den, and for ten years only, we shall give less weight to this Norway
table than to the Swedish. The rates of mortality are, however, less,
and nearer to Farr’s.
The next table is derived from the observations of Mr. Finlaison, actu­
ary of the National Debt Office in Great Britain. His report to Parlia­
ment was made in 1829, and gives the particulars of the deaths and
ages of the government annuitants and o f the nominees under the seve­
ral government tontines, beginning as early as 1693, and ending in 1826.
The facts are numerous, perfectly reliable, continued through a long series
of years, and very carefully collected and arranged. Mr. Finlaison’s re­
sults have not, however, been very much esteemed. They differ conside­
rably from our best tables, and contain anomalies not found elsewhere.
This arises, we think, from the selection of lives which would exert a
greater influence in a tontine than in an insurance office. When a poli­
cy is first issued the insurer is known to be in perfect health. His physycian and the company’s medical examiner, as well as the insured him­
self and his friend, unite in testifying to this fact. The rate of mortality
at any particular age will therefore be very different among" recent in­




Valuation o f L ife Insurance Policies.

304

surers and among those who have been long insured. The difference is
still greater in the tontines, since many of these persons were chosen
because of their vigorous health and their promise o f long life. The
mortality among such persons soon after admission would be very dif­
ferent from the average rate for persons o f the same age taken at random
or among the members o f an insurance company. And this is sufficient
to account for the irregularities in these tables. Besides, Mr. Finlaison
did not use all the materials he had collected and published, but only a
portion of them which he thought most worthy of confidence. His
“ tables of annuities, computed for the government,” were founded only
on “ the Irish Tontine,” “ the Tontine o f 1789,” and that “ o f the Sink­
ing Fund as observed to the end o f the year 1822.”
In the table we have inserted at the end of this article we have used
all the observations of Mr. Finlaison, omitting only the first set, because
founded on observations which were made before the middle o f the last
century ; and the result is free from many of the anomalies of his tables,
and everyway more worthy of confidence.
W e have adjusted it pre­
cisely in the same manner he did for his tables. Thus, we have added
together his two summaries, Nos. 8 and 15, and subtracted No. 1, com­
prising in our result 21,350 lives, of whom 12,275 yet survived in Janu­
ary, 1826. W e have then obtained the ratio o f the living and the dying
at each age, and adjusted these ratios by taking the geometrical mean of
five consecutive terms, and then o f each three of these results, following
precisely the same method as Mr. Finlaison. To this mean two correc­
tions were applied to get the rate o f mortality at 15, 16, etc., because it
is the ratio of the living and the dying at the average age of 15, 16, etc.
The rates finally obtained are to be found in column ninth at the end of
this article. At the earlier ages when the influence o f selection is felt,
the table is quite irregular. But for the older ages, when this objection
disappears, the large number o f lives, the exactness and accuracy of the
observations, and the absence of all withdrawals, make the figures wor­
thy of more confidence.
W e have inserted in column tenth the mean of Finlaison’s two tables,
but we do not think them worthy of much weight in the proposed com­
bination.
In column eleventh is to be found Farr’s Northampton, which is very
different from Dr. Price’s, partly because it is founded on recent observa­
tions, but mainly because it has been properly constructed from the num­
bers of the living and the dying. Dr. Price, with great ingenuity, sup­
plied the numbers of the living from the ages o f the dying; but his hy­
pothesis, though better than those made by his contemporaries, was not
an approximation to the truth for the younger ages. Farr’s is deserving
of every confidence. As it embraces the mortality for seven years, from
1838 to 1844, among a population nearly as large as Carlisle; as the facts
on which it has been based have been observed with care, and the table
constructed on correct principles, it is worth nearly as much as the Car­
lisle table.
Price's Mortality Milne's Milne’ s Sweden, Sweden, Norway, Finlaison, Finl'son, Farr’ s
Age. Sweden. adjust’d. Sweden. adjust'd. 1705-1815. 1315-85. 18*25-35. 1743-1820. male, fe. JNortn n.

IS. .
1 6 ..
1 7 ..
1 8 ..
1 9 ..

6889
536*2
5822
5782
5740

.0064
67
70
78
76




6098
6061
6023
5985
5945

.0061
62
65
68
71

.0066
69
71
74
77

.0052
54
56
59
62

.0065
60
64
67
69

.0071
78
86
94
100

.0064
72
80
88
96

.0006
57
59
61
63

Valuation o f Life Insurance Policies.
Age.

305

Price’s Mortality Milne's Milne’s Sweden, Sweden, Norway, Finlaison, Finl’son, Farr’s
Sweden, adjust’d. Sweden, adjust'd. 1795-1*15. JS15-35. 1825-3 >. 1745-1826. male, fe. North'n.

2 0 ..
2 1 ..
2 2 ..
2 3 ..
2 4 ..
2 5 ..
2 6 ..
2 7 ..
2 8 ..
2 9 ..
3 0 ..
8 1 ..
3 2 ..
3 3 ..
3 4 ..
3 5 ..
3 6 ..
8 7 ..
3 8 ..
3 9 ..
4 0 ..
4 1 ..
4 2 ..
4 3 ..
4 4 ..
4 5 ..
4 6 ..
4 7 ..
4 8 ..
4 9 ..
5 0 ..
6 1 ..
5 2 ..
6 3 ..
5 4 ..
5 5 ..
5 6 ..
5 7 ..
5 8 ..
5 9 ..
6 0 ..
6 1 ..
6 2 ..
6 3 ..
•64..
6 5 ..
6 6 ..
6 7 ..
6 8 ..
6 9 ..
7 0 ..
7 1 ..
7 2 ..
7 3 ..
7 4 ..
7 5 ..
7 6 ..
7 7 ..
7 8 ..
7 9 ..
8 0 ..

5697
6650
5«03
5555
55o7
5457
5407
5355
5301
6246
5191
5132
5072
5010
4947
4884
4825
4767
4709
4651
4591
4526
4453
4375
4297
4219
4143
4069
3997
3924
3846
3761
3674
3584
3494
3403
3312
3220
3125
8030
2930
2822
2708
2590
2472
2354
2236
2118
1997
1873
1749
1622
1489
1354
1214
1084
963
848
743
643
558

79
82
85
88
90
93
97
100
104
108
112
117
121
122
123
123
123
123
127
134
145
156
167
175
178
179
180
183
191
201
215
229
241
251
260
271
280
294
314
338
365
396
426
451
478
505
538
574
618
675
740
820
903
984
1061
1129
1178
1241
1335
1449
159

59"3
5859
5814
5766
5717
5667
5615
5562
5508
5453
5397
5339
5281
5222
5163
5104
5045
4986
4927
4868
4805
4736
4666
4596
4526
4455
4382
4 309
4236
4163
4087
4007
3925
3842
3757
3671
3584
3492
3398
3302
3204
3098
29S3
2862
2736
2608
2475
2337
2195
2050
1905
1761
1618
1475
1335
1199
1070
947
831
724
624

V O L . X L I I I.----- N O . I l l ,




74
78
81
85
88
91
94
97
100
103
106
109
111
113
114
116
117
120
125
131
138
145
150
154
158
162
166
171
177
185
193
203
212
221
231
242
254
268
286
308
335
366
400
437
474
513
557
605
646
705
760
817
881
943
1011
1079
1148
1220
1296
1330
148

80
82
85
87
89
91
94
96
99
103
107
111
115
118
121
124
127
130
183
137
142
147
152
157
163
169
175
182
189 .
197
206
216
228
242
257
274
295
318
343
370
899
430
463
496
530
566
604
646
692
740
791
846
902
960
1021
1088
1162
1246
1341
1448
157

20

65
69
73
76
78
81
83
86
89
92
95
99
103
107
111
116
120
125
130
135
140
146
152
158
164
171
177
184
191
198
206
215
225
237
250
264
280
298
317
337
357
377
398
418
438
461
490
525
569
623
686
760
833
911
990
1072
1160
1256
1364
1485
161

71
73
75
78
81
84
87
91
94
97
100
102
103
104
106
105
106
106
107
108
110
112
115
119
123
12S
184
142
149
157
165
173
182
191
202
216
231
249
268
293
318
345
374
404
434
464
495
628
561
597
636
674
717
762
811
859
909
958
1026
1105
120

104
105
106
106
106
105
105
105
105
105
106
105
104
103
103
105
110
115
120
123
123
123
123
122
123
124
127
130
136
145
155
166
177
188
19S
207
216
226
239
254
273
294
316
338
361
387
421
459
501
543
582
620
658
700
746
796
852
928
1012
1105
118

101
110
113
114
114
113
109
109
109
109
109
110
111
112
113
115
117
119
121
123
124
124
125
125
126
126
125
128
131
135
140
152
161
172
184
197
210
222
233
244
250
259
271
291
814
337
375
404
433
468
513
655
595
635
679
719
752
833
929
1021
112

65
67
68
70
72
74
76
78
80
83
86
89
91
94
97
101
105
109
113
117
122
127
132
138
144
150
157
164
172
180
188
196
205
213
220
228
237
246
258
292
335
388
452
529
577
624
670
714
759
801
84 2
882
923
962
999
1039
1076
1112
1142
1175
121

Forgery.

306
Age.
8 1 ..
8 2 ..
8 3 ..
8 4 ..
8 5 ..
8 6 ..
8 7 ..
8 8 ..
8 9 ..
9 0 ..
9 1 ..
9 2 ..
9 3 ..
9 4 ..
9 5 ..
9 6 ..
9 7 ..
9 8 ..
9 9 ..

Price’s Mortality Milne’s Milne’s Sweden, Sweden, Norway., Finlaison , Finl’son, Farr’s
Sweden. adjust'd. Sweden, adjust’d. 1795-JS15.1815-35. 1S25-35. 1745-lHdB. male,fe. ^orth.’n.
468
175
533
17u
158
175
124
122
132
124
183
884
449
193
171
189
146
130
129
130
309
372
184
197
209
203
160
138
137
139
244
304
196
212
218
222
150
175
145
154
189
204
226
248
232
233
187
155
179
157
209
239
144
240
191
244
170
185
198
212
109
214
252
243
150
257
209
249
197
207
218
261
82
254
269
119
220
219
235
291
224
270
62
94
282
275
239
262
385
232
235
280
47
314
73
294
252
299
375
245
369
66
251
294
33
309
258
263
347
414
269
309
21
442
42
824
266
270
375
462
289
324
11
490
31
340
255
404
518
280
332
340
5
600
22
359
241
444
615
292
361
669
15
357
880
2
234
725
319
480
378
427
403
1
10
660
1000
233
1000
348
536
404
5
431
242
660
414
643
436
3
465
385
825
575
1
1000
533
512
875
...
545
..
667

.
.
.

...
...
.

Art. III.— F 0 R G E R Y .
T he importance of the crime o f forgery, and the confusion which it is
capable of creating in the transaction of both public and private affairs,
have in ail time engaged the serious attention of the ministers o f justice.
Notwithstanding this, however, the arts of the forger have never received
that attention, in an educational point of view, which the importance of
the subject demands.
In the progress o f civilization cupidity has very nearly attained the
dignity of a science, and how to detect and how to avoid the arts o f the
counterfeiter has well nigh become a necessary part o f commercial edu­
cation.
Forgery, in law, may be defined to be the fraudulent making or altera­
tion of any record, deed, writing, instrument, register, stamp, etc., to the
prejudice of another man’s rights. This broad field of operation is open
to a great variety o f means with the freest use of scientific principles.
If we consult the records of this species of crime, we discover the arts
of the forger to be contemporaneous with the advance of science. In­
deed, the propagation o f the truths of the science o f chemistry, among
all classes of society, seems not only to have facilitated the arts o f the
falsifier, but in some cases to have been available for obliterating the evi­
dence of murder. The application o f chemical processes in the perpe­
tration of crime have, in some instances, demonstrated the greatest tri­
umphs in that science ; and had they been used for scientific purposes
alone, they would have clothed their discoverers with imperishable honor.
Photography— one o f the brightest gems o f modern chemistry—-has
achieved some of its greatest exploits in efforts to elude the “ bank-note
detector.”
But in the adaptation of the latest truths of science, the forger never
forgets the ruder methods of his art, now reduced to an unprecedented
degree of perfection.
The smooth erasure, the over careful preserva­




Forgery.

807

tion of important documents by the use o f strengthening bands, inelegant
blots, or over elegant penmanship, characterized by a great display of
flourishes, are tricks o f the trade as of y o r e ; and when they are associ­
ated with scientific accomplishments, they are the more deceptive. The
chemical agents most usually employed in forgery are muriatic acid, ci­
tric acid, oxalic acid, common salt, and other substances containing chlo­
rine, and the chemicals of photography.
In view o f the foregoing circumstances, the examination of suspected
forgeries may be facilitated by dividing the processes into two classes,
namely, physical and chemical.
I. P h y s ic a l E x a m in a t io n .— In the physical examination of written in­
struments, semi-transparent spots or lines, strengthening strips or entire
new backs, blots, heavy or rough lines, interlineations attested with ink
of a different shade o f color from that used in the main composition, or
flourishes of penmanship, are all suspicious conditions.
The forger,
in order to hide the semi-transparency of an erasure, usually wears the
paper in the line o f it, by forced creasing, and then applies a strengthen­
ing strip or new back. “ W orn out lines,” or those which have been in­
serted in the place of others removed, are often mended in the same
way. Torn edges or rents, as the effect, or instead of erasures, are usually
repaired by patches, strips, or new backs. Various shades in the color
of the ink may be the result of time only in old papers, or they may in­
dicate the reaction of chemical agents in efforts to remove it.
Irregu­
larity in the written lines and roughness may be consequent upon a bad
quality of paper, or be caused by washing the sizing out o f the paper in
an effort to remove the ink. Washing, also, may cause an apparent
irregularity in the thickness of the paper, leaving spots, from which the
sizing has been removed, more or less transparent and rough, and thus
simulate or obscure other spots which have been erased. All writing
paper, in the process o f its preparation, is sized; that is to say, it has
incorporated with it substances which hinder the penetration o f ink or
other fluids. When, therefore, the ink strokes are large, or spread into
the texture of the paper, they indicate the tamperings of forgery. Where
resin has been used for smoothing over an erased surface, the contrary
effect results; the ink is but sparingly absorbed by the resin, the lines
are fine and superficial, and of glossy appearance.
Blots, too, may be
the result of original composition in consequence o f poor paper, of acci­
dental moisture, of age, smoke, or scorching; it is important, therefore,
to determine these conditions. In general, blots which are the result of
badly sized paper, or of washing, are o f circular shape, and present a
regular fading shade of color from center to circumference.
Blots, of
brownish color and glossy, are usually produced by bistre or liquid-brown,
and are indelible.
Humidity, or moisture, which is liable to occur in
papers not well cared for, or by accident, is equally liable to occur in any
or every part of the paper. The destructive effects of humidity are
sometimes counterfeited by the application of acetic or other strong
acids, which more effectually destroy the ink by a partial or total des­
truction of the paper in the places to which the application is m ade;
whereas mere moisture scarcely or not at all affects the texture o f the
paper, otherwise than by removing the sizing.
Besides, the acids are
usually applied in particular places— the usual temptation being to par­
tially and not wholly destroy the papers subjected to this means o f coun­
terfeiting.




308

Forgery.

For the restoration of ink traces which have been made to disappear
through the influence o f moisture, heat is an available and reliable agent.
A good way of applying heat for this purpose consists in placing the
sheet to be examined between two sheets o f tissue paper and subjecting
the whole to pressure between two smooth surfaces of moderately heated
iron. A still more effectual method, but requiring more care, is first to
wet the papers separately in alcohol, then carefully place them as above,
and apply the heated plates. A simpler, but more hazardous, plan, is to
scorch the defaced document before a hot fire. Any of these measures,
carefully applied, will ordinarily restore legibility to written instruments
which have suffered no other damage than mere moisture. But if acetic
or other strong acids have been applied, it is almost needless to state, the
writing will not be restored, since their use involved a destruction of the
paper, as well as the ink, in the places to which they have been applied.
II. C h e m ic a l E x a m in a t io n .— First on the list of the means applica­
ble under this head, may be placed distilled water. By it we can easily
discover whether erasures have been made and partially resized, or
whether the paper has been rubbed with resin. For the performance of
this experiment, the paper to be examined should be smoothly spread
out on glass, the water added a little at a time, and carefully observed in
its effects on the paper. If the sizing has been removed by erasure or
washing, the spots will be indicated by the greater readiness with which
they absorb the water; while if any places have been rubbed with resin
these wholly fail to absorb water, and thus become equally manifest.
M. Chevalier (Dictionnaire des Alterations et Falsifications,) relates
cases where not only forged words have been substituted, but the kind
of pen indicated by the impression made in writing. In one such case
the point of a metalic pen with a divided beak had been used, and press­
ed so hard as to scratch two lines in the formation o f the letters; these
lines were traceable by the ready absorption of the water, which was not
the case in the genuine part o f the instrument.
And in another case a
semi-transparent spot was discovered to have been written over with a
stylet, as if for the purpose o f avoiding the accident which led to the
discovery made in the case related ; and, in this latter case, the smooth
single point of the stylet had the effect o f so condensing the erased paper
as to render the forgery manifest from a totally opposite effect, namely,
the non-absorption o f water in the line o f writing, while the parts im­
mediately contiguous absorbed moisture with great facility.
By distilled water we can also determine the nature o f blots, or of
blanks— whether they have been caused by the use of acid or alkaline
substances, for the diffusion or for the removal o f the ink. For this ob­
ject the water should be applied in drops to the suspected places, and
allowed to remain ten or fifteen minutes, and then removed by means of
a pipette, and subjected to the usual chemical tests for acids and alkalies.
To render this test more certain, the genuine portion o f the writing
should also be wet with the distilled water, for the purpose o f discovering
the acid or alkaline nature of the ink used in the original composition.
For, if an acid ink has been used upon a paper containing a carbonate—
such as the carbonate o f lime or chalk, which is frequently used in the
dressing of paper— the acid o f the ink acts upon the carbonate and forms,
with it and the iron contained in the ink, a ferruginous salt. This salt,
becoming dissolved by the application o f the distilled water, partially




Forgery.

309

destroys the sizing of the paper, and causes the ink lines to appear semi­
transparent. In the use o f water for these purposes, it is necessary to
repeat the experiment man}' times. After having moistened and examined
the paper for one purpose, allow it to dry, and repeat the experiment for
another.
Alcohol.— In some cases where water has failed to satisfy the mind of
the scientific inquirer in regard to the suspected use o f resin in combi­
nation with other substances, for the purpose of obliterating erasures,
the use of alcohol has solved the problem by dissolving the resin, after
which the experiments with water may be repeated and verification ren­
dered complete.
Paper moistened with alcohol for this purpose may
also be subjected to a pretty good test by being placed between the eye
and the light. If semi-transparent spots appear in the written lines they
are probably owing to erasures; and if, upon drying, the ink is found to
be feebly impressed or blurred in these places, evidence o f forgery may
be considered complete. And it may here be remarked that those law­
yers who use pounce, if there are any such, are liable thereby to destroy
their own evidence of authenticity. It is somewhere recorded o f Ste­
phen Girard that a well recommended book-keeper once sought employ­
ment of him, and among other good qualities the applicant was specially
commended for his extreme neatness in making erasures, and so filling
them as to leave no indications of their existence. After proving his ex­
pertness in this particular, and confidently addressing himself to the
great merchant, as if sure of the place he sought, he received for reply,
“ If I know it, I never employ anybody who uses pounce.”
Test Papers.— These are best prepared from litmus, a peculiar color­
ing matter obtained from Roccella tinctoria— Spanish orchilla— a small
dry lichen, chiefly obtained from the west coast of Africa and neighbor­
ing islands. A strong solution of litmus, fit for dying test paper, may
be made by triturating one part o f litmus with six parts (by weight) of
water, gradually added, and then boiling the mixture for half an hour.
Unsized white paper, dipped in this solution, immediately acquires a deep
purple color. And thus prepared, it should be carefully dried and kept
in well closed vessels, secluded from light, ready for use. If moistened
with an acid, this purple paper is immediately changed to red ; if moist­
ened with an alkali it is changed to blue. Some strips m aybe preserved
in a reddened state by moistening the purple paper in a weak solution
of acetic acid, and these, when applied to an alkaline solution, are imme­
diately restored to their original purple color or changed to a blue— de­
pending upon the strength o f the alkali. In testing for acidity, it is use­
ful to expose the purple paper for a few seconds to the vapor o f ammonia
just before applying it ; this has the effect of intensifying the blueness,
and rendering it more sensitive to the presence of an acid.
Ordinarily, test papers are preserved in narrow slips, but for the ex­
amination of written instruments or bank notes suspected of forgery, it
is necessary to have whole sheets of test paper, or at least sheets as large
as the papers to be examined; and the manner of using them is this:—
Take a sheet of the purple test paper of the same size as the suspected
document, moisten it with distilled water, and carefully spread it out on
a sheet of white tissue paper; then lay upon it the paper to be examined,
the test paper being between the tissue paper and the suspected docu­
ment. Thus arranged, put the whole together between plates of glass,
and subject them to pressure for about an h our; by the end of this




310

Forgery.

time the test sheet on removal will be found to vary in shades o f color
according to the preponderance of acids or alkalies with which it has
been in contact, and thus will be indicated whether the ink of the sus­
pected instrument has been subjected to manipulations for the purpose
of removal. The presence o f acids or alkalies having been thus ascer­
tained, the document may then be submitted to a further examination
by dissolving out the agent used, in the manner before directed— by add­
ing distilled water in drops, and subsequent removal by the pipette; and
the identity of the substance established by chemical analysis. In the
performance of this experiment, it frequently turns out that, in conse­
quence of the presence of acids used in the manufacture o f the paper,
there is a uniform change of color in the test. This, however, being
uniform, is no detriment to the value of the test, because o f the increased
potency of additional acids which may have been used, the test is corre­
spondingly affected.
There are other valuable tests depending upon the well known quali­
ties of ink. Ordinarily, ink is a metallic preparation, having for a basis a
compound formed by the action of nutgalls on the oxide o f iron. This com­
pound chemically consists of the tannate of the 'protoxide o f iron, and
this substance, after a time, attains its maximum degree of oxidation,
and takes on the brilliant black color peculiar to well-made ink. To in­
crease this brilliancy, mucillage, gum, or sugar is sometimes added ; and
forgiven shades of color, indigo, logwood, or sulphate of copper; but
the tannate of the protoxide of iron is the essential quality o f good ink.
The counterfeiter, being aware o f this, seeks to abrogate the ink by such
means as are least liable to detection, and which will incur the least like­
lihood of notice to his subsequent manipulations.
Foremost among
these means are certain strengths of the strong acids— muriatic, acetic,
and oxalic, and chlorine; a chief object being to use these substances in
such a state of solution as will effectually remove ink without affecting
the texture of the paper. The difficulty of accomplishing these purposes
is made manifest by the certain tests o f experimental chemistry. It
should be premised, however, that notwithstanding the certain qualities
of well-made ink, the acids of nutgalls, which enter into its composition,
sometimes take on destructive modifications; this is particularly the case
if the ink has been subjected to a freezing temperature. The oxide of
iron is then set free, and assumes its natural yellow color. Ink thus
spoiled should never be used for drawing up writings o f importance, be­
cause it continues to fade, even after being committed to paper, and is
ultimately destroyed by time alone. This alteration is more or less rapid
according to the good or bad preparation of the ink in the first place,
and also according to the nature of the modifying substances which have
been added to it; it may also be influenced by the quality of the paper
upon which it is used.
In the examination of instruments of writing suspected of forgery, we
have arrived at the conclusion that the object is three-fold, namely, the
detection of the forgery, the detection of the means used, and the res­
toration of the instrument. These purposes are made apparent by what
has gone before. But it now remains to demonstrate the utility of divers
substances useful for all the purposes herein comprehended. At the head
of these stands iodine. The best way of using this is in the form of vapor,
which is easily accomplished by putting a few grains of the metal into a
wide-mouthed vial, and subjecting it to a moderate heat. Iodine soon




Forgery.

S ll

evaporates on exposure to heat, and the paper to be tested by it can be
so held as to allow the vapor of the iodine to impinge upon its surface.
After this the paper may be left for three or four minutes, and then care­
fully examined. If the surface o f the paper has not been touched or
operated upon by any other substance, the iodine imparts a uniform yel­
lowish or yellow-brown color, on every part of the surface exposed to its
influence. If any liquid— water, alcohol, salt water, vinegar, saliva, tears,
urine, acids, or alkalies— has been applied to the surface of the paper be­
fore its exposure to the vapor of iodine, the places to which such appli­
cation has been made are indicated by the varying tints of color im­
parted by the iodine. Places which have been rubbed with pumice are
indicated by a bistre-brown color, and those transparencies which have
been repaired by the use o f paste are o f a bluish-violet tint; while all
spots in the paper, from which the sizing has been removed in conse­
quence of washing, wetting with alcohol, or the use of acids, show their
places by the more or less varying shades, depending upon the nature of
the substance used, and the effect it may have had on the texture o f the
paper. The place o f forgery being thus indicated by the iodine, it may
afterwards be treated with the appropriate chemical tests for ascertaining
the exact nature of the substance used. Photographs subjected to iodine
vapor, and subsequently treated by a solution o f the cyanide of potas­
sium, are completely destroyed.
Forgery, by means of chlorine and its preparations, may be detected
by nitrate o f silver. For this purpose, first dissolve out the substance
used, and add to it a solution o f nitrate o f silver; if chlorine be present
in any form, there will be a dense white precipitate of the chloride o f
silver.
Gallic acid, or the recently prepared tincture o f nutgalls, sulphuretted
hydrogen, ammonia, and the alkaline sulphates, are all useful agents for
restoring the traces of ink which have been deprived of their color by
chlorine or other substances. For this purpose, the paper to be operated
upon should be carefully spread out on a smooth surface, and gradually
moistened by the reactive, and its changes watched for. When the sur­
face has been well moistened with one test, it should be allowed to dry,
and it may be of benefit to let several days, or even weeks, intervene,
before another is used. If no traces of ink appear, another may be
tried, and so on, the process being repeated many times. Traces of ink
have sometimes appeared in paper so treated, at long intervals subse­
quent to the experiment— evidently traceable to the influence of these
agents.
Next to the knowledge necessary for the detection o f forgery, it is im­
portant to know by what means forgery may be rendered more difficult,
and less liable to be attempted in the outset. As long ago as 1825, the
Ministers o f Justice in France consulted the Academy o f Sciences upon
the best means for the prevention o f numerous disasters, both public and
private, consequent upon forgery. The commission charged with the
examination of the subject, proposed two methods— 1st. The employ­
ment of indelible ink. 2d. Stamped paper.
1. Indelible Ink. This name is only appropriate to those inks which
are known to be easily taken up by prepared paper, and unalterable
under the influence o f prolonged washings, chlorine, acids, and alkalies.
A great variety of samples purporting to answer these qualities were




312

Forgery.

submitted; but two only were approved o f and recommended, and these
were both compounds with the JEncre de Chine. China ink is supposed
to be made o f the dried salts obtained by evaporating certain sea waters
of that country, mixed with gums or glue. Another kind of China ink,
equally indelible, seems to be made o f a peculiar kind o f lamp-black,
(as if obtained by the combustion o f a peculiar substance,) mixed with
gelatine, precipitated by ammonia, and seeDted with musk. These were
for a time adopted by the French Government, (1831,) but their use was
attended with such difficulty as to cause their early abandonment.
2.
Stamped Papers. These were presented in great variety, contain­
ing various marks by stamp or composition, by which they might be
distinguished, and purporting to be inimitable. None o f these met the
approval of the commission for State purposes, while several were adopted
by banking houses and commercial companies. In 1848, M. Seguir in­
formed the Academy that M. Grimpe had submitted to him a sample of
bank note paper, which it was impossible to imitate, and in the same
year, M. Dumas declared, in the name of the commission appointed on
inks and papers of surety, that the paper presented by M. Grimpe was
proof against forgery.
The manufacture o f M. Grimpe’s paper consists in a general vignette
of both sides of the paper, with stars in relief, engraved under the mi­
croscope, and with the greatest exactitude. After adopting certain im­
provements suggested by M. Lemercier, the commission approved of M.
Grimpe’s paper, as offering the most perfect security for the purposes in­
dicated, and it has gone into general use for banking purposes in France.
In addition to this, the French Government has adopted a particular form
and quality of paper for all documentary purposes, and this paper is se­
cured by a stamp o f the State as a guaranty against forgery.
Finally, as an additional security, certain substances, known as sympa­
thetic inks, may be used as tests o f genuineness, or for purposes of com­
munication between persons liable to have their letters inspected. Sym­
pathetic inks are substances employed for writing colorless lines, but
susceptible of being rendered visible under the influence of heat or chem­
ical agents. There are numerous substances of this character, and of
such may be named the salts o f cobalt, chlorine, acetates, and nitrates,
mixed with one-fourth part o f sea salt. These, when dissolved in water
and written with, leave no visible traces upon the paper, but when the
paper is slightly heated the tracings appear as if written with blue ink,
and gradually fade out again on cooling. The salts o f nickel, and certain
of the salts of lead and o f bismuth, and the juices o f certain vegetable
substances, may be employed in certain cases as resources of safety on
papers liable to forgery7, or for interlineations, under circumstances of ne­
cessary submission to surveilance, between parties in each other’s confi­
dence. The means of communication by sympathetic ink, however, may
he turned to the most mischievous purposes; lienee the detection of this
means of intercourse is an object of no less interest to the ministers of
justice than the more ordinary methods of counterfeiting; and it should
be particularly taken into account in the examination of written corre­
spondence between criminals and leagued bands of outlaws. The agents
already described, particularly iodine, are, under ordinary circumstances,
equally efficacious for the discovery o f communications made by the use
of sympathetic ink.




Opium Trade o f India.

313

Art. IV.— OPIUM TRADE OF INDIA.
O R I G IN O P T R A D E — P R E S E N T A M O U N T — P O P P Y — P R O C E SS O F M A N U F A C T U R E — D E A L E R S — C H IN E S E P U R ­
C H A S E S — A M E R IC A N

C A P T A IN — ST E AM

C IT ID E L S — G A M B L I N G

NATU RE— LARGE

C A P IT A L — USE

OF

O P IU M .

T he trade in opium has been one of the most important supports o f
the English government in India, as it has, in its incidents, had a most
important influence upon the fortunes of China. A contemporary con­
tains some interesting facts in relation to the circumstances of the trade,
which is yet to have a great power over Chinese finances.
The Portuguese have the merit (if it may be so regarded) of having
commenced the trade in opium between India and China. A hundred
years ago it was of very trifling extent, and it was not until after the
British East India Company made an adventure iu 1113 that it gave pro­
mise of becoming a large trade. For many years tbe quantity shipped
from British India did not much exceed 1,000 chests per annum, and even
so late as the year 1 '2 0 it did not quite reach 6,000 chests, or about
900,000 pounds. Since that time, however, notwithstanding that the
Chinese have latterly largely cultivated tbe plant from which it is pro­
duced, their imports of opium have rapidly increased. A t the present
date it amounts to between 10,000,000 and 11,000,000 pounds annually
from India, beside a small amount from Turkey. The opium produced
in India is the concrete juice o f the white poppy. The capsules, when
green, are incised with a knife, with three or more blades, which is drawn
along them during the hottest time of the day ; the white juice exudes
from the wounds and concretes into opium, which is scraped off the next
morning. If the night dews are heavy, or if rain falls in the interval, the
quality of the drug is much impaired. The opium w’hen collected is put
into jars for transportation to the factories, where it undergoes a process
to purify and prepare it for the market. About the end of March, and
for some weeks after, these jars begin to arrive at their destination, and
the contents are thrown into large vats, from which the mass is distributed
to be made into balls. When dry, the balls are packed for sale in chests,
in two layers of six each, with dried stalks, leaves, and capsules of the
poppy plant. A chest of Bengal opium contains 160 pounds, and one of
Bombay 140 pounds. The right to manufacture opium in India is
monopolized by the government. The cultivation o f the plant from which
it is produced is rigidly restricted to two districts in the Presidency of
Bengal, and a semi-independent native State in Western India. The
Bengal opium is exported from Calcutta, and the other, known in the trade
as Malwa opium, from Bombay. Calcutta and Bombay are the only
ports from which opium is permitted to be exported, and the quantity
shipped at the former is about double that at the latter. In the favored
provinces in Bengal, where tbe poppy plant is allowed to be grown, tbe
government servants grant licenses to cultivators of the soil to plant cer­
tain grounds, and afterward receive the juice from these people at a
stipulated fixed price. As Malwa is an inland State, and has consequently
no seaport, its opium pays a duty to the British Indian Government of
about $60 a chest upon exportation from Bombay. At Calcutta, there
are regular periodical auction sales, where the opium is sold at so much
per chest to the. highest bidder ; and so careful were the East India Com­
pany to keep up the character o f their brand in the market, that ,pre­




314

Opium Trade o f India.

vious to sale all cases were opened by examiners appointed for the pur­
pose, and any balls of opium that had the slightest appearance of impurity
or decay were removed, replaced, and destroyed, and the box resealed.
The purchasers at these auctions are of all races and countries. There
may be seen the acute citizen o f the United States, the portly native o f
Ilindostan, and men in strange costumes, that have sailed in their own
ships, and brought with them strange coin, from the ports on the shores
of Iranistan and Arabia. You may see all creeds— Christian and Pagan,
Mohammedan and Jew, and last though not least, from the importance
of their presence, the brokers of English merchants who count their capital
by hundreds of thousands of pounds sterling, and own lines o f steamers
and sailing vessels. When the opium is sold it is kept in bond by the
government, and only allowed to be removed to the ship on which it is
to be sent out o f India under the care of a customs officer, who delivers
it to another aboard, whose duty is to remain by the vessel till she finally
proceeds to sea. A t this stage of the traffic the government of India
have finally done away with all interference or control over the article,
and it may be taken wheresoever the owner may think fit.
If we were to credit the policy o f the powers that rule in China, it
would appear that it is their ardent wfsh entirely to abolish the use of
opium among the 350,000,000 of people subject to their will. In that
empire the importation o f opium is by law strictly prohibited, and by
existing treaties with America, England, and other countries, any of their
respective citizens, or subjects, that may be unfortunate enough to be
caught with the drug in their possession in Chinese waters, or on
Chinese ground, are left entirely at the mercy o f the Celestials to be dealt
with by their laws. The actual practice of the trade, however, is very dif­
ferent from what we might suppose it to be from this regulation. There
is in reality no more risk incurred in introducing opium into China than
there is here in importing in a legal manner any of the articles upon
which a duty is levied by the customs. To understand this more clearly,
let us suppose that the government of the United States, with the double
view of increasing the revenue o f the country, and o f affording their ser­
vants superior facilities for growing rich by extortion, were to pass a law
and make treaties with foreign powers prohibiting the importation of
tobacco into the Union, under the penalty of death to all who should be
caught attempting to evade it, and at the same time privately permit the
various collectors of customs to sell permits to those who were willing to
pay highly for the privilege of landing and distributing the contraband
article in safety. This supposition is a parallel case with the practice in
China with regard to opium. It is quite an error to suppose, as is
generally done, that the drug is smuggled or taken into China in open
defiance of the authority of the executive power o f the country. There
are receiving ships carrying various flags— some American— well armed
and manned with Malays and natives of Manilla, moored in convenient
harbors on the coasts of China, and when a steamer or “ opium clipper”
arrives from India, it is into these storeships that her cargo is delivered,
and receipts or certificates regularly granted which are sent to the owners
o f the drug wherever they or their agents may transact their business in
China. In trade these certificates are considered unquestionable, and are
transmitted from one to another with the greatest facility. Chinese dealers
from ports on the coast, and the interior, when they happen to want a
supply of opium, purchase scrip for what they require, and send their




Opium Trade o f India.

315

own boats, or sometimes junks, or steamers of light draft of water, to
take it from the receiving ship and convey it to whatever port they in­
tend to land it. At this particular stage of the traffic, as a general rule,
all foreign interference with the trade may be said to end, though a few
“ barbarians” are engaged in the very profitable business of distributing
the opium in the country to those who directly retail it to the consumers.
When a lot, of one or more chests, is purchased, and intended to be landed
at some particular place, the purchaser makes arrangements with the
Mandarin in authority there, and strikes the best possible bargain with
him for his permission to transact the business unmolested. As may be
imagined, there is no fixed rate for this permission, and it varies much
with the necessities of the case, but is always the uttermost dollar that
the greedy official finds it possible to extract. The captain of an American
steamer, who had been employed by the native dealers for sometime in
conveying opium from the receiving ships to Canton, and who had made
several profitable ventures on his own account, came to the conclusion
that he could do equally well without the assistance of the government
people, and that he would pay no more black mail. Without letting any
of them know his intention, he took a considerable quantity of opium
aboard and proceeded to Canton, where he landed it without being
questioned in any way. He returned, took in a second cargo, and pro­
ceeded up the river as before, but no sooner had he anchored his vessel
above the European factories, than he was boarded by two large launches
with upward of eighty Chinese soldiers and two inferior Mandarins to
take possession o f his ship. The captain, however, was not thrown oft'
his guard by his former good success, but was fully prepared to receive
his visitors, knowing well that should they get possession, both ship and
cargo wmuld be confiscated, and himself and crew left entirely at the
mercy of the captors— or in other words, that unless a large ransom were
forthcoming they must pay it with their heads. Steamers engaged in this
trade, and in the somewhat more precarious one of carrying Chinese
passengers, have strong platforms erected across the wheel-houses, where
in other vessels a plank is usually placed, called the captain’s bridge.
These platforms are guarded by strong bulwarks, steering apparatus is
fixed on them, the arm-chests, and usually carronades placed so as to rake
the deck below fore and a ft; the engine-room hatches are well secured
with iron gratings, and means are provided for telegraphing orders to the
engineer. It is, in fact, a little citadel from which the crew of a steamer
can direct her movements long after her decks are in possession of an
enemy. The captain, being on the alert, and having seen the boats with
the soldiers coming, had mustered all hands in this little fort, except one
left below to knock out the shackle-pin and free the vessel from her anchor,
when all was ready. When the last man o f the two boat-loads was on
the deck, the engineer received his orders to turn ahead, and away went
the steamer with the whole posse, who had been so certain o f their prize
that in their astonishment they made no attempt at resistance. The cap­
tain proceeded straight to the Portuguese settlement at Macao, some hun­
dred miles distant, and brought up under the guns of one of their bat­
teries, when he descended to the angry Mandarins, and expressed a hope
that they would not take for any want of courtesy toward them his ab­
sence while he was attending to the duties of his ship. lie informed
them that the fare down was two dollars per head for themselves and
attendants, and that when his claim upon them for that amount was satis­




316

Opium Trade o f India.

fied, they had his permission to go about their business! The steamer
had to remain at Macao till lie made his peace with the offended officials
at Canton ; but that was not difficult when he paid the full amount which
they considered themselves entitled to upon the former cargo, besides for
what he had aboard, and a fine as a caution for his future conduct.
There is, perhaps, no other commercial business in the world that excels
the opium trade in facility for making or losing a fortune. The total
capital employed in it is very large; and some o f the mercantile firms
engaged in the trade are almost fabulously rich, and enterprising to a de­
gree that would be thought rash elsewhere. On account o f the great
value and perishable nature of the drug, it has always been a matter of
the first importance to employ the fastest vessels procurable in its con­
veyance from India to China. The transit, however, is now almost en­
tirely carried on by means of steamers. Some few years ago, when all
the boats on the line belonged to one steam navigation company, and their
directors thought fit to raise the freight per chest from $14 to $15 50,
two mercantile firms built at once, with their own capital, superior ves­
sels to those employed, and started a line each in opposition. These
steamers must have cost $300,000 each ; and perhaps it would be difficult
to find elsewhere merchants who could afford, without previous prepara­
tion, to withdraw such large sums from their working capital, and not
even show the slightest appearance o f inconvenience. Not long ago, a
firm devised a plan for sweeping the opium market, that would be no dis­
credit to" the acquisitive ingenuity of Barnum. At the time of the opera­
tion they had a considerable stock of opium in China, beside which they
bought largely in India, and loaded and dispatched two of their own ves­
sels. Ships bound from India to China in the season of opium freights,
to take advantage o f the prevailing monsoon in the China Sea, always
pass through the Straits of Malacca and Singapore, calling at the latter
place, which is a sort of half-way house for them. There is a large Chinese
population at Singapore, and o f course a considerable demand for opium.
When the two vessels in question reached that place, on their way to
China, they found orders waiting for them to unload there, and sell their
cargoes by auction without reserve. The quantity of opium brought by
them was many times greater than the demand, and traders at that place
were quite unprepared with funds for such an unexpected contingency.
Besides, the very fact of a firm like that to which these cargoes belonged
trying to force a sale, at any sacrifice, convinced the most skeptical that
something dire was pending over the opium market— nothing less, per­
haps, than free-trade in its production in India. When the cargoes were
advertised, with a due notice of sale, those who held moderate stock of
opium, suited to the straits markets, hurried forward sales so as to antici­
pate the other and realize what they could before the market became en­
tirely glutted. The effect o f this was that opium was to be had for a
mere percentage of its original cost in India, and the private agents of
those who had caused the depression purchased all they could get, and
afterward bought in the two cargoes at a nominal price. W hile this was
going forward at Singapore, the firm acted alike partin China, and forced
sales with the same result. When news came from Singapore of the low
prices ruling there, opium was, in more senses than one, a complete drug.
Very few had foresight sufficient to retain their stocks, much less to pur­
chase, and the private agents were again at work and bought till the
market was swept and the opium had nearly all found its way into the




Financial Heresies.

817

hands of the originators o f the panic, who were safe from competition
till the crop of the following season found its way to China. In due time
the two vessels arrived safely with full cargoes from Singapore, prices
went up higher than they had ever been known before, and some of the
senior partners in the successful firm retired on splendid fortunes to their
native land, which was generally supposed to lie in some latitude north
of the river Tweed.
The principal use which the Chinese make o f opium is to smoke it
with tobacco, when it produces a languor said to be exceedingly pleasing.
The evil effects of this have been generally very greatly exaggerated. It
is only in its abuse, as with many o f the good things o f this world, that
leads to the complete attenuation o f frame and prostration of faculties
that are said to characterize all who follow the practice. Hundreds of
thousands of Chinese continue to smoke opium for the term o f their
natural lives without any apparent injury to mind or body. In the smok­
ing saloons of Canton, opium is retailed to customers at its weight in sil­
ver; the metal is put in one scale and the drug in the other, and weight
for weight exchanged. It will therefore be apparent that, in a country
where money is of so much value, it is only the richer portion of the
population who have means to carry such an expensive luxury to excess.
There is no room to doubt that if the government of India abandoned
the opium monopoly and allowed the drug to be produced freely all over
Hindostan, that the Chinese consumption would thereby be greatly in­
creased, as well as the injurious effects which it is said to occasion. Much
is said, without any good show o f reason, against the government of India
for the part it performs in the trade. Indeed, some of those, in England
and elsewhere, who are loudest in declaiming .against the traffic, appear
to be totally ignorant of the real bearings of the case. India derives a
revenue of some §20,000,000 per annum, which is every cent extracted
out of the pockets of the smokers, and the system so much abused actually
assists to obstruct the demoralization of the Chinese. It would be as
reasonable to censure the ruler of France for permitting brandy to be
made in that country, and to say that he was demoralizing people in other
parts of the world by laying such an export duty upon it as might raise
its selling price to consumers to about $20 a gallon.

Art. V.— FINANCIAL HERESIES.
To the Editor o f the Merchants' Magazine : —
T he English papers, in commenting upon the recent failures in the
hide and leather trade, are quite emphatic in denouncing “ accommoda­
tion ” notes as the cause o f the disturbance. This is an old cry o f the
Bank of England— it is the cry of “ w olf” by the wolf, or “ stop thief”
by the thief himself— in which other banks have joined, both in England
and this country. A ll of them seem to have a dread of what is called
“ accommodation paper,” as a peculiar sort of kiting which they sup­
pose to possess some especial power of inflation, productive of disaster
in monetary affairs. This is mere financial superstition; it is a holy
horror of the element of their own existence, condemning their own cher­




318

Financial Heresies.

ished principle of doing business. All promissory notes and bills are
accommodation paper, precisely one and the same thing; and when dis­
counted in bank, unless the proceeds are paid in real money atonce, they are
exchanged for the accommodation paper or debt o f the bank; they are con­
verted into debt currency, which, as it exceeds, when created, the natural
volume o f currency, is mere kiting that degrades the value of money, local­
ly, causing a loss in the capital o f the community invested in money,
precisely like the loss to a merchant by the fall of price of the goods in
his warehouses. The bank exchanges notes wdth its customer; no value
passes; it is nothing but kiting.
The hide dealer buys 1,000 hides, amounting to $5,000, and gives his
note for the same. W hat then ? The hides and the note do not form
separate values; they do not make $10,000 of property. The dealer’s
note is as independent of the hides, and as much in excess of them, as
of any other portion of his property; and his hides are no more bound
to pay the note to its possessor, whether bank or individual, than his
cattle, or his corn, or any other capital he may possess. He creates no
value by making his note, and there is no value in i t ; the value is solely
in the property he holds to pay it with, and without which the note is
but the defacement of the paper on which it is written. When the
property passes into the hands of the holder of the note, the note is ex­
tinguished, but the value remains. The bank, therefore, holds no value
or property in holding the note ; it must part with the note to get pos­
session of the value.
All debt exceeds value, capital, and wealth, both of the individual and
o f the community ; and its quality depends upon the property in the
possession or at the command of the debtor to provide the means of pay­
ment, whether the property was acquired when the note was given, or
months or years before. The hide dealer may have no other property
than the 1,000 hides to pay his note. W hat if the warehouse takes tire,
and his hides are consumed ? W hat becomes of the reality of the note,
and where is its value then ? It is the integrity and ability of the debtor
which gives the sort o f reality to a note that a bank or a creditor should
desire ; it is a lien upon his property none the less because o f the length
of time the property has been in his possession. Obviously the so-called
“ real ” note of the hide dealer for $5,000, with nothing but the 1,000
hides to furnish the means o f payment, is no more real than, and surely
not as good as, the so-called “ accommodation” note of the individual
who holds $100,000 worth of property behind it; and the individual
who grants an “ accommodation note,” so-called, holding a previously
acquired property to protect it, does no more to increase debt or cause
trouble or embarassment in financial affairs than he w7ho grants his note
for property obtained at the moment. There is no harm done by either
note, if held to maturity or exchanged at any time for honest money ; it
is the operation of the bank that does the mischief, in putting mere debt
into the office of money ; in making a fresh creation of a currency of
price, without the attribute of value, by giving bank debt instead of real
money for the note. Promissory notes, given for goods purchased, merely
postpone the payment and the use of currency or money ; requiring it
some months hence instead of to-day; and then, at the maturity of the
obligation, the demand for money or currency, so far as this transaction
is concerned, is just the same as it would have been to-day if the com­
modity had been exchanged for cash, and the business settled at once.




Financial Heresies.

319

The party essentially accommodated in this business is the bank that
gives its promise to pay on demand in exchange for the dealer’s note,
pretending thus to convert it into money, and making its whole support
and profit out of the forbearance of the people.— its creditors— who do
not call for their pay, but hold pieces o f paper, or bank balances at their
credit, and innocently pay, instead of receiviny, interest thereon for the
indulgence they grant the bank. When its creditors demand their money,
its debtors are called upon to pay money the bank never loaned, never
had to loan, and necessarily has not on hand to meet its running demand
liabilities: then comes the crisis that many writers call a “ panic.” It
is such a panic as the wasted sufferer feels whose lungs are losing their
power of inflation ; it is no panic ; it is the inevitable crisis o f death.
It is therefore only the “ accommodation ” notes and debt of the bank,
now deluding the easy credulity of the public, that need to be repudiated.
The capitalist has no occasion to pry into the concerns of the honest
trader to learn the origin of his “ bills receivable.” The dishonest trader
may sell goods backwards and forwards, with or without removal, and
present bills as vouchers, apparently as real as truth, that are as unreal
as falsehood or a vision o f the night; he merely deceives the devil if
the bank believes him ; for there can be nothing more unreal in its pre­
tensions than the debt currency itself-—this is speaking of the principle
of the system, and not accusing its managers, who are no more responsi­
ble for its evils than the rest of the public who sustain it. The capitalist,
or the bank, needs only to know the integrity and ability of the sureties
for the loan. Whether the paper presented for the same be obtained
for goods immediately delivered, or is merely borrowed for the purpose
of obtaining the loan, makes not a particle of difference in the extent of
the obligations, or in the financial affairs of the community; the only
unreal thing being the fictitious currency created from debt without labor
and without value. So much for the much-abused but innocent accom­
modation paper.
The second heresy is the notion that the bank compounds interest, and
gains more by discounting short than long dated paper. That this notion
should prevail among intelligent people, and even among bank directors,
as it does, is peculiar evidence o f the manner in which everything is
taken for granted, without reflection, in this important business of creat­
ing and destroying currency and altering the value o f money, which,
more than any other business, needs the most careful investigation. It
does not require even a slate and pencil to refute this weak notion. The
bank deducts, in round numbers, $60 discount on $1,000 loaned for twelve
months; this sum of $60 is reinvested as cash, which gains $3 60 more
in discount for the year. Obviously it produces the same result to dis­
count six notes at two months each for the sum o f $1,000, making $10,
and reinvesting 60 cents each time, only with much more accounting and
trouble. It is not to be supposed that no accomplished merchants and
bank directors understand this simple matter, but it is a very prevalent
heresy, notwithstanding.
In exchange dealing, of course, the case is altered : if the bank can gain
by charging exchange on each discount transaction, the shorter the paper
and more frequent the transactions, the better it is for the bank, and the
worse for the people.




320

Financial Heresies.

The tliird heresy is not so obvious, and requires closer examination.
It is that when the banks of any city discount notes and bills due and
belonging to another city, the course of exchange turns against the for­
mer, and specie flows to the latter, because the money owned in the former
is loaned to the latter. W e have a case in point at this moment. The
Boston banks aver, that the unprecedented expansion of tlieir loans
arises from discounting paper for New York that is owned and payable
in New York, and that alone is the reason why Boston is sending specie
to New York almost daily at this time, July 21st. This is very plausible,
and at the first glance seems very reasonable, but nevertheless it is not quite
true. The delusion is in the total misapprehension o f the nature of money.
Money is merely a portion of capital, like any other commodity, and
goes, like other things, from where its value is less to where it is more;
it is a claim upon capital, and not specially or merely money, that Bos­
ton has been lending to New Y o r k ; money will not go to New York in
consequence, unless it is cheaper in Boston than in New York ; it follows
the law o f value in this, like every other thing possessing value in ex­
change. Hides, or hemp, or cotton goods, or capital in any other form,
will go to New York when the commodity is cheapened in Boston, so as
to be worth more in New York, and capital thus transferred, constitutes
a fund to be drawn upon in making the bank loan to New York. A c­
cordingly, we see that the Boston bank loans have been increasing dur­
ing a dull business, locally, for a year past; and, especially during the
last six months, the dullest of all, they have increased $5,000,000; but
specie was not transferred to New York as the loan advanced ; the reason
is obvious; because specie was as valuable here as in New York, and
capital, in some other and cheaper form, had directly or indirectly placed
Boston funds in New York to supply the loan. It may have teen re­
ceived in returns on Boston account from foreign ports, or from the south
or west of our own country, as well as in goods forwarded directly from
Boston to New York.
But additional local currency has been created by the Boston bank
loans; money has been thereby cheapened in its exchange value, and
driven abroad, or it has been prevented from coming in. The value of
all consumable things is maintained by consumption, under an enlarged
supply, to a very great degree, because as their value declines, their con­
sumption increases; so that their value or price never falls in proportion
to the increased supply. But money is not a consumable commodity, and
it is therefore uniformly cheapened by an increased supply ; unless about
ten-fold the equivalent value of other things is produced, simultaneously
with the money, so that the relative exchangeable power o f money and
property may be steadily maintained, which is absolutely impossible with
the vast supply o f money, and the fitful addition of debt currency now
flowing upon the commercial world. This debt currency is produced
instantly, and without labor, by issuing a promise to pay ; property can­
not be produced without time and labor. As nearly all commercial
transactions are made through debt and credit, the fictitious addition to
the currency must have time to percolate through the exchanges before
the effect is felt. As a purgative requires time to change the gastric
juices and become digested, this unwholesome dose o f fiction is at length
ejecting money from Boston rapidly ; not because of any loan to New York,
more than to Boston dealers; but because the increase of bank loans has been




Financial Heresies.

321

proportionally greater in Boston, and cheapened money below its relative
exchange value in New York. Money, therefore, must continue to flow
to New York in excess of its receipt in Boston, until one of four things
takes place; either Boston must reduce her loans, or New York must in­
crease hers; or Boston must supply more goods, or New York less goods
to the common market, proportionally. The value o f money being always
relative to something against which it is exchanged, there must be more
currency or less goods in New York to cheapen money there; or there
must be less currency or more goods in Boston to enhance the value of
money in Boston. Either o f these four things will, after awhile, bring
about an equation of exchange between the two cities, by equalizing the
value o f money, and nothing else will.
Whether the Boston banks possess very accurate information of the
amount of Boston paper discounted in New York, so as to judge that
they have loaned an excess to that city, is rather problematical; for there
is a continual cross firing of this sort between the two cities; but it mat­
ters n o t; exchange will turn against Boston, and specie will be forced to
New York, just as soon, and as inevitably, by discounting Boston paper
in Boston, as by discounting the paper o f New York. Similar kiting is
common between the bankers and merchants of England and the United
States, with of course the same result. If the banks o f New York, Bos­
ton, Philadelphia, &c., increase their loans in domestic paper, they will
as effectually turn the course o f exchange against this country, and com­
pel the shipment of specie, as by discounting bills owned and payable in
London itself.
The fourth heresy is that the banks lose interest on their reserve of
specie, and that the holding of specie is therefore unprofitable; so that
they make a greater profit by holding only 10 or 12 per cent o f specie
to their demand liabilities, as is usual in Massachusetts, than 3 3 i per
cent, the ratio fixed by law in Louisiana. This mistake Mr. Hooper
pointed out in his recent pamphlet, and I demonstrated the same in figures
in your May issue o f this year. It is sufficient, therefore, to repeat, that
the ownership of the specie is loaned in the bank notes and inscribed
credits, and the bank gains interest on the same, accordingly. It is even
more profitable to hold the larger proportion of specie, because the loans
can be thereby maintained at higher figures, and consequently producing
a larger income without additional cost.
There is no science that bears so immediately and so powerfully upon
both the material and moral interests of society, as political economy,
and no branch of this is so important as commercial finance; yet nothing
is more crowded and obscured with error, and nothing is so utterly ne­
glected by business men. The trouble with the hide and leather and
shoe trade, both in England and this country, is not “ accommodation
notes,” merely, but converting debt into currency, the destructive and
ridiculous artificial cheapening o f money, with the consequent price above
value that can never stand.
c. h . c .
V O L . X L III.-----N O . I I I .




21

Journal o j Mercantile Law.

322

JOURNAL OF MERCANTILE LAW.
DELIVERY OF COTTON.

W e publish below, from the New Orleans Delta, the opinion and judgment of
Judge E ggleston in the case of B uckner , S tanton & N ewman v s . D e lan y ,
B ice & Co.
Buckner, Stanton & Newman, )
vs.
v Fifth District Court.
Delany, Bice & Co., et al. )
About the 6th day of March, 1860. the defendants purchased of the plaintiffs
980 bales of cotton for nine-and-one-half cents per pound, making a sum total
of $40,520 44. The cotton had various planters’ marks upon it, and several
hundred bales were weighed on the 12th of March, several hundred bales on the
14th of the same month, and 144 bales were weighed on the 15th of the same
month. The defendants were informed by the plaintiff by a letter of the 15th
of March, that they would have the list of the cotton inspected, and requested
their attendance.
Each party selected a broker to inspect the list, and on examination they
rejected 188 bales o f the list as mixed. The plaintiffs on the 19th o f the month
informed the defendants they would deliver the merchantable and UDrejected
bales, and would substitute 188 bales o f similar quality in place o f the bales re­
jected as unmerchantable. T w o brokers selected for the plaintiffs 188 bales o f
cotton o f better quality, and on the 21st March the plaintiffs sent a notice to
the defendants to come forward and receive the residue o f the list o f cotton re­
maining undelivered, and if they failed to comply, they would sell the 980 bales,
and hold them responsible for the loss and damages.
On the 28th March, 1860, the whole 980 bales, composed o f that portion o f
the cotton sold, which was Dot rejected, and the 188 bales substituted for the
same number rejected by the brokers, were sold at five-and-five eighths cents,
which left a difference between the two sales o f $3,732 15. It is for this differ­
ence, together with some incidental charges and expenses, that the plaintiffs seek
to hold the defendants responsible.

The sale was one by sample of cottons of various grades and qualities classed,
and at an average price of nineand-a-lialf cents agreed to be paid per pound on
each bale.
Conceding that the plaintiffs have succeeded in their efforts to establish a mer­
cantile custom or usage existing in this city, which authorizes the vendor of cot­
ton to substitute in the place and stead of bad cotton sold by him a like quantity of
other cotton of good or better quality, still such a custom or usage, however firmly
established among merchants, can exert no controlling influence over a legal
tribunal, seeing that it is in opposition to an explicit and imperative precept of
the Code, and both the parties have not tacitly or expressly given their adhesion
or concurrence to it. Customs and usages of trades and occupations are never
permitted to subvert the positive enactments of the legislative powers, or the
clear expression of legislative will. The legislation of the law making depart­
ment of the government is paramount to and supreme over the enactments of
any body of men, however intelligent and respectable they may be in their
appropriate walks and pursuits in life. (4 Bob. B., 385.)
The articles of the Code with which the custom conflicts are 2450, 2452,
2466, 2467, and 2518. These require the vendor to deliver to the vendee the
thing or things sold, and give do authority to the former to put one thing in place
of another. The case must repose upon legal principles applied to the special
facts developed on the trial independent of all local customs or commercial
usages.




Journal o f Mercantile Law.

323

The plaintiffs, as it appears from their petition, took back the entire lot of
cotton sold by them to the defendants, and sold 792 ba'es of it, and 188 bales of
the cotton substituted to the like number of bales rejected from the lot of 980
bales, originally sold, which made up the original 980 bales, and sold them, ex­
pressing their determination to hold the vendee responsible for the deficit in
price, if any there should be. This resumption of the cotton by the vendors and
resale of it, it seems to me, to be a dissolution and rescission of the original sale,
and disable them from maintaining this action for any difference in the price pro­
duced by the two sales. For, if there bad been a valid sale by them to the de­
fendants, as they allege, and there was no resiliation of it, the vendors no longer
possessing any title to the cotton, could sell and convey now to another.
They ceased to have any title which they could part with as it had passed
from them to the vendees, the defendants therein. But this subsequent sale of
part of the original and the substituted cotton established one of two things,
either that there originally was no sale to the defendants, or that if tlr-re had
been one, the plaintiff had subsequently annulled the sale, and resumed the title
to and possession of the cotton.
The idea cannot be entertained for one moment that they wilfully and
deliberately seized upon and sold the cotton of the defendants, their original ven­
dees. Such a supposition would accuse them of injustice, not to say of a worse
offence, which their high position in the commercial world repels.
There is, then, but one other conclusion to which the mind can be conducted,
and it is this, that they revoked the sale, took the cotton back as owners or
factors of the planters, and sold and delivered it, as such, to S pangenberg , the
second vendee.

If they were not the owners, how came they in the possession of the cotton,
which they aver they had sold and delivered to the defendants? Tf they were
not the owners, how came it to pass that they sold and delivered it to S pangen berg ?
For the sale of a thing is the highest prerogative of ownership of a
thing. It indicates, in unmistakable terms, the belief of the vendor that he is
the owner of it, or is authorized by the owner to dispose of it.
I therefore infer, from the concurrence of the physical element of possession,
or the judicial or civil element of sale, that the original sale was annulled and
undone, and in consequence the plaintiffs have no legal recourse against the de­
fendants for any deficiency resulting from the resale of the cotton. Will it be
urged that the plaintiffs notified the defendants they would hold them responsible
for a deficit on the resale which they intended to make ? To this it may be replied,
that when they took back the cotton and set aside the sale, all the parties were
replaced in their primitive position, and things stood as if nothing had occurred.
The plaintiffs were owners, or factors holding the cotton to sell to any one desir­
ous of buying, and the vendees were free from any obligation to fulfill towards
them. If the plaintiffs intended to attach as a condition to the annulment of the
sale and the resumption of the cotton that they would sell it and hold the de­
fendants liable for the deficit, before this could be done, and be made obligatory
on the latter, they must have asseuted to it, and the testimony shows none.
They could not, by the action of their individual will, engraft such a condi­
tion upon the annulment and resale, and oblige the defendants in opposition to
their will and without their concurrence.
The dissolution of a sale by the parties is a contract, and if I am correct in
the hypothesis that the parties expressly or tacitly made one, the plaintiff could
interpolate no clause upon it, nor add any stipulation to it, without the assent
and will of the other party. But did the plaintiff sell the 980 bales said to be
the defendants’ ?
From their own allegations it appears that they sold but 792 bales of the cot­
ton of the 980. which were transferred to the latter, and to make up the 980
sold them, they took 792 of them and added 188 new bales, which were put in
the place of the like number rejected by the brokers as unmerchantable. Where
are the 188 bales of the old lot of cotton? They took possession of them, and
what has been done with them ? Unless the identical 980 bales sold to the de­




324

Journal o f Mercantile Law.

fendants were sold a second time, liow can it be ascertained if any deficit exists
between the two sales ? The cotton sold to S pangenberg was not the cotton
sold to the defendants.

The plaintiffs, in my opinion, have failed in making out a legal demand against
the defendants, and must pay the costs of their suit. Other questions of high
import arise in the case, but I abstain from their discussion and solution, as the
suit is terminated by the decision of the question discussed. Judgment for
defendants with costs. A true copy.
[Signed]
II. B. EGGLESTON, Judge.
E. I). L ov e tt , Deputy Clerk.

MARINE INSURANCE— BREACH OF

WARRANTY

IN

MARINE

POLICY— WHEN

ONLY

“ DEVIATION ” ALLOWABLE.

Before the New Tork Court of Common Pleas-^-General Term. Charles
Day, plaintiff and respondent, vs. the OrieDt Mutual Insurance Company, of New
York, defendants and appellants.
S tatement of F acts from P rinted R ecord .— The policy on which the
action is brought was a time policy on the schooner Alice Day, for one year from
March 26th, 1856, at noon, to March 26th. 1857, at noon. It contained the
following stipulation or warrant by the assured :—“ Warranted not to use ports
or places in Texas, except Galveston, nor foreign ports and places in the Gulf of
Mexico.”
The vessel insured, while the policy was in force, went to the port of Coatzacoalcos, in the Gulf of Mexico, “ in violation of the warranty.” “ She returned
in safety, and was destroyed by the perils insured against, at Apalachicola, on
the 31st Aug;ust, 1856.”
The plaintiff had applied to the defendants for permission to use the port of
Coatzacoalcos, and it had been expressly refused ; the defendants, however, offer­
ing at the same time to cancel the policy and return the premium for the unex­
pired time.
She did use the port, and carried from it a cargo of mahogany. This port is
a dangerous one, and the cargo objectionable. The jury found the fact that the
vessel insured went to the port of Coatzacoalcos in violation of the warranty in
the policy.
Judge B rady delivered the following opinion :—The policy upon which this
action was brought, was upon the schooner Alice Day for oDe year from the 26th
March, 1856, at noon, to March 26th, 1857, at noon. It contained a warranty
as follows :—“ Warranted not to use ports or places in Texas, except Galveston,
nor foreign ports and places on the Gulf of Mexico.” By a subsequent agree­
ment, 12th April, 1857, for the additional premium of one per cent, permission
W'as given to make a voyage from New Orleans to Vera Cruz. The schooner
went to Vera Cruz, thence to Coatzacoalcos, in the Gulf of Mexico, thence to
Boston, and thence to Apalachicola, where she belonged, and was there destroyed
by a storm. The plaintiff claims to recover, because the policy was a time
policy, and the deviation occasioned by the voyage and to Coatzacoalcos, was
only temporary and did not subsequently affect the risks insured against. For
the first of these propositions we are referred to the case of the Union Insurance
Company vs. T yson , (3 Hill, 118 ;) but C o w en , J., states in the beginning of the
opinion, “ It is in the nature of the policy in question that it limits the vessel to
do geographical track.”
It is impossible, therefore, to make out a defence on the
ground of a deviation in the ordinary sense of the word. But, assuming the
policy in question to be a time policy, the geographical track is declared and the
voyage to Coatzacoalcos was a deviation and in violation of the warranty. The
question which arises upon these facts is, whether the defendants are discharged
by the deviation? There was no necessity for the deviation. It was voluntary,
and discharged the underwriters. Their discharge does not depend upon aDy




Journal o f Mercantile Law.

325

supposed increase of risk, but wholly on the departure of the insured from the
contract of insurance. The assured has no right to substitute a diiferent. risk.
(Phillips on Ins., 109, 483 ; Robinsons vs. Marine Ins. Co.. 2 John. Rep., 89 ;
Huet vs. the Phoenix Ins. Co., 7 Johns. Rep., 363 ; Robertson vs. the Coal Ins.
Co., 8 Johns., 491 ; Duncans vs. Sun Fire Ins. Co., 6 Wend., 488 ; Maryland Ins.
Co. vs. LeRoy, 7 Cranch, 26 ; Hartley vs. Buggin, 2 Doug. 39 ; Child vs. Sun
Mutual Ins. Co., 3 Sandford, 26 ; Kettle rs. Wiggin, 13 Mass., 68 ; Coffin vs.
Newburyport Mutual Ins. Co., 9 Mass., 436, 449.) In the case of Robinson vs.
the Columbian Insurance Co., supra, the brig Ohio was insured from New York
to the island of Teneriffe, and for an additional premium of two per cent, per­
mission was given to proceed from Teneriffe to the Isle of Way and Bonavista,
and at and from thence to return to New York. The vessel arrived safely at
Teneriffe, but was refused permission to enter or land any part of the cargo until
after performing a quarantine of forty days, because her bill of health was not
certified by the Spanish Consul at New York. The master being unable to land
his cargo determined to seek another port, and went to Madeira, which was the
nearest port, where he arrived, landed, and sold the cargo. The vessel afterwards
proceeded to the Isle of Way, and sailed from thence to New York. During
her passage she met with very bad weather which much injured her, and sustained
further injury by striking on a shoal near Great Egg Harbor, and finally arrived
at New York, per curiem. '•There was no necessity for going from Teneriffe
to Madeira. It was sailing on a different voyage from the one insured. It was
a voluntary deviation from the voyage mentioned in the policy. Nothing but
necessity or apprehension of danger could excuse his departure from the usual
and direct route to Bonavista.” The judgment should be reversed.
H i l t o n , J.— Coatzacoalcos was one of the prohibited ports mentioned in the
policy, and the plaintiff in express terms warranted against its use. The voyage
there was voluntary, after the defendants had positively refused permission to go,
and had accompanied the refusal with an offer to cancel the policy and return
the premium for the time unexpired, so that insurance might have been obtained
elsewhere.
But notwithstanding all this, the voyage was made, and there cannot be the
slightest doubt that, had the vessel been lost, while absent upon it, the defendants
would not have been answerable—and it is equally clear, both on principle and
authority, that going upon it was a plain breach of the warranty contained in
the policy, and put an end to the liability of the defendants as underwriters.
(See Kettell vs. Wiggin, 15 Mass. 68.)
In contracts of insurance, a warranty is regarded as very much like a con­
dition precedent, and which, if violated, avoids the policy, aud no recovery can
thereafter be had upon it. (Mead is. Northwestern Insurance Co., 3 Seldon
530 ; Duncan vs. Sun Fire Insurance Co., 6 Wend. 488, 494 ; Westfall vs. Hud­
son River Fire Insurance Co., 2 Kern, 289. In the language of Mr. Justice
J ohnson in Maryland Insurance Co. vs. He Roy, 7 Cranch, 26) “ The dis­
charge of the underwriters from their liability in such cases, depends not upon
any supposed increase of risk, but wholly on the departure of the insured from
the policy of insurance.” The law attaches no importance to the degree of such
violation, or the consequences arising from it, and its materiality or immateriality
signifies nothing, the only question being as to the fact of the violation, and when
that is shown a recovery is precluded, DeHalm vs. Hartly, 1 term R. 343.
Kemble vs. Rhinelander, 3 John cases, 134. Phillips on ins. 181, 211.
From these views it follows that going to Coatzacoalcos being a clear breach
of the warranty, from that time the policy ceased to cover or protect the vessel,
and her subsequent return in no way revived or restored the defendants’ original
obligation as underwriters. (See Westfall vs. Hudson River Fire Insurance
Co., 2 Duer. 490, 496.)
I therefore concur with Judge B r a d y , that the defendants are entitled to
judgment.




Commercial Chronicle and Review.

326

COMMERCIAL CHRONICLE AND REVIEW.
B U S IN E S S OF T H E M O N TH — IM P O R T S — E X P O R T S — W H E A T — C R O P S — L A R G E W H E A T D E L IV E R IE S — CORN
— E L E M E N T S OF DE M A N D — E X P O R T S A N D P R I C E S F O R J U L Y — C O T T O N A N D H A R V E S T S — S U P P L Y T O O
L A R G E — NO S P E C U L A T I O N — W E S T

SELLS ALL

R I T I E S — R A T E S OF M O N E Y — P A L L

IN V A L U E — S P K C 1 E — FO R E 1GN B I L L S — S P E C IE

F O R N IA
BANK

B IL L S — U N IT E D

STATES

IT S

S U R P L U S — NO H O M E

M IN T — A S S A Y O F F I C E — C U R R E N T

D IS C O U N T S — R E P R E S E N T A T IV E

VALUE— TH E

IN F L A T IO N

OF

OF

D E M A N D — R A IL R O A D SE C U ­
S H I P M E N T S — C A L I­

S P E C IE — B A N K

RESERVE—

P R IC E S — L E G IS L A T IV E

EN ACT­

M EN TS.

T he business of the mouth has been large and on the whole satisfactory, although
there are many who underrate it, as compared with the more sanguine anticipa­
tions that had been entertained. The imports at the port have been large, but
less so than last year, but the accumulation in warehouse has been less than then.
The exports of domestic produce from the port, as will be seen in the tables an­
nexed to this article, have been unusually large for the month and since Janu­
ary, and these have, in addition to the considerable quantities of cotton that
have been exported, comprised, in flour and wheat, 6,400,000 bushels of wheat,
an excess of 5,000,000 over last year, and also 1,669.000 bushels of corn, an ex­
cess of more than 1,500,000 bushels over last year. In produce there has also
been a considerable increase. This circumstance has grown out of the threaten­
ing aspect of the harvests abroad, and the now apparent certainty that the Uni­
ted States will be required to supply a large proportion of the importation into
Great Britain. These are large every year, bat in years of inferior crops they
swell to a quantity equal to one-third of the whole wheat crop of the Union.
The crops of the Western States are this year represented on all sides as enor­
mous, as well of corn as of wheat, and the means of transportation are now so
well diversified, and in such good working order, that there can be no drawback
upon the deliveries, as there was in the years 1847-8, when every conveyance
was taxed to its utmost to convey food to the seaports and Europe. The crop
of wheat in Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota, New
York, and Canada West, is unprecedentedly large. A Western authority makes
the following estimate of (he movement of the wheat crop, which estimate, so
far as the Lake Michigan ports are concerned, is based on the full receipts of
previous years. For Lake Erie ports the estimate is made from the movement
already commenced, and from exports of previous years.
From August 1st to November 15th, exclusive of Sundays, is ninety days;
for which time this prospective movement is estimated :—

Cleveland___
Huron & Milan
SaDdusky........

Fremont...........
T o le d o .............
Detroit.............

1,800,000 Chicago............
270,000 Milwaukee.. . .
900,000 VVaukegan.. . .
270,000 Kenosha...........
2,700,000 R a cin e.............
900,000 Sheboygan. . . .

6,750,000 Green Bay. . . .
135,000
72,000
6,300,000 St. Joseph .. . .
135,000 Canada West.. 1,350,000
180,000
Total bush.. 22 ,077,000
270,000
45,000

This is a larger movement by 10,000,000 of bushels than has ever been ex­
ported from the Lake regions and Canada West, in any one year, from August
1st to the close of navigation.
The corn crop far exceeds in proportion the productive yield of wheat.




Commercial Chronicle and Review.

327

These large supplies augur low prices. There are, however, three elements fo r
good sale: first, the European demand; second, the improved activity at the
East in most employments, assuring larger means of buying food ; and lastly,
the drouth at the South, whieh has undoubtedly done great damage in cutting
off the crops, and by so doing, involving the purchase of large home supplies,
instead of sales in competition with the West. These are elements of a broad
market for the Western produce, and of prices remunerative to the growers It
is to be borne in mind that the West has iitt'e or no home market for its pro­
duce. That crowd of railroad builders, speculators, and emigrants that a few
years since devoured the Western crops at high prices at the farm doors has
disappeared, and now the whole surplus over the wants of the growers is required
to find distant markets over railroads, rivers, and lakes. The latest news from
Europe gave a higher impetus to the market, and would doubtless produce a
more active investment of capital in that direction if the advices of large sup­
plies were not as positive as those of a large demand. This may be illustrated
in the exports and prices in New York city :—
,- - - - - - - - - 1 8 5 9 .- - - - - - - - - ,

,- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 8 6 0 .- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - s

Exports in July. Price Aug. 1. Exports in July.

Flour.........................bbls.
Wheat........................bush.
Corn..
.............................

74,842
9,026
36,026

$5 80
1 10
76

Price Aug. 7.

222.748

$5 10 a $5 20

1,419,887
177,386

1 25 a 1 27
62 a
68

This large export of wheat this year left prices no higher than the moderate
export of last year. The nature of the foreign demand is such as to stimulate
much activity, but the supply takes from the market the hope of higher prices,
and therefore the money market is not much influenced. The large cotton crop,
followed by bad harvests, checks speculation in that direction. Usually when the
English market opens strong for grain there is a strong West current for money
that raises the price in New York rapidly. This does not this year make its
appearance, although the rates have been higher during the month. The sales
of crops on the part of the West will place in the hands of dealers ample funds
for the purchase of goods; but those funds will not reach the magnitude of
transactions that grew out of the expenditure of 31.00,000,000 per annum for
railroads iu the speculative years. The funds pass through the hands of a dif­
ferent class of persous. The hardy settler who raises produce expends from the
proceeds cautiously, and the goods he requires in return must be of a substan­
tial and staple character. The land and railroad speculators who made their
paper fortunes in a day, spent recklessly and lavishly, and the goods they required
were of an expensive description. This day is done, and the future growth of
the West will be steady upon the proceeds of the crops. The railroads wdll
have their business measured down to the quantities they can carry on the most
direct and cheapest routes. This will be a more substantial business, but les3
flashy than the large revenues formerly derived from speculative passengers.
The restoration to marketable activity of the vast amount of railroad securi­
ties that have so long been dormant, would relieve the funds of many men long
cramped for the want of them, and impart enterprise to the markets. The value
of money during the month has improved i a 1 per cent on most descriptions of
paper. The rates are as follows :—




Commercial Chronicle and Review.

328

/------ On call.--------»
Other.
Stocks.
4 a 44 4 a 5
6 a7
5 a 6
4 a5
4i a 6
4 a 5
6 a 6
5 a 6
6 a7
6 a7
7 a8
5 a 6
6 a 7
7 a 8
6 a7
51 a 6
7 a 8
H a7 6 a7
5 a 5# 6 a 7
5 a 54 6 a 7
54 a 6
6 a7
a7
6 a 64
7 a 71 7 a 74
6 a 64 7 a 74
5 a 6
6 a 7
5| a 6
6 a 7
6 a 5| 61 a 6
6 a 61 6 a 64
5 a 6j 6 a 64
5 a bi 6 a 64
6 a 64
5 a 6
6 a 64
4f a 5
5 a 6
4i a 5
5 a 5J H a 6
5 a 61 64 a 6
6 a 7
5 a6
54 a 6
6 a7

Jan. 1st, 1859.
Feb. 1st...........
Mar. 1st...........
Apr. 1st...........
May 1st...........
J u i i . 1st...........
July 1st...........
Aug. 1st...........
Sept. 1st...........
Oct. 1st............
Nov. 1st............
Dec. 1st............
Dec. n th ..........
Jan. 1st, I860..
Jan.15th..........
Fib. 1st............
Feb. 15th.........
Mar. 1st...........
Mar. 15 th.........
Apr. 1st...........
Apr. 15 th.........
May 1st...........
May loth . . . .
June 1st...........
June 15th . . . .
July 1st...........
July 15th........
Aug- 1st...........
Aug. 15th.........

,-------Indorsed ------- . Single
60 days. 4 a 6 mos.
4 a5
5 a 6
5 a 6
6 a 7
44 a 54 6* a 64
5 a 54 6 a 64
6 a 6 4 6* a 6
7 a 8
64 a 7
64 a 7
7 a 74
64 a 74 7 a 8
6 a 7
7 a 74
64 a 7
7 a8
64 a 74 14 a 8
6 a7
7 a 84
7 a 74 14 a 84
7 a 74 14 a 84
84 a 9
9 a 94
84 a 9
9 a 94
7 a 74 74 a 8
7 a 74 74 a 8
6 a 7
n a 8
54 a 6
6 a 64
64 a 6
6 a 6^
5 a 6
6 a 64
5 a6
6 a 7
5 a 6
6 a7
44 a 5
5 a 54
.. a 5
5 a 6
.. a 6
5 a 6
6 a 64
5 a6
6 a
6 a 7

names.
6 a 7
7 a 74
6 a7
64 a 7
7 a 9
8 a 9
8 a9
8 a 9
8 a 84
8 a 9
84 a 94
8 a9
8 a 9
n a8
9 a 10
9 a 10
Si a 94
Si a 94
Si a 94
64 a 74
64 a 74
64 a 74
64 a 74
64 a 74
64 a 6
64 a 6
54 a 6
64 a 7
64 a 74

Other
good.
7a 8
8a 9
7a 8
8a 9
9 a 10
9 a 10
10 a 12
11 a 13
11 a 14
10 a 12
12 a 15
9 a 10
9 a 10
9 a 10
10 a 11
11 a 12
1 0 a 12
10 a 12
10 a 12
9 a 10
9 a 10
9 a 10
9 a 10
8 a9
6 a 74
7 a 74
7 a 7#
74 a 84
8 a 9

Not well
known.
8 a 10
9 a 10
9 a 10
9 a 10
10 a 12
10 a 12
12 a 15
12 a 15
12 a 16
12 a 18
12 a 18
12 a 18
12 a 18
12 a 18
15 a 20
15 a 20
15 a 18
15 a 18
15 a 18
11 a 13
11 a 13
11 a 12
10 a 12
9 a 10
8a 9
8 a 9
8a 9
9 a 10
9 a 10

There have been many efforts to advance the rates for the benefit of lenders,
and it is a long time since the legal rate of money has been obtained for the best
paper. The 4 a 6 months’ paper taken in January and February, at 9 a 9}, was
met with money 3 j a 4 per cent lower on the same description. In 1859 the
reverse was the case, paper having risen as the season advanced. It is now pos­
sible that the crops will move gradually, and, instead of raising the value of
money, only tend to diminish it. The shipments of specie have continued fair,
or large, as compared with last year, since money is now here worth less than it
was then. The rates of bills do not vary materially, as follows :—
B A T E S O F B I L L S IN N E W Y O R K .

London.

Jan.

1 ..

9

a

94

Pa ris.
5 .1 8 4 a 5 .1 7 4

Am sterdam .

F r a n k fo r t .
414 a 414

H am burg.
So* a 3 6 f

B e r li n .
73
a 734

4 I f a 4 14
414 a 414

414 a 414

364 a 36#

734

414 a 414

414 a 414

36# a 36j

73# a 73#

41 4 a 414

36# a 36#

a

36# a 364
36# a 36#

7 3 g a 734
78# a 734

9

a

9

5 .2 1 4 a 5 . 1 8 f.
5 .1 S | a 5 .1 7 4

84 a

9

6 .1 8 | a 5 .1 7 4

41 f

84

9

5 .1 7 4 a 5 .1 5

414 a 414

41f

1 5 ..

a
8| a

414 a 414

414 a 414

84 a

84
84

5 .1 7 4 a 5 .1 5 4

A pr. 1 ..

5 . 1 8 4 a 5 .16-4

414 a 4 1 4

36# a 36|

1 5 ..

8f a

84

5 .1 6 4 a 5 .1 7 4

36# a 364

734 a 73§

May 1 . .

94 a

36| a 36#

9| a

5 .1 3 4 a 5 .1 2 4
5 .1 3 4 a 5 .1 3 4

4 1 4 a 42

1 5 ..

94
94
94
94
94
94
94

4 1 f a 414
414 a 4 1 f

414 a 414
4 1 4 a 41|

1 .

.

1 5 ..

Mar. 1 . .

Jun.

1 ..

1 5 ..

July

1 ..

94 a

94
94

a
a

1 5 ..

94 a

Aug. 1..

94 a
94 a

1 5 ..

10

a 414

4l|

a

734

84 a

84

1 5 ..

Feb.

734 a 7 8 f
734 a 7 8f

4 I f a 41J

4 1 4 a 42

3 6 f a 37

734 a 734
73J a 734

5 .1 3 4 a 6 .1 2 4
5 .1 3 4 a 5 .1 2 4

414 a 4 l|

4 l | a 42

37

734 a 734

4 1 4 a 414

4 1 4 a 42

864 a 37#

7 3 # a 734

5 .1 3 4 a 5 .1 3 4

414 a 41f

414 a 42

3 6 f a 37

734 a 734

5 .1 3 4 a 5 .1 3 4

41* a 414

4 1 f a 414

8 0 4 a 37

734 a 734

5 .1 3 f a 5

414 a 4 1 f

4 1 4 a 42

3 « f a 37

734 a 734

414

4 l| a 42

36# a 374

7 3 f a 734

134

5 .1 3 4 a 6 .1 8 4

a 414

a 374

The full rates for sight bills obtained by many drawers causes a more active
movement in specie, which has been as follows :—




329

Commercial Chronicle and Review.

G O L D R E C E I V E D F R O M C A L IF O R N IA A N D E X P O R T E D F R O M N E W Y O R K W E E K L Y , W I T H T H E
A M O U N T O F S P E C IE IN S U B -T R E A S U R Y , A N D T H E T O T A L IN T H E C I T Y .

/- - - - - - - - 1859.- - - - - - - - v ,- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1890.- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Received.

Jan. 7 ...
14..
$1,876,300
21.. •. . • ...............
28..
1,210,713
................
Feb. 4..
11.. . . . 1,319,923
......... ..
18.. ...
26..
1,287,967
Mar.
........
10..
983,130
................
17..
................
24..
31..
1,032,314
Apr. 7.. . . . . ................
14..
1,404,210
................
21.. . . .
28..
1,723,352
May 5.
12..
1,480,115
19..
2 6 ...
1,938,669

June 2..
9 ...
15.. . . .
2 2 ...
2 9 ...
July 9.. .
14..
21..
2 8 ...
Ang 4 ... . . .
1 1 ...

Total..

1,513,978
. ..............
2,041,237
................
1,736,861
2,145,000
1,860,274

•Exported.
Received.
$1,062,668
218,049 1,7 88,666
567,398
467.694 1,760,582
6**6,969
14.569
361,650 1,476,621
1,013,780
35 8,854 1,393,179
1,427,556
382,503
307.106 1,198,71 1
870,578
152,000
208,955
895,336
1,343,059
155,110
576,107
1,637,104 1,146.211
1,4 96,889
1,680,743 1,455,387
2,169,197
1.926,491 1,382,763
2,223,578
5,126,643 1,519,703
2,325,972
1,877,294 . . . . . . .
1.669,263 1,385,852
................
1,620,731
1,861,163 1,541,580
1,398,885
2,495,127 1,514,884
2,030,220
673,290
2,344,040
1,284.855
988,676
1,505,389 1.006,283

Exported,
$8o,t)bO
88,482
259,400
81,800
427,457
92,360
592,997
202,t ( 0
667,282
115,473
429,260
465,1 15
706,006
310,088
630,010
241,5(3
1,774,767
2,355,1 17
5 33.881
1,251,177
1,317,773
1,719,138
1,542.4 66
2,526.478
1,417,757
1,962,7 76
1.166,773
1,283,135
1,624,280
1,880,497
1,739,269
1,35'',198

Specie in
Total
sub treasuiy. in the city.
$7,737,965 $25,6( h-,699
7,729,646 26,470.512
8,352,4 85 27,585,970
8,957.1 23 ‘2 9.020,862
9,010,569 28,934.870
9,676,732 29,4 64,299
10,012,572 3O,h03,762
8,955,203 29,729,199
, 8,734,028 31,820.840
8,237,909 30,189.089
8,099,409 8 1.271,247
8,122,672 31,408,876
8,026,492 31,447,251
7.562,885 30,162,017
7,714,000 31.640,982
7,531,4 83 30,764.897
7,668.723 30,848,532
7.041,143 30.856,889
6,539,4 14 29,319 801
6.864,148 30,599,341
6.982,660 30,414,433
6,621,100 31,196,557
6,620,622 30.406.208
6,426,755 30,537,(iOO
6,326,894 .29,677,816
6,253,357 28,717,607
5,187,468 27,939,162
5,404,367 28,156,061
5,432,769 28,876,433
5,112,942 28,212,668
5,559,922 27,688,011
5,732,534 27,312,274

22,903,940 46,142,916 21,891,967 30,024,289

The receipts from California have been fair. There has been some opposition
in the drawing of bills in San Francisco. The cost of shipping gold thence to
New York is $L 55 freight, 20 cents State stamp, and $L 50 insurance, making
$3 25 ; from this deduct 35 cents— the average value of insurance scrip—leav­
ing $2 90 as the cost of the bill. But the bars .sell nearly 1 per cent higher in
New York than in San Francisco, which reduces the rate to Si 90, at which
the bill will not leave a profit. The object in drawing cheap is to control the
market. The mint operations have been as follows :—
U N IT E D S T A T E S M I N T , P H I L A D E L P H I A .

,---------Deposits.---------- v
Silver.
Gold.

January...........
February.........
March.............
April................
May.................
June.................
July ..............
Total, 1860.
Total, 1859.

Gold.




---------- 4
Total

$‘24,0U0
24,000
29,000
30,000
35,000
24,000
16,660

$1,090,668
1,677,760
479,440
321,188
249,104
184,878
205,635

$3,4 25,627 $499,186 $182,660
744,525 656,650 209,000

$4,820,573
2,986,405

$200,000 $41,000 $1,024,563
35,573
1,838,578
1,632,160
144,478
82,255
317,451
262,756
281,891
49,764
72,468
90,828
133,004
54.676
54,893
63,718
97,041
14,181
101,975
$3,527,706 $359,897
830,580 545,650

----------- Coir iase.-----------Cents.
Silver.

$41,U00
21,600
132,989
38,431
81,100
97,160
87,000

Commercial Chronicle and Review.

330

The deposits at the assay-office of New York have been as in the following
table :—
N E W Y O R K A S S A Y -O F F IC E .

----------Foreign.-------------------- ,
Gold.
Silver.
Coin.

Bullion.

Jan. 14,d()0 18,000
Feb. 6,000 28,000
5Iar. 8,000
15,000
A p r . 8,000
32,000
May 11.200 20,800
June 12.000 19.000
July 9,500 18,000

Coin.

Bullion.

,---------- United States.-----------*
Silver.
Gold.

11,200 14,000 2,478,000
6,500 24,000 951,000
5,500 267,000
23,400
14,500 10,000 183,000
25,500 18,000 176,000
10,000
4,000 147,000
12,800
8,000 159,500

Tot. 67,700 150.800 103,900
’ 59 63,000 74,000 283,980

Coin.

Bullion.

1,800

20,000
7,500
2,500
3,800
16,500
2,750
3,000

....

1,100
3,700
7,000
1,750
1,200

Fayments
in

Coin.
Bars.
647,000 1,910,000
98*2,000
90,000
180,000 142,500
70,000
187,000
230,000
45,000
158,000
38,500
140,000
72,000

83,500 4,361,500 16,550 58,050 2,474,000 3,60S,000
51,900 2,197,600 12,900 30,720 2,179,000 851,100

These operations have been much in excess of last year in the matter of coin,
and the export has been much less than last year for the seven months since January. It has reached only §28,000,000, against §13,000,000 same time last year.
These figures indicate some recovery of the metals that flowed out so freely last
year, since the receipts are in excess of them. The outward current last year,
following the course of payments, drew large sums from the West, without much
disturbing the aggregate on the seaboard. The amount held by the banks of
New York is less than last year, when, indeed, the quantity was burdensome.
The quantity of specie that it is safe to hold can never be subjected to arbitrary
rules, as the legislators have so frequently attempted to do. The true means
that the banks must depend upon to meet the claims upon them exist in their
assets. The lines of discount, in a speculative year, necessarily embrace a vast
deal of paper predicated upon inflated values and prices, and is far less safe than
a larger quantity based upon lower and regular values. Thus a line of discounts
of §100,000 might, in 1855, represent 6,000 barrels of flour. This year the
same line would represent 20,000 bbls. If the line was raised to §200.000 this
year, it would represent nearly double the flour it did in 1854, hence couid not
be called inflated relatively. To require the banks to keep more or less specie
on hand, in order to avoid losses from unsafe paper, seems to be absurd, as in
fact, is much that legislators undertake to do. It would be surer for them to un­
dertake a sort of “ specific system,” and confine discounts to barrels, yards, and
tons, than to allow of the ad valorem mode of discounting, and then compel
them to keep specie to meet the claims of depositors who never deposited specie
with them. Most of the depositors lodge with the banks claims upon other par­
ties, which the bank collects,seldom in specie. The depositor then legally claims
specie, when, in fact, offset is all that is due him.
The import tables for the month show a decline as compared with the corre­
sponding season last year, and the quantity entered warehouse is greater. The
decline in the imports is mostly to be attributed to the lessened consignment of
dry goods. That last year came in such quantities, and encountered such losses,
as were not likely to be repeated, the more so, that the general war that then
threatened seems to be subsiding into a confederation, whereof the Syrian expe­
dition is the exponent. The decline in the imports for the month is §2,404,671 >
and a decline of §11,000,000 as compared with 1857:—




Commercial Chronicle and Review.
F O R E IG N

IM P O R T S A T N E W

YORK

1857.

IN

331

JU LY .

1858.

1859.

18(10.

Entered for consumption.............. $26,042,740 $14,013,659 $21,681,460 $18,759,905
Entered for warehousing.............
6,796,835
2,949,166
1,486,147
1,594,918
Free goods......................................
2,455,383
1,506,027
3,943,374
4,402,475
Specie and b ullion ........................
505,298
36,895
175,139
64,351
Total entered at the port............. $35,800,206 $18,605,747 $27,286,120 $24,881,649
"Withdrawn from warehouse . . . .
10,470,820
3,164,538
2,596,063
3,593,993

The decline for the month, added to the falling off of the previous six months,
gives a diminution of §14,000,000 since January, and this diminution has been
to the extent of $8,420,000 in dry goods. The stock in warehouse has diminished,
since the quantities entered for the seven months have been $2,000,000 more, and
the withdrawals are greater by $3,800,000. The amount of specie received from
abroad is much less than for several of the previous years, as follows :—
F O R E IG N

IM P O R T S

AT

NEW

YORK

FOR

SEVEN

1857.

M ONTH S, FROM JA N U A R Y

1858.

1859.

1ST.

I860.

Entered for consumption.............. $91,280,614 $50,334,1*79 113,511,023 $98,705,594
Entered for warehousing.............. 47,911,031
15,185,419 23,209,758 25,377,877
Free goods .................................... '11,680,078 12,955,525 18,429,131 17,765,566
Specie and b u llion .......................
5,867,810
1,815,258
1,301,082
751,188
Total entered at the port............. 156,729,633
Withdrawn from warehouse........
23,616,081

80,290,381 156,450,994 142,599,725
25,076,502 14,110,784 17,909,650

The whole warehouse operations have been larger than in any year except
1857. The figures for the dry goods imports were as follows:—
IM P O R T S

OF

F O R E IG N

DRY

GOODS AT

ENTERED

FOR

NEW

1S58.
$2,691,875
1,066,295
2,244,955
575,762
417,254

2,644,673
6,483,722
1,187,900

Manufactures of w o o l............... . .
Manufactures of cotton..............
Manufactures of s ilk ..................
Manufactures of flax..................
Miscellaneous dry goods.............
Total.....................................
Add entered for consumption ... . .

FROM

OF JU L Y .

1859.

I860.

$1,911,803
2,961,195
5,095,323
1,156,373
510,912

$4,700,030
1,504,437
4,426,960
421,291
710,867

W AREH OU SE.

1857.

1858.

1859.

1860.

$2,644,823

$409,266
131,971
192,802
88,225
90,665

$441,207
57,071
136,717
37,689
40,124

$488,655
175,232
133,646
40,700
14,924

$912,429
6,996,131

$712,808
14,635,606

$853,157
11,793,585

392,013

18,347,451

Total thrown upon market... $24,814,337




M ONTH

$6,996,131 $14,635,606 $11,793,585

Total...................................... . $18,347,451
W IT H D R A W N

FOR TH E

C O N S U M P T IO N .

1857.
Manufactures of wool................ .
Manufactures o f cottou.............. .
Manufactures of silk ..................
Manufactures of f l a x ..........................
Miscellaneous dry goods............

YORK

$7,908,560 $15,348,414 $12,646,742

332

Commercial Chronicle and Review,
E N T E R E D F O R W A R E H O U S IN G .

18S7.

1858,

Manufactures of wool.....................
Manufactures of cotton.................
Manufactures of silk.......................
Manufactures of flax......................
Miscellaneous dry goods................

$l,235,0f3
408,236
568,065
164,535
206 291

$370,985
63.427
70 999
54,452
43,045

$771,660
164,492
133,349
79,446
33,538

$417,732
178.703
182 427
75,020
30,237

Total.........................................
Add entered for consumption........

$2.582.130
18,347,451

$602,908
6,996,131

$1.18*,485
14,635,606

$913,628
11,793,585

Total entered at the port... . $20,929,581

1859.

1860.

$7,599,039 $15,818,091 $12,707,218

The decline as compared with last year is $3,100,000.
IM PO R TS O F

F O R E IG N

DRY

GOODS A T

T IIE

FROM
ENTERED

TORT OF

JAN U ARY
FOR

NEW

Y O R K , FOR

SEVEN M ONTHS,

1S T .

C O N S U M P T IO N .

1857.

1858.

1859.

1860.

Manufactnresof w ool..................... $14,405,542 $7,667,688 $21,119,357 $18,653,647
Manufactures of cotton.................
11,593,109
4,886,559 15.849,312 10,300,197
Manufa turns o f silk....................... 17.S05.042
8,855.1X4 20,613,222 21,161,104
Manufactures of flax.......................
4,104,518
'2,1 15.268
6,477,370 4,126,995
Miscellaneous dry goods................
4,420,275
1,782,132
3.252,605 3,321,765
Total..........................................$52,328,186 $25,307,031 $67,311,866 $57,563,708
W IT H D R A W N

FROM

1857.
Manufactures o f wool.....................
Manufactures of cotton.................
Manufactnresof s ilk .....................
Manufactures of flax.....................
Miscellaneous dry goods...............

$3,688,663
2,402,012
3,244,488
1,128,012
591,981

W AREH O U SE.

1858.
$2,606,395
2,947,330
2.581,656
1,544,048
943,991

1859. '

1860.

$1,271,404 $1,767,264
1,1*20,282 1,836,739
576,856
1,036,333
656,944:
538,092
271,150
392,740

Total........................................$11,055,156 $10,623,420 $3,896,636 $5,571,168
Add entered for consumption . . . 52,323,186 25,307,081 67,311,866 51,563,708
Total thrown on market___ $63,383,342 $35,930,501 $71,208,502 $63,134,876
ENTERED

FOR

W A R E H O U S IN G .

1857.
Manufactures of wool.....................
Manufactures o f cotton.................
Manufactures o f silk.....................
Manufactures of flax......................
Miscellaneous dry goods...............

$5,349,8X6
2,502.580
3,989,463
1,458,629
1,087,599

Total.......................................... $14,388,107
Add entered for consumption . . . 52,328,186

’ 1858.
$1,492,256
1,441.855
914,698
594,960
418,308

1859.

1800.

$2,320,121 $2,339,405
911,922
1,605,632
525,498
1,138,035
437,587
290.506
275,990
425,400

$4,862,277 $4,471,118
25,307,081 67,311,866

$5,798,979
57,563,708

Total entered at the port. . . $66,716,293 $30,169,358 $71,782,984 $63,362,687

We may here call attention to the remarkable fluctuation in the imports of
dry goods, at this port, as presented in the aggregates for the first seven months
of each year, as follows :—




Commercial Chronicle and Review.
1850

.............................................

40,414,677

1851
1852
1853

...............................................
...............................................
...............................................

42,240,217
67,421,619

1854

............................................

65,308,983

1855

...............................................

1856

............................................

60,296.946
66,716,293

333

34,994,294

34,724,395

1857

...............................................

1858

.............................................

1859

...............................................

71,982,984

1860

............................................

63,362,687

80,169,358

Every third year there has been an inevitable decline of imports to the same
figure. In 1852, 1855, and 1858, a reaction and fail took place. Will the same
happen nest year ?
The cash duties received at the port of New York, during the month of July>
have been less than for the same period of 1859 ; they are reckoned, of course,
upon the goods thrown on the market. We annex a comparative summary :—
C A S H D U T IE S

D E C E IV E D A T N E W

1857.

TORE.

1858.

In July.........................
Previous six months.,

$6,987,019 61
19,293,52131

Total since Jan. 1st

$26,280,54092

1859.

$3,387,305
11,089,112

$4,851,243
19,512,181

I860.
49
99

$4,504,066
18,339,671

$14,476,418 $24,363,428 88 $22,843,741

The domestic exports from the port of New York forthemonth of July have
been considerably larger than for the same month in any previous year. This
arises from the large crops of cotton this year being supported by the revival of
the breadstuff demand abroad, and this has carried the New York business to a
high figure. The value of domestic produce exported exceeds that of last year
by §2,600,000, while specie sent abroad is §3,400,000 less:—
EXPORTS

FROM

NEW

YORK

TO

F O R E IG N

PORTS FO R

THE

M ONTH

1859.

O F JU LY .

1857.

1858.

Domestic produce..........................
Foreign merchandise (free)..........
Foreign merchandise (dutiable)....
Specie and bullion..........................

$4,273,696
407,697
582,059
3,628,377

$4,771,962
70,463
277,419
2,801,496

I860.

Total exports...........................

$8,891,829

$7,921,829 $15,602,393 $14,463,199

$4,938,065 $7,525,713
380,782
232,552
232,527
140,949
10,051,019 6,563,985

Total, exclusive of specie....
5,263,452
5,119,844
5,551,374 7,811,214
This leaves the total foreign exports Tom New York, since January 1st, ex­
clusive of specie, §14,307,000 more than for the corresponding seven months of
last year, and §14,727,415 more than for 1858, and also more than for any pre­
vious year:—
E X PO R TS F R O M N E W Y O R K T O F O R E IG N PO R TS F O R SE V E N M ON TH S, F R O M J A N U A R Y 1 .

1857.

1858.

1859.

I860.

Domestic produce........................... $38,725,336 $33,352,354 $33,373,647 $46,281,575
Foreign merchandise (free)...........
2,315,874
863,024
1,765,100
1,860,424
Foreign merchandise (dutiable)...
2,883,956
2,557,844
1,021,890 3,325,061
Specie and bullion......................... 26,026,439 15,161,455 43,248,991 28,143,737
Total exports.......................... $69,951,605 $51,924,677 $80,409,628 $79,610,797
Total, exclusive of sp ecie.. . 43,925,166 S3,763,222 37,160,637 51,467,060

There has been a corresponding decline in the amount of specie exported, that
being less by §15,105,000 than at the same time last year. The prospect is
now that the improved demand for breadstuffs, and the lessened import, will cause
the specie to reaccumulate in the country.




Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance.

334

JOURNAL OF BANKING, CURRENCY, AND FINANCE.
BRITISH SPECIE IMPORTS AXI) EXPORTS, SIX MONTHS, TO JUNE 30.
IM P O R T S.

1869
Gold.

Belgium................
France.. ................
Hanse T ow n s.. . .
H olla n d...............
Russia...................
Spain & Portugal.
G ibraltar.............
M alta...................
Constantinople .. .
Alexandria...........
Cape Good Hope,
Cape Verde, and
Sierra Leone . .
United States . . .
Mexico, West Indies, Cent. America, etc.............
B razils.................
South America. . .
Australia............
.New Zealand.. . .

Silver.

Total. '

£3,640 1,734,000 £1,737,540
671,BOO 5,277,300 5,948,900
286.600 728,900 1,015,500
300 479,800
480,100
1,413,000
1,413,000
28,600
74,850
103,350
1,900
505,400
49,100

1,600
5,000

74,540
5,089,000

2,830
358,600

1,206,300 1,236,900
300
252,780
........ ...........
4,146,240
124

1,900
507,000
54,100

^ Gold.

ISfift
Silver.

£1,600 £571,200
62,300 2,265,800
4,540 376,000
1,800
187,000
1,400
1,680
129,94 2
1,560
8,520
2,400
300
2,060
2,600

71,500
77,370
5,447,600 1,980,000

"N
Total.

£572,800
2,328,100
380,540
1,800
188,400
131,622
10,080
2,7 00
2,060
2,600

1.857
517,000

73,357
2,497,000

579,740 1,853,250
108,863
500
4,146,240 3,013,590
124
5,000

2,432,990
108,863
500
3,043,590
5,000

2,443,200
253,080

T ota l................ 13,728,924 9,900,080 23,629,004 6,051,833 5,730,169 11,782,002
EXPORTS.

Belgium................ £302,000
France.................. 10,840,800
Hanse Towns . . .
854,650
H olla n d...............
231,500
70,400
Spain & Portugal.
Alexandria...........

B om bay...............
Madras..................
Calcutta................
Singapore.............
Hong K o n g .........
Shanghae..............
Cape Good Hope,
Cape Verde, and
Sierre L eon e.. .
United States . . .
Mexico, West Iudies, Cent. America, etc............
B razils.................

Total




50,000
9^000
100
14,340
50'429
55,865
7,000
914
22,000
700

£51,200 £353,200 £67,250
£4,800
803,200 11,644,000 4,135,170 184,800
630,300 1,484,950
11,075
193,800
7,800
239,800
1,540
700
70,400 252,635
700
9,800
50,000
50*000
9’000 104,586
100
700
750
750
14,340
4,949
3,44 6,090 3,496,519 502,953 1,992,595
139,962
195,827
78,022
84,584
3,345,656 3,352,656 147,481 1,054 361
113,745
114,659
129,200
7,800
7,800
14,940
750
22,750
722,389
723,089
20,870 970,778
431,692
431,692
869,458
19,194

10,000

30,580
85,920

200
177,000

£72,050
4,319,970
204,875
2,240
253,335
9.800
50,000
104,586
700
4,949
2,495.548
162,606
1,201,842
129,200
14,940
991,648
869,458
19,194

10,000

15,265
500

1,200
1,580

16,465
2,080

37,780
262,920

28,540
437,313
3,000

67,000
71,850

95,540
509,163
3,000

12,636,198 9,878,524 22,514,732 5,871,649 5,661,405 11,533,189

Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance.

335

The following amounts have been exported from Marseilles and other Medit­
erranean ports, to India, China, Reunion, Mauritius, &c., between January 1st
and June 1st. 1860 :— Gold, £126,756.; silver, £1,406,911; total, £1,533,697,
which is included in the amounts exported to Alexandria, Aden, Mauritius, Cey­
lon, Bombay, Madras, Calcutta, Singapore, Penang, Manilla, Hong Kong,
Shanghae, and Poo-chovv foo.
The aggregate imports and exports for the year to June 30th, were as fol­
lows :—
/-----------------------Imports.----------------------- » ,------------------------Exports.----------------------- »

Gold.

Silver.

Total.

Gold.

Silver.

Total.

6 mos. to Jan. 1. 12,*288,95*5 7,280,888 19,5 ly,844 11,238,044 7,299,‘ »78 18,582,122
6 mos. to July 1 6,051,833 5,730,169 11,782,002 5,871,649 5,661,105 11,533,189
T o t a l............. 18,290,789 13,010,557 31,301,346 17,104,693 12,960,483 30,065,311

ENGLISH CUSTOMS DUTIES.

The following account of the gross product of the customs duties during the
past year, contrasted with the three previous years, will possess peculiar interest,
as the last of the period before the complete adoption of free trade. Each
article is arranged in the order of the amount yielded, sugar beiDg at the head
ol the list—a place recently occupied by tobacco. Among the principal items
which will never appear again—the duties baviDg been entirely abolished—are
silk manufactures, which gave £307,561; butter and cheese, which gave £154,243.
and tallow, which gave £75,502 ; while among those upon which reductions will
operate to the largest extent are timber, wine, spirits, and fruit:—■

1856.

1857.

1858.

1859.

Sugar......................
Tobacco........... .....................
T e a ..........................................
Spirits ......................................
W in e.......................................
Tim ber....................................
Fruit........................................
Corn..........................................
Coffee........................................
Silk manufactures...................
Refined sugar.........................
Molasses.............................
Spices......................................
Butter........................................
Tallow........................................
Leather manufactures...........
Cheese......................................
Eggs..........................................
Rice...........................................
W atches..................................
Cocoa........................................
Embroidery..............................
Clocks........................................
Caoutchouc...............................
Hops.........................................
Woolen manufactures...........
Worsted yarn.........................
Other articles...........................

£5,655,626
6,209.626
6,538,242
2,560,666
2,073,735
577,580
364,386
488,723
586,767
...........
...........
...........
118,230
124,458
69,559
66,962
49,530
19,566
26,903
15,426
15,678
12,323
8,036
12,102
23,873
4,460
...........
274,625

£4,942,081
5,253,431
5,020.032
2.366,494
1,965,361
589,725
353,080
473,383
456,805
250,995
278,336
150.308
112,559
110,593
74,776
65,231
48,200
21,169
28,154
14,555
11,554
10,669
8,224
8,952
82,459
1,936
1,776
265,533

£5,786,937
5,454,214
5,166,170
2,246,481
1,827,111
576,797
494,985
586,783
442,120
270,540
235,891
200,418
127,359
95,489
87,665
58,117
44,369
22,426
33,036
15,133
12,796
8,521
7,748
3,663
37,320
1,559
2,207
289,941

£5,891,192
5,578,463
5,408,924
2,462,112
1,982,302
629,868
597,170
532,900
431,361
307,561
223,273
158,638
134,916
104,587
75,502
73,431
49,656
24,787
24,503
16,267
14,504
9,564
8,978
7,157
4,434
3,808
3,148
311,060

T o ta l............................

£24,206,844

£22,956,371

£24,155,852

$25,065,066




S tates .




Banks. Branches.

..
..

174
78

9
31
24
13
25
2
8
12
16
9
52
108
12
1
1,392
1,829
1,284
1.283

Date of returns.

Capital.

and discounts.

Stocks.

Specie.

Circulation.

Deposits.

January
2, 1860
$7,606,890 $12,654,794
$670,979
$4,149,7 18
$2,4 11,022
December 5, 1859
5,016,000
255,278
8,591,688
3,271,183
1.187,991
July <£s Aug., 1859
4,029,240
198,409
787,834
6,946,523
$176,400
3,882,983
. , October 29, 1859
64,519,200 107,417,323
7,532,647
27,804,699
22,086,920
., January
20,865,569
450,920
2, 1860
3,553,104
26,719,877
214,102
3,558,295
May
. . , 1859
i
21,512,176
1,267,406
989,920
5,574,900
27.856,785
7,561,519
. . DecemberlO, 1859 111,441,320 200,351,332 26,897,S74 20,921,545
29,959,5o6 104,070,273
. . January ..,1 8 6 0
962,911
7,884.412
940,700
4,811,832
5,741,465
14,909,174
Novem ber. . , 1859
25,565,682
50,327,157
2,513 674
8,378,474
26,167,843
13,132,892
976,226
January ..,1 8 6 0
1,640,775
208,924
3
3.150,215
4,750
1,135,772
January
2, 1860
12.568,962
2.779,418
20,898.762
4.106,869
8,874,180
848,283
41 January
1, 1860
16,005,156
3,581,078
2,943,652
24,975,792
7,729,652
9,812 197
1,1860
6.626,478
17 January
12,213,272
863,828
1,617,687
1,4 87,273
5,594,047
2,994,6*8
2,324,121
4,165.615
2 December . 1 8 5 9
14,962,062
27,801,912
11,475,634
..,1 8 5 9
3,211,974
4 October
16,689.560
16,776,282
2,583,158
8,798,100
4,738,289
. . January ..,1 8 6 0
300,000
464,630
32,876
183,640
100,025
129,518
. . January ..,1 8 6 0
2.747,174
4,851,153
4,901,000
13,570,027
524,513
7,477,976
1 December31, 1869
24,496.866
5.842,096 12,115,431
19,777,812
35,401,609
11.579,313
18 January ..,1 8 6 0
1,233.432
2,267,710
6,538,378
4 324,799
11,751,019
8,067,037
4,502,250
34 January ..,1 8 6 0
25,284,S69
851.562
5,662.892
12,835,670
13.520.207
4,160,912
29 January ..,1 8 6 0
9,082.951
15,461,192
725.670
3.357,176
7. 884,885
January . . , 1860
223,812
5,251,225
387,229
9.826,691
8,981,723
697,037
7,675,861
1.349.466
1,583.140
20 Nov.,’59,to Jan..’60
4,343,210
5,390.246
1,700,479
February 6, 1860
1,828.640
7,983,889
6,890,889
11,100,462
2.153.552
4,039,614
December . . , 1859
755,465
892,949
192,831
24,175
222,197
375,397
January
2, 1860
7,592,361
5,031,504
7,620,000
419,947
3,085,813
4,429,855
December 5, 1859
255,545
460,450
724,228
101,849
527,378
563,806
January
1, 1860
8.268
52.000
48,256
8,895
2.695
170
$421,880,095 $691,945,580 $70,344,343 $83,594,537 $207,102,477 $253,802,129
147
401.976 242 657.183.799
104,537,818 193,306,818 259.56S.27S
138
74,412,832 155.2' 8 314 185,9s 2.049
394,622,799 683,165.242
133
370,834,686 684,456,887
58,349,838 214,778,872 230,351,352

J ou rn a l o f Banicing , Currency, and Fv,

Maine.....................
New Hampshire...
V e rm o n t...............
Massachusetts . . . .
Rhode Island.........
Connecticut............
New York...............
New .Jersey............
Pennsylvania.........
Delaware................
Maryland...............
Virginia..................
North Carolina . .
South Carolina . .
G eorgia...............
Florida..................
A la b a m a .............
Louisiana................
Tennessee............
Kentucky..............
Missouri.................
Illinois.................
Indiana...................
Ohio.........................
Michigan...............
W isconsin.............
Iow a.......................
Kansas Territory..
Total, January, 1860........ . . .
“
“
1859........ . . .
U
it
1858......... . . .
((
a
1857........

336

BANKS OF THE UNITED STATES, JANUARY, 1860.

By the politeness of J ohn AY. F o rney , Esq., Clerk of the Rouse of Representatives, we have received the following official copy of the
annual report of the banks of the United States, nearest to January, 1860 :—
loans

Journal o j Banking, Currency, and Finance.
CITY
NEW

YORK

Jan. 7
14

21
28
Feb. 4
11
18
25
Mar. 3
10
17
24
31
Apr. 7
14
21

28
May 5
12

19
26
June 2
9
16
23
30
July 7
14
21

28
Aug. 4
11
18

BANK

2
16
23
30
Feb. 6
13
20
27
March 5
12
19
26
Apr. 2
9
16
23
30
May 7
14
21
28
June 4
VOL.

BANK

RETURNS.

1S60, $69,833,632; 1859,168,050,755.)

Loans.

S p e c ie .

C ir c u la t io n .

D e p o s it s .

A v era ge
c le a rin g s .

A ctu a l
d e p o s it s .

124.597,663
123,582,414
123,845,931
123,088,626
124,091,982
123,336,629
124,206.031
124,398,239
125.012.700
127,30':,778
127,562,848
127,613,507
128,388,223
130,606,731
129,919,015
128,448,868
127,085,667
127,479,520
126,184,532
124,938,389
125.110.700
124,792.271
125.431,963
125,399,997
125.886,665
127.208.201
127,244,241
127,123,166
128,427,489
129,074,298
130,118,247
129,855,179
129,950,346

17,863,734
18,740,866
19,233,494
20.063.739
19,924,301
19,787,567
20.591.189
20,773,896
23,086,812
21,861,180
23,171,833
23,286,204
23,420.759
22,599,132
23,626,982
23,233,314
23,279,809
23,815,746
22,780,887
23,735,193
23,431,773
24,535,457
23,785,581
24,110,558
23,350,921
22,434,250
22,751,694
23,641,357
23,443,644
23,099,726
22.128.189
21.579.740
21,008,701

8,539,063
8,090,548
7,880,865
7,760,761
8,174,450
8,185,109
8,050,001
7,928,595
8,165,026
8,419,633
8,380,999
8,335,266
8,444,327
8,929,228
8,775,297
8,790,459
8,749,048
9,391,861
9,153,811
9,035,522
8,826.473
8,774,063
8,999,948
8,828,786
8.779,115
8,745,182
9,843,727
8,075,528
8,833,619
8,760,252
9,176,386
9,129,835
9,088,648

97,493,709
99,247,743
99,644,128
98,520,793
99,476,430
98,146,463
100,387,051
100,622,481
103,663,462
104,813,906
108,560,981
107,505,395
106,31 1,554
109,193,464
109,153.863
108,145,233
103,206,723
108,505,388
108,038,848
106,229,724
104,433,136
104,268,785
103,386,091
104,031,268
102,737,055
102,496,762
103,450,426
106,399,678
107,717,216
105,524,100
107,284,777
105,505,399
105,690,481

22,684,854
23,363,980
22,813,547
21,640,967
21,898,736
21,674,908
22,061,811
22,151,504
22,787,290
23,791,958
25,562,858
25,397,976
22,889,523
25,656,629
24,256,270
25,758,735
21,391,290
26,546,063
27,802,174
25,339,444
24,309,496
22,888,107
22,776,108
22,492,614
22,116,242
21,309,053
22,119,106
23,456,447
23.457,781
21,239,450
23,417,789
22,626,292
22,934,365

74.808,855
75,883,763
76,830,581
76,879,826
77,577,694
76,471,055
78,325,240
78,470,977
80,876,172
81,021,948
82,998,128
82,107,419
83,422,031
83,536.835
84,897,593
82,386,498
81,815,433
81,‘.'59,325
80,236,674
80,890,280
80,123,640
81,380,678
80,609,983
81,538.654
80,620,813
81,187,709
81,331,320
82,943.231
84,259,435
84,284.650
83,846,988
82,879,107
82,756,116

BOSTON

Jau.

WEEKLY

R E T U R N S . — ( c a p i t a l , J A N .,

337

ban k s

.-

( c a p i t a l , J A N .,

Loans.
Specie.
..
59,SU7,566 4,674,271
..
60,068,941 4,478,841
..
59,917,170 4,182,114
..
69,491,387 4,172,325
..
50,705,422 4,249,594
..
59,993,784 4,462,698
..
60,113,836 4,577,334
..
59,927,917 4,714,034
..
59,993,784 5,034,787
..
59,886,196 5,328,610
..
60,258,208 5,446,840
..
60,180,209 5,627,961
..
60,050,953 6,045,703
..
60,668,559 6,320,551
..
61,189,629 6,289,719
..
61,035,965 6,315,952
..
61,259,552 6,317,999
..
61,614,199 6,311,714
..
61,744,290 6,263,635
..
61,724.621 6,268,919
..
61,258,986 6,201,113
..
61,585,669 6,192,455
XLIII.----NO. III.




1859. $35,125,433; 1860, $36,581,700.)

Circulation.
6,479,488
6,770,624
6,486,139
6,199,485
6,307,922
6,364,320
6,305,537
6,411,573
6,396,656
6,430,013
6,405,084
6,328,273
6.340,268
7,753,491
7,267,165
7,152,766
6,992.903
7,322,813
7,076,071
7,031,306
6,660,595
6,800,711
22

Deposits.
18,449,805
17,753,002
17,378,070
17,483,054
17,900,002
17,271,596
17,597,881
18,020,239
18,645,621
18,393,293
18,660,205
18,742,817
19,262,894
20,469,893
20,291,620
20,266,917
20,195.951
20,810,086
20,758,862
20,726,998
20,320,518
20,656,295

Due
Due
to banks.
from banks.
7,545,222 6,848,874
7,867,400 6,735,283
7,784,169 6,516,532
7,383,870 6,517,541
7,259,703 6,656,460
7,426,539 6,593,702
7,480 060 6.549.382
7,700,530 7.480,954
7,736,290 7,768,074
7,715,663 7,390,935
8,351,016
8,473,775
9,206,161
9,160,868
9,055,077
9,273,558
9.116,514
9,210,132
9,197,894
9,057,822
9,172,878

7,804,222
8,0S0,218
9,788,121
8,314,312
8,138,121
7,948,086
8,324,391
8,209,699
8,241,899
8,272,557
8,366,511

Journal o j B anking , Currency , and Finance.

838
n ..
18
25
July 2
9
16
23
30

..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Loans.

Specie.

62,346,519
63,085,953
63,557,155
64,172,028
65,039.459
65,153,413
64,852,961
64,460,289

6,300,700
6,322,698
6,262,930
6,059,370
6,087,718
5,685 920
5,335,523
5,212,470

P H I L A D E L P H IA

Deposits.

Due
to banks.

Due
from banks

20,228,677
20,677,536
20,750,673
20,828,714
21,133,175
20.312,421
19,751,313
19,296,454

9,629,483
9,988,840
10,307,194
10,300,178
11,304,893
11,098,306
11,093,127
10,353,708

7,857,439
7,991,098
8,188,802
7,527,888
9,105,876
7,995,222
8,158,425
6,961,414

Circulation.

7,090,282
7,165,453
7,188,326
6,925,022
7,932,653
7,560,636
7,523,745
6,848,834

B A N K S .— (C A P I T A L , J A N .,

1860, $11,687,435.)

Date.

Loans.

Specie.

Circulation.

Deposits.

Due banks.

2 ....
9 ___
16___
23___
30___
Feb. 6 . . . .
13___
20___
2 7 ....
Mar. 5 ----12___
19___
26___
April 2----9 ___
16___
23___
30___
May 7 ___
14___
21 ___
28 . . .
June 4 ----11___

25,886,387
25,248,051
25.275,219
25,445,737
25,526,198
25,493,975
25,493,975
25,458,354
25,553,918
25,742,447
25,742,447
25,832,077
26,043,772
26,405,229
27,214,254
27,444,580
27,545,351
27,571,002
27,590,212
27,463,831
27,401,926
27,288,932
27,171,002
27,046,016
26,882,709
26,780,533
26,835,868
26,835,868
26,878,435
26,842,743
26,851,776

4,450,261
4,453,252
4,561,998
4.514,579
4,535,321
4,669,929
4,669,929
4,581,356
4,706,108
4,816,052
4,816,052
4,873,419
4,992,642
5,060,274
5,209,576
5,415,711
5,4 64,280
5,453.470
5,477,019
5,587,360
5,367,416
4,886,579
4,582,610
4,183,667
4,222,644
4,329,688
4,305,866
4,305,866
4,403,157
4,553,641
4,249,304

2,856,601
2,676,623
2,672,730
2,644,191
2,601,750
2,656,310
2,656,310
2,663,695
2,653,192
2,697,108
2,697,108
2.783,345
2,784,773
2,858,812
3,528,762
3,252,186
3,154,285
3,037,846
2,968,444
2,944,245
2,870,617
2,818,719
2,824,471
2,810,552
2,725,269
2,654,503
2,960,381
2,960,381
2,859,852
2,821,082
2,785,718

14,962.919
14,161,437
14,934,517
15,064,970
15,401,915
15,409,241
15,409,241
14,864.302
14,590,092
15,192,971
15,192,971
15,205,432
15,693,622
15,553,269
15,528,762
16,012,140
16,613,616
16,529.891
16,763,609
16,489,872
16,422,835
15,884,903
15,620,293
15,698,909
15,642,639
15,643,433
16,824,391
15,824,891
15,796,205
15,966,734
16,085,967

2,619,192
2,596,212
2,563,449
2,601.271
2,619,573
2,574,015
2,574,015
2.782,306
3,115,010
3,133,312
3,183,312
3,209,553
3,198,530
3,652,757
4,085,695
4,164,678
3,985,110
3,902,514
3,731,987
4,209,845
4,085,882
3,974,369
3,744,431
3,128,287
3,109,639
3,060,615
3,159,819
3,159,819
3,313,195
3,099.567
3,211,855

Jan.

I S ____

25___
July 2 ___
9 ___
16___
2 3 ___
30___

NEW

Jan. 7 .,
14 .. ,

21 . .
28 . .

Feb. 4 . .
11 . .
18 . .
25 . .
Mar. 3 . .

10 . .
17 . .
24 . .
31 . .

Apr. 7 . .
14 . .

21 . .
28 . .

ORLEANS

Short loans.
25,022,456
24,928,909
24,699,024
24,916,431
25,145,274
25,197,351
25,005,952
24,397,286
24,946,210
24,088,800
24,054,845
23,832,766
23,674,714
23,107,740
22,422,203
22,380,033
21,437,974




B A N K S .— (C A P I T A L , J A N ., 1 8 6 0 , $ 1 8 , 9 1 7 , 6 0 0 . )

Specie.
12,234,448
12,336,785
12,821,411
12,818,159
12,750,642
12,741,881
12,894,621
12,945,204
12,952,002
13,089,092
12,729,356
12,610,790
12,437,195
12,368,071
12,290,539
12,100,687
11,910,361

Circulation.
12,038,494
12,417,847
12,809,512
12,882,184
13,215,494
18,343,924
13,458,989
13,600,419
13,860,399
18,726,554
13,797,154
13,885,755
13,975,624
14,100.890
13,638,089
12,999,204
12,783,749

Deposits.
18,563,804
18,678,233
18,664,355
19,677,121
19,565,305
19,244,847
19,903,519
19,218,590
20,116,272
19,711,423
19,304,618
19,102,068
18,681,020
18,070,209
17,849,018
18,380,033
17,699,538

Exchange.
7,323,580
7,410,360
7,423,629
8,144,681
8,003,380
7,349,365
7,886,609
8,083,929
8,027,049
8,582,012
8,498,790
8,842,599
8,149,061
8,560,117
8,179,441
7,649,069
7,686,634

Distant
balances.
1,557,174
1,387,704
1,377,796
1,603,763
1,613,036
1,896,150
1,470,787
1,635,626
1,092,475
1,601,149
1,718,310
1,738,246
1,610,499
1,942,056
1,608,463
1,649,060
1,877,017

Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance.

May

5 ..
12 . .
19 . .
26 . .
June 2 . .
9 ..
16 . .
23 . .
July 7 . .
14 . .
21 . .
28 . .

Short loans.
21,437,974
20,545,529
19,385,119
18,588,492
18,282,807
17,423,118
16,864,692
16,821,969
16,627,125
16,795,836
16,945,426
17,802,024

Circulation.
Specie.
11,910,361 12,783,749
11,672,364 12,258,444
11.706,007 12,163,609
11,593,719i 11,900,864
11,191,024: 11,791,799
11,072,236 11,572,259
10,693,389 11,389,389
10,223,276 11,138.434
9,883,812 10,921,057
9,693,954 10,695.884
9,544,793, 10,810,824
9,607,44S; 10,071,383

Exchange.
Deposits.
17,699,538 7,686,634
17,442,974 7,213,833
17,260,226 6,909,386
17,938,774 6,599,676
16,985,565 6,173,783
16,989,587 5,95S,996
16,105,5 SC 6,538,830
15,319,947 5,067,682
14,671,491 4,548,395
14,557,417 4,123,242
14,326,547 3,706,020
14,358,384 3,219,947

P I T T S B U R G B A N K S .----- (C A P I T A L ,

J a n .1 6 . . , ...........
2 3 ..
3 0 ..
Feb. 6 . .
1 3 .. .................
2 0 ..
2 7 ..
Mar. 5 . .
1 2 .. ...........
19. .
2 6 .. ...........
A pr. 2 . .
9 . . ...........
1 6 .. ...........
2 3 .. ............
3 0 .. ...........
May 5 . . ...........
14. . ................
1 9 .. ............
2 7 .. ............
June 4 . . ...........
i i . . ...........
1 8 .. ...........
2 5 .. ...........
July 1 4 .. ............
2 1 ...............

Loans.
7,1202,367
360,471
389,320
384,209
6 ; 939,052
957,621
7;022,230
101,459
7,'035,624
066,774
7;038,891
166,377
7, 206,737
7, 159,568
7, 278,279
7, 234,761
7,,234,761
7.,263,197
7,,196,493
7,,190,192
7,,282,963
7, 214,889
7, 247,541
7, 291,888
7,310,663
7 ,294,391

Specie.
980,530
1,022,273
1,003,037
997,589
951,638
988,306
991,377
1,018,255
999,093
1,004,750
981,560
1,005,415
990,962
1,018,445
1,156,278
1,141,373
1,141,373
1,088,851
1,133,719
1,122,057
1,089,751
1,126,308
1,102,446
1,150,248
1,068,974
1,083,220

339
Distant
balances.
1,877,017
1,763,871
1.680.480
1,596,210
1,459,051
1,44 2,041
1,665,076
1.739.481
1,601,540
1,401,804
1,612,608
1,163,961

$4,160,200.)

Circulation.
2,080,548
2,012,478
1,896,383
1,907,323
1,883,093
1,868,598
1,821,283
1,871,873
1,901,543
1,945,328
1,980,732
2,085,583
2,072,373
2,071,878
2,024,138
1,995,053
1,995,053
2,011,258
2,022,988
1,952,683
1,907,248
1,919,688
2,029,558
2,048,358
2,071,443
2,073,593

Deposits.
1,527,548
1,545,10.3
1,555,686
1,609,692
1,602,311
1,643,703
1,760,957
1,7.68,879
1,651,216
1,636,887
1,572,130
1,601,167
1,693,230
1,651,362
1,897,498
1,913,537
1,913,537
1,890,810
1,906,773
1,918,321
1,919,903
1,892,800
1,743,915
1,779,752
1,818,615
1,846,879

Due banks.
304,562
255,076
265,804
230,426
191,222
175,051
224,434
273,343
197,007
198,566
192,411
191,101
171,100
187,255
240,143
175.671
175.671
215,765
213,944
206,816
277,978
240,728
271,062
315,858
239,832
205,011

S T . L O U IS B A N K S .

E x ch a n g e.
1 4 .........................................

21.......................................

5 2 0 ,3 0 5
........................

4 ,3 5 2 ,6 9 9

2 8 ....................................... ........................

4 ,2 9 0 * 5 6 3

495J180

........................

4 ,1 4 9 ,2 3 6

4 5 7 ,0 9 5

11....................................... ..........................

4 ,0 4 8 ,5 9 3

4 2 4 ,6 0 6

May

5 0 2 ,1 7 5

3 9 1 ,6 0 5

1 8 .........................................

April

C ir c u la t io n .
5 3 8 ,5 5 5

........................

3 ,9 5 1 ,4 8 3

3 9 9 ,0 8 5

........................

3 ,8 9 1 , 2 6 3

3 9 5 ,9 0 5

10.........................................

3 ,9 9 8 ,8 2 7

3 7 7 ,9 3 5

1 7 ....................................... ........................

3 ,9 6 3 ,9 2 4

3 7 7 ,3 5 5

2 4 .................................................................

3 ,8 8 0 , 9 1 5

3 5 6 ,2 4 5

3 1 .................................................................

3 ,7 9 0 ,2 9 1

3 4 0 ,0 9 5
3 4 4 ,6 3 0

7 .......................................

........................

3 ,8 6 2 ,4 5 4

1 4 ....................................... ........................

3 ,8 6 8 ,3 4 5

3 2 5 ,9 5 0

21.......................................

........................

3 ,8 5 2 ,6 1 4

3 1 4 .3 6 0

2 8 ....................................... ........................

3 ,6 9 4 ,8 7 7

3 0 5 ,7 5 0

5 .......................................




3 0 1 ,3 0 0

Specie.

662,755
642,497
680,754
563,335
590,502
625,043
639,450
680,877
689,301
651,802
641,252
664,179
685,984
657,321
676,858
601,014
678,234
746,176

J ou rn al o j B an k in g , Currency , and Finance.

340

Exchange.

Circulation.
294,115
285,140
273,540
255,210
253,780
244,850
235,935
206,749
199,385
152,025
191,375
177,620

Specie.
808,918
826,793
671.669
627,942
656,358
682,917
705,764
804 983
791,729
684,358
752,397
658,852

BANKS.— ( c a p i t a l , $14,9031,000.)
Specie.
Circulation.
Deposits.
315,917
2,011,336
2,635,486
326,297
1,958,540
2,566,168
. 342,965
1,917,593
2,598,169
343,992
1,952,022
2,640,170
448,413
2,045,590
2,773,248
422,726
1.938,254
2,844,012
430,128
2,158,904
2,790,587
397,286
2,218,347
2,748,678

Dne banks
938,508
921,779
970.971
1,040,260
1,356,071
1,210,104
1,115,951
1,169,800

1 2 ..
19. .
2 6 ..
June 2 ..
9 ..
16. .
23. .
3 0 ..
July
7 ..
1 4 ..
2 1 -.
2 8 ..
P R O V ID E N C E

Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
June
July
Aug.

2 ___
6 ___
3 ___ ___
1 ___ ___
7 ...
4 ___ ___
2 ___
6 . . . ___

Loans.
19,144,354
19,144,846
19,009,255
18,686,210
18,893,658
18,891,907
19,530,296

NEW YORK CITY BANKS, QUARTERLY STATEMENT, JUNE 25, 1860.

The following is the quarterly statement of the condition of the New York
city banks, on the morning of Saturday, the 25th June, compared with the state­
ment for June, 1858 and 1859 :—
L I A B IL I T I E S .

1858,

1859,

June 19.

Capital...............................
Net proht...........................
Circulation.........................
Due other banks...............
Net deposits.....................
Due all others...................

$67,041,182
7,531,640
7,080,:-96
28,275,873
74,806,752
430,561

T o ta l..........................

$185,166,404

June 19.

1860,
June 25.

Inc. on 1859.

$69,758,777
8,055,245
8,723,385
26,394,167
79,988,683
977,431

$1,113,763
499,794
595,313
2,649.562
7,274,789
405,529

$181,358,888 $193,897,6S8

$12,538,750

$68,645,014
7,555,451
8,128,072
23,744,605
72,713,844
571,902

RESOURCES.

Loans.................................
Stocks................................
Bonds and mortgages___
Real estate........................
Due from banks...............
Cash item s........................
Specie................................
Overdrafts........................
Total.........................

$118,299,388
8,922,278
440,335
5,815,368
5,338,023
14,694,592
31,704,814
51,606,000
$1S5,166,404

$118,543,934 $125,139,040
12,210,779
12,601,564
503,312
633,268
6,055,947
6,314,469
6,213,431
7,013,735
17,099,736
19,070,961
20,682,304
23,054,639
49,445
69,962
$181,358,888

$193,897,638

$6,595,106
390,785
129,956
258,522
800,304
1,971,225
2,372,335
20,517
$12,538,750

NEW YORK CITY BANKS.

The following table shows the capital of each bank, June 30,1860 ; profits
according to their quarterly reports of June 30, 1860 ; the ratio of specie to
deposits for the week ending July 21; the semi-annual dividends of the year
1859 ; the percentage of net profits to capital, June 30,1860, and prices offered
and asked for their shares, and the latest sales at the Stock Board :—




Journal o f Banicing, Currency, and Finance.
Banks.
Capital.

Ratio of
Div’nds.
N et Profits to Specie, 1859,
/— Prices of shares.— *
profits. capital. July 21. p. c. T>- c. Offered. Asked. Sales.

Bank o f New York $3,000,000 $175,999 $0 86 25.8
Manhattan Comp’y. 2,050,000 586,1 65 28 59 29
Merchants’..............
2.766,012 124,108 4 49 81.1
Mechanics’ ............. 2,000,000 314,067 15 70 24.9
Union....................... 1,500,000
79,738 5 32 27.3
Bank of A m erica.. 3,000,000 371,195 12 37 32.8
Phenix...................
1,800,000 222,671 12 37 25.3
C ity......................... 1,000,000 167,652 16 77 20
Tradesmen’s ........... 1,000,000
91,802 9 18 26
Fulton.....................
600,000 211,710 35 29 22
Chemical................
300,000 658,216 219.40 38.7
Merchants’ Exch’ge. 1,235,000 126,259 10 22 25.3
National..................
1,500,000
78,209 5 21 16.2
Butchers tfe Drovers’
800,000 121,630 15 20 85 6
Mech'ics &Traders’.
44,860 7 48 21.7
600,000
Greenwich.............
200,000
44,153 22 02 13.8
Leather Manufac’rs’
600.000 242,595 40 43 28.3
Seventh Ward. ..
500,000 140,813 28 16 29
State of New York 2,000,000 156,891 7 84 86.2
American Exch’nge 5,000,000 179.659 3 59 28.9
Bank of Commerce 9,085,840 498,752 5 49 38.2
Broadway..............
1,000,000 443,118 44 31 29.8
Ocean....................... 1,000,000
71,550 7 15 25.7
Mercantile............. 1,000,000 146,412 14 64 26
Pacific.....................
89,453 21 16 19.2
422,700
Bank o f Republic.. 2,000.000 399,291 19 96 34.1
Chatham.................
450,000
17,872 3 97 22.6
People’s .................
41,489 10 00 33
412,500
Bank of N. America 1,000,000 143,600 14 36 81.1
Hanover..................
90,943 9 09 22.1
1,000,000
Irving.......................
35,832 7 16 25.3
500,000
Metropolitan......... 4,000.000 552,559 13 81 23.2
Citizens’ .................
60.611 12 65 24.5
400,000
Nassau . . . . .
1,000,000
45,415 4 54 21.8
Market..................... 1,000,000
91,151 9 12 25
St. Nicholas............
24,142 3 22 21
750,000
Shoe &
, Leather. . . 1,500,000 180,487 12 03 25.4
Corn Exchange . . .
96,050 9 60 30.3
1,000,000
Continental............
2,000,000 124,532 6 23 19.8
Commonwealth___
750,000
54,674 1 29 22.5
Oriental.................
300,000
29,239 9 74 25.5
Marine...................
664,200
17,312 2 61 23.4
Atlantic.................
400,000
17,074 4 27 31.7
Import’rs <fcTrad’rs’ 1,500,000 189,422 12 63 20.6
Park........................
2,000,000 219,863 10 99 27.6
Artisans’ ................
600,000
34,869 5 81 31.9
Mech. Bank. Asso’n
500,000
41.820 8 36 26.4
Grocers’ .................
300,000
41,760 13 92 26.4
North River............
14,539 4 60 24.5
316,000
East River..............
206,525
25,740 12 46 21.9
N. Y. Dry D ock.. .
200,000
9,340 4 68 *27
M 1. Exchange. . .
150,000
18,413 12 27 *7.1
Bull’s Head............
200,000
22,788 11 40 *11.8
New York County.
200,000
22,141 11 07 *9.3
Manuf. &Merchants’
500,000
14,570 2 91 *20.3
Total, June 30,’ 60. 69,758,777 8,055,233
Total, Mar. 81, ’60. 69,420,057




341

* On gross deposits.

»i
6
31
4

Si
Si
4
4
4
5
6

Si
Si

5

Si

t)
5
5
3}

Si
Si
5
Si
6
5
5

3
5
Si
4
31
31
4
4
4
5
6
31
3
5
31
6
5
5
31
31
31
5
31
5
5
5

Si
Si

31
31
31
Si 31
4
4
4
4
3
31
4
4
Si 31
4
4
3 i 31
8* 31
Si 31
3 i 31
3i 3
3 i 31
Si 4
4
4
31 31
31 31
31 31
31
4
4
4
4

Si
4
4
4
4

.

.

102
140
106
116
1021
111
107
123
109
’. 40
400
97
105
120
108
150
140
130
991
lOOf
100
137
98
120
120
129
98
100
106
94
...
1101
102
101
100
90
107
1011
100
961
...
85
65
110
110
96
1021
94
93
95
110
...
100
104
. . .

1021
143
107
118
1031
112
1071
125
112
145

98
106
125
110
145
135
100
101
1001
140
99
125
125
130
991
102
108
96
96
111
105
102
102
94
109
1021
101
97
100
87
70
112
112
98
103
96
96
97
114
103
105
. . .

1U3
1401
1071
107
103
...
107
...
112
...
. •.
97
1051
..
1091
..•
...
...
101
101
99 i
99 i

120
130
...
...
...
941
n il
102
. •.
93
108
102
97
...
85
68
...
...
991
95
...
..•
...
. .

.

Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance.

342

VALUATION AND TAXATION IN CINCINNATI,

The Cincinnati Gazelle of a recent date has the following statement in refer­
ence to the valuation of property and tax levy in Cincinnati and Hamilton—
We give first the taxable basis or grand levy of the city, applicable as an es­
timate for the year 1860, for the official action of the council, and the revenue
derived therefrom :—
V A L U A T IO N OF T H E C IT Y .

Yalue o f lots -with improvements in seventeen wards............................
Value o f personal property in the same....................................................
Value of personal property in railroads, insurance companies, and other
corporations, with additions by Board of Equalization......................
Total

$61,428,911
26,483,458
4,049,602
$91,861,918

TAX L E W .

For
For
For
For

State purposes, in the c i t y .................................................................
county purposes, in the city .................................................................
city purposes on general levy, in city..................... $1,000,086 51
city purposes, special levy, water ta x ....................
50,000 00

$363,249 81
252,895 44
1,059,000 00

Total amount levied in city.............................................................

$1,666,145 25

The last item mentioned in the above is the special levy on each lineal foot of
the frontage on the lines of water pipe, as provided for by the act of 1856.
We give next the taxable basis or grand levy of the county, applicable as an
estimate for the year 1860, for the official action of the three County Commis­
sioners, and the distribution for general county expenses:—
V A L U A T IO N O F T H E C O U N TY.

Value of lands..........................................................................................
Value of lots..............................................................................................
Value o f personal property.....................................................................

$17,049,869 00
64,970,382 00
33,415,039 00

Total...............................................................................................
Taxable value of county other than c i t y ....................... . . .
Taxable value c i t y ...................................... ...............................

$115,434,790 00
25,654,165 00
87,780,625 00

D IS T R IB U T IO N -----F O B G E N E R A L CO U N TY

TUErOSES.

3 mills on the dollar, on $2,000,000 taxable value, produce...........
2 mills on the dollar, on $4,000,000 taxable value, produce . ..........
1.50 mills on the dollar, on $6,000,000 taxable value, produoe.......
1.25 mills on the dollar, on $40,000,000 taxable value, produce... .
1 mill on the dollar, on $63,484,796 taxable value, produce............
Taxable basis $115,434,790, producing....................................

$6,000 00
8,000 00
9,000 00
60,00000
63,434 79
$136,434 79

There is an additional levy of 1.1819 of one mill for public buildings or pay­
ment of debts.
TAXABLE VALUATION OF MISSISSIPPI.

The Auditor’s report of the State of Mississippi gives the following state­
ment o f the taxable value for 1859 :—
$288,794
Land.......acres 20,085,173 $139,887,168 Slaves and cattle sold........
2,123,608
Money at interest...............
8,573,445 Carriages........ No. 13,600
958,612
Stocks....................................
550,125 Watches................. 15,732
Clocks....................
17,349
162,937
Merchandise brought into the
State..................................
12,355,646
T otal............................. $165,146,910
Merchandise sold at auction
44,424
Liquors sold at auction . . .
202,161




Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance.

343

FAILURES IN LONDON IN 185S-59.

The pressure of the Italian War for an idea, produced the following financial
results in London :—
L IS T O F F A IL U R E S IN L O N D O N , E T C ., F R O M N O V E M B E R
NOVEM BER, l a58.

l ’lowes. Son k Co., Rio Janeiro, merchants.
W . J. Grey k Son, Newcastle, coalfitters.
Cowan k Bigg, London and Newcastle, ship and
insurance brokers.
Pickworth k Walker. Sheffield, builders.
James Hyde k Co., Honduras, merchants.
James Davies & Son, London, boot and shoe
manufacturers.
DECEM BER.

Ilicks k Gadsden, London, American merchants.
Metcalf k Co., West Ham, distillers.
Forcheimer k Co.. Prague, worsted spinners.
M. P. l ’ oppe, Antwerp, oil and seed merchant.
J A N U A R Y , 18 .5 9.

M. Demetriadi, Manchester, Greek trade.
John Symons & Co., Manchester, commission
agents.
Bryant k Davies, London, commis'n merchants.
Prior, Turner k Co., London, Naples, and Paler­
mo, Neapolitan trade.
FEBRUARY.

Bodin, Lichtenstein & Co., Marseilles, merchants.
M ARCH.

Gutteman, Brothers k Co., Genoa, merchants.
A P R IL .

Aquarone, Fils, Porro k Co., Marseilles, merch’ ts.
M AY.

W olf & Co., Berlin, bankers.
Lloyd, Beilby A Co., London. Australian trade.
Arustein k Eskeles, Vienna, bankers.

1, 1858,

TO OCTOBER

31, 1859.

Lutteroth k Co., Trieste, merchants.
Cresswell k Sons. Birmingham, ironmasters.
A. Sevastopulo & Sons, London, Mediteranean
trade.
Frommel & Co., Augsburg, bankers.
The Bank of Thuringia.
JU N E .

Stevens Brothers, Liverpool, East India agent6
and merchants.
Robert Brandt k Co., London, merchants.
JU LY .

Caluta Brothers, London, Greek trade.
Carter k Martin, Belfast, flax trade.
James Kennedy k Son, Belfast, flax trade.
Hull Brothers. Belfast, flax trade.
McConnell k Kennedy, Beltast, flax trade.
AUGUST.

A. di Demetrio k Sons, London, Greek merch’ts.
E & A. Prior, London, coal merchants.
SEPTEM BER.

Mazurra k Co., Havana, Spanish trade.
W . II. Duncker, Hamburg, general merchant.
J. B. Kempe, St. Petersburg, tallow trade.
Kovrigni k Co., St. Petersburg, tallow trade.
C C. Ingate k Son, London, Mediterranean
trade.
OCTOBER.

J. k W . Pattison, Melbourne, contractors and
general dealers.
Fairfax k Co., Sydney, merchants.
Alexeieff k Co.,"Moscow, general merchants.
M. Gutschkoff, Moscow, manufacturer.

STATISTICS OF POVERTY,

The New York News, speaking of pawnbroking establishments, says:—
We learn that there are fifty-eight licensed pawnbrokers in the city. There
are, beside, numerous places where a similar business is done by persons under
the description of loan offices. It is somewhat counter to our usual notions on
this subject that, when times are flush, the pawnbrokers do the most business,
turning their capital over frequently, while in hard times, when employment is
difficult, the pledge remains long, or perhaps is left unredeemed.
The following is the result of the business of the pawnbrokers on the eastern
side of the city :—
No.
i ............................
q
3.......................
4............................
5............................
6............................
7.....................
8............................
9............................
10.......................
11...................
13.....................
14..
15............
16..............

Amount.
$250,000
75.000
30.000
40.000
12.000
9,300
75.000
35.000
41,400
11,500
250.000
130.000
36,700
“>5 000
15,000

No.
pledges.
46,Ui>0
75.000
40.000
60.000
26,000
27.000
110,000
55.000
7 o’ooo
11,500
90.000
70.000
624,000
44.000
23.000

No.
17....................
18................... ____
19.................... ____
•20.................... ____
21.................... ____
22................... ____
2 3 .................. . . . .
21.................... ____
____
26.................... ____
27.................... ____
28.................... . . . .

Amount.
10.000
15,000
5,000
23,400
39.000
18.500
10,000
20,000
10,000
12,500
30,000

____$1,237,000

No.
pledges.
12,600
28,600
22,500
10,000
30,403
32,519
40.000
25.000
30.000
40.000
20.000
40,000

1,754,222

On the west side it is assumed that there is about an equal amount of business,




344

Journal o f Banking , Currency, and Finance.

raising the number of pledges to 3,250.000, and the amount loaned to over
$2,000,000 One singular fact is mentioned, that on the average not more than
from 10 to 15 per cent of the pledges remained unredeemed, showing that the
pawnbroker exerts an influence that is rather conducive to the comfort of the
poor than to their ruin. The articles they receive form a fund to provide against
an emergency somewhat like the deposit in a savings bank, and the hope of re­
gaining them unquestionably acts as powerful stimulus to exertion.
DEBT OF RUSSIA.

The following shows the consolidated debt of Russia at this time:—
Foreign debt.......................................... silver roubles
Internal debt................................................................

367,000,000 or £57,343,000
182,000,000 or 23,750,000

Total consolidated debt......................................

519.000.

000 or £81,093,000

102.000.

000 or £15,937,000

F L O A T IN G D E B T .

Treasury bills falling due at fixed dates.. sil. roub.
Bills of the government credit establishments pay­
able on presentation..............................................
Paper money................................................................
Total floating debt..........................................
Grand total......................................................

1,013,000,000 or 158.281.000
735.000. 000 or 114,843,000
1.850,000,000 or 289,061,000
2,369,0( 0,000 or 370,154,000

The above sum does not include the last loan of £12,000,000, contracted by
Messrs. T homson, B onar & Co., in 1859.
BASK PROFITS.

An examination of the quarterly returns of the banks of this city, shows that
the profits of one are 219 per cent above par, two above forty per cent, and one
above thirty-five per cent. Of the whole the following is the general result as
to the fifty-five banks, on the 30th June, 1860 :—
Above
219 per c e n t...............
40
“
................
35
“
... . .........
28
“
................
99
“
................
21
“
19
“
................
16
“
................

1
2
1
2
1
1
1
1

Above
15 per cent................
14
“
................
13
“
................
12
“
................
11
“
••..............
..............
10
“
................
9
“
8
“
................

2
2
2
7
2
8
5
1

Above
7 per ceDt................
6
«
................
5
“
................
................
4
“
3
“
................
2
“
................

5
1
5
5
3
2

The average exceed eleven-and-a half per cent, or §8,055,000 net profits against
a capital of §69,758,000.
JULY DIVIDENDS.

We publish, says the Charleston Mercury, the following statement of July
dividends payable in Charleston, which, in accordance with our well-established
custom, we have obtained from reliable sources :—
South Carolina Railroad Company, 3J per cent........................................
Bank of Charleston, 3J per cent...................................................................
People’s Bank, 6 per c e n t.............................................................................
Charleston Insurance and Trust Company, $5 per share.........................
Charleston Gas Light Company, $1 25 per sh a re....................................
State Bank, 87^ cents per share......................... .........................................
Union Bank, $ 1 7 6 per share.............................................. .....................
Planters’ and Mechanics’ Bank, 87^ ceDts per share .................................
Bank o f South Carolina, $1 50 per share....................................................
Southwestern Railroad Bank, 76 cents per share......................................
South Carolina Insurance Company, $2 50 per share...............................

$203,683
110,628
50,000
50,000
88,286
35,000
35,000
35,000
33,333
26,174
25,000

Total......................................................................................................

$642,104




345

Statistics oj Trade and Commerce.

STATISTICS OF TRADE AND COMMERCE.
WOOL TRADE,

The following from Messrs. B ond & Co.’s wool circular, of Boston, shows the
imports of wool into Boston for the first half of the years—

1856.

1855.
England...........
Buenos Ayre9..
France..............
Turkey.............
Cape Gr. Hope.

Chili and Peru. 1,526,568
East Indies . . .
Sundries...........

3,660

Total............

3,553,018

C L A S S IF IE D

TABLE

OF

AND

1854.
1855..
1856..

W OOLS

THE

1857.

37.517
1,366,748
33,691
1,390,430
183,427
76,600
1,647,082

122,245
440,558
9,767
1,332,537
117,683

27,346
789,614
348,997
1,812,187
371,864
191,660
1,756,961
291,054

1858.

5,592,493

2,523,459

2,199,190
1*2,959
258,962
78,592

64,213
68,405

YEARS

S U C C E E D IN G T H E

THREE

T A R IF F

Common.

9,14e,000
5,775,000
6,656,000

2.685.000
1.207.000
835,000

1,609,000 1857..
264,000 1858..
931,000 1859..

4.677.000

2,804,000 Total. 23,295,000

V A L U E O F O H IO

1840........
1841........
1842........
1843........
1844........
1845........
1846........
1S47____
1848........
1849........

FLEECE

..............
..............

..............
..............

WOOL

IN

OCTOBER

Fine. Medium. Coarse.
86
31
50
45
40
a 35
41
35
30
324
37
30
26
30
26j
334
29
25
38
34
41
37
32

OF

231,599
123,595

YEARS

8,767,977
P R E C E D IN G

1857.

OF

Carpet.

Total. 21,580,000

Fine.

312,812
2,073,123
329,757
990.909
3,197,937
97,009
1,504,145

5,882,804 11,620,461

IM P O R T E D IN T O BOSTON FO R T H E

THREE

I860.

1,647,852
2,797,241
835,905
1,740,344
1,952,457

2,810
4,735,395

18)9.

134,752
1,000,814
19,180
1,272,671
799,310

Carpet.

Common.

Fine.

9,281,000
6,291,000
7,724,000

4.443.000
1.369.000
3.597.000

4,217,000
2,690,000
6,856,000

EACH Y E A R

9.409.000 13,963,000

FROM

1840

TO

1859.

Fine. Medium. Coarse.
1850...............
1851...............
1852...............
1853...............
1854...............
1855...............
1856...............
1857...............
1858...............
1859...............

.........
.........

41
50

.........
.........

56
63

38
45
50
36
42
47
49
46
49

82
40
43
324
34
37
41
36
35

For 1857 we give the price in August, there having been no sales in October*
This shows a falling off this year from last of about 3,000,000 lbs. First, in
common clothing wools from France and England, these having advanced in
Europe while they have barely held their own here. Secondly in coarse carpet
wools from Buenos Ayres, Chili, and Turkey. On the other hand, the importa­
tion of fine vvools from the Cape of Good Hope has increased over fifty per cent.
Another table shows the actual prices obtained in this market for Ohio fleece
wools for 20 years. By this it appears that in October, 1859, fine wools sold
for 13c. per lb. more than the average price of the whole 20 years, and that the
average price for the three years since July, 1857, during which wool costing
20c. and under has been admitted free, was 6c. per pound above the average of
the three preceding years and 12c. above the average of the eleven years of the
tariff of 1846. The proportionate value of medium wool does not vary mate­




346

Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.

rially from this. The third table shows that during the three years of free wool
under 20c. the importation of common clothing wool has been 100 per cent, and
of fine 400 per cent, larger than in the three years immediately preceding, wnile
the increase in the importation of carpet wools has hardly been enough to no­
tice. The second table shows an increase in the value of common wools. This
we think is in a great measure owing to the fact that in consequence of large ac­
cumulations of this grade in France and England, made prior to 1857, and
which is but just now reduced, European manufacturers have been able to sup­
ply our markets with goods made therefrom on better terms than the manufac­
turers of this country, as will be seen by the following extract from the export
returns of the British government for the past three years :—
EXPORTS TO

THE

U N IT E D

STATES.

1857.
Cloths o f all kinds, duffies and kersey m eres.. pcs.
M ixed stuffs, flannels, blankets,and carpets, .yds.

258,356
33,613,358

1858.
129,873
38,442,180

1859.
140,714
55,607,019

The first class of goods are mostly made of fine wool, and the second of low
clothing and carpet wools. Now, allowing that it requires but one pound of
raw wool, in average marketable condition, to make each yard of these goods,
it appears that during the three years, we have imported from Great Britain
alone 127,693,587 lbs. of wool in manufactured goods, while the entire importa­
tion of raw wool for the same time into Boston, of common clothing and carpet
grades, has been 32,700,000 lbs., and into the United States probably not ex­
ceeding 60,000,000 lbs. The advance before noticed in these wools in Europe
already begins to manifest itself in a decline in this class of goods from Great
Britain to this country, while the same returns show a slight increase in exports
of fine woolens hither during the current year. The severity of the past winter
in England was fatal to a large portion of the flock in some sections, creating a
scarcity of low combing wools, and creating a demand for the clip of Canada,
which heretofore has been mostly consumed in this country.
SUGAR AXD COFFEE IX IIAYTI.

In 1776 the unrefined sugar of St. Domingo was estimated at 92,000,000 lbs.,
and the white sugar at 65,000,000 lbs. These two articles, without counting
18,000,000 lbs. syrup, brought in a revenue of from twenty-live to thirty million
francs. This was the highest point of cultivation it reached since the importa­
tion of the sugar cane from Spain, in 1643. There was no change in the amount
produced from ’76 to ’89, when it commenced declining, and continued the down­
ward road until about 1815. In 1806, during the European blockade, a pound
of white sugar was worth its weight in gold. It was then that the French
chemists, stimulated by Napoleon, endeavored to find a substitute. Premiums
were offered to those who should succeed in extracting sugar from native vege­
tables. The discovery of Mungraff, a Berlin chemist, was remembered. He it
was who, in 1745, found that beet root contained sugar similar to that of the
cane, and in as great proportion. The project was revived, and the manufac­
ture of beet root sugar established, which has since regularly progressed. Un­
der the first empire the amount produced reached very nearly 17.000,000 kilo­
grammes, and to-day it exceeds the enormous figure of 130,000,000 kilogrammes.




Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.

347

The amount of sugar annually consumed in Europe is estimated at 568,000,000
kilogrammes.
The great success which attended the beet root cultivation led the chemists to
look round for a good substitute for coffee, which was first brought to the island
in the year 1723. This plant, as is well known, was brought from Mocha, in
Arabia, to Batavia, by the Dutch, and from there it was sent to Amsterdam,
and a few grains distributed among the various sovereigns of Europe. Louis
X IV . conceived the idea of sendiug it to the colonies, and accordingly it was
first sent to Martinique, and afterwards to St. DomiDgo. No substitute has as
yet been discovered which can at all rival its exquisite flavor. Delille used to
say that he imagined he drank a sunbeam in every drop of coffee. Ilayti ex­
ports annually to Europe and America 40,000,000 pounds. The discovery of
a substitute, it may readily be supposed, would be very disastrous to the trade
of Ilayti.
DISTRIBUTION OF THE NAVY.
The principal use o f the navy being to protect the interests o f commerce, it
is a matter o f useful information to record their si’ uation on the 1st of July
throughout the world, as follows
HOME

SQUADRON.

Steamers.
Corvette Brooklyn...........................................................
Fulton................................................................................
Water Witch...................................................................
Mohawk.............................................................................
Crusader...........................................................................
Pocahontas.......................................................................
Sailing vessels.
Frigate Sabine.........................................................
Sloop Saratoga,...............................................................
Sloop Savannah...............................................................
Sloop-of-war St. Louis....................................................
“
Preble . ....................................................
“
Falmouth....................................................
Store-ship Release...........................................................

Tons.

2,000
698
378
460
400
850

Oil! cers
and men.
325

110
110
110
105
150

Guns.

20
5
4
4
3
5

1,726
882
1,726
700
566
708
327

500
260
300
240
200
100
50

50
22
54
20
16
12
1

11,396
21

2,660
3,470

186
820

Flag ship steamer Richmond (going out)...................
Steam gun-boat Iroquois...............................................
“
“
Pawnee (going out)...........................

1,934
1,000
1,289

260
160
208

16
10
8

Total..........................................................................
British forces on this station............................. vessels

4,223
22

620
5,786

34
532

Flag-ship, steamer Lancaster........................................
Steam frigate Saranac...................................................
Steam gun boat W yoming............................................
“
Narragansett......................................
Sailing sloop-of-war St. Mary........................................
“
“
Levant...........................................
“
“
Cyane.............................................

2,600
1,44 6
994
800
958
792
792

500
390
100
100
250
230
230

18
6
5
2
20
20
20

Total..........................................................................
British forces oq this station.......... ............... vessels

5,785
12

1,710
2,845

91
281

Total..................... . ..................................................
British forces on this station................................. ships
M E D IT E R R A N E A N

P A C I F IC




SQUADRON.

SQUADRON.

Statistics of Trade and Commerce.

348

A F R IC A N

SQ U AD RO N .

Steamers.
San Jacinto.......................................................................
M ohican............................................................................
Mystic................................................................................
Sumpter.....................................................
Sailing vessels.
Corvette Constellation, (flag)........................................
“
Portsmouth.......................................................
Marion, sloop, (bound home)........................................

1,446
994
500
400

800
160
90
85

18
10
6
6

1,200
1,022
566

850
300
160

22
22
16

Total..........................................................................
British force on this station................................. vessels

6,128
12

1,445
2,845

95
100

Flag ship, sailing frigate Congress..............................
Brig Bainbridge, (ordered home).................................
Brig Dolphin.....................................................................
Steam gun-boat Seminole, (going ou t).......................
Steamer Pulaski.............................................................

1,700
250
300
801
800

500
80
80
140
50

50
6
4
4
8

Total.........................................................................
British naval forces in the Brazils.................. vessels

3,851
9

850
1,672

72
146

B R A Z IL

SQUADRON.

EAST IN D IE S

SQUADRON.

Flag-ship steamer Hartford..........................................
Side wheel steamer, Saginaw.......................................
Sailing sloop, John Adams............................................
Steam gun-boat, Dacotah..............................................

1,990
400
900
1,035

300
120
180
100

14
4
13
5

T otal.........................................................................
British forces on this station.......................... .vessels

4,375
49

400
5,051

36
386

989
4,580

240
450

23
12

ON S P E C IA L

S E R V IC E .

School ship, corvette Plymouth....................................
Steam frigate, Niagara...................................................

The following table will give a good idea of the gradual increase and decrease
in our naval forces abroad :—
SQUADRONS.
HOME.

I86 0.........
1859.........
1857.........

EAST INDIA.

Officers
Vessels. and men. Guns.
186
2,660
6
125
1,315
3
1,000
100

.......
.........

1860____
1859. . . ..............
1857____ ..............

M E D IT E R R A N E A N .

A F R IC A N .

1860......... .......
1859..........
1857......... .........

7
3

1,415
800
370

95
86
82

1860____
1859____ ..............
1857. . . ..............

1,710
1,621
1,200

98
122
100

1860____ ..............
1859____ ..............
1 8 5 7 ... ..............

64
2
3

810
980

62
43

850
720
800

72
60
60

B R A Z IL .

P A C IF IC .

1860.........
1859.........
1857.........

Officers
Vessels. and men. Guns.
86
430
69
4
1,260
30
3
900

5
3
3

CANADA TRADE.
The following is a comparative statement of the value of imports into Canada,
and the duties collected thereon, during the respective half years ending on the
30th June, 1859 and 1860 :—
Province of Canada, 1859......................................
“
“
1860.......................................
Excess of 1859 over 1860




V a lu e .

D u ty .

$17,729,533
14,343,271

$2,347,845
2,123,904

$3,389,262

$223,941

Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.

349

CUBA AND PORTO RICO.

The Caban Messenger remarks:—In regard to oar own island, we will here
give the official reports of the total revenues during the first four months of the
present year, compared with the result obtained during the same period of 1859,
which is as follows :—
C U ST O M -H O U SE R E V E N U E S ---- ON IM P O R T S

AND

EXPORTS.

1859.

M o n th .

January......................................
February...................................
March........................................
April..........................................

$803,939
1,010,002
1,156,009
1,061,933

1860.
93f
78
94
931

$861,387
1,068,784
1,263,028
1,169,844

Total.................................
$4,031,586 59
Revenue of 18 59...............................

$4,363,635 351
4,031,586 59

Difference in favor of 1860...............................
LAND

311
70
84
491

$332,048 761

REVENU ES.

January.....................................
February...................................
March........................................
A pril................................. . . . .

$590,543
508,161
763,772
665,075

181
121
431
81

$557,161
481,920
679,753
501,280

351
51
11
741

Total...................................
$2,527,552 55
Revenue o f 18 59...............................

$2,220,115 711
2,527,552 65

Difference against 1860......................................

$307,436 831

TOTAL

REVEN U ES.

January.....................................
February........... ......................
March..........................................
April............................................

$1,394,183
1,518,163
1,919,782
1,727,009

12
90J
371
741

$1,418,548
1,550,705
1,943.371
1,671,125

Total ....................................
$6,559,139 14
Revenue of 1859...............................

661
21
95
231

$6,583,751 06
6,559,913 14

Difference in favor of 1860..............

$24,611 92

A s to Puerto B ico , the result is not as favorable, but it must be remembered
that the prosperity and business o f that island was unprecedented in 1858, when
the total amount o f the imports and exports reached the enormous sum o f
$12,815,519.

The comparative tables o f 1858 and 1859 are as follows :—

Y cars.

Im p o r ts .

E x p o r ts .

1858......................................................
1859.......................................................

$7,456,363
6,764,673

$5,387,155
4,289,498

Decrease in 1859.......................

$691,690

$1,067,657

In consequence of this, the revenues of the island were in 1859 about $200,000
less than in 1858. This difference can be easily understood when we are re­
minded of the fact that the number of vessels arriving and leaving the different
ports of that island in 1859, was much smaller than the year previous, as is shown
by the following table :—
Years.

1858 ............................................................................
1859 ............................................................................
Difference against 1859.




Arrivals.

1,494
1,378
107

Departures.

1,370
1,277
93

Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.

350

The commerce and productions of both islands are rapidly increasing ; and,
as the government is disposed to encourage all sources of public wealth, it is
reasonable to expect that the revenues will increase in the same proportion as
the commercial and agricultural interests become more extensive.
SILK.

The Japanese say they can supply silk to rival the Chinese. In the present
progress of affairs new supplies may soon be wanted.
Raw silk, free of duty, was imported in the fiscal year 1858-9, to the value
of $1,330,890, of which $701,182 came direct from China, and $630,000 worth
through England and France. What share of this last was Italian cannot be
ascertained. Raw silk, paying duty, was imported to the value of $288,267, of
which but $4,733 came directly from China. The import of the previous fiscal
year was nearly the same, a larger proportion coming direct from China ; but,
in previous years, the quantity was less by about half a million dollars.
In
In
In
In

1855-6 the value of raw silk imported............................................
1856-7
“
“
..............................................
1857-8
“
“
“
..............................................
1858-9
“
“
“
..............................................

1991,234
953,734
1,540,195
1,619,157

The following is a technical statement of qualities of Chinese raw silk im
ported and consumed in the United States for the past two calendar years :—
/------Imports.------ 1

r—Consumption.-^

1858.

1859.

1858.

1859.

Tsatless........................................................bales
Tayeuams.............................................................
Canton.................................................................
Thrown, etc..........................................................

263
1,846
2,279
1,387

563
2,400
3,268
546

298
2,070
2,320
1,392

530
2,264
2,216
512

Total.............................................................

5,675

6,777

5,990

5,522

The export trade to China in the fiscal year 1858-9, was largely of cottons,
nearly $3,000,000 worth of cotton goods, in every form, being sent out, of which
$2,500,000 was plain brown cottons.
EXPORT

OF

D O M E S T IC

C O TTO N S TO

1857-8.

1858-9.

$955,768
6,435
131,815

$1,174,928
8,437
631,149

$2,662,937
23,758
143,380

$1,094,018

$1,814,514

$2,830,025

Brown and white cottons..
Cotton duck...........................
Printed and colored cottons,
Total.....................................................

C H IN A .

1856-7.

The following is the account of the export of domestic cottons to China and
the East Indies for five calendar years, as made up by the commercial journals :
New York.

1 8 5 5 ..pkgs
1856
.
1857 ...........

11,929
17,674
12,676

Boston.*

6,110
17,067
15,341

Total.

N ew York.

18,039 1858 ...........
34,741 1859 ...........
28,017

43,419
53,662

Boston.

23,664
16,566

Total.

64,083
70,228

The average value of these is somewhat above $55 the package, making the
export value nearly $400,000.
TOTAL VA LU E

185618571858-

OF E X P O R T S

7...................................................
8....................................................
9...................................................

TO

C H IN A

FOR

$2,019,900
3,007,748
4,233,016

THREE

TEARS.

$2,375,230
2,689,603
2,894,183

$4,395,130
5,679,351
7,127,199

* The exportation from Boston is to the East Indies, including China, while at New York the
item covers only the shipments direct to China.




Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.

351

MOUTHS OF THE MISSISSIPPI,

Captain H u m p h r e y s , of the War Department at Washington, in a paper
upon the ■* Dars of the Mississippi,” says, in regard to what is now doing at the
Mouth of the Mississippi, uuder the auspices of the department:—In the latter
part of 1858 those parties (C raig & R ig hter ) refused to comply further with
their contracts to maintain the depth of eighteen feet in the channels for a period
of four-and-a-half years, and, by their failure, the winter of 1858-9 passed with­
out any work being done upon the bars. The War Department was obliged to
enter into a new contract with other contractors for deepening the Southwest
Pass ; but these likewise failed to carry out their contract. The War Depart­
ment, in accordance with law, opened the work to competition as to the plans
and methods to be used, as well as to cost, merely requiring that a certain depth
should be obtained and maintained. The contractors were at liberty to use any
plan, any process, any means that they chose to stir up the bottom. They were
at liberty to use Mr. E llkt ’s plau if they thought fit, and probably would have
done so had they considered it the most economical and effectual plan. Having,however, failed to secure, in that way, a continuation of the work, the depart­
ment was forced to resort to a contract for the use of the dredges and appliances,
and its officers are now, for the first time since 1839, with a remnant ($70,000)
of the appropriation of 1856, conducting the operation of deepening the chan­
nels. The plan used is that of stirring up the bottom of the channel during the
river flood, and leaving the current of the river to carry it seaward to deep water.
It is one that has been successfully tried.
It may be remarked, that the requirement of the appropriation act of 1856,
that the work must be done by contract, has been one source of the defect of
continuity in the operation, and the failure to maintain the increased depth after
it was attained ; lor the failure of contractors to continue the deepening could
only be ascertained after the shoaling, arising from neglect, had occurred. Then
new contracts had to be entered iuto, and thus additional time was lost during
the season lor successful dredging and of commercial activity. But no plan
whatever will prove of any practical benefit to navigation unless a permanent
fund be provided, untrammeled by restrictions as to the mode of expenditure,
from which a sufficient sum annually can be relied upon for the continuous prose­
cution of the work after the channel has once been opened. This can be effected
by dredging with harrows or scrapers ; that is, tearing up the bottom of the
channel, and leaving the current of the river to carry off the loosened material,
other and more powerful means being applied to the mud lumps. This plan is
iu accordance with the law under which the bar is formed, as demonstrated by
experiments, in all conditions of the river, made by my direction under the au­
thority of the Topographical Bureau.
TOBACCO— ITS GROWTH AND CONSUMPTION.

The last annual report on foreign commerce, from the State Department, gives
very full and explicit information on the subject of the growth, manufacture,
aud consumption of tobacco in foreign countries, where we have also a market
for our own tobacco. The low prices of the wine crop for some years, aud also
the failures of the crop, induced many large owners of vinyards iD Germany to
convert, at great expense, their vinyards into tobacco fields—tobacco then




Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.

352

bearing a good price. But the last two or three years have proved excellent
wine years, and the prices of tobacco have been considerably reduced. So the
tobacco fields are being turned back into vinyards.
German tobacco has been bought by American speculators and exported to
the United States, where it is manufactured into cigars and re-exported to Eu­
rope as American tobacco. The American traders found after a while that they
were not buying even German tobacco, but beet and turnip leaves, with which
it is extensively adulterated. German cigars, made partly of beet and turnip
leaves, are also exported into the United States and to other countries. Belgi­
um and Holland and the Zollverein are the chief consumers of the beet and tur­
nip leaf tobacco, and the article stands in the way of the consumption of the
pure American tobacco. The quantity of German tobacco now on hand, in­
cluding the beet and turnip leaf crops, is represented as immense. It is held
back tor higher prices. One single house has five hundred quintals of leaves on
hand, waiting for a rise in the leaf market.
The American tobacco which is manufactured into snuff is mixed with five
per cent of German tobacco, in consequence of which all snuff manufactured at
Bingen, etc., is subject to a transit duty when exported to Northern Germany.
Thus the American tobacco, which has already paid duty, pays duty a second
time. “ This,” writes one of our consuls, “ is a splendid specimen of dis-united
Germany.” The United States will be a perfect paradise for custom-house offi­
cials under a like system.
In this report there are fifty consular dispatches respecting the tobacco trade
of the United States in various parts of the world. The tariffs upon tobacco,
and tire monopoly regulations concerning it, and laws aSecting its price to the
consumer, are given in this report with much detail.
BRITISH EXCHANGE OF COTTON GOODS FOR COTTON,

The Colton Supply journal gives the following statement of the exchanges of
cotton goods by England in 1859, for raw cotton, with its two great sources of
cotton supply, India and the United States :—
EXCHANGE WITH INDIA IN

1859.

Export of cotton goods to India......................................................lbs.
Import o f raw cotton from India.........................................................

193,603,270
192,380,880

Excess of export..............................................................................

1,272,390

1859.
Export of cotton goods, 1859...............................................................
Import o f raw cotton, 1859...................................................................

45,029,411
961,707,264

Excess of imports...........................................................................

916,677,853

EXCHANGE WITH THE UNITED STATES IN

It appears that India and China together took last year over two-fifths of all
the British exports of cotton manufactures. The statements are thus given :—
BRITISH EXPORTS OK COTTON GOODS IN 1859.
To India.......................................................................................... yards
China, etc............................................................................................

968,016,350
194,335,622

Total to India and China...............................................................
To all the rest of the world...........................................................

1,162,351,983
1,401,093,410




Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.

358

ANNUAL COFFEE CIRCULAR,
Messrs. L onsdale, of New Orleans, give the following figures in their annual
circular :—
EXPORTS OF COFFEE TO THE UNITED STATES FROM RIO DE JANEIRO, FROM MAT
MAT 1, 1860.

New Orleans................... bags
New York................................
Baltimore.................................
Philadelphia............................

272,979 Other United States ports. . .
256,769
Total to U. S. iu 1859-60.
171,935
88,518
“
“
1858-59.
“
“
1857-58.

1, 1859,

TO

155,212
945,413
1,252,948
966,029

TOTAL EXPORTS FROM RIO TO ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD.

From 1st of May, 1859, to 1st of May, 1860..........................................
“
“
1858
“
1859...........................................
“
“
1857
“
1858...........................................
Estimated stock o f coffee on hand at Rio on 1st of May, 1860..........
Stock of Rio coffee on hand at all the importing ports of the United
States is estimated at, this day..............................................................
Same period last year..................................................................................
Decrease of stock this year in United States.
Stock on hand in United States July 1, 1859........
Received in United States in 1859 and 1860.........

1,959,927
1,875,284
1,907,562
60,000
43,000
103,800
60,800
103,800
945,000

Total.
Stock on hand in United States July 1, 1860.

1,048,800
43,000

Sales for consumption in the United States in 1859-60.......................
“
“
“
“
1858-59........................
“
“
“
“
1857-58........................
Decrease of sales for consumption this year, compared with 1857-58
“
“
“
“
“
1858-59

1,005,800
1.209.000
1.116.000
110,200
203,200

EXPORTS FROM NEW ORLEANS,
The Crescent of Wednesday says :—The value of exports of produce from
this port for the quarter ending on the 31st of March last, are larger than any
on record. The increase for the three-quarters of the fiscal year of 1859-60 is
nearly $10,000,000 over the three-quarters of 1858-59 :—
EXPORTS FOR THE QUARTERS ENDING

Sept. 30, 1858.................
Dec. 31,1858.................
Mch. 81, 1859.................
Total.........................

$11,826,595 1S ept 30, 1859.........
28,822,809 Dec. 31, 1859.........
31,057,053 ! Mch. 31, 1860.........

$9,064,209
32,351,775
40,933,328

Total.................

$82,349,307

$72,706,458

EXPORTS OF CHARLESTON, S. C., QUARTER TO JUNE 30, 1SG0.
Quantities.
Bales.
Value.
Wood.....................................
1,720,692
$25,430
Rosin and turpentine...........
15,935
36,882
Spirits...................................
80,000
41,513
Cotton, Sea Island...............
2,928,554 )
89,667
4,638,783
“
upland......................
85,208,489 f
Rice..................
9,464 /
«
195,780
7^340 [
Total exports............
“ imports...........
VOL. X L III. ----N O . I I I .




$4,960,360
830,723

23

354

Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.
THE COTTON TRADE,

The Cotton Supply Reporter, an English periodical, gives in its last issue the
following statement of the exchanges of cotton goods by England, in 1855, for
raw cotton, with its two great sources of cotton supply, India and the United
States. To India the export was greater than the import in actual weight:—
Export of cotton goods to India, 1859..............................................lbs.
Import of raw cotton, 1859.......................................................................

193,603,210
192,330,880

Excess of exports................................................................................

1,272,390

EXCHANGE WITH TEE UNITED STATES.

Export of cotton goods, 1859...............................................................lbs.
Import o f raw cotton, 1859........................................................................

45,029,411
961,707,264

Excess of imports................................................................................

916,677,853

The journal from which this statement is taken very justly argues that it is
better for England to cultivate the Asiatic market for its cotton goods, instead
of the American, in which argument we heartily concur. Some further state­
ments of the vastness of the Asiatic market for manufactures are given in the
same connection, as follows
Export of cotton goods to India and China, 1869.................. yards
Export o f cotton goods to all the rest of the world, 1859__ . . . .

1,162,351,982
1,401,093,410

India and China together thus take almost as much as all the rest of the world
of English manufactures of cotton. Of this vast stock to Asia, India takes
968,016,350 yards, leaving for China but 194,340,000 yards. It is likely that
our own export to China is quite equal to this, if not in excess. American
drills are far superior, in Chinese estimation, to any British cloths of tjhe same
description, and the market for them is now very rapidly increasing.
STOCK OF WHEAT.

The Buffalo Commercial Advertiser gives the following estimate of the stock
of wheat July 12. There are other estimates which make the quantity nearer
3,000,000 bushels. We put this on record, however, as a matter of interest at
this time :—
Stock of wheat afloat on New York canals, destined for tide­
water, not including shipments from interior, July 11 .bush.
Stock of wheat afloat on lakes, destined for Buffalo and Oswe­
go, July 1 1 . . - .............................................................................
Stock in store in Buffalo, June 2 3 ................................................
Add receipts June 23 to July 14...................................................
Total..........................................................................................
Deduct export by canal from June 23 to July 14.....................
Stock in store at Oswego, July 11,1860...................................
Stock in store at Chicago, July 12,1860...................................
Stock in store at Milwaukee, July 12,1860................................
Estimated stock in store in New York, July 14 ........................
“
“
Albany and Troy, July 12...........................
“
“
Kenosha, Racine, St. Joseph, Waukegan,
Toledo, and Detroit............................'........................................
Total stock of wheat as above............................................




472,644
271,982
243,289
619,709
860,998
649,302
----------------211,696
188,586
64,922
160,000
575,000
75,000
200,000
2,219,830

Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.

855

AFRICAN LABORERS.

The correspondence of the Secretary of State with the foreign consuls con­
tains the following in relation to the French arrangements for African laborers,
from C harles K im b all , Esq., consul at Point a Pitre, Gaspe :—
Having received your correspondence of 17th June last, enclosing copy of a
letter from W m. M organ , Esq., United States Consul at Marseilles, concerning
the emigration of negroes to the French colonies from the coast of Africa, I
have the honor to inform you that I find, according to the rules of the govern­
ment, it is impossible for the authorities here to answer any communications of
importance on the subject until my letter should be sent to the minister in
France. Therefore the information I shall give is, in my opinion, as near the
position of affairs as can be ascertained.
The house of R egis , of Marseilles, has a contract with the imperial govern­
ment of France simply to procure and transport to the islands of Guadaloupeand
Martinique a certain number of negroes. The procuring of the negroes is done
under the surveillance of ah officer of the French marine service, with the aid of
an interpreter. The negroes are made to understand the articles of agreement
with the French government; if they wish to accept those conditions, then M.
R egis , if said negroes are held as prisoners of war by the African chiefs, pay
for each from 30 to 50 francs; or. if the negroes are at liberty, he pays them
the said sum. From there the negro is taken to the house of R egis and fed at
his expense, and according to the rations allowed by the French government,
until the ship may be ready to sail
The vessel destined for the transportation of the emigrants must first be sur­
veyed in France by the competent authorities, and a certificate given to the
house of R egis as to the capacity of said vessel: also the amount of wood to
be put on board for the voyage. The vessel once on the coast of Africa, the
emigrants are placed on board under the certificate received from France,
and under the direction of an officer of the French marine. On the voyage to
the Island the vessel is under the surveillance of an officer and doctor, and an
interpreter appointed by the government. Arriving here the negroes are trans­
ferred to the commissioners of emigration likewise appointed from France.
These officers are obliged to report directly to France, on the arrival of the
ship here, the state of health, etc., of the emigrants. All being in good health,
the commissioners commence to distribute the negroes to the planters, with
reference to as equal a distribution as possible.
When on the plantation, they are under the same laws as the coolies, except
the negroes are engaged for ten years and the coolies for five years. A t the end
of their engagement they have the right to demand of the French government
to be sent to Africa. On the plantations the negroes are to be paid regularly
every Sunday morning for their week's work, at from 12 to 20 francs per day,
according to age and sex. Food is provided by the planter according to the
code of Napoleon; also two suites of clothes a year. Planters have no right
to work the emigrants at night or Sundays without the emigrants themselves
agree to the same, and all such extra work must be paid for as soon a3 done.
To prevent all the abuses on the plantations one of the above-mentioned com­
missioners visits, at least twice a month, each plantation. Before the courts of
justice the emigrant has his rights as well as any other citizen. As we have
had but two convoys, about 650 each, which, I believe, are all satisfied, as also
the planters. The crops of the island are fast increasing with the emigration.
CANADIAN RECIPROCITY.

The Board of Trade of Chicago, at a special meeting held on the 18th, report
favorably in regard to the effects of the reciprocity treaty. They give the fol­
lowing facts a3 reasons for the maintenance of the treaty :—Free goods from Canada in 1857.................................
“
“
1858................................




Imports.

Exports.

$ 2 2 :.’,229
83,900

$1,788,968
1,091,200

356

Nautical Intelligence.

NAUTICAL INTELLIGENCE.
THE HARBOR OF NEW YORK.

Some time ago, Mr. C harles H . H asw e ll , marine engineer, proceeded to
make observations on the deposits in the harbor ; he did not propose to consider
the encroachment upon the boundaries thereof, by the extension of bulkheads and
piers, and the injurious effects therefrom, for the two-fold fact that the necessity
of restraining these encroachments had become so manifest to the public at that
particular time that not only had the attention of our Legislature been called to
the subject, but it was then receiving the consideration of a committe appointed
for the purpose of investigating and reporting thereon ; and secondly, that the
operation of such encroachment was to investigate the reduction of the tidal
volume of the harbor. Accordingly, in a communication to the Board of Under­
writers of New York, he thus lucidly and elaborately reports :—“ As a prelude
to my task, I assumed it to be indisputable that the bar at Sandy Hook was, in
its general features, like the bars of all tidal rivers, and that it presented a series
of irregular obstructions stretching across the entrance into the lower bay, with
a varying and less depth of water upon it than in the channels within it. The
causes admitted to produce this general result are numerous, but the following
apply, in my opinion, peculiarly to the locality under consideration :—
“ 1st. The arrest of the current of the last of the ebb tide from the bay, where
it meets the first of the sea flood when it surrenders the detritus it holds in suspensi on.
“ 2d. The difference of the flood and ebb currents in their directions.
“ 3d. The action of ground swells from the sea, which, if heavy and flowing
from the southward and eastward, deposit sand and gravel upon the bar, and at
all times, when aided by the current of the flood, within the entrance thereof.
“ 4th. The'occasional diminution of the back water of the bays and rivers
leading thereto from drouth, and the reduction of the tidal volume by the pre­
sence of ice upon flats and the shores.
“ 5th. A reduction of the tidal area by the constant accretion of detritus upon
the shores.
“ The first three positions are similar, in a great degree, to those entertained
by E. K . C a l y e r , B. N .; the fifth one, by Sir H enry de l a B eche .
“ In the prosecution of my observations, I selected sixteen locations which I
thought best suited to furnish me with the elements desired, and providing my­
self with an equal number of bottles of like capacity, (30 cubic inches,) I re­
peatedly filled one of them with water from each of these localities at half-tide,
(both ebb and flow,) both in dry and wet weather and at different seasons of the
year ; such water was then filtered, and the residuum weighed and noted in grains,
the average results of which, deduced from the operations of five years, furnish
the following:—
WEIGHT, IN GRAINS, OF DEPOSITS IN 30 CUBIC INCHES OF WATER TAKEN FROM
UNDERMENTIONED LOCALITIES.

Sandy H ook...............
Narrows......................
Bobbins’ B e e f ...........
Ellis’ Island................
Battery.......................
Liberty-street.............
Canal street...............
Thirtieth-street, west




.109 Manhattanville................
.265 Harlem B rid g e...............
. 367 Hell Gate.........................
.811 Thirtieth street, east. . . . ,
1.687 TweDty-third-street, east .
6.927 Grand-street..................... .
8.531 Wall-street.......................
.937 Broad-street.......................

THE

.578
1 031
1.093
1.265
2.968
4.000
5.187
6.375
42.131

Nautical Intelligence.

357

“ The mean weight of deposits is thus found to be 2.633 grains in every 30
cubic inches of water examined ; (42.131 divided by 16 equal to 2 633.) Ex­
cluding therefrom all the city localities, except one upon each side of it, for the
purpose of arriving at a mean of the average presence of silt in the water of our
harbor above the Narrows, the following result is obtained:—
Narrows......................................
Robbins’ Reef,.............................
Ellis’ Island................................
Battery ......................................

.265 Manhattanville............................
.367 Harlem Bridge. . ........................
.811 Grand-street................................
1.687 Thirtieth-street, w e s t ...............

.578
1.031
4.000
.937
9.676

“ From which it appears that the average annual flow of silt in the rivers
bordering this city reaches the enormous rate of 1.209 grains in every 30 cubic
inches of water (9.676 divided by 8 equal to 1.209 ;) and assuming the quantity
of the former to be equal to 125 pounds per cubic foot, a cubic inch of it will
weigh .072 pound. The volume of this deposit compared with water, is, there­
fore, as .1 to 12,565.
“ Confining my observations to the city of New York alone, and taking the
deposits shown in the water from the several localities around the city, the mean
amount of silt in every 30 cubic inches of water is as follows
Battery........................................
Liberty-street............................
Canal-street................................
Thirtieth-street, e a s t ...............
Twenty-third-street,e a s t ..........

1.687 Grand-street................................
6.937 Wall-street..................................
8.531 Broad-street ..............................
1.265 Thirtieth-street, w e s t ...............
2.968

4.000
5.187
6.375
. 937
37.887

“ The average of these deposits is 37.887 divided by 9 equal to 4.209; and
hence, by the elements before given, it appears that the volume of the deposit
from the water in the slips of this city between Thirtieth-street (east aud west)
and the Battery, when compared with that of the water (at half-tide,) is as 1 to
3,610. Startling as these results appear, it must be borne in mind that they do
not give a full exhibition of the facts of the case, for the observations made were
necessarily confined to the presence of silt, and embraced only that portion which
was retained in suspension by the flow of currents; whilst the deposit of detritus
from the flow of gravel, sand, &c., could not be arrived at, unless by a different
system of observation, aud it is, consequently, not embraced in the above re­
sults.”
SHIPS BUILBING ON THE LAKES.

The building of vessels on the lakes for Eastern account has come to be a
regular business ; one has been recently launched at Cleveland for Boston account.
She is 95 feet keel, 26 feet beam, and 8| feet hold, and registers about 200 tons.
She costs about $10,000, and is owned one-half by her commander, Captain
L ewis , of Boston, and one-half in Albany. She is christened the “ Lewis Spannier,” after L ewis S pannier . of Albany, who presents her with a magnificent
suit of colors. Experienced builders speak in the highest possible terms of the
model and finish of this vessel, and her captain is delighted.
The advantage to Boston merchants of building their vessels here may be under­
stood from the fact that ship plank which is there worth $60 per thousand, can
be had here, of better quality, for $18 to $20 ; again, spars which cost $40 here,
cannot be had there for less than $100. Then, too, the vessel may make $1,000
in freight of lumber on her voyage. She will be launched in full rig and with
anchors, chains, &c., complete. She will load at Sandusky with lumber for
Boston.




Nautical Intelligence.

358

LAKE TIDES.

The elevation of Lake Huron is 579 feet 7 inches, and that of Lake Superior
623 feet 7 inches above the level of the Atlantic Ocean. But that there are
fluctuations in the water-level of the lakes is well established. These changes
are of three kinds. First. A gradual rise and fall, spreading over a series of
years. Secondly. The temporary changes due to storms and prevailing winds;
and thirdly, sudden and temporary changes, attributed by some to subaqueous
action, by others to changes in the pressure of the atmosphere, and various other
causes. In some parts of the lakes a tide is perceptible, (as at Green Bay, Wis­
consin,) in other parts the changes are said to be periodical and quite uniform.
It is to be hoped that simultaneous observations, for a series of years, extending
over the whole lake region, and supported by liberal appropriations, will ulti­
mately throw more light upon this problem of high scientific interest, than the
best topographical engineers now possess. A correct survey and delineation of
the great inland seas of our country is demanded by the interests of commerce
add navigation, and, in case of a war with our neighbors, would be of inesti­
mable value.
TONNAGE ON THE LAKES.

The following synopsis will exhibit the vessels in commission on the lakes for
the years 1858 and 1859, and will give some idea of the extent of the trade on
these waters:—
,- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 8 5 8 .- - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Number. Tonnage.

Steamers..........................
Propellers.......................
Barks................................
B rig s ................................
Schooners and sloops.. .

ISO
182
57
97
974

T o t a l.......................

1,442

72,108
65,271
22,817
27,121
200,323

Value.

,- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 8 5 9 .- - - - - - - - - - - - - - >
Number. Tonnage.

$3,958,800
3,537,900
707,500
628,900
6,383,900

387,740 $15,212,000

131
197
59
99
1,001
1,487

Value.

66,834 $'2,846,137
66,793 2,844,250
22,604
542,000
27,808
4 94,200
192,518 4,810,150
376,657 $11,536,737

It is believed that the tonnage and value of this year will exceed that of 1858.
DISASTERS ON THE LAKES,

Lake Michigan has been more free from wrecks than Lake Brie. Interesting
data are furnished by the statements of annual losses by marine disasters on the
lakes. The last four years exhibit the following figures :—
Years.
1 8 5 6 ... .........................
1 8 5 7 ..,

Losses.

T ears.

$8,126,744 11858..............................

Losses.

$732,232
1,U20,100

The losses by screw propellers during ten years of lake business, show first an
increase of the use of this kind of vessel, and second, the decrease in disasters as
navigation has improved, and knowledge of managing propellers has advanced.
THE NEW ROUTE BETWEEN THE WEST AND ENGLAND.

New York has a new competitor for Western trade. The immense harvests
of the West must find an outlet, and acting upon the apparent advantages to be
derived from her trade, a line of British steamships has already been established
between Portland and Liverpool. The Grand Trunk Bailway will carry a large
portion of the produce to these steamers, freighting them at once, a n d giving the
farmers an advantage in speedy returns over New York port, where vessels are
now scarce.




Nautical Intelligence.

359

NEW LIGHTS AT Cl VITA VECCHIA AND ANCONA.

Official information has been received at this office, from the Ministry of Com­
merce and Public Works of his Holiness tl.‘ v Pope, that two new lighthouses
have recently been put in operation within the dominions of the Church—one at
Civita Yecchia, and the other at Ancona. The figure and height of the light­
houses are not given, but they are both illuminated with the Fresnel apparatus,
and are revolving white lights, the former eclipsed once in 40 seconds, and the
latter once in 45 seconds. By order,
R. SEM M E9, Secretary.
W ash in gton , July 26,1860.

____________________________

MOJVTAUK POINT LIGHTHOUSE, LONG ISLAND, N. Y.

The repairs on the Montauk Point Lighthouse will be completed, the 1st order
Fresnel lens restored to its place, and relighted at sunset on the 10th of October,
I860. The interval between the flashes will be the same as before, (2 minutes,)
but about 25 per cent more of light will be visible than formerly. A new
keepers’ dwelling, which will be painted brown, has been built on the hill adjoin­
ing the tower. The other land marks are the same as before. By order of the
Lighthouse Board,
W M . F. SM ITH , Secretary.
W ashington , July 31, 1860.

____________________________

LIGHTHOUSE ON MERRILL SHELL BANK, COAST OF MISSISSIPPI,
INSTEAD OF THE LIGIIT-YESSEL.

Official information has been received at this office from Lieut. W. H. S t e v e n s ,
Corps of Engineers, that a lighthouse on a screw-pile foundation has been erec­
ted on the shoal, and to mark the position heretofore occupied by the light-ves­
sel at Merrill’s Shell Bank. The foundation is square in plan, and is composed
of iron screw-piles ; is surmounted by a wooden superstructure, with a lantern
above its center. The height of the focal plane is about 45 feet above mean sea
level. The illuminating apparatus is a lens of the fourth order of the system of
Fresnel, showing a fixed light of the natural color, which in ordinary states of
the weather, should be visible from the deck of a vessel (ten feet above the water)
about eleven nautical miles. The lighthouse will be lighted up for the first time
at sundown on the 10th of August next, and will be kept burning during that
and every night thereafter until further orders. On the same day, (August 10,)
the Merrill Shell Bank light-vessel will be removed from her station, and will not
be replaced. By order of the Lighthouse Board,
W ashington , July 9, 1860.

W M . F. SM ITH, Engineer, Secretary.
____________________________

SINGLE REVOLVING LIGHT IN THE GULL STREAM, ENGLAND.
GULL STREAM LIGHTHOUSE.

The Corporation of the Trinity-house of London has given notice, that on and
after the night of the 30th of June, the character of the lights in the Cull
Stream light-vessel will be altered, and a single quick revolving white light, show­
ing a flash every twenty seconds, will be substituted for the two horizontal fixed
lights at present exhibited. A single ball will be shown at the masthead by day.
NORTH FORELAND LIGHT.

Also, that on and after the 4th day of June, in order to enable vessels at night
to keep to the eastward of Margate Sand, a red strip of light would be exhibi­
ted from the lantern of the North Foreland lighthouse, in a direction from N.
by W. | W. to N. i E., to show from the Tongue light-vessel to one cable’s
length east of Margate Sand. By order,
R. SEMME9, Secretary.
W ashin gton , July 21, 1860.




Postal Department.

360

POSTAL DEPARTMENT.
LOCAL DISPATCH POSTS SUPPRESSED.
P ost - o ffice D e pa rtm e n t , A ppo in tm e n t -office , July 14, 1860.
S i r :— I

am directed by the Postmaster-General to transmit to you the en­
closed copy of an order, made this day, declaring the streets in New York city
post routes, and to request you to have the same published for the information
of all concerned.
As the act of 15th June, 1860, limits the carriers’ fee for the delivery of let­
ters to one cent, it becomes necessary, independently of other considerations, for
the department, in order to sustain the carrier system, to take charge of the
whole business of letter carrying in New York. Therefore, in promulgating the
order of the Postmaster-General, you will at the same time give notice of his de­
termination rigidly to enforce the laws against any and all private carriers or
expresses in the city, from and after the 1st proximo. Very respectfully, your
obedient servant.
(Signed)
IIORATIO K IN G .
Hon. J ohn A . H ix, Postmaster, N ew York.
NOTICE TO NEW YORK LETTER CARRIERS.
P ost - office D epartm ent , July 14,1860.

Agreeably to the authority conferred by the tenth section of the act of Con­
gress of 3d March, 1851, entitled “ An act to reduce and modify the rates of
postage in the United States and for other purposes,” it is hereby ordered that
all the avenues, streets, lanes, alleys, roads, and highways in all that part of the
city of New York lying south of and below 55th (Fifty-fifth) street, including
that street, be and the same are hereby established as post roads. This order to
take effect 1st August, 1860.
(Signed)
J. H OLT, Postmaster-General.

THE NEWSPAPER WINDOW AT THE LONDON POST-OFFICE.

It was a quarter before six when they crossed the Hall—six being the latest
hour at which newspapers can be posted without fee.
It was then just drizzling newspapers. The great window of that department
being thrown open, the first black fringe of a thunder-cloud ol newspapers im­
pending over the Post-office was discharging itself fitfully—now in large drops,
now in little ; now in sudden plumps, now stopping altogether. By degrees it
began to rain hard ; by fast degrees the storm came on harder and harder, until
it blew, rained, hailed, snowed, newspapers. A fountain of newspapers played
in at the window. Water spouts of newspapers broke from enormous sacks, and
engulphed the men inside. A prodigious main of newspapers, at the Newspaper
River Head, seemed to be turned on, threatening destruction to the miserable
Post-office.
The Post-office was so full already, that the window foamed at the month
with newspapers. Newspapers flew out like froth, and were tumbled in again
by the bystanders. All the boys in London seemed to have gone mad, and to be
besieging the Post-office with newspapers. Now and then there was a girl; now
a woman ; now and then a weak old man ; but as the minute hand of the clock
crept near six, such a torrent of newspapers came tumbling in together pellmell, head over heels, one above another, that the giddy head looking on chiefly
wondered why the boys, springing over one another’s heads and flying the garter
into the Post office with the enthusiasm of the corps of acrobats at M. F r a n c o n i ’ s , didn’t post themselves nightly along with the newspapers, and get de­
livered ail over the world.
Suddenly it struck six. Shut, Sesame! Perfectly still weather. Nobody
there. No token of the late storm—not a soul, too late!




Journal o f Insurance.

361

But what a chaos within ! Men up to their knees in newspapers on great plat­
forms ; men gardening among newspapers with rakes ; men digging and delving
among newspapers as if a new description of rock had been blasted into those
fragments ; men going up and down a gigantic trap—an ascending and descend­
ing-room worked by a steam engine— still taking with them nothing but news­
papers. All the history of the time, all the chronicled births, deaths, and marri­
ages, all the crimes, all the accidents, all the vanities, all the changes, all the re­
alities, all the civilized earth, heaped up, parcelled out, carried about, knocked
down, cut, shuffled, dealt, played up again, and passed from hand to hand, in an
apparently interminable and hopeless confusion, but really in a system of admir­
able order, certainty, and simplicity, pursued six nights every week, all through
the rolling year.

JOURNAL OF INSURANCE.
INSURANCE DIVIDENDS,
The following table embraces the dividends declared by the fire insurance
companies of this city for the months of June and July, 1860 :—
JUNE DIVIDENDS.

Companies.
Bowery.....................................................................
H ow ard ...................................................................
Manhattan...............................................................
North American.......................................................

Capital.
$800,000
230,000
250,000
250,000

Total.................................................................

$1,050,000

Per cent.
10
10
10
5

Dividend.
$30,000
25,000
25,000
12,500
$92,500

JULY DIVIDENDS.

A£tna............................................................. ,
Adriatic,.....................................................................
American (also Scrip dividend of 50 per cent).
Arctic........................................................................
Brevoort....................................................................
Brooklyn................. .................................................
Citizens.....................................................................
Clinton.......................................................................
Columbia..................................................................
Commerce................... ........................ ..................
Commonwealth........................................................
Commercial..............................................................
Continental (also Scrip dividend of 45 per cent)
East River...............................................................
Empire City.............................................................
Excelsior............... ; ................................................
Fulton.........................
Gebhard...................................................................
Goodhue....................................................................
Hamilton.................................................................
Hanover...........................
Harmony...................................................................
H ope.........................................................................
Humboldt.................................................................
Home.......................
Importers and Traders’ ........................................
Jersey City..............................................................
Kings County...........................................................
Knickerbocker..........................................................
Lafayette.................................................................
Lamar. .................
...........




$200,000
150,000
200,000
250,000
150,000
102,000
150,000
250,000
200,000
200,000
250,000
200,000
500,000
150,000
200,000
200,000
200,000
200,000
200,000
150,000
200,000
150,000
150,000
200,000
1,000,000
200,000
150,000
150,000
280,000
150,000
800,000

5
5
0

$10,000
7,500
7,000
15,000

m
i

10,200
18,750
17,500

8
6
8
7
ft
7

16.000
15,000
16,000
35,000
9,000
14,000

10
5
6
4
6
5
5

20,000
10,000
12,000
6,000
12,000
7,500
7,500

6
4
5

60,000
8,000
7,500

6
5
..

16,800
7,500

10

Journal o f Insurance.

362
Companies.

Per cent.
10
12
10
7

Dividend.
20,000
24,000
20,000
10,500
12,000
20,000
.. ..
7,500
15,000
20,000
16,000
21,000
10,000
24,000
20,000
6,000
12,000
9,000
10,000
10,000
6,000
12,500
10,000
10,500

Mechanics and Traders’.........................................
Mechanics’................................................................
Mercantile...............................................................
Merchants’................................................................
Metropolitan............................................................
Montauk...................................................................
Nassau.......................................................................
National....................................................................
New Amsterdam....................................................
New York Equitable.............................................
New World..............................................................
P acific....................................................................
Park...........................................................................
People’s ...................................................................
Relief........................................................................
Republic...................................................................
Resolute (also Scrip dividend of 33J- per cent).
Standard...................................................................
Tradesmen’s .............................................................
United States...........................................................
Washington..............................................................
Williamsburg City...................................................

Capital.
2UU,000
200,000
200,000
150,000
200,000
200,000
300.000
150,000
150,000
200,000
200,000
210,000
200,000
200,000
200,000
150,000
150,000
150,000
200,000
200,000
150,000
250,000
200,000
150,000

Total, July.......................................................
Total, June.......................................................

$11,592,000
1,050,000

$691,750
92,500

Grand total...................................................

$12,612,000

$784,250

Long Island.............................................................
Market (also Scrip dividend of 33^- per cen t)..

6
10
..
5
10
10

8
10
5
12
10
4

8
6
5
6
4

5
5
7

NEW HAMPSHIRE FIRE INSURANCE COMPANIES.
SYNOPSIS OF FIRE INSURANCE COMPANIES, FROM REPORT OF INSURANCE COMMISSIONER
TO THE GOVERNOR, JUNE, I860.

Companies.

Rockingham, E x e te r...........
Atlantic, Exeter....................
Cochecho, Dover...................
Belknap, Laconia...............
Equitable, C on cord,...........
Farmington, Farmington..
Manchester, Manchester... .
Hand-in-Hand, Laconia.. . .
Union, Concord....................
Great Falls, Somersworth .
Portsmouth, Portsmouth.. .
Farmers’, Gilmanton............
Hillsboro’, Amherst.............
Amoskeag, Manchester.. . .
New Hampshire, Concord..
Carroll County, Sandwich, .
Granite, Boscawen...............
Nashua, Nashua...................
Cheshire, Keene...................
Ashuelot, K e e u e.................
Farmers’, Exeter..................




Amount of
property
at risk.

Amount of
premium
notes.

1,022,778 99,457 60
8,342,006 88,129 15
992,831 81 475 44
2,809,194 200,767 95
2,294,256 48,611 29
251,748 15,652 70
90,818
4,465 76
130,978 10 683 10
940 57
100,242
127,500
2,029 60
1,729,656 93,592 38
1,343,605 81,430 17
893,689 76,816 96
12,028,696 609,022 33
619,797 46,013 00
209,500 12,003 49
106,294
1,467 10
...............
7*221 10

Amount
of cash
premiums.

Amount
of
losses.

668 83 3,203 70
3,107 84 4,744 62
3,431 74 3,831 77
1,902 75 10,206 10
4,354 75 3,400 11
485 63
291 08
144 00
1,083 49
1,201 75
450 00
2,029 60
922 01 2,664 28
1,312 37 2,692 28
637 87 4,697 96
3,703 71 11,199 84
1,687 43 3,407 67
348 66
733 55 1,400 00

11,147 56
629 92
13,343 09

5,576 81
----- .
6,907 39
42,156 54
4,544 76

...............
18 60

30 00

29*7 61
2,407 68
5,046 33
2,487 78
861 38

2,731 28
1,523 22
7,009 45
1,814 96
1,270 45

3,370 28

. . . . . . . .

1,100,661 63,238 51
192,346
2,557 11
4,267,407 139,796 12
1,371,658 46,235 22
8,245,431 169,766 13

Amount
of assessments.

6,500 00
10,726 59

Commercial Regulations.

363

COMMERCIAL REGULATIONS.
RATES OF PILOTAGE IN AND OUT OF THE MISSISSIPPI PASSES.
Vessels drawing 10 feet or less, at.......................................................
Vessels drawing over 10 feet and under 18........................................
Vessels drawing 18 feet and upwards..................................................
Draft.
4 f e e t ......................

.........

44 .................................
4 1 .....................................
6 .....................
54 .....................................
51.....................
6 .....................

Per foot.

Amount.

$2 50

§ 1 0 00

II
U
u
({

6 4 .....................................

61 .....................................
7 .....................................

((

7 4 .....................................

u
(I

71 .....................................
8

((

.................................

8 4 .................................

81 .....................................
9 .....................................
94.....................
91...................
10 ...................
1 0 4 ...................
i o i .................................
11 ...................
114 .................................
H I .................................
12

11 25
11 87
12 50
12 75
13 75
15 00
16 25
16 87
17 60
18 75
19 37
20 00

ti
((
it
u
“
...............
...............

.................................

124.................................
121 .................................
13 .................................

§3 50
“
it
it
M
«(
((
it
ti

21 25
21 87
22 50
23 76
24 37
25 00
36 75
37 62
38 50
40 25
41 12
42 00
43 75
44 62
45 50

Draft.

§2 50 per foot
3 50
“
4 50
“
Per foot.

134................... ...........
131................................. ...................
14 ...................
144 .................................
141 .................................
15 ...................
154 .................................
151 .................................
1 6 .................................
164 .................................
16J .................................
17 .................................
174 .................................
171 .................................
18 .................................
184 .................................
1 8 f ...................
19*...................
194...................
1 9 } .................................
20 ................... ... . .
2 0 £ .................................
2 0 1 .................................
21 .................................
2 1 4 .................................

211 .................................
22 .................................

§3 50
“
«
ti
ti

((

it
<(
ft
ti
it
It

ti
(i
it

It
(l
((
ti
ti
it

Amount.

§47 25
48 12
49 00
50 75
51 62
52 50
54 25
55 12
56 00
57 75
58 62
59 50
61 25
62 12
81 00
83 25
84 37
85 60
87 75
88 87
90 00
92 25
93 37
94 50
.96 75
97 87
99 00

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGIN.
L

a

R ochelle , (France,) 1859.

*
*
*
*
I would beg leave to call the attention of the depart­
ment to a want of reciprocity as regards the ships of Prance and those of the
United States, the latter being required to produce at the custom-houses here a
consular certificate as to the origin of cargo, while the former, it would appear,
can manage to evade its production at our custom-houses ; for, with two excep­
tions, no French masters have ever procured at this consulate such certificate,
although I have in every instance notified them in writing as to its necessity.
I have written to the collectors of the ports to which the vessels were bound on
the subject, and have also very respectfully brought the matter to the knowledge
of the Secretary of the Treasury.
In my despatch to that officer on the 1st inst., I have again mentioned the
circumstance, and as several French vessels are at this time chartered for the
United States, I have requested him to give me instructions as to the necessity
or otherwise of continuing to give the written notice. I urge the matter solely
at the instance of American shipmasters, who justly think that unless it is re­
ciprocal they should be relieved from the heavy charges of the French consulates.




364

Commercial Regulations.
SIAM DUTIES.

Pursuant to the treaty entpred into between the American Minister, T own ­
H a r r is , and the Siamese authorities, the following is the tariff ol export
and inland duties to be levied on articles of trade :—

send

SECTION i .

The undermentioned articles shall be entirely free from inland or other taxes
on production or transit, and shall pay export duty as follows :—
1. Ivory........ ..................................
2. Gamboge....................................
3. Rhinoceros’ horns.....................
4. Cardamums, best.....................
5. Cardamums, bastard................
6. Dried mussels.............................
7. Pelicans’ q u ills ....................... .
8 Betel nut, dried.........................
9. Krachi wood.................. ............ .
10. sharks’ fins, white................... .
11. Sharks’ fins, black.................... .
12. Lukkrabau seed....................... .
13. Peacocks’ tails...........................
14. Buffalo and cow bones.. . . . . .
15. Rhinoceros’ hides.....................
16. Hide cuttings............................
17. Turtle shells.............................
IS. Soft shells..................................
19. Becher de mer...........................
20. Fish maws.................................
21. Birds’ nests, uncleaned............ .
22. Kingfishers’ feathers................
23. C u tch ........................................
24. Beyche seed, (nux vomica). . .
25. Pungtarai seed..........................
26. Gum Benjamin.........................
27. Augral bark..............................
28. Agilla wood.............................
29. Ray skins..................................
30. Old deers’ horns.....................
31. Soft or young horns................ .
32. Deer hides, fine.......................
33. Deer hides, common...............
34. Deer sinews.............................
35. Buffalo and cow hides.............
36. Elephants’ bones.....................
37. Tigers’ bones...........................
38. Buffalo horns.............................
39. Elephants’ hides.......................
40. Tigers’ skins.............................
41. Armadillo skins.......................
42. Stick lack.................................
43. Hemp........................................
44. Dried fish, fiaheng...................
45. Dried fish, plasalit..................
46. Sapan w ood.............................
47. Sait meat..................................
48. Mangrove bark.........................
49. R osew ood................................
50. E b o n y ......................................
51. R ic e ..........................................




Tical.
10
b

Salung.
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
2
0
0
2
0
0
2

50
14
6
1
2
1
O
6
3
0
10
0
0
i
0
0
1
0
1
0
3
0
3
20 per cent
6
0
2
0
2
0
2
0
0
4
0
2
2
0
0
3
1
0
10 per cent
0
8
0
8
0
4
0
1
0
1
0
5
1
0
1
0
1
0
4
0
1
1
1
2
1
2
0
1
0
' 2
2
0
0
1
2
0
1
1
4
0

Fuang.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Hun.
per pecul
0
do.
0
do.
0
do.
0
do.
0
do.
0
do.
0
do.
0
do.
0
do.
0
do.
0
do.
0
0 per 100 tails.
per pecul
3
do.
0
do.
0
do.
0
do.
0
do.
0
do.
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

per 100
per pecul
do,
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.

0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0

per 100 hides
do
per pecul
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
per skin
per pecul
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
per royan

0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
1

0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Commercial Regulations.

365

SECTION II.

The undermentioned articles, being subject to the inland or transit duties
herein named, and which shall not be increasec , shall be exempt from export
duty
Tical. Salung. Fuang
Hun.
2
52. Sugar, w h ite.. . . . . . . ...............
0
0
0
per pecul
53. Sugar, red................... ...............
0
i
0
0
do.
54. Cotton, cleaned and uncleaned. 10 per cent
55. P e p p e r.......................
0
0
0
do.
56. Salt fish, platu........... ...............
1
0
0
0 per 10,000 lbs.
67. Beans and pea3.. . . .
One-twelfth.
58 Dried prawns.............
do.
59. T ilseed .......................
do.
60. Silk, raw.....................
do.
61. Beeswax.......................
One-lifteenth.
62. Tallow ......................... ...............
1
0
0
0
per pecul
63. Salt...............................
0
0
0
per royau
64. Tobacco.......................
2
0
0 per 1,000 bun.
SECTION III.

All goods or produce enumerated in this tariff shall be free of export duty,
and shall only be subject to one inland tax or transit duty, not exceeding the
rate now paid.
[ l . s .J

[ i » 8.]

[L. 8.]

[L. 8.]

T O W N SE N D H AR RIS.
[L. 8.]*

And whereas, the said treaty has been duly ratified on both parts, and the re­
spective ratifications of the same were exchanged at Bangkok, on the loth day
of June, 1857, by C harles W illiam B r a d le y , Consul of the United States at
Ningpo, in China, and the royal Siamese Commissioners, on the part of their
respective governments.
PLAQUES.
T r ea su ry D e partm ent , July 27,1800.

Si r :— I

have examined your report under date of the 4th ultimo, and other
papers aud samples submitted to me, on the appeal of J. B. B f.hrmann from
your decision assessing a duty of 24 per cent on certain articles described as
“ plaques,” composed of a metallic base or plate, on which is laid a composition
of porcelain and tinsel or foil, and used in the manufacture of ornaments for the
person. The Department is of the opinion that the articles cannot be classified,
as claimed by the importer, as “ imitation of cameos and mosaics, not set,” nor
as subject to the duty of 24 per cent assessed on the entry under the final clause
of the 20th section of the tariff of 1842, but that they should be treated as un­
enumerated, and liable to a duty of 15 per cent under the 1st section of the
tariff act of 1857. I am, very respectfully,
H O W E L L COBB, Secretary of the Treasury.
A ugustus S chell , Esq., Collector, & c., N ew York.

CAUSTIC SODA,

It having been decided in several suits in circuit courts of the United States
that “ caustic soda ” is entitled, under the law, to be admitted to eutry at the
same duty as “ soda ash,” and the Department having acquiesced in those deci­
sions, collectors are hereby instructed that the duty to be assessed on “ caustic
soda” will be at the rate of 4 per cent, as a non-enumerated article, assimilated
by operation of the 20th section of the tariff act of 1842, to “ soda ash,” speci­
fied in schedule H of the tariff of 1857.




* Signatures of Siamese plenipotentiaries.

Commercial Regulations.

366

COPY BOOKS WITH PRINTED HEADINGS,
T reasury D epartment, July 27, 1860.

S i r : — I acknowledge the receipt
G ilkison , Esq., from your decision on

of your report on the appeal of J ohn
certain “ copy books with printed head­
ings ” imported by him. The books in question were, it appears, decided by you
on the entry to be liable to a duty of 24 per cent under the classification in
schedule C of the tariff of 1857, of “ manufactures of paper, or of which paper
is a component material, not otherwise provided for.” The appellant claims
entry at the rate of 15 per cent under the classification in schedule E, of “ blank
books, bound or unbound.” The Department is of opinion that they cannot
properly fall within either of these classifications, nor under that of “ printed
books,” &c., in schedule G, but should be treated as unenumerated, and subject
to a duty of 15 per cent under the 1st section of the tariff act of 1857. 1 am,
very respectfully,
IIO W E L L COBB, Secretary of the Treasury.

A ugustus Schell, Esq., Collector, &c., New York.

HUMAN HAIR,
T reasury D epartment, July 27, I860.

Sir :—I acknowledge the receipt of your report of the 9th ultimo on the appeal.of T. M oreau , Esq., from your decision assessing a duty at the rate o f 24
per cent under the classification in schedule G of the tariff of 1857, of “ human
hair, cleansed or prepared for use,” on a certain lot of hair imported from Havre,
per the “ Nuremburg,” styled by the importers, “ cheveux bruts.” The appellant
contends that it should be subject to a duty of 8 per cent under the classification
in schedule G of “ hair of all kinds, uncleaned and unmanufactured.” The
classification depends on a question of fact. Assuming the description of the
article by the appraiser to be correct, and that it is, in fact, human hair, cleansed,
dyed, and fully prepared and ready for braiding, curling, and other uses by the
hair worker, the Department is of the opinion that it falls within the classifica­
tion in schedule C, to which you have referred it. The duty of 24 per cent was
properly exacted by you, and your decision is affirmed. I am, very respectfully,
H O W E L L COBB, Secretary of tlie Treasury.
F. II. H atch, Esq., Collector, &c., New Orleans, La.

CUBAN MANIFESTS OF CARGOES.

Information has been received at the Department of State from J ohn 0 .
Esq., the United States Consul-General at Havana, that the form of a
manifest as hereto annexed, which is in conformity with the Spanish law, has
been transmitted to him by the Captain-General of Cuba. It is stated by Mr.
H elm that “ if this form be followed by shipmasters trading with the island, a
vast amount of trouble will be avoided, as well as the fines which will invariably
be imposed by the Custom house authorities at Havana and other Cuban ports
for a variance from this form.”
H elm ,

Report and manifest of the cargo laden at the port o f --------- , on board of the
------ Captain---------- burden---------- tons, for ---------- consigned to --------- ,
------ 18—.




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Oi

D.
2
CO

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©

B
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B
O
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Valu<

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No.

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a5
.

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ra tb

Railroad , Canal, and Steamboat Statistics.

367

RAILROAD, CANAL, AND STEAMBOAT STATISTICS.
GER3IAN RAILWAYS.

The whole length of railways in Germany in 1857, was 6,708 miles, besides
2,060 authorized but not opened. The capital raised by shares and loans was,
up to the end of 1857, in Prussia—
Government ra ilw a y s ....
£9,727,183 Shareholders railways... .
Shareholders ra ilw a y*...
9 495,855
And in Austria—
Shareholders railways... .
24,859,110
All railways......................
And in other German countries—
Total amount.................
Government railw ays.. . .
30,608,990

8,903,559
29,258,650
£112,752,297

Of the new lines, 95 miles were opened in 1858. The revenue from the 6,708
miles in 1857 was £12,875,913, or about 11.5 per cent on the capital.
The average cost of (capital raised for) German railways on the 31st Decem­
ber, 1857, was £16,980 per mile opened, which is a little less than half that of
British railways, the ratio being as 48 to 100.
In 1857, the Prussian railways carried 18,414,094 passengers, and killed only
one passenger, and injured but one. What did the British do in the same time ?
According to Captain G a i . t o n ’ s report (Board of Trade) they killed 25 passen­
gers from causes beyond their own control, and wounded not less than 63 pas­
sengers. The British roads carried 139,008,887 passengers in that year, (1857,)’
and kiled 1 to 5,560,355; the Prussian being 1 to 18,414,094. The greater
safety of the German railways may, we think, be traced to their moderate speed
and careful working.
The percentage of working expenses to receipts on German railways has
greatly fallen in the course of years, but owing to the increase of the traffic the
cost per mile per annum has enlarged. The great fall in the percentage of ex­
penses has of course benefited the owners of the German railways. The fol­
lowing table exhibits these interesting facts clearly :—

1834____
1835____
1836___
1837____
1838____
1839____
1840____
1841____
1842____
1843____
1844____
1845____

Miles
open.
79
80
115
131
188
295
392
560
793
980
1,214
1,587

W orking
expenses
per mile.
281
261
251
288
421
416
530
480
471
475
475

Per cent
of exp’se
to rec’ts.
7 5 .0
62 .5
6 5 .5
6 8 .9
7 3 .3
5 7 .5
5 9 .2
5 7 .6
5 1 .8
5 0 .8
5 2 .9

1846____
18 47____
1848____
1849____
1850____
1851____
1852____
1853____
1 8 5 4 ... ,
1855____
1856____
1 8 5 7 ...

Miles
open.
2,100
2,893
3,519
3,944
4.3S7
4,620
4,839
5,101
5,323
5,754
6,529
6,708

Working
expenses
per mile.
535
555
525
510
525
546
794
750
811
869
855
931

Per cent
of exp’se
to rec’ts.
5 2 .7
5 3 .9
5 8 .3
5 3 .8
5 1 .1
4 8 .4
5 2 .2
5 2 .4
5 5 .5
4 8 .0
4 8 .9
4 8 .5

the latter column being expressed in pounds sterling.
The percentage of profits on capital of the German railways in 1857 appears
to have been 7.05 per cent. In Great Britain, according to Captain G a l t o n ,




* Managed by government.

368

Railroad , Canal, and Steamboat Statistics.

in 1857 it was only 4.06 per cent, and less than 4 per cent dividend. We are
not quite clear whether the German 7.05 per cent is profit or dividend. If it
be profit on the whole capital the dividend would no doubt be much larger than
7 per cent since the preferred part of the German railway capital (£22,800,000
up to 1858) pays about 4£ per cent interest, which would raise the dividend, the
profits on the total capital being in excess of 41 per cent. In Great Britain
the case is at present different, for although the rate of interest on preferred
railway capital (including loans) is about 4 f percent on the average—not quite
4|—namely, 4.67 on the average, yet the profits on the whole capital being less
than the rate of interest on the preferred capital, the dividend is crushed below
the percentage of profits.
On an average the capital invested in German railways realized, in—
1 8 3 4 ..................
1 8 3 5 ..............
1836..............
1837..............
1 8 3 8 .............
1839..............
1840..............
1841..............

Per cent.
.......
3 .6 4

2 27
3 .6 0
3 .6 5

18 42..................
1813 ...........
1844..............
1845..............
1 8 4 6 .............
1847..............
18 48.............
1849..............

Per cent.
8 .8 8
4.7 1
4 .1 7
8 .6 4
3 .6 0
3 .3 9
2.6 7
3 .1 2

1850..................
1851.............
1852..............
1853..............
1854..............
1855..............
1856..............
1857..............

Per cent.
3.6 7
4 .45
4 87
4 .7 4
5 .1 1
6.0 7
7.0 5

Time was, therefore, when even the German railways, now paying upwards of
7 per cent per annum, paid under 2$. The steady progress of the railway divi­
dends, even in so comparatively poor a country as Germany, must afford hope
for the future.
RAILROADS OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK,

The three leading railroads of the State— New York Central, New York and
Erie, and the Hudson River—cost together eighty-eight millions of dollars.
When we add the Harlem Road, the grand aggregate amounts to about one hun­
dred millions of dollars. The total freights on these four roads for the fiscal
year ending 1st September, 1859, were over thirteen-and-a-half millions of dol­
lars, and the aggregate receipts somewhat over twenty millions, on all the roads
of the State of New York.
A t the same time the foreign commerce of the State and City has advanced
rapidly. The total value of property carried on the State Canals has increased
from sixty-seven millions in 1836, to upwards of two hundred millions of dollars
per annum.
The New York Central Railroad has carried in five years past, 3,884,702
tons ; New York and Erie Railroad, 4,449,365 tons; and the Canals, 18,929,636
tons ; a total exceeding 27,000,000 tons of merchandise, agricultural products,
etc.; the tolls and freight on this property exceeding $49,000,000, for the five
years.
New York City is the recipient of nearly all this vast property. Her mer­
chants and capitalists, ship owners and boat-owners, traders and laborers, derive
incomes from the freight and commissions on property received.
These facts point to the growing importance of railroads. They are essential
to the development of the State’s resources. If every dollar of the capital in-




Railroad, Canal, and Steamboat Statistics.

869

vested in their construction were sunk, the State at large would, nevertheless,
derive permanent benefits.
C A P IT A L , F U N D E D D E B T , F L O A T I N G D E B T , COST,
SEPTEM BER

AND RECEIPTS OF EACH FOR YEAR ENDING

1ST, 1859.

Name of road
New York Central Railroad.....................
New York and Erie
“
.....................
Hudsen River
“
.....................
New York and Harlem.............................

Capital.
$24,000,000
11,000,000
8,758,466
6,717,100

Funded debt
$14,333,771
25,260,000
8,842,000
6,353,297

Floating debt.

Total, four roads................................

$44,475,666

$53,789,068

$768,357

Albany and West Stockbridge................
Black River and Utica.................
....
Blossburg and Corning..............................
Buffalo, New York, and Erie...................
“
and State Line..............................
Cayuga and Susquehanna.........................
Chemung......................................................
Elmira, Jefferson, and Canandaigua.. . .
Genesee V a lle y .........................................
Hudson and Boston....................................
Long Island................................................
New York and Flushing...........................
“
and New Haven...................
Niagara Bridge and Canandaigua...........
Northern.....................................................
Oswego and Syracuse...............................
Potsdam and Watertown..........................
Rensselaer and Saratoga...........................
Rochester and Genesee Valley................
Saratoga and Schenectady.......................
“
and Whitehall............................
Syracuse, Binghamton, and New York..
Troy and Bennington.................. ..............
“ and Boston.........................................
“ and Greenbush..................................
“ U n ion ................................................
Watertown and Rome...............................
Albany and Susquehanna.........................
Atlantic and Great Western of N. Y . ..
Erie and New York City.........................
Lake Ontario, Auburn, and New York..
Sodus Point and Southern.........................
Staten Island ............................................
Buffalo and Alleghany V alley.................
Buffalo, Bradford, and Pittsburg.............

$1,000,000
815,711
250,000
680,000
1,984,950
687,000
880,000
500,000
75,689
175,000
1,852,715
120,000
2,980,839
1,000,000

$1,392,984
700,000
220,000
2,410,721
1,049,000
411,000

896,340
665,419
610,000
557,560
300,000
500,000
200,130
75,350
604,911
275,000
30,000
1,498,500
404,950
1,020
352,741
77,855
31,585
50,603
16,000
250,000

$353,703
414,654

$8,158
252,142
161,263

165,000

42,500

636,907
125,000
2,163,500

17,539

1,494,900
213,500
911,000
140,000
150,000
85,000
395,000
1,643,126
172,100
806,500
680,000
685,000

14,000

21,121

10,875
192,748
23,496

146,079
150
247,676

65,682
33,134
42,716
1,850
22,686

8,525

53,109

Total....................................................

$64,825,434

$70,461,921

$2,097,281

Broadway (Brooklyn)...............................
Brooklyn City............................................
Eighth Avenue...........................................
Ninth
“
.. ......................................
Second
“
............................................
...........................................
Sixth
“
Third
“
............................................

199,000
1.000,000
800,000
795,860
650,000
750,000
1,170,000

14,000

556

350,000

18,000

110,600

25,000

Total city railroads...........................
All other railroads.............................

$5,364,860
64,825,434

$474,600
70,461,921

$43,556
2,097,281

$70,189,794

$70,936,521

$2,140,837

Total Slate of New Y"ork............
V O L . L X I II .-----N O . I I I .




24

.Railroad, Canal, and Steamboat Statistics.

370

Name of road.
New York Central Railroad....................
New York andErie
“
.....................
.....................
Hudson River
“
New York and Harlem.............................

Total debt.
$14,833,771
28,613,713
9,256,654
5,853,297

Cost of road.
$30,840,713
35,320,907
11,388,279
8.019,671

Eecp’ts. 1859’
$6,200,848
4,482,149
1,842,636
1,076,322

Total, four roads................................

$13,601,955

$54,557,425

$85,569,570

Albany and West Stockbridge...............
Black River and Utica..............................
Blossburg and Corning..............................
Buffalo, New York, and Erie...................
“
and State Line..............................
Cayuga and Susquehanna.........................
Chem ung.....................................................
Elmira, Jeffer60D, and Canandaigua........
Genesee V a lley..........................................
Hudson and Boston....................................
Long Island................................................
New York and Flushing...........................
“
and New Haven.....................
Niagara Bridge and Canandaigua...........
Northern.............................................. ........
Oswego and Syracuse................................
Pottsdam and Watertown........................
Rensselaer and Saratoga...........................
Rochester and Genesee Valley...............
Saratoga and Schenectady.......................
“
and Whitehall............................
Syracuse, Binghamton, and New Y ork..
Troy and Bennington.................................
“ and Boston..........................................
“ and Greenbush..................................
“ U nion..................................................
Watertown and Rome...............................
Albany and Susquehanna.........................
Atlantic and Great Western of N. Y . . .
Erie and New York City..........................
Lake Ontario, Auburn, and New Y o r k ..
Sodus Point and Southern.........................
Staten Island..............................................
Buffalo and Alleghany V alley.................
Buffalo, Bradford, and Pittsburg.............

1,392,984
708,158
220,000
2,662,863
1,210,263
411,000

2,392,984
1,237,553
496,661
3,150,762
2,779,994

62,941
26,858
541,249
848,327
59,205

400,000
207,500

329,224
175,000
2,566,270

654,636
125,000
2,184,621

6,330,486

1,494,900
224,375
1,103,748
140,000
173,496
85,000
' 395,000
1,789,205
172,250
1,054,176

4,799,287
775,677
1,594,955
901,025
653,927
480,684
908,890
2,851,292
253,918
1,510,513

5,826
63,803
334,195
21,825
992,404
382,932
109,152
100,047
235,902
44,220
154,099
196,401
218,689

294- 731
680,000
750,682
83,134

732414
2,150,502
406,952

42,716

61,634

287,707
74,672
35,298
114,014
21,300
328^851

Total.....................................................
Broadway (Brooklyn)................................
Brooklyn City..............................................
Eighth A ve n u e..........................................
Ninth
“
..........................................
Second
“
..........................................
Sixth
“
..........................................
Third
“
..........................................

$72,559,202

$123,608,813

$18,363,034

14,556

135,600

213.069
1,054,107
769,550
852,694
993,366
877,836
1,664,098

29,804
471,442
379,499
8,522
262,166
323,956
502,951

Total city railroads...........................
A ll other railroads............................

$518,156
72,559,202

$6,824,220
123,608,813

$1,978,340
18,363,034

Total State of New York............

$73,077,358

$129,433,033

$20,341,374

1,850
22,686

368,000

362,993

RAILWAY STATISTICS.
In 1857, says an English journal, the linear extent of English railways ex­
ceeded the ten chief rivers of Europe united; and more than enough of single
rails were laid to make a belt of iron round the earth. The tunnels, joined




Railroad, Canal, and Steamboat Statistics.

371

together, would stretch more than seventy miles ; the viaducts in the vicinity of
the metropolis alone would reach 11 miles; and the earthworks measured
550.000. 000 of cubic yards—a mass of material, which, if piled in a pyramid,
would rise 2j miles high, with a base larger than St. James’s Park ; 80,000,000
of train miles were run annually. The total number of stations amounted to
3,121; 5,000 engines, with 150,000 vehicles, composed the working stock ; and
109,660 officers and servants were employed. The engines, in a straight line,
would extend from London to Chatham, and the vehicles from London to Aber­
deen ; 2,000,000 of tons of coals were annually consumed ; and in every minute
of time, 20 tons of water were flashed into steam by 4 tons of coal. The coal
consumed is almost equal to the whole amount exported to foreign countries, and
to one-half of the annual consumption of London. Such was the wear and tear,
that 20,000 tons of iron were required to be replaced per year; 2,000,000 of
sleepers ont of 26,000,000 laid down annually perished; and 300,000 trees, equal
to 5,000 acres of forest, must be annually felled to make up the loss. In 1853,
111.000. 000 of passengers were conveyed, each passenger traveling an average
of 12 miles. A curious calculation has been made. Twelve miles by railway
are accomplished in half an hour, whereas the old stage coa ch required an hour
and a half to get through the distance. The aggregate time thus saved for the
above number of passengers is equal to thirty-eight thousand years. But in 1857,
the number of passengers amounted to 139,008,888, and the receipts from all
sources were £24,174,616.
RAILROAD RECEIPTS FOR JULY,

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad............
Washington branch.........................
Northwest Virginia branch.. . „ . .
Total........................................
Buffalo, New York and Erie.............
Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy___
Chicago and Northwest.....................
Chicago and Rock Island...................
Cleveland and Toledo.........................
Galena and Chicago...........................
Hudson River.....................................
Illinois Central.....................................
Indianapolis and Cincinnati...............
Michigan Central...............................
Milwaukee and Mississippi...............
New York Central............. .............
New York and Harlem.....................
Pittsburg, Fort Wayne, and Chicago
St. Louis, Alton, and Chicago.. . . . .
Toledo and Wabash...........................

1860.
$321,895
44,520
16,622
383,037
45,526
154,723
39,840
80,609
50,639
78,842
140,865
196,000
29,605
128,383
37,827
549,174
100,039
163,997
83,119
84,879

ISM.
$261,589
31,784
10,787
304,261
39,828
100,883
24,274
65,831
45,963
88,527
125,304
138,900
25,213
108,304
45,834
504,517
91,189
134,941
58,801
59,141

increase
“
“
“
«
“
«(
«
«<
decrease
increase
“
“
“
decrease
increase
“
“
“
««

$60,306
12,736
5,835
78,076
5,698
53,840
15,568
14,778
4,676
9,685
15,561
57,100
4,392
20,079
8,007
44,956
8,850
29,056
24,318
25,738

A METHOD OF TESTING THE STRENGTH OF STEAM BOILERS,

The following is from a paper contributed to Newton’s London Journal, by
Dr. J ule :—The author adverted to the means hitherto adopted for testing boil­
ers. 1st. That by steam pressure, which gives no certain indication whether
strain has not taken place under its influence, so that a boiler so tested may sub­
sequently explode when worked at the same or even a somewhat less degree of




872

Railroad, Canal, and Steamboat Statistics.

pressure. He trusted that this highly reprehensible practice had been wholly
abandoned. 2d. That by hydraulic pressure obtained by a force-pump, which
does not afford an absolutely reliable proof that the boiler has passed the ordeal
without injury, and moreover requires a special apparatus. The plan which had
been adopted by the author lor two years past, with perfect success, was free from
the objections which applied to the above, and is as follows :—The boiler is en­
tirely filled with water ; then a brisk fire is made in or under it. When the
water has thereby been warmed a little, say to 70° or 90° Fahrenheit, the safe­
ty valve is loaded to the pressure up to which the boiler is to be tested. Bour­
don’s or other pressure indicator is then constantly observed, and if the pressure
occasioned by the expansion of the water increases continuously up to the test­
ing pressure, without sudden stoppage or diminution, it may be safely inferred
that the boiler has stood it without strain or incipient rupture. In the trials
made by the author, the pressure rose from zero to 62 lbs. on the square inch in
five minutes. The facility of proving a boiler by this method was so great, that
he trusted that owners would be induced to make those periodical tests, without
which, fatal experience has shown, no boiler should be trusted.
PERFORMANCE OF LOCOMOTIVES,
Great
Western,
Illinois.

F u e l...........................
S tores.......................
Repairs......................

Engines reported...
Miles run.........
Per pint oil.............
Per cord w ood.........
Cars per train..........
Length main track..

$0.0441

Illinois
Central.
$ 0 .0 4 u l

0.0054
0.0054
0.0503
0.1557

0.0752
0.0077
0.0062
0.0503
0.1795

32,420
22.70
41.63
39.86
10.58

200,506
15.46
46.34
33.74
10.52
708.25

/-----N. Y. Central.---- ,
Albany &
Middle
Sch. liiv. Division.
$0 0472 $0.0473

----- M. S. &N. I.---- E andN. Westem
Division. Division.

0.1038
0.0074

0.1090
0.0071

0.0514
0.0071

0.0437
0.0063

0.0447
0.2080
3.84
5.00
34
60,474
20.80
37

0.0334
0 .1 96S

0.0569

0.0759

15.82
17

2.75
45
89,540
22.45
35.24

37
76,567
19.10
53.42

25
43,141
24.31
62.85

11 98
184.79

LOUISVILLE CANAL,

Congress has authorized an addition to the Louisville and Portland Canal, by
the following resolution :—
A RESOLUTION AUTHORIZING THE

ENLARGEMENT

OF,

AND

CONSTRUCTION

OF A

BRANCH TO, THE LOUISVILLE AND PORTLAND CANAL.

Resolced, by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of
America in Congress assembled, That the president and directors of the Louis­
ville and Portland Cana! Company be, and they are hereby authorized, with the
revenues aDd credits of the company, to enlarge the said canal, and to construct
a branch canal from a suitable point on the south side of the present canal, to a
point in the Ohio Biver, opposite Sand Island, sufficient to pass the largest class
of steam vessels navigating the Ohio River : Provided, That nothing herein con­
tained shall authorize the said president and directors, directly or indirectly, to
use or pledge the faith or credit of the United States for the said enlargement or
construction. It hereby being expressly declared, that the Government of the




Railroad , Canal, and Steamboat Statistics.

373

United States shall not be in any manner liable for said enlargement and con­
struction. Provided, further, That when said canal is enlarged and its branch
canal constructed, and its cost of said improvement paid for, no more tolls shall
be collected than an amount sufficient to keep the canal in repair, and pay for all
necessary superintendence and management.
Approved 24th May, 18 60.________________ _
NEW YORK CITY RAILROADS.

The business of the New York City roads for the year ending Sept. 30,1859,
were, according to the State Engineer’s report, as follows :—
/—No. passengers carried.—*

Third Avenue.................. ...........
Eighth “
...................
.................. ...........
Sixth
“
Second “
..................
Harlem..............................

7.945.462
5,612,857

Total..........................

ISatl.
9,974.101
7,589,997
6,479,129
5,182,011
8,493,118

,------------Receipts.----------- *

1858.
$403,055
338,410
280,617
227,457
153,486

1859.
$502,951
379,500
323,956
262,166
261,983

32,718,851
/--------- Expenses.----------- »

18i>8.

185)9.
$307,188
252,872
216,685
180,644
130,180

Third Avenue..................
Eighth “
...................
Sixth
“
...................
Second “
...................
Harlem..............................

/------Net Earnings.------- 1
1859.
1858.
$195,763
$160,244
126,621
160,657
103,391
107.271
81,522
107,753
70,604
131,803

The increase of passengers on the Third Avenue is the largest, being over 20
per cent ; that of the Eighth is 11 per cent; Sixth, 16 per cent ; Second, 15
per cent; and Harlem, 14 per cent. The average is 15J per cent. A t this
rate of increase there will be, in a year or two, required double the quantity of
street railway accommodation to do the passenger business between the two ends
of the island.
RAILWAYS OF CONNECTICUT.
GENERAL

STATEM ENT

OF

THE

LENGTH ,

THE

COST, A N D

R A IL W A Y S

OF

O P E R A T IO N

FOR

THE

TEAR

1859,

OF

C O N N E C TIC U T.

L’gth
in
Net in­
Total
Revenue.
come.
Name of railway.
Conn. Cost.
debt.
New York and New Haven............... 47 $5,330,486 2,184.621 $992,404 $359,183
Hartford and New Haven................... 66 3,320,702 964,000 723,469 381,267
Norwich and W orcester..................... 60 2,613,694 729,077 351,6S9 139,565
Providence, Hartford, and Fishkill. . . 96 *4,205,966 2,161,691* 349,505 157,163
New London, Willimantic, & Palmer.., 57 1,573,568 1,052,000
120,554 t ................
Housatonic R a ilw a y...........................
74 2,430,775 328,730 289,860
35,230
Naugatuck Railway.............................
241,330 104,772
57 1,578,301 316,391
Danbury and Norfolk............................ 24
89,600
73,825
27,991
886,715
New Haven and Northampton........... 55 1,400,000 500,000 141,641 £74,933
N. Haven, N. London, & Stonington... 62 1,454,040 879,842 107,837
15,649
New York, Providence, and Boston...
6 2,158,000 306,500 276,434 114,563
Totals and a verages................... 694 27,461,247 9,612,452 8,668,546 1,410,116

The eight miles of the Boston and New York Central Railway in Connecticut
are not included in the above length.
* According to the report of the preceding year.
t The New London. Wi.limantic, and Palmer Railway went into the hands of the trnstees of the
first mortgage bond holders in January, 1859.
t The revenue given is $141,641, the'expenses $66,708; but the net, $52,813; how such a difference
is made we do not see: the arithmetical difference being $74,933.




374

Journal o f M ining , Manufactures, and A rt.

JOURNAL OF MINING, MANUFACTURES, AND ART.
THY— ITS USES AST) COMMERCE,

There are thousands of persons who have no further knowledge of tin than
that of beholding it in the form of common pails and pans. Well, to use an
expressive Irishism, “ such tin is no tin at all.” It is simply thin plates of iron
coated with tin metal, the proper name of which ought to be tinned sheet-iron.
Tin is one of our most useful metals, because it is employed for a great number
of purposes. We propose to give some information respecting it, which will be
new to most of our people, and interesting, we think, to all.
Tin is one of the most ancient metals—that is, it was well known to the an­
cients ; and it is very well established as a fact that the Phoenicians, those olden
masters of the sea when Tyre was in her glory, made voyages to Cornwall, and
obtained tin from the mines in that district, long before Britannia was known to
the Romans. It was this tin, alloyed with copper, which formed the old bronze
armor of the Asiatic warriors; and it may have been furnished also by the re­
nowned Hiram, King of Tyre, the great architect and friend of Solomon, for
the building of the first and unapproached Jewish temple. In appearance, this
metal resembles silver when first polished ; but it sooner becomes dim, because a
thin coat of oxyd forms early on its surface when exposed to a moist atmosphere.
It is quite ductile, and may be rolled out into very thin sheets, called tin-foil.
When undergoing this rolling operation, it is kept at a temperature of about
212° Fah., at which heat its malleability is greatly increased. A common
method of making tin-foil is to form ingot3 of lead and tin—the former in the
heart of the ingot, the latter on the outside— and to roll these out into foil. By
this process, the tin is retained on the outside, however thin the ingots may be
rolled out, while the poisonous lead is kept inside; and by this means the cost
of the material is not one-half what it otherwise would be if made entirely of
pure tin. A patent has been secured for this invention, and by the reduction
caused by it in the price of foil, the latter is now employed for a hundred pur­
poses, such as wrappers for tobacco, labels on bottles, etc., for which paper and
other substances were formerly used.
Tin is also extensively employed in the chemical arts, such as by calico-print­
ers and dyers, for making what are called “ spirit mordante ” and “ stannate
salts.” It i3 this metal which gives its brilliant hues to the rich crimson shawl
and the azure-blue robe of the fashionable lady ; and it forms the basis of many
other colors on silk, cotton, and woolen fabrics. For this purpose, the metal is
commonly dissolved in an acid, such as hydro-chloric or nitro-muriatic, which,
in a diluted state, forms the chemists’ “ spirits.” Instead of dissolving it as an
acid for such purpose, as was exclusively done in former years, it is now com­
bined with an alkali, and forms the stannate of soda, a salt resembling pearlash.
In this form it is now extensively employed in Europe, and the writer of this
has bad some of it in his possession for more than a year, but has endeavored in
vain to make some of our practical chemists appreciate its advantages. Tin




Journal o f M ining, M anufactures, and A rt.

375

dissolves in some acids like white sugar in hot water; but the action which
takes place in the former case is chemical—in the latter, merely mechanical.
The tinned-plates employed by our “ whitesmiths ” for making milk-pans, pails,
and such like articles, are all imported from England, to which country their
manufacture is confined. We also import great quantities of this metal in pigs,
called “ block-tin.” It is principally used for making bronze alloys for ma­
chinery and “ white metal,” formerly called “ Britannia metal,” which is an alloy
composed of tin, copper, and antimony. Very small portions of the latter two
metals are used in the alloy— only a sufficient quantity to render the tin hard, and
at the same time retain its ductile quality. A very great amount of this metal­
lic alloy is employed in the manufacture of tea-table ware. It is first made into
sheets; these are afterwards spun in lathes into the forms of tea, coffee, and
milk-pots, cups, flagons, and urns, of tasteful designs ; after which they are
electro-plated with silver, and become beautiful in appearance. Twenty years
ago all our pewter and Britannia ware was imported from England ; now very
little, if any, comes to us from abroad. We manufacture all we use at home.
Skillful English artisans introduced the art among us, and there are very large
manufactories for making this ware in Waterbury and Meriden, Conn., Taun­
ton, Mass., and several other New England towns. Very great advances have
been made of recent years in the designs or forms of articles formed of this ware.
The old pewter tea-pots and their adjuncts were models of ugliness in compari­
son with the same class of articles now manufactured. The adoption of classic
models has wonderfully improved the tastes of our people, and such has been the
progress recently made in this art that elegant articles of such ware, with sur­
faces of dazzling pure silver, can now be purchased lower than the old pewterpots thirty years ago.
ENGRAVING ON GLASS.

The Scientific American translates from L ’Invention the following account (by
of a new process of engraving on glass, for printing the patterns
for embroidery, netting, crotchet, etc., by which it is said that the labor of a
month in this kind of engraving can be performed in one day. The process
consists in etching by means of hydrofluoric acid which, as our readers are aware,
has the remarkable property of corroding glass :—
Air. G ugnon )

1. Substances Employed.— It is known that certain fatty and resinous sub­
stances are not soluble in hydrofluoric acid. Among these substances the au­
thor chooses the bitumen of Judea, to which he adds one-sixth part of gum mas­
tic (mastic in tears ;) he then reduces the whole to an impalpable powder.
2. The Design.— The design is cut in stencil, either in paper, parchment, or
metallic plate, in a way to cover those portions of the glass which are to be at­
tacked by the acid, and to leave exposed those parts which are not to be attacked.
3. The Application of the Process.— The glass is placed horizontally and
varnished with a very thin coating of any fatty substance (the author pre­
fers the essence of turpentine;) and the stencil plate is laid on the varnish
while it is fresh. The asphaltum powder is then sifted through a very fine
sieve over the surface of the stencil plate and the glass, and the plate is carefully
removed, thus leaving the powder upon the glass in figures corresponding to the




376

Journal o f M ining, Manufactures, and A rt.

open parts of the plate. The glass is next exposed to gentle heat which causes
the essence of turpentine to combine with the asphaltum and the gum mastic,
and the mixture, in melting, fixes itself to the glass.
4. Treatment by Acid.— The pattern is surrounded by a ridge of soft wax
prepared for the purpose, and hydrofluoric acid, diluted with one-third its vol­
ume of water, is poured over it. In about 40 minutes the etching is completed.

MAMJFACTURE OF ROOM OR WALL PAPER.

The manufacture of wall paper is carried on to a great extent in Philadelphia,
and gives employment in some half-dozen establishments to 1,800 men and boys.
The quality of the paper made there has a reputation which extends over the
entire Union, and in many instances it is preferred for beauty and tasteful de­
signs to that imported from France, Until within the last few years, all wall
paper was made by hand ; but now very pretty and cheap paper is produced by
machinery in two of the Philadelphia factories. The mode of making paper by
machinery and by hand is as follows:— The paper in the rough state, when
taken to the manufactory for printing, is first coated with white clay, obtained
from New Jersey. This clay is ground very fine and then made soluble. The
paper is then passed over a revolving drum, the mixture being put on by a large
brush, which revolves very rapidly. The paper, as it comes from the drum,
passes into a heated box, which extends the entire length of the building, which
completely dries it by the time it reaches that portion of the room. The fac­
tory of H o w e l l & B r o t h e r s is 350 feet in length. If the paper is to be
glazed, it is passed through rollers made of stiff bristles. This mode of prepar­
ing the paper is practiced in all establishments. It is then ready to receive the
colors and figures which fancy may dictate. I f the paper is to be printed with
machinery, rollers having the figures, flowers, or any other design to be printed,
fixed on them with small brass pins, the interstices being filled with felt, are
placed in their proper places on the cylinder of the press, some eight feet in di­
ameter. As many as ten different colors can be put upon the paper at one time,
so accurate does the press work, and the registering apparatus being so perfect
in all its details. There are two of these presses in the factory of H o w e l l &
B r o t h e r s , each one being capable of printing, 13,500 yards of wall paper per
day. The paper passes up a plane and ther. under the press between that and
the rollers which are to give it the various colors, after receiving which it passes
through the heated boxes, and is then cut into pieces nine yards in length, ready
for use. In other rooms the finer kinds of paper are made by hand. One is de­
voted to the making of velvet paper. Here the colors are put on with flat
blocks, the workmen having a lever, moved by a treadle with the foot, to press
the block so as to make the impression ou the paper. It is then passed through
a covered box, while the ink or color is yet wet, in which is a quantity of wool,
ground very fine. A boy, by striking the bottom of the box with a stick, causes
the paper to be covered with the wool, and when it is removed, the portions to
represent velvet are nicely covered. In gilding paper, the same process, so far
as printing is concerned, is followed. The gold is placed upon the damp portions
of the paper by boys, and the particles which are brushed off' are collected




Journal o j M ining , Manufactures, and A rt.

377

together and ground up for the purpose of making a powder, to be used in the
manufacture of bronze paper. In making wall paper by hand, as it is termed,
a block is necessary for color and shade to be placed upoo the paper, and as
these blocks have to be cut by artists, our readers may have some idea of the
cost necessary in producing paper which is purchased at so small a sum. The
paper made to represent oak and marble is furnished by men who pursue only
this branch of the business, the demand for it being so limited that it would not
justify the regular manufacturers to go to the expense necessary for its produc­
tion. There is no branch of this business but what is successfully carried on in
Philadelphia; and so expert have the manufacturers become in the business,
that a great deal of the paper sold to wholesale dealers in New York i3 resold
by them as the production of Frenchmen.

RAGS.

England is discussing at the present time, the interesting topic of rags. This
article would be of little account if we had no printing presses, but theenormous
increase of printed matter render rags a material of first rate importance through­
out the civilized world. The repeal of the excise duties ou paper aud of the tax
on newspapers will increase the consumption of rags very much in England, aud
the English, fearing a great scarcity, begin to look around for the means of sup­
plying the demand, and are complaining of the prohibitory export duly of France.
It was expected that under the new treaty, French rags, the exportation of
which has been absolutely prohibited, wou.d be exported free, but a duty has
beeu laid upon their exportation which amounts to prohibition. This has caused
great excitement among the English paper manufacturers, and negotiations have
been actively commenced with other ragged countries of Europe, Holland, Ger­
many, Belgium, Spain, and Portugal, which prohibit the exportation of their
worn-out garments.
There are now about seven hundred paper mills in England, and from seventy
to eighty in Scotland, besides no inconsiderable number in Ireland. The annual
value of the paper manufactured, exclusive of the tax, is from £L,600,000 to
£1,700,000. The Scottish mills are much more extensive than the English, for
while not more than one-tenth iu number, they pay a sixth part of the paper
revenue. Until a very recent period the tax on paper amounted to more than
three times as much as the total wages paid to the workpeople employed.
The English writing papers are made of their own rags, but printed paper is
made chiefly of rags imported from the tattered cities of the continent— Ham­
burg, Bremen, Bostock, Ancona, Leghorn, Messina, Palermo, and Trieste.
With the increased activity of the printing press under the free system adopted
in England, they must increase their purchases, and as the supply was short pre­
viously, the British Government are extremely anxious to remove the obstruc­
tions to free trade in rags throughout Europe, and they naturally complain of
the difficulties that beset them. The editor of Bell's Life in London ought to
pitch into Louis N a p o l e o n vigorously for the want of “ fair play ” he has shown
in this contest for rags.
It is probable enough that the price of rags, and consequently of paper, will




378

Journal o f M ining , M anufactures, and A rt.

be increased in this country when paper-making is materially increased in Eng­
land under their new system, and our own government should bring their diplo­
macy to bear upon those countries who refuse to part with their rags, in order
to induce free exportation if possible. We consume enormous quantities of
printing paper in this country already, and the consumption is increasing, year
by year, and it will become a question of great importance within a few years
how we are to be supplied with rags. We manufacture the best paper machinery
in the world, the original design having been stolen by a Yankee mechanic who
worked in a paper mill in England several months, and obtained drafts of the
machinery and the secret of heating the revolving cylinders by steam. The
original machine was immensely improved by the Yankees when they began to
make paper by machinery, and they soon began to export to England the im­
proved machines, the rough model of which they had stolen from that country.
The Yankees ought now to help the world out of this rag difficulty by inducing
those countries which refuse to abandon their “ old habits ” to export rags with­
out restrictions. They may exercise some diplomatic influence, without doubt,
on the other side of the water, in concert with England.

COTTON SPINDLES.

The following is a table of the recent increase in the number of spindles in
cotton factories at the E ast:—
IN C R E A S E

OF S P IN D L E S

Fall River.................................
Sprague....................................
Williamsville, R. I ................. .
Masonville, E. I .....................
Slater, R. I ..............................
Ashland....................................
Fall River................................
Fall River, Robeson...............
Taunton. Dean & C o.............
T. J. Hill, R. I.........................
Edward Hariis, R. I .............
Harmony, Cohoes..................
Ogden, Cohoes....................... . . . .
Warren st., R. I .....................
Indian Orchard........................
Hamilton M. C o .....................
Everett.....................................
Pemberton...............................
Pembroke................................
Blodget Paper........................
Amoskeag...............................
Androscoggin.........................

S IN C E

SEPTEM BER

U
U

((
(«

“

“

U

u

Total...........................................................................

1, 1859.
Spindles.
80,000
10,000
5,000
5,000
2,000
5,000
13,000
6,000
9,000
6,000
20,000
6,000
4,000
10,000
18,500
12,000
15,000
20,000
12,000
15,000
8,000
40,000
273,500

No.
80
32
35
36
14
21
30
30
28
36
18
36
32
36
28
33
14
14
32
30
16
25

Pounds
per day.
4,000
1,250
536
521
857
1,190
2,000
800
1,336
625
6,111
625
500
1,042
2,808
1,454
6,423
8,571
1,600
2,000
2,750
7,200
54,234

Many other extensions are projected—among them by the Neamkeag Manu­
facturing Company, about 33,000 spindles—also Wamsutta, Blackstone, Pacific,
etc., about 70,000 spindles more.*




* Changed to print cloths, and now in operation.

Journal o f M ining , Manufactures, and A rt.

379

SILVERING LEAD TUBING.

Many attempts have been hitherto made to silver the interior of lead and
other tubing employed in mineral water apparatus and for other purposes, by
the voltaic process, but it has hitherto been found impossible to effect a uniform
deposition beyond a short distance from the ends of the tubing. The object of
this invention is to obtain by such process a uniform deposition of the silver on
every part of the interior of a piece of tubing of any length, and to this end
the invention consists in the employment as the bath or decomposition cell of the
tube itself; also in the use, for the purpose of conducting the galvanic current
aud for replenishing the supply of the coating metal, of a rod or wire passing
through the tube in the direction of its length ; also in the extension or stretch­
ing of the tube and central conductor by means of screw threads and nuts, or
their equivalents attached to their ends, for the purpose of keeping them straight,
and thereby providing for the more ready insertion of the central conductor
within the tube, and for the prevention of metallic contact; also in the use of
non-conducting supports between the interior of the tube and the exterior of
the central conductor, for the purpose of preventing the conductor coming in
contact with the tube, and preserving a uniform distance between them in all
parts; also in providing for the movement of the central conductor and its non­
conducting supports within the tube to permit the deposition of the metal on
all parts of the interior of the lead pipe, which could not take place if the sup­
ports were stationary ; and lastly in connecting the poles of the battery at op­
posite ends of the tube and central conductor to insure uniformity of deposit
throughout the whole length of the tube.

GAS-LIGHT COMPANIES OF. THE UNITED STATES.

The American Gas-light Journal has the following interesting returns:—
The annual tables of gas-light companies will be found in this issue, the most
notevvorthy features of which are the decrease in the price of gas in several of
the cities, and a slight increase in the number of gas-works in operation, as fol­
lows:—
381 American companies.........................................................................
23 Companies in British provinces.........................................................
19 Cuban, Mexican, and South American companies.................... ....

$47,911,215
2,112.040
6,500,000

423 companies ; aggregate ca p ita l........................................ ................

$56,523,255

There is no question that the lower the cost at which good gas—of say twelve
candles or higher brilliancy— is furnished, the greater will be the consumption,
and necessarily the greater the profits to the manufacturers. This is beginning
to be understood by gas companies, and the sooner it is acted upon, the better
we are sure it will be for themselves. The paucity of gas-works on this exten­
ded continent must strike every reader. Take New York for instance—the
Empire State of the North American Confederation, with its area of 46.000
square miles, or 30,030,000 acres, of which 15,000.000 are improved ; its extreme
length nearly 480 miles, and its breadth 310 miles; with a population of at least
4,000,000, distributed in nearly 800,000 of families, occupying, perhaps, 600,000
dwellings, in 45 counties, with 71 gas-works to light them up. That is not much
more than a gas-work to every county in the State.
New York is filled with populous and thriving cities, towns, and villages,
every one of which— we need hardly except one, whose inhabitants number 500




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Journal o f M ining , Manufactures, and A rt.

persons— can support gas-works. Look at Pennsylvania, with an equal area of
territory—46,000 square miles, or 29,440,000 acres, of which some 10,000,000
are improved, and about 4.000,000 of population. Pennsylvania has 63 counties
and but 48 gas-works, and yet we believe the actual capital in gas-works owned
in Pennsylvania 13 greater than in any other State, not excepting New York.
Massachusetts has 49 gas-works, with a territory to light up of 8,000 square
miles, or 5,000,000 of acres, of which, perhaps, 2,500,000 are cultivated, and a
population of about 2,000,000.
Illinois has 55,400 square miles of area and 13 gas-works. No State in the
Union is more blessed with jaunty little towns and enterprising people. Every­
body goes to Illinois to work, and it is time they set to work at striking a light.
Ohio measures, in area, 40,000 square miles, and numbers 87 counties. She
has 30 gas-works, but then, Ohio is full of pigs, and it would be a reflection upon
that useful branch of illuminating material to slight their well tried ability to
keep the wiek-ed portion of the community from utter darkness; we do not pro­
pose. therefore, to grumble at Ohio.
Great Britain, on the other hand, has 88,000 square miles and about 1,100
gas-works. Why is it that Great Britain, with not twice the area of territory
contained in the single State of New York, should have fifteen gas-works to
our one, and three times as many on her little island as there are in the whole
United States combined? We have, surely, plenty of money and abundance of
enterprise. The subject of extending the area of gas dom in this country is
beginning to attract the attention of moneyed men, and they may rely upon it
that a more sure and profitable investment is not to be found here or elsewhere.
A hundred thousand dollars invested in three or four village gas-works will yield
revenue enough for any reasonable man during his sojouru here below, and be a
neat little monument to leave to his affectionate heirs when his own light shall
have been extinguished by the waves of relentless Time. We repeat that, in
order to moderately light the various towns on this continent, there are not less
than twenty thousand gas-works yet to be built, and, instead of concentrating
the interest in mammoth corporations, they should be of moderate size and ex­
tent, economically built, honestly managed, and, by the reasonable price at which
they furnish light, they should and inevitably will become the ouly means of
meeting that universal want.

THIMBLE MAjVUFACTURIJJG,

The process of manufacturing thimbles with the latest improvement, is as fol­
lows :—
Sheet iron, one twenty-fourth of an inch thick, is cut into strips of dimensions
suited to the intended size of the thimbles. These strips are passed under a
punch press, whereby they are cut into disks of about two inches diameter, tug­
ged together by a tail. Each strip contains one dozen of these blanks, and these
are made red hot, and laid upon a mandrel nicely fitted to their size. The work­
man now strikes the middle of each with a round faced punch, about the thick­
ness of his finger, and thus sinks it into the concavity of the first mandrel. It
is then transferred successively to another mandrel, which has five hollows of suc­
cessively increasing depth, and, by striking it into them, it is brought to the
proper shape. This rude thimble is then stuck into the chuck of a lathe, in order
to polish it within; it is then turned outside, the circles ma-ked for the gold
ornament, and the pits indented with a kind of milling tool. They are next an­
nealed, brighteued, aud gilded inside, with a very thin cone of gold leaf, which
is firmly united to the surface of the iron by the strong pressure of a smooth
steel mandrel. A gold fillet is applied to the outside, in an annular space turned
to receive it, being fixed by pressure at the edges into a minute groove formed
on the lathe.




Journal o f M ining, Manufactures, and A rt.

381

COOLING o r METAL CAUSING IT TO HEAT ITSELF.

It is generally known that the cooling of one end of a piece of metal generally
cools other parts of the same piece of metal, by the power which the metal has
of conducting heat from the warmer to the cooler parts. But when some metallic
substance, as steel, cools to some certain temperature, which is different for dif­
ferent substances, some change iu the structure of the substance commences at
some point or points, which change generates heat; and this change extends from
the point or points of beginning, through other parts, and heats other parts of
the substance. The temperature at which this spontaneous heating commences
in steel, is that at which the steel appears only a little reddish on a cloudy day.
This rise of temperature depends on the portions and state of the iron and car­
bon which compose the steel. Prof. H o r s f o k d says he used an iron rod, and
did not perceive that one end of his rod was warmed by the cooling of another
part. Common wrought iron does not contain enough carbon to produce much
of this spontaneous heating. But the portion of carbon which exists in common
good steel, is large enough to produce a rise of temperature sufficient to be per­
ceived without any thermometer, by the following process. This is seen by
using a bar of steel about one-eighth of an inch thick and one inch or more wide.
Heat one end of such bar nearly white hot, without warming its other end much,
as blacksmiths heat steel, by keeping it somewhat screened from the air while in
the fire, to prevent much oxide from forming on it, next move it from the fire
into a dark place. After some parts cool from light red to dark red, they will
reheat to light red. Such spontaneous heating may be shown less perfectly by
heating a knife blade in a common fire, and suddenly moving it into a dark place.

THE AMERICAN PUMP.

“ Necessity” is said to be “ the mother of inventionsbe this as it may, Ameri­
cans are an inventive people, as is shown by the fact that nearly 29,000 patents
have been issued by our government; of this vast number, only a small propor­
tion have reached a handsome remunerative eminence. Among those of real
merit and general utility, may be placed “ The American Pump,” owned by Mr.
James M. E dney , 147 Chambers-street. Though in its infancy, it has gained a
wide and durable reputation, not only in America but abroad. The Patrie a
daily Paris paper, gives a very flattering notice of this pump, one of which had
been tried by several scientific gentlemen near Paris ; it says, “ the unanimous
opinion of the entire party was, that it was the most perfect pump ever invented,
being unequaled in simplicity, economy, and durability.” A leading London
house has given an order for that market, and the proprietor has just sent one to
a town in Turkey of 30,000 inhabitants, where a pump was never seen. Cuba,
California, Central America, are ordering it for general use by hand and power.
Every State in the Union has more or less of these pumps at work. It is a
double-acting force pump, and the whole construction is such as to entitle it to
pre-eminent merit, for while it is the simplest, it is the most powerful, either to
raise, force, or throw water to any desired height or distance, and is adapted to
almost every purpose, and economical in price.




Statistics o f Agriculture, etc.

382

STATISTICS OF AGRICULTURE, &c.
VIA’ YARDS OF FRANCE.

The value of land in the valley of the Loire varies considerably throughout
Touraine. A t Pitiuviers. for instance, which lay on our left, the price per En­
glish acre is £35, and the produce £8 per acre; at Chambord, £25 per acre,
and the produce £8 8s.; while at Amboise the produce usually reaches £5 12s.
per acre, and the price of land £43. A t Chambord, near Blois, we find about
two thousand acres of vinery, and all under the eye at once upon a blowing
sand. Quitting Orleans, the railway conducts us along the right bank of the
Loire. The valley is broad through which w»e run, varied by moderate high
hills, and the scenery to Tours is charmingly sunny.
The slopes to the Loire are covered with vinyards, and its waters being thrown
into strong currents here and there by the presence of islands, has hollowed out
the yellow cliffs that confine them. The best wines produced in the Orleanois
are to be found near St. Ay. Leaving Blois, with its historic castle, impreg­
nable, on one steep slope, and passing Amboise, the eye, wandering over a dead
level, is attracted by what appears to be the towers of a vast cathedral, rising
alone and solemnly. The imagination becomes active, and at last a city fills the
space, which to our fancy had seemed the precincts of a solitary temple. It is
Tours; and as we look about amongst its stately streets we are reminded of
what we have read of this cradle of the French monarchy.
Proceeding to Poictiers, it is noticeable that the lands are cultivated by oxen
in pairs, without either driver or reins. Poictiers is a picturesque town, abound­
ing with antiquities. On we.go, through vine-clad slopes and fertile country,
yet well manured by many a gallant army massacred in the name of ambition
or religion ; run very near the thriving Angouleme, perched upon a hill top ;
cross the Dordogne, a large tidal river, at Liburne ; intersect the tongue of land
entitled “ Entre Deux Mers,” which is a fertile district, chiefly laid out in vin­
yards and corn-fields, and scattered over with country seats; and finally glide
into Bordeaux along the right bank of the Garonne, the wooded and vine-clad
heights of Floirac forming a striking picture.
Here we are, then, at the seat of what we term in England the “ claret ” wines,
a particular manufacture, and which consists of adding to each hogshead of
Bordeaux wine three or four gallons of Alicant, and a small quantity of Her­
mitage. Bordeaux, the second seaport of France, containing 124,000 inhabi­
tants, is well situated for carrying on a trade, principally in wine and hemp, w ith
North and South America, the French colonies, and Great Britain. From
50,000 to 60,000 tuns of wine are exported annually. Nearly half the best
quality is sent to Great Britain, and very little of it is consumed in France.
Amongst the “ lions” of Bordeaux are the cellers of the banking wine mer­
chants, the MM. Burton and Guestier. They are two stories in height, and
commonly contain from 8,000 to 9,000 casks of wine.
The vinyards of the Cordelais extend between the 43d and 45th degrees of
latitude, and consist of one million of acres, which produce an immense quantity
of wine of all qualities. Be it remembered that the French people, in thus sup­
plying their own beverages, are not using their best soils—their corn soils—as




Statistics o f A griculture, etc.

383

we do in England, but soils that sometimes, owing to position, and always to
quality, will not produce anything else. Such soils as support the vine in France
are in England quietly given over to furze and rabbits.
The growths of the Bordelais may be divided into Medoc, Graves, Palus, and
Vignes Blanches, which furnish wines of prime quality. To these may be ad­
ded those of the Territories known as Entre-deux-mers, Bourgeais, and St.
Emillion, the growths of which are of secondary order.
Medoc, in the department Gironde, which we find contains 350.000 acres of
vinyard, cultivated by 80.000 proprietors, and yielding an annual produce of
56,000,000 gallons, is a long tongue of land, nowhere more than two miles
broad, extending northwards between the Garonne on the east and Bay of Bis­
cay on the west.
The vines of St. Estephe, and those of Lafitte, both on the same soil, produce
wines to which very different values are attached in the market. The qualities
of wine are, too, very dependent upon seasons. The goodness of a season will
sometimes raise a secondary to prime wine, or its unpropitiousness, on the other
hand, may debase a premier quality to the rank of a third or fourth. When
they are not reputable, so necessary is it to maintain the character of the vari­
ous vinyards with the best customers, that exportation to England ceases, and
Holland takes them, or they are retained in France. So well is this understood,
that some years back “ the proprietor of the vinyard La Bose used to hoist, on
a flag-staff above his house, the English flag in good years, the Dutch in mid­
dling years, and the French in bad years.”
The vine begins to produce at five years of age, and will, when the soil is deep
and congenial, continue to flourish with unabated vigor two hundred years. Its
roots have been known to descend, in pursuit of nourishment, to a depth of from
twenty to thirty feet. The best species of the red grape is the verdot. Those
cultivated for white wines are sauvignon, rezinot, and semillon.
The value of land in this district rises from £60 to £200, the produce in some
cases £15 per acre, and the average profit seven to ten per cent, which is decid­
edly more than, under the present system of cultivation, is yielded on the best
lands of France by corn cultivation.
AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.

Mr. I rvine, of the British legation at Washington, in conformity with instruc­
tions, has made a report to authorities at home, upon the state of agriculture in
this country. He notices the small crops produced here in comparison with the
amount of cultivable land and our large population, and reasons upon these
things, as follows :—
The immense extent of territory, and the comparative scantiness of the popula­
tion, have induced a good deal of carelessness in the cultivation of the soil. The
price of land being low, the proprietors have found it more economical to work
out their land than to expend their capital in manures and other means for pre­
serving its productive qualities; and when the soil has become exhausted, the
owners have left it for some new settlement. The consequence of this has been
that, instead of full and abundant crops, in many parts of the older settled por­
tions of the country, the fields do not yield at present half as much as formerly,
and in many localities not a third, nor even a quarter, as much ; and that, not­
withstanding the advantages of climate, the facility of transport to available
markets, and the lightly taxed condition of farmers and planters, the ratio of in­
crease in agricultural products of the United States is not in proportion to the
increase of population.




384

Statistics o f Agriculture, etc.
SUGAR ESTATES OF CUBA.

The Cuban Messenger gives the following account of the principal sugar es­
tates in the island :—
81ze in Crop in
Mere*

Acana, Jurisdiction of Matanzas, proprietor Don Jos6 E. Alfonso........ .............. .
Aguica, or Santa Teresa, jurisdiction oi Cardenas, proprietor Count Fernandina
A lava, jurisdiction of Cardenas, proprietor Don Julian Zu lu eta.............................
Armenia, jurisdiction of Matanzas, proprietor Don Miguel Aldam a......................
Asuncion, jurisdiction of Mariel, proprietor Don Lorenzo P edro...........................
Atenas, jurisdiction of 8agua, proprietor Don Ignacio Echarte..............................
Conception, or Echeverria, jurisdiction Cardenas, D. Francisco Pedro y Herrera
Flor de Cuba, jurisdiction ot Cardenas, proprietors Messrs. Arrietta......................
Guina de Toto. jurisdiction of Trinidad, proprietor Don Justo G. Cantero..........
Intr6pido, jurisdiction of Cardenas, proprietor Don Miguel Cardenas y Chavez.
Monscrrate, jurisdiction of Cardenas, proprietor Count Santavenia...............
Narciso, jurisdiction of Cardenas, proprietor Count Penalver..................................
Ponina, jurisdiction of Cardenas, propi ietor Don Fernando D iago........................
Progreso, El. jurisdiction of Cardenas, propiietor Marquis of A rcos....................
San Marlin, jurisdiction of Cardenas, proprietor D. Fiancisco Pcdriuo y Herrera
San Eafael, jurisdiction of Matanzas, proprietors Messrs. Kuiz & Adelantado.. . .
Santa ltosa, jurisdiction of Matanzas, proprietor Don Domingo Aldama................
Santa Susana. jurisdiction of Cienfuegos. proprietors heirs of Parejo....................
Tinguaro, jurisdiction of Cardenas, proprietor Don Francisco Diago....................
Trinidad, jurisdiction of Matanzas, proprietor Don Estiban Santa Cruz de Oviedo
Union, juiisdiction of Matanzas, proprietors Messrs. Fernandez............ ..................
Vicioria, jurisdiction of Cardenas, proprietor Don Simon Perez de Teran............
Urumea, jurisdiction of Cardenas, proprietor Senor de Zuasuabar.........................

1,491
2.944
4,882
2,204
8,313
2,000
8,014
8.081
6,295
1,921
2,000
3,578
2,235
5,965
7,286
5,890
2,000
11, 90
1,878
1,S< 9
4,288
2,010
2,010

b o x e s . S l a v ’ s.

7,900
6,“00
20,000
6,000
6,500
6,000
17,000
18,000
6,000
8,000
7,000
10,000
15,000
8,500
15,000
6,000
8,000
16,000
18,000
7,000
10,000
7,000
10,000

360
380
600
350
400
300
412
729
4no
382
360
400
500
590
452
380
330
866
560
850
400
320
400

According to the preceding table, the production averages twenty-three boxes
per negro, or 10,000 pounds ; but, in the greater part of those estates, where
the modern machinery has not been introduced, only eleven boxes, or 4,750
pounds of sugar, can be reckoned per negro. There are above 2,000 sugar es­
tates in the whole island, and the number increases almost daily. In 1775,
there were, in all the islands, 473 sugar estates. The first sugar estate was es­
tablished in 1535.
FORESTS— THEIR DECREASE,

A rough estimate, made on the data of the census of 1850, shows that the
decrease of forests has been, since 1790, at a rate averaging 6 per cent every ten
years; but as it began much slower, it must now be fully 10 per cent, which in
thirty years will reduce the available timber lands of the United States and Can­
ada to an average of 30 per cent of their surface. (Wood for fuel is left out of
the estimate entirely.) But if it took ninety years or more to cause a dearth of
timber, we must consider that that time at least is requisite for the growth of a
timber tree, and should adopt means for carefully preserving the trees now grow­
ing, as well as to raise more for future generations. Our own time is likely to
see that scarcity, now limited to the older settled or woodless regions, become
general.
From the experience of centuries in Russia, it has been estimated that a coun­
try requires a percentage of 37$ of its surface timbered, in order to be richly
supplied ; if it has under this amount, but over 22$ per cent, it is moderately,
and il under 22 , poorly wrnoded. In Russia the circumstances of forest growth
were originally similar to those of this country, except that the '‘ steppes” or
plains of Russia lie in its south and east portions, from which they extend into
the deserts of Tartary. Russia has indeed a larger total population than the
United States, but no portion of equal extent within it is so densely settled as
Massachusetts, which had, in 1850,127$ to the square mile, while Russia Poland
had but 123, and other districts less.
But when Russia had much less population, 1649, it was found necessary to




Statistics o f Agriculture, etc.

385

pass laws for the preservation of growing timber, though nearly ail the country
north of latitude 60° was originally almost an unbroken forest, and much of it
still is so, (trees grow in Europe up to latitude 70°.) In 1750, laws were passed
and means commenced for cultivating forests ; German foresters were employed,
but after a few years were found inferior to native Russians in the business, as
the circumstances of climate were quite different in the two countries. As much
of the woodland belonged to the government, the results of the system were
found so profitable, that it was gradually enlarged in its plan and consequent
importance, until it became one of the most valuable branches of government
economy. Large schools were established, where everything relating to the sub­
ject is taught, such as surveying, botany, chemistry, meteorology, and many
minor branches. It was found, in time, that the increase in productiveness of
the forest alone covered all expenses of enlarging the plan. The importance of
the work in 1850 may be judged by these facts, viz.: 24,500,000 of woodland
have been surveyed, inventoried, and their value estimated ; 49,000,000 acres
more have been surveyed only ; 4,500,000 put under strict protection, and 30,000
drained ; 5,250,000 trees had been planted, 1,984 pound of tree seed sown. The
value of timber- saved from fires by careful surveillance was estimated at
over $500,000, (that amount being lost previously in some seasons.) The art of
causing trees to grow on the woodless steppes had-been completely established.
In the shifting sands of the desert of Alescbki, over 4,000 acres had been con­
verted to a thriving forest, supporting nearly 5,000,000 trees. Other large tracts
are gradually being planted to provide for a succession of crops in future.
Planting these steppes, and, indeed, any extensive tracts, was found to need gov­
ernment assistance, being too costly for individual profit, as in that dry climate
coniferae require 120 years and foliaceous trees an average of 60 years.
Though considered so important a subject there, the income of the country
from exportation of lumber is far les3 than here, averaging, about 1850,
$2,500,000 per annum, while here it was $1,800,000 in 1821, and rose to near
$5,000,000 in 1853. But the later years show a falling off in the increase of its
export from here, probably because it had become scarcer near our seaports.
And it deserves more consideration here when we consider that we have (with
Canada) the best and greatest variety of timber trees in the world, far excelling
in that view the forests of the old temperate world. East of the Rocky Moun­
tains, (omitting the more tropical forms of Florida only,) we have over 190 spe­
cies, of which at least 25 have no representatives in Europe or Northern Asia,
and 12 others have their allies only in Japan and China. Besides these, we have
an unequaled variety of species of pines, firs, oaks, birch, elm, ash, and others
of the most useful trees.
Between the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific coast there
are about 100 more species, and nearly all of the 300 species of the country
could be cultivated over at least two-thirds of its area with advantage.
PARCELING OF LAND IN FRANCE.

The inconvenience of parceled morsels of landed property strike the eye at
once. They are most visible in the fertile regions, where the possibility of ob­
taining a living by spade labor has availed itself most largely of the law of equal
V O L . X L III.-----N O . I I I .
25




386

Statistics o j Agriculture, etc.

partition. The soil of the entire country is said to be departed into 126,000,000
parcels. Calculating the population at 30,000,000, there are three parcels and a
half to each person ! What is this but another phase of what may still be seen
in Ireland, where, in the difficulty of apportioning a small farm equally on the
death of the holder, his children have endeavored to satisfy equity by allotting
each other several pieces of various quality ; so that no one’s lot is all together,
but scattered up and down and here and there. The French now seek some
remedy at the hands of their Legislature against this indefinite process of mor­
selling, and in the hope of seeing how their neighbors, similarly afflicted, may
contrive— not, indeed, to turn the patched coat of their country into a new gar­
ment, yet to effect some consolidation of the patches—they look eagerly for an
initiative to the neighboring States of the German Rhine, which are suffering
from the same evil and are seeking to heal it.
THE JAPANESE SUK WORM,

This species, which Mr. G u e r i n M e n e v i l l e has naturalized in Central France,
is reared in the open air, and its food, the leaf of the Japan varnish tree, pros­
pers in the poorest soils, capable of producing no grains, vines, nor grapes for
pasture. The worm demands very little care; it is exposed with impunity to
violent storms, has not been affected by the epidemic so fatal to the silk culture
in Southern Europe, and may be destined to furnish for Western countries, as it
has for many centuries in China, the silk of the people. A t the Chateau de
Leygouttier, the residence of Mr. A i g c i l l o n , a distinguished agriculturist of
Toulon, a part of these worms were raised in a close cabinet, another set in a
green-house, well aired both day and night, and a third division in the open air
upon hurdles left out doors, and on trees merely covered with a netting for proection against birds.
A t the Chateau de Coudray-Montpensir, also Count L a m o t t k B a r a c e has
had these silk worms reared in the open air on magnificent clumps of the Ja­
panese varnish tree, twelve to sixteen feet high. The cocoons obtained from
those kept exposed to all weathers are larger and richer in silk than from those
which have been protected or confined ; and at Toulon, as at Coudray, the worms
have undergone several violent storms, with beating rains and furious gusts, with­
out appearing to suffer in any way. At Coudray, after a hurricane, July 20 and
21, 1859, which broke or tore up many trees and carried away the suspension
bridge of Langeais, over the Loire, they were found next morning with the rain
flowing over them, eating and weaving their cocoons on the trees where they had
maintained themselves safely.
SILK OF ZURICH.

The report of the silk industry of Zurich gives the number of pounds ex­
ported for the six months ending June 30, 1860, at 655,640, against 561,592
lbs. last year—an increase of 15 per cent.
FLAX AND SILK IN GREAT BRITAIN.

The quantity of flax used in Great Britain in 1859 was 4,716,867 ewts., the
value being £7,257,875. Of silk, 9,290,276 pounds, value £9,754,779.




Statistics o f Population, etc.

387

STATISTICS OF POPULATION, &c.
EMIGRATION FROM THE BRITISH ISLES.

The emigration movement commenced in 1815, on the close of the great Eu­
ropean convulsions, and since that date it is calculated that 4,920,574 persons
have migrated from the British isles. Of these, 1,186,735 went to the North
American colonies, 2,960,706 to the United States, 686,899 to the Australian
group of colonies, and 86,234 to other localities. The annual average from
1815 to 1859 was 109,347, and for the last ten years 248,958, illustrating the
well known fact that of late emigration has proceeded in a greatly accelerated
ratio. It cannot fail to strike every one who glances at these figures that we
have succeeded somehow in diverting, by the excessive prices d emanded for col­
onial land, the great bulk of our emigration to the United States, although this
was formerly not the case. Thus, from 1815 to 1834, the emigration stream
flowed more freely into British America than into the United States, the emi­
grants to the former regions having been 402,681, and to the latter 268,633,
while from 1834 to the close of last year the emigration to Canada amounted
to 784,d54, and that to the United States to 2,692,072. In short, the extraor­
dinary fact appears that Canada is not so attractive an emigration field now as
it was thirty years since, the emigration thither having amounted to 6,680 last
year, and to 13,307 in 1829, while the total emigration was 120,432 last year, *
and only 31,198 in 1829. The emigration to Australia also reflects the disas­
trous policy of charging £1 per acre for land 15,000 miles from Great Britain,
while it is to be had in the United States at 5s. per acre, 3,000 miles off. Thus,
the emigration to Australia reached a total of 32,625 in 1841, and in the fol­
lowing year, when the £1 an acre was first insisted on, it fell to 8,534 ; in 1843,
to 3,478 ; in 1844, to 2,229, and in 1845, to 830. The depression of the home
agricultural interest again forced up the figures to 32,191, in 1849, and 16,037
in 1850, and the gold discoveries have since largely increased the emigration;
but it is nevertheless evident that Australia has flourished, not in consequence,
but in spite, of the policy adopted toward her.

PENNSYLVANIA CITIES.

The census returns of Pittsburg and its suburbs, it is estimated, will foot up
130,000. In the year 1850, the same territory had 88,312. Pittsburg proper
has fifty-five thousand ; the population on the south side of the river, including
South and West Pittsburg, Birmingham, East Birmingham, Monongahela, and
Temperanceville, will reach eighteen thousand ; Alleghany City thirty-five thou­
sand, and the rest is in the incorporated suburbs and adjacent townships. We
have, now most of the leading Pennsylvania cities and towns, as below :—
Philadelphia...........................
Pittsburg................................
Reading.................................
Lancaster....................................
Harrisburg..................................
Norristown..................................




650,000 Pottsville.........................
130,000 S c r a n t o D ...............................................
Y
o r k ......................................
24,000
Easton.....................................
18,000
14,862
A l l e n t o w n ...........................................
W ilkesbarre..........................
13,500

13,000
1 2 ,0 0 0

10,000
10,000
S ,0 4 7

7,989

388

Statistics o j Population, etc.
RUSSIAN EMANCIPATION.

We translate from the Gazelle du Nord the following bases of emancipation,
which that journal announces as having been adopted by a majority of the dep­
uties of the nobility, and upon which the final ukase will be issued during the
course of the present autumn :—
1. The immediate grant of individual liberty to the serfs is the more indis­
pensable, both to the landholders and to the serfs, because both consider it as
having existed in fact since the ukase which laid down the general principles of
emancipation.
2. 'The official promulgation of the individual liberty of the serfs fixes two
years as the term of probation, at the end of which time their emancipation
will be complete.
3. During these two years, the landholder shall have power to make contracts
with the serfs, as they may agree, either to sell him land in fee simple, or to lease
it to him ; but this lease shall not be for a less period than six years.
4. In case the landholder shall not have been able to come to a satistactory
arrangement with his serf at the expiration of the two years, the government
shall intervene to give to the serf the desired amount of arable land on the ex­
isting bases of the economic condition of the serfs, giving them, however, the
option of taking a less amount of land than they now occupy.
5. A local commission, appointed for the purpose, and divided into an original
and an appellate jurisdiction, shall be established to appraise, according to pres­
ent prices, the lands which are to be granted to the serfs.
6. The sum which shall thus become due to the landholder as the purchase
money of his land, shall be reimbursed by the government, either in cash or in
bonds, bearing five per cent interest.
7. As to the manner in which the government will collect these amounts, the
landholders need have no concern about it, for this will be accomplished without
their participation, and as the government shall hereafter determine.
8. Finally, as soon as the serf shall become a citizen, in consequence of eman­
cipation, the power of the landholder over him entirely ceases.
IMMIGRATION INTO THE WEST INDIES.

The immigration into the West Indies, to supply the deficiency of labor ex­
isting there, has been prosecuted on a very considerable scale of late years, more
freely than is, perhaps, generally supposed. Thus, since 1848, 5,557 immigrants
have been introduced into Jamaica, 17,165 into Trinidad, 38,921 into British
Guiana, 1;674 into St. Lucia, 895 into St. Yincent, 2,034 into Granada, 1,213
into Antigua, 852 into St. Kitt’s, and 292 into Tobago, making an aggregate
of 68,603. The immigration has been derived from the following sources:—Darien, United States, 32 ; Great Britain, 22 ; Havana, 276; Saba, 23; Sierra
Leone, 6,543 ; Kroo Coast, 273 ; St. Helena, 7,181; Bio de Janeiro, 619 ; Ma­
deira, 12,670 ; Azores, 164; East Indies, 36,091; China, 2,806 ; Cape Yerds,
1,198. Since 1848, no fewer than 192,992 immigrants have also been intro­
duced into the great sugar-producing colony of the Mauritius, nearly the whole
of them, 191,996, having been drawn from the East Indies. The transport of
the immigrants from the East to the West Indies has been attended with a ra­
ther heavy mortality. Thus, in the case of 2,927 immigrants dispatched to
British Guiana from Calcutta and Madras, in the season 1858-9, only 2,714
were landed, exclusive of seven infants born on the voyage. Of 8,713 immi­
grants into Trinidad, dispatched from the same ports, only 8,418 were landed,
exclusive of eighteen infants born on the voyage ; and of 344 persons shipped
from Calcutta to Granada, only 299 were landed. The mortality, in fact, was




Statistics o f Population, etc.

889

about seven-and-a-balf per cent on the whole number of immigrants embarked,
while in the case of British emigrants to Australia in 1856-7-8-9, the deaths
were only about one per cent. At the same time, every care appears to be
taken to secure the health of the immigrants to the West Indies, by means of
efficient ventilation, exercise in the open air, cleanliness of berths and decks, in­
spection of food, due supply of medicines, and surgical aid. The constitution
of Asiatics (who are almost unaccustomed, in remote villages, to even a sight
of the great deep) seems to be more feeble than that of Europeans, and less
fitted to endure changes of climate. The immigrants are engaged for five years,
and are hired at a fixed sum of four dollars per month ; but if, on their arrival
in the colonies, they prefer to be paid by the day, in the same way as non-con­
tract laborers, the necessary alteration is made in their contracts, and they are
placed on the same footing as to remuneration. The immigrants are provided
with a free passage, and, if any one desires it, an advance of twenty dollars is
made to him, repaid, subsequently, by deductions from his wages. Women,
when they accompany their husbands, are unfettered by any conditions.
POPULATION OF MARYLAND IN 1782,

The Baltimore American contains the following interesting paper :—
A R E T U R N O F T H E N U M B E R O F IN H A B IT A N T S IN
1 7 8 '2 .

TH E

S TA TE

OF M A R Y L A N D , T A K E N M A R C H ,

N U M B E R O F W H I T E IN H A B IT A N T S A N D F R E E M A L E S A B O V E TE N Y E A R S O F A G E IN

T H E S E V E R A L C O U N T IES O F T H E S T A T E A S T A K E N I N M A R C H ,

Counties.
St. Mary’ s ...........
Som erset...........
Calvert................
Montgomery.. . .
Washington . . . .
Caroline..............
Talbot................
Dorchester..........

Free
Number
males above of white
10 years, inhabitants.
1,773
8,459
7,787
4.012
894
2,160
10,011
11,488
2,579
1,742
7,767
6,230
1,293
1 2046,165
6,744
T478
828
8,927

1782.

Number
Free
males above of white
iUyears, inhabitants
Baltimore.............
17,b78
3,165
9,370
Anne Arundel.. .
2,229
8,561
\Vorcester.............
733
Harford.................
2,243
9,377
7,749
Cecil.......................
2,000
20,495
.
3,785
9,861
Prince George’s ...
2^259
Counties.

Total..............

35,268
E. E.

170,688

D a n l . J e n if e r .

N U M B E R O F N E G R O E S IN T H E S TA TE O F M A R T L A N D , T A K E N B Y T H E A S S E S S O R S I N M A R C H ,

Negroes
“
“
“
“

1782.
under 8 years of age.............................................................................
males and females, from 8 to 14........................................................
males, from 14 to 45..............................................................................
females, from 14 to 36 ........................................................................
males, above 45, and females,above 36..............................................

27,626
13,399
16,246
13,832
12,259

Total...............................................................................................

83,362

Test—D a n l .

J e n if e r ,

Sept. 13, 1785.

We are thus shown that, according to this census, Maryland, in 1782, had a
population of 254,052. The compendium of the United States census of 1850
puts Maryland down in 1775 as having only 174,000 ! white of course; but our
representatives in Congress, in 1774, making their estimate no doubt from the
known number of taxables, placed the whole number at 320,000. This was pro­
bably too large, but from so many returning to England, fleeing to other States,
slaves decoyed to the enemy, and soldiers slain in battle and lost by other
casualties of war during the Revolution, all this we can well understand left Mary­
land with a much smaller population in 1782 than she had in 1775.




390

Mercantile Miscellanies.

MERCANTILE MISCELLANIES.
GOVERNORS OF CUBA.

We find in the Caban Messenger of a late date the following list of the gov­
ernors of that magnificent island. Under the Spanish rule, the first governor
of this island was Don D iego V elazquez , who received the appointment from
Admiral D. D iego C olon, in 1511. He remained in office until his death in
1524. He was succeeded by the following :—
D. Pedro de Barba, in 1528.
D. Gonzalo Nuno de Guzman, 1532.
D. Juan de Rojas, (conjointly with Dona Isabel
de Bobadilla,) 1538.
D Hernando de Soto, 1539.
D. Juan de Avila, (lawyer,) 1545.
D. Antonio de Chavez, (lawyer,) 1547.
Dr. Gonzalo Perez de Angulo, 1549.
D. Juan de llinestrosa, (ad interim,) 1550.
D. Diego de Mazariegos, 1554.
D Garcia Osorio, Io65.
D. Diego de la Rivera y Cepero, 15(57.
Dr. Francisco de Zayas, (ad interim,) 1568.
D. Pedro Menendez de Aviles y Marquez, 1568.
Capt. D. Pedro Vazquez Valdez Coroado, 1570.
D. Juan Alonso de Navin, 1571.
D . Sancho Pardo Osorio, 1574.
D. Gabriel de Montvalo, 1576.
D. Diego de Soto, 1577.
Capt. D. Francisco Carreno, 1578.
D. Caspar de Torres, (lawyer,) J580.
D. Gabriel Lujan, 1584.
D . Pedro Vega de la Guerra, 1586.
D. Juan de Tejeda, 1589.
D. Juan Maldonado Barnuevo, 1596.
D. Pedro Valdez, 1602.
D. Caspar Ruiz do Pereda, (first Captain-Gene­
ra l) 1608.
D. Sancho Alquiza, 1616.
D. Geronimo Ouero, 1620.
D. Francisco Venegas, 1620.
D. Dainiau Velazquez Contreras, 1625.
D. Lorenzo Cabrera y Corbera, 1626.
D. Juan Beitrian yiamonte y Navarro, 1630.
D. Francisco Eiano y Gamboa, 1634.
D. Alvaro de Luna y Sarmiento, 1639.
D. Diego Villalba y Toledo, 1647.
D. Francisco Gelder, 1650.
D. Pedro Garcia Montanos, (military governor,)
1654.
D. Ambrosio de Soto, (civil governor,) 1654.
D. Juan Montano, 1655.
D. Jose Aguirre, 1656.
D. Juan de Salamanca, 1658.
D. Rodrigo de Flores Aldana, 1663.
D. Francisco de Avila Orejon y Gaston, 1664.
D . Francisco Rodriguez Ledesma, 1678.
D. Jose Fernandez de Cordova Ponce de Leon,
1689.
D. Andres de Munive, (military governor,) 1685.
D. Manuel de Murguia y Mena, (civil governor,)
1685.
D. Diego de Viana de Hinojosa, 16S7.
D. Severina Manzaneda y Salinas. 1689.
D. Diego de Cordova Lazo de la Vega, 1695.
D. Pedro Nolasco Benitez de Lugo, 1702.
D. Luis Chacon, (military governor,) 1703.
D. Nicolas Chirino de Vendabad, (civil gov.,) 1703.
Marshal D. Pedro Alvarez Viliarin, 1706.
Marquis de Casa Torres, 1708.
D. Luis Chacon, (military governor,) 1714.
D. Agustin de Arriola, (civil governor,) 1714.
D. Pedro Ilorruitiner, (civil governor,) 1714.
Marshal D. Vicente de Raja, 1716.
Lieut.-Col. D. Gomez de Maraver Ponce de Leon,
(ad interim,) 1717.




Brigadier-Gen. D. Gregorio Guazo, 1718.
Brigadier-Gen. D. Dionisio Martinez de la Vega,
1724.
Marshal D. Juan Francisco Guemes de Horcasitas, 1734.
D. Diego de Penalosa, 1745.
Marshal D. Juan Antonio Tineo de Fuentes, 1746.
Marshal D. Francisco Cagigal de la Vega, 1747.
D. Pedro de Alonso, (id interim,) 1760.
Marshal D. Juan de Prado Portocarrero, 1761.
Dr. D. Pedro Jose Calvo de la Puerta, and D.
Gonzalo Recio de Oquendo, as civil governors
for Spanish population during the British oc­
cupation, 1762.
Lieut.-Gen. Count de Ricla, (as extraordinary
commissioner,) 1763.
Marshal D. Diego de Manrique, 1765.
Brigadier-Gen. D. Pascual Jimenez y Cisneros,
(ad interim, as second in command.) 1765.
Lieut.-Gen. D. Antonio Maria Bucarely, 1765.
Marshal D. Felipe Fons de Viela, (Marquis de la
Torres,) 1771.
Lieut.-Gen. D. Diego Jos6 Navarro Garciay Valladares, 1777.
Lieut.-Gen. D. Juan Manuel Cagigal, 1781.
Marshal D. Juan Daban, (ad interim,) 1782.
Marshal D. Luis Unzaga, 1782.
Lieut.-Gen. Count de Galvez, 1785.
Marshal D. Bernardo Troncoso, (adinterim,') 1785.
Brigadier-Gen. D. Jose de Ezpeleta, (ad interim,)
17t?9.
Brigadier-Gen. D. Domingo Cabello, (ad inte­
rim,) 1789.
Lieut.-Gen. D. Luis de las Casas y Aragon, 1790.
Lieut.-Gen. Count De Santa Clara, 1796.
Lieut.-Gen. Marquis de Someruelos, 1799.
Lieut.-Gen. D. Juan ltuis de Apodaca, 1812.
Lieut.-Gen. D. Jos6 Cienfuegos, 18 iC.
Marshal D. Juan Maria Eeheverry, (ad interim,
as second in command of army,) 1819.
Lieut.-Gen. D. Manuel Cagisal, D19.
Marshal D. Juan M. Eeheverry, (ad interim,) 1820.
Lieut.-Gen. D. Nicolas Mahy* (died here,) 1822.
Brigadier-Gen. D. Sebastian Kindelan, (ad inte­
rim,) 1822.
Lieut.-Gen. D. Francisco Dionisio Vives, 1823.
Lieut.-Gen. D. Mariano Ricafort, 1832.
Lieut.-Gen. D. Miguel Tacon, (Duque dela Union
de Cuba,) 1834.
Lieut.-Gen. D. Joaquin Ezpeleta y Enrile, 1838.
Lieut.-Gen. Prince of Anglona, 1840.
Lieut.-Gen. D. Geronimo Valdez, 1841.
Lieut.-Gen. D. Francisco Javier de Ulloa, (ad in­
terim,) 1843.
Lieut.-Gen. D. Leopoldo O’Donnell, 1843.
Lieut.-Gen. D. Federico Ronceli, (Count de Alcoy,) 1848.
Lieut.-Gen. D. Jos6 Gutierrez de la Concha,
1850.
Lieut.-Gen. D. Valentin Canedo y Miranda, 1852.
Lieut.-Gen. Marquis de la Pezuela, 18.53.
Lieut.-Gen. D. Josb Gutierrez de la Concha,
(Marquis de la Habana,) 1854.
Captain-Gen. D. Francisco Serrano y Dominguez,
(Count de San Antonio,) 1859.

Mercantile Miscellanies.

391

TRADING TOO MUCH,

The rush, the strain, the excitement, and the fevered anxiety of those who en­
ter the great sweepstakes of business life for the purse of success, have been the
frequent subjects of the pen of the moralist, but still all hobbies are ridden at
full speed, under the lash, and with spurs driven into the rowels 1 Men will jos­
tle each other and overcrowd their own strength and energy. Money is the great
aim of all, and is as hard to obtain as the purse sometimes put at the top of a
greased pole in European countries, when hundreds fail to secure it before one is
shrewd enough to put sand on his hands and feet before he attempts to climb.
Too much effort—too much expansion—too much business—is as fatal as supine­
ness or over-caution. Hence there is a great deal of force in the following arti­
cle from the Cincinnati Times, of a recent date
We are not disposed to croak and cavil over the times—hard though they
may be. It is a good thing to have the money market tight for it makes men
prudent and cautious. More men are ruined by doing too much business than
by too little. Trading and talking are the great American characteristics, both
of which we are apt to indulge in excessively. Now and then, very rarely, a
man may talk himself into a fortune, but oftener he talks himself out of one.
In prosperous times men enlarge their business, are tempted into new operations,
and generally carry more sail than they can bear ; consequently they very soon
run into breakers—strike, founder, or go down ! This is the brief career of more
than one merchant in our own community. We do not need to cite examples in
New York or Philadelphia. To be a good merchant requires coolness aDd cal­
culation. It is a wise man who knows when he has done enough. It is a pru­
dent man who takes advantage of rising tides, and watches well the ebb.
Long credits are a serious damage. All credit is unsafe. No man can trust
out his goods, and get along by hiring money on the street. Debt in the city
and debts in the country are different things. In the city men are prompt.
Notes must be paid on the day of their maturity. In the country this prompt­
ness of business is unknown. The country trader feels no compunction if his
paper is overdue a week or so. Perhaps he forgets that the note, being indorsed
and in the bank, is liable to protest. The city merchants are compelled to give
credit, they say! Formerly there was a competition in cash trade ; now the
idea seems to be who can get rid of the most goods “ on time.”
We need more producers. As old John Unit says, a “ population consuming
and not producing, can never be made to pay,” and John is right. The real
wealth of a nation is its labor. A country may abound in natural gifts, but the
hand of toil must bring them forth. There are too many traders in the United
States already, and they trade too much. The balance is against us over the
water. Our corn and wheat, and beef and pork, will not pay for our articles of
imported luxury, which we would be better off without. If we would trade, we
must have capital, and capital must be worked out from the earth. Therefore
we require more farmers, more producers, more toilers. Trading on credit is a
fallacy which men sooner or later find out to their sorrow.
It is the easiest matter in the world to trust out goods to country merchants,
but the work of collecting is an intolerable nuisance ! Debt is a hard mast er.
He is intolerant and slow to be satisfied. How he dogs a man’s footsteps like
some hungry shadow. Debt is reciprocal. If country customers do not pay up
prompt, our merchants cannot pay their Eastern debts without borrowing, whieh
is the worst business that ever a human being engaged in. “ He that goes a
borrowing goes a sorrowing,” says Poor Richard. Almost any business man
now-a-days can testify to the truth of the maxim. Great troubles come from the
feverish haste to get rich, evinced by the American people. Thus they over­
trade, and run into wild speculations, make great strikes now and then, but
where one succeeds ten go to the bottom. Too much trading is bad business—
it don't pay !




392

Mercantile Miscellanies.
THE COST OF RECOVERING A DEBT,

A Western paper gives the following illustration ot the operation of law
upon debt:—
A gentleman was leaving the city for a brief period, and gave a black boy,
to whom he was indebted, an order on a friend for the amount of the debt— six
dollars. The boy knew nothing about orders, and never presented it. When
the gentleman returned he was surprised by a summons to be and appear at the
office of a certain justice to answer the aforesaid claim of six dollars. On the
morning appointed for the trial he appeared and found the court ready to pro­
ceed—the plaintiff grinning behind the back of a young attorney, and a brace
of constables armed with big clubs ready to knock down aDd drag in witnesses
by the score if they were needed. lie cut short the matter at ouce by acknowl­
edging the justice of the claim, and offering to pay, provided the suit was with­
drawn. The black boy grinned and nodded, but this proceeding did not suit the
court. The gentleman swore he would not pay any cost, and as he was one who
carried his estate in his pocket, the court knew he was in a condition to keep his
word. But the “ court knew herself,” and after a little cogitation rendered
judgment for the debt against the defendant, and for costs against the plaintiff.
The six dollars was received and credited on the docket, and the darkey has
been ever since sweeping out the room of the young lawyer who collected the
debt in payment of his fee.
The Boston Transcript, of a similar date, has the following very appropriate
remarks in the same direction. Tribunals of arbitration and adjustment must
soon supersede this expensive kind of “ game of chance,” which is spread like a
net to swallow the profits of business :—
We have no disposition whatever to bring our courts into disrepute with the
people ; they are a necessary evil; they certainly are a benefit; they restrain
much vice on the criminal side, and do something in the way of justice on the
civil side. But from the very nature of the human reason, they are unreliable
sources of power, and men, if they have differences, had better exercise a spirit
of compromise towards each other, than trust to any court on the face of the
earth. The habit which the vulgar indulge in of abuse of the lawyer, is alto­
gether without justification. By the “ vulgar” we mean those persons who
know nothing-of science, and the great difficulties in the way of arriving at
anything like harmony in the pursuit of knowledge. The lawyer has his
bread to earn—he has passed through (if he is a lawyer) an amount of thinking
which entitles him to a living ; if a case offers for which he sees any chance
with a judge or jury, though it may be a “ hard case,” who can blame him for
making a good fee if he has the ingenuity so to marshal authorities in behalf of
his distressed client, as to sustain his suit ?
When persons “ go to law,” they know perfectly well, or ought to know, they
have nothing to expect but law—and what this may turn up to be is altogether
problematical in general practice, depending something on the state of the weather,
and something on the digestion of judges and juries, and much on the ability of coun­
sel. It is no use to litigate with a dull lawyer, on small fees—for such a fellow
damages the case, if he does not lose it. Law being a game of chance, an expert
only should play to win. As a game of chance, we look upon jurisprudence as
an exceedingly clever institution ; it exercises the intellect of those who love dis­
putation, and who can do less mischief in law than they would be able to affect
out of i t ; it is a sort of clapper on the exuberance of genius, for law is a most
wholesome discipline and check to those who thoroughly comprehend it. The
lawyer who is in the habit of looking at all objects, all human interests, as the
law bears upon them, is from the very nature of his profession con drained to a
certain degree of decorum to escape the meshes he is oftentimes only too happy
to see others fall into. No lawyer of any standing would care to subject him­
self to a process either civil or criminal, and hence it is that, as a class, these




Mercantile Miscellanies.

393

men are as unexceptionable as the law, which is not saying much in their behalf;
still, it is much more than can be said of many other orders of men.
Let this indiscriminate abuse, then, of lawyers, so common among the mid­
dling classes, no longer obtain. Their business is to make the most of princi­
ples as their clients’ interests may suggest; and if they are smart enough to
manage hard cases successfully, the censure should not be visited on them, but
on the fact that the human reason, in the abstract, is without any permanent
and undeviating apprehension of the idea of justice. Circumstances are of such
a variety of forms and shading, that they are susceptible of being worked up
byj a subtil genius into almost any conceivable aspect of right, and hence the
difficulty of settling much in law, while circumstances are so powerful to con­
trol it.
JVO EXCELLENCE WITHOUT LABOR.

There is perhaps no general principle more fully established than this—that
there is no excellence without labor; nothing great or noble has ever been ac­
complished without hard, persevering labor ; no great enterprises have been car­
ried out without labor. How did A lexan d er become one of the greatest war­
riors of antiquity, the conquerer of all the then known world, who wept when
there were no more worlds to conquer ? How did C^ sar extend his conquests
until he made Koine the mistress of the world? How did N apoleon —at the
mention of whose name the heart of the Frenchman even now thrills with feel­
ing, and his eye kindles with emotion—starting in life with no friend but his
sword, fight his way upward till he became Emperor of France ? How did he
at the head of his army, go forth to couquer and astonish the world by the num­
ber and greatness of his victories, and make Europe tremble at his progress?
How did these men accomplish so much? They were ambitious, they wished to
achieve for themselves a name as great military chieftains, and in the pursuit of
this object they spared no labor, they underwent hardships and privations; in
short, they sacrificed everything at the shrine of their idol ambition.
N apoleon when about to lead his army over the Alps, said to the engineer
who had been sent forward to ascertain the possibility of the undertaking—
“ Is it practicable?”

“ It is barely practicable,” was the reply.
“ Let us set forward, then,” said N apoleon .
They did set forward, and that extraordinary undertaking, which won the ad­
miration of the world, was successfully accomplished. This short conversation
furnishes an index of N apoleon ’s character. It discloses the secret of his suc­
cess, his indomitable energy and perseverance in whatever he chose to undertake.
With regard to intellectual greatness, it is especially true that there is “ no
excellence without labor.” No man ever rose from a humble position in life to
that of a distinguished scholar or great man, great in the true sense of the word,
without much labor. All the great men that have every lived, men of learning
and disciplined minds, became great .by their own exertions. They did not
hesitate to make sacrifices, to undergo hardships, to expose themselves to per­
secution and ridicule in the pursuit of knowledge. They felt that knowledge was
a priceless gem, an immortal prize for which they were seeking, one which would
not desert them at death, but which, if rightly used, would conduct them to
happier worlds above; and in the pursuit of this object, they scorned whatever
had a tendency to divert their attention from this, their beloved pursuit. These
great men frequently met with ridicule and persecution. Their motives and con­
duct were not understood and appreciated by the men of their age. It remained
for after generations to honor and immortalize their names, and reap the reward
of their labors. To them we are indebted for all the great discoveries and inven­
tions that have benefited mankind, and for whatever civilization and refinement
we now possess.
Numerous instances might be given to show' that there is no intellectual great­
ness wdthout labor. N ew ton , the great philosopher, when asked how he had
succeeded in making so many important discoveries, replied—“ by thinking.”




394

M ercantile Miscellanies.

By profound study and thought this great man succeeded in tracing from
'the trifling occurrence of an apple falling from a tree, the laws which govern the
motions of the heavenly bodies. By observation and study C olumbus became
convinced of the globular shape of the earth, and sailing westward, discovered
a new world. F ranklin , after much observation and study, succeeded in estab­
lishing the identity of lightning and electricity, proving that lightning is only
electricity on a large scale, thus adding to his fame as a statesman, that of a
philosopher. What difficulties and hardships did the late Dr. K ane pass through
in acquiring the admiration and renown everywhere so deservedly paid to his
name. Possessed in childhood of a feeble constitution, he overcame, as it were,
by the strong power of his will, his natural predisposition to disease, passed
through a seven years’ course of study, and at an early age graduated with high
honor as Doctor of Medicine, having been characterized throughout as a thorough
student. It was there that he acquired that mental discipline and well balanced
judgment that so well qualified him for the duties that afterwards devolved on
him as commander of an expedition to the frozen seas.
These examples are sufficient to teach us that would we ourselves become
great, we must labor for it. If we would distinguish ourselves above the com­
mon mass of mankind we must labor for it. If we would acquire an education
that will fit us for usefulness and distinction, we must study, study diligently,
study thoroughly.
Lastly, if we are determined to obtain an education, no difficulties need dis­
courage us. In this case difficulties, instead of discouraging us, will, by being
surmounted, only strengthen our minds for further exertion. One writer has
said, “ The highest idea of education is the training of the mind to surmount
obstacles.” We are told of some ambitious young men, afterwards distinguished
scholars, that they acquired their first knowledge of the classics by studying at
night after their day’s w’ork, by the light of the blazing wood fire on the hearth.
Let us emulate their example, and be discouraged by no difficulties ; remember­
ing always, “ no excellence without labor.”
BENEFITS OF ADVERTISING ILLUSTRATED,

The following remarks are evidently by one who has experienced the benefits
of advertising, although the anecdote rather illustrates an evil than a benefit:—
Were a group of genuine philosophers assembled for the purpose of investigat­
ing the means whereby they derived their various acquirements, the grand
corollary of their deliberations would be, that the universal, and only possible
process of communicating knowledge is advertising. And when we regard the
fact, that the vast domain of science and art is indebted to this luminary for
light and vitality, that by its effulgence was espied the subtil clue to nature’s
law,of gravitation, and divine revelation was reflected upon the human soul, it
swells into a prolific theme of momentous importance. Volumes might be filled
with an enumeration of its advantages. Indeed, the same arguments might be
adduced in its favor as are advanced for the diffusion of knowledge.
By long observation and experience has it been discovered that to accomplish
the merchant’s object at the present day, it is indispensably necessary for him to
read the newspapers, and to advertise extensively an account and description of
his merchandise. His main object is to procure good articles at reasonable
prices, and to dispose of them as soon as possible, at a fair profit. To do this,
he must kuow what others have for sale, and make known to them what saleable
articles he has on hand. Thus, precisely as he was attracted to his particular
mart for the purchase of his stock, he will attract customers to call and buy.
ILLUSTRATION.

A practical joke which occurred in Baltimore some time since, showed this state
of facts to be true.
An advertisement appeared for “ A Porter,” to serve in a large mercantile




Mercantile Miscellanies.

395

house, No. 8 Bowly’s Wharf, corner of Wood-street, at a salary of seven dollars
a week. The scene is thus described by a cotemporary :—
At an early hour, before either clerk or proprietor appeared, there was col"
lected in front of the store a motley crowd, numbering over sixty persons, and
more were momentarily coming. They were of all colors, sizes, nations, kindreds,
and tongues. As might be expected, quite an excitement had sprung up amongst
these anxious competitors for so favorable a position and liberal compensation.
Some had letters of recommendation, others were backed up by their friends, and
all indicated the commendable desire to be first in making application, present­
ing their credentials. The clerk finally made his appearance, and was no little
surprised at seeing the premises so thoroughly besieged. It was with extreme
difficulty he could effect an entrance, and, this done, still more annoying was it
to keep the phalanx at bay. He placed himself arthwart the door and threatened
violence to all intruders. Finally the proprietor himself came in sight. His
eyes fell upon the unlooked-for crowd, and not being aware of the preliminaries,
concluded that some terrible calamity had befallen his establishment. “ My ware­
house has been on fire—robbers have perpetrated their midnight depredations—
perhaps murder most foul has occurred.” Such were his soliloquies as his pace
quickened and he reached the scene.
Necessity knows no law, and competitors in business are not very fastidious
in their respect of persons. Thus, even the proprietor himself, being unknown,
and looked upon with jealousy, found difficulty in pressing through the crowd.
It became known, however, that he was the gentleman who had advertised for a
“ Porter,'' and simultaneously almost a hundred voices asked for the situation.
A degree of surprise and consternation overcame him. He was taken all aback.
He expostulated—said no such advertisement had appeared—he wanted no porter.
Here’s the paper,” cried twenty voices, (holding forth the document.) “ and
that’s your number—see, number six ; it is in figures, and figures can’t lie.”
All this time “ the cry was still they come,” the excitement increasing, rendering
confusion worse confounded. “ Clear ou t; I have not advertised—I want no
porter,” were the exclamations. Finally, and with great difficulty, a breathing
spell was gained, and by dint of extra eloquence the anxious seekers-after employ
were made to understand that some wag had played a practical and we must say
rather an annoying joke upon the merchant, by inserting the advertisement with­
out authority. A t a late hour this morning applicants were still calling, and it
was as much as one person, as clerk, could do to make necessary explanations,
and dispatch them.
TRADE AJVD POPULATION AMONG THE CHIEF EUROPEAN STATES.

We give below a table showing the trade of the principal European States, up
to the latest dates, compiled by M. C hemin D dpontes, an able French statist,
and recently presented by him to the Ministry of Commerce for France :—
Population.
Hanseatic Towns.................
Holland.................................. ___
Switzerland.........................
Belgium...............................
Great Britain.........................
Sardinia............
France...............
The Zollverein....................... ___
Austria...................................
Russia in Europe.................
Total............... ..............




3,451,000

32,700,000

Value of trade
in francs.
3,110,000,000
1,600,000,000
900,000,000
1,819,000,000
8,350,000,000
843,000,000
5,329,000,000
2,200,000,000
1,811,000,000
1,100,000,000

Value of trade
per capita.
$127 00
88 50
72 00
67 00
57 50
29 50
27 09
13 25
7 80
3 00

27,062,000,000

$24 75

396

Mercantile Miscellanies.
TOBACCO.

The Dean of Carlisle has recently delivered a lecture in England upon the sub­
ject of tobacco, from which are gathered some interesting statistical information
concerning the use of the weed in that and other countries.
In 1856, 33,000,000 lbs. of tobacco were consumed in England, at an expense
of £800,000 or $4000,000, to say nothing of vast quantities smuggled into the
country. There is a steady increase upon this consumption, far exceeding the
contemporaneous increase of population In 1821, the average was 11.70 oz.
per head per annum ; in 1851. it had risen to 16.36, and in 1853 to 19 oz., or at
least at the rate of an increase of one-fourth in ten years.
There are 12 city brokers in London, expressly devoted to tobacco sales ; 90
manufacturers. 1.569 tobacco shops, 7,380 workmen engaged in the different
branches of the business, and no less than 252,043 tobacco shops in the United
Kingdom. And if we turn to the continent, the consumption and expenditure
assume proportions perfectly gigantic. In France much more is consumed, in
proportion to the population, than in England. The emperor clears 100,000,000
francs annually by the government monopoly.
In the city of Hamburg 40,000 cigars are consumed daily, although the pop­
ulation is not much over 150,000 ; 10,000 persons, many of them women and
children, are engaged in their manufacture; 150,000,000 of cigars are supplied
annually ; a printing press is entirely occupied in printing labels for the boxes
of cigars, etc., and the business employs £4,000,000, or $20,000,000.
In Denmark the annual consumption reaches the enormous average of 70 oz.
per head of the whole population ; and in Belgium even more—to 73 ozs., or
3.6 lbs. per head.
It is calculated that the entire world of smokers, snuffers, and chewers con­
sume 2,000,000 of tons of tobacco annually, or 4,480,000,000 lbs. weight—as
much in tonnage as the corn consumed by 10,000,000 Englishmen, and actually
at a cost sufficient to pay for all the bread-corn in Great Britain. Five-and-ahalf millions of acres are occupied in its growth, the produce of which, at two
pence per pound, would yield £37,000,000 sterling, or $185,000,000.
The time would fail to tell of the vast amount of smoking in Turkey and Per­
sia. India, all classes and both sexes indulge in the practice. The Siamese
both chew and smoke. In Burmah all ages practice it—children of three years
old, of both sexes. China equally contributes to the general mania ; and the
advocates of the habit boast that about one-fourth of the human race are their
clients, or that there certainly are 100,000,000 of smokers.
Tobacco is, next to salt, probably the article most consumed by men, in one
form or another, but most generally in the form of fume or smoke. There is no
climate in which it is not consumed, and no nationality that has not adopted it.
In the words of Pope, on a higher subject, it may be said to be partaken of “ by
saint, by savage, and by sage.” The civilized European and some American
nations are the smallest consumers of tobacco of any people, in consequence of
its being everywhere, with them, an object of heavy taxation ; of its being very
generally a foreign commodity, or high-priced because raised in uncongenial cli­
mates ; and, finally, its being confined in use, for the most part, to the male sex.
In New York city there are about 200,000 smokers, each using two cigars
per diem, which make 400,000 every day. These will cost, for labor alone, at




Mercantile Miscellanies.

397

$5 per thousand, the enormous sum of $8,760,000 annually, when made by
hand.
There are imported into New York, annually, 12,000,000 lbs. of tobacco, dis­
tributed at follows :—Connecticut, 10,000 cases of 400 lbs each ; Pennsylvania
6,000 cases, 400 lbs. each ; Ohio, 10,000 cases, of 370 lbs. each. Prom New
York to Massachusetts, 5,000 cases of 400 lbs. each. We also import 6,000,000
lbs. from Havana, and a quantity from other Spanish ports ; and we are told
that, on an average, 20 lbs. of tobacco are required for every 1,000 cigars, and
we can easily calculate that there are 900,000,000 cigars made -in the city of
New York alone in a year.
ONE

PRICE.

But few things are more galling to human pride, or our self-respect, than the
consciousness of being cheated. Not so much for the value of the loss we sus­
tain as for the resentment we feel at being victimized— at being the object of
spleen, malice, or cupidity ; and whether the injury sustained affect our potket,
our reputation, or our person, the result is the same. If we fall on the ice, or
slip down on the pavement, we may be hurt, but with an unruffled temper we
gather ourselves up and make the best of it. If we drop a dollar in the river,
or lose the amount by bad speculation, we soon forget the loss, and are happy.
Not so, however, if we are pushed down, or if we are robbed or cheated of the
sum in any way. This treatment gives rise to resentment, which rankles in our
hearts until time and other cares obliterate the event from our memory. And
even these results arile not so much from the actual malice of the perpretrators,
as from our conception of the motive. We are unhappy because we believe our
neighbor intended to injure As, and as soon as we are convinced to the contrary,
our resentment ceases ; we looked upon the whole thing as an accident, and all
is over.
Well, what has all this to do with the “ one price” system? Simply this,
that every salesman ought to study human nature enough to know how to ap­
proach his customer, and the effect he has upon it.
“ O had some power the gift to gi’e us,
To see ourselves as others see us,
It would from many a trouble free us,
And foolish notions.”

Could the seller see himself as the buyer sees him, it would be of more value
to him than many dollars; and the true way to accomplish this is to study his
own nature. In doing this thoroughly he learns the whims and oddities of those
he deals with.
Now, although the legitimate sphere of our Magazine is the counting-room
rather than the church—commerce rather than religion—profits rather than morals
—mammon rather than God, still we wish to show that even in point of profit
and gain only, the one price system is better than any other—that it will secure
and retain more customers, and such as are worth retaining, than any other course
that can be adopted ; we wish to show that the opposite course is as delusive as
it is dishonest, and its legitimate effects will, sooner or later, recoil on those who
adopt it. While it is true that “ the fools are not all dead,” it is also true that
there is a very general aversion among honest men to pay more than others for
what they purchase. The man of pure intentions has not the heart to suspect
that a double price is asked for the article he is buying, and is therefore more apt
to pay it than the sharper who deals upon the same principle. The general cus­
tomer desires to deal where he will not be robbed on account of his poor judg­
ment ; and will avoid the man who will overcharge for an article as he would a
pestilence. The thought that he has been “ sold ” by a man in whom he had
placed confidence, will rankle in his heart for years, and he will not only avoid
the place, but prevent others from purchasing there. Thu3 it is, that as water
will find its level, so a man’s true character will at last be appreciated by the
world, and he will lose or gain accordingly.




398

Mercantile Miscellanies.
THE RESTLESS AND DISSATISFIED.

The following is. says the Philadelphia Inquirer, no doubt a true picture. It
illustrates in a forcible manner the restless and dissatisfied spirit which exists in
the minds of many of our young men. They are impatient, impulsive, and eager
for change, and hence they wander from place to place, and rarely fix upon a per­
manent home. Enterprise is every way commendable; but a disposition to change
upon every trifling occasion, is fruitful of much care, anxiety, and misfortune:—
A young man of moderate fortune and ability goes "West, finds a field for
speculation,-makes an investment, soon fancies himself in need of a partner to
share his fortune—in prospect! returns to the land of continuance, holds up in
bright array the beauteous landscape gilded by the imaginary lucre which comes
between the organ of vision and every object the speculator beholds. The lady
catches the inspiration, is ready to be endowed by all his worldly goods, and soon
sets about preparing to leave a home that has never known change since she was
born. Happy is she while musing upon the brilliant and glittering life that
awaits her “ out West.” Poor creature! “ Ignorance is bliss ” in' her case, at
least. She leaves the land of her birth, and is soon set down in one of our
western towns. A nice little house is soon fitted up with the most assiduous
care; the grounds around their dwelling laid out and planned, perhaps by herself,
little dreaming she is planting trees for stranger hands to rear. Time rolls on ;
each nook and corner has become dear by some fond association. The taste and
elegance displayed have only served to attract the eagle eye of some later specu­
lator who has been attracted thither and already marked it for his own.
Soon the gold is offered ; the husband hesitates ; more gold is offered ; the
bargain consummated, and away go house and home! “ Possession given imme­
diately,” so says the contract. The furniture is huddled into one corner to make
room for the new proprietor ; the wife, sent to the nearest hotel, is shown a room
scarcely large enough to contain a bed. and there she may stop and take breath,
while her husband looks around. Rumors reach his ear that away off in some
other town, perhaps further west, is a fine chance to make a fortune! lie thinks
best to sell off the heaviest articles of his furniture, as they will be cumbrous to
move. She must quietly acquiesce, even if her dear piano and all things else,
however dear, are put under the hammer of the auctioneer. She is then left to
board, while he goes in search of a new location. After a few months have
elapsed they again become settled, to remain a few weeks or months, as the case
may be. Thus it is one continual change. Perhaps a flock of little ones are
gathered around her ; if so, when the house is sold, the wife and children are sent
east to afflict their friends with a six months’ visit; and, after spending a few
hundred or thousand dollars, going here and there, back and forth, she returns to
her husband only to hear that “ business is dull; he will go and try it somewhere
else.” And thus it is, year after year.
And now, I would ask, how long must we suffer this? Can you not suggest
some means whereby we may fix their minds and induce them to have more sta­
bility ? Or must we give up, and allow speculation to fill every corner of their
heads, however large ?
FREAK OF TRADE,

The Charleston Mercury states that the steamship Nashville, from New York,
on Thursday morning, brought to this port, as part of her cargo, two hundred
bales of upland cotton, consigned to Messrs. H all & Co. The same house ex­
pect to receive shortly three hundred bales cotton by a schooner from the same
place. The five hundred bales are to form part of the cargo of a Spanish bark
now loading at this port for Barcelona. In consequence of the lowness of the
stock of cotton.on hand here at present, we are informed that an article similar
in quality to the above cannot now be purchased here, and that this unusual state
of our market has caused the above singular course of trade. Messrs. H all &
Co. have also dispatched three Spanish vessels from this port to New York within
the last few weeks, caused by their inability to purchase at this point a cargo of
cotton of the proper kind for the Barcelona market.




The Booh Trade.

399

THE BOOK TRADE.
1. —Memorials of Thomas Hood. Collected, Arranged, and Edited by his Daugh­
ter, with a Preface and Notes by his Son. Illustrated with copies from his
own sketches. 2 vols., 12mo., pp. 310, 327. Boston: Ticknor & Fields.
Lovers of poetry will ever treasure in memory “ The Song of the Shirt,” and
the gentle heart and open hand that sketched it. A friend to the suffering, to
the careworn, and the needy ; to the victims of cruel greed, and to all that are
desolate and oppressed— H ood, the generous, kind, and true. Of all the frag­
ments ever written, there have been none more popular than this. A t the time
of its first publication it was the talk of the day, and has since been translated
into French and German, printed on cotton pocket-handkerchiefs for sale, and
parodied times without number. These memorials, now presented to the public
by his children, consist principally of his letters, with explanations, amplifica­
tions, and anecdotes of his every-day life. The volumes are also illustrated by
sketches, and two fac similies, one being a sheet containing the “ Song of the
Shirt ” as it was first written out, and the other a sketch of his own monument
drawn just before death. Authorship has long been known as a hand-to-mouth
business, and among the many who have set up in it and achieved eriiineuce— I
those bright geniuses whose lines have fallen in pleasant places and become immor­
tal—few have escaped from the hands of the reviewers, in appraising the partic­
ulars as to the birth, parentage, education, life, character, and behavior with
little short of those grave charges of improvidence, want of principle, and of­
fences against morality and religion we see daily brought against literary cha­
racter. How much of truth or falsehood is usually involved in these, we are not
prepared to say ; but we have never so much as heard a syllable against he whose
memorials fill these pages. That the life of T homas H ood was not closed in re­
gret and dire uncertainty, the following stanzas, the last lines of poetry ever
written by him, will suffice :—
“ Farewell life 1 my senses swim ;
And the world is growing dim ;
Thronging shadows cloud the light
Like the advent of the night—
Colder, colder, colder still,
Upward steals a vapor chill ;
Strong the earthy odor grows,
I smell the mould above the rose ?
Welcome life 1 The spirit strives 1
Strength returns, and hope revives ;
Cloudy fears and shapes forlorn
Fly like shadows at the morn;
O’er the earth there comes a bloom,
Sunny light from sullen gloom,
Warm perfume for vapors cold ;
I smell the rose above the mould.”
2.

— History,
P rescott.

Theory, and Practice of the Electric Telegraph.
12mo., pp. 468. Boston : Ticknor & Fields.

By G eorge B.

This handsome volume, as its title indicates, is devoted to the history and de­
scription of the several systems of telegraphy which are or have been made use
of in this country, including as well descriptions of the systems ia use in Europe,
with the most approved theories of the savans of Europe and our own country,
upon the various phenomena connected with electricity, and cannot but prove
both interesting and valuable to operators and others connected with the man­
ipulations of the telegraph.




400

The Book Trade.

3. — A Run Through Europe. By E rastus 0. B enedict .
New Y ork: D. Appleton & Co.

12mo., pp. 552.

This, so the title designates, comprises the record of a hasty vacation tour
made by the author through England, Scotland, Ireland, Germany, France, and
Italy, including also the Gothic and Sclavic peoples of southern, eastern, and
central Europe. Whatever may be said of the profusion of books of this bind,
comprising “ ground made dusty by the footsteps of many generations of travelers,”
Mr. Benedict has this advantage over many of his comfreres, in being a careful
observer and graphic- narrator. He knows apparently what to see, and how to
see it, and in what manner to set forth the results of his observations—desiderata
possessed but by few of the many who go abroad and come back with enlarged
views, and minds opened to a much larger horizon after having helped to feed
the current over the great highways of travel— possessed of that cacoelhes scribendi, which though not always profitable, has the tendency of letting much of
the gas out of our conceit, and hyperbole out of our vanity.
4. — Course of Ancient Geography. Arranged with special reference to con­
venience of recitation. By H. J. S chmidt , D. D., Professor in Columbia
College, author of “ History o f Education,” “ A Treatise on (he Eucharist,”
etc. 12mo., pp. 317. New York : D. Appleton & Co.
This little work, designed for the recitation room of our higher grade of in­
stitutions, constitutes what may be properly termed classical geography, or that
portion which the student needs in his classical reading. The interest which
attaches to the geography of the ancient world arises not only from the histori­
cal, but perhaps still more from the mythological, legendary, and literary asso­
ciations connected with different regions and localities. These, therefore, fill up
much the larger space of the volume. In order to obtain the object had iu view
-—that of furnishing a text-book arranged with special reference to convenience
of recitation— the matter has been broken up into short paragraphs, which are
all numbered ; and questions referring to these, and marked by corresponding
numbers, are given in the lower margin. This arrangement will greatly facili­
tate the acqusition of the lessons by the pupils, as well as contribute much to
the saving of time in recitation.
5. — A New Practical and Easy Method of Learning the Spanish Language,
after the system of F. A hn. Doctor of Philosophy and Professor at the Col­
lege of Neuss. First American edition, revised and enlarged, llmo., pp.
149. New York : D. Appleton & Co.
6. — A Course of Exercises in all parts of French Syntax, methodically aranged
after P oitevin ’s “ Syntaxe Francaise,” to which are added Appendices, de­
signed for the use of Academies, Colleges, and Private Learners. By F red­
erick T. W ink elm an n , A . M., Professor of Latin, French, and German in
the Packer Collegiate Institute of Brooklyn, N. Y. 12mo., pp. 366. New
York : D. Appleton & Co.
7. -—Virgil's jEneid ; with Explanatory Notes. By H enry S. F rieze , Profes­
sor of Latin in the State University of Michigan. 12mo., pp. 594. New
York : D. Appleton & Co.