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T H E M E R C H A NT S ’ MAGAZINE, Established July, 1839, BY FREEMAN HUNT, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. VOLUM E XV. S E P T E M B E R , 1846. N U M B E R III. CONTENTS OF NO. III., VOL. XV. ARTICLES. ART. PACK I. P R O F I T S A N D P R E M I U M S O F L I F E I N S U R A N C E . B y Professor C . F . M ’ C a y , o f the University o f G eo rgia,..................................................................................................................................................... 2 27 n . A D M IN IS T R A T IO N O F T H E R A IL R O A D S O F M A S S A C H U S E T T S : W ith to the R ates o f Freight and Fare. By E . ID . C O M M E R C IA L R E L A T IO N S B E T W E E N During the E xisting W a r . IV . Reference H a sk e t D e r b y , o f Boston, Massachusetts,..............234 T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S AND M E X IC O : B y F . O . D o r r , o f N e w Y o r k ,...................................................................... 2 50 T H E G E R M A N Z O L L V E R E I N .............................................................................................................................2 55 V . C A U S E S O F F A I L U R E A M O N G M E N O F B U S I N E S S ,...................................................................... 260 V I. C O T T O N M A N U F A C T U R E IN S W I T Z E R L A N D . Translated from the Report o f the Commissioners o f the Sw iss Confederation on Exports and Com m erce with Foreign Countries, H65 digo de C om m ercio o f Spain. V III. W E S T E R N Translated from the C o - B y A la n s o n N a s h , E sq ., o f N e w Y o r k ,. M O U N D S ,............................................................................................................ I X . V I R G I N I A : A N D H E R G R E A T C E N T R A L I M P R O V E M E N T ............... MERCANTILE LAW 333 V n . C O M M E R C I A L C O D E O F S P A I N : T h e L a w o f Carriers by L an d . CASES. A c tio n to Recover the A m o u n t o f a Clearance B o n d ,...................................................................................................... 289 British Ad m iralty C ourt— the Concordia— S a lv a g e ,.......................................................................................................... 289 Salvage— T h e A m erican Ship Charles W i ll ia m s ,............................................................................................................... 039 L ib el on a Charter-Party— Contract o f Affreightm ent— T h e Brig C asco,..................................................... 2 9 0 -2 9 4 C O M M E R C I A L C H R O N I C L E AND R E V I E W , EMBRACING A FINANCIAL AND COMMERCIAL REVIEW OF THE UNITED STATES, ETC., ILLUSTRATED W ITH TABLES, ETC., AS FOLLOWS : Measures o f Com mercial P olicy adopted by the Administration Party— T h e Sub-Treasury— M odifica tion o f the T a r iff o f 1842— W arehou sin g System , and the L o a n Bill— Changes effected by the T a riff— T h e Iron T rade— T h e A d V alorem Principle— Our T rade with England— Export o f T o b a cco to Great Britain— English T obacco T rad e — Facilities o f the W arehou sin g System — W estern Pro duce— Bread-stuffs from W e ste r n States— Influence o f the Currency on Com m erce— T h e S u b -T rea sury— T h e M exican W a r , etc., e tc .,................................................... V O L . X V . ------ N O . I I I . 15 294 226 CONTENTS OF NO. I I I ., VOL. XV. P IG * COMMERCIAL REGULATIONS. U n ited States T a r iff o f 1846— A c t Redu cin g the D u ty on Imports, and for other purposes,.............. 3 0 0 -3 0 7 R ed u ction o f the T a r iff o f D en m ark ,...................................................................................................................................... 307 A c t Establishing a W arehou sin g System in the United S ta tes,................................................................................... 3 08 A c t R egu latin g Imports into the U . States from the British Provinces for Export to Foreign Countries, 309 C om m ercial Relations o f the United States with M exico— Treasury C ircu lar,................................................... 310 A c t to establish the Collection District o f C h ica g o ,...........................................................................................................3 10 NAUTICAL INTELLIGENCE. L ig h ts in B an k s’ Strait, V a n D iem en ’s L a n d ,...................................................................................................................... 311 Revolvin g L ig h t on S w a n Island.— F ixed Lig h t on Goose Island.— Revolvin g Ligh t, Island o f Berm uda, 311 Port o f Lancaster, L ig h t on Island o f W a ln e y .— N e w L igh t-H ou se at Scilly, Island o f Rose V e a r ,— 311 J O U R N A L OF B A N K I N G , C U R R E N C Y A N D F I N A N C E . Incorporated B anks o f State o f N e w Y o r k — T im e o f Incorporation, Expiration o f Charter, and C ap i tal o f e a c h ,.............................................................................................................................................................. ........................... 3 12 Customs R evenue o f L iverpool, for Quarters ending Ju ly, 1 84 5 and 1 8 4 6 ,.......................................................... 313 Reduction o f the N a tio n al D ebt o f E n glan d,........................................................................................................................ 313 M ichigan State B an k , condition on the 30th June, 1 84 6 ,................................................................................................. 3 14 Revenues and Disbursements o f the British E ast In dia C o m p a n y ,.............................................................................315 F inances o f the (N e w Y o r k ) Croton A q u e d u c t,.................................................................................................................. 315 J O U R N A L OF M I N I N G A N D M A N U F A C T U R E S . Silver M ines o f A lm a d en , in Spain .— C oal M ines o f P russia,...................................................................................... 316 M an u factu re o f Cables and Cordage at M an illa.— W o o lle n M anufactures in T u r k e y ,................................... 317 U n ited States Patent Office, and Report o f 1 8 4 5 ,................................................................................................................ 3 18 Transparent M alleable Glass.— M anufacture o f Silk in N e w E n gland,................................................................... 3 18 Concentrated Extract o f M a lt and H ops.— L a k e Superior Copper M in e s,.............................................................. 3 19 Iron M ines o f Georgia.— Fitzgerald’ s T u scan Straw Braider,...................................................................................... 319 R A I L R O A D AND S T E A M B O A T S T A T I S T I C S . British M ail Steamers between Liverpool and Boston— their V oyages from com m encem ent to Jan. 1, 1846, showing the D ate o f Arrival, Length o f Passage, Passengers brought, e t c .,........................................ 320 Steam boat A tlantic, o f the N orw ich and W orcester Railroad and Steam boat C om pany,.............................. 323 Rates o f Fare on Railroads in N e w England S ta tes,.......................................................................................................... 324 Hudson and Berkshire R ailroad ,................................................................................................................................................... 3 25 COMMERCIAL STATISTICS. C om m ercial Statistics o f the United S ta tes,........................................................................................................................... 326 V a lu e o f Manufactures o f W o o l imported into the United States from 1821 to 1845, in clusive,................ 326 V a lu e o f Imports, and A m o u n t o f T on nage in Foreign T rade o f the United States, from 1821 to 1845, in clu siv e,.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 327 V a lu e o f Manufactures o f Cotton imported into the United States, from 1821 to 1845, in clusive,............327 V a lu e o f Manufactures o f Iron and Steel imported into U n ited States, from 1821 to 1845, in c lu s iv e ,... 328 V a lu e o f U nm anufactured Iron and Steel imported into United States, from 1821 to 1845, in c lu siv e ,.. . 3 28 Productions and Exports o f Java, from 1836 to 1 8 4 5 ,...................................................................................................... MERCANTILE 3 29 MISCELLANIES. T h e P o licy o f Im prisonm ent for D ebt,.........* •• •.................................................................................................................... 330 Cincinnati M ercantile Library R oom s,...................................................................................................................................... 3 30 A L arge and L iberal Merchant.— T h e British M erchant,................................................................................................ C otton-Presi— L a rg e Cargoes.— Spanish Flour in E n g la n d ,.......................................................................................... 331 331 THE BOOK T RA DE . N otices o f Tw enty-seven N e w W o r k s or Editions,.................................- .............................................................. 1 I 3 3 2 -3 3 6 H U N T ’S MERCHANTS’ MAGAZINE. S E P T E M B E R , 1846. Art. I,— PROFITS AND PREMIUMS OF LIFE INSURANCE. T he profits o f a life insurance company must arise from one o f two sources. The average mortality o f the assured must be less than that given in the tables on which the operations o f the society are based, or the investments o f the company must be more productive than is estimated in the calculation o f the premiums. Both o f these sources o f profit doubt less exist. Even the Carlisle tables, which give the expectation o f life much greater than the Northampton, do not make it as large as the expe rience o f the companies would authorize. This may not arise from a smaller rate o f mortality in our country, but from the fact that the lives are not taken at random, but carefully selected, free from hereditary diseases, and, at the time o f insurance, from any diseases that would tend to shorten life. So also with the other item o f profit. In calculating the premiums, 4 per cent is estimated as the rate o f interest, while the actual nett interest, after paying the ordinary expenses o f the company, w ill often exceed 5 per cent, especially where the investments are large, and well managed. In the mutual companies it is necessary that the premiums should be too high, so as to accumulate a fund to meet extraordinary losses from any un common mortality among the assured. Th eir official publications ac knowledge both these sources o f profit, and the safety and security o f the companies rest upon them. It may be expected, therefore, that our mutual companies w ill have something to divide among their members, and it becomes important to inquire how these profits ought to be determined, and how they ought to be divided. I f they are distributed properly and justly, it can never be important for any one to inquire whether the pre miums charged are too high, for he may be satisfied that the excess will be returned to him in the shape o f dividends. It would be wrong to consider as profits, at any given time, five years, for example, after the commencement o f the society’ s operations, all the 228 Profits and Premiums o f L ife Insurance. excess o f receipts over the expenditures in that time. For it is evident, if the assured were to apply for a second insurance, they would have to pay a larger annual premium than they had agreed to pay before, so that their present payments cannot be presumed to he sufficient to meet the future losses and expenses o f the company. As this deficiency must be made up out o f previous accumulations, it is the balance only o f the amount on hand, after laying aside a reserve for future losses, that can fairly be re garded as profits. Though this reasoning is conclusive, it may be well to look at the subject from other points o f view. Suppose the company to stop insuring, and, in the course o f time, all the assured but one should die. I f all the accumulated fund had been counted to be profits, the whole capital o f the company would have been exhausted, excepting only the profits placed to the credit o f the survivor, and there will be no means to pay his insurance but his own annual payments ; which, on account o f his advanced age, would be manifestly insufficient. Again, if the mortality o f the assured should be exactly equal to that o f the tables, and if the nett rate o f interest on the investments o f the com pany should be exactly equal to that allowed in the calculation o f the pre miums, it is evident there could be no profits ; and yet, from the smaller rate o f mortality in early life, there would certainly be accumulations in the hands o f the company. T o illustrate this by an example, suppose sixty-five persons, at the age o f twenty-one, to be insured in a mutual company, for $1,000. And suppose the mortality among the assured to be one every year, in accordance with the hypothesis o f D e Moivre, which differs but little from actual results. The premium o f $2.11, for $100, would meet all the liabilities o f the company, supposing their nett rate o f interest to be 4 per cent. There would be no surplus after paying the last insurance. Every cent would be exhausted. Nothing that could properly be called profits could be made by the company. Yet, in five years, fhe accumulated fund on hand would amount to $2,342, which would be more than 50 per cent o f all the premiums paid. I f these w ere to be regarded as profits, and divided among the assured at the time o f their de cease, the company would become insolvent before two-thirds o f the mem bers had died. Had the premium been 50 or 100 per cent larger, a simi lar result would follow. The company would not fail so soon, but it must fail before all the assured are paid. It is wrong, therefore, to regard the accumulated fund as profits. It is not only unjust, and founded on false principles, but it endangers the stability and solvency o f the company. The same remarks would apply with more or less force, if the company should divide a large portion o f their excess on hand. The usual rates o f insu rance are, beyond doubt, only a trifle too large, and it would seem, there fore, impossible to accumulate 50 or 60, or 70 per cent profits on the amount o f premiums. This seems still more extraordinary when the com panies have just commenced business, and have had no time to increase their funds by compound interest, and have had large expenses compared with the amount o f their capital. The laws which govern the duration o f human life are far more regular than those which govern fire and sea risks. Most policies being for life, and not for a single year, or for a short period, w e cannot expect that as large profits will be made on life insurance as on insurances against fire and disasters at sea. I f the deaths are few or none, at first, they are more likely to occur hereafter, and there is the more necessity o f laying by a fund for future losses. W hen the premiums have Profits and Premiums o f L ife Insurance. 229 been carefully adjusted from bills o f mortality extending through a long period, it would seem dangerous to the stability and solvency o f the com panies, to divide even half the premiums that have been received. I f many o f the policies w ere for a single year, and much o f the profits arose from expired policies, it might be safe ; but otherwise, it would certainly be hazardous in the extreme. In order to determine the true amount o f profits, imagine the company, at the end o f five years, to close its business, and transfer all the assured to a second company. As they are now older than when the policies were first taken out, the premiums they have agreed to pay, would not be suffi cient to purchase as large an insurance in the second company. This de ficiency must be made up by the first company. They must make a sin gle payment which, together with the annual premium o f the assured, w ill purchase in the second company as large an insurance as in the first; the balance on hand, after making these payments for each o f the assured, w ill be profits. T o give an example o f this mode o f calculation, let the assured, at the age o f thirty-five, take out a policy for $1,000. The pre mium on this is $27.50. At the end o f five years, when the assured is supposed to be transferred to the second company, this annual premium will only purchase an insurance to the amount o f $859.37 ; and the bal ance o f the $ 1,000 must be paid for by the first company. For this pur pose they would have to pay $72.35 ; and their profits will be their accu mulated fund diminished by this $72.35, and such other sums as they would have to pay for each o f the assured. There is another mode o f making this calculation. The value o f an annuity, according to the Carlisle tables o f mortality, has been calculated for the companies, and is used by them for purchasing the policies o f those who wish to surrender them. At the age o f forty, an annuity o f one dol lar is worth $ 1 6 ,0 7 4 ; the difference in the premiums at thirty-five and forty, is $4.50. The amount to be paid by the first company to the sec ond would, therefore, be $16,074 X $4.50, or $72.33, the same that was determined above. This method o f estimating the profits, implies that the second company will be willing to insure all who have taken out policies in the first. But this might not be the case. Some who were in good health when the original policy was purchased, may have developed dis eases which render a speedy dissolution probable. Some may be on the very brink o f the grave ; others may have slightly impaired their health, so that an extra premium might justly be demanded by the second com pany. I f these invalids were few at the first division o f profits, they would be more numerous at the second or third. For this reason, the profits ob tained by the method explained above, would be evidently too large. It is no answer to this objection, that the Carlisle tables give the mortality too large, and therefore a division o f the whole profits may safely be made. This would not be a satisfactory reason to the second company. T h ey would say, w e only insure the lives o f healthy persons, and we would be doing injustice to the members o f our own company, and to the new members w e are admitting from time to time, if w e should allow these invalids to come in on the same footing with the rest. Again, in the formation o f the Carlisle tables, a number o f healthy per sons were selected, and their mortality noticed for a series o f ten years. T h e mortality for any one age, as forty-five, for example, is found by taking the average number o f deaths o f all those who w ere at that age in the 230 Profits and Premiums o f L ife Insurance. whole period o f ten years. I f the mortality o f the assured should be ex actly equal to that o f the persons selected for the formation o f the tables, it would, probably, be less in the first five, and greater in the second five years. The company would appear to make profits, then, in the first pe riod, and to lose in the second. If, therefore, they should divide all the apparent profits in the first five years, they would be unable to meet all their losses in the second. The experience o f two o f the companies re cently established, the Nautilus and the N ew York, Mutual Life, has fur nished confirmation o f this position. In both, no losses were had in the first year. If, then, the whole apparent profits had been divided at the end o f this time, there would not have been reserved a sufficient fund to meet the losses that would probably happen in subsequent years. T o divide all, would be unjust to the new members who are admitted af ter the first division. I f they, for example, should happen to be o f the same age as the first set o f assured now are, both would be contributing equally to the funds o f the company in the second period. The first, by their annual premiums, and by the reserved fund thrown into the common stock, would be paying as much as the larger annual premiums o f the sec ond s e t; yet, as the losses are less likely to happen among the recent members, they suffer by the connection. I f the company had any means o f examining the assured, at the time o f the division, they might learn how many had their constitutions too much impaired to justify the second company in insuring them at the usual rates for healthy persons. But this would be troublesome, and lead to no satisfactory result. Even i f they should learn that the health o f some had suffered, no rules could be laid down for determining their expectation o f life, and for thus fixing on a suitable sum to be laid aside out o f the accu mulated fund, to meet the extra losses anticipated from this source. The proper w ay to meet the difficulty, would be to make a deduction from the expectation o f life o f all the assured, by reckoning them all a little older than they really are, when the profits are determined. W hat this deduc tion should be, it would be extremely difficult to say. After a long expe rience, the companies might construct a table from the deaths o f the as sured, in the first five and second five years after each one’ s insurance. N o such table has yet been made up, and, in the mean time, it is neces sary to determine it as near as possible from other sources. I f w e should examine a list o f persons between the ages o f twenty and thirty, taken at random in society, there would not be found many whom • a company would be unwilling to insure— not, probably, over 3 or 4 per cent o f the whole number. O f these, some would be afflicted with he reditary diseases ; some would have had their constitutions impaired in early life, so that they could never have obtained insurance in any com pany. It is not, therefore, probable that over 2 per cent o f those insured by the first company would be objectionable to the second. T h e expecta tion o f life to some o f these, might yet be considerable ; to all o f them it would be something. IfJ out o f one thousand, ten had had their constitu tions so injured that their expectation o f life was reduced one-half, and the other ten o f the 2 per cent could only expect to live a single year, the aver age duration o f the life o f the whole thousand would be reduced from 37.86 years to 37.30, which is nearly the expectation at twenty-six, instead o f twenty-five years o f age. This reasoning is not very satisfactory; but the following will lead to a similar result. O f all who are alive between the Profits and Premiums o f L ife Insurance. 231 ages o f twenty and thirty, less than 2 per cent die annually. O f these, the great majority die without anticipating their end but a short time. C er tainly not over one-fourth have looked forward to death for more than a month. O f these, some may have been invalids for two or three years, some for five, and some for a longer period. Out o f ten thousand persons at this age, one hundred and sixty may be expected to die in a single year. O f these, one hundred and twenty die at a short warning, so that, at a par ticular time, o f not over ten o f these could it be said, these w ill probably die this year. O f the remaining forty, the greater part may be expected to die within the year. O f the deaths o f the following year, a smaller portion may be anticipated, say three-fourths o f those who do not die sud denly ; and the same proportion for subsequent years. This w ill give the following ta b le:— Expectation o f life o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 healthy persons,........................... 3 7 8 ,6 0 0 years. it Deduct for the expectation o f fifty,.............. 5 0 mu by 3 7 .3 6 1,8 6 8 (( a tt thirty............ 36.36 1,091 30 it tt tf tw enty-tw o, 777 22 35.36 ft ft tt s ix t e e n ,.... 16 3 4 .3 6 550 a It ft t w e lv e ,.. .. 12 400 33.36 tttt tt n in e ,........... 9 3 2 .3 6 291 l( tt tt sev e n ,......... 3 1 .3 6 219 7 tt if it fiv e ,............. 152 5 30 .3 6 it a tt fo u r,............. 4 29.36 117 tt a it three,.......... 3 2 8 .3 6 85 it if tt t w o ,............. 2 2 7 .3 6 55 it it n o n e ,............. 1 2 7 .3 6 27 tt Leaving balance, 3 7 2 ,9 6 8 which gives an expectation o f 37.29 years, differing but little from 37.14, the expectation at the age o f twenty-six, instead o f twenty-five years. I f the persons selected for examination had been older, the reduction would have been greater. But i f all the assured should be esteemed, in the cal culation o f the profits, a year older than they are, the result would not, probably, vary much from what would be right and proper. It cannot, in deed, be pretended that this result is accurate. But it is so important to keep the company perfectly safe, that it is better to estimate the profits too little than too much. Some allowance o f this kind ought most certainly to be made, and there can be no doubt that it is more just and fair to all the members, both the new and old, to make this reduction, In the example given above, the amount laid by for re-insurance would be $16,883 X 4 .6 1 , or $77.83, instead o f $ 1 6 ,0 7 4 X 4 .5 0 , or $72.33. W hen the profits are cautiously and correctly determined, they belong to the assured, and may be paid out to them with propriety and safety. T h ey may be retained for the purpose o f securing to the company more o f the public confidence, or o f giving greater benefit to the family o f each member, by making the company a kind o f savings bank to accumulate his earnings. H ow , now, ought these profits to be divided among the as sured ? T h e gains from expired policies should evidently be divided in proportion to the interest each one has in the company. So, also, if the different members be supposed to have paid too large a premium, or if the interest received by the company from its. investments has been larger than was expected, the earnings o f this kind should be divided in propor tion to the payments o f each. T here will be a little difference, on account o f interest, between those who insure at the beginning, and those at the 232 Profits and Premiums o f L ife Insurance. end o f the five years. Every dollar paid too much by the first, w ill amount, by compound interest, to $5 .63, while the last will only be $1 .00, the exact amount paid. T o divide in proportion to the payments, or in proportion o f 5 to 100, would not give enough to the older members. But this difference would be slight, and it might be regarded as fully made up by the smaller risk there is o f loss from the recent member. It would also be very troublesome to take into account the interest on each one’ s payment, in making out the distribution o f profits. It would seem, there fore, both easy and proper to divide the profits according to the payments o f each. I f the first profits awarded to each member be not paid out to the assured, but retained by the company, interest ought to be allowed on them before the amount o f profit is determined the second time. Those who come into the company afterwards, can claim no share in the interest o f these profits, any more than they can in the profits themselves. The amount is placed to the credit o f the members, and belongs to them, and the company ought not to appropriate its income to others. T h ey would poorly perform the duties o f a savings bank, i f they divide the income o f the early profits with those w ho join the company afterwards. I f exces sive exactions have been made o f the members, when these are returned, they should belong to those who paid them, both principal and interest. It is no good objection to this proposition, that the new members are paying the same as the old, and should divide equally all the profits. T h e new and old members are both, indeed, now paying the same sums, and all the profits from these payments should be equally shared. But if, at some former period, the old members had paid too much, and i f there had been a careful determination o f the exact amount belonging to them, when the new partners joined the company, it cannot possibly be just that each set should come in for a share in the income o f this amount. Some companies do not pay out these profits, but issue stock bearing in terest. This is founded on proper principles ; and those which retain the money, and issue no evidences o f debt, should follow the same rule. I f the money was paid to the assured, or i f interest-bearing notes w ere is sued, the old members would get the benefit o f the interest on the accru ing profits, and they should do it also i f the amount is retained, and merely placed to their credit. It might be supposed that this would not make much difference; but when it is recollected how long some o f the policies w ill run, and how rapidly money accumulates at compound interest, the difference w ill no longer be regarded as unimportant. T h e following ex ample w ill illustrate the matter more fu lly :— Suppose a new member should join the company in the 1st, 6 th, 11th, 16th, 21 st, and 26th year o f its ex istence, and should live but three years, while another joins with the first, and survives till the thirtieth year o f the company. Let them all be sup posed to be o f such ages that the new members shall, in each period, pay the same as the old ones. Let the nett interest o f the company be 4 per cent. The course o f the profits, and the amounts put to the credit o f each, by dividing in proportion to the payments without allowing interest on the preceding profits, and also by first crediting the old member with the interest on his last preceding balance, w ill appear in the following ta ble. F or every dollar overpaid by the assured, the profits made and di vided w ill be as follows :— 233 Profits and Premiums o f L ife Insurance. 5 y ears, 10 15 20 25 30 « a a a a Profits from p a y m e n ts o f old m em b e rs. Profits from p a y m e n ts o f n e w m em b e rs. 5.63 6 .8 5 8 .3 4 10.18 12.35 15 .0 2 3 .51 3.51 3 .5 1 3.51 3 .5 1 3.51 A m o u n t divided, i f in ratio o f th e p a ym en ts. 5.71 6 .4 8 7.41 8 .5 6 9 .9 1 11.58 3 .43 3 .8 8 4 .4 4 5 .1 3 5.95 6.95 A m o u n t d ivided, i f th e in terest is first credited. 5 .7 1 6 .9 3 8 .42 10.26 12.43 15 .1 0 3 .4 3 3.43 3 .4 3 3 .43 3 .4 3 3 .4 3 From this table it appears that the new member admitted in the 26th year, receives more than twice as much profits on a division, as the one admitted in the first year, if no allowance is made for interest on the bal ances due to the old m em ber; which is manifestly unjust and improper. T h e increase is derived from the profits o f the older member. H e who has longest trusted to the company, who has run most risk from their fail ure or mismanagement, who w ill receive at last little or no benefit from his insurance, on account o f the large amount he has had to pay in premi ums, this man is made to divide the interest from his accumulated profits to one whose only connection with the company is one o f great advantage. In fact, the old member ought to receive all his profits, and the compound interest on those profits at the full rate received from the company’ s invest ments. I f the company make more than 4 per cent on his money, he should receive more. It will be well, perhaps, to refer to a charter o f one o f these companies, and show how these principles are to be applied. T h e charter o f the Mu tual Life Insurance Company o f N ew Y ork requires an account to be opened with the assured ; and in this, each is to be charged with a pro portionate part o f the losses and expenses, and to be credited with his pre mium, and with an equal share o f the profits o f the company derived from investments and earnings in proportion to his premium. This account is to be made up every five years, and the balance paid to each member at his decease, but not till then. The losses and ordinary expenses are known from the books o f the company. Under the head o f expenses must be included the cost o f re insuring each o f the surviving members, and that cost must be determined by imagining each one o f the assured to take out policies in a new com pany, reckoning their ages to be one year greater than they really are. After the first division o f profits there must be estimated, also, as part o f the expenses, the amount due to those who have a balance to their credit, at the preceding distribution, for interest on this balance ; the interest to be compound, and at the rate the company shall actually receive on their investments. These are real expenses, not paid out, indeed, but none the less real ; the first for a fund to meet the future losses, the other for in terest on sums belonging to the assured, but retained by the company for the sake o f increasing the strength o f the company, and for other purposes. T h e credit side o f the account, as far as made up from premiums, w ill bo easily determined from the books o f the company. The profits from in vestments and earnings w ill be found by taking losses and expenses from the premiums received, understanding by expenses what has just been ex plained. The account would stand as follows :— FIRST FIVE TEAKS. Dr. T o losses... T o balance Cr. B y premiums B y profits........ 234 Administration o f the Railroads o f Massachusetts: SECOND FIVE YEARS. T o losses......................................... T o balance..................................... B y prem ium s........................................ B y interest on preceding balance. B y profits........................................................ It would not do to keep the profits in two separate items o f interest and earnings ; for, after a while, the interest might exceed the profits. Should it never exceed the profits, as the charge for losses cannot, according to the charter, exceed the premiums, the assured would ultimately receive his assurance, and all the interest ever earned by the company ; which, o f course, might not happen. In conclusion, it cannot be impressed too strongly on the companies to use caution and wisdom in determining their profits. Life insurance com panies, with a paid-up capital, are exposed to failures ; and the weaker basis o f the mutual system renders this prudence the more necessary. Let no anxiety to declare large profits lead to an over-estimate o f the gains they have made. Ignorance, miscalculations, extravagant estimates o f the value o f stocks belonging to the company, besides the ordinary sources o f failure, mismanagement, unfortunate investments, and corruption o f offi cers, may ruin the company, and change what promised to be a blessing to the assured, into a curse. T h e mutual system is not only honest and fair, but eminently suited for this kind o f insurance. The objections that lie against it in fire and sea risks, do not apply in life insurance ; for the laws which govern the duration o f life are far more regular than those w hich govern the preservation o f houses and ships. The effect o f an epi demic is never so irregular as a great fire or a sea-storm, But, while the system is good, it must be managed, not only with integrity and prudence, but with all that skill and exactness which mathematical science can bring to its aid. T h e former are necessary for success, but not more so than the latter. Both are indispensable. Art. II.— ADMINISTRATION OF THE RAILROADS OF MASSACHUSETTS: W IT H REFERENCE TO TH E RATES OF F R E IG H T AND FAR E. T o construct a railroad in Massachusetts, has ceased to be a Hercu lean enterprise. Experience and science now light the path o f the engi neer, and indicate the route, materials, and mode o f construction. Capi tal, too, has ceased to be coy and repulsive when the line is feasible and the traffic sufficient. The undertaking, however, is not complete when the rails are down. The first movement o f the locomotive opens another field o f a ction ; a field which demands close investigation and rigid analy sis, which puts in requisition commercial as well as professional skill, and philosophical research. T h e administration o f a great line o f iron-way, affecting both public and private interests, with powers still undefined, and latent resources still undeveloped, is a subject alike worthy o f the study o f the merchant, the mpn o f science, and the philanthropist. In discussing the rates o f charge appropriate to a modern railroad, its relation to the State must not be forgotten. One o f the first objects o f association, and one o f the first trusts which devolves on government, is the construction o f roads ; without them, prop erty is nearly worthless, and society but little advanced from barbarism. W ith R eferen ce to the Rates o f Freight and Fare. 235 T h e State, in some portions o f the world, provides roads itself; in others, assigns the duty o f constructing them to others. Massachusetts delegates to associations the trust and duty o f providing railroads. Let us inquire what is the compact between them. Th ey ask the State to transfer to them its right o f eminent domain— its power to appropriate the property o f individuals. T h ey apprise the State o f the progress o f art, suggest that the public good requires railroad facili ties ; that they will reduce the cost and increase the speed o f locomotion, and develop latent resou rces; and, with great propriety, they urge that they can construct the work and conduct the traffic with more economy and safety than the State. Upon these representations, the acts o f incor poration are granted, and reciprocal obligations are assumed by the par ties. Trusts are created for the benefit o f the public, and tolls are grant ed for the remuneration o f the trustees. T h e State delegates to societies the office o f catering for the public, and, in its contract, aims to make such terms as shall tempt the capitalist to embark his funds, and, at the same time, secure to the public all facilities compatible with a fair remuneration. It confers important powers, accompanied with corresponding duties ; for the companies it creates are to lend wings to commerce, and to the social intercourse o f the State. Is not this the true basis o f our railroad system ? and could it rest on a better or safer foundation? W ere the companies chartered to forget the cardinal principles to which w e have adverted ; were they to pursue a nar row and self-defeating policy, by infrequent trains, high charges, and infe rior cars, engines, and track, to incommode and depress the district they traverse, o f which they hold a virtual monopoly ; were they to misapply the revenue by needless expenses, or high salaries to favorites or dependents, could they expect countenance o f the legislature, or success in contests with rivals who offer the very advantages they withhold ? Should they, on the contrary, pursue a more judicious and generous p o licy ; adopt the im provements o f the day w hich tend to increase speed, safety, and com fort; reduce the cost o f transit, and, by branches, give access to quarries and waterfalls, and restore the fading prosperity o f villages which have suffered by a diversion o f their traffic, or facilities given to rivals, reliance may well be placed upon legislative protection. T he St a t e t a in in g date w il l n o t c h a r g e t h e p u b l ic w i t h t h e t w o l in e s , w h e n on e not cost of m a in o n l y c a n , b u t do es , a c c o m m o THE PUBLIC. Massachusetts permits her railroad companies to earn a revenue o f 10 per cent. England and France have been more liberal than Massachu setts. In regions where money is worth less than in America, they have authorized a nett return o f 10 per cent to the projectors. Th ey have re served, also, a reversionary interest, but have made the terms more liberal than our own. These advantages enable their successful lines (and nearly all are successful,) to carry the stock to a premium o f 50 to 100 per cent, and thus enrich those w ho have benefited the country. And it is but just that they who have adventured their capital in this new field o f enterprise, to accomplish great public results ; who have applied talent, energy, and skill, to construct and conduct great public works in a judicious and frugal manner, should receive, in all countries, a liberal return ; and such return has been, and, doubtless, will be, sanctioned here by an enlightened pub lic opinion. 236 Administration o f the Railroads o f Massachusetts : Massachusetts has not at the outset restricted the rate o f tolls. She has referred the rate to the discretion o f the parties incorporated, reserv ing merely a right to reduce the charge when the revenue shall exceed a maximum o f 10 per cent upon the outlay. More than ten years have elapsed since the first lines were opened in Massachusetts. At that early period, the directors, although intelligent and trustworthy, had little or no experience in the movement o f passengers and freight. Alarmed by the almost uniform excess o f cost over estimates, without statistics to guide them, they did not stop to theorize or experiment, but were satisfied to adopt such rates as should put down the stage and wagon, their immedi ate competitors. Having set their cars in motion, they found much to al ter, renew and enlarge. Busied with the extension o f their tracks and depots, xvith requests for branches, with experiments in engines and cars, they left the chances o f the future to determine how the rates thus estab lished would coincide with philosophy, the public good, and their pecuniary interest. With a piece o f mechanism on their hands, competent to carry both men and goods at less than one-eighth the cost o f horse-power on common roads, they took that cost as a standard for their guidance, marking only one shade below it, just low enough to incline the scale in their favor, and secure a preference. In 1835, when the lines o f Massachusetts were opened, the average charge by railroad for passengers, was four cents each, per mile, and the average charge for freight, not far from nine cents per ton, a mile ; rates which would be considered almost prohibitory, at the present day. The precedent, thus established, was copied under subsequent charters, as a matter o f course, and the light since thrown upon the subject has been principally gleaned from the experience o f other lands, or from concessions made in struggles to improve a losing business, to meet competition, or to reduce a revenue exceeding the limits prescribed by the charters. Under this light, however, the charge for passengers has, since 1837, fallen nearly one-half,* v iz .: to a nominal average o f 2 T6567 first-class passengers, and 1TW second-class ; but, with due allowance for deductions made to stage and steamboat travellers, by season tickets, and special trains, to 2^ cents per mile, on first-class, and l j cents on second-class passengers. Freight has fallen in nearly the same ratio, and the question naturally arises, what causes have led to this reduction o f charge ? H ow far has it been judi cious, and w ill it be progressive ? It is our purpose, in this essay, to dis cuss the topics thus presented. T h e first section o f the Western Railroad, the great enterprise o f M as sachusetts, leading from W orcester to Springfield, a distance o f fifty-five AVERAGE RATES OF RAILROADS OUT OF BOSTON, FOR FIRST-CLASS PASSENSERS, JO LT, 1846. R a ilroa d s. Fitchburg,............................................................... Boston and W orcester,.................................... Boston to C oncord,........................................... Boston and M aine, and to Portland,....... Boston and Providence,................................. Boston to N ew B edford,............................... Boston to N o rw ic h ,........................................... Boston to Albany, Springfield,................... Boston to N ew H aven ,............................... Boston to Portsm outh,.................................... O ld C o lo n y ,.......................................................... Miles. 50 75 105 43 56 104 200 160 37 G e n e ra l ch a rg e. 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 average, 2 2 2 2 5 0 -1 0 0 8 0 -1 0 0 3 3 .1 0 0 8 6 -1 0 0 6 8 -1 0 0 9 0 -1 0 0 6 5 -1 0 0 6 6 -1 0 0 7 8 -1 0 0 67-100 W ith R eference to the Rates o f Freight and Fare. 237 miles, was finished in the summer o f 1839, and opened for travel in the October following. By this line, and the Boston and W orcester, a continuous railroad o f one hundred miles united the port o f Boston with the valley o f the Con necticut, at a point in Massachusetts twenty-sis miles above tide water, and sloop navigation at Hartford. At this period, Hartford and N ew Y ork w ere the great marts o f the valley. Small steamers run between Springfield and Hartford, and lines o f steamers and packets between Hartford and N ew York. T h e average charge between N ew York and Springfield was less than three dollars per ton, and three dollars per passage. Instead o f conforming to these rates, the directors o f the Western R ail road rigidly adhered to precedents, and resolving to adopt the average rates o f Massachusetts, fixed the rate o f passage by first-class cars, at $3 75 from Boston to Springfield, the local fare at 4 ] cents per passenger a mile, and the charge for freight at an average rate o f six dollars per ton between Boston and Springfield, or six cents per ton, a mile. This decision, in which the Boston and W orcester Railroad concurred, attracted public attention, gave rise to the first public discussion o f the rates o f fare ; and such was the solicitude in Boston respecting the W estern Rail road, in which both the public credit o f the State, the growth o f the city, and the fortunes o f many citizens w ere embarked, that deep interest was taken in the question. It was the fortune o f the writer to commence this discussion, in a series o f essays, published in the Boston Atlas, in August, 1839, with a view to change the decision o f the directors o f the W estern Railroad Company. T heir enterprise originally aimed at the trade o f the W est, and the expansion o f the business o f the State. Eloquent appeals on these points, had been made to Boston. H er citizens had responded by large subscriptions to the stock. Measures tending to crush her com merce in the bud, w ere to be averted ; and the writer, participating in the feelings o f the stockholders, his associates from the outset, entered with warmth into the discussion. H e had been engaged for years previous, in directing a line o f steamers on the coast o f Maine, under rates varying with competition ; had drawn deductions favorable to moderate charges from experiments tried under his own eye, and could see nothing so am phibious in the habits o f our citizens as to prevent the success o f a policy on land which had triumphed on the water. Under such impulses he entered the field, taking the ground that the average rates o f fare and freight in Massachusetts w ere “ too high, both for the interests o f the public and the stockholders ; that the directors o f her roads, instead o f adopting the liberal and enlightened policy o f Belgium, seemed, in most instances, to have aimed at extracting as much as possi ble from each passenger ; to have supposed they had done all that was po litic or advisable, if they had put down the competition o f the stage and the baggage-wagon ; to have gone on the assumption that they accomplished everything i f they secured the existing travel, and the gain incident to in creased speed ; without taking at all into account the vast business they might call into existence by a reduced rate o f fare, and the attendant bene fits they might confer on Boston and the State.” These views were sustained by contrasting the power o f the locomotive with that o f the horse, by reference to the success o f the system o f B el gium, to the tendency o f the age to cheap amusement and locomotion, to the experience o f the steamers on the coast and on the Hudson, to the 238 Administration o f the Railroads o f Massachusetts : easy communication between Springfield and N ew York, and the reason able expectations o f the stockholders. The essays urged a reduction on the Boston and Providence Railroad, o f the passenger charge, from $2 to $1 25, or from 4 f to 3 cents per mile, and a reduction on freight, from $ 5 to $ 2 50 per ton, the rate o f the present day, as necessary to give the trade o f Providence to Boston, and advocated the adoption o f a charge on the W estern Railroad o f $1 50 per passage, and $2 per ton, between W orcester and Springfield. Th ey also urged the directors, on the com pletion o f the line to Albany, to consider the policy o f a $ 3 fare. These essays, while they attracted public attention, produced no imme diate effect. Nathan Hale, Esq., the president o f the Boston and W orces ter Railroad, replied to them, through the columns o f the Daily Adver tiser, in general terms, suggesting that the rates proposed w ere too low, that they would give the W estern Railroad little or no profit, that they were sanctioned by no experience worthy o f reliance, that Belgium was actu ally advancing her rates 40 per cent, and the directors w ere the best judges upon the subject. Thus countenanced, the directors o f the W estern Railroad adopted the high scale o f prices originally proposed, and the line was opened at an average rate o f four cents per mile for passengers, and six cents per ton a m ile, for freight, on the first o f October, 1839. At the close o f the first six months, viz., on the first o f April, 1840, the aggregate o f tons carried in that period, was found less than three thousand, the passengers less than fifteen thousand, and the entire income but $35,798 72, being actually less than the cost o f transit and the deterioration o f the line. This result was more disastrous than any one anticipated. It led to the appointment o f a committee o f investigation, o f w hich the writer was a member. In April, 1840, the committee unanimously recommended, in an elaborate report, the rates proposed in the essays, and, on the first o f April, these rates w ere adopted. Upon their adoption, the writer becam e a member o f the board. Commerce w as greatly depressed in 1840 and ’ 41, but the revenue o f the line rapidly increased under the new system. For six months, ending M arch 31st, 1 8 4 0 , the revenue w a s ........................ “ “ “ 1841, “ ......................... $ 3 5 ,7 9 8 72 5 3 ,1 4 9 18 Increase, 4 8 per c e n t,.............................................................................. $ 1 7 ,3 5 0 4 6 The increase in the number o f passengers, and tons o f freight, was much larger, without a corresponding increase o f expenses ; and, at the close o f 1840, it becam e apparent that the section o f this unfinished line from B os ton to Springfield, would becom e a productive property, while the rapid growth o f business gave a stimulus to the payment o f assessments, and the progress o f the work. 1840. 1841. In M arch, passengers,.................... « freight.............................. $ 3 ,0 9 9 2 ,9 4 8 $ 5 ,3 2 0 4 ,6 2 1 $ 2 ,2 2 1 1 ,6 8 3 T o ta l..................................... $ 6 ,0 4 7 $ 9 ,9 4 1 $ 3 ,9 0 4 Increase. 71 per cent. 52 “ 65 The result o f this reduction would have been still more beneficial if the Boston and W orcester Railroad had co-operated in the measure, T h e revenue was derived, principally, from passengers and freight passing over both lines ; but the principal burthen o f the reduction, particularly on pas sengers, was thrown upon the W estern, while the Boston and W orcester . W ith R eferen ce to the Rates o f Freight and F are. 239 participated in the attendant benefits. Indeed, it was seriously urged by the president o f that company, that it could not afford to transact business at a lower rate, such was the actual cost o f conveying passengers and freight on the line ; and, in the negotiations between the companies, it was made a sine qua non, that forty cents per ton should, in all cases, be allowed to the Boston and W orcester Railroad, for each process o f loading and unloading, a charge more than three-fold the present average cost o f conducting that process. At this period, the friends o f moderate rates formed an association, and held frequent meetings to influence public opin ion, and procure a reduction o f charges. Foreign journals and reports w ere examined. All facts bearing upon the policy w ere made public through the leading journals o f Boston. A pamphlet condensing much information on the subject, was published by P. P. F. Degrand, an active member o f the association, and one o f the most ardent promoters o f rail road improvement. It was determined, also, to investigate and improve, i f possible, the condition o f the Boston and W orcester Railroad, and, with this view, a committee o f investigation was appointed at the annual meet ing o f that company, in June, 1840, o f which the writer w as a member. The committee found the line susceptible o f im provement; the sleepers, light sills o f juniper and white cedar, decayed ; the rail, thirty-nine pounds to the yard, insufficient for a heavy traffic, the depot inadequate, the cars and engines deficient in power, quality, numbers and model, accidents of ten occurring, even while the committee w ere in session. T h ey made a full and elaborate report o f fifty pages, pointing out the difficulties o f the case, recommending a heavier rail, and double track ; new depots, larger engines and cars, the abandonment o f the four-wheel engines, and the light and defective machines, then in the infirmary ; suggesting the policy o f low er charges, and predicting, with confidence, that these measures would greatly reduce the cost o f transportation, insure to the enterprise a permanent prosperity, and be, in the highest degree, beneficial to the public.* The report was received by a full meeting, was discussed with warmth, was referred to the directors, and subsequently reviewed by the president o f the company, in a spirited reply, apparently based upon the idea that the Boston and W orcester, averaging thirty tons, and but fifty passengers, to her trains, with engines costing ten cents per mile, for repairs, could not materially reduce the cost o f transit. But the measures recommended, w ere gradually adopted; new depots, double cars, more powerful engines, o f six and eight wheels, provided; the inferior machines, with few excep tions, sold or discarded; a new rail, o f sixty pounds to the yard, laid down for a double track ; and last, not least, large reductions made in charges. The predictions o f the committee have been realized, by a diminution o f more than 50 per cent on the cost o f transit, a reduction o f charges, and an increase o f nearly 100 per cent in the revenue, accompanied by im proved dividends for the stockholders. In Decem ber, 1841, the W estern Railroad was opened through the mountain pass, fourteen hundred feet above the sea, and a communication effected with Albany, by means o f the Hudson and Berkshire Railroad. * T h e report predicted that w hen the proposed measures should be adopted, freight should be carried from Boston to W orcester, forty-five m iles, at a cost o f seventy-seven cents a ton, in trains averaging eighty-three t o n s ; the average being then less than thirty tons, and the cost nearly $ 2 . 240 Administration o f the Railroads o f Massachusetts: After much discussion, reports and counter reports, the local passenger fare was fixed at three cents per mile, and the through fare at $ 5 50, or 2 f cents per mile ; the freight at two to six cents a mile ; and cars, for the first time, crossed the Berkshire hills to Albany. The revenue for the year 1842, rose to $513,000. This sum, although large for a new line and a n ew business, amounting, as it did, to $3,300 per mile o f road, proved insufficient to warrant a dividend for the first year. A debt o f five millions had been incurred in crossing the mountains. T h e interest absorbed the revenue, leaving no return upon the stock, and the stockholders, disheart ened by a cost for construction, greatly exceeding the estimates o f the en gineers, by the general prostration o f trade, and the absence o f a dividend, w ere induced, by the efforts o f the high-fare party, to favor an advance o f rates ; and the directors, in D ecem ber, 1842, raised the through price from Boston to Albany, from $ 5 50 to $6 per passage. This advance again disappointed its advocates. T h e passenger revenue, which, from April 1840, to the fall o f 1842, had been steadily progressive, began rapidly to decline. F or the first four months o f 1842, the number o f— Through travellers, at $ 5 5 0 , w a s .............................................................. F or same period in 1 8 4 3 , at $ 6 , it w a s.................................................... 3,2 2 3 2 ,1 1 4 Diminution, 5 2 per cen t,......................................................................... 1 ,1 0 9 Early in 1843, the policy o f the board was again reviewed, and the re sult made public. At the election o f directors, a spirited contest took place, and a majority o f five to four was chosen favorable to a change o f policy. T h e expenses w ere materially reduced, the question with the B os ton and W orcester road submitted to an arbitration, the present low rates o f freight adopted, averaging not far from 21 cents per ton on the through, and 41 per ton on the way traffic, and the through passenger fare between Boston and Albany fixed at $ 4 for the first class, and $>2T6/ ff for the second class, and the local continued at three cents per mile ; an effort to reduce the latter to 21 cents per mile failing, in consequence o f the refusal o f the Boston and W orcester Railroad Company to receive a pro rata share. T h e reduction took effect in April, 1843. Previous to the reduction, the through passengers had declined in numbers, and for the entire year, the w ay travellers, whose rates remained unaltered, showed also a decline in first class, and a trifling increase in the second class ; but the through pas sengers, at the rate o f two cents per mile, showed a remarkable increase. T h e through passengers, for the last eight months o f 1842, and 1843, w ere as follows :— F irst class. In last eight months o f 1 8 4 2 ,...................... “ “ 1 8 4 3 ,...................... 1 2 ,6 6 7 1 7 ,8 7 3 Second class. 2 ,4 2 5 5 ,9 8 6 5 ,2 0 6 T o ta l. 1 5 ,0 9 2 2 3 ,8 5 9 3 ,5 6 1 8 ,7 6 7 Indicating a gain in numbers o f 59 per cent. The freight at the low rates gained through the year, and, at the close, exhibited the following results : A m o u n t carried one m ile in 1 8 1 3 ,.................................................... " “ in 1 8 1 2 ....................................................... 9 ,4 1 4 ,6 2 1 tons. 6 ,2 1 1 ,9 7 1 “ Increase, 5 1 J per cen t,................................................................... 3 ,2 0 2 ,6 5 0 tons. The revenue for the year was $573,000, a gain o f 12 per cent on the preceding year ; and this whole gain was effected after the reduction o f W ith R eferen ce to the Rates o f Freight and Fare. 241 fare in April. At the close o f 1843, however, no dividend having been earned, although a great and progressive improvement had been effected in the affairs o f the company, the friends o f the high scale o f charges ral lied, appointed agents to wait upon the stockholders, and collect proxies, and renewed the discussion o f fares in the public prints, and again found a persevering ally in the Daily Advertiser. It was again urged that the rates w ere less than those o f the Boston and Low ell, and English roads, which paid good dividends; that the W estern Railroad was costly and expensive to run, passed through a country defi cient in population, and must seek a compensation in high charges. But the most effective argument with the stockholders was the absence o f a dividend, and the assurance that none could be earned at such low prices. In vain was it urged in reply, that the affairs and prospects o f the line were rapidly improving, and a dividend predicted; in vain was the experience o f the past, and o f European lines cite d ; in vain was the winter fare for through passengers raised to 25 cents per mile. The tide o f opinion had changed, and was irresistible. T h e writer declined a re-election, and, at a new election, a majority o f the leaders o f the high fare party w ere ch o sen directors ; and, on the first o f April, 1844, the through passenger fare was raised to three, and the way fare to 3>- cents per mile. T h e first effect o f this measure was apparently beneficial, and the advo cates o f high fares were elated xvith the results. T h e income o f the line continued during the year to increase, and early in the year 1845, the first dividend o f 3 per cent was paid to the stockholders. A n excess o f revenue o f $177,555 over that o f 1844, a gain o f 31 per cent, was exhibited, and the new board o f directors were re-elected without opposition, in March, 1845. Soon after the election, however, the annual report o f the company was published, and by the tables o f the two years, it becam e obvious the success o f the new policy was by no means certain. It appeared, in the first place, that $94,000, or more than h alf o f the entire gain, was derived from an increase o f 3 4 f per cent on freight, and that this gain, large as it was, fell short o f the ratio o f 51-J- per cent the preceding year, when mer chants w ere tempted to travel by a low rate o f charge, and, o f course, to purchase goods. On further examination, it appeared that the entire gain o f 30J per cent in passenger income, had been aided by extraneous causes. First, by an award making a more favorable toll upon the Boston and W orcester Railroad. The effect o f this award was this, that, in 1843, the W estern Railroad, in dividing the $ 4 fare with the Boston and W orcester, received $ 2 tW j ° r 69 per c e n t; while in 1844, in dividing the $6 fare, the W estern Railroad received $ 4 T87\ , or 81 per cent.* This award alsd aid ed the freight income more than 10 per cent. Upon further investigation, it appeared that, in the last nine rppritjiffdf 1844, a season o f commercial prosperity and remarkable improtehient on all the lines o f New England, the number o f passengers on the; Western Railroad had actually diminished ; and this, too, on a route opened for the express purpose o f creating a new business between Boston and the W est, * T h e passenger revenue, in 1 8 4 4 , derived som e benefit from a diminished opposition through the Sound. In 1 8 4 3 and 184 5 , the opposition w as active and (priefe l o w ; and, in the latter year, som e travellers who were deterred from using the W estern .Railroad py the high prices, availed o f the opposition boats, and made a circuit o f four hundfed,miles to reach A lbany, via the Sound and Hudson. VOL. X V . ------ N O . I I I . 16 242 Administration o f the Railroads o f Massachusetts: ton and W orcester Railroad Company disclosed the fact that the passen gers carried for the W estern Railroad between Boston and W orcester, were actually two thousand less in 1844, the season o f prosperous trade, than in the dull year 1843. On probing the subject a little deeper, it ap pears that, from January 1st to April 1st, 1844, while low prices prevailed, this class o f passengers increased nineteen hundred, or 30 per c e n t ; while in the last nine months o f the year, they fell off thirty-nine hundred, or more than 7 per cent, showing a change o f 37 per cent, effected by the rise o f fares. In 1843, the year o f low prices, the number passing between the W e s tern Railroad and Boston, was more than sixty thousand ; consequently this loss o f 37 per cent indicates an annual loss o f twenty-two thousand two hundred travellers; and not merely a loss o f them, but also o f the freight they would have furnished, and the stimulus they would have given to the city. These results are corroborated by the tables appended to the Report o f the Western Railroad for 1844, page 45, and for 1843, page 35. B y dissecting these tables, it appears that in way travellers, first class, the whole number on the W estern Railroad was— In first threemonths o f 1 8 4 3 , at 3 cents per m ile ,............................ “ “ 1 8 4 4 , at sam e price,....................................... 2 5 ,6 1 7 2 8 ,6 9 6 Increase,...................................................................................... 3 ,0 7 9 In last nine months o f 1 8 4 3 , at 3 cents per m ile ,.............................. “ “ 1 8 4 4 , at 3J “ 1 1 4 ,8 0 8 1 1 2 ,1 7 2 Dim inution,.................................................................................. 2 ,6 3 6 In the first class, through passengers, advanced from $ 4 to $ 6 , the dimi nution is still more striking, v iz :— In first three months o f 184 3 , through passengers at 3 cents per m ile, “ “ 1844, “ “ 21 “ 1 ,2 4 4 1 ,8 1 4 Increase, 4 6 per c e n t,......................................................................... 570 In last nine months o f 1 8 4 3 , through passengers at 2 cents per m ile, “ “ 1844, “ “ 3 “ 1 8 ,7 4 3 1 5 ,2 0 2 Diminution, 18 per cen t,................................................................... 3 ,5 4 1 Difference,...................................................................................................... 6 4 per cent. On the w ay travellers, least advanced, there was the least loss ; on the through, most advanced in price, the loss was the greatest. T h e only in crease was in the second-class passengers, a result which, perhaps, may be ascribed to the fact that many were tempted to submit to inferior a c commodation to secure a discount o f one-third in the rate o f charges. T o illustrate the effects o f the advance o f fares, still further, w e may ask what was the increase in passenger revenue in 1844, on low fare roads, whose rates remained unaltered? On the Norwich and W orcester road, the passenger incom e was— In 1 8 4 3 ,.................................................................................................. In 1 8 4 4 ,............................................................................................ $ 9 5 ,8 5 6 85 1 3 5 ,6 5 4 87 In cre a se,................................................................................................ $ 3 9 ,7 9 8 02 or 41 per cent. On the Boston and Maine, the passenger income was— W ith R eference to the Rates o f Freight and Fare. 243 In 1 8 4 3 ,........................................................................................... In 1 8 4 4 ,........................................................................................... $ 1 1 9 ,4 3 4 15 1 5 4 ,9 4 4 54 Increase,......................................................... $ 3 5 ,5 1 0 39 or 2 9 } per cent. T h e average gain o f these two roads was over 35 per cent, or 5 per cent more than the W estern ; and this, too, with low fares, and on routes long established, and on which there was no reason to anticipate the same ratio o f gain as on the W estern. I f these gained 35 per cent, why should not the W estern have gained 40 on a low passenger tariff, in addition to what it gained from extraneous causes ? Public discussion o f this subject still continued, and public opinion began, at length, to veer round in favor o f low fares. But other elements w ere in progress, destined to throw new light on the subject. W hen retiring from the W estern Railroad under a full conviction o f the magnitude o f the error about to be committed, the writer was a director o f the Fitchburg Railroad, then in its infancy, a line intermediate between the Boston and W orcester, and the Boston and Low ell. T h e president o f this company, whose untiring zeal and industry have been the theme o f so much commendation, had promised to advocate a low scale o f charges i f the writer would accept the office o f director. T h e office was accepted, and preliminary measures taken to secure low rates, by the adoption o f a heavy rail, large and superior engines and cars, and ample depots. Being placed upon the committee on fares, the writer advocated a fare o f two cents per mile, and finally succeeded in establishing a rate o f 2 } cents per mile for the through trains, and 1} to two cents per mile for the special trains, and two cents per mile for passengers conveyed to and re ceived from stages, and corresponding rates for freight, viz : four to five cents per ton, a mile. T h e Fitchburg Railroad was opened in sections during 1844, with a success and popularity unprecedented, aud was completed to Fitchburg in March, 1845. It has continued to prosper, and within six months after its completion, has attained a revenue o f 10 per cent, a result unparalleled by its predecessors. T h e low prices adopted on the lower section o f this line, became, as was anticipated, strong and effectual arguments for reduced charges on the Boston and W orcester, Boston and Lowell, Nashua and Low ell, and Concord and Nashua lines ; and, by the close o f 1844, a re duction was effected on all these lines. The prosperity o f the lines thus reduced, has since increased in a very striking ratio. T o illustrate this, it may be sufficient to cite the progress o f the Concord and Nashua, as presented in their report o f May, 1846, to the legislature o f N ew Hampshire. Prior to April 1st, 1844, the first-class passenger fare on this line was 3| cents per mile. Novem ber 1st, 1844, it was reduced to 2|, and on the 1st o f November, 1845, to 2 } cents per mile. On Novem ber 1st, 1844, the freight was reduced from 4| and four, to four and three cents per mile. The result has been as follows, without any extension o f the line :— Passengers for year ending April 30th, 1 8 4 4 ,............................................. “ “ « 1 8 4 5 ,............................................. 7 3 ,3 3 5 1 5 0 ,5 3 0 Gain in tw o years, 107 per cent................................................................ 7 7 ,1 9 5 T o n s carried in the year ending April 30th, 1 8 4 4 ,..................................... <* “ “ 1 8 4 6 ,..................................... 4 2 ,5 7 9 8 9 ,3 8 8 Increase, 1 0 9 per cent, o r......................................................................... 4 6 ,7 0 9 244 Administration o f the Railroads o f Massachusetts : T h e increased passenger revenue on the Boston and Low ell, and Nashua and Low ell, since the reduction, indicates similar results on both those lines. Other favorable evidence comes to us from the W est. On the first o f April last, the fare on the Utica and Schenectady Railroad was reduced from $3 to $ 2 for eighty miles, or from 3 f to 2£ cents per passenger, a mile. T h e passenger revenue for April and M a y , 1 8 4 5 , w a s ..................................... “ “ “ 1846 , w a s ..................................... $ 6 4 ,7 0 8 6 7 ,6 5 9 G a in ,........................ .............................................................. ............................. $ 2 ,9 5 1 The immediate effect o f raising the fare is usually a temporary gain ; and the first effect o f reduction is usually a loss, followed by gain for years. But here w e observe a reduction o f one-third, attended with an immediate gain o f 44 per cent in revenue, which is equivalent to a gain o f 57 per cent in num bers; and, in addition to the benefit conferred on thousands o f travellers, giving promise o f most gratifying results in future. But, meanwhile, what has becom e o f the high fare policy o f the W e s tern Railroad ? It has disappeared. The year 1845 rolled away, and the accounts evinced that the nett revenue o f the company had made no pro gress. A moderate gain appeared in freight, and a trifling increase o f passengers, absorbed by increased expenses ; but the rapid ratio o f gain o f 1843, in both, had obviously ceased, while other lines were overflowing with the prosperity o f a successful season.* In the course o f the summer o f 1845, the decline in the number o f through travellers became more perceptible, and the intercourse between Boston and Albany seemed dwindling to a point, while the intercourse b e tween N ew York and Albany, via the Hudson, was immense. The through travellers between Boston and Albany, From April 1st to September 1st, 1 8 4 2 , w ere................................................ “ “ “ 1 8 4 3 , they w ere..................................... > Increase at $ 4 , 67 per cent........................................................................................ 9 ,5 1 5 1 5,816 --------6,3 0 1 After the advance to #6, they declined to— April 1st to September 1st, 1 8 4 4 ,....................................................................... “ “ “ 1 8 4 5 ......................................................................... 1 4 ,2 9 3 1 1 ,1 7 5 and for a period, the revenue o f the line fell below that o f the previous year. This continued declension in prosperous years, occasioned discus sion and excited alarm. In October, two o f the leaders o f the' high fare party published a defence o f their policy, w hich failed to satisfy the public. After this unsuccessful effort, no further defence was made, and in Febru ary, 1846, the high fare directors, without a struggle, gave way to gentle men o f different views. Under the auspices o f Mr. Gilmore, the late president o f the Concord and Nashua line, the policy o f 1843 was revived early in the present year— the through fare placed at 24 cents a mile, * Passenger revenue for 1 8 4 4 ,................................................................................. “ “ 1 8 4 5 ,................................................................................. $ 3 5 8 ,6 9 4 3 6 6 ,7 5 3 Passenger gain, 2 4 per cent o n ly,....................................................... $ 8 ,0 5 9 Freight gain, 14 per cent. A g gregate, 9 per cent. A few months after the opening o f the Springfield and Hartford Railroad, in 184 4 , and the opening o f the western railroads o f N e w Y o rk for freight, in the same year, there w as some increase in the number o f passengers, but a decline soon followed. W ith R eference to the Rates o f Freight and Fare. 245 the w ay fare reduced to 2 | cents per mile, the Boston and W orcester Railroad acquiescing; and a night train was established, at 1j cents per mile, for through passengers between Boston and Albany. The aggregate revenue has been— F o r the first six months o f 1 8 4 6 .............................................................. “ « 1 8 4 5 ,............................................................ Increase, 21 per cen t,........................................................................ $ 4 1 0 ,1 0 4 339 ,1 4 1 $ 7 0 ,9 6 2 A result which would, doubtless, have been still larger i f the night train had been converted into a day train, and continued.* T h e result, thus far, is highly encouraging to the friends o f moderate prices. Thus has the theory o f moderate charges been sustained by the experience o f Massachusetts ; a theory leading to immediate and practi cal results o f the highest importance to the interests o f that State. The decline o f rates, accelerated, if not occasioned, by the discussion begun seven years since, has enlarged the trade, promoted the manufac tures, and aided the mechanics o f Massachusetts and o f Boston, and has added millions to their wealth. E ach decline o f rates enlarges the circleo f trade, and enhances the value o f the labor and skill o f operatives, by giving them quick and cheap access to the best markets for what consti tutes their disposable capital. The railroads and the country, under a beneficent and liberal adminis tration, prosper together; while such administration, like Shakspeare’ s mercy, is— “ T w ic e blessed; I t blesseth him that gives and him that takes.” The doctrines advanced have ceased, in Massachusetts, to be theory ; they have become cardinal principles, and the question now is, to what ex tent may they be safely carried ? The rates are now low, but experience has not shown they may not be reduced, with benefit, still low er. The cost o f transit is declining with the increase o f business and the progress o f art. Our rates are still above those o f Belgium, and it may be predict ed that, within seven years more, the average rate o f passage in Massa chusetts w ill fall to l i cents per mile, and the rate o f charge for freight to 21 cents per ton a mile, in addition to the cost o f loading and unloading. Is this prediction unsafe ? Even now, in the infancy o f railroad science, coal has been carried over the Reading Railroad at a cost less than onehalf a cent per ton a mile, in trains averaging one hundred and fifty tons. W here sufficient freight offers, our N ew England trains can average, with ease, one hundred tons, and make a large profit, at the rate predicted. Th ey have already averaged one hundred and forty-two tons per train, on the Concord and Nashua Railroad. W ith respect to passengers, the cost * T h e details are not yet published. T h e three dollar train w as continued for a few w eeks, leaving Albany and Boston at 7 P . M ., and running by night only. T h e trains upon the line had, to this date, drawn three-fourths o f their patronage from way tra v el; but this train was confined to through travellers. T h ese, although much increased in numbers from those o f the previous year, were insufficient at the outset to make the train profitable ; and, after a brief experiment, it was discontinued. It is just to add, also, that som e benefit, perhaps to the extent o f 4 per cent, has been derived during the preseut year, from a new apportionment betw een the W estern and B oston and W orcester Railroad Companies. 246 Administration o f the Railroads o f Massachusetts : o f transit is declining with the increase o f numbers. In Belgium, trains have averaged, on the principal lines, more than two hundred passengers. The average cost per mile o f a passenger train is less than sixty-four cents. In Massachusetts, on the Fitchburg, and other modern lines, it does not ex ceed fifty. Let us assume it at 62£ cents, and an average o f fifty passen gers at 11 cents per mile, defrays the entire cost o f running the line. Let the average rise to one hundred or one hundred and fifty, and a large profit ensues. With the decline o f price and growth o f business, is the latter average below the promise o f the future ? But it may well be asked, has the experience o f Europe cast no light upon the subject o f fares and freights ? W hile England has taken the lead o f the civilized world in the construction o f railroads, and finished many magnificent works ; while Belgium has followed closely in her footsteps, and covered her w ell cultivated and prosperous districts with a net-work o f iron ; and France, cautiously waiting the progress o f each, perfecting her own surveys, is extending her great chains o f communication from the Alps to the Pyrenees, and from the Atlantic to the sunny shores o f the Mediterranean, have the records o f Europe furnished no results in accord ance with those o f the new world 1 In the summer o f 1840, within a year after the discussion o f this ques tion had begun in Boston, two works, in the original French, were im ported into Boston, which materially aided the advocates o f moderate charges. These were the printed reports o f Michael Chevalier and Ed mund Teisserence, to the French minister o f public works. The government o f France, struck with the progress o f railroads, before commencing its system, sent some o f its most enlightened men abroad, to examine the works o f other countries, to inquire into their administra tion. Edmund Teisserence visited England and Belgium, and Michael Chevalier crossed the Atlantic. T h ey both returned with a mass ot valuable information, and both recommended very moderate tariffs. In conformity to their conclusion, France established the following maximum rates o f charge, which, with few deviations, have been prescribed in her charters, and adopted on her lines, viz : Passenger tares, first class, not to exceed........................ ......................... “ second “ “ “ third “ “ ......................... Freight, per ton, first class,...................................................... “ “ second “ ...................................................... 3 .2 cents, per mile. 2 .1 “ “ 1.76 “ “ 6 “ “ 4 “ “ So successful have been the low rates adopted under these limits, that all the great lines she has yet opened, from Paris to Rouen, Orleans, and Tours, are earning from 8 to 10 per cent, while the stock commands from 50 to 100 per cent premium. Am ong the facts reported by her distinguished commissioners, w e find some important particulars as to Belgium. Here the government had constructed the railroads, and with parental kindness to its subjects fixed rates o f fare, varying from eight-tenths o f a cent to two cents per mile for each passenger,— the average amount o f charge being but one cent and a tenth per mile. At this low rate the section between Antwerp and Brussels had paid 20 per cent, per annum, from passengers alone. On the St. Germain road in France, a small private enterprise, somewhat higher rates had been adopted, with indifferent su ccess; and on these lines opposite experiments were tried about the same period, in 1839, and the 247 W ith R eferen ce to the Rates o f Freight and Fare. results are given in the following translations from the commissioners’ reports:— From Michael Chevalier’s work on Internal Improvements, published in P aris and in London, 184 0 . Vol. I ., p. 3 7 9 . “ T he fares on the Belgian railroads w ere, at the very outset, placed extremely low . Instead o f an increase o f four to six, as had been the case on many lines, the increase o f passengers between Brussels and Antwerp was fifteen to one. But at the end o f 1838, the section then recently opened producing but a small revenue, the administration be came alarmed, and the fares w ere raised, on the 20th February, 1839, still leaving them, however, at very low rates. The immediate effect o f this rise o f fares was to diminish the number o f passengers to such a degree that the revenue was less than at the original fares. T h e ad ministration judging itself sufficiently enlightened, in the month o f July, 1839, tried, without further delay, a new experiment. It doubled the num ber o f trains upon all the lines, and divided them in two classes, one class, (the quick train,) stopping only at stations o f the first order, and the other class, (the slower train,) stopping more frequently, and moving at the same speed as the quick train, from which speed must be deducted the time lost by the more frequent stops. “ It kept up the rate o f fares o f the 20 th February for the quick trains ; but for the slower trains it came down to the original fares. This modifi cation instantly lifted up the receipts to an amount above that at which they stood before raising the fares.” From the Official Report o f Edward Teisserence, to the Minister o f Public Works in Paris, dated 183 9 , and published in Paris, pp. 3 4 5 , 3 4 8 , 3 49. BELGIAN RAILROADS, MEAN RECEIPTS PER DAT FOR EACH SECTION. 1 8 3 8 — M arch ,........................................ A p r il,.......................................... M a y .............................................. T ogether,.................................. 1 8 3 9 .— M arch ,......... A p r il,............ M a y ,............. T o g e th e r,.. 859f. 950 1 ,0 1 0 2 ,8 1 9 -francs, at the original fare. 70 0 f. 900 950 2 ,5 5 0 francs, after raising the fare about 40 per cent. It stands, then, before raising the fare,................................................................. A n d after raising the fare,.......................................................................................... L o ss o f receipts by the higher fare in each section, per d a y,.......... ; ____ 2 ,8 1 9 franc 9 . 2 ,5 5 0 “ 2 6 9 francs. ST. GERMAIN RAILROAD, (NEAR PARIS.) P assen gers. 183 8 . 1839 . — Jan’y , F eb’ y , and M arch, at the original fa re,......................... 1 6 0 ,5 4 2 — Jan’y , F eb’ y , and M arch, at fare reduced about 2 5 per cent,. 2 3 6 ,8 8 9 T h u s presenting, by the low er fare, a gain, for 3 months, o f 7 6 ,3 4 7 R eceipts. 1 72,515 f. 1 8 9 ,5 4 5 1 7,030f. RECAPITULATION. T h e increase o f 40 per cent, in the fare on the Belgian Railroad, gave a loss o f 9J per cent in the receipts. T h e reduction o f 2 5 per cent, in the fare on the St. Germ ain Railroad, gave a gain o f 10 per cent in the receipts. The following extracts are translated from the report o f E . Teisserence to the French government, as published in the Journal o f Public W orks, at Paris, 1840, February number, pp. 72, 73. 248 Administration o f the Railroads o f Massachusetts : “ T he passage between Liverpool and Manchester, is performed in an hour and a half, as w ell as the passage between Glasgow and Paisley, and between Brussels and Antwerp.” “ T h e population o f three principal cities on each o f these lines, is as follow s:— R a i lw a y frem L iv e r p o o l to M a n c h ester . Q u ic k C a n a l-b o a ts from G la sg o w to P aisle y. R a ilw a y from A n tw e r p to Brussels. M anchester,.... . . . 2 7 0 ,9 6 3 L iverpool,....... . . . . 1 9 6 ,6 9 4 W arrington,..,. . . . 1 9 ,1 5 5 G lasgow ,....... ......... 2 0 2 ,4 2 2 Paisley,........... ........ 5 7,471 R enfrew ,........ ....... 2 ,8 3 3 Brussels,......... . . . . 1 2 0 ,0 0 0 A n tw erp,........ . . . . 8 0 ,0 0 0 M alines,........... . . . . 2 1 ,0 0 0 T otal inhabit., 4 8 6 ,8 1 2 2 6 2 ,7 2 6 2 2 1 ,0 0 0 “ At the expiration o f three years from the completion, w e find the fol lowing annual result, in regard to the passengers who pay the lowest fares, which alone influences the number o f passengers, viz :— N o . o f p assengers p a y in g lo w e s t fares. R a te o f fare per m ile . N o . o f in h ab i tan ts as ab ove . 3 5 7 ,0 0 0 3 7 3 ,0 0 0 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 3 cents. 1 cent. 4 8 6 ,8 1 2 2 6 2 ,7 2 6 2 2 1 ,0 0 0 Betw een Liverpool and M anchester, “ G lasgow and Paisley,........... “ A ntw erp and B russels,....... In the sam e proportion to population, as for A ntw erp and Brussels, Liverpool and Manchester should give.......................... Instead o f ................................................................................................... A n d G lasgow and Paisley should giv e ....................................... Instead o f .................................................................................................... j “ 2 ,2 0 0 ,0 0 0 passengers, 3 5 7 ,0 0 0 “ 1 ,1 8 8 ,0 0 0 “ 3 7 3 ,0 0 0 “ The same report continues :— “ I have before me the statements which w ere issued as a basis for the subscription to the English railways. I find at that time, (before the rail ways w ere built,) the number o f passengers was— B etw een New castle and Carlisle, per a n n u m ,....................... “ Liverpool and M anchester, “ “ London and Birmingham, “ 5 ,1 0 2 1 6 4 ,2 5 0 4 8 8 ,3 8 2 “ T h e railway between Newcastle and Carlisle has reduced the fare to one-third o f the old price, and the number o f passengers has increased 900 per cent. “ T h e railway between Liverpool and Manchester has reduced the fare one-half, and the number o f passengers has increased 200 per cent. “ The railway between London and Birmingham has left the price about the same, and the number o f passengers has increased only 10 per cent.” * From the same report w e learn that in two years after the opening o f the railways, the tonnage o f shipping at Antwerp increased 50 per cent, and at Ostend 30 per cent. But since 1840, a remarkable change has occurred in the administration o f the English railroads. T h e immense * T h e financial result is as fo llo w s:— Fare reduced 66 per cent, passengers increased................................... “ “ 50 “ “ “ .................................. “ not reduced, “ “ .................................. 9 0 0 per cent. 200 “ 10 “ T h e Eastern Railroad, w hen first opened, reduced, the charge between Boston and Salem 5 0 per cent, but the w ay fare rather less. B y Senate document, N o . 7 7 , for 1 8 3 6 , it appears the number o f passengers, before the railroad was opened, w as 1 1 6 ,7 0 0 ; for the year 1 8 3 9 , the number by railroad was 2 9 8 ,8 1 3 , or 156 per cent increase. W ith R eference to the Rates o f Freight and Fare. 249 cost o f the first works in England, doubtless led her to adopt and tena ciously adhere to rates corresponding to those o f the stage coach. H er price for a seat in a first-class car, corresponded to the price o f an inside seat by the fast coach. H er charge for a seat in the second-class car equalled that o f an outside seat by the fast coach, or an inside seat by the slow coach ; and the third-class car— a mere open pen, often without a seat— was so charged as to make it a poor substitute for the wagon or outside o f the slow coach, and on some lines no third-class car was adopted. The unfortunate passengers who could not command the high price w ere, in the cold and moist climate o f England, exposed alike to the cinders and inclemency o f the weather, summer and winter, and complaints and allu sions to Belgium were the consequence, for few would occupy the costly seats.* At length some lines were induced to lower their charges, and improve their inferior cars. Increased revenue followed. The government at last interfered, and appointed commissioners to in vestigate, and in 1844, the English railroads w ere required by law to provide comfortable third-class cars, with seats and covers, at a charge not exceeding two cents per mile for each passenger. The effect o f this decisive measure was the immediate reduction o f the charge on all classes,— this being found the wisest cou rse; for unless a proportionate reduction had been made in the first and second classes, their passengers would have taken refuge in the new third-class cars. On the Southeastern or D over Railroad, under the guidance o f Mr. M cG regor, and the London and Brighton, over which Rowland Hill, the author o f the post-office reform, presides ; on the Manchester and Leeds, and London and Birmingham, the reduction has been large, and attended with the most brilliant success. Trade has been promoted ; stocks greatly depressed in value, have risen to a high premium ; large dividends de clared : great fortunes realized; and with the revival o f com m erce, an en thusiasm awakened which bids fair to cover England with railroads. In corresponding first weeks o f June, the following roads earned re spectively per mile a w eek :— 1844. 1846. London and B irm ingham ,.................. £93 £68 South E a sto n ,.......................................... 48 85 M anchester and L e e d s ,....................... 83 135 Producing an average increase o f 5 7 per cent. Gain. 37 per cent. 77 “ 63 “ T h e report o f the board o f trade to Parliament, in 1844, informs us that in 1839, the average charge per mile for all classes o f passengers on British railways, was 3.41 cents ; and on freight per ton, per mile, 5 cents, being less than the rates then current in Massachusetts. Since then, an average reduction o f more than 20 per cent has been made in England, and the average charge per mile, must be less than 2.7 per passenger, and 4 cents per ton for freight. This reduction is more striking from the fact that in 1839, the average cost per mile o f English railways is stated in the same report to have been, in our currency, $150,000 per mile, * In 1 8 4 3 , the writer visited Europe, with a view to acquire further information as to the progress o f railroads and improvements in their administration. O n his return, he published a sketch o f his observations, under the title o f “ T w o M onths A broad,” in which he contrasted the policy o f England and Belgium , and described the English thirdclass cars. A n edition o f this work was sent to England. 250 Commercial Relations between the United States and M exico: while the Massachusetts railroads cost but $41,000 per mile, or 73 per cent less. On the continent o f Europe low rates preva il; and, as in England, the principal part o f the passengers take the second and third-class cars. In Russia, the rate has been fixed at ly cents per mile, while in Germany the following rates are very generally adopted:— First class passenger, per m ile ,............................................................................................ 2 .4 Second “ “ ........................................................................................ 1.8 T h ird « “ ............................................................................................ 1.1 Thus have the experience o f Belgium, France, and England, and the action o f Russia and Germany, sustained the policy adopted by Massa chusetts. The theory conceived in 1837, launched in 1839, advocated amid fa voring gales and adverse fortunes with faith which quailed not at the cry o f radicalism or visionary enthusiasm ; the theory whose development has given so great an impulse to the growth o f Boston, w hich has set in motion in Massachusetts, this year, two millions o f passengers, instead o f one, and five hundred thousand tons o f freight, in place o f half that quan tity, has survived the cavils o f cowardice or scepticism ; while the con sciousness o f having anticipated the future, and contributed in some degree to establish a noble principle, beneficial to the human race, requite in some degree anxiety, sacrifices, and exertions protracted as long as those which effected the post-office and custom-house reforms o f England. D. Art. III.— COMMERCIAL RELATIONS BETWEEN THE U. STATES AND M EXICO: D U R IN G THE E X IS T IN G W AR. T he late circular o f the Am erican Secretary o f the Treasury, announc ing that the commercial intercourse between the United States and M exico is to be suspended during the war in which those nations are mutually in volved, is not only justified by public policy, but is consonant to the best established principles o f national law. It may not be amiss to briefly state the leading principles affecting the relations o f nations mutually at war, and to cite a few o f those legal de cisions by which the application o f those principles, under various circum stances, may be illustrated. All commercial intercourse between nations at war is interdicted by force o f the very declaration o f war. Any nation may, during war, confiscate an enemy’ s lands or goods within its limits. In our treaty with M exico, however, by which, as will be hereafter seen, other important immunities and privileges are mutually secured, certain property o f an intangible kind is protected ; such as debts due from individuals o f the one nation to those o f the other, shares in the public funds, and the like. But it is illegal to remit any funds to the citizens of the hostile country. A bill drawn by an alien enemy on a citizen o f the adverse country, is a mere nullity. The purchase o f a bill on the enemy’ s country is illegal, because it may be relieving an enemy’ s wants. And the enforcement o f contracts made before the war, between the citizens o f the belligerent na tions, is suspended until the restoration o f peace ; but a contract o f part nership existing before the war, is dissolved so soon as war is declared. D uring the Existing W ar. 251 Contracts o f insurance, and most other contracts made with alien enemies, during war, are totally illegal and void. Ships o f cartel and o f truce are, o f necessity, permitted at times to en ter the ports o f hostile nations ; but they must be confined to their legiti mate purposes, and not be made the vehicles o f trade. The case o f ran som bills forms a necessary exception to the general interdiction o f inter course ; and, indeed, a qualified commerce during war is often specially licensed by the governments o f the hostile nations. But, inasmuch as com m erce is a species o f peace, it can only be authorized by the express permission o f the government, who may relax the rules o f war at their discretion. Friends are to be considered as enemies i f residing among them. W hen the government o f one nation declares war against that o f another, it is implied that the one nation declares war against the oth er; for the government acts for the whole society, and all the citizens o f the one nation are enemies to all the citizens o f the other.* “ W a r,” urged Mr. Emmet, in a case hereafter to be cited, [in 15 o f Johnson’ s Reports, 57,] “ in its nature, is violence. It is an exertion o f force against force. It is inconsistent with those speculative notions o f modern refinement that would make enmity and friendship, war and peace, co-existent between the same persons. I f war is justifiable, it is a right o f destruction ; and as long as it endures, the rule that cuts o ff all commer cial intercourse, must be the law .” “ The ground,” says Judge Story, in the case o f the Rapid, [1 Gallison’ s Reports,] “ upon which a trading with the enemy is prohibited, is not the criminal intentions o f the parties so engaged in it, or the direct and immediate injury to the state. T h e principle is extracted from a more en larged policy, which looks to the general interest o f the nation, which may be sacrificed under the temptation o f unlimited intercourse, or sold by the cupidity o f corrupt avarice.” And in the case o f the Emulous, reported also in the 1st Gallison’ s R e ports, the same distinguished jurist observes, “ that no principle o f national or municipal law is better settled than that all contracts with an enemy made, during war, are utterly void. This principle has grown hoary under the reverent respect o f centuries, and cannot now be shaken without up rooting the very foundations o f national law .” It is apparent, then, that however modern civilization may have miti gated the horrors o f war, yet a spirit o f humanity can only be indulged towards public enemies so far as is consistent with the object for which the war was undertaken. Bulwer describes an accomplished highwayman as dismounting and opening the window o f a carriage, while his comrades cocked their pistols at the heads o f the outriders. “ Be not alarmed, my lord,” says the smi ling villain to the occupant o f the carriage, “ you are perfectly safe ; we only want your purse and your watch.” But in spite o f all external courtesy, whether wars be public or private, the surrender o f “ the watch and the purse,” or o f the bone o f contention, be it what it may, must be insisted on until its acquisition is despaired of. W e were gratified with the generosity lately exercised by General Taylor * Bvnkershook L a w o f W a r ; Vattel’s Law o f N a tio n s ; Grotius on the Rights o f W a r and P e a c e ; 1 K ent’s Commentaries ; W h ea to n ’ s L a w o f Nations. 252 Commercial Relations between the United States and M exico : towards his vanquished foe ; but sword law must ever be a code o f blood ; and would that its necessity might forever cease ! “ N o fields with gleam ing steel be covered o’ er, A n d brazen trumpets kindle rage no m ore.” The most instructive case relating to intercourse with alien enemies, w hich has ever been tried in the courts o f N ew York, whether w e con sider the ingenious and elaborate arguments o f the counsel engaged, or the learned, luminous and conclusive reasoning o f Chancellor Kent, and o f other judges who examined and passed upon it, is that o f N . L . and G. Griswold vs. Henry and Joshua Waddington, finally decided in the Court o f Errors, as reported in 16 Johnson’ s Reports, p. 448. Joshua Waddington was an Am erican citizen and a resident o f N ew York, and Henry Waddington, a British subject, residing in England, and the two were partners before the last declaration o f war on the part o f the United States against England. T h e American name o f the firm, to which Henry Waddington belonged, was Joshua Waddington and Com pany. T h e English name o f H . W addington’ s firm was H . W adding ton and Company. Evidence was produced to show that the partnership was dissolved in 1812, but there was no evidence o f a notice o f dissolu tion. In 1813, an affidavit was sworn to by Joshua Waddington, in which he stated that “ Henry Waddington, residing in England, together with deponent and R . J. N ew by, all citizens o f the United States, were part ners, and that their business was conducted in England by H . Wadding ton, who also conducts the English business o f the firm o f H. W adding ton and Company, which is composed o f said Henry, and o f deponent.” T h e claim consisted o f a balance o f account o f several thousand dol lars, arising from transactions had, during the war, between the plaintiffs and H enry Waddington, in England. The suit was instituted in the Su preme Court o f N ew York, and process was served upon Joshua W ad dington, and on him alone. T h e opinion o f the court, adverse to the claim o f the plaintiff, was pronounced by Am brose Spencer, then judge. Judge Spencer declared that war either suspends or absolutely annuls those re lations o f commercial partnership which existed when the w ar first breaks o u t; it having placed the two parties in such a position that they could no longer act as partners. Partnership, when unexplained, he defined as a contract by w hich the parties agreed to unite their joint skill, labor, and capital, for the purposes o f the partnership;— a contract which death, lu nacy, and the like events, dissolve immediately upon their occurrence ; b e cause they destroy the consideration o f the contract. H e regarded the declaration o f war as producing the like consequences, and as dispensing with the necessity o f giving any public notice o f dissolution o f partnership. This cause was subsequently carried up to the Court o f Errors, and the opinion read by'Chancellor Kent in favor o f affirming the decision o f the Supreme Court, is a master-piece o f legal learning and acumen. T h e Chancellor stated that the law w ill not permit a citizen to recover upon an account stated in time o f war, with an alien enemy, and composed o f commercial transactions between themselves during the war. “ I f in dividuals,” said he, “ could carry on a friendly intercourse while the gov ernment was at war, the acts o f government and the acts o f individuals would be contradictory. The will o f one or o f a few would, as far as the example went, contravene the declared w ill o f the whole. Such a princi p le is certainly the parent o f disorganization ; it inculcates a contempt o f D uring the Existing W ar. 253 law ; it throws obstacles in the w ay o f public efforts, and it contains within itself the germs o f treason and rebellion.” After fortifying and illustrating his position by a host o f authorities, both ancient and modern, the Chancellor proceeded to say : “ It may be proper here to pause, and consider what has been hitherto shown. W e have been considering the opinions o f the most eminent jurists, and the usages o f the most distinguished continental nations o f Europe, touching the lawfulness o f any commerce or communication with the enemy in time o f war. Our researches, hitherto, have been confined to the European continent; we have scarcely placed a foot on British ground, and yet w e see that the highest authorities on the law o f nations, Grotius, Putfendorfj Burlemaqui, Vattel, Bynkershook, and Heineccius, and a series o f more subordinate and local opinions, such as those o f Boerius, Cleirac, Valin and Emerigon, and the maritime ordinances o f Spain, France, Holland, and Sweden, unitedly prove that all private communication and com m erce with an ene my in time o f war, are unlawful, and that by the mere fact and force o f the declaration o f war, all the subjects o f one state are placed in direct hostility to all the subjects o f the other. I f any private negotiations or contracts whatever be admissible, we have seen it can only be in cases o f necessity ; as in the case o f ransom bills, which are, indeed, acts o f intercourse, but such as are engendered by the laws and violence o f w ar.” T h e Chancellor then forcibly and lucidly exhibited an array o f English authorities, and then marshalled a host o f resolutions o f the American Congress, and o f our state legislatures, commencing with those o f a r e v o -. lutionary date, o f decisions o f our courts, and o f general reasonings, which resulted in a triumphant demonstration o f the doctrine he had asserted. The Chancellor then insisted that to make remittances merely by w ay o f deposit, in an enemy’ s country, until the person remitting has an opportu nity to draw for the funds, as the plaintiffs claimed to have done, was not an authorized act. It having been urged by the plaintiffs’ counsel, that the defendant, Joshua Waddington, as a partner o f Henry Waddington, could not set up in defence the illegality o f the intercourse which had taken place b e tween the plaintiff's and H enry Waddington, inasmuch as a man cannot take advantage o f his own or his partner’ s wrong, the Chancellor de nied the proposition— 1st. Because the defendant was not concerned in the illegal intercourse. 2d. Because the trading in question was in violation o f the laws o f the country, and if the party does not set up the objection, the court will do so ; as no court will lend its aid to a man who founds his claim on an ille gal act, or one which contravenes general principles o f public policy. The Chancellor proceeded to show that the declaration o f war did, o f itself, work a dissolution o f all commercial partnerships existing at the time, between British subjects and Am erican citizens, inasmuch as the doctrine that war does not interfere with private contracts, is not to be car ried to an extent inconsistent with the rights o f war. That it is o f the essence o f the contract o f partnership, that each party should contribute something valuable, as money or goods, or skill, or labor, or joint account, for the common benefit, and that the object o f the partnership should be lawful and honest business ; that the declaration o f war, on the part o f the United States, against England, superseded the necessity o f any notice o f the dissolution o f the partnership between Joshua and Henry Wadding- 254 Commercial Relations between the United States and M exico, etc. ton ; and that H enry Waddington must be regarded as a British subject, inasmuch as it is settled that the domicil or fixed residence o f a party at the commencement o f a war, determines his character for the war. T h e case o f the Venus, [8 Cranch’ s Reports, 253.] Senator Van Vechten followed by reading an able opinion, concurrent with that o f the Chancellor, and the decision o f the Supreme Court was confirmed, almost unanimously. W e will now cite a few other leading American cases, serving to illus trate those principles o f national law which concern the mutual relations o f alien enemies. In the case o f the Rapid, [8 Cranch’ s Reports, 155,] goods w ere ship ped in England, and sent to Am erica, on account o f a Boston merchant, before the last war with England broke out. Those goods were, on ar riving, temporarily deposited on an island belonging to Great Britain, near the coast o f Maine, until after the war was declared. T h e Rapid was then sent from Boston, in order to bring them to that port. T h e ship and goods were seized and condemned. Judge Story decided, in the Circuit Court for Massachusetts, that it is unlawful, after war is declared, to send a vessel to bring home, with the enemy’ s consent, one’ s own property which was within the enemy’ s territory when the war was commenced. This judgment was confirmed by the Supreme Court o f the United States, and accords with several English decisions. In the case o f the St. Law rence, [8 Cranch’ s Reports, 434,] the Su preme Court decided that where goods were purchased some time before the war with England, and not shipped until some time after the com mencement o f hostilities, they w ere liable to confiscation. T h e case o f the Julia, [8 Cranch, 181,] exhibits remarkably the rigor and stringency o f the rule which prohibits intercourse with alien enemies. During the late war with England, the Julia carried a cargo o f provisions from Baltimore to Lisbon, and was captured on her return passage, with a cargo o f salt, the returns o f her outward cargo. She was condemned be cause she sailed under a license and passport from a British admiral, is sued within our territory. She had no intercourse with the British at Lisbon. In the case o f Sloan vs. Allen, [2 Dallas’ Reports, 102,] C h ief Justice M cK ean decided that interest during war was not recoverable on a Brit ish debt, prosecuted in Pennsylvania, after the restoration o f peace, be cause during the war the debtor was not at liberty to pay. In the case o f the Friendschaft, [4 W heaton, 105,] it was decided that if a house o f trade be established in an enemy’ s country, and one o f the partners resides in a neutral country, his share, as w ell as that o f his co partners residing in the enemy’ s country, is liable to condemnation. A like decision was made in the case o f the Jose Indiano, [2 Gallison’ s R e ports, 268.] W e will now show how far the operation o f those general principles which ordinarily govern the intercourse o f alien enemies, has been modi fied by the treaty between the United States and M exico, made on the 5th April, 1831. B y the 26th article o f this treaty it is provided that “ for the greater security o f the intercourse between the citizens o f the United States o f America, and o f the United M exican States, it is agreed now further, that i f there should be, at any time hereafter, an interruption o f the friendly relations which now exist, or a war unhappily break out between the two 255 The German Zollverein. contracting parties, there shall be allowed the term o f six months to the merchants residing on the coast, and one year to those residing in the in terior o f the states and territories o f each other respectively, to arrange their business, dispose o f their effects, or transport them wheresoever they may please, giving them a safe conduct to protect them to the port they may designate. Those citizens who may be established in the states and territories aforesaid, exercising any other occupation or trade, shall be per mitted to remain in the uninterrupted enjoyment o f their liberty and prop erty so long as they conduct themselves peaceably, and do not commit any offence against the law s; and their goods and effects, o f whatever class and condition they may be, shall not be subject to any embargo or seques tration whatever, nor to any charge nor tax, other than may be established upon similar goods and effects belonging to the citizens o f the state in which they reside respectively; nor shall the debts between individuals, nor moneys in the public fu n d s, or in public or private banks, nor shares in companies, be confiscated, embargoed, or detained.” Art. IV.— THE GERMAN ZOLLVEREIN. Zollverein came to its present state in the year 1834, and counted then 23,478,120 inhabitants, w hich number had increased in 1843 to 28,498,625, on a space o f 822,157 German square miles, partly from Baden, Brunswick, Frankfort-on-Maine, Luxemburg, and Nassau, joining to the Union, and partly owing to the regular increase o f population, viz : T he Prussia, (including L u xem burg)....................................................... B avaria,.......................................................................................................... S a xon y,........................................................................................................... W urtem burg, (including H ohenzollern)....... .............................. B a d e n ,.......................* ............................ H e sse -C a sse l,.............................................................................................. H esse-D arm stadt,...................................................................................... Thuringen, (several duchies)............................................................... B runsw ick,.................................................................................................... N assau............................................................................................................. Frankfort-on-M aine,................................................................................. T o ta l,.............................................................................................. 1 5 ,9 6 7 ,8 7 9 4 ,4 4 4 ,9 1 8 1 ,7 5 7 ,8 0 0 1 ,7 3 9 ,7 0 6 1 ,3 3 2 ,3 1 7 7 1 9 ,3 2 0 8 4 4 ,6 5 5 9 7 4 ,1 8 4 2 3 9 ,7 4 4 4 1 2 ,2 7 1 6 5,831 2 8 ,4 9 8 ,6 2 5 N o new state has joined the Union since 1842. T h e increase o f popu lation within the Union is, when no new state joins, half a million a year. T h e population may, therefore, now be taken at thirty millions. T h e duty system is the same as Prussia had in 1818, in which nothing was prohibited, and a duty o f not more than 10 per cent levied on the value, after which, at that time, the duty was charged on the weight. Since then, however, the prices o f most goods have fallen so low that the common articles o f several branches cannot be imported any longer, and others pay a duty o f 20 , and even 100 per cent on their value, arising from the duty being levied on the weight. Prussia is the leading power o f the Union, but cannot undertake any thing without the sanction o f the other powers. T o carry a resolution, it is necessary that all agree. Deputies o f the eleven powers meet every three years, to consider and discuss matters principally relating to the ta riff, which, after this, is good for three years. In extraordinary cases, how ever, special meetings may be called in the interim. The duty o f the principal articles is— cotton yarn, 2 dollars, (1 dollar equal to 30 silbergrosch en ;) 1 0 i silbergroschen (equal to one shilling 256 The German Zollverein, sterling,) per cwt. 50 kilogr. ; warps, 3 dollars ; cottons, 50 dollars ; lead en wares, 10 dollars; pig iron, old broken iron, 10 silbergroschen ; wrought iron, 1 dollar 15 silbergroschen ; 2.15 sheet iron, anchors, plates, 3.4 dollars; hardwares and cutlery, 6.50 dollars ; glass wares, 4.15— 10 dollars; wrought copper, 6 dollars; copper wares, 6.10 dollars; linen yarn, 5 silbergroschen ; linen, 11 dollars ; wine, 8 dollars ; coffee, ginger, pimento, & c., 61 dollars; rice, 2 dollars; tea, 11 dollars; tobacco, in leaves, 5% dollars; in rolls, 11 dollars ; cigars, 15 dollars; sugar, refined, 10 dollars, raw, 5 dollars; silk wares, 110 dollars, mixed, 55 dollars; woollen-yarn, 15 silbergroschen; woollens, 30 dollars ; printed worsted, 50 dollars ; zinc and tin wares, 10 dollars. The clear receipt o f customs amounted in the year 1842 to 12,178,761 dollars ; 1843, to 22,918,754 dol lars ; 1844, to 23,970,188 dollars ; 1845, to 24,910,545 dollars. The fol low ing articles contributed, in per cents, to the amount o f import duties :— S u g a r,................................................. C offee,................................................. T o b a c c o ,........................................... W i n e , ................................................. Iron and steel,................................ W o o lle n y a m and w o o lle n s ,.. Cotton yarn,.................................... Cottons,............................................... F ru its,................................................ D rugs, dyes, and dyew oods,. . 2 5 .7 6 7 5 2 0 .3 8 2 1 7 .7 1 4 0 6.5447 5 .7 3 8 2 5 .3 8 4 0 4 .3 9 3 2 2 .4 5 9 2 2 .4361 2 .0 3 8 2 Silk wares, R ic e,.......... Sp ices,....... ......... Cattle and horses,.............. ......... B randy,.... H errings,. ......... A ll other articles,................ Im portation for h om e con sum ption, o f th e principal articles. 1844. C otto n ,...........................................cwt. Cotton yarn ,.......................................... W a r p s ,..................................................... Cottons,.................................................... D yew ood s,............................................. M ad d er,................................................... Ind igo,...................................................... L in en yarn ,........................................... L in e n ,...................................................... W i n e , ....................................................... Pim ento and pepper,........................ C innam on and cassia,...................... G inger, mace, cloves, & c . , ........... H errings, (duty 1 d. per t’ n,) tons C o ffe e ,............................................cwt. C ocoa,....................................................... R ic e ,.......................................................... Tobacco leaves,................................... “ rolls,....................................... C ig a rs,................................................... T e a ,........................................................... Sugar, refined,..................................... L u m p s,..................................................... Sugar, r a w ,........................................... S ilk , r a w ,............................................... Silk w ares,............................................ “ m ix e d ,........................................... W o o l , ....................................................... W o o lle n s, (duty 30 dols.)................ (* worsted print, (duty 50 d’s,) Carpets,.................................................... W o o lle n y a m ,....................................... B ooks, maps, & c .,.............................. 3 5 8 , 727 3 7 9 ,1 5 4 3 1 ,5 4 3 8 ,6 7 4 3 0 0 ,1 6 2 4 6 ,2 4 9 3 8 ,3 4 1 6 2 ,0 0 2 3 ,7 0 6 1 9 4 ,7 4 3 2 9 ,4 8 0 8 ,3 0 2 5,7 3 2 2 9 7 ,9 8 1 7 7 5 ,4 9 5 1 0,917 1 9 9 ,5 8 2 2 7 1 ,4 1 9 1 6 ,3 8 0 2 1 ,1 1 3 4 ,0 0 4 2 ,7 6 9 236 1 ,3 4 2 ,5 9 5 1 3,141 2 ,5 9 1 2 ,9 4 3 1 5 9 ,9 5 5 2 9 ,3 8 9 3 ,5 3 6 316 4 0 ,5 8 1 19,473 1.9496 1 .4795 1 .3 7 1 5 1.0681 100. E xportation , transit n o t in clu d e d . 1814. 9 2 ,5 2 4 1 7 ,6 2 7 • 10 8 1 ,2 7 5 9 2 ,5 9 0 8 ,4 3 9 3 5 ,2 4 0 8 1 ,0 1 2 9 0 ,0 7 3 415 173 429 9 ,0 0 8 Im portation . 1845. 4 1 2 ,0 0 0 4 6 1 ,8 4 9 4 8 ,3 1 8 8 ,4 6 0 not yet know n. 6 4 .3 6 0 not yet known 2 0 1 ,6 6 5 ) I- 5 6 ,0 7 9 2 8 1 ,7 6 6 1 8 3 6 ,4 7 6 89 16.861 2 8 ,5 1 6 2 ,2 4 0 4 4 ,7 1 2 15 1,0 6 5 7,1 4 4 4 ,8 4 4 1 5 7 ,8 4 9 7 4 ,4 4 0 1,4 5 5 424 8,1 1 3 1 5,715 2 0 0 ,0 6 1 3 2 2 ,7 2 3 1 5 ,9 8 7 2 3 ,7 5 3 1,978 190 1 ,4 0 9 ,0 2 3 not yet known. 2 ,6 4 2 3,151 not yet known 3 1 ,5 8 9 6 ,1 1 0 3 9 ,7 0 6 not yet know n The German Zollverein. 257 As many foreign-made goods are bought, by foreigners, at the fairs o f Brunswick, Frankfort-on-the-Maine, Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and Leipsic, to be taken out o f the Union, the import duty on these goods being too high to be paid, and such bond warehouses as are used for sugar, coffee, & c ., would not do for manufactured goods, the merchant who deals in for eign articles at the fairs within the Union, has an account at the custom house, which is debted with the weight o f all the goods he imports ; when booked, he takes the goods to his warehouse. Whatever he sells for ex port he must make a declaration of, and the purchaser must take this dec laration with the goods to the custom-house. I f they are acknowledged to have been imported, they are packed at the custom-house, where there is very good accommodation for them, sealed with lead, and, accompanied by a certificate, sent out o f the Union. The custom-house at the frontier, through which the goods pass, attests the exportation, and sends the cer tificate back, after which the dealer is credited for the weight, only paying a transit duty o f half a dollar per cwt. After the fair is over, the stocks in the warehouses o f those persons who deal in foreign articles are exam ined and weighed ; the weight o f the stock, together with that o f the ex ported goods, is deducted from the weight o f tho imported goods in the debit o f their accounts, and the remainder is supposed to have been sold in the Union, and pays the full amount o f duty. This plan has been highly approved o f at the fairs. Manufactories have increased considerably in number and in extent within the Union, since 1834 ; this is to be attrib uted to the free intercourse o f thirty millions o f people, which were for merly divided by thirty different duty systems, to the increase o f popula tion, and to the waking energy o f the manufacturers. In 1834, the cotton mills spun 112,363 cwt. o f cotton, but in 1843, they spun 306,731 cwt., which gives an increase o f 173 per cent. T h e importation o f cotton in 1844 amounted to 358,727 cwt., and in 1845, to 412,000 c w t .; so that, in these two years, an increase o f cotton spinning, amounting to 34 per cent, took place. In 1834, there w ere 600,000 spindles ; this number had in creased, in 1837, to 800,000, o f which, however, owing to the crisis from 1837 to 1839, only 600,000 could be employed. F or the last three years the 800,000 have been again and fully employed, and this number will, in the course o f another year, receive an increase o f 10 to 12 per cent. Notwithstanding two-thirds o f the yarn used up within the Union is for eign-made, the cotton weavers used up, in 1834, 301,038 cwt. o f foreign and home-made yarn, and in 1843, 628,867 cw t., an increase o f 109 per cent. The importation o f cotton goods amounted, in 1834, to 12,442 c w t .; in 1844, to only 8,652 cwt., a falling o ff o f 32 per cent. T h e ex ports remained the same as before, and were, in 1843, 74,752 cwt. C w t. In that year w as woven yarn,.................................................................................................. O f which was exported,............................................................................................................. 6 2 8 ,8 6 7 7 4 ,7 5 2 There were, therefore, consumed in the U nion, o f home-m ade cotton goods, O f foreign-made cotton g o o d s,.......................................................................................... . 5 5 4 ,1 1 5 8 ,6 5 2 T otal consum ption,....................................................................................................................... 5 6 2 ,7 6 7 wherein the home-made amounts to 98J per cent, and the imported to l.~ per cent. In 1834 the proportion was as 95 to 5. vol . xv.— x o . h i . 17 258 The German Zollverein. 1834. 1843. C w t. C w t. T h e production o f w ool within the U nion amounted to................ Imported w o o l,.................................................................................................... 3 5 8 ,1 3 5 9 0 ,3 7 3 4 7 5 ,7 8 1 1 5 0 ,2 5 4 T o ta l,....... ................................................................................................................ W o o l exp orted,................................................................................................... 4 4 8 ,5 0 8 1 3 2 ,6 2 1 6 2 6 ,0 3 5 1 2 0 ,5 9 9 L eaving to be spun within the U n io n ,.................................................... 3 1 5 ,8 8 7 5 0 5 ,4 3 6 This shows that w ool spinning has increased exactly 60 per cent within these ten years. 1834. 1843. C w t. C w t. T h e quantity o f yarn produced from this w ool w a s........................ T h e quantity o f foreign y a m imported w a s .......................................... 2 3 6 ,9 1 5 1 8 ,0 0 0 3 7 9 ,0 7 7 3 3 ,5 6 9 T o ta l.......................................................................................................................... O f this was exported,'....................................................................................... 2 5 4 ,9 1 5 3 ,8 2 3 4 1 2 ,6 4 6 6 ,2 0 9 Consequently there w as used for weaving within the U n io n ,.... There is an increase o f 62 per cent. W oo llen goods exported,. 2 5 1 ,0 9 2 5 2 ,7 0 8 4 0 6 ,4 3 7 6 9 ,0 9 0 W ith in the U nion, o f hom e-m ade w oollen goods, were consumed W o o lle n goods im ported,............................................................................. 1 9 8 ,3 8 4 1 2 ,1 5 7 3 3 7 ,3 4 7 3 3 ,4 6 3 T otal consumption o f woollens within the U n io n ,........................... 2 1 0 ,5 4 1 3 7 0 ,8 1 0 wherein the home-made amounts to 91 percent, and the imported to 9 per cent. In 1834, the proportion was 94 to 6 . Concerning the importation o f raw silk, it is only since 1841 that any correct returns have been made. O f silk dyed in the Union and that w hich is imported dyed, there was woven in 1841, 11,478 cwt. ; in 1843, 14,626 cwt., so that there was an increase in this branch, within two years, o f 28 per cent. 1834. C w t. 1843. ■ C w t. O f silk goods were imported,...................................... “ m ixed, “ ........................................ 2 ,2 1 3 933 2 ,6 3 1 2 ,3 4 9 T o ta l,..................... 3 ,1 4 6 4 ,9 8 0 O f silk goods were exported,........................................ “ m ixed, “ ........................................ 4 ,8 7 8 2 ,7 9 4 6,301 4 ,0 7 1 T o t a l ,........................................................................................ 7 ,6 7 2 1 0 ,3 7 2 T h e exportation o f silk goods finished within the Union, has, therefore, increased 35 per cent in ten years. T h e object o f Prussia in bringing about the Zollverein, was entirely political. T h e war, from 1813 to 1815, had placed it in a higher political position than, considering its material powers, it could reasonably have expected. Being difficult to form a resolution to descend from the rank o f a grand power, Prussia could not make up its mind to put up with a secondrate power. In order to maintain the former, it was necessary to gain in fluence over the minor German powers : the only means o f obtaining this was by bringing about such a union as, at last, has been accomplished, to the mutual benefit o f the powers included in it. The other powers joined merely from motives o f commercial economy, because the many restric- The German Zollverein. 259 lions created by the customs were quite insupportable. Financial improve ments none o f them desired to make, because those that levied no high imposts covered their expenses by other m eans; and those who levied them were obliged to lose, and did lose, because so many frontiers and custom-houses had been done away with. This was particularly the case with Prussia, having, during the first years, considerably less income. But the free commercial intercourse, being extended over so much space, soon rendered this otherwise ; and Prussia’ s share o f the receipts amounts now to more than it did before the union. The people, however, had another object in view, o f which the governments did not think : they saw that the falling off o f these restrictions would cause those o f a different nature to fall off more and more, viz., such as those that separated politically the different German tribes. T h ey soon saw that, by the union o f so many little German provinces, they could obtain a political standing o f some con sequence, which the Vienna Congress had overlooked, or would not see. The consequence is, that the German people look upon the union as being much greater in a political point o f view than in a commercial, without the latter losing anything o f its value from this fact. T h e union is ratified by public opinion, and forever indissoluble. In the beginning, the consumers naturally disliked the high imposts, i. e., in such countries where they had formerly been lo w e r ; not so, how ever, as may be supposed, the manufacturers. But the scales soon turned; the consumers became accustomed to them, the more so in those countries where the direct taxes had been reduced in consequence o f the greater custom revenue ; but the manufacturers, in the years 1837-8, were brought to a singular state o f excitement, from the appearance o f what is called the “ national system o f political econom y,” by Dr. List. It is almost in credible how people, such as had had before the union no protection at all, as, for instance, the Saxon manufacturers on the one side, and on the other, the Prussian ones, those who had been for twenty years satisfied with the existing system, did all break out together in loud com plaints. This excitement was increased in 1843, by the publication o f the Zollvereinsblatt, (paper o f the commercial league.) The cotton yarn spin ners were particularly the most violent. T h ey all at once entirely forgot that the Saxon spinners had arrived at their present state without any pro tection at all. It soon becam e apparent that List had been employed by them, because he only preached protection on cotton yarn, seldom on cot tons, never on woollen, linen, or silk goods. In every digression, on every occasion, he always reverts to the spinning o f cotton yarn. List is not without talent, but without profound knowledge ; he possesses unparalleled assurance, heaps contradiction upon contradiction, and when they are pointed out to him, he makes use o f the most ridiculous sophistry, and the commonest abusive language. Every w eek he is extolling his system in his Zollvereinsblatt, and in the Augsburg Allgemeine Zeitung, which is quite taken with him ; by these means he has succeeded in prepossessing the whole o f south Germany, (Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Baden,) and even also the consumers, in favor o f i t ; so that there they only see the salvation o f Germany in cotton spinning. In the western provinces o f Prussia, and in Nassau, his “ national system,” as it is called, has also many adherents, owing to the number o f manufacturers there. But affairs are not so bad here in this respect as is generally supposed abroad, where the Augsburg Allgemeine Zeitung is principally read, and which favors the Causes o f Failure among Men o f Business. 260 protective system to a great extent. In Saxony, where there are, com paratively speaking, the most manufacturers, and live-eighths o f the whole o f the spindles within the union, there are but the spinners in its favor; the manufacturers have expressed themselves in very decided terms against it. The agricultural countries, such as Brunswick, Hessen, and several Prussian provinces, as Pomerania, East and W est, Prussia, are all in fa vor o f free trade. The Bavarian newspapers, as well as the Wurtembcrg, Baden, Aix-la-Chapelle, and Berlin papers, all favor the protective system ; formerly the Cologne papers did also, but they remain at present neutral; the Leipsic, Frankfort-on-the-Maine, Breslau, Stettin, and K oenigsberg papers, on the contrary, stick up for free trade. O f the governments, B a varia, Wurtemberg, Baden, and Thuringen, are more or less inclined to the protective system, while Prussia, Saxony, Hessen, Brunswick, and Nassau— Frankfort (both having only one vote,) are for the existing sys tem. Saxony was always in favor o f free trade, but particularly in the last Customs-Congress it spoke decidedly against all increase o f duty upon cotton and woollen yarn, and gave its refusal. It did make some media ting proposals concerning the duty upon cotton yarn, but Bavaria, W ur temberg, and Baden, did not agree to them, nor the other governments to theirs, so it remained as it was. The government o f Saxony has since published its intention to take the matter into serious consideration, w he ther in any future session it shall revert to its above-mentioned mediating proposals. There were, it says, considerations not to be overlooked, both in regard to raising the import duties upon cotton and linen yarn, and the measures now in question concerning drawbacks. Several numerously signed petitions from the manufacturing districts o f Voightland, Upper-Lansitz, and the Erzgebirge, had been presented, showing how injurious ad vanced import duties would be. The assertions made in these petitions w ere confirmed by experience. And the language Saxony will use at the meeting, which takes place in Berlin, concerning yarn, may easily be supposed.* Art. V.— CAUSES OF FAILURE AMONG MEN OF BUSINESS. the Merchants’ Magazine for July, w e published a few passages from the lecture o f the Hon. Thomas G. Cary, with reference to the late Luman Reed, a grocer o f N ew York, who, besides acquiring a large fortune, while actively engaged in trade, found time to cultivate a taste for the fine arts, and the means to encourage the artists. A variety o f subjects are discussed in the lecture referred to, but by far the largest portion o f it is occupied with an inquiry into the causes o f frequent failures among men o f business. The mercantile habits, and large experience o f Mr. Cary, the author o f the lecture, will doubtless secure for the subjoined remarks, on this subject, the attentive perusal o f the man o f business. In A crisis, as it is called, comes over us, and our new world seems to be coming to an end in common bankruptcy. But our experience, thus far, enables us to say that if the troubles have no immediate connection with any general change of public policy, they soon pass away. The earth gives forth her increase annually. It is to be prepared for use, and taken for consumption; and that makes up the great business of the year, all over * London Econom ist, June 20th, 1846. Causes o f Failure among Men o f Business. 261 the world; and, in the main, this business is always done. But occasionally there is too much of one thing, or too little of another, or some portion has been put in a wrong position, and there is temporary inconvenience, perhaps great alarm. But it is soon over. When the derangement arises from a change in the policy of the government which requires a corresponding change in the habits of the community, great pru dence and care are certainly required for a time, to avoid serious embarrassment. Yet those who have conducted their business on certain sound principles, which every person of common sense can understand, and who mean to adhere to those principles under ail circumstances, are generally able to stand firm through the whole. In truth, the failures that arise from inevitable misfortune alone, are not so nu merous as they are generally supposed to be. In most cases insolvency is caused by mistakes that originate in personal character, and which would be seasonably corrected, if their dangerous tendency were clearly understood. There seem to be two or three definite causes, to one or all of which, disasters of this nature may frequently be traced, all of them founded in a desire to get forward too fast. But whatever the causes may be, it is, at any rate, of peculiar importance to those who grow up in a country so free as ours to ascertain what they are, and to remember them. Under other governments, where the several classes of society are distinctly divided, and where it is difficult to change from one to another, the modes of business and of life in each class are established by customs and forms that have been founded in the experience of ages. The son commonly follows the steps of the father in the same way of life, and his ambition is usually limited to the desire of being foremost in his craft, whatever that may be. Landmarks appear everywhere to guide him in a course that has been well tried by others, and he can hardly leave it without being soon reminded that he is deviating. Here, it is not so. Each one is likely to take his own course, and to devise a method for himself; sometimes a very good one, but often defective, and generally without strict regard to any experience but his own. It is, there fore, the more important that he should carry with him, everywhere, those sound principles of action that serve as guides under all circumstances. A leading cause of failure, is the tHere ambition to be rich, which often defeats itself, and, as is well known, sometimes leads to ruin. Another cause, probably, is aversion to labor. It was a maxim among the an cient heathens that the gods have sold to mankind everything that is desirable but existence, and that the price is labor. The sacred scriptures instruct us that labor is our lot for life, and our daily experience admonishes us of the truth of this. Yet there are many who mean not to work if they can avoid it. Without reflecting, perhaps, that they are setting themselves in opposition to a great law of our nature, they begin life with various plans, of their own invention, for short ening their term of labor as much as possible. Their whole scheme of action is founded in an ignoble desire to enjoy a large share of the good things that are accumulated solely by the labor of man, without making a fair contribution to the common stock by work of their own. The prospect of wealth obtained by lucky chances, in a lottery, or otherwise, apjpfars as agreeable, in their view, as if it were the result of skill and of laborious services rendered to mankind; perhaps more so, because it comes speedily. They may be active in their occupation, perhaps, but their mode of proceeding is very different from what it would be, if a wise performance of duty, rather than an early escape from it, were their first object. Visions of great and sudden changes in the value of property, by which fortunes are rapidly made, and which they hope to have the sagacity to foresee, float in their view, and invite to overtrading and speculation that often prove in the result to have been by no means sagacious. They are the very people who are most wanting in the accurate and patient observation that foresees what is to come. There is some reason to hope that we are undergoing a favorable change in this respect. The tendency of our institutions, as has been observed by an able writer, to give to labor a degree of consideration and honor which it has never re ceived elsewhere, is producing perceptible effects. The acquisitions of industri- 262 Causes o f Failure among M en o f Business. otis exertion already obtain greater deference among ns than estates of inheri tance ; while inactive leisure seems to be losing some of its attractions. A third cause of mischief is the impatient desire to enjoy the luxuries of life before the right to them has been acquired in any way. The facilities of obtain ing credit put it in the power of a large portion of the community to indulge their wishes, if they choose to do so, before the means of indulgence have been earned. Shallow, cant sayings, that have no foundation in truth, such as that— “ the world owes every man a living ”— give countenance to misuse of this credit; and the virtues of prudence and frugality are put to an early test. But the world owes us nothing; and they who urge such idle claims upon it, usually receive, in the end, the repulse that is due to unjust demands. In the fable of the pilgrim, it is said that when he became weary and disheart ened at difficulties which he encountered, and doubted whether he could proceed in the rugged path that he was pursuing, he applied for advice to a hermit, who oflered him a staff of wonderful virtue, that would give him ail the aid that he needed, if he had but the courage to lean boldly upon it. The pilgrim almost shrank from the touch of it, for this staff was covered with sharp thorns, and the blood trickled from his hand as he grasped it. But, assured as he was of its mar vellous power, he persevered with determination; and as he advanced, he found that, notwithstanding the pain, a surprising vigor was imparted to his frame. The thorns, too, became loosened, and fell off as he proceeded. The wounds in his hand soon healed, and he went cheerfully forward on his way. It was the staff of Self-Denial that had been given him; a main support to all those of us who have to make their own way through the rugged paths of life. There is still another cause, arising from the want of some deeper principle, for distinguishing between right and wrong, than a reference merely to what is established as honorable in the society in which one happens to live. While most people are sufficiently upright for ordinary times, there are seasons, such as we have seen within the last ten years, when the very corner-stones of society seemed to be shaken, and those on whom a man may have relied for aid in case of difficulty are themselves in trouble; when the alternative before him is the hu miliation and terror of immediate insolvency, or a resort to new hazards which could not be justified if explanation should become necessary. It makes a wide difference then, whether the course decided on be prompted by dread of the world, or by dread of self-condemnation. In one class of cases, there has been, through fruitless attempts to escape exposure, total wreck and destruction of property, with ruin to many around-. In the opposite class, seasonable disclosure has led to preventive measures. Careful liquidation, and a just appropriation of what remained, have diminished evil consequences, and amounted, in some instances, to a full and honorable discharge of obligations. Results have shown, too, some times, that the resolute adoption of that course which was dictated by an unflinch ing adherence to integrity and truth, has proved it to be the very course that was the best, even in a mere worldly view, for skilful management in difficulty, and for avoiding failure altogether. But the effect of this principle is not felt merely under desperate circumstances. It is constantly in operation to prevent th^r approach. Without it, a man who purchases goods is very apt to sign the promise that he gives for the payment with as little consideration as he has in passing over a bank-note, or the promise of another person. If people are willing to trust him for what he wishes to buy, he is not troubled with scruples in taking the credit, even if he doubts his own ability to pay; although the same man, perhaps, would refuse to promise verbally the performance of any specific act, if he doubted his ability to keep his word. He would regard that as a breach of honor. But to a man who acts habitually on the deeper principle of integrity, other considerations arise in the giving of a note which runs in this way—“ For value received, I promise to pay, & c.” — He does not view the act as the mere execution of a formal instrument to complete a transaction in business. He is binding him self by a promise. If a doubt arises whether he shall be able to perform it, that doubt is by no means quieted within him by the reflection that, in case of failure, Causes o f Failure among Men o f Business. 263 he may obtain a legal discharge from the engagement. That broken promise would remain, to disturb his peace at the latest hour of life, although his creditor might forgive the breach, and the world forget it, as is often the case. And the consideration has its effect. The extent to which he desires credit is not the full extent to which the world are willing to give it. It is rather the extent of his own ability to pay, if the purchase should prove to be a bad one. Just because he is in earnest and means to perform, when he promises, by hard work and stern self-denial, if he cannot otherwise, he is cautious in imposing tasks of this nature upon himself. And this moderation, founded in principle, often proves to be a safeguard; for in numerous cases, those who make the largest purchases, find that, through unforeseen changes, they have the most to regret before their en gagements become due. It is true that this cautious integrity may get on but slowly; but it has an accompaniment that pervades the character, and that shows itself in temperance, in frugality, in resolute untiring exertion; and it generally succeeds in attaining an independence that is honorable and happy, though it may be humble. The man who is prepared to work through life, takes his labor with cheerful ease. The Saturday evening, which brings repose to man and beast, is not more agreeable to him than the renewal of his occupation on that Monday morning that lowers so gloomily over one, who has before him a week of embarrassment in meeting obligations that have been entered into with the delusive hope of rapid gain, and which he would rejoice to cancel, by returning his purchases, if he could retrace his steps. The man of regular industry, too, and of principle, while he is free from deep anxiety for the future, usually gives it that due care which gradually improves his condition. As only a small portion of the world can ever be rich, he may not be likely to become so. Yet he has his chance. As he advances, in life, he sees some of those who at times have almost excited his envy at their seeming pros perity, becoming involved in difficulty and falling far behind him. When the crisis comes, perhaps he finds, to his surprise, that he is looked to as a strong man ; for he has something at command, and appears at ease, when almost every one about him, who has been more ready to give promises than he, is straitened, and must sell at a loss. When property, then, seems to be losing its value and is neglected, opportuni ties rise around him of using what means he may have with an advantage that he had never anticipated, and his possessions begin to extend. Pursuing the same steady course, his strength increases. Without much calculation about it, he finds himself, perhaps, becoming comparatively rich. Causes are at work that may, possibly, make him quite so, without endangering his independence or tran quillity. If wealth comes, he makes sure of it. His spirit is not intoxicated, though his views expand with his acquisitions. The temptation to advance finds no treacherous ally within him, in a spirit of rivalry, ambition, or envy, urging him on to risk all that he may have, in grand undertakings, that are to outdo all who are before him, and dazzle his little world with the magnitude of his operations. Yet from no better spring of action, many a man, who acts without regard to the principles that we have been considering, inflated by early success, has plunged, or suffered himself to be drawn, with all that he has, into a sea of trouble, where he must eventually sink. Some fifteen or twenty years ago, a great change took place, here, in the man agement of foreign commerce. It was through an invention for substituting a biil of exchange on London, which would be accredited in distant countries, in place of the usual outfit of money or goods on which foreign voyages had been conducted before. It was no longer necessary for a man to gather up his pro perty and put it in hard money, or in a cargo newly purchased, on board ship. He was no longer reminded by every difficulty that he met, in providing the re quisite funds, that he was putting at risk, perhaps the accumulations of his life, and led, therefore, to consider well what he was about. It was only necessary for him to satisfy the agent of some European banker that he was able to bear any positive loss that might occur at the end of a voyage; or, if not so, to give security 264 Causes o f Failure among Men o f Business. for a small portion of the credit which would cover such loss, and the whole busi ness of the outfit was done in an hour. The right to draw the bills was given, and he had only to hire a vessel, if he did not own one, and dispatch her ; or to join, as one, in making up a voyage, although the whole business was new to him. The vessel might be sent to Canton, for instance, for teas and silks. To pay for them, bills or orders to receive money in London would be given. Al though the Chinamen would not want such bills for their own use, the English, from whom they purchase manufactured goods, would readily take the bills in payment; and the parties here would receive their vessel back with a full cargo, for which they would have to make payment in London after it should be sold. The consequence was, that great facilities were offered to people to engage in business in which they had no previous experience ; and for which they have, in many cases, suffered severely themselves, besides causing the downfall of several important banking houses in Europe, who had injudiciously supplied the means, and tempted them to such dangerous folly. Within the same period there has been, on the other hand, great expansion of currency in this country. The value of real estate appeared to be increasing surprisingly, and men whose proper business is foreign commerce, have been tempted to withdraw their capital from its previous uses, while this contrivance of bills enabled them to continue their usual trade, and make great speculations in lands, in hopes of sudden wealth. Failures have succeeded, and the unsuspicious creditor, who supposed that he had been selling his goods to a person employed solely in domestic manufactures, for instance, finds that it depended entirely upon the success of a Calcutta voyage, in which the purchaser had secretly engaged, whether he was ever to be paid. Or he finds that, while he supposed that he had sold his goods to a merchant whose attention was devoted to foreign trade, the real capital that was believed to be in that, trade had been diverted to the purchase of prairies at the west, or cotton lands at the south ; and that, in truth, it depended upon the tide of emigra tion to some new settlements in a wild country whether he was ever to get his payment. If we suppose the principles of scrupulous integrity to have been in action among these parties, what would have been the effect ? The purchaser would have said—■ “ I cannot subscribe a promise to pay for goods that I have bought under appearances which are likely to deceive others, without disclosing the truth. I must disclose the fact that my solvency is at risk from causes not generally known ; or decline the purchase, although it is offered to me.” But a spirit, to do that would have operated sooner, and prevented the first entanglement in the new business, from a sense of justice to those to whom he was then indebted. And clearly it would have been for his own interest as well as theirs, that it should have been so. Experience has generally shown that any principle which would deter a man from diverting the capital from regular business before it can be easily spared, to make such new investments in a spirit of speculation, would operate fortunately for himself. But when particular instances are adduced of advantages that seem to arise from a practical regard to conscientious scruples, the sceptical are apt to smile, as if the narrator were indulging his imagination, in order to make out something of poetical justice for the good, or as if he were asserting the intervention of a miraculous Special Providence, which diffidence of their own merit leads them to suppose could never be exercised in favor of persons so unworthy as themselves. W e are now speaking, however, of matters which lie very much within the limit of our own control over events. They are not sketches of poetical fancy, but well ascertained facts, founded in definite causes, just as sustenance and en joyment begin with husbandry and gardening. Instances may certainly be found of men who disregard the rules of wisdom and virtue, and yet become rich and powerful. But where one such man can be pointed out, a score of others who resemble him in everything but shrewdness and energy, may be mentioned who have disgracefully failed. It may be, on'the other hand, that among twenty men who act with strict re Cotton Manufacture in Switzerland. 265 gard to principle, not more than one of them would be found to have become rich. But the other nineteen have probably never failed ! They have earned all that they have ever spent. They have performed their portion of the labor of the world. They have its confidence and respect. Be they mechanics, farmers, or professional men ; be they merchants, seamen, or laborers on the wharves, they are known as men of independent spirit, who can neither be bought, nor bent to improper designs ; as men who fulfil the great purposes of life, and who are re garded and remembered for their worth. But the man, be he good or bad, who begins with the determination to be rich early in life, is most likely to be disappointed. Let him select the best example of rapid success that can be found ; let him, if he can, begin with the same means, and do precisely the same things, as those did who have become rapidly rich, and he is very likely to find, in the end, that although the same course, pursued ten years sooner, or ten years later, might have been successful, yet, owing to causes entirely beyond his own control, it could not possibly succeed when he attempted it; and that it required all the skill that he possessed even to avoid ruin. In truth, the path that leads speedily to wealth, is generally discovered, when found at all, by some accidental concurrence of circumstances. But the turnings that lead to failure and disgrace can be seen from afar ; and may, in most cases, be avoided by seasonable care. The father can direct his son, when he begins the journey of life, where to observe them. The great Parent of men has set up the landmarks ; and the mother can teach her boy how he is to avoid them when he enters on the highway of the world. She cannot instruct him by what means he may be enabled to ride onward, among the throng, in a luxurious equipage. Bat she may do much to save him from the humiliation and sorrow of those who are seen standing in tatters at the road-side, after straying in search of some imaginary short cut to wealth, and-scrambling back through the mud and briars o f the swamp. The difference to him might be vast if her aspirations for his greatness, which are, perhaps, sowing the seeds of selfish and fatal ambition in his mind, should be exchanged for the spirit of real affection that would instruct him in the virtues of industry and truth. In a word ; it does not lie with the young man, when he begins life, to say whether or not he is to be rich. But whether or not he will make a mischievous failure, is, in most cases, an affair that he can decide for ■himself. Art. VI.— COTTON MANUFACTURE IN SWITZERLAND. TRANSLATED FROM THE REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONERS OF THE SWISS CONFEDERATION ON E I # )R T S AND COMMERCE WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES. C o t t o n is the most important manufacture o f Switzerland. It gives employment to the greatest number o f hands, and in its various branches is spread over most o f the cantons. It was easily domiciled in Switzer land, even inducing workmen employed in the woollen and linen manu factures to leave the two latter employments, and turn to the produce o f cottons. In the first instance, cotton goods w ere imported from the East Indies, and only during the last century w ere they produced in England, and shortly after in Switzerland. In the middle o f the last century, yarn was first spun in England by machinery. The first spinning establishment in Switzerland, was erected during the continental system. O wing to the exclusion o f all Swiss cotton goods, which the prohibitive system o f France has been extending ever since the commencement o f this century, and a similar course pursued by the Italian States, the position o f this manufac ture has been one o f great difficulty. On the one hand, the raw material 266 Cotton Manufacture in Switzerland. can only be obtained with great trouble, by circuitous routes through for eign countries ; and on the other hand the sale o f the goods in the neigh boring markets was rendered impossible by any legal means. Thus driven by necessity, the Swiss cotton trade was compelled to seek foreign and distant markets, these self-same hostile regulations assisting to in crease and to spread the trade they w ere intended to crush. At the conclusion o f the peace, in 1815, the position o f the trade becam e still more precarious. From the opening o f trade, the whole o f the conti nental states were flooded with English manufactures, especially o f cotton. T o such an extent was this the case, that all goods were suddenly depre ciated to a third o f their former value. In every market the powerful com petition o f England was to be met. England was striving to earn back by commerce the large sums spent as subsidies in the course o f the w a r ; thus, Switzerland’ s greatest advantage from the peace was principally in the increased security and facility o f visiting the markets beyond the sea. At this period, the manufacture appeared to be doomed, and annihilation certain. England continued to pour immense quantities o f cotton yarn into the country, competing successfully with the Swiss yarn, not only on account o f its extremely low cost o f production, but it enjoyed all the ad vantages o f a superior reputation. Thus, the same priced English yarn had the preference over Swiss. Still, during this very struggle for existence, the Swiss manufacture steadily grew and increased— at first confining herself to the lower and coarser numbers o f yarn ; (England still supplying the higher ones ;) by degrees, however, successful efforts w ere made by perfecting and improv ing the machinery, till, at last, not only is she enabled (without the re motest shadow o f protection) to supply the whole o f her home consump tion, but even beneficially to compete with the English 3rarn in foreign markets. Thus, w e find the Swiss manufacture had not only emanci pated itself from the competition o f the English in Switzerland, but had also survived through all those periodical depressions and low prices to which the English market has been subject, and establishing for itself a celebrity that similar but protected trades in other European countries, may in vain strive after. T h e spinners o f other countries, with all their protection, cannot compete with the English importation, and in no other state does the native produce meet the English on an <^ual footing. T h e development o f the Swiss cotton manufacture may be adduced as a bright example o f the perfect success o f free competition, o f the energy o f the Swiss people, and o f the industrious habits o f the nation. In spite o f all these prohibitive systems which have gradually encircled Switzerland, the cotton trade has continued astonishingly to increase ; the largest factories have been built since the conclusion o f the German Zollv e re in ; still, it must be allowed that the position o f the trade has o f late been one o f considerable difficulty, and great efforts are required to sus tain its high position, chiefly ow ing to the strong internal competition, and the difficulty o f findiqg a sale in foreign markets. This state o f things has caused some o f the smaller manufacturers to suspend their operations, as their goods are necessarily produced at a higher cost than the larger establishments, and even these latter w ill find themselves severely pushed if the German Zollvercin again raise the duty on foreign twist— an event they have already threatened. There are 131 cotton yarn manufactories in Switzerland, containing 267 Commercial Code o f Spain, etc. snore than 660,000 spindles o f all numbers, the majority ranging from N os. 38 to 40 ; these produce annually upwards o f 160,000 cwts., and collectively they employ 10,000 souls ; by far the largest portion o f this is consumed at h om e; the principal export is to the States o f the Zollverein. T h e import o f cotton w ool was, in 1 8 4 1 .......................................................................... 1 8 4 2 , ...................................................................... 1 8 4 3 , .............................................................................. 1 8 4 ,5 9 4 c w t 2 2 8 ,1 3 9 “ 1 9 8 ,0 2 8 “ T h e import o f twist is very unimportant, and only in the highest numbers. There are eighteen power-loom establishments, which yield 100,000 pieces o f cloths annually, and employ 1,000 men ; most o f these cloths are taken by the printers, and the further supplies these latter may re quire are imported from France and England, the greater portion o f the cotton cloths being still produced by the hand-loom weavers, who are em ployed in the production o f every kind o f cotton stuS’, in large quantities. The canton o f Zurich alone, has from 18,000 to 20,000 hand-loom weavers, and supplies 1,000,000 pieces annually. Collectively, the other cantons find work for some 90,000 weavers, whose united labors produce several millions o f pieces annually. Art. VII.— COMMERCIAL CODE OF SPAIN. THE LAW OF C A R R IE R S BY LAN D , ( d E LOS P O R T E A D O R E S .* ) W e publish the following translation o f the law o f Spain in relation to common carriers by land. The article is found in the commercial code o f Spain, and embraces the entire regulations o f that empire on the subject o f common carriers. The United States seem never to have thought proper to frame a system o f commercial and maritime laws, though its commerce is now second in the scale o f nations, and is destined, at no distant period, to be the first. Our commercial law must be sought in the voluminous statute books both o f the national and state governments, and still more, in the countless elementary treatises and adjudged cases which encumber the library, and distract the mind o f the judge and lawyer. The present article presents a condensed view o f the whole law on the subject o f which it treats ; and w e are persuaded that Am erica owes it to herself to frame a code o f commercial and maritime law, which shall pervade the whole o f the Republic ; so that the law shall be the same on the R io Grande, the Mississippi, the Hudson, the St. Johns, the Great Lakes, and on the shores o f the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. C C III. The character o f a carrier ( parteador) o f commerce, appertains not only to those who transport merchandise by land, but also to those who transport merchandise by navigable rivers and by canals, though in this description the agents o f maritime transportation are not comprehended. c c iv . In the same manner the owner ( cargador) o f the merchandise, as well as the carrier, can demand that each mutually shall be furnished with a bill o f lading, ( una carta de porte) in which shall be expressed— 1. The name, calling, and domicile, o f the owner. * Translated from the Codigo de Com m ercio o f Spain, expressly for the M etc. M a g a z in e , erch ants’ 268 Commercial Code o f Spain. 2 . The name, calling, and domicile, o f the carrier. 3. The name, calling, and domicile, o f the person to whom the merchan dise is directed. 4. The date on which the expedition is to be made. 5. The place in 'which the delivery is to be made. 6 . A description o f the merchandise, in which mention shall be made o f its kind, quality, o f its weight, and o f the marks o f the bales in which the merchandise is contained. 7. The price to be paid for the carriage. 8 . The time in which the delivery is to be made to the ( consignatario) consignee.’ 9. The indemnification which the carrier is to make in case o f delay, should any agreement have been made on this point. c cv . The bill o f lading, in law, is a contract between the owner and carrier, and according to what it contains, shall be decided the questions which may arise concerning its execution and fulfilment, without admitting any other exception contrary to it than those o f falsity and involuntary error in its composition. C C V I. In default o f a bill o f lading, it shall be shown by judicial proof,-which each party may produce in support o f their respective pretensions and claims : but the shipper o f the merchandise, before all other things, shall be obliged to prove the delivery o f the merchandise to the carrier, in case he should deny it. C C V II. The carrier shall retain the original bill o f lading, and the shipper or owner may exact from him a duplicate o f it, signed by the carrier, which shall serve him as his authority, to claim, in case o f necessity, the delivery o f the goods given to the carrier at the time and place, and under the con ditions agreed on. The contract between both parties being fulfilled, both instruments o f the contract shall be exchanged, and in virtue o f the ex change, their respective obligations, and right o f action grow ing out o f them, shall be cancelled. In case o f loss or other casualty, if the consignee should not return to the earl ier at the time o f receiving the goods the duplicate letter o f trans portation, he must give him a receipt for the goods delivered. C C V III. Merchandises are transported or carried at the risk and hazard o f the proprietor, and not at the risk o f the carrier, unless the contrary is ex pressly agreed between th em ; consequently there will fall to the account o f the owner all damages and losses which may happen to the goods dur ing the transportation, by fortuitous and inevitable accident, by insuperable violence, or by the nature and quality o f the goods themselves, it devolving upon the carrier to prove these occurrences in a legal and sufficient form. c cix . The eases mentioned in the preceding article not happening, the car rier is obliged to deliver the goods in his ch a n e in the same condition in which, according to the bills o f lading, he may have received them, with out any diminution, damage, or loss ; am. not doing it, he shall pay the value which they may hold at the place where the delivery was to have been made, at the time in which the agreement was to have been fulfilled, The Lain o f Carriers by Land. 269 ccx. The valuation o f the goods which the carrier ought to pay for in case o f loss or destruction, shall be made in conformity with the description given them in the bill o f lading, without permitting the owner to prove that among the goods to be delivered, others were contained o f greater value, or that metallic money was carried in the bales. O C X I. The beasts o f burden, the carriages, the vessels, the boats, and their apparel and furniture, and every other instrument, principal, or accessory, to the transportation, are specially bound in favor o f the owner, as an hy pothecation ( hipoteca) or mortgage for the godds delivered to the carrier. C C X II. All the losses which may happen to the merchandises during their trans portation, which shall not proceed from any of the three causes mentioned in art. ccviii., shall be at the charge o f the carrier. C C X III. The carrier equally shall respond for the losses or damages which shall proceed from a case fortuitous, or from the natural bad quality o f the effects which he shall transport, if it shall be proved that the damages had oc curred by his negligence, or for the want o f any o f the precautions which are usually adopted among diligent persons. C C X IV . The responsibility o f a carrier ceases for the averages or damages when any deception or fraud is committed in the bill o f lading, supposing them to be o f a distinct and generic quality or kind from that which they really seem to be. eexv. If, on account o f the damages or losses, ( averias) the goods become useless for sale or consumption, in the proper objects o f their use, the con signee shall not be bound to receive them, and may leave them to the ac count o f the carrier, exacting from him their value according to the current price on that day. W hen, amongst the goods damaged, any pieces are found in good condition, and without any defects, preceding this position with respect to the damaged goods shall take place, and the consignee shall receive those which are not damaged ; this separation being made by distinct parcels, and without, for that purpose, any one object or thing be ing divided into parts. CCXVI. W hen tho effect o f the damage is only a diminution in value o f the ar ticle, the obligation o f the carrier shall be confined to paying the amount o f that damage, according to judgment o f arbitrators, or o f skilful persons. ecxvn. The responsibility o f the carrier commences from the moment he re ceives the goods by himself, or through the medium o f the person destined to that effect in the place which is indicated to him for loading them. ccxvm . I f doubts and controversies shall occur between the consignee and the carrier concerning the state in which the merchandise is found at the time o f the making o f the delivery, the goods shall be examined by skilful per sons named amicably by the parties, and in defect o f them by judicial au thority, causing the results to appear in writing ; and if, in their view, the parties interested do not agree in their differences, the goods shall be de 270 Commercial Code o f Spain. posited in a secure store or warehouse, and they may assert their rights as may appertain to each respectively, according to law. C C X IX . Within twenty-four hours following the receipt o f the merchandise, reclamation shall be made against the carrier for the damages or averages which he may find in the merchandise on opening the bales. In case the average or damage should not be discovered by indications on the external part o f the bales, the damage or average which may be reclaimed after the said term o f twenty-four hours, on the transportation being paid for, every claim against the carrier, on account o f the condition in which the delivery o f the goods is made, is inadmissible. ccx x . The carrier is responsible for all the results which may happen by his omission to comply with the formalities prescribed by the fiscal revenue laws in the whole course o f the voyage, and to his entry into places to which they are destined; but i f the carrier shall have proceeded, in the course o f the carriage, in virtue o f a formal order o f the shippers or con signee o f the merchandise, he shall be exempt from such responsibility without prejudice to the penalties, corporal or pecuniary, which both may have incurred according to law. C C X X I. The carrier is under no responsibility to investigate the title by which the consignee receives the merchandise which he transports, and is bound to deliver the merchandise without any delay or hesitation ( entorpocimiento,) by the single fact o f his being designated in the bill o f carriage to receive them. In not doing it, he renders himself responsible for all the damages which may be caused by the delay to the proprietor. c cx x n . T h e consignee o f the goods which the carrier transports, not being found in the domicile indicated in the bill o f lading, (carta de portes,) or refusing to receive them, their storage shall be provided for by the local judge, to the order o f the shipper ( cargador,) without prejudice to the bet ter right o f a third party. C C X X III. A shipper can vary a consignment o f the goods which he delivers to the carrier, while they are on the route, and the carrier shall comply with such order, on condition that, at the time o f presenting the variation o f the des tination o f the goods, there shall be returned to him the duplicate o f the letter o f portage signed by the carrier. C C X X IV . I f the variation o f the destination ordered by the shipper shall require that the carrier vary the route and pass by the point designated in the let ter o f the portage for the delivery, that shall be fixed or agreed on by common consent and alteration to be made in the price o f the carriage or transportation ; and otherwise, the carrier shall not be obligated any fur ther than to make his delivery in the place mentioned in the first contract. ccx x v . W h en an express agreement is made between the shipper and the car rier, in respect to the route by which the transportation is made, the car rier must not vary his route ; and in case he does so, he makes him self responsible for all the damages which may happen to the goods which he transports, from whatever cause, besides paying the penalty which may The Law o f Carriers by Land. 271 have been inserted in the contract. I f no such contract has been made, it shall be at the pleasure o f the carrier to choose the route which is most convenient; it being understood that he takes a direct route to the point where he is to deliver the goods. ccx x v i. T h e time being fixed for the delivery o f the merchandise, it shall be verified within such time, and in default o f it, the carrier shall pay the in demnity agreed upon in the letter o f portage, without the carrier or con signee having a right to any other thing besides ; but when the delay shall exceed double the time fixed in the letter o f portage, besides paying the in demnification, the carrier shall be responsible for the damage which may have accrued to the owner. C C X X V II. The term having been fixed for the delivery o f the goods, the carrier shall be bound to conduct them on the first voyage or journey w hich he may make to the point where the goods are to be delivered ; and not do ing it, he shall be chargeable with the damages w hich may happen from the delay. C C X X V III. T h e effects transported are specially hypothecated for the price o f the transportation, and o f the expenses and duties caused in their transporta tion ; this claim may be transmitted successively from one carrier to anoth er, up to the last who makes a delivery o f the goods, who shall assume on himself the legal duties o f those who have preceded him in the trans portation. C C X X IX . The privileges established in the preceding article in favor o f the car rier upon the goods which he conducts, cease when they pass to a third person, after three days have transpired from their d elivery; or if within a month following the delivery, he shall not use his right to commence his action, in both cases he w ill not have another character than that o f an or dinary creditor in a personal action against him who received the goods. ccx x x . T h e consignees ( los consignatarios) cannot defer the payment for the transportation o f the goods which they may receive, after twenty-four hours have run following their delivery; and in case o f further delay, without any reclamation being made on account o f loss or averages on them, the car rier can exact a judicial sale o f the goods in sufficient quantities to cover the price o f transportation, and the expenses w hich may have occurred. C C X X X I. T h e right o f a carrier to payment o f what he ought to receive for the transportation o f the goods delivered to the consignee, shall not be inter cepted by the failure o f the latter, in case he makes claim within a month following the day o f delivery. C O X X X II. T h e provisions contained above, in article cciv., may be extended in the same manner to those who, although they may not make the transportation o f the goods by themselves, contract to do it through the medium o f others, whether as a system in a particular operation, or as agents o f transporta tions, in whichever or both cases they have become substituted in the place o f the carriers themselves, as well in their obligations and responsibili ties as in their legal rights. 272 W estern Mounds. ccxxxm . Agents o f transportation are bound, besides the other obligations im posed by the laws o f this code upon all who exercise, or carry on com merce, on commission or agency, to keep a particular registry o f their acts with the formalities prescribed in article xl. o f this code, in which registry shall be inserted, in progressive order, in numbers and dates, all the goods with whose transportation they are charged, with their designation, their kind or quality, the person who shall ship them, their destination, the names and domiciles o f the consignee and the carrier, and also the price o f the transportation. Art. TUI.— WESTERN MOUNDS. TO THE E D IT O R OF THE M ERCHANTS’ M A G A Z IN E . A m ong those subjects which have excited the attention o f the learned and ingenious o f our country, few have called forth a greater amount o f .speculation as to their origin, purposes, and antiquity, than the mounds and fortifications scattered throughout this portion o f the western world. Wrapped, as they are, in a veil o f mystery, which time only renders more complete, by cutting o ff these fast fading memorials themselves, anything which tends to throw light upon their character, by aiding in the develop ment o f their uses, must be welcom ed by all who feel any interest in the primitive history o f the new world. It has generally been supposed that these mounds were intended solely as receptacles o f the dead ; and the opinion seems to be so w ell settled on this point, that the writer o f this would have felt much reluctance in broaching a different theory i f he had not felt it to be the duty o f all who can, in any way, aid the cause o f science, to step forward, even at the hazard o f being considered presumptuous in the views which might be presented. T h e first time that a theory different from that generally received, suggested itself to him, was in consequence o f a stream o f water having qut through one o f these mounds, revealing the character o f the structure from the top to the bottom. The supposition that they are merely graves, seems to have been based upon the fact that human bones have been found in them, together with various articles o f household use. The writer o f this begs leave to suggest that they were intended for, and used, merely as the sites or building places for the dwellings o f the aborigines o f the country, and as such, were used by different generations, the height o f the mounds depending entirely upon the accumulation o f earth during the longer or shorter periods for which they were used for that purpose. It is well known to all who have opened these places, that they are composed (the outer portion, at least,) o f alluvial soil, evidently taken from the spot immediately surrounding them ; and it will be recollected, too, by those w h o are not merely theorists in this matter, that from the level or base on which the mound is erected, to the top, a core o f ashes and burnt earth is perceptible, mixed with bones, pieces o f broken pottery, charcoal, &,c., with sometimes a human skeleton, or many o f them, interspersed. N ow , it is well known that the Indians o f this part o f the American conti nent never burned the dead bodies o f their frien d s. But, on the con trary, they w ere buried ; and that, too, with much care, and in particular postures; oftentimes in coffins, by placing stone slabs under and around them. V irgin ia: and her Great Central Improvement. 273 And what makes it more certain, as is conceived, that these mounds w ere not intended as burial places, is their shape. The Indian hut, or wigwam, was usually built o f a conical form, the frame being composed o f small saplings, brought together at the top, and this covered with soil. These would be likely to last but a short time, one or two seasons, per haps ; and the poles decaying, the covering o f earth would fall in, thus ad ding to the height o f the mound. T h e next builder, in search o f a high and dry location, would naturally take the old one. H e would smooth off the top, scraping the superincumbent soil to the outer edge, the ashes o f the old fire in the centre still adding to the height o f the mound. He would again erect his conical hut, and, from the land adjoining, again take the turf and soil to cover it. In the wars constantly taking place, whole families might, as was not uncommon, be surprised in the night, and slaughtered ; burying in ruins them and their household utensils ; for the hut might be burned, or left to decay, and years might elapse, and another, as before, in search o f a location, would, very likely, select the elevated, turf-covered, dry site for his new habitation, as others had done previously. N ow , i f they are not the accumulations o f years, is it not far more likely that, instead o f the alluvial soil o f which they are generally composed, there would have entered into their construction more o f the primitive earths, a large quantity being necessary for the speedy erection o f so large a structure 1 Besides, it is well known that, unlike many other barbarous tribes and nations in the world, the Indians o f this continent have no su perstitious fears in regard to the presence o f the bones o f the dead. On the contrary, they have always dwelt with lively interest, in their treaties with the whites, on the reverence due to the relics o f their forefathers ; expressing great reluctance at leaving them. N o consideration, then, of that nature, would have prevented them from again selecting the same lo cation for a residence ; and it seems reasonable, then, (at least, according to the views o f the writer o f this article,) that these places w ere not in tended as burial places, but building sites. I f these views should not be deemed correct or reasonable, the writer o f this would feel obliged to any one who would controvert them, or give a better solution o f the problem ; and,mi giving his own opinions in re gard to a matter which has excited no small interest in the learned world, he but advances a theory which many years o f observation have satisfied him is reasonably correct. Nashville, Tenn., June, 1846. Art. IX.— VIRGINIA: AND 1IER GREAT CENTRAL IMPROVEMENT. ■ I n the Merchants’ Magazine o f November, 1845, an article appeared, en titled, “ T he Railroad Movement in Virginia,” presenting some general views upon the importance o f constructing a continuous railroad from the city o f Richmond to Guyandotte, on the Ohio, at the mouth o f the Guyandotte River, in Cabell county. The project o f connecting the valley o f the James River with that o f the great Kanawha, in order to open a thoroughfare from the Atlantic to the Mississippi valley, through the heart o f Virginia, is one o f the most impor tant schemes o f internal improvement in the United States, whether re- VOL. xv.— NO. III. 18 274 Virginia : and her Great Central Improvement. garded as a great national work, or considered only in relation to its bear ing upon the interests o f Virginia. M ore than half a century ago, Washington pointed out this great route as one o f paramount importance to Virginia, as a channel o f intercommu nication between the eastern and western sections o f that great State. H e actually reconnoitred the country, found the route perfectly feasible, and manifested his usual sagacity and foresight in locating several tracts o f land along the line, which have since become estates o f immense value, and some o f them sites o f flourishing villages. In 1812, C h ief Justice Marshall, Gen. Brackenridge, Col. Lewis, with other distinguished citizens o f Virginia, actually surveyed the route, and the result o f their labors confirmed the views o f Washington. Had the State o f Virginia followed the lead o f these great men, in opening this cen tral route, she would have maintained her relative position among her sis ter States, and been at this time the first Commercial, Manufacturing, and Agricultural State in the Union. At the early period referred to, however, railroads were unknown, and the plan o f improvement was to render the James River navigable to as high a point as practicable, and thence construct a good turnpike, across the mountainous region o f the State, to the navigable waters o f the Great Kanawha River, in the neighborhood o f the Great Falls, and thence to im prove the navigation o f this river to its junction with the Ohio. This magnificent plan was suffered to remain unattempted, with the ex ception o f some improvement, by means o f locks and dams, in the James River, and the construction o f a canal through the gorge o f the Blue Ridge. For many years, nothing besides was done in furtherance o f this grand design. In March, 1832, “ T h e James River and Kanawha Company” was in corporated by the Legislature o f Virginia, with a capital o f $5,000,000. This company was aided by a subscription, on the part o f the State, o f twofifths o f the capital stock, and was “ charged with the duty o f connecting the tide waters o f the Ohio, by one o f three plans, that is to say, either by a continuation o f the lower Jam esJliver Canal, to some suitable point on the river not lower than Lynchbfyg, a continued railroad from the west ern termination o f that canal, to some convenient point on the Great K a nawha River, below the Great Falls thereof, and an improvement o f the Kanawha River from thence to the Ohio, so as to make it suitable for steamboat navigation ; or secondly, by a continuation o f the James River Canal as aforesaid, and a continued railroad from its western termination to the Ohio River ; or thirdly, by a continued railroad from Richmond to the Ohio R iver.” T h e second plan above-mentioned, was adopted by this company in 1835. Several surveys made under its auspices across the country b e tween the James and Great Kanawha Rivers, have removed every doubt o f the feasibility o f the work, and established the important fact that the Alleghanies can be passed on this line at an easier grade than at any point to the north o f it. Indeed, it was the favorite plan o f the late able and excellent President o f the James River and Kanawha Company, to extend a continuous water line from one river to the other. Reports o f competent engineers have shown that such a work would be practicable, and that by means o f a tunnel through the Alleghany ridge, the waters o f the N ew River could be made to flow into the James River. Virginia : and her Great Central Improvement. 275 From causes, however, which it is not proper here to discuss, this com pany have been obliged to discontinue their operations. T h ey succeeded in constructing a canal along the valley o f the James River, from R ich mond to Lynchburg, a distance o f about one hundred and forty-seven miles, and in making improvements in the rapids and shoals o f the Great Kanawha River in the W est. The failure o f this company to complete the work with which they were charged has been greatly prejudicial to the cause o f internal im provement in Virginia. Their operations subjected the State as well as private stockholders to heavy losses, and occasioned so much dissatisfac tion that further aid from the Legislature, in the prosecution o f this great central improvement, under the auspices o f the James River and Kanawha Company, cannot be expected, except perhaps to enable them to extend the canal from Lynchburg to Buchanan, in the Valley o f Virginia, a distance o f forty-five miles. The extension o f the canal thus far would undoubtedly ad vance the best interests o f the State, and render the whole capital expend ed upon it much more productive ; and yet so strong was the prejudice against this company, that an application to the Legislature at its last ses sion for aid for this purpose, was unsuccessful. The mode o f executing this great work by means o f a canal, ^railroad, and the slack-water navigation o f the Great Kanawha, which was adopted by the company in 1835, was undoubtedly unfortunate for the Common wealth, and will never be consummated. The experience o f the last fifteen years has settled the question that such a mixed mode o f communication could not compete with a continuous railroad through the whole line, and would never enable Virginia to contend successfully with the powerful competition o f the Northern States, for the trade and travel o f the great valley world o f the W est. It is, however, the obvious good policy o f the State to extend the James River Canal as far as Buchanan, or to some point in the great valley o f Virginia. The time is not far distant, when the Winchester road will be extended up the valley o f the Shenandoah to this point; and besides, from Lynchburg or Buchanan, the great South western railroad will be constructed, thus pouring into this central chan nel the immense iron, lumber and coal (fade o f middle V irginia; which, from this point to the tide waters, would afford profitable business for the canal, while the railroad from this point eastward, would be mainly employed in the conveyance o f passengers and light and valuable merchandise. The third mode o f prosecuting this great work, by means o f a continuous railroad, was never favorably entertained by the said company, although it is unquestionably the best and only one which will restore Virginia to her former prosperity. This important measure was brought before the public last year, and a bill for a charter, authorizing the construction o f a railroad from the city o f Richmond to the Ohio River, was introduced into the Legislature o f Virginia, at the last session o f the General Assembly. After able and elaborate debates upon the bill, in its passage through both branches o f the Legislature, an act was finally passed on the 3d o f February, 1846, entitled, “ An act to incorporate the Richmond and Ohio Railroad Company.” This company is charged with the duty o f constructing “ a railroad from the city o f Richmond on the south side o f James River, to some point on the Ohio River, at or below the mouth o f the Great Kanawha River, by 276 Virginia : and her Great Central Improvement. the most eligible route, other than the immediate valley o f the James River below Lynchburg, said route to b e , hereafter determined by actual survey, under the direction o f the said company.” The company have thus an open charter for locating their road, subject to the single restriction, o f laying the route on the south side o f James River, below Lynchburg. This restriction was imposed, to avoid conflict with the canal on the north side o f the river. It is, however, no objection in the charter, since the route from Richmond to Lynchburg, as prescribed in the act, is some forty miles nearer, and more feasible for the road than it would be along the immediate valley o f the James River. The charter thus obtained is extremely liberal in its provisions, and of fers great inducements to capitalists to invest their funds, independent o f the main consideration, that this great work will yield a large dividend upon the capital expended in its construction. Am ong the provisions may be mentioned, the ample manufacturing privileges secured by the charter; the right o f constructing lateral roads, twenty miles in length on each side ; the exemption o f the capital stock from taxation, and the dividends also, unless they exceed 6 per cent per annum ; the right o f the company to control its dividends; its freedom from legislative interference with the charter for thirty years from the time allowed for the completion o f the work, and the right o f the company to purchase and hold real estate to a large amount, for purposes other than such as m aybe necessary for the construction and preservation o f the road. These provisions were engrafted upon the charter, to render it acceptable to non-resident capitalists, and it is believed that no charter with grants more liberal, was ever given in the United States. Having thus presented an outline o f the origin, progress, and character o f this grand project, it is designed to present some further considerations going to show its great importance, not only as a grand national work, but also as one indispensable to the happiness and prosperity o f Virginia. In the article already alluded to, several general views were given, il lustrating its national character, and among them was its importance to the Union, as a great military road, in the event o f a war with any maritime power. This view has been sanctioned by the opinions o f the first military men o f the country. N o other line o f intercommunication could be so secure and central between the Atlantic cities and the Mississippi valley. Lying wholly within our own territory, and passing through the geographi cal centre o f the States east o f the Mississippi, its eastern terminus would connect with the Chesapeake, the safest and best harbor for our fleets. Its western terminus would open into the great agricultural regions o f the W est, whence abundant naval and military stores could be obtained at all seasons o f the year, and our armies and munitions o f war transported each way with perfect security. It would facilitate intercourse with the Federal Capital from all parts o f the Union, south and southwest o f Washington, more than any other sim ilar work projected, and band together the Atlantic and trans-Alleghany States, like an adamantine chain. In this view all the great works o f in ternal improvement, crossing the Apalachian chain o f mountains, have an important national bearing. In spite o f the virulence o f party spirit, and the corruption o f unprincipled demagogues, these iron bands will do much to maintain the integrity o f the Union. The interests o f the States on the eastern slope o f the Alleghanies will become more and more assimilated, Virginia : and her Great Central Improvement. 277 and merge more and more in commerce and manufactures, while the lead ing interest o f the great W est will continue to be agriculture. Hence the importance to the whole country o f uniting these great divisions by means o f iron bands across the Alleghanies, as great cordons o f national strength and union. Looking forward to the rapidly increasing intercourse between America and Europe, and to the establishment o f new lines o f steamships across the Atlantic, this great central thoroughfare, through the heart o f the R e public, will become the most important channel o f intercourse between the East and the West. The Portland and Montreal Railroad : the Vermont and Massachusetts Road : the Western Railroad, in conjunction with the Central Railroad, through N ew Y o r k : the N ew York and Erie Railroad : the Pennsyl vania works, and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, all have the same great object in view, to secure the trade o f the mighty W e s t ; and in this respect they have all a national character ; but none so worthy to be re garded a great national work as the Richmond and Ohio Railroad. Extending three hundred or perhaps four hundred miles, through the centre o f the Atlantic States, this magnificent railway would more than any other becom e the great outlet for the agricultural products o f the Mis sissippi Valley. The imagination labors in contemplation o f the immense productiveness o f this most fertile and extensive valley on the face o f the earth, when it shall be filled, as it soon will be, with tens o f millions o f in telligent and industrious freemen. F or the exportation o f its productions and the importation o f its merchandise, the great works already constructed and in contemplation, will be taxed to their utmost capacity. It is a noble spectacle, that should make an American feel proud o f his country, to wit ness the generous rivalry o f the Atlantic cities, in pushing forward their great lines o f intercommunication with this wonderful region ; and no man o f soul capacious enough to contemplate the resources o f this mag nificent valley, can do otherwise than bid them all God speed in this noble enterprise. That portion o f the immense plain lying between the gulf o f M exico and the Arctic Ocean, and the R ocky and Apalachian Mountains, which con stitutes the valley proper o f the “ Father o f W aters,” contains an area o f something more than one million square miles o f the most fertile land on the face o f the globe, and is capable o f containing an agricultural popula tion o f more than 100, 000,000 inhabitants. In 1780 the whole population o f this immense region did not exceed 20,000. At the present time it cannot fall short o f 9,000,000. It is in creasing in an accelerating ratio, and unless some great national calamity befall us, it will soon reach the amazing number o f 30,000,000 o f in habitants. From the able report o f Mr. Calhoun in the Senate, June 20 th, on the subject o f the Memphis convention, it appears that the increase o f the com merce o f this valley has exceeded that o f its population. In 1817, the whole commerce o f N ew Orleans with the upper country, was transacted upon twenty barges o f one hundred tons each, making but one yearly trip; and that on the upper Ohio, not more than one hundred and fifty keel-boats o f thirty tons each, were required to transact the business o f that beautiful river. From the same report it also appears that, in 1817, the whole ton nage o f the lower Mississippi and the Ohio was only 6,500, and that in 278 Virginia : and her Great Central Improvement. 1843, the tonnage o f the Mississippi and its branches was about 90,000,. The aggregate value o f the products o f this vast valley at the same time amounted to the enormous sum o f $220,000,000. From these data, as well as from the last Treasury Report, it is probable that the present an nual value o f the products o f this valley cannot be less than $300,000,000. Indeed, there can scarcely be any danger o f over-estimating its amazing resources, and yet all this is but a beginning o f what will be its trade and commerce in a few short years. In the natural course o f events, the popu lation o f this region in twenty years will be at least twenty-seven millions, and if its productions keep pace with its population, their annual value at that time will amount to $ 1, 000 ,000 , 000. A vast proportion o f this immense and rapidly increasing business w ill flow through artificial channels o f trade across the Alleghanies, to the At lantic cities. From what has already been advanced, it must be evident that the Richmond and Ohio Railroad will come in for a large portion o f this business. Suppose the expense o f freight and tolls be equal to 20 per cent upon this vast amount o f produce, in getting it to market at N ew Or leans and the Atlantic cities, it would reach the sum o f $200,000,000. Add to this immense sum the cost o f importing merchandise to meet the wants o f this same region, and the annual expense o f the freight o f its ex ports and imports will probably not fall short o f $300,000,000. It is impossible to estimate how large a portion o f this vast trade will pass down the Mississippi. W e should consider that by means o f railroads the whole upper valley o f that river will be more nearly connected with the mouth o f the Chesapeake than the gulf o f Mexico, and when at the former place, will be much nearer the great markets o f the northern At lantic cities, and o f Europe. In point o f time and expense, the current o f trade and travel will naturally flow, even from the lower valley o f the Mis sissippi, eastward and north-eastward. Hence, it is reasonable to conclude that a majority o f this vast business will be transacted through these arti ficial channels, across the mountains. In this view o f the case, the Old Dominion, with her great central improvement completed, will occupy a vantage ground in contending for this splendid prize, the trade and com merce o f this wonderful valley. The implications o f business between N ew York and Richmond, would also, in a short period, be increased tenfold by the completion o f this work. Its western terminus at Guyandotte, or at the mouth o f the Big Sandy River, on the Ohio, would strongly invite a connection o f the railroad already built, from Louisville to Frankfort, and thus give to Kentucky the shortest outlet to the Atlantic board, and the speediest intercourse with the northern cit ies. It would, in fact, bring N ew York and Louisville within three days o f each other ; and the falls o f the Ohio, the future site o f immense manu facturing establishments, within thirty hours o f the Atlantic. Another argument o f the national character o f this contemplated road is, that it will become a common trunk for the great southwestern improve ments which will be ere long constructed, from the eastern sections o f Kentucky and Tennessee, and the northern parts o f Alabama and Georgia, and course up the valley o f the Holstein or Clinch River, into the south western part o f Virginia, and thence to this great central improvement. From this source Virginia will ultimately derive an immense business, without even the fear o f a rival. T o accomplish this important southwes tern connection, has long been an object o f solicitude with some o f the Virginia : and her Great Central Improvement. 279 most enlightened men o f Virginia. The extension o f the Virginia works southwesterly in this direction, would force a continuation o f them to Memphis, crossing several great lines o f communication between South Caro lina and Georgia and the Ohio River, and thus pour into the lap o f the Old Dominion an immense trade and travel from the whole southwestern sec tion o f the Union. The western terminus o f the work under consideration, would be favora bly situated to concentrate a large foreign trade. It would naturally draw the business o f the State o f Ohio, and through her great works already constructed and in contemplation, derive much o f the trade o f the Lakes, especially in the early and latter part o f the business seasons. The Erie and Ohio Canal, the Xenia and Cincinnati Railroad, and the Mad River improvements, will all be feeders, to a greater or less extent, o f the R ich mond and Ohio Railroad. With one terminus at Guyandotte, and another at the mouth o f the Great Kanawha, at Point Pleasant, this road would accommodate the business o f the Ohio valley, from Cincinnati upwards, two hundred and fifty miles, better than any other route. W hile the more northern routes were obstructed with ice and snow, the great arteries o f trade and commerce in Ohio could pour their wealth through no other channel. In this connection, it is proper to consider more fully the advantage o f this route, by reason o f its southern location, and its consequent exemption from the obstructions o f ice and snow. In consequence o f these difficulties on the great northern routes, and the dangers o f lake navigation in the fall and winter seasons, the trade and travel between the East and the West are subjected not only to vexatious and uncertain interruptions, but to serious damage and pecuniary embar rassments. Many a merchant can trace his total failure to this single cause, and many a western farmer also is subjected to a ruinous deprecia tion in the price o f his produce. These very serious evils would, to a great extent, be removed by the completion o f this great central trunk through Virginia, and the products o f the W est would find through it an open passage to the Atlantic cities during all seasons o f the year-. H ence, late in the fall, through the win ter, and early in the spring, immense quantities o f merchandise and pro duce would be transported over this route, while its great rival thorough fares would be obstructed. The ch ief cities o f the W est being south and west o f the western termini o f these great arteries o f business, it is evi dent, from a moment’ s reflection, that there would be an accumulation of trade and travel upon the more southerly routes, from those more northerly. F or instance, none o f the Atlantic cities would trade with the West, through a channel more northerly than its own, while much o f the business o f each would flow through a more southerly line. Boston would carry on her rapidly increasing trade with the W est, as much as possible through her own works ; and yet, at those seasons o f the year, when they were even liable to obstructions, she would transact much o f her business through the N ew York and Virginia routes. The same remarks will ap ply, with greater or less force, to Philadelphia and Baltimore. But to none o f the Atlantic cities does this view apply with so much force as to N ew York. Having through this great central railroad the most direct commu nication with the Queen City o f the West, open at all seasons o f the year, who does not see that the construction o f this work will introduce a new 280 Virginia : and her Great Central Improvement. era in the trade and commerce o f the great emporium. W hile her own great works are obstructed, and the noble Hudson itself is frozen over, N ew Y ork can still, through the Richmond and Ohio Railroad, carry on an active trade with Cincinnati and other cities in the W est, and thus ex tend her business through the entire year, instead o f crowding it into eight or nine months, as at present. On reference to proper authorities, it w ill be found that the average time the business o f the Erie Canal has been obstructed by ice, during the last twenty years, is one hundred and twenty-four days per annum, and that o f the Hudson River, from the same cause, is something over ninety-one days. N ow then, considering the hurry and confusion incident to the closing o f navigation, and the delay and uncertainty upon its opening before business assumes its regular course, and the time o f the interruption o f business from this cause may be safely stated at four months and a h alf in each year. But the mere suspension o f business is not all the disadvantage at tending this interruption. Immense quantities o f merchandise and produce are stopped in transitu, occasioning great disappointment and heavy losses. H ow different would be the case if the course o f trade could flow smoothly through the year. An immense saving would be made to N ew York mer chants, in avoiding bad debts, which are, in many cases, made during the hurry and excitement o f the business season. During this exciting period, when there seems to be a sort o f mania for swelling the amount o f busi ness, many a shrewd country merchant understands the philosophy o f ob taining an extended credit, who, if his N ew Y ork creditor had taken time to act with more deliberation, would have found it difficult to impose upon his credulity. N ew York, then, has a direct and most important interest in the con struction o f this great central improvement o f Virginia. B y means o f her own canals and railroads, she can with one hand grasp the trade o f the W est in successtul competition with her eastern rival, B oston ; while, through this Virginia line, she could control with the other hand a majority o f the same trade as against Philadelphia and Baltimore, her powerful competitors on the south. From all these general considerations, it is certain that the accumula tion o f trade and travel upon this great central railroad through Virginia w ill be immense, and that it will, to a great extent, participate in the bu siness o f all parts o f the Union. I f constructed in a manner suited to its importance, it cannot fail to be highly productive, and yield a large divi dend upon the capital expended upon it. A majority o f the business trans acted upon this and the other great rival routes, originates beyond their western termini. This route, tapping the Ohio at the lowest point, and af fording the easiest transit thence to tide waters, w ill have a decided ad vantage over all the others, and will draw more or less o f the trade and travel which would otherwise pass over them. These views are all strengthened by the fact that the navigation o f the upper Ohio is, during the warm season, when travel is the greatest, interrupted by shoals and low water. In passing up the Ohio above Cincinnati, the first difficult shoals occur at the mouth o f the Guyandotte, and boats can ply between the former place and Guyandotte, when they cannot ascend higher, or at farthest above the mouth o f the Great Kanawha. These considerations, then, show the character o f this improvement, as a great national work, and place the productiveness o f its stock beyond a Virginia : and her Great Central Improvement. 281 doubt. But there are other reasons which should still more strongly com mend it to Virginia as a state work, inseparably connected with her best interests. I f the Old Dominion were a barren waste, and no business originated within her borders along the line o f this improvement, it would still be evi dent from the arguments already presented, that it would yield the state a large revenue arising from freights and tolls upon foreign trade and travel, and yet the converse o f this can also be made to appear, that if no business arising beyond the limits o f the State were done upon this road, it would still net a very large revenue. And yet, with all these arguments in its favor, the people o f Virginia re main indifferent to its construction, and while similar works are advancing rapidly the wealth and population o f other States, the Old Dominion, with her credit- unimpaired, and out o f debt, still seems reluctant to lend her aid in constructing this most important railroad, though, by its completion, the enhancement o f her real estate would exceed in amount more than four times its whole expense. In this connection it may not be improper to glance at the former com mercial state o f Virginia and compare it with her present condition, that we may be able to form an estimate o f what would probably have been her present position, had she pursued a different policy. From the most reliable authorities it appears that in 1769, the imports o f Virginia were about $4,085,472, while that o f N ew Y ork was only $907,200 ! The exports o f these two States were about in the same pro portion, so that at that early period the commerce o f Virginia was nearly five times that o f N ew York. At the time o f the adoption o f the Federal Constitution in 1791, the imports were as follow s: from Virginia, $2 ,486 ,0 00 ; from N ew York, $3,022,000. Their exports for the same year were, from Virginia, $3,131,000 ; from N ew York, $2,505,000. The commerce o f these two great States, therefore, about fifty years ago, was nearly equal. In 1796, Virginia exported $5,268,000 ; N ew York, $12,208,000. From this period it may be truly remarked that the illustrious men o f Virginia became politicians, rather than devoted to the commercial and agricultural interest o f the Commonwealth, and from this point o f time this State rapidly declines, while her powerful competitor advances still more rapidly in commerce and wealth. From 1821 to 1842, the import trade o f these States were, in round numbers, as follows :— Y ea rs. 1 8 2 1 , .......................... 1 8 2 2 , ......................... 1 8 2 3 , .......................... 1 8 2 4 , .......................... 1 8 2 5 , .......................... 1 8 2 7 ,.............................. 1 8 2 9 ,.............................. 1 8 3 2 ,.............................. N e w Y ork. V irgin ia. $ 2 3 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 2 5 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 2 7 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 3 6 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 4 9 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 3 9 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 4 3 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 5 7 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 $ 1 ,0 7 8 ,0 0 0 8 6 4 ,0 0 0 6 8 1 ,0 0 0 6 3 9 ,0 0 0 5 5 3 ,0 0 0 4 3 1 ,0 0 0 3 7 5 ,0 0 0 5 5 0 ,0 0 0 From these facts it w ill be seen that the import trade o f Virginia fell from $4,085,472 in 1769, to $550,000 in 1832 ! while that o f N ew York increased from $907,000 in 1769, to $57,000,000 in 1 8 3 2 ! that the import trade o f N ew Y ork in 1832 was about seventy times greater than it was in 1769, while that o f Virginia was eleven times less ! ! 282 Virginia : and her Great Central Improvement. Their comparative exports and imports in 1838 and 1840 were as fol lows :— 1 8 3 8 — Virginia exported......... 1 8 3 8 — N ew Y o rk “ 1 8 4 0 — Virginia “ 1840— N ew Y ork “ $ 3 ,9 8 5 ,2 2 8 2 3 ,0 0 0 ,4 7 1 4 ,7 7 8 ,2 2 0 3 4 ,2 6 4 ,0 8 0 Im ported......... “ “ “ $ 3 7 7 ,1 4 2 6 8 ,4 5 3 ,2 0 6 5 4 5 ,0 8 6 5 0 ,4 4 0 ,7 4 0 Their tonnage was as follows :— Y ea rs. V irg in ia . N e w Y ork. 1 8 2 1 ,........................................ 1 8 4 2 ,........................................ 6 3 ,3 2 6 4 7 ,5 3 5 2 4 4 ,3 3 8 5 1 8 ,1 3 3 With these astounding facts before them, let the people o f Virginia de termine how long this retrograde movement shall continue. In her posi tion in the Union, her soil, productions, climate, and natural resources, there is nothing which justifies this humiliating comparison. On the con trary, Virginia possesses within herself all the natural elements o f wealth and prosperity in greater abundance than her great and powerful rival at the North. H er noble Chesapeake is one o f the most extraordinary geographical features o f the North American continent. Midway between the Gulfs o f M exico'and St. Law rence, it indents the country with deep and broad es tuaries, and affords a safer and more extensive inland navigation than any bay o f its size in the world. It would seem on looking at the map to be the place designed by nature as the safest harbor o f our ships, inviting and concentrating the commerce o f the whole country. On the west, the Potomac, the Rappahannock, the York, and James Rivers, are large navi gable streams which open up into the whole o f Eastern Virginia, affording the most abundant facilities for commerce ; and yet, with all these natural advantages, Virginia, from being as she ought still to be, the first commer cial State in the Union, has fallen to a medium rank among the States o f the republic. From this comparison o f Virginia with N ew York, let us consider briefly the immediate advantages which would result to her from opening her cen tral improvement, and it will be apparent that her honor, her wealth, and prosperity, demand its immediate construction. Indeed, these advantages are so obvious that it would almost seem superfluous to advert to them. Many o f these were briefly noticed in the number o f Novem ber last, al ready alluded to, but they should be presented again and again until the people o f Virginia can be brought to act upon this subject so vital to their interest. The cost o f this central improvement would probably be ten millions o f dollars. It could be built for less, but not in a style corresponding to its importance as a great national and state work. In reference to the vast trade and travel which beyond all question would pass over it, how insig nificant does this amount appear ! In a political point o f view, its construction is indispensable to the very existence o f the Commonwealth. Causes are at work which have ren dered antagonistical the interests o f the eastern and western portions o f this great State. Indeed the changes which have already been rung upon the disunion and dismemberment o f the Old Dominion, may in an evil hour prevail, and produce results which every true Virginian would deplore. This great work once constructed would forever remove all these angry and exciting causes o f discontent, and give to the whole State the practi Virginia : and her Great Central Improvement. 283 cal lesson that their true glory and prosperity consisted in union, and a generous regard for the welfare o f the whole. As a source o f revenue to the State, there can be no question. Esti mating its cost as before at ten millions o f dollars, the interest on that sum would be, at 6 per cent, six hundred thousand dollars per annum. Proba ble cost o f repairs, salaries o f officers, including all expenses o f working the road, would be seven hundred thousand dollars, making the annual disbursements o f the company thirteen hundred thousand dollars. This estimate is based chiefly on the data furnished by the last report o f the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company o f the income and disbursements o f the main stem o f their road, for the year ending September 30th, 1845. The income from the same data in the ratio o f the length o f the two roads, would be about one million five hundred thousand dollars. This, allowing the large sum o f seven hundred thousand dollars for expenses,'would leave still eight hundred thousand dollars, or 8 per cent on the capital stock. But this estimate is based upon the productiveness o f the Baltimore and Ohio Road in its present unfinished state, in reference to which it is very justly remarked in the said able report, that the results o f their road in its present unfinished state are but “ the small dust o f the balance, compared with those which may be expected when the work is completed to the Ohio River.” From the same report it appears that the whole number o f passengers upon the main stem o f their road, for the year 1845, was 202,450, and the aggregate passage money was $369,200 30. N ow when it is considered that this work is still incomplete, and that the travel will be immensely increased when once it is extended to the Ohio, and that the Richmond and Ohio Railroad, from its more favorable location, would command even more travel than the Baltimore Road, it cannot be extravagant to estimate the travel on the Richmond Road to be equal at least to 150,000 through passengers annually. Assuming this as a basis, and estimating the fare through at only ten dollars, the annual income from this source alone would be $1,500,000. The income from freight on the Baltimore Road for the year ending Sept. 30th, 1845, was $360,720 00, or nearly the same as its income from passengers. On this basis the aggregate income on the Richmond and Ohio Railroad could hardly fall short o f $3,000,000. Large as this may appear, it will be found on reflection to be moderate in view o f the rapidly increasing trade and travel o f the W est. In this view o f the case, where is the wisdom o f that policy which shrinks from the expenditure o f $ 10, 000,000 to accomplish results like these? But again, from the experience o f the past, w e have abundant evidence that the increased value o f real estate in Virginia should alone stimulate the legislature to the speedy accomplishment o f this noble enterprise. In this point o f view this road will most favorably compare with any road in the United States. Crossing the great valleys o f Virginia at right angles, it at once opens an immense and fertile territory which is now secluded and shut up between her mountain ranges. Looking at the statistics o f N ew York, it appears that in 1825, the year when the Erie Canal was finished, the value o f her improved lands was $174,024,175 ; and that in 1835, ten years afterwards, that valua tion had risen to $241,385,050, showing an enhanced value equal to $72,36 1,47 5! 284 Virginia : and her Great Central Improvement. N ow , then, there can be no reason why the enhancement o f real estate in Virginia will not be in a greater ratio on the completion o f her great work than it was in N ew York, for its present value is at its lowest de pression, and although no data are at hand from which to estimate the present value o f her real estate, it w ill certainly be safe to estimate the increased value o f the same in ten years, resulting from the construction o f this work, at $30,000,000. Another view o f this matter will demon strate the propriety, as a financial measure, o f the construction o f this great railway entirely on State account. There are in Virginia at least 41,600,000 acres o f land. N ow when w e consider that lands are ex tremely depressed in price in this State when compared with lands in N ew York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, and that this great central railroad when completed would infuse life and activity throughout the Common wealth, removing in a great degree the causes which have so long and so low depressed the price o f lands, and introducing thousands o f enterprising citizens from other States, and millions o f active capital, no sane mind can doubt that its effects would raise the price o f lands throughout the State on an average seventy-five cents per acre. This would produce $31,200,000, in the enhanced value o f real estate alone, without reference to the value o f real estate in cities, towns, and villages. The consequent enhancement o f property in the city o f Richmond alone, would in ten years be more than half that amount. It would undoubtedly be safe to predict that the taxable property, real and personal, would be increased within ten years from the completion o f this great work, as its immediate consequence, at least $100,060,000. Vast as this sum may appear, it will be found far less than the ratio o f increase o f property in N ew York within ten years from the completion o f the Erie Canal— and it should be considered, too, in making this com parison, that in 1825, the price o f lands in N ew York were comparative ly high, and the State in a highly prosperous condition— while lands at the W est were very cheap, and the influence o f the canal was to equalize the price o f lands in N ew Y ork and the West, by affording greater facili ties for the market o f western products. But the case is far different with Virginia. She is pressed on the north, the east, and west, with a denser population than her own. The surrounding lands o f Maryland, Pennsyl vania, and Ohio, are o f no better quality, but command a price from 1 to 300 per cent higher. And the tendency o f opening this great thorough fare, and giving free course to trade and travel through Virginia, w ill be to elevate the price o f her lands more than 100 per cent. From the statistics accompanying the last census, it appears that while the sheep o f N ew Y ork produce 1.92 lbs. o f wool per head, the sheep o f Virginia, with little or no care, yield 2.25 lbs. per head. Their w ool is also o f a superior quality, and has gained the premium at several o f the last annual fairs held at Low ell, Massachusetts. These facts are important, going to show the superiority o f Virginia over N ew York as a w ool-grow ing country. In the counties along the line o f the Richmond and Ohio Railroad, there was, in 1840, a population in round numbers o f 300,000, and these coun ties, in 1840, produced about 5,500,000 bushels o f corn, 1,500,000 o f wheat, and about 300,000 pounds o f wool. The great resources o f iron, lead, salt, and lumber, are along this same line, and would originate a vast and rapidly augmenting business. Indeed, it may be affirmed, without fear Virginia : and her Great Central Improvement. 285 o f contradiction, that no section o f country in the Union, o f equal extent, would furnish, in the quantity and variety o f its mineral, agricultural and manufacturing products, more business for a railroad than this same cen tral portion o f Virginia. N o State o f the Union should, at this time, be more densely inhabited than V irgin ia; and yet, a few facts will show how far short o f her rank the Old Dominion falls in this respect. As compared with N ew York and the country north and west o f the Ohio, the following shows the census at different periods, viz : Y ea rs. 1 7 9 0 ................................. 1 8 0 0 ,............................... 1 8 1 0 ,............................... 1 8 2 0 ,............................... 1 8 3 0 ,............................... 1 8 4 0 ,............................... V irg in ia . 7 4 7 ,6 1 0 8 8 6 ,1 4 9 9 7 4 ,6 2 2 1 ,0 6 5 ,3 6 6 1 ,2 1 1 ,4 0 5 1 ,2 3 7 ,7 9 7 N ew Y ork. 3 4 0 ,1 2 0 5 8 6 ,0 5 0 9 5 9 ,0 5 9 1 ,3 7 2 ,8 1 2 1 ,9 1 8 ,6 0 8 2 ,4 2 8 ,9 2 1 T h e W e st. 110 ,3 6 8 2 8 0 .8 5 5 6 9 4 ,0 7 3 1 ,4 2 3 ,6 2 7 2 ,2 8 6 ,3 0 1 4 ,1 4 4 ,1 3 6 Thus it will be seen that, while Virginia, during fifty years, from 1790 to 1840, did not double her population, N ew Y ork increased her population more than eight times, and the W est more than thirty-seven times ! Had the ratio o f increase been the same between N ew Y ork and V ir ginia, the latter in 1840 would have contained more than 5,000,000 in habitants, or more than four times her present number ! These are startling facts ; and when it is considered that a large portion o f the State lies west o f the mountains, and in 1790 was mostly an un broken wilderness, and to a great extent still remains s o ; and that, still farther west, in what was then a wilderness, have arisen new States, teeming with their millions o f inhabitants, and more densely inhabited than this oldest State in the Union, it becomes matter o f sober inquiry why Virginia falls so far behind her goal. N ew York, since she entered upon her great works o f internal improvements, has nearly tripled her population ; and it is highly probable that, had the Old Dominion entered upon the same policy with equal zeal, she would at this time number at least 3,000,000 inhabitants. N or should the facilities o f Virginia for ma nufacturing purposes be here overlooked. The falls o f the James River at Richmond, and o f the Great Kanawha and Cole rivers in the west along the line o f this improvement, as well as the Grand Falls o f the Potomac, and many others o f less note, give to Virginia a pre-eminence in her na tural advantages for a great manufacturing state. H er immense mineral wealth is almost boundless. Gold, copper, lead, iron, coal, salt, limestone, marble, granite, alum-earths, soapstone, free stones, & c., abound within the State. These treasures o f wealth would all be developed by the construction o f the great work under consideration, but are now mostly buried in the bowels o f the earth. From the valuable statistics collected in Professor Tucker’ s excellent work,* originally published in the Merchants’ Magazine, it is shown that Virginia holds a high rank as an agricultural State. H er agricultural products in 1 8 4 0 amounted to.................................................. Th ose o f N e w Y o r k were estimated at................................................................. “ Pennsylvania “ ................................................................. $ 5 9 ,0 8 5 ,8 2 1 1 0 8 ,2 7 5 ,2 4 1 6 8 ,4 8 0 ,9 2 4 Showing that Virginia holds the third rank among the States o f the Union in the aggregate amount o f her agricultural products. * T h e Progress o f Population in the United States in Fifty Y e a rs, as exhibited by the Decennial Census. 286 Virginia : and her Great Central Improvement. In reference to some o f the great staples o f agriculture, her rank is as follows :— O f tobacco, Virginia gathered............................................. O f flax and hemp, Virginia produced................................ O f Indian com , Virginia “ ............................... “ Ohio “ ............................... “ N ew Y o rk “ ............................... 7 5 ,3 4 7 ,1 0 6 5 3 ,4 3 0 ,9 0 9 2 9 ,5 5 0 ,4 3 2 2 4 ,8 4 6 ,0 0 2 2 5 ,5 9 4 1 1 8 ,0 1 0 } 3 4 ,5 7 7 ,5 9 1 4 4 ,9 8 7 ,1 8 8 3 9 ,8 4 7 ,1 2 0 1 0 ,1 0 9 ,7 1 6 1 6,571,661 1 3 ,2 1 3 ,0 7 7 1 2 ,2 8 6 ,4 1 8 Thus it appears Virginia sustains the first rank in the Union in the pro duction o f tobacco, flax, and h em p; the third in relation to Indian corn, and the fourth in relation to wheat. Virginia in 1840 raised 10,622,345 bushels o f bituminous coal, and Pennsylvania 11,620,654 bushels. O f salt, Virginia produced 1,745,618 bushels, and N ew York 2,867,884 bushels ; thus holding the second rank in the production o f coal and salt. In the production o f wool, the order o f the States is this : N ew York, Vermont, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. In the products o f the orch ard, they rank thus : N ew York, Maine, Virginia. • O f wine, there was made in Virginia more than twice as much as in any other State; and there is no doubt that for wine and silk, her climate and soil are equal, i f not superior, to any portion o f the Union. These statistics are given to show not only the quantity, but also the variety o f the productions o f this great State, and as some earnest o f what would be the wealth o f Virginia when once aroused to the development o f her im mense resources. In the interior and western portions o f the State are extensive forests o f pine, oak, white-wood, cherry, walnut, and other valuable timber, which would also find a ready market, and add greatly to the wealth o f the Com monwealth. N or should the famous and unrivalled thermal, chalybeate, and sulphuritted springs o f Virginia, be overlooked in this connection. These delightful watering-places, with their sublime and beautiful scenery, would all be thrown open to hundreds o f thousands o f visiters, and become sources o f immense income to the railroad, and o f wealth and refinement to the interior o f the State. There is one other point o f view in which the advantages o f this work w ill most favorably compare with other lines o f transportation from the W est. From the most reliable sources o f information, it appears that the present cost o f transportation o f a barrel o f flour from Cincinnati to N ew York, via the Ohio and Erie Canal, Lake Erie, and the N ew York Canal, is $1 35. From the same place, via the Ohio River, Pittsburgh, and the Pennsylvania works, $1 40 ; and via N ew Orleans, $1 38. Besides this, there is usually an allowance o f some ten or twelve cents to be made per barrel, for extra risk, and for soiling the barrel at N ew Orleans ; which w ill make the cost in fact, by this route, about $ 1 50. The cost o f transporting via Richmond and Ohio Railroad, and the Delaware and Hudson Canal, would not exceed one dollar per barrel; and when the lines o f transportation were fully established between N ew 287 Virginia : and her Great Central Improvement. York and Richmond, the expense would be still less. This consideration is o f very great importance when w e consider the vast quantities o f flour, beef, pork, wool, hemp, and tobacco, which will pass over this road from the W est, and particularly in view o f the exportation o f American produce to foreign markets. As it is now, it actually costs the planter residing within Fifty miles o f Richmond more to get a hogshead o f tobacco to that market, than it does the planter on the banks o f the Ohiij, in Western Virginia, who ships his tobacco via N ew Orleans, or sends it up the Ohio via Pittsburgh and Baltimore. Richmond and Norfolk will both become great commercial cities, and the centres o f a large foreign trade. This is the true view which a V ir ginian, proud o f the ancient renown o f the Old Dominion, should take o f this grand work. Disdaining a condition o f commercial dependence upon the Northern cities, it should be his pride to contemplate the unbounded resources o f his native State, and his grand aim to build up, on the waters o f the noble Chesapeake, marts o f commerce worthy o f the Common wealth. I f Virginia would be true to herself, Richmond and Norfolk would soon becom e powerful rivals to the other Atlantic cities, for the trade and com merce o f the Mississippi Valley. As a convenient market for the pro ducts o f that vast region, and an entrepot for its foreign merchandise, N or folk would possess greater advantages than any other Atlantic city. A Virginian should calculate the distance from Cincinnati, the city o f the W est, not to N ew York, but to Norfolk and Richmond. Assuming, for the present, Cincinnati and N ew York as the great centres o f trade in the East and W est, the distance between them, by the great lines o f com munication already opened or in contemplation, will be seen by the fol low ing statement:— From Cincinnati to Guyandotte,................................................................ thence by Richmond and Ohio R . R . to Richm ond,.................. Richm ond to W ash in gton ,...................................................................... W ashin gton to Baltimore,........................................................................ Baltimore to Philadelphia,........................................................................ Philadelphia to N e w Y o r k ,..................................................................... From Cincinnati to W h ee lin g ,................................................................... W h ee lin g to Baltimore, by Baltimore and Ohio R ailroad,.... Baltimore to N e w Y o r k ,.......................................................................... From Cincinnati to Pittsburgh,.................................................................. Pittsburgh, by Pennsylvania line, to Philadelphia,..................... Philadelphia to N e w Y o r k ,.................................................................... From Cincinnati to Portsmouth,................................................................ thence by O hio and Brie Canal to Cleveland,................................ Cleveland to Buffalo,................................................................................... thence to Albany, by Erie C a n a l,......................................................... thence to N ew Y o rk ,.................................................................................. From Cincinnati to Cleveland,................................................................ . thence to Dunkirk,...................................................................................... thence by N e w Y o rk and Erie Railroad to N e w Y o r k ,......... From Cincinnati to R ichm ond,..........................£ ................................... thence to N orfolk,........................................................................................ 1 7 0 m. 400 120 38 96 - 9 1 0 miles. | 939 miles. | 9 6 3 miles. 86 386 371 182 482 395 86 115 309 191 363 148 424 136 470 570 130 . 1,126 miles. 1 1,0 5 0 miles. > 7 0 0 miles. So that the Richmond and Ohio Railroad will open the shortest route between Cincinnati and N ew York. Besides, it has the preference in being the most southerly route, and free from obstructions o f ice and snow — avoids the risk o f lake navigation, and taps the Ohio R iver so low as to obviate the difficulties o f shoals and low water in that river. 288 Virginia : and her Great Central Improvement. But the importance o f this great thoroughfare as an outlet for the pro ducts o f the Mississippi Valley, will appear in a stronger light when w e compare the distance from Cincinnati to Norfolk with that from the former place to the other Atlantic cities. By the above statement, it will be seen that the distance from C incin nati to N ew York, upon the different routes, is as follows :— B y Guyandotte and R ichm ond ,........................................................................................ W h e e lin g and Baltim ore,............................................................................................. Pittsburgh and Philadelphia,....................................................................................... Cleveland and N e w Y o r k and Erie R ailroad,.................................................... Cleveland and N e w Y o r k Erie Canal,.................................................................. 9 1 0 miles. 939 963 1,0 5 0 1,1 2 6 Showing a difference between Richmond route and the others o f from 29 to 216 miles. From Cincinnati to Philadelphia, the distance is, by the Pittsburgh route, B y the W h ee lin g route,........................................................................................................ From Cincinnati to Baltimore,........................................................................................... From Cincinnati to N o rfo lk ,............................................................................................. 8 7 7 miles. 853 757 700 T h u s it will be seen that the shortest outlet from Cincinnati to the Atlantic cities is to Norfolk ;— that this distance is shorter than to N . Y o rk by 2 1 0 to 4 2 6 miles, ..say 3 1 8 miles. L ess than to Philadelphia by 153 to 177 m iles,....................................................say 165 L ess than to Baltimore by...................................................................................................... 57 N ow , i f w e add the distance from the two last cities to the capes, N or folk w ill have the advantage over Philadelphia by 357 miles, and over Baltimore by 257 miles. But w e may fairly institute a comparison between Richmond and the other cities in reference to their distance from Cincinnati, and w e shall find that Richmond has the advantage over N ew Y ork by 340 to 556 miles, say 448 miles ; over Philadelphia by 283 to 307 miles, say 295 miles ; and Baltimore by 187 miles. From this hasty survey o f Virginia, as connected with her great central improvement, the mind can hardly comprehend the future greatness and prosperity o f the Old Dominion. W ith the experience o f the last twenty years, in which the other States have been schooled, she can construct this great work at a far less expense than works o f a similar kind have cost. All the materials for the road are found in abundance along the contemplated route ; and, as has been before remarked, the grade over the Alleghanies will be easier than at any more northerly point. In view o f all this, it is difficult to suppress a feeling o f astonishment that the leading men o f Virginia delay the construction o f this great work. It is impossible, however, that it should much longer be delayed. An em pire in territory in the very heart o f the Republic, Virginia must soon yield to the pressure o f causes from within and without, and enter upon a liberal system o f internal improvement. T h e unsettled state o f our foreign relations, and the excitement o f the public mind in relation to the Mexican war and the tariff policy, have hitherto retarded action under the late charter granted for the Richmond and Ohio Railroad. Y et the work w ill go forw ard; and then, and not till then, w ill Virginia assume her former rank among the States o f the Union. 289 Mercantile Law Cases. MERCANTILE LAW CASES. ACTION TO RECOVER THE AMOUNT OF A CLEARANCE BOND. I n the U n ited S ta te s D istric t C o u rt, (N e w Y o r k , J u n e 2 0 t h , 1 8 4 5 ,) J u d ge B etts pre sid in g. T h i s w a s a su it o f the U n ited S ta te s vs. J am es M o w t , to reco ver th e a m o u n t o f a c lea ra n ce bond. T h e defendan t is c a p ta in o f the brig P o u ltn e y , and sailed from B altim ore for L isb o n ; an d, on le a v in g B a ltim o re , g a v e the u s u a l cle a r an ce-b on d for b rin g in g b a c k h is c r e w to th e first port he tou ch ed at, on h is return to the U n ited S ta te s. T h e bond co n ta in s a proviso that the cap tain sh a ll be e x cu se d for not b rin g in g b a c k an y o f the c r e w , i f he c a n g iv e cle a r p ro of th at the s e a m e n not brought b a c k had died, deserted, w ere im prisoned in a foreign port, or w ere d isch a rg ed w ith the co n sen t o f a n A m e r ic a n c o n s u l. first port the P o u ltn e y tou ch ed a t on her return from N e w Y o r k w a s the L isb o n , and the cap tain co u ld not produce C h a rles S m ith , w h o had been on e o f h is c r e w w h e n le a v in g B a ltim o re. T h e d efen ce set np w a s , th at S m ith had con tracted a certain d isea se a t L isb o n , and that, in c o n seq u en ce, it w a s n e c e s s a ry to le a v e h im th ere . T h e C o u rt ch a rg ed that this e x c u s e did not c o m e w ith in an y o f the provisos o f the c lea ra n ce bond, an d the ju r y therefore brought in a verd ict for the a m o u n t o f the p en alty, $ 4 0 0 . BRITISH AD M IRALTY COURT.— THE CONCORDIA.— SALVAGE. T h i s w a s a n A m e r ic a n v e s s e l, la d en w ith a valu a ble ca rg o , bound on a v o y a g e from L ive rp ool to B o sto n , U n ited S ta te s . A b o u t 3 o ’ c lo c k , A . M ., o n the 2 6 th o f J an u ary la st, she g o t on the north end o f the A r k lo w b an k , and there la y th u m p in g h e a v ily for so m e tim e . S h e m ad e about four feet o f w ater, but th e m aster and c r e w , by th ro w in g overboard a qu an tity o f sa lt, con stitu tin g part o f the ca rg o , got her o f f w ith ou t a n y a ssista n ce . H a v in g done so, th e y proceed ed to th e port o f H o ly h e a d , w ith variou s s ig n a ls fly in g . T h e s e w ere observed from th e telegrap h station, w h en five pilots and ten m en p u t o f f in tw o boats, and boarded her b etw een the N orth and S o u th S t a c k , an d, b y th eir exe rtion s, aided by the c r e w , su cceed e d in b rin g in g the v essel in s a fe ty to H o ly h e a d . F o r th e se se rv ice s, a tender w a s m ade o f .£ 1 0 0 , w h ic h w a s refu se d , and a n a ctio n bro u gh t for £ 6 4 0 . o f the property salved ex c eed ed £ 2 1 , 0 0 0 . T h e va lu e T h e principal points in dispute w e r e , the n a tu re o f the s ig n a ls ho isted , the d a n g er in cu rred by th e salvors in boarding, and the propriety o f a n ch o rin g the vesse l ou tside the harbor. T h e learn ed ju d g e (L u s h in g to n ) said, th a t lo o k in g a t th e sk ill sh o w n , and con sid erin g that a m o n g th e salvors there w ere five pilots, and th at a s u c c e s s fu l s erv ice had been rendered to a valu a b le ca rg o , he w a s o f op in ion th at the tender w a s insufficient, and he sh o u ld decree a n additional £ 1 0 0 . SALVAGE.— THE AMERICAN SHIP CHARLES W ILLIAM . T h i s A m e r ic a n sh ip , o f th e v a lu e , w ith the c a r g o , o f £ 4 , 9 7 0 , g o t into difficul ties in th e m on th o f N o v e m b e r last, and vitas aided by the pilot-boat, and w a s pla ced in s a fe ty , p a s s in g th rou gh N ic h o l’ s G a p , an d ta k e n into Y a rm o u th . The salvors w ere the c r e w o f th e C a ro lin e , fis h in g -s m a c k , w h ich su stain ed d a m a g e in ren d erin g aid, to the e x te n t o f £ 4 5 , and lo st em p lo y m e n t in her u s u a l a vo catio n . A tender o f £ 7 5 had b ee n m ad e , and refu se d . T h e action w a s en tered for £ 7 0 0 . T h e B ritish A d m ir a lty C o u rt w e n t over the fa cts, and decided th at th e tender w a s n o t sufficient, and alloted £105. T h e learn ed ju d g e (a t th e m otion o f the Q u e e n ’ s a d v o ca te ) apportioned the a m ou n t to all parties interested . VOL. XV.---NO. III. 19 290 Mercantile Laic Cases. LIBEL OS A C H A ETE R-PA RTY— CONTRACT OF AFFREIGHTMENT— THE BEIG CASCO, In the D istric t C o u rt o f the U n ited S ta te s , M a in e D is tric t, F e b ru a ry 10th , 1 8 4 2 ,* before J u d ge W a r e . In every contract of affreightment, whether by charter-party or bill of lading, the ship is by the marine law hypothecated to the shipper for any damage his goods may sustain from the insufficiency of the vessel, or the fault of the master or crew. If a vessel is let on a contract of affreightment by charter-party, the owners will not be held responsible for a loss occasioned by the violence of the elements, although the dangers of the seas are not expressly excepted by the charter-party. But if they are chargeable with any neglect or fault, without which the loss would not have happened, they will be liable. T h i s w a s a lib el on a ch arter-p arty. T h e m aster o f th e b rig C a s c o chartered h er to the lib ella n t for a v o y a g e to P o rto R ic o , to carry a c a rg o o f lu m b er, and from th en ce to h er port o f d isch a rg e in the U n ited S ta te s , t o u c h in g a t T u r k ’ s Islan d for a c a rg o o f salt, i f required by the ch arterer. T h e v o y a g e w a s perform ed to P orto R ic o , and the c a r g o delivered. p lace sh e w e n t to T u r k ’ s Isla n d , and took a ca rg o o f sa lt. F r o m th at O n her return from T u r k ’ s Islan d sh e w a s found to leak so b ad ly, th at a la rg e part o f the sa lt w a s l o s t ; o f 5 ,6 7 6 b u sh e ls lad en , o n ly 3 ,1 3 2 b u sh els w ere delivered a t P o rtla n d, the defi c ie n c y a m o u n tin g to 2 ,5 4 4 bu sh els. T h i s lib el w a s bro u gh t b y th e ch arterer a g a in st the v e sse l, to reco ver d a m a g e s for the lo ss. T h e qu estio n s o f la w w h ic h a rose and w ere discu ssed in the c a se , togeth er w ith the s u b sta n ce o f the te s tim o n y , ap pear in the opinion o f the cou rt. T h e c a se respondent. w as a rgu ed by R and for the lib ella n t, and T . A . D e b lo is for the W a r e , D istric t J u d g e .— T h e first qu estion w h ic h w a s raised and d iscu ssed at the bar w a s , w h eth er, un der this ch arter-party, the v e sse l in sp e cie is liable for an y lo ss, w h ich the ch arterer m a y h a ve sustained from d a m a g e to the c a r g o . is con tended on b e h a lf o f th e It respondents that there w a s a d e m ise o f th e v e sse l h e r se lf to the ch arterer, by w h ic h the p o ssessio n w a s transferred to him ; that h e, under the ch arter-party, b ec a m e ow n e r for the v o y a g e , and th u s, his ow n carrier, an d co n seq u en tly i f a n y d a m a g e s h a ve been su stain e d , from the fa u lt o f the m a s ter or c re w , his re m e d y is so lely a g a in s t the m a ste r, an d not a g a in s t the v e s s e l. T h i s is a qu estion w h ic h m u s t be determ in ed by th e term s o f the intrum en t itself. T h e ch arter-p arty is in its form so m e w h a t sp e cia l and p e cu lia r. It sets forth that it is m ad e b etw een A lle n G . Y o r k , th e m aster, (w h o is a ls o a pa rt o w n e r,) and John B . B r o w n , the lib e lla n t ; and th e m a ster, in con sid eration o f th e co v e na n ts and a g re em en ts o f the lib ellant, does co v en a n t and a g re e on the freigh tin g and ch arterin g o f said vessel to the said party o f the seco n d part, (th e lib ella n t,) for a v o y a g e from the port o f P o rtla n d , “ to on e port in the island o f P o rto R ic o , and from th en ce to her port o f d is c h a rg e in the U n ited S ta te s , to u c h in g a t T u r k ’ s Isla n d for a ca rg o o f sa lt, i f required b y th e party o f the seco n d p a rt.” The ch arter-party th en p roceed s to sta te th e co v en a n ts on the part o f the m a s t e r ; first, th at th e v e sse l shall be k ep t d u rin g the v o y a g e tight, s ta u n c h , and w e ll fitted, tack led and provided w ith ev e ry req uisite, and w ith m en and provisions n e c e s s a ry for su c h a voyage; s eco n d ly , that th e w hole v e s s e l, w ith the excep tion o f the cab in , and the n e c e s s a ry room for the accom m od ation o f the c r e w , and th e sa ils, ca b le s, and provisions, shall be at the disposal o f the c h a r te r e r ; and thirdly, he e n g a g e s to rece iv e on board all su ch la w fu l goo d s and m erch an d ise a s th e c h a r terer or h is a g e n t m a y think proper to ship. T h e lib ellant, o n h is part, a g r e e s to * The present decision was politely furnished for publication in the Merchants’ Maga zine, more than two years since, but has been mislaid, or it would have appeared at an earlier date. It is too important to be omitted. 291 Mercantile Law Cases. furnish cargoes for the vessel at Portland and Porto Rico, or Turk’s Island, and to pay for the charter of the vessel, .$ 1 ,1 7 5 , one-half to be considered as earned at her port of discharge, and so much to be paid as may be required for the vessel’s disbursements, and the balance on the delivery of the cargo in the United States, and also to pay all the expenses of loading at Portland. It seems very clear from these covenants,-that the possession of the vessel was intended to be in the master. He is to victual and man, he agrees to receive on board such goods as the charterer shall choose to ship. The charterer agrees to furnish the cargoes, to pay the expenses of loading at Portland, and to advance, at her outward port of delivery, so much of the freight as may be required for the vessel’s disbursements. Why should these covenants be inserted, if the posses sion of the vessel was to be transferred to the hirer, and to be navigated by him ? It is quite evident that this charter-party was a contract of affreightment for the transportation of the gbods, and not a demise of the vessel; that the owners re tained the possession under their master, and must be considered, therefore, as carriers. There is, in the common form of charter-parties, a clause by which the ship and freight are specifically bound for the performance of the covenants in the charter-party. There is none such in this ; but this is a condition, which, by the marine law, is tacitly annexed to every contract entered into by the master for the transportation of goods, whether by bill of lading or charter-party. The ship is by operation of law hypothecated to the shippers for any loss they may sustain from the insufficiency of the vessel, or the fault of the master or crew. T h e r e is another p e cu liarity in this in stru m en t. It is u su al in ch arter-parties o f affreigh tm en t, a s w ell a s in bills o f la d in g , to in sert a c la u s e sp e cia lly ex e m p t in g the m aster and o w n e rs from lo s s e s o ccasio n ed by the d a n gers o f the se a s. T h is in stru m en t con tain s no s u c h e x c e p t io n ; but th is, a s w a s ju s tly con tended in the a rg u m e n t for the resp ond ents, is an e x c ep tio n w h ic h the la w su p p lies, w ith ou t its b ein g form ally ex p ressed . upon the p lain est and m ost obvious its e lf silently It is a g en era l rule o f la w , founded prin cip les o f n a tu ral ju s tic e , th at no m an sh a ll be held resp on sible for fortu itou s eve n ts and acc id en ts o f m ajor fo rce, su ch a s h u m an s a g a c ity can n ot foresee, nor h u m an pru den ce provide a g a in st, un less he e x p re ssly a g re e s to take th ese risk s upon h im self. Casus fo rlu itu s nemo prat- stat. Pothier, D e s Obligations, N o. 1 4 2 . T oullier D roit Civile, Vol. 6 , N o. 2 2 7 , Story, Bailm ents, 5 2 5 . T h e r e is a n exc ep tion to this 2 2 8 ,— D ig . 5 0 , 1 7 , 2 3 . ru le th at is e n tirely c o n sisten t w ith the principle o f the rule itself. It is w hen the party to be c h a rg ed h a s been g u ilty o f so m e fau lt w ith out w h ic h the loss w ou ld not h a ve happen ed. T h e liabilities o f the o w n e rs in this ca s e a re p re cise ly th e s a m e , and no m ore e x te n siv e th an th e y w ould h a ve been if the u su a l e x c e p tion o f the d a n g ers o f the s e a s had b een inserted in the ch arter-party. H a v in g disposed o f th ese p relim in ary m atters, w e c o m e to the q u estio n s w h ic h h a ve been p rin cip ally d iscu ssed at the bar. partly fa ct. T h e y are partly q u estions o f la w and I n the first place there does not ap p ear to be a n y sufficient reason for q u estio n in g the sea w o rth in ess o f the v e s s e l, w h en sh e sailed from P ortland. She w a s c a re fu lly exa m in ed by M r . F ic k e tt, a c a u lk er, before sh e w a s loaded, and he states that, w ith very slig h t rep airs, w h ich w ere m ade by him , sh e w a s in perfect order for the v o y a g e . A n d in point o f fact, on h er ou tw ard p a s s a g e , and till after she left T u r k ’ s Isla n d , sh e did not leak m ore than v e s s e ls w h ich are considered tig h t ord in arily do. O n the seventh d ay after s a ilin g on her return v o y a g e , sh e w a s found to h a ve sp ru n g a lea k . T h e w eath er w a s not a t the tim e , and had not been te m p e stu o u s, or u n u s u a lly bad. T h e r e had bee n , part o f the tim e , a heavy h e a d -b ea t se a , and the ship a t tim e s labored badly. O c c a s io n a lly there w ere fresh w in d s, but not a m o u n tin g to a g a le . O n the 7th o f N o v e m b e r, at 8 o ’ c lo c k , A . M ., it w a s found that the vessel leaked badly. T h e en try in the lo g is, that the day co m m e n ce d w ith fresh b re e ze s , and cloudy w eath e r, w ith a h e a v y cro ss head -beat s e a ; at 6 o ’ c lo c k , P . M ., took in foretopg a lla n tsa il, the brig laborin g h e a v ily , tried the p u m p ev e ry h a lf hour ; m iddle part of the day h igh w in d s and h e a v y h e ad -b eat s e a , tried the p u m p ev e ry quarter a n hour. of A t 8 o ’ c lo c k , A . M ., c o m m e n c e d le a k in g badly ; double-reefed the m ain 292 Mercantile Law Cases. sail and single-reefed the foretopsail; two hands at the pnmps. For the whole twenty-four hours she kept on her course N. W . with the wind at N. N. E. The testimony of the witnesses substantially agrees with the account given in the log. There was a fresh wind, with a heavy swell of the sea. The vessel also had a cargo which tried her strength, but all these causes do not seem to have been suf ficient materially to injure a strong and staunch vessel. T h e r e c a n , h o w e ver, be n o doubt th a t she w a s strained a t th a t tim e , and her s e a m s w ere opened so a s to ad m it a con sid erab le qu an tity o f w a te r. D u r in g the rem ain d er o f the v o y a g e , the w ea th e r w a s variab le, but the v e s s e l en coun tered n o n e o f u n u su a l seve rity un til h er arrival o f f C a p e C o d . T h e r e sh e m et a h e a v y g a le , and w a s ob liged to ca rry a press o f sa il to k e ep o f f a le e -s h o re . A ft e r it w a s discovered that the brig le a k e d , fru itless attem p ts w ere m ade to d iscov er w h ere th e leak w a s, and she con tin u ed to le a k m ore or le s s , un til her arrival at P o rtla n d, on the 2 3 d o f N o v e m b e r. T h e m a ster th en m ad e a protest*, and ca lle d a su rv e y o f the v esse l. After the cargo was discharged, the vessel was examined and repaired by the same caulker, who examined her before the voyage. He states that he found open ings in her seams, which appeared evidently to be recent, and showed that she had been strained during the voyage. There was a leak, about a foot in length, in the garboard streak. The butts and wood ends were a little slack, and wanted some caulking; there was a small leak under the forecastle ; the seams were a little open at the break of the deck, and the waterways were considerably open. The vessel, on the whole, bore evident marks of having been strained, but the in jury could not have been great, as the caulker used but thirty pounds of oakum in putting her in good order for another voyage, and the whole expense of repairs did not exceed fourteen dollars. It appears also that the ship was easily kept free of water during the whole voyage by one pump, except for a short time, when the leak was first discovered. If the injury to the vessel was so inconsiderable, the question presents itself, how happened it that so large a part of the cargo was lost ? All the witnesses who examined the vessel before the cargo was discharged, agree in ascribing the loss to two causes. First, the limber holes (which are small holes made in the under part of the floor timbers next the kelson, making a passage for the water to flow from the forward part of the vessel back into the well,) it appears were choked up so as to prevent the flow of the water. A considerable quantity, of water which should have found a passage back into the well, was thus constantly kept forward between the ceiling, or skin of the vessel, and the outside planks. The second was the want of sulhcient dunnage at the bilge, between the first and second thick streaks, in the forward part of the vessel. All the witnesses agree that there was sufficient dunnage on the floor, and also on the sides of the vessel in the after part. But at the bilge, between the two thick streaks, from the main mast forward, there was on the starboard side about eighty square feet, and on the larboard side about forty square feet uncovered with dunnage. On examining the ceiling here, the seams were found to be open. On the starboard side, one seam was open for five or six feet, to the width of five-eighths of an inch, and on the larboard side there was a seam open as wide for fifteen or sixteen feet, and generally the ceiling was not sufficiently tight to prevent the water from being forced through, by the motion of the vessel. The vessel having a flat floor, when she was sailing with the wind on her beam, and thrown down on the opposite side, the water, which was prevented from passing through the limbers into the well, was washed down to her bilge, and by the motion of the ship blown up through the open seams of her ceiling directly upon the salt. Nearly all the witnesses agree that it was in this way the salt was lost. And in point of fact, the whole extraordinary wastage was on the sides in the forward part of the vessel; the loss in the after part was not more than what is usual. The evidence also is, that the salt mehed most in the larboard wing, though that was better supplied with dun nage than the other side. But then it appears from the log, that the vessel, dur ing the greater part of the passage, was sailing on her larboard tack, and this would naturally occasion the most waste there, if it was produced by the blowing 293 Mercantile Law Cases. o f th e w a te r th rou gh th e se a m s o f th e c e ilin g . O n a v ie w o f the w h o le evid e n ce, it m a y , I th in k , sa fe ly be ta k e n a s a n establish ed fa c t, that the lo s s o f the salt a rose from the tw o c a u s e s th at have b e e n m en tion ed . T h e w h ole c a se , th e n , s e e m s to be red u ced to th is, w h eth er the n e g le c t o f the o w n e rs to provide m e a n s for c le a rin g th e lim b er h o les, and the n e g le c t o f the m a s ter to p lace su fficien t du n n a ge o n the w in g s o f the forw ard part o f the v e s s e l to p rotect the sa lt from the w a ter, are fau lts o f s u c h ch a ra c te r a s to ren der the par tie s le g a lly resp on sible for a lo ss o c c a s io n e d by th e se very d e ficien cie s. I f no fau lt ca n be im puted to the m aster or o w n e rs on this grou n d , the lo ss m u st be a s cribed so le ly to the d angers o f th e s e a s , and be borne by the s h ip p e r ; for th ou gh th ese d a n g ers w e re not, b y the term s o f the ch arter-p arty, in term s excep ted from the resp onsibilities o f th e m a ste r, th e e x c ep tio n is m ade by th e la w . A person is n e v er presum ed to tak e u p on h im s e lf th e risk o f in evitab le c a s u a ltie s , w h ic h the co m m o n la w , so m ew h a t irreveren tly, c a lls th e a c ts o f G o d , u n le ss he e x p re ssly a g r e e s so to do. obligalio est. T h e la w n e v er req uires im p ossibilities. D y. 5 0 , 17, 25 . Impossibttium nulla B u t w h e n a pa rty is ch a rg ea b le w ith a n e g le c t or fa u lt, w ith ou t w h ich the ca s e w o u ld n o t h a ve happen ed, he w ill th en be resp on si b le for a loss b y in evitable acc id e n t, or a n a cc id e n t o f m ajor fo rc e . I t is not that th e c a su a lty is im pu ted to h im , bu t his o w n n e g le c t or fa u lt, w h ich is th e o c c a s io n o f the a cc id en t pro vin g fatal. S o m e v e s s e ls h a v e m ovea ble boards or plank placed ove r the tim b ers c a lled lim b er boards, s o th at th e y m a y be ta k e n u p to cle a r the lim bers w h e n th e y b e c o m e ch ok ed ; s o m e ha ve a rope or sm a ll ch a in rove th rou gh th ese lim b er ho les to c le a r th em w h en n e c e s s a ry . T h i s v e s s e l had neither. The board over the lim b ers w a s fasten ed d o w n , and no e x a m in a tio n w a s m ade to a s certain w h eth er th e lim b ers w ere free or n o t. N o w , i f the im p ortan ce o f provid in g a p a ssa g e for th e w a te r is s u c h th a t g ro o v e s are c u t in the tim b ers for that exp ress pu rpose, it c erta in ly w ou ld s e e m to b e a w a n t o f proper c a re on th e part o f th e o w n e rs to provide no m ea n s for k e ep in g th em c l e a r ; esp e cia lly a s th e y are very liable .to b ec o m e stopped. I f this p a ssa g e had b ee n k e p t cle a r so a s to ad m it the flow o f the w a te r from th e forw ard to the after part o f the v e sse l, it is c e r tain th at the p u m p w ou ld ha ve e a sily kept h e r clear. T h e a cc u m u la tio n o f the w a te r forw ard w ou ld e a s ily h a v e b een p revented , and o f co u rse th e sa lt w ould not h a v e b een d issolved . A n d in the seco n d p la ce , w ith resp ect to th e d u n n a g e : u p o n this point, a n u m b er o f w itn e s s e s o f e x te n siv e e x p e rie n c e in n a v ig a tio n , either a s sh ip -ow n e rs or sh ip -m a ste rs, w ere e x a m in e d . S o m e w ere o f opinion that the d u n n a ge in this c a s e w a s su fficien t for a tig h t v e s s e l ; others th o u g h t th at the d u n n a g e , w h eth er th e v e sse l w’ a s tig h t or not, for a c a rg o o f salt, o u g h t to be c a r ried h ig h er up upon th e w in g s . se l w a s u o t tig h t. B u t a ll a gre ed that it w a s in sufficient if the v e s I t m u st be ad m itted upon th e ev id e n ce th at th e v e sse l w a s tig h t w h e n sh e rece iv ed h er ca rg o , an d th at th e le a k s w ere produced by strain in g w ith a h e a v y c a rg o and a h e a v y s w e ll o f th e s e a . B u t ad m ittin g the v e sse l to be tig h t, it is still tru e that som e w a te r w ill find its w a y into a tig h t vesse l ; and it is certain th at the c e ilin g , or w h a t, in th e la n g u a g e o f the s e a , is called the sk in o f th e v e s s e l, w a s far from b e in g tig h t. T h e s e a m s w ere op en to such a w idth, that in the r o llin g o f th e v e s s e l, the w a te r, i f it did n o t find its w a y into the w e ll th rou gh the tim b ers, w o u ld be fre e ly b lo w n th ro u g h th e m u p on the s a lt D id th en the m a ster or th e o w n e r ta k e all th e p recau tion s for the sa fety o f the c a rg o w h ic h w e re required b y the n atu re o f their e n g a g e m e n t ? T h e d uty o f the o w n e rs, un der a con tract o f affreigh tm en t b y a ch arter-p arty, is to provide a v e s se l tig h t and sta u n c h , and e v e ry w a y fit and prepared for the particu lar s erv ice for w h ic h sh e is hired . T h e se a w o rth in e ss o f the v e s s e l, and h er fitness for the par ticu lar v o y a g e , is a term o f the co n tra ct im plied b y la w . T h e co m m o n la w holds the ow n e r to a w a rra n ty in this p a rticu la r, and th o u g h the v e s s e l m a y h a v e been ex a m in ed before s a ilin g , b y sk ilfu l s h ip w rig h ts, and pronounced by th e m every w a y fit for the v o y a g e , y e t i f th e goods o f a shipper are injured from so m e latent d e fe ct o f the v e s s e l, the better opinion is th at the o w n e r w ill be resp on sible. 3 K e n ts Com m ., 2 0 5 and 2 1 3 . C urtiss, R igh ts o f Seamen, 2 0 2 . 5 E ast, 4 2 8 . L y o n vs. M ells. A n d this w arran ty a g a in s t la ten t d e fe cts is held by Poth ier to re su lt from th e n a tu re o f th e c o n tra ct. I n e v e ry co n tra c t o f lettin g and h irin g, 294 Commercial Chronicle and Review. th e letter un d ertak es th at the th in g le t is fit for the pu rpose for w h ich it is hired. P o ’.hier.— Conlrat, Charts P arlies, N o . 3 0 . Contract de L un ate, No. 1 1 0 — 1 1 2 . A n d then w ith resp ect to the s to w a g e o f th e go o d s, th e m a ster is held to th e m ost e x a c t c a re and d ilig e n ce , and it is p a rticu la rly h is d u ty to provide proper d u n n a g e to p reven t the goods from b ein g injured by the le a k a g e . 3 , Chap. 3 , .S’ . 3 , P . 2 2 4 . Abbot on Shipping, P a rt T h e d e g ree o f c a re w ill, o f co u rse , depend on the n a tu re o f th e c a r g o , so m e goo d s b e in g m ore liable to injury by e x p o su re to w e t, than oth e rs. M y opinion upon th e w h ole is, th at the n e g le c t on th e part o f th e o w n e rs to provide m ea n s by w h ich the lim bers m ig h t be k ep t op en so a s to le a v e a free p a s s a g e for the w a ter from the forw ard part o f the v e sse l to th e w e ll, and th e o m issio n on the part o f th e m a ster to provide proper d u n n a g e for the w in g s o f th e forw ard part o f th e v e s s e l, a re su ch n e g le c ts a s render th em le g a lly resp on sib le for a lo ss that m a y be ascribed d irectly to th ose d e ficien c ie s. COMMERCIAL CHRONICLE AND REVIEW. MEASURES OF COMMERCIAL POLICY ADOPTED B Y THE ADMINISTRATION PARTY— TIIE SUB-TREA SURY— MODIFICATION OF THE TARIFF OF 1 842 — WAREHOUSING SYSTEM, AND THE LOAN BILL ---- CHANGES EFFECTED B Y THE TARIFF— THE IRON TRADE— THE AD VALOREM PRINCIPLE----OUR TRADE WITH ENGLAND---- EXPORT OF TOBACCO TO GREAT BRITAIN---- ENGLISH TOBACCO TRADE— FACILITIES OF THE WAREHOUSING SYSTEM— WESTERN PRODUCE— BREAD-STUFFS FROM WESTERN STATES— INFLUENCE OF THE CURRENCY ON COMMERCE— THE SUB-TREASU R Y ---- MEXICAN W AR , ETC., ETC. D u r i n g the month which has elapsed since the date of our last article, those great measures of commercial policy which were espoused by the party victorious at the last general election, have become laws. These are, the sub-treasury plan' of finance for the federal treasury, the modification of the tariff of 1 8 4 2 , the ware housing system, and the loan bill. The features o f these laws are generally well understood; and, therefore, it will not be necessary, in this place, to explain in detail their provisions. The specie clause of the sub-treasury law does not come into operation until January, 1 8 4 7 . The final passage of these laws was unat tended by any marked change in any of the markets. There were attempts by political partisans to promote a panic feeling, seconded by speculators, for selfish purposes; but without success. From the time the election of November, 1 8 4 4 , (turning upon those principles involved in the laws in question,) was decided in favor of the party now in power, the fulfilment of the pledges then made was looked upon as certain. They involved great changes— no less than an entire and radical change in the commercial policy of the country. Instead of a system of protection to home industry, an entire abandonment of the principle was avowed. Instead of a recognition and support of the paper system, its entire abandonment and disuse by the government was looked for. Instead of the requirement of heavy cash securities, and the payment in full of duties on all imported goods as soon as they arrived, the system of warehousing, without payment of duties, for a year, was anticipated. Each one of these measures was sufficient, if we allow full weight to the importance of governmental enactments, to convulse the whole country, and bankrupt large classes, engaged in individual pursuits. Neverthe less, the government policy involved in all three has taken place, after a discussion 295 Commercial Chronicle and Review. o f m a n y m o n t h s ; a n d the a c tu a l state o f th e m a rk ets, the price o f m o n e y , the a c tiv ity o f trade, th e v a lu e o f property, and the em p lo y m e n t o f indu stry, do not e v in c e that a n y ap preh ensions o f p ra ctic ally bad effects e x ist a m o n g capitalists and o w n e rs. O n th e other hand, the con victio n th at the po licy o f the gov ern m en t is fixed, and c a n n o t a g a in be disturbed, a t le a st for so m e y e a rs , affords a feelin g o f r e lie f th at m ore th an cou n terb a la n ces a n y re m a in in g ap preh ensions o f deleterious effects from the e n a ctm en ts th at have been perfected . T h e c h a n g e w h ic h has b een effected in duties on le a d in g a rticles is, after all, not la rg e— a s, for in sta n c e, th e price o f p ig iron in L ive rp ool in J u ly , 1 8 4 5 , w a s £ 4 O n th is, the du ty w a s $ 9 per ton . or $ 2 0 1 5 s . per ton , or $ 2 2 80. T h e price o f the sa m e article is n o w £ 4 7 s ., 9 5 ; and th e 3 0 per c e n t, c h a rg ed un der the n e w tariff, on co s t h ere, w ill a m o u n t to $ 7 per ton. R efin ed E n g lis h bars are quoted abroad a t j £ l 0 1 5 s ., or $ 5 1 6 0 ; and the d u ty, a t 3 0 per c e n t, w ill a m o u n t to n e ar $ 1 9 , a g a in s t $ 2 5 . q u otation for sim ila r iron in A u g u s t , 1 8 4 5 , in L iv e rp o o l, w a s £ l l 30 The 1 0 s ., o n w h ich per cen t du ty h ere w ou ld a m o u n t to $ 2 0 , a g a in s t $ 2 5 , a c tu a lly paid . Th ere is n o th in g in th ese c h a n g e s se rio u sly to affect the iron interest, nor are the c h a n g e s ' g re a t on a n y other a rtic le s, u n le ss it m a y be coa rse cotton s, w h ic h w ill p ay 2 5 per c e n t a g a in s t 4 8 , w h ic h am ou n ted to . th e virtu al sp ecific du ties un der th e old ta riff a c tu a lly O n m a n y a rticle s, th e duties h a v e b een a d v a n ce d . p a rticu la rly the c a s e in relation to im ports from F r a n c e . T h i s is m ore T h e trade w ith that co u n try is u su a lly w h a t is called a n u n favorab le t r a d e ;— that is, w h at w e receive fro m F r a n c e is m ore th a n th e a m o u n t w e sen d her d irec tly. T h e ap paren t b al a n c e sh e d ra w s fro m L o n d o n ; for th ere th e a c c o u n t is reve rsed . T h e F rench p apers alrea d y c o m p la in o f w h at th e y su p pose a n a c t o f ho stility o n the part o f th is g o v e rn m e n t tow ard s that co u n try ; but n o s u c h hostile in tention s c a n be fairly ascrib e d to it. T h e principle on w h ic h the du ties w e re ap paren tly adju sted w a s , to ch a r g e a rticle s o f lu x u ry a s h igh a du ty a s w ou ld su ffice to y ie ld the g rea test a m o u n t o f rev e n u e ; and m ost o f the im ports from F r a n c e fa ll u n d er th is head o f lu x u rie s. A p p re h e n sio n s h a v e b ee n ex p ressed that, un der the ad va lo re m princi ple adhered to in the tariff, so g re a t fraud s w o u ld be com m itted , th at, w h ile the co u n try should be inun dated w ith go o d s, the gov e rn m e n t w o u ld derive no reven u e. T h a t fraud s to so m e e x te n t w ill ex ist, there is n o reason to doubt. T h e y a lw a y s do e x is t, and n ever to a gre a te r e x te n t th a n w h en du ties exorbitantly h ig h afford la rg e profits to th e illicit trader. U n d e rv a lu a tio n s o f in voice can n ot ta k e p la ce , to afford m u c h profit to th e im porter at the e x p e n se o f the g o v ern m en t, o n ly by pre su p p o sin g th e g r o s s e s t n e g lig e n c e or co llu sio n , o n th e part o f the rev e n u e officers — a s, for in sta n c e, the p rice o f p ig iron is stated and w e ll k n o w n to be £ 4 7 s . per ton in L iv e rp o o l. T h i s co u ld not be un derstated in a n in voice, in a n y m aterial d e g re e , w ith ou t the fraud b e c o m in g s e lf-e v id e n t ;— so o f m o st other a rticles. The red u ction o f du ties h a s dim inished the profit o f s m u g g lin g , and it is not reaso n able to sup pose that attem p ts to s m u g g le w ill therefo re in cre a se. T h e state o f affairs in E n g la n d is s u c h , a s to lead to the p rospect o f a v e ry g re a t in cre a se in the con su m p tion o f A m e r ic a n produce, and an im proved va lu e in the ra w cotton and to b a c co exp orted . T h e trade w ith E n g la n d n o w is u n iform ly in favor o f the U n ited S t a t e s ; th a t is to s a y , G re a t B rita in b u y s o f th e U n ite d S ta te s a va lu e o f produce m u c h la rg e r th a n the a m o u n t o f B ritish A m e r ic a n U n io n o f her. in L o n d o n o f A m e r ic a n T h e b a la n ce g o o d s p u rch a sed by the is u su a lly d isch arged b y the a cc ep ta n c e bills ru n n in g from C h in a to E u r o p e , o n the A m e r ic a n 296 Commercial Chronicle and Review. credits th ere created. T h e g en era l m odification o f the E n g lis h du ties u p o n all A m e r ic a n produce e x c e p t to b a c co , the re m o v a l o f duties on cotton , an d th e pro s p e ctive abolition o f th e corn la w s , all ten d both to the in cre ased con su m p tion o f pro du ce, and the en h a n c em en t o f its v a lu e . T h e abolition o f th e E n g lis h corn la w s tend s directly to th e ch e a p e n in g o f food, th rou gh the com p etition o f foreign pro du ce. T h e effect o f re d u cin g the p rice o f food in E n g la n d is u n iform ly to pro m ote the con su m ption o f go o d s, and en h a n c e the v a lu e o f the r a w m a teria l. H ence the direct effect is , b y in c re a s in g the exp ort o f farm produce to E n g la n d , to im prove the valu e o f cotton in that m a rk e t. B y this double p ro cess, th e A m e r ic a n cred its in E n g la n d a re s w o lle n in a m o u n t. T h e prin cip le o f protection in E n g lan d h a s been abandoned, and th e q u estio n o f re v e n u e is th a t w h ic h n o w alon e g o v ern s the ch a rg e u p on a n y pa rticu la r a rticle. T h i s poin ts to a g re a t and im portant c h a n g e in favor o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s trade— w e allude to the position o f the to b a c co interest. O f a ll a rticles o f m o d e m c o m m e rc e , th a t a rticle h a s been su b je ct to th e m o st on erou s burdens b y th e g o v ern m en ts o f G re a t B ritain and E u rop e. T h e du ties upon it in E n g la n d are 7 2 i ce n ts p er p ound , b e in g probably 1 ,0 0 0 per c e n t ; and it is p o ssib ly th e o n ly a rticle w h ic h w ou ld bear s u c h a bur den, b e c a u se o f the im possibility o f fin d in g a sm a ll qu an tities con su m ed b y e a c h su b stitu te, an d th e com p aratively p e rson in th e c o u rse o f a y e a r. th e E n g lis h gov e rn m e n t on e -six th part o f their cu s to m s re v e n u e . o f rev e n u e, o f w h ic h that g o v ern m en t is a lw a y s I t y ield s to A s a qu estion in w a n t, probably th e to b a c c o ta x is on e o f th e m ost j u d i c i o u s ; bu t, a t th e s a m e tim e , it is so h ig h , a s m e a s u re a b ly to defeat its o w n object. I t p ro m otes s m u g g lin g to an inordinate exten t, and n o t o n ly deprives th e trea su ry o f its d u e s , bu t d e m o ra lize s th e p eop le. F or m any y e a rs, M r . Joseph H u m e h a s called the atten tion o f P a rlia m en t to the m a t t e r ; and there is n o w ev e ry p ro sp ect th at a g r e a t m odification in th ose du ties w ill take p la c e . A s a n in stan ce o f th e c o u rse o f th e to b a c co trad e, w e e x tra c t from official tables th e qu antities o f to b a c co exp orted from the U n ited S ta te s to E n g la n d , the qu an tities im ported in to E n g la n d , th e qu an tities re-exp orted , and th o se en tered for c o n s u m p tio n :— EXPORT FROM U. STATES. 1 8 4 1 ,... 1 8 4 2 ,... 1 8 4 3 ,... 1 8 4 4 ,... 1 8 4 5 ,... GREAT BRITAIN. Im port. R e -e xp ort. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 4 1 ,6 8 1 3 6 ,0 8 6 2 1 ,0 2 9 3 8 ,5 8 4 2 6 ,1 1 1 5 0 ,0 1 7 ,2 0 0 4 3 ,3 0 3 ,2 0 0 2 5 ,2 3 4 ,8 0 0 4 6 ,3 0 0 ,8 0 0 3 3 ,3 3 3 ,2 0 0 4 3 ,9 3 5 ,1 5 1 3 9 ,5 2 6 ,9 6 8 4 3 ,7 5 5 ,7 3 5 3 3 ,8 1 3 ,6 1 4 1 0 ,7 1 7 ,0 0 1 1 0 ,8 9 0 ,1 7 1 9 ,1 3 0 ,2 1 0 8 ,7 0 2 ,7 6 9 7 ,8 4 0 ,3 7 7 6 ,5 1 8 ,0 1 6 2 1 ,8 7 1 ,4 3 8 2 2 ,0 1 3 ,1 4 6 2 2 .8 9 1 ,5 1 7 2 4 ,5 3 5 ,1 1 6 1 9 ,7 4 9 ,5 8 6 1 9 8 ,2 0 9 ,2 0 0 1 7 1 ,7 4 8 ,4 6 9 4 3 ,0 8 1 ,5 3 7 1 1 1 ,0 6 0 ,8 0 3 T o ta l,. T h e U n ited S ta te s fiscal y e a r 1 8 4 1 c o m m e n c e d O cto b er 1, 1 8 4 0 . y e a r w a s c h a n g e d , to co m m e n c e J u ly 1. o n ly . The C o n su m p t’ n. Hhds. year 1 8 4 5 I n 1 8 4 2 , the T h e fig u res for 1 8 4 3 are n ine m on th s, en d s J u n e 3 0 , an d the E n g lis h y e a rs all end J a n u a ry o , w ith the ex c e p tio n o f 1 8 4 5 , for w h ic h th e fig u res are for nin e m o n th s, en d in g S e p tem b er 3 0 ; b y w h ic h tim e the exp orts that left the U n ited S ta te s Ju ne 3 0 , h ad arrived ou t. T h e resu lt is, th a t the w h o le im ports into E n g la n d are 2 7 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 lbs. le s s th an th e exp orts o f th e U n ite d S ta te s alo n e thither. idea o f th e en orm ou s frau d s th at m u st b e perpetrated. the to b a c co co n su m ed b y E n g la n d T h i s g iv e s so m e I t is true th a t n e a rly all c o m e s from th e U n ited S ta te s . T h e gen eral Commercial Chronicle and Preview. 297 character of the English tobacco trade may be seen in the following figures,' for the year 1 8 4 1 :— Imports into Great Britain from United States,................................................. lbs. “ “ “ all other countries,.............................................. 4 2 ,1 3 2 ,9 6 9 1 ,8 0 2 ,1 8 2 T otal im port,............................................................................................................ Entered for consumption,.................................................................................... 4 3 ,9 3 5 ,1 5 1 2 1 ,8 7 1 ,4 3 8 Balance,........................................................................................................ Export to G erm any,..............................................................................lbs. 6 8 4 ,1 0 3 “ Holland.......................................................................................... 1 ,2 5 1 ,2 5 1 “ B elg iu m ,........................................................................................ 8 8 f ,4 1 6 “ Sp ain ,.............................................................................................. 2 ,5 1 2 ,5 5 6 “ W e s t Coast o f A frica,........................................................... 9 7 8 ,4 3 0 “ all other,........................................................................................ 4 ,5 8 2 ,4 1 5 2 2 ,0 6 3 ,7 1 2 T o ta l,........................................ ..................................................................... 1 0 ,8 9 0 ,1 7 1 Rem aining in bond,................................................................................. 1 1 ,1 7 3 ,5 4 1 Under an ample warehousing system, England exports in her vessels to other countries, of United States tobacco, half as much as is entered for her own con sumption. If, now, the duties are reduced to a reasonable rate, the consumption in England may, with the general prosperity, reasonably be supposed to increase largely; making, with the increased purchase of bread-stuffs, the improved value of cotton, &c., a much larger balance in favor of the Union, which must be paid for British goods. The returns of produce sold abroad must be made to the own ers in something of value, and a trade can remain permanently healthy only when those returns are in the products of national industry. The reduction of the tariff is calculated to facilitate the import of goods in payment, and we cannot see that frauds to any extent can exist in the collection of the duties. The operation of the warehousing bill cannot seriously aflect the revenues of the government, because goods wanted for consumption will not remain in ware house long. The facilities offered by that system will tend more to promote the carrying trade than to affect the markets here directly. A greater quantity of goods will doubtless be imported, when not compelled to pay cash duties on ar rival. The goods thus collected in warehouse, at low expenses, will afford en hanced facilities for a carrying trade; but the quantity taken out for consumption will depend upon the activity of the internal demand. This, again, must be in fluenced by the state of the currency and the prices of produce. On the latter, depend the means of the great mass of consumers to buy goods. The three great staples of the South and Southwest— cotton, tobacco, and rice— promise good prices, through the effects of returning prosperity in England, where the chief sales of those articles are effected. With improved prices for those articles, the Southern trade will become more active ; and the demand for warehoused goods, as well as those of domestic manufacture, more prompt and effective. The prices of Western produce, unfortunately, do not promise so well. The demand, both foreign and domestic, is not commensurate to the enormous supply which the active industry of an intelligent population draws from a most prolific soil. The prices last year were very low. Until the harvest, began, the low prices seemed to discourage shippers and forwarders from very active operations; but, with the new crops, reports from England advanced prices, and induced active purchases; by which the farmers, for the most part, disposed of their produce at good prices. 298 Commercial Chronicle and Review. T h e re su lt h a s b een th e rece ip t o f qu an tities u n u s u a lly la r g e , a t co n sta n tly fa llin g p rice s, in v o lv in g m ille rs and forw ard ers in se v e re lo s s e s and th ese la rg e sup plies a re h a n g in g ove r the m ark et at a tim e w h e n crop s eq u a lly a s prolific a re about c o m in g into m ark et. F o r th e se , it is not rea so n ab le to su p p ose th at the farm ers w ill ob tain p rice s so goo d , in th e a v e r a g e , a s la s t y e a r. T h e q u a n tity o f bread- stuffs rece iv ed from the W e s t e r n S ta te s, at th e t w o g rea t ou tlets o f th e N e w Y o r k c a n a ls , and th e m o u th o f the M is s is s ip p i, are a s fo llo w s, to A u g u s t 1 s t : — 1846. 1845. F lou r,................ W h e a t , ................ C o m ,.................. O a t s , ..................... B u ffa lo . O sw e g o . 2 6 3 ,6 5 0 6 7 1 ,3 7 0 2 1 ,6 8 5 1 0 ,7 6 5 1 3 3 ,1 9 6 1 7 ,7 0 2 5 ,0 3 1 ......... B u ffa lo . O sw ego. N . O rle a n s. 6 8 1 ,6 4 0 1 ,3 1 1 ,7 9 0 6 3 8 ,7 4 3 1 7 6 ,5 8 3 1 9 0 ,0 2 5 1 6 3 ,0 8 1 2 4 0 ,5 8 9 ............... 9 1 2 ,2 6 6 1 ,1 9 5 ,0 0 5 3 ,4 3 9 ,9 5 4 6 9 0 ,2 6 7 N . O rlean s. 4 9 7 ,4 7 1 1 8 2 ,6 6 1 1 ,1 4 2 ,9 0 1 4 1 1 ,8 2 6 T h e total receip ts a t th ese th ree poin ts com p are a s f o l lo w s :— Y ears. 8 9 4 .3 1 7 1 ,6 8 3 ,9 3 1 Increase,. 7 9 9 ,6 1 4 7 2 4 ,5 2 6 O ats. 1 ,1 6 9 ,6 1 7 4 ,3 1 9 ,2 8 6 4 2 2 ,5 9 1 8 6 6 ,8 5 0 1 ,7 9 3 ,1 4 3 3 ,1 4 9 ,6 6 9 4 4 4 ,2 5 9 w h ea t, e x p ressed in bu sh els o f w h e a t, is eq u al to T h i s in cre a se o f flour and 5 , 7 9 6 , 2 1 3 ; or, sa y C orn. 8 7 1 ,7 3 3 2 ,6 6 9 ,8 7 6 W h e a t. F lo u r. 1 8 4 5 ,................. 1 8 4 6 ,................. E n g lis h q u arters. The in sp e ctio n s a t three other poin ts w ere a s fo llo w s :— FLOUR INSPECTED. 1845. 1846. Philadelphia, January 1st to July 1st,........................ ................... bbls. Baltim ore, July 1st to June 3 0 ,...................................... ............................ Georgetow n, D . C ., July 1st to June 3 0 , ................ ............................ 2 2 8 ,9 4 8 5 5 0 ,8 4 6 3 3 ,6 9 8 3 1 0 ,9 5 4 7 6 9 ,1 3 0 8 6 ,4 5 9 T o ta l,........................................................................ ............................ 8 1 3 ,4 9 2 1 ,1 6 6 ,5 4 3 T h is pre sen ts an e x c e s s o f n e a r q u arters. 1 ,7 6 5 ,2 5 5 bu sh els over la s t y e a r, or 2 2 0 ,6 3 2 T h e s e tw o item s m a k e a n in cre a se o f 1 ,0 2 0 ,2 4 6 qu arters o f w h e a t ove r the receip ts la st y e q r. T h i s e x c e s s for h a lf a s e a so n is eq u al to o n e -h a lf the w h o le q u an tity reported b y th e E n g lis h c o n su ls resident in E u ro p e a s th e surp lus o f a ll th e g ra in cou n tries o f th at c o n t in e n t ; and th is is a n e x c e s s ove r la s t y e a r, w h e n the su p p ly for the ho m e co n su m p tio n o f the U n ited S ta te s w a s so g re a t, a s to depress p rices con sid erab ly. T h e s e fig u res indicate th e ela s tic ity o f the a g ri cu ltu ra l re so u rc e s o f the U n ite d S ta te s , and th eir c a p a c ity to su p p ly the w a n ts o f E u r o p e to a lm o st a n y exten t. T h e intern ation al trade is, h o w e v e r, g r e a tly in flu en ced b y the state o f th e cu r re n cie s o f tw o c o u n tries trad in g to g e th e r. W here th e cu rren cies o f both are e q u a l to e a c h other, the p rice s o f com m od ities m a y be supposed to b e influenced o n ly b y th e d em a n d an d su p p ly, and the cost o f p ro d u c in g a n y p a rticu la r article o n ly b y th e n a tu ral a d v a n ta g es and facilities o f either cou n try. to be d e sign ated r e n c y to th e W h e n p rices are in m o n e y , it is n e c e s s a ry th at th e relative su p p ly o f th at cu r com m od ities in on e co u n try sh o u ld be th e sa m e a s in the other. W h e n th e c u r r e n c y is fu ll, or, in other w o rd s, m o n e y , w h eth er in th e form o f th e p re ciou s m eta ls or paper, is p len ty , it is , lik e a ll oth er a rtic le s , c h e a p ; or, p rices o f c o m m o d ities a re h ig h . U n le s s m o n e y is e q u a lly p len ty in th e oth er cou n try, the g e n e ra l le v e l o f p rices w ill be h i g h ; or it w ill be m ore a d v a n ta g eo u s to the m e rch a n ts, w h o tra n sa ct th e co m m e rc e o f th e w orld, to im port g o o d s, an d le s s so 299 Commercial Chronicle and Review. to exp ort t h e m ; b e c a u s e th e m o n e y for w h ic h th e y e x c h a n g e goods is then m ore e a s ily to be had. H e n c e , w h a tev er favors a n abu nd ant c u rre n c y , in d u ces im ports, and d isco u ra g es exp orts. T h e re m o v a l or red u ction o f du ties tend to g iv e to the c u rre n c y a m ore d irect in flu en ce upon the sta te o f c o m m e rc e . tion o f the su b -trea su ry la w is a v o w e d ly to stead y th e T h e opera c u rre n c y , by m a k in g the preciou s m eta l m ore a ctiv e and valu a b le a s a c u rre n c y , and b y d is c o u r a g in g that portion o f the c irc u la tin g m ed iu m com p osed o f paper. T h e d irect effect is to rem ov e from prices all that artificial aid w h ic h th e y rece iv e from a free is s u e o f ban k paper, and therefore to le a v e th e im port trade dependent en tirely u p on the effective d em and for th ose foreign goo d s w h ic h , in a dear cu rre n c y , c a n be fu r n ished to better a d v a n ta g e from abroad th a n in th is c o u n try . T h i s e ffect o f th e su b -tre a su ry la w w ill d oubtless c o u n te ra c t the red u ction s w h ic h h a v e ta k e n p lace in the tariff. T h e sp e cie c la u s e o f th e la w ca n n o t, h o w e v e r, b e rig id ly applied, so lo n g a s the g o v ern m en t is s u e s tre a su ry -n o te s. o f $ 1 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 T h e l a w a u th o rizin g th e issu e o f n o te s, provides th a t th e y sh a ll n o t bear m ore th a n 6 p e r cen t interest, and shall be re ce iv a b le for pu blic d u es. T h e s e n otes c a n , d o u b tless, to th e e x ten t o f $ 1 5 , 0 0 0 ,0 0 0 , be held a t par in th e e x c h a n g e s , a t a n o m in a l interest. T h e y are v e ry desirable for th at pu rpose. T h i s is illu strated in th e fa c t th at, a l th o u g h a ll in terest c e a se d o n th e old is s u e s in A u g u s t , near $ 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 of th ese n o te s ou tstan d in g. 1 8 4 3 , y e t there are still W henever th e m o n e y -m a rk e t is tig h t, or the n otes are s o abu n d an t a s to fall 1 or 2 per c e n t b e lo w par, th e y w ill b e c o m e th e c h ie f m ed iu m o f p a y m e n t to th e g o v e rn m e n t. M e r c h a n ts w ill not trouble th em selv e s to procure trea su ry -n o tes to p a y d u ties, u n le ss th ere is a profit to be m ad e b y it. T h e p ro g ress o f the M e x ic a n w a r w ill probably in volve th e issu e o f a s u m la rg e r than the $ 1 1 , 0 0 0 ,0 0 0 au th orized , e v e n a lth o u g h th e rum ors n o w cu rrent, in relation to a proposed settle m e n t o f the d ifficulties, sh o u ld prove to be correct. T h e ru m o rs state, a s a basis o f a g re e m e n t, th a t the U n ite d S ta te s gov e rn m e n t sh a ll a s s u m e , and p ay to its o w n c itiz e n s , the cla im s du e th em from M e x ic o , and in return to re ce iv e both C a lifo rn ia s, and the lin e o f the R io G ra n d e a s a bou nd ary. T h is g o v ern m en t, o f so m e w ar ex p e n se s. settlem en t w o u ld in volve the is s u e , b y the U n ited S ta te s $ 2 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 o f s to c k to th e c la im a n ts, in addition to the It is obv io u s th at the is s u e o f trea su ry -n o tes in p a y m en t o f the se rv ic e s o f v o lu n teers, and g o v e rn m e n t e x p e n s e s g e n e r a lly , op erates directly a s a n in cre a se o f th e c u rre n c y to the e x te n t o f the is s u e s , and therefo re m u s t c o u n teract th a t strin g en t effect o f th e su b -tre a su ry la w hended in som e qu arters. w h ic h ap pears to be appre I t is also the c a s e th at there w a s in th e gov ern m en t deposit b a n k s to th e cred it o f the tre a su ry , A u g u s t 1st, so m e $ 7 ,5 0 0 ,0 0 0 . T h is m o n e y had b ee n d o u btless loan e d ou t by the b a n k s ; an d, a s the ex p en d itu res o f the gov e rn m e n t co n tin u e to e x c e e d its re v e n u e s, th is b a la n c e m u st be c a lled in from th o se lo a n s , and ex p en d ed in different c h a n n e ls — a n operation th at m a y pro d u ce so m e pressure in c erta in qu arters. The g e n e ra l te n d e n c y n o w , h o w e v e r, se e m s to b e, for m o n e y to a c c u m u la te in the h ands o f cap italists, w h e n c e it w ill be offered, probably, ch eap er. Commercial Regulations . 300 COMMERCIAL THE U N IT E D REGULATIONS. S T A T E S T A R I F F O F 184 6 . W e are indebted to the Hon. B. B. F r e n c h , Clerk of the House of Represen tatives, for the following authentic copy of “ An act reducing the duty on imports, and for other purposes.” It comes to us with the endorsement of that gentleman ; and, as corrected, is precisely as it passed both Houses, and was signed by the President. AN ACT REDUCING THE DUTY ON IMPORTS, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.* Be it enacted by the Senate and House o f Representatives o f the United States o f America , in Congress assembled, T h at from and after the first day o f D ecem ber next, in lieu o f the duties heretofore imposed by law on the articles hereinafter mentioned, and on such as may now be exem pt from duty, there shall be levied, collected, and paid, on the goods, wares, and merchandise herein enumerated and provided for, imported from foreign countries, the following rates o f du ty: that is to say— O n goods, wares, and merchandise mentioned in Schedule A , a duty o f one hundred per centum ad valorem. O n goods, wares, and merchandise mentioned in Schedule B , a duty o f fo r ty per centum ad valorem. O n goods, wares, and merchandise mentioned in Schedule C , a duty o f thirty per centum ad valorem. O n goods, wares, and merchandise mentioned in Schedule D , a duty o f twenty-five per centum ad valorem. O n goods, wares, and merchandise mentioned in Schedule E , a duty o f twenty per centum ad valorem. O n goods, wares, and merchandise mentioned in Schedule F , a duty o f fifteen per centum ad valorem. O n goods, wares, and merchandise mentioned in Schedule G , a duty o f ten per centum ad valorem. On goods, wares, and merchandise mentioned in Schedule H , a duty of five per centum ad valorem. Sec. 2. And be it further enacted, T h at, from and after the first day o f D ecem ber next, the goods, wares, and merchandise mentioned in Schedule I , shall be exempt from duty. Sec. 3. And' be it further enacted , T h at, from and after the first day o f D ecem ber next, there shall be levied, collected, and paid, on all goods, wares, and merchandise im ported from foreign countries, and not specially provided for in this act, a duty o f twenty per centum ad valorem. Sec. 4. A nd be it fu rth er enacted , Th at in all cases in which the invoice or entry shall not contain the weight, or quantity, or measure o f goods, wares, or merchandise now weighed, or measured, or gauged, the sam e shall be weighed, gauged, or measured, at the expense o f the owner, agent, or consignee. Sec. 5. A nd be it fu rth er enacted , T h at, from and after the first day o f D ecem ber next, in lieu o f the bounty heretofore authorized by law to be paid on the exportation o f pickled fish o f the fisheries o f the United States, there shall be allowed, on the exporta tion thereof, i f cured with foreign salt, a drawback equal in amount to the duty paid on the salt, and no more ; to be ascertained under such regulations as m ay be prescribed by the Secretary o f the Treasury. Sec. 6. And be it further enacted, T h at all goods, wares, and merchandise, imported after the passage o f this act, and which may be in the public stores on the second day o f D ecem ber next, shall be subject to no other duty upon the entry thereof than if the same were imported respectively after that day. Sec. 7. A nd be it further enacted, T h at the twelfth section o f the act entitled “ A n act to provide revenue from imports, and to change and modify existing laws imposing duties on imports, and for other purposes,” approved August thirty, eighteen hundred and forty-two, shall be, and the sam e is hereby so far modified, that all goods imported from * T h is bill, as corrected, is precisely as it passed both Houses. B. B. F rench. Commercial Regulations. 301 thi3 side the Cape o f G ood H ope or Cape H orn may remain in the public stores for the space o f one year, instead o f the term o f sixty days, prescribed in the said section ; and that all goods imported from beyond the Cape o f Good Hope or Cape Horn m ay remain in the public stores one year, instead o f the term o f ninety days, prescribed in the said section. Sec. 8. And be it further enacted , T h a t it shall be lawful for the owner, consignee, or agent o f imports which have been actually purchased, on entry o f the sam e, to make such addition in the entry, to the cost or value given in the invoice, as, in his opinion, may raise the same to the true market-value o f such imports in the principal markets o f the country whence the importation shall have been m ade, ur in which the goods imported shall have been originally manufactured or produced, as the case m ay be ; and to add thereto all costs and charges which, under existing laws, would form part o f the true value at the port where the same may be entered, upon which the duties should be assessed. A n d it shall be the duty o f the collector within whose district the sam e m ay be imported or entered to cause the dutiable value o f such imports to be appraised, estimated, and as certained, in accordance with the provisions o f existing law s ; and if the appraised value thereof shall exceed, by ten per centum or more, the value so declared on the entry, then, in addition to the duties imposed by law on the sam e, there shall be levied, collected, and paid, a duty o f twenty per centum ad valorem on such appraised value : Provided , never theless, T h at under no circumstances shall the duty be assessed upon an amount less than the invoice va lu e; any law o f Congress to the contrary notwithstanding. Sec. 9. And be it further enacted , T h a t the deputies o f any collector, naval officer, or surveyor, and the clerks employed by any collector, naval officer, surveyor, or appraiser, who are not by existing laws required to be sworn, shall, before entering upon their re spective duties, or, if already em ployed, before continuing in the discharge thereof, take and subscribe an oath or affirmation faithfully and diligently to perform such duties, and to use their best endeavors to prevent and detect frauds upon the revenue o f the United S ta te s; which oath or affirmation shall be administered by the collector o f the port or district where the said deputies or clerks m ay be em ployed, and shall be o f a form to be prescribed by the Secretary o f the Treasury. Sec. 10. And be it further enacted , Th at no officer or other person connected with the navy o f the United States shall, under any pretence, import in any ship or vessel o f the United States any goods, wares, or merchandise, liable to the payment o f any duty. Sec. 11. And be it further enacted , That all acts and parts o f acts repugnant to the provisions o f this act be, and the same are hereby repealed. Schedule A.— (One hundred per centum ad valorem .) Brandy, and other spirits distilled from grain, or other materials. Cordials, absynthe, arrack, curacoa, kirschenwasser, liqueurs, maraschino, ratifia, and all other spirituous beverages o f a similar character. Schedule B .— (Forty per centum ad valorem .) Alabaster and spar ornaments. Alm onds. Anchovies, sardines, and all other fish pre served in oil. Cam phor, refined. Cassia. Cloves. Composition tops for tables or other articles o f furniture. Com fits, sweetm eats, or fruit preserved in sugar, brandy, or molasses. Currants. Dates. Figs. G inger root, dried or green. Glass, cut. M ace. Manufactures o f cedar-wood, granadilla, ebony, m ahogany, rose-w ood, and satinwood. N utm egs. Pimento. Prepared vegetables, m eats, poultry, and gam e, sealed, or enclosed in cans, or oth erwise. Prunes. Raisins. Scagliola tops for tables or other articles o f furniture. Segars, snuff’, paper segars, and all other manufactures o f tobacco. W in e s — Burgundy, C ham pagne,claret, M a deira, Port, sherry, and all other wines, and imitations o f w ines. Schedule C.— (Thirty per centum ad valorem .) A le , beer, and porter, in casks or bottles. Argentine, Alabatta, or German silver, m a nufactured or unmanufactured. Articles embroidered w ith gold, silver, or other metal. Articles worn by m en, w om en, or children, o f whatever material composed, made up, or made w holly, or in part, by hand. 302 Commercial Regulations. A sse s’ 6kins. Balsams, cosmetics, essences, extracts, per fumes, pastes, and tinctures, used either for the toilet or f«»r medicinal purposes. Baskets, and all other articles composed o f grass, osier, palm -leaf, straw, whalebone, or w illow , not otherwise provided for. Bay rum. Beads, o f amber, composition, or w ax, and all other beads. Benzoates. Bologna sausages. Bracelets, braids, chains, curls, or ringlets, composed o f hair, or o f which hair is a component part. Braces, suspenders, w ebbing, or other fa brics, composed wholly or in part o f In dia rubber, not otherwise provided for. Brooms and brushes o f all kinds. Cam eos, real and imitation, and mosaics, real and imitation, when set in gold, sil ver, or other metal. Canes and sticks for walking, finished or unfinished. Capers, pickles, and sauces o f all kinds, not otherwise provided for. Caps, hats, muffs, and tippets o f fur, and all other manufactures o f fur, or o f which fur shall be a component material. Caps, gloves, leggins, mits, socks, stockings, w ove shirts and drawers, and all similar articles made on frames, worn by m en, w om en, or children, and not otherwise provided for. Card cases, pocket books, shell boxes, sou venirs, and all similar articles, o f what ever material composed. Carpets, carpeting, hearth rugs, bed-sides, and other portions o f carpeting, being ei ther Aubusson, Brussels, ingrain, Saxony, T u rk ey , Venetian, W ilto n , or any other similar fabric. Carriages, and parts o f carriages. Cayenne pepper. Cheese. Cinnamon. Clocks, and parts o f clocks. Clothing, ready made, and wearing apparel o f every description, o f whatever material composed, made up or manufactured, wholly or in part, by the tailor, seam pstress, or manufacturer. Coach and harness furniture, o f all kinds. Coal. C oke and culm o f coal. Combs o f all kinds. Compositions o f glass or paste, when set. Confectionary o f all kinds, not otherwise provided for. Coral, cut or manufactured. Corks. Cotton cords, gim ps, and galloons. Court-plaster. Crayons o f all kinds. Cutlery o f all kinds. D iam onds, gem s, pearls, rubies, and other precious stones, and imitations o f precious / stones, when set in gold, silver, or other metal. D olls, and toys o f all kinds. Earthen, China, and stone ware, and all other wares, composed o f earthy or m in eral substances, not otherwise provided for. Epaulets, galloons, laces, knots, stars, tas sels, tresses and w ings o f gold, silver, or other metal. Fans and fire-screens o f every description, o f whatever material composed. Feathers and flowers, artificial or orna mental, and parts thereof, o f whatever material composed. Fire-crackers. Fiats, braids, plaits, sparterre and w illow squares, used for m aking hats or bonnets. Fram es and sticks for umbrellas, parasols, and sun-shades, finished or unfinished. Furniture, cabinet and household. Ginger, ground. Glass, colored, stained, or painted. Glass crystals for watches. Glasses or pebbles for spectacles. Glass tumblers, plain, m oulded, or pressed, not cut or punted. Paintings on glass. Porcelain glass. Grapes. G um benzoin or Benjam in. H air pencils. H at bodies o f cotton. H ats and bonnets, for m en, w om en, and children, composed o f straw, satin straw, chip, grass, palm -leaf, w illow , or any other vegetable substance, or o f hair, w halebone, or other material not other w ise provided for. H em p , unmanufactured. H oney. H um an hair, cleansed or prepared for use. In k and ink-powder. Iron, in bars, blooms, bolts, loops, pigs, rods, slabs, or other form , not otherwise pro vided for. Castings o f iron. Old or scrap iron. Vessels o f cast iron. Japanned ware o f all kinds, not otherwise provided for. Jew elry, real or imitation. Jet, and manufactures o f jet, and imitations thereof. Lead pencils. M accaroni, vermicelli, gelatine, jellies, and all similar preparations. Manufactures o f the bark o f the cork-tree, except corks. Manufactures o f bone, shell, horn,, pearl, ivory, or vegetable ivory. Commercial Regulations . Manufactures, articles, vessels, and wares, not otherwise provided for, o f brass, cop per, gold , iron, lead, pewter, platina, sil ver, tin, or other metal, or o f which either o f those metals or any other metal shall be the component material o f chief value. Manufactures o f cotton, linen, silk, w ool, or worsted, if embroidered or tamboured in the loom , or otherwise, by machinery, or with the needle, or other process. Manufactures, articles, vessels and wares, o f glass, or o f which glass shall be a com po nent material, not otherwise provided for. Manufactures and articles o f leather, or of which leather shall be a component part, not otherwise provided for. Manufactures and articles o f marble, marble paving tiles, and all other marble more advanced in manufacture than in slabs or blocks in the rough. Manufactures o f paper, or o f which paper is a component material, not otherwise provided for. Manufactures, articles, and wares o f papier mache. Manufactures o f w ood, or o f which wood is a component part, not otherwise pro vided for. Manufactures o f w ool, or o f which w ool shall be the component material o f chief value, not otherwise provided for. M edicinal preparations, not otherwise pro vided for. M etallic pens. M ineral waters. Molasses. M uskets, rifles, and other fire-arms. N uts, not otherwise provided for. Ochres and ochrey earths, used in the com position o f painters’ colors, whether dry or ground in oil. Oil-cloth o f every description, o f whatever material composed. 303 O ils, volatile, essential, or expressed, and not otherwise provided for. O live oil in casks, other than salad oil. O live salad oil, and all other olive oil, not otherwise provided for. Olives. Paper— antiquarian, dem y, drawing, ele phant, foolscap, imperial, letter, and all other paper not otherwise provided for. Paper boxes, and all other fancy boxes. Paper envelopes. Parasols and sun-shades. Parchment. Pepper. Plated and gilt ware o f all kinds. Playing cards. Plums. Potatoes. R ed chalk pencils. Saddlery o f all kinds, not otherwise pro vided for. Salm on, preserved. Sealing wax. Sew ing silks, in the gum or purified. Shoes composed wholly o f India rubber. Side-arm s o f every description. Silk twist and twist composed o f silk and mohair. Silver-plated m etal, in sheets or other form. Soap— Castile, perfumed, W in d so r, and all other kinds. Sugar o f all kinds. Syrup o f sugar. Tobacco, unmanufactured. T w in es and pack-thread, o f whatever m a terial composed. Umbrellas. Vellum . Vinegar. W afers. W a te r colors. W o o d , unmanufactured, not otherwise pro-, vided for, and fire-wood. W o o l, unmanufactured. Schedule D.— (Twenty-Five per centum ad valorem .) Borax or tinctal. Burgundy pitch. Buttons and button moulds, o f all kinds. Baizes, buckings, flannels, and floor-cloths, o f whatever material com posed, not oth erwise provided for. Cables and cordage, tarred or untarred. Calom el, and all other mercurial prepara tions. Cam phor, crude. Cotton laces, cotton insertings, cotton trim m ing laces, cotton laces and braids. Floss silks, feather beds, feathers for beds, and downs o f all kinds. Grass-cloth. Hair-cloth, hair seating, and all other m an ufactures o f hair, not otherwise provided for. Jute, sisal grass, coir, and other vegetable substances, unmanufactured, not other wise provided for. Manufactures composed wholly o f cotton, not otherwise provided for. Manufactures o f goat’s hair or mohair, or of which goat’s hair or mohair shall be a com ponent material, not otherwise prov’d for. Manufactures of silk, or o f which silk shall be a component material, not otherwise provided for. Manufactures o f worsted, or o f which worst ed shall be a component material, not otherwise provided for. M atting, China, and other floor matting and mats, made o f flags, jute, or grass. R oofing slates, and slates other than roofing. W o o lle n and worsted yarn. Commercial Regulations . 304 Schedule E .— (Twenty per centum ad valorem .) A cid s— acetic, acetous, benzoic, boracic, chromic, citric, muriatic, white and yel low , nitric, pyroligenous and tartaric, and all other acids o f every description, used for chemical or medicinal purposes, or for manufacturing, or in the fine arts, not otherwise provided for. A loes. A lu m . Am ber. Ambergris. A n gora, Th ibet, and other goat’s hair or mohair, unmanufactured. Anniseed. Anim al carbon. A n tim on y, crude and regulus of. Arrow -root. Articles, not in a crude state, used in dyeing or tanning, not otherwise provided for. Assafuetida. Bacon. Bananas. Barley. Beef. B eesw ax. Berries, vegetables, flowers and barks, not otherwise provided for. Bismuth. Bitter apples. Blankets o f all kinds. B lank books, bound or unbound. Blue or R om an vitriol, or sulphate o f copper. Boards, planks, staves, lath, scantling, spars, hewn and sawed timber, and timber to be used in building wharves. B oucho leaves. Breccia. Bronze liquor. Bronze powder. Butter. Cadm ium . Calam ine. Cantharides. Caps, gloves, leggins, mits, socks, stockings, wove shirts and drawers, made on frames, composed wholly o f cotton, worn by m en, w om en, and children. Cassia buds. Castor oil. * Castorum. Cedar-w ood, ebony, granadilla, m ahogany, rose-w ood, and satin-wood, unmanufac tured. Chocolate. Chromate o f lead. Chromate, bichromate, hydriodate, and prussiate o f potash. Cobalt. Cocoa-nuts. Coculus indicus. Copperas or green vitriol, or sulphate o f iron. Copper rods, bolts, nails, and spikes. Copper bottoms. Copper in sheets or plates, called braziers copper, and other sheets o f copper not otherwise provided for. Cream o f tartar. Cubebs. Dried pulp. E m ery. Ether. Extract o f indigo. Extracts and decoctions o f log-w ood and other dye-w oods, not otherwise provided for. Extract o f madder. Felspar. F ig blue. Fish, foreign, whether fresh, sm oked, salt ed, dried, or pickled, not otherwise pro vided for. Fish glue or isinglass. Fish-skins. Flaxseed. Flour o f sulphur. Frankfort black. French chalk. Fruit, green or ripe, not otherwise provided for. Fulminates, or fulminating powders. Furs dressed on the skin. G am boge. Glue. Green turtle. G unny cloth. Gunpowder. Hair, curled, moss, sea-w eed, and all other vegetable substances used for beds or mattresses. H am s. H ats o f wool. H at bodies, made o f w ool, or o f which wool shall be a component material o f chief value. Hatters’ plush, composed o f silk and cotton, but o f which cotton is the component material o f chief value. H em p-seed or linseed, and rape-seed oil, and all other oils used in painting. Indian corn and corn-m eal. x Ipecacuanha. Iridium. Iris or orris root. Iron liquor. Ivory or bone black. Jalap. Juniper berries. L ac spirits. Lac sulphur. Lam pblack. Lard. Leather, tanned, bend or sole. Leather, upper o f all kinds. Lead, in pigs, bars, or sheets. Leaden pipes. Leaden shot. Commercial Regulations. Leeches. Linens o f all kinds. Liquorice paste, juice, or root. Litharge. M alt. M anganese. M anna. Manufactures o f flax, not otherwise pro vided for. Manufactures o f hem p, not otherwise pro vided for. M arble, in the rough, slab, or block, un m a nufactured. M arine coral, unmanufactured. M edicinal drugs, roots, and leaves, in a crude state, not otherwise provided for. M etals, Dutch and bronze, in leaf. M etals, unmanufactured, not otherwise pro vided for. M ineral and bituminous substances, in a crude state, not otherwise provided for. M usical instruments o f all kinds, and strings for musical instruments o f w hip-gut or cat-gut, and all other strings o f the same material. N eed les o f all kinds, for sew ing, darning, or knitting. Nitrate o f lead. Oats and oat-meal. Oils— neatsfoot and other animal oil, sper m aceti, w hale, and other fish oil, the pro duce o f foreign fisheries. Opium . Oranges, lem ons, and limes. Orange and lem on peel. O sier or w illow , prepared for basket-m a kers’ use. Patent mordant. Paints, dry or ground in oil, not otherwise provided for. Paper hangings and paper for screens or fire-boards. Paving-stones. Paving and roofing tiles and bricks. Pearl or hulled barley. Periodicals and other works in the course o f printing and republication in the U n i ted States. Pine-apples. Pitch. Plantains. Plaster o f Paris, w hen ground. Plumbago. Pork. Potassium. Prussian blue. Pumpkins. Putty. \ Quicksilver. Q uills. R ed chalk. Rhubarb. R ic e, or paddy. R oll brimstone. Rom an cement. R ye and rye flour. Saddlery, com m on, tinned, or japanned. Saffron and saffron cake. Sago. Sal soda, and all carbonates o f soda, by whatever names designated, not other wise provided for. Salts— Epsom , glauber, Rochelle, and all other salts and preparations o f salts, not otherwise provided for. Sarsaparilla. Seppia. Shaddocks. Sheathing paper. Skins, tanned and dressed, o f all kinds. Skins o f all kinds, not otherwise prov’d for. Slate pencils. Smalts. Spermaceti candles and tapers. Spirits o f turpentine. Sponges. Spunk. Squills. Starch. Stearine candles and tapers! Steel not otherwise provided for. Stereotype plates. Still bottoms. Sulphate o f barytes, crude or refined. Sulphate o f quinine. T a llo w candles. Tapioca. Tar. Thread laces and insertings. T y p e m etal. T y p es, new or old. Vanilla beans. Verdigris. V elvet, in the piece, composed wholly o f cotton. Velvet, in the piece, composed o f cotton and silk, but o f which cotton is the component material o f chief value. Vermilion. W a x candles and tapers. W h aleb on e, the produce o f foreign fisheries. W h e a t and wheat flour. W h ite and red lead. W h itin g , or Paris white. W h ite vitriol, or sulphate o f zinc. W in d o w glass, broad, crown, or cylinder. W oo llen listings. Y a m s. Schedule F.— (Fifteen per centum ad valorem ,) Arsenic. B ark, Peruvian. Bark, Quilla. VOL. X V . ------ N O . I I I . 305 Brazil paste. Brimstone, crude, in bulk. Codilla, or tow o f hemp or flax. 20 300 Commercial Regulations. Cork-tree bark, unmanufactured. D iamonds, glaziers’, set or not s e t D ragon’ s blood. F lax , unmanufactured. Gold and silver leaf. M ineral kermes. Silk, raw, not more advanced in manuf. than singles, tram and thrown, or organzine. Steel in bars, cast, shear, or Germ an. Terne tin plates. T i n foil. T in , in plates or sheets. T in plates, galvanized, not otherwise pro* vided for. Z in c , spelter, or teutenegue, in sheets, Schedule G.— (Ten per centum ad valorem .) A m m on ia. Annatto, Rancon or Orleans. Barilla. Bleaching powders, or chloride o f lim e. B ooks printed, magazines, pamphlets, peri odicals, and illustrated newspapers, bound or unbound, not otherwise provided for. Building stones. Burr stones, wrought or unwrought Cam eos and mosaics, and imitations there of, not s e t Chronometers, box or ships’, and parts thereof. Cochineal. Cocoa. Cocoa shells. Compositions o f glass or paste, not set. Cudbear. Diamonds, gem s, pearls, rubies, and other precious stones, and imitations thereof, when not set. Engravings or plates, bound or unbound. H em p-seed, linseed, and rape-seed. Fullers’ earth. Furs, hatters’ , dressed or undressed, not on the skin. Furs, undressed, when on the skin. Gold-beaters’ skins. G u m Arabic and gum Senegal. G um tragacanth. G um Barbary. G um East India. G um Jedda. G um substitute, or burnt starch. H air o f all kinds, uncleaned and unmanu factured. India rubber, in bottles, slabs, or sheets, un manufactured. Indigo. K elp. L e m on and lime juice. L im e. M ap s and charts. M usic and music paper, with lines, bound or unbound. Natron. N u x vom ica. O ils, palm and cocoa-nut. O rpim ent P alm -leaf, unmanufactured. Polishing stones. Pum ice and pumice stones. Ratans and reeds, unmanufactured. Rotten stone. Sal ammonia. Saltpetre, (or nitrate o f soda, or potash,} refined or partially refined. Soda ash. Sulphuric acid, or oil o f vitriol. T a llo w , marrow, and all other grease and soap stocks and soap stuffs, not otherwise provided for. Terra japonica, or catechu. W atch e s, and parts o f watches. W a tc h materials o f all kinds, not otherwise provided for. W o a d or pastel. Schedule H.— (Five per centum ad valorem .) Alcornoque. A rgol, or crude tartar. Bells, when old, or bell m etal, fit only to be remanufactured. Berries, nuts, and vegetables, used exclu sively in dyeing or composing d y e s ; but no article shall be classed as such that has undergone any manufacture. Brass, in pigs and bars. Brass, w hen old, and fit only to be remanu factured. Brazil-w ood, and all other dye-w ood, in sticks. Bristles. Chalk, not otherwise provided for. C lay, unwrought / Copper, in pigs or bars. Copper, when old, and fit only to be rema nufactured. Flints. Grindstones, wrought or unwrought. H orns, horn-tips, bones, bone-tips, and teeth, unmanufactured. Ivory, unmanufactured. Ivory nuts, or vegetable ivory. K erm es. L a c dye. ' Lastings suitable for shoes, boots, bootees, or buttons exclusively. M adder, ground. M adder root. Manufactures o f mohair cloth, silk twist, or other manufacture o f cloth suitable for the manufacture o f shoes, boots, bootees, or buttons exclusively. N ick el. N ut-galls. Pearl, mother of. Commercial Regulations. Pewter, w hen old, and fit only to be rem a nufactured. R ags, o f whatever material. R a w hides and skins o f all kinds, whether dried, salted, or pickled, not otherwise provided for. Safflower. Saltpetre or nitrate o f soda, or potash, w hen crude. Seedlac. 307 Shellac. Sum ac. T in in pigs, bars, or blocks. Tortoise and other shells, unmanufactured. Turmeric. W a s t e , or shoddy. W e ld . Zin c, spelter, or teutenegue, unmanufac tured, not otherwise provided for. Schedule I.— (Exem pt from D uty.) A n im als imported for breed. Bullion, gold and silver. Cabinets o f coins, m edals, and other collec tions o f antiquities. Coffee and tea, when imported direct from the place o f their growth or production, in Am erican vessels, or in foreign vessels entitled by reciprocal treaties to be e x empt from discriminating duties, tonnage, and other charges. Coffee, the growth or production o f the pos sessions o f the Netherlands, imported from the Netherlands in the sam e manner. Coins, gold, silver, and copper. Copper ore. Copper, w hen imported for the U . S . mint. Cotton. Felt, adhesive, for sheathing vessels. Garden seeds, and all other seeds, not oth erwise provided for. G oods, wares, and merchandise, the growth, produce, or manufacture o f the United States, exported to a foreign country, and brought back to the United States in the sam e condition as w hen exported, upon which no drawback or bounty has been allowed : Provided , T h at all regulations to ascertain the identity thereof, pre scribed by existing law s, or which may be prescribed by the Secretary o f the Treasury, shall be com plied with. Guano. Household effects, old and in use, o f persons or fam ilies from foreign countries, if used abroad by them , and not intended for any other person or persons, or for sale. Junk, old. R E D U C T IO N O F T H E M odels o f inventions and other improve m ents in the arts : Provided , T h at no ar ticle or articles shall be deemed a m odel or improvement which can be fitted for use. Oakum . O il, spermaceti, w hale, and other fish, o f Am erican fisheries, and all other articles the produce o f such fisheries. Paintings and statuary, the production o f Am erican artists residing abroad, and all other paintings and statuary: Provided , T h e same be imported in good faith as objects o f taste, and not o f merchandise. Personal and household effects (not m er chandise) o f citizens o f the United States dying abroad. \ Plaster o f Paris, unground. Platina, unmanufactured. Sheathing copper; but no copper to be con sidered such, and admitted free, except in sheets forty-eight inches long and fourteen inches w ide, and weighing from fourteen to thirty-four ounces the square fo o t Sheathing metal. Specim ens o f natural history, mineralogy, or botany. T rees, shrubs, bulbs, plants, and roots, not otherwise provided for. W ea rin g apparel in actual use, and other personal effects not merchandise, profes sional books, implements, instruments and tools o f trade, occupation, or employment o f persons arriving in the U . States: P ro vided , T h a t this exemption shall not be construed to include machinery or other articles imported for use in any manufac turing establishment, or for sale. T A R IF F OF DENM ARK. Official notice has been received at the Department o f State, (W ashington, July 1, 1 8 4 6 ,) from the government of Denm ark, o f the following reductions in the general tariff o f Sound and Belt dues, to take effect from the 1st o f June o f the present year, to w it:— “ 1. T h at the duty on raw or unmanufactured cotton be reduced from eighteen stivers to ten stivers per 100 lbs. u 2. T h at the duty on raw sugar be reduced from five stivers to four stivers per 100 lbs. “ 3. Th at the duties on spirits from potatoes or grain, are reduced from four stivers to three stivers per bbl. “ 4. T h a t the reduction contained in the eleventh section o f said tariff, (1st January, 1 8 4 5 ,) with regard to deals from M em el, is equally applicable to deals from all other places ; and, T h at the rate o f 5 6 £ scheffels to a last, as given in the said paragraph, be changed into 60 scheffels to a last— all o f which modifications w ill likewise apply to ship ments through the H esvig Holstein C anal.” 308 AN Commercial Regulations. ACT E S T A B L IS H IN G A W A R E H O U S IN G SYSTEM IN U. STATES. T h e fo llo w in g is a n official co p y o f a n a c t p a ssed by both H o u s e s o f C o n g r e s s J u ly , 1 8 4 6 , w h ic h w a s sig n e d b y th e P r esid en t o f the U n ite d S ta te s on th e 6 th o f A u g u s t , 1 8 4 6 , an d is therefore the la w o f th e lan d :— AN ACT ESTABLISHING A WAREHOUSING SYSTEM, AND TO AMEND AN ACT ENTITLED “ AN ACT TO PROVIDE REVENUE PROM IMPORTS, AND TO CHANGE AND MODIFY EXISTING LAWS IMPOSING DUTIES ON IMPORTS, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.” Be it enacted by the Senate and House o f Representatives o f the United States o f America , in Congress assembled, Th at the twelfth section o f the act entitled “ A n act to provide revenue from imports, and to change and modify existing laws im posing duties on imports, and for other purposes,” approved the thirtieth day o f A u gust, one thousand eight hundred and forty-two, is hereby amended so as hereafter to read as fo llo w s :— [Sec. 12.] And be it further enacted , T h at on and after the day this act goes into opera tion, the duties on all imported goods, wares, or merchandise, shall be paid in ca sh : P ro vided, T h at, in all cases o f failure or neglect to pay the duties within the period allowed by law to the importer to m ake entry thereof, or whenever the owner, importer, or con signee shall make entry for warehousing the same in writing, in such form and supported by such proof as shall be prescribed by the Secretary o f the Treasury, the said goods, wares, or merchandise shall be taken possession o f by the collector, and deposited in the public stores, or in other stores to be agreed on by the collector or chief revenue officer o f the port and the importer, owner or consignee, the said stores to be secured in the manner provided for by the first section o f the act o f the twentieth day o f A p ril, one thousand eight hundred and eighteen, entitled “ A n act providing for the deposit o f wines and distilled spirits in public warehouses, and for other purposes,” there to be kept with due and reasonable care, at the charge and risk o f the owner, importer, consignee, or agent, and subject at all times to their order upon payment o f the proper duties and ex penses, to be ascertained on due entry thereof for warehousing, and to be secured by bond o f the owner, importer, or consignee, with surety or sureties, to the satisfaction o f the collector, in double the amount o f the said duties, and in such form as the Secretary of the Treasury shall prescribe: Provided , T h at no merchandise shall be withdrawn from any warehouse in which it m ay be deposited in a less quantity than in an entire package, bale, cask, or box, unless in b u lk ; nor shall merchandise so imported in bulk be deliver ed, except in the whole quantity o f each parcel, or in a quantity not less than one ton weight, unless by special authority o f the Secretary o f the Treasury. A n d in case the owner, importer, consignee, or agent o f any goods on which the duties have not been paid, shall give to the collector satisfactory security that the said goods shall be landed out o f the jurisdiction o f the United States," in the manner now required by existing laws relating to exportations for the benefit o f drawback, the collector and naval officer, if any, on an entry to re-export the sam e, shall, upon payment o f the appropriate expenses, per mit the said goods, under the inspection o f the proper officers, to be shipped without the payment o f any duties thereon. A n d in case any goods, wares, or merchandise, depos ited as aforesaid, shall remain in public store beyond one year, without payment o f the duties and charges thereon, then said goods, wares, or merchandise shall be appraised by the appraisers o f the U nited States, i f there be any at such port, and if none, then by tw o merchants to be designated and sworn by the collector for that purpose, and sold by the collector at public auction, on due public notice thereof being first given, in the m an ner and for the time to be prescribed by a general regulation o f the Treasury D ep artm en t; and at said public sale, distinct printed catalogues descriptive o f said goods, with the ap praised value affixed thereto, shall be distributed among the persons present at said sale ; and a reasonable opportunity shall be given before such sale, to persons desirous o f pur chasing, to inspect the quality o f such g o o d s ; and the proceeds o f said sales, after deduct ing the usual rate o f storage at the port in question, with all other charges and expenses, including duties, shall be paid over to the owner, importer, consignee, or agent, and proper receipts taken for the sam e : Provided , T h at the overplus, if any there be, o f the pro ceeds o f such sales, after the payment o f storage, charges, expenses, and duties as afore said, remaining unclaimed for the space o f ten days after such sales, shall be paid by the collector into the treasury o f the United S ta te s; and the said collector shall transmit to the Treasury Department, with the said overplus, a copy o f the inventory, appraisement, and account o f sales, specifying the m arks, numbers, and descriptions o f the packages sold, their contents, and appraised value, the name o f the vessel and master in which and o f the port or place whence they were imported, and the time w hen, and the name o f the person or persons to w hom said goods were consigned in the manifest, and the duties and \ Commercial Regulations. 309 charges to which the several consignments were respectively subject; and the receipt or certificate o f the collector shall exonerate the master or person having charge or command o f any ship or vessel, in which said goods, wares, or merchandise were imported, from all claim o f the owner or owners thereof, w ho shall, nevertheless, on due proof o f their inte rest, be entitled to receive from the treasury the amount o f any overplus paid into the sam e under the provisions of this act: Provided , T h at so m uch o f the fifty-sixth section o f the general collection law o f the second o f M arch, seventeen hundred and ninetynine, and the thirteenth section o f the act o f the thirtieth of A u gust, eighteen hundred and forty-two, to provide revenue from imports, and to change and m odify existing laws im posing duties on imports, and for other purposes, as conflicts with the provisions of tins .act, shall be, and is hereby repealed, excepting that nothing contained in this act shall be construed to extend the time now prescribed by law for selling unclaimed g o o d s : Provi ded , also, T h at all goods o f a perishable nature, and all gunpowder, fire-crackers, and explosive substances, deposited as aforesaid, shall be sold forthwith. Sec. 2. A nd be it further enacted, That any goods, w hen deposited in the public stores in the manner provided for in the foregoing section, m ay be withdrawn therefrom and transported to any other port o f entry, under the restrictions provided for in the act o f the second M arch, seventeen hundred and ninety-nine, in respect to the transportation o f goods, wares, and merchandise from one collection district to another, to be exported with the benefit o f drawback ; and the owner o f such goods so to be withdrawn for transpor tation, shall give his bond with sufficient sureties, in double the amount o f the duties chargeable on them , for the deposit o f such goods in store in the port o f entry to which they shall be destined, such bond to be cancelled w hen the goods shall be re-deposited in store in the collection district to which they shall be transported : Provided, T h at nothing contained in this section shall be construed to extend the time during which goods m ay be kept in store, after their original importation and entry, beyond the term o f one year. Sec. 3 . A nd be it further enacted , T h at i f any warehoused goods shall be fraudulently concealed in or removed from any public or private warehouse, the same shall be forfeited to the U nited S ta te s ; and all persons convicted o f fraudulently concealing or removing such goods, or o f aiding or abetting such concealment or removal, shall be liable to the sam e penalties which are now imposed for the fraudulent introduction o f goods into the United S ta te s; and i f any importer or proprietor o f any warehoused goods, or any person in his em ploy, shall by any contrivance fraudulently open the warehouse, or shall gain access to the goods, except in the presence o f the proper officer o f the customs, acting in the execution o f his duty, such importer or proprietor shall forfeit and pay, for every such offence, one thousand dollars. A n d any person convicted of altering, defacing, or obliter ating any mark or marks which have been placed by any officer of the revenue on any package or packages o f warehoused goods, shall forfeit and pay, for every such offence, five hundred dollars. Sec. 4. And be it further enacted, Th at the collectors o f the several ports o f the United States shall m ake quarterly reports to the Secretary o f the Treasury, according to such general instructions as the said Secretary m ay give, o f all goods which remain in the warehouses o f their respective ports, specifying the quantity and description o f the sam e ; which returns, or tables formed thereon, the Secretary o f the Treasury shall forthwith cause to be published in the principal papers o f the city o f W ashington. Sec. 5. And be it further enacted , Th at the Secretary o f the Treasury be, and he is hereby authorized to m ake, from time to tim e, such regulations, not inconsistent with the law s o f the United States, as m ay be necessary to give full effect to the provisions of this act, and secure a just accountability under the sam e. A n d it shall be the duty o f the Secretary to report such regulations to each succeeding session o f Congress. IM P O R T S IN T O T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S FROM C A N A D A . T h e following bill passed both H ouses o f Congress at the last session, which closed in Au gust, 184 6 , and has been signed by the President o f the United States, and has there fore become a law , regulating the imports into this country for foreign export. AN ACT FOR TIIE ALLOWANCE OF DRAWBACK ON FOREIGN MERCHANDISE IMPORTED INTO CER TAIN DISTRICTS OF THE UNITED STATES FROM THE BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN PROVINCES, AND EXPORTED TO FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Be it enacted by the Senate and House o f Representatives o f the United States o f America in Congress assembled, Th at any merchandise imported from the British North Commercial Regulations . 310 A m erican provinces, adjoining the United States, which shall have been duly entered, and the duties thereon paid or secured according to law , at either o f the ports o f entry in the collection districts situated on the northern, northeastern, and northwestern frontiers o f the United States, m ay be transported by land or by water, or p'artly by land and partly by water, to any port or ports from which merchandise m ay, under existing law s, be ex ported for benefit o f drawback, and be thence exported with such privilege to any foreign country’ : Provided , that such exportations shall be made within one year from the date o f importation o f said merchandise, and that existing laws relating to the transportation o f merchandise entitled to drawback from one district to another, or to tw o other districts, and the due exportation and proof o f landing thereof, and all regulations which the S ec retary o f the Treasury m ay prescribe for the security o f the revenue, shall be complied with. C O M M E R C IA L R E L A T IO N S O F T H E U N IT E D STATES W IT H M E X IC O . R . J. W a lk e r, Secretary o f the Treasury, under date o f the Treasury Department, June 30th , 1 8 4 6 , has issued the following circular to collectors o f customs and other offi cers o f the cu sto m s:— T h e circular o f the Treasury Department, o f the 11th inst., contains the following paragraph: “ B y the law o f nations, as recognized by repeated decisions o f our judicial tribunals, the existence o f a state o f war interdicts all trade or commerce between the citizens o f the two nations engaged in the war. It consequently follows, that neither vessels nor merchandise o f any description can be allowed to proceed from ports or places in the United States, to ports or places in the territories o f M exico, with the exception o f such ports or places in the latter country as may be at the time in the actual possession o f the United States forces.” Matamoras is now in the actual possession o f the forces o f the United States, and per haps other ports and places on the same side o f the R io Grande. In case o f the application o f vessels for clearances for the port o f M atam oras, you will issue them under the following circumstances: 1st. T o Am erican vessels only. 2d . T o s u c h vessels carrying only articles o f the growth, produce, or manufacture o f the United States, or o f imports from foreign countries to our ow n, upon which the duties have been fully paid ; and upon all such goods, whether o f our ow n or o f foreign coun tries, no duties will be chargeable at the port o f Matam oras, so long as it is in the pos session o f the forces o f the United States. In issuing this order, it is not intended to interfere with the authority o f General Taylor to exclude such articles, including spirituous liquors or contraband o f war, the introduc tion o f which he m ay consider injurious to our military operations in M exico. Foreign imports which m ay be re-exported in our vessels to M atamoras, will not be entitled to any drawback o f d u ty; for, i f this were permitted, they would be carried from that port into the United States, and thus evade the payment o f all duties. W h en ever any other port or place upon the M exican side o f the R io Grande shall have passed into the actual possession o f the forces o f the United States, such ports and places w ill be subject to all the above instructions which are applicable to the port o f Matamoras. C O L L E C T IO N D IS T R IC T O F C H IC A G O . AN ACT TO ESTABLISH THE COLLECTION DISTRICT OF CHICAGO. Be it enacted by the Senate and House o f Representatives o f the United States o f America , in Congress assembled, T h at a collection district be, and hereby is established upon the western shore o f L ake M ichigan, to be called the district o f Chicago, within w hich the port o f Chicago shall be a port o f entry. T h e said district shall include the territory, harbors, rivers, and waters on the western shore o f said lake, from the line di viding the States o f Indiana and Illinois, northward to the town and river Seboygan, and inclusive o f the sam e, which are within the territory o f W isconsin. A collector shall be appointed for the said district, who shall receive the same amount o f annual compensa tion as the collector o f the district o f Michilimackinac. 311 Nautical Intelligence, NAUTICAL L IG H T S IN INTELLIGENCE. B A N K S ’ S T R A IT , V A N D IE M E N ’S L A N D . REVOLVING LIGHT ON SWAN ISLAND. T h is light, which has been recently established for the purpose o f leading through B anks’ Strait, revolves once in every m inute, and then shows a brilliant flash, o f 2J seconds in duration. T h e tower is 74 feet in h e igh t; the upper part o f it is painted red, and the lower part white ; the lantern stands 101 feet above the level o f high water, and the light is visible at the distance o f 15 m iles. It bears from Black R e e f N . by W . i W . magnetic, 9 miles ; Cape Barren, S . W . by S. magnetic, 2 4 miles ; L o ok -O u t R ock, S. E . by E . magnetic, 10 miles. FIXED LIGHT ON GOOSE ISLAND. A light-house on the southern part o f this island has been completed, and the light will shortly be exhibited. E. J From thence, the above-mentioned light on Sw an Island hears S. S. m agnetic, and is 3 0 miles distant. B E R M U D A L IG H T . On the 1st o f M a y last, a revolving light was established on the southern part o f the island o f Bermuda, in latitude 32. 14. N ., and longitude 64. 51. W . E very minute, it brightens up into a strong glare, w hich continues for 6 or 8 seconds; and which, being 3 6 5 feet above the level o f the sea, is visible at the distance o f 7 or 8 leagu es; and from all round the horizon, except betw een the bearings o f N . 64 E ., to N . 74 E ., where it w ill be intercepted by high land. W ith in the distance o f 7 m iles, a faint but permanent light m ay be seen betw een the brilliant flashes. A t night, or in thick weather, it is advisable not to m ake Bermuda to the northward of 3 2 . 8. north latitude, until the light or the land is seen. In com ing from the eastward, the light should not be brought to the southward o f W . by S ., nor approached at night nearer than 6 or 7 miles. In com ing from the westward, the light should not be approached nearer than 12 m iles, unless first brought to bear to the northward o f N . E . by E . A vessel m aking the light to the southward, should haul off immediately, as reefs extend from it to a distance o f 16 m iles to the northward. PO R T O F L A N C A S T E R , IS L A N D O F W A L N E Y . O n and after the 10th day o f Septem ber, 1 8 4 6 , the light on the island o f W a ln e y will revolve in four m inutes, showing a bright light every minute, in place of, as heretofore, one every four and a half minutes. A stationary tidal light, red, will be placed on the South Point, on the said island of W a ln e y . T h e se alterations are sanctioned by the Board o f the Trinity H ouse. NEW L I G H T -H O U S E A T S C IL L Y . T h e Trinity Board have determined on erecting a light-house on the island o f R ose V e a r ; after completing which, the present light on St. A g n ess will be raised 3 0 feet, in order that it m ay be distinctly seen to the eastward o f the island. 312 Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance, JOURNAL OF BANKING, CURRENCY AND FINANCE. \ T he IN C O R P O R A T E D B A N K S O F T H E STATE OF N E W YORK. following is a list o f the incorporated banks o f N e w Y o r k , showing the time o f their incorporation or renewal, w hen their charters expire, and the amount o f capital Names of Ranks. Albany City B an k,........................ Atlantic B a n k ,............................... B ank o f A lba n y,........................... A m erica,........................ A u b u r n ,........................ Chenango, .................... G enesee,........................ G e n e v a ,........................ Ith aca ,............................ Lansingburgh, ........... M on roe,......................... N ew burgh,.................... N e w Y o r k ,................... Orange C ounty,......... Orleans,......................... O w e g o ,.......................... Poughkeepsie,............ Rochester,..................... R o m e ,............................. Sa lin a ,............................ the State o f N . Y . , . . . T r o y ................................. U tica,............................... W h iteh a ll,..................... Brooklyn B a n k ,.............................. Broome Countv B an k ,............... Butchers’ and Drovers’ B a n k ,. Canal B an k ,.................................... Cattskill B ank,............................... Cayuga County B a n k ,................ Central B a n k ,................................ Chautauque County B a n k ,.... Chem ung Canal B a n k ,.............. City B a n k ,....................................... Com m ercial Bank o f A lb a n y ,. E ssex County B a n k ,................... Farmers’ B a n k ,............................. Farmers’ and M anuf. B an k ,... Greenwich B ank,......................... H erkim er County B a n k ,........... Highland B an k,.............................. H udson River B an k,................... Jefferson County B a n k ,............ K ingston B a n k ,............................. Leather M anufac. B an k,........... Lew is County B a n k ,.................. Livingston County B a n k ,......... M adison County B an k,.............. Manhattan Com pany,................ M echanics’ B an k ,........................ M echanics’ and Farmers’ B ’ k, M echanics’ and Traders’ B ’k, Merchants’ B an k ,........................ Time of incorporat’n or renewal. April 3 0 ,1 8 3 4 M ay 1 0 ,1 8 3 6 April 3 0 , 1829 February 1 ,1 8 3 1 April 2 2 ,1 8 2 9 2 9 , 182 9 2 9 .1 8 2 9 2 2 ,1 8 2 9 2 2 ,1 8 2 9 February 2 4 ,1 8 3 2 2 2 ,1 8 2 9 April 2 9 ,1 8 2 9 January 2 9 , 1831 April 1 7 ,1 8 3 2 3 0 ,1 8 3 4 2 1 ,1 8 3 6 M ay April 7 ,1 8 3 0 1 4 ,1 8 4 5 M ay 1 6 ,1 8 3 2 April 2 0 ,1 8 3 2 1 8 ,1 8 3 6 M ay 2 2 ,1 8 2 9 April 2 2 ,1 8 2 9 3 0 ,1 8 2 9 February 4 , 1 8 3 2 April 1 8 ,1 8 3 1 8 ,1 8 3 0 M ay 2 ,1 8 2 9 April 3 0 , 1829 1 4 ,1 8 3 3 M arch 2 9 ,1 8 2 9 April 1 8 ,1 8 3 1 9 ,1 8 3 3 January 2 9 ,1 8 3 1 1 4 ,1 8 4 5 M av April 2 5 , 1 832 2 3 ,1 8 2 9 2 6 ,1 8 3 4 1 7 ,1 8 3 0 M arch 1 4 ,1 8 3 3 2 6 ,1 8 3 4 April March 2 9 ,1 8 3 0 April 2 9 ,1 8 2 9 M ay 1 8 ,1 8 3 6 April 2 3 ,1 8 3 2 2 0 ,1 8 3 3 7 ,1 8 3 0 M arch 1 4 ,1 8 3 1 April 2 ,1 7 9 9 February 2 ,1 8 3 1 2 2 ,1 8 2 9 April 1 5 ,1 8 3 0 February 1 ,1 8 3 1 Time when the charter expires. January 1 ,1 8 6 4 1, 1866 1, 1855 1, 1853 1, 185 0 1 ,1 8 5 6 1. 1852 1, 185 3 1, 1850 July 1, 185 5 1, 185 0 January 1, 1851 1, 1853 1, 186 2 1, 1 8 6 4 1, 186 6 1, 185 8 July 1, 1 846 January 1, 1862 1, 186 2 1, 1866 1, 1853 1, 1 8 5 0 2 d T u e . June, 1859 January 1 ,1 8 6 0 1, 1855 1, 185 3 1, 1 8 5 4 1, 1853 1, 186 3 1, 1855 1, 1 860 1, 1 863 July 1, 1852 1, 1847 January 1, 1 862 1, 1853 1, 1 864 1st M on. June, 1 855 January 1, 1863 1, 1 8 6 4 2d T u e. June, 1 855 January 1, 185 4 1, 186 6 June 1, 1862 1 ,1 8 6 3 January 1 ,1 8 5 5 July January 1 ,1 8 5 8 Unlimited. 1, 1855 January 1, 1853 1, 1857 1, 1 857 Am’ tof cap. st’ k of each. $ 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 2 4 0 ,0 0 0 2 ,0 0 1 ,2 0 0 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 2 0 ,0 0 0 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 2 0 ,0 0 0 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 4 0 ,0 0 0 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 0 5 ,6 6 0 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 2 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 4 4 0 ,0 0 0 6 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 1 2 0 ,0 0 0 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 7 2 0 ,0 0 0 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 2 7 8 ,0 0 0 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 6 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 2 ,0 5 0 ,0 0 0 1 ,4 4 0 ,0 0 0 4 4 2 ,0 0 0 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 ,4 9 0 ,0 0 0 313 Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance. Merchants’ Exchange B a n k ,. Merchants’ and M ech. B a n k ,. M ohaw k B a n k ,.............................. M ontgom ery County B a n k ,. . N ational B an k,............................... N e w Y o rk D ry D ock C o . , . . . . N e w Y o r k State B a n k ,............. Ogdensburgh B an k,..................... Oneida B an k,................................. Onondaga County B ank,.......... Ontario B an k,................................ Otsego County B ank,................ Phoenix B a n k ,................................ Rochester City B a n k ,................ Sacket’s Harbor B ank,.............. Saratoga County B an k,............ Schenectady B ank....................... Seneca Countv B an k,................ Seventh W a rd B ank,.................. Steuben County B an k,.............. Tanners’ B a n k ,....... '..................... Tom pkins County B a n k ,......... Tradesm ens’ B an k,...................... Trov City B a n k ,.......................... Ulster County B a n k ,................... U nion B ank,................................... W estchester County B a n k ,.. Y a te s County B a n k ,................... 2 9 ,1 8 2 9 2 9 , 1829 2 2 ,1 8 2 9 March 1 5 ,1 8 3 1 April 3 0 , 1829 1 2 ,1 8 2 5 2 3 ,1 8 2 9 3 0 ,1 8 2 9 M ay 14, 1 836 April 1 5 ,1 8 3 0 2 9 ,1 8 2 9 8, 1830 February 2 ,1 8 3 1 M ay 1 8 ,1 8 3 6 April 2 8 ,1 8 3 4 M arch 2 9 , 1830 April 1 6 ,1 8 3 2 March 1 2 ,1 8 3 3 April 1 2 ,1 8 3 3 March 9 ,1 8 3 2 1 4 ,1 8 3 1 M ay 1 4 ,1 8 3 6 January 2 9 ,1 8 3 1 April 1 9 ,1 8 3 3 M arch 1 4 ,1 8 3 1 February 2 ,1 8 3 1 M arch 2 1 ,1 8 3 3 April 2 ,1 8 3 1 April 1st M on. June, 1849 January 1, 185 4 1, 1853 1, 185 7 1, 185 7 U nlim ited. 1, 1851 January 1 , 1859 1 ,1 8 6 6 1, 1 8 5 4 1, 1 856 1, 1854 1, 1 8 5 4 1, 186 6 1, 1 865 1, 1 857 1, 1 862 1, 1 863 1, 1863 1. 186 2 1, 186 0 • 1, 186 6 1, 185 5 1, 186 3 June 1, 1861 January 1, 1853 1, 1863 1, 1859 7 5 0 ,0 0 0 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 6 5 .0 0 0 1 0 0 .0 0 0 7 5 0 ,0 0 0 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 3 6 9 ,6 0 0 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 5 0 0 .0 0 0 1 0 0 .0 0 0 1 ,2 0 0 ,0 0 0 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 $ 3 0 ,4 9 1 ,4 6 0 T o ta l capital,..................... T h e following is a list o f banks subject to the safety fund law that have become in solvent, and the amount contributed and paid out o f that fund to the creditors o f such i n s o l v e n t b a n k s :— N a m e s o f B a n k s. C a p ita l. Bank o f Buffalo,.............................. Bank o f L y o n s,................................ Commercial Bank o f B uffalo,. Commercial Bank o f N . Y o rk ,. Com m ercial B ank o f O sw e g o ,. City Bank o f Buffalo,................... Clinton County B an k,.................. Lafayette B an k,............................... $ 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 W a y n e County B a n k ,................... W atervliet B a n k ,............................ 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 T o ta l,..................................... $ 3 ,1 5 0 ,0 0 0 io o jio o A m ’ t contributed to th e fu n d . $ 6 ,0 0 0 5 ,2 0 8 1 2 ,0 0 0 1 5 ,0 0 0 5 ,3 0 8 4 ,3 3 3 4 ,2 6 3 1 7 ,5 0 0 8 ,2 5 0 3^000 5 ,4 6 6 00 22 00 00 21 33 00 00 00 00 66 $ 8 6 ,2 7 9 4 2 A m ’ t paid ou t o f th e fu nd. $ 5 8 4 ,3 4 4 5 0 ,5 8 0 6 0 9 ,7 1 5 2 8 5 ,8 6 9 2 4 0 ,3 7 2 3 1 6 ,9 9 0 1 1 2 ,8 8 5 22 00 87 23 63 25 21 1 1 3 ,1 3 3 00 1 3 4 ,1 0 7 00 $ 2 ,4 4 7 ,9 9 7 41 C U S T O M S R E V E N U E O F L IV E R P O O L . T h e customs revenue o f Liverpool, for the quarter ending on the 5th o f July, 1 8 4 6 , exceeds that o f the corresponding quarter o f last year by £ 1 2 7 ,2 1 7 ; the return for 1 8 4 5 being £ 8 1 7 ,2 7 9 , and that for 1 8 4 6 £ 9 4 4 ,4 9 6 . T h e receipts for the past month, however, include about £ 1 2 0 ,0 0 0 under the new com duties. R E D U C T IO N OF TH E N A T IO N A L D E B T OF E N G L A N D . T h e sum o f £ 5 9 8 ,7 6 5 , or the fourth o f the surplus incom e o f the United K in gdom , including interest on donations and bequests, is to be added to the reduction o f the na tional debt 314 Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance. M IC H IG A N S T A T E BANK. A s the notes o f this institution have a circulation in N e w Y o r k , w e subjoin the sem i annual statement o f its condition on the 30th June, 1 8 4 6 , as made out and sworn to by its cashier, A . H . A d am s, E sq ., on the 13th u ltim o:— Judgments, m ortgages, state stocks, and other securities, .$ 1 1 2 ,6 8 0 41 ; $ 6 3 ,3 2 2 produce, $ 3 ,5 4 0 ; value,.................................................................................................. 4 ,5 0 4 Capital stock belonging to the bank,....................................... ........................................ 150 Furniture banking-house,....................................................................................................... 6 3 ,7 6 2 Bills discounted, chiefly on N e w Y o r k and Boston,............................................... 1 4 ,6 0 0 B anks and bankers,.................................................................................................................. 1 7 ,9 7 4 C oin , and notes o f specie-paying ban k s,............. ......................................................... T o ta l,................................................................................................................................. $ 1 6 4 ,3 1 4 01 00 00 45 94 86 26 Capital stock,................................................................................................................................ Profit and loss account,.......................................................................................................... Liabilities before 1st March, 1 8 3 9 ,................................................................................. O ld circulation, before 1st February, 1 8 3 9 ,................................................................. Balance due banks,................................................................................................................... D ep o sits,..................... C irculation,................................. 00 95 81 00 76 74 00 T o ta l................................................................................................................................ REVENUES AND D IS B U R S E M E N T S O F THE EAST IN D IA $ 9 8 ,9 3 0 3 ,5 1 8 3 ,2 4 2 4 ,9 1 4 468 2 4 ,8 9 6 2 8 ,3 4 3 $ 1 6 4 ,3 1 4 2 6 COM PANY. In a British Parliamentary document, recently published, the hom e accounts, and ac counts o f the territorial revenues and disbursements o f the E a st India C om pany, are given. T h e receipts on account o f the government o f India, o f the home treasury, from the 1st o f M a y , 184 5 , to the 30th o f A p ril last, w ere £ 4 ,3 1 6 ,8 3 1 14s. 3 d .; w hich, with a balance in favor on the 1st o f M a y , 1 8 4 5 , o f £ 1 ,2 9 0 ,7 8 7 18s. l i d ., m ade £ 5 ,6 0 7 ,6 1 9 13s. 2d . O f the receipts m entioned, £ 5 0 ,0 0 0 were received from H er M ajesty’s govern m ent on account o f the expenses o f steam communication with India. T h e disburse m ents in the year were £ 4 ,2 5 9 ,1 3 5 6s. 4d ., leaving a balance on the £ 5 ,6 0 7 ,6 1 9 13s. 2d . o f £ 1 ,2 4 8 ,4 9 4 6s. lOd. A m o n g the disbursements is one o f £ 1 2 5 ,0 0 0 , made “ in con sideration o f the transfer m ade, under treaty, with the king o f D enm ark, o f the Danish settlements on the continent o f India, with all the public buildings and crown property thereunto belonging, to the East Ind ia Com pany.” Another disbursement in the year is £ 9 7 ,8 9 1 11s. l i d . as 11 services chargeable to H er M ajesty’ s governm ent, (including £ 6 2 , 1 5 6 17s. lOd. for the paym ent o f the China donation batta.” ) T h e Com pany agreed to pay a portion o f H er M ajesty’s mission to the court o f Persia, and £ 1 2 ,0 0 0 is put down as their portion. T h e salaries o f the Court o f Directors amount to £ 7 , 5 7 6 3s. 3d ., and the contingent expenses o f the Courts o f Directors and Proprietors, & c ., to £ 2 5 ,2 1 0 18s. A n estimate o f the receipts and disbursements for the year 1 8 4 6 -4 7 , is given in the return. T h e receipts o f the home treasury are estimated at £ 4 ,0 9 2 ,6 6 8 ; w hich, with a balance, on the 1st o f M a y last, o f £ 1 ,3 4 8 ,4 9 4 , makes £ 5 ,4 4 1 ,1 6 2 . The estimated disbursements are £ 4 ,3 6 0 ,8 4 0 , leaving a balance at the end o f the year (30th April next) o f £ 1 ,0 8 0 ,3 2 2 . It seem s that the establishments o f the East India Com pany in England give em ployment to 4 4 9 persons, whose salaries and allowance amount to £ 1 1 8 ,3 8 7 in the year. F rom the accounts o f the territorial revenues in India, it seem s that the total revenues and receipts in India, in the year 1 8 4 4 -4 5 , (partly estimated,) were £ 1 7 ,1 6 1 ,1 1 9 ; w hich,w ith other sums realized in England, (Sac., made £ 1 7 ,7 4 3 ,3 1 8 . The total charges in England, in the year, were £ 1 5 , 2 5 8 ,1 0 6 ; w hich, with £ 2 ,4 8 5 ,2 1 2 to be disbursed in England, m ade the sum m entioned on the credit side o f the account as the total charges o f India. T h e accounts rendered by the Com pany, under the act 3 and 4 W illia m I V ., cap. 8 5 , sec. 1 1 6 , extend to 31 folio pages. Journal o f Banking , Currency, and Finance. R E V E N U E S O F T H E B R IT IS H G O V E R N M E N T , IN 315 1 8 4 5 -4 6 . T h e following is an abstract o f the nett produce o f the revenue o f Great Britain, in the years and quarters ended the 5th o f July, 1 8 4 5 and 1 8 4 6 , showing the increase or decrease thereof:— TEARS ENDED JULY 5. 1845. 1846. £ £ q ’ a R t ’ r S ENDED In c re a se . D e cre a se . £ jC 1845. T otal ord. revenue, 4 9 ,6 8 2 ,1 4 0 4 8 ,3 9 4 ,4 2 0 Imprest and other m oneys,............... 4 1 0 ,1 4 5 2 1 5 ,5 2 3 Repayments o f ad9 7 5 ,5 7 1 1 ,4 4 6 ,1 4 0 £ £ 4 ,4 9 9 ,5 4 8 2 ,9 6 5 ,6 8 4 1 ,8 3 7 ,0 7 6 2 ,0 0 0 ,5 6 7 909,991 1 5 5 ,0 0 0 3 0 ,0 0 0 1 2 ,6 5 2 4 ,5 2 3 ,3 9 1 3 ,1 0 4 ,7 1 1 1 ,7 3 0 ,4 9 5 2 ,0 0 6 ,4 2 7 1 ,0 0 9 ,1 6 2 1 8 1 ,0 0 0 ' C ustom s,.................. 1 9 ,8 0 7 ,0 4 4 1 7 ,6 8 8 ,4 6 1 2 ,1 1 8 ,5 8 3 E x cise,..................... 1 2 ,0 7 4 ,9 9 9 1 2 ,0 2 5 ,1 1 2 4 9 ,8 8 7 S tam p s,..................... 1 4 2 ,0 5 7 6 ,8 4 6 ,8 8 3 6 ,9 8 8 ,9 4 0 T a x e s ,....................... 4 ,2 2 8 ,4 4 1 1,458 4 ,2 2 9 ,8 9 9 .......... 7 8 ,0 2 4 5 ,2 6 1 ,9 5 4 Property 5 ,1 8 3 ,9 1tax, 2 Post-office,.............. 115 ,0 0 0 6 7 9 ,0 0 0 7 9 4 ,0 0 0 2 5 ,0 0 0 Crown lands,.......... 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 125 ,0 0 0 M iscellaneous,....... 1 ,3 8 4 ,0 9 6 7 2 5 ,2 7 7 6 5 8 ,8 ) 9 JULY 5. 1846. 4 5 8 ,0 0 1 9 8 8 ,7 9 2 2 ,2 7 1 ,5 1 2 1 2 ,4 1 1 ,5 1 8 1 3 ,0 1 3 ,1 8 7 1 9 4 ,6 2 2 4 7 0 ,5 6 9 2 9 ,2 6 2 *73 ,9 3 9 1 8 2 ,3 5 4 • 111,607 T otal income, 5 1 ,0 6 7 ,8 5 6 5 0 ,0 5 6 ,0 8 3 1 ,4 5 4 ,3 6 1 2 ,4 6 6 ,1 3 4 1 2 ,6 2 3 ,1 3 4 1 3 ,1 9 8 ,7 3 3 1 ,4 5 4 ,5 6 1 Deduct increase,.......... Decrease on the year, 1 ,0 1 1 ,7 7 3 T h e foregoing table exhibits the revenue o f the British governm ent, from all sources, for the fiscal years ending July, 1 8 4 5 , and sam e time in 1 8 4 6 ; showing also the increase or decrease in each item for the tw o years. T h e tw o last columns give the revenue for the tw o quarters o f the sam e years, ending on the 5th o f July. F IN A N C E S OF TH E CROTON AQUEDUCT. It appears from the report o f the President o f the Board o f Commissioners, that the receipts in each year, from 1st M a y , 1 8 4 3 , to the 1st M a y , 1 8 4 6 , have been as follows :— 1844. 1845. $ 9 1 ,7 9 0 $ 1 1 8 ,5 8 2 1846. $ 1 6 4 ,5 3 2 Show ing an increase during the past year, o f $ 4 4 ,9 4 9 . T h e expenses have diminished during that tim e $ 1 4 ,9 2 8 , so that the actual increase o f revenue over 1 8 4 5 , is nearly $ 6 0 ,0 0 0 . During the past year, four m iles o f pipe have been laid down, m aking the enormous total o f one hundred and sixty-three miles o f pipe now in use in this city. In 1 8 4 4 , the tax for the Croton debt was 21 cents on the hundred dollars, and last year it was only 16 cents, and it is expected that in a few years the income w ill pay the interest o f the debt contracted for its construction, if the department is suffered to g o on as at present. T h e president thinks it w ill be necessary, ere long, to construct another reservoir, and he recom mends that measures be taken at once to effect that object, by selecting the grounds, & c . T h e number o f permits now out is 1 2 ,2 4 7 , equal to about thirteen thousand takers, and the receipts at the office from the 1st o f M a y to the 8th o f June, a period o f thirty-seven days, were $ 1 0 8 ,7 5 8 5 3 , against $ 8 8 ,3 6 3 7 9 , for the same period in 1845 ; and there is every reason to believe that the receipts for the current year w ill exceed tw o hundred thousand dollars. 316 Journal o f M ining and Manufactures. JOURNAL OF MINING AND MANUFACTURES. S IL V E R M IN E S O F T h ese A L M A D E N , IN S P A IN . mines have now attained a depth o f about 3 0 0 varas, (nearly 8 0 0 feet English,) in the seventh or deepest level o f the w orks; and herl the ore presents no apparent al teration in quality, or diminution in breadth o f the im m ense veins in which it is contain ed. Notwithstanding all difficulties, political, pecuniary, sanitary, m echanical, chemical, and incendiary, (for the m ines have been on fire for thirty months together,) their pro duce has been steadily increasin g; and, although it only averaged 2 ,5 0 0 quintals in the year3 intervening between 164 6 and 1 7 0 0 , it has now risen to 2 2 ,0 0 0 . It was calcu lated, in 183 9 , when the produce had only attained to 2 0 ,5 0 0 quintals, that, during the 1 9 3 years these m ines had been conducted on account o f the Spanish government, there had been .£ 5 5 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 sterling worth o f silver, coined and uncoined, brought into circu lation, and into the markets o f Europe ; counting not only that produced by the process o f an ^lgam ation in South A m erica, but that also obtained in Germ any by the instru mentality o f the mercury supplied from A lm ad en to the emperor o f A ustria. T h e value o f the mercury obtained in 1 8 4 1 , from A lm ad en , amounted nearly to 2 5 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 reals, delivered to the contractors at the price o f $>54 2 5 per quintal; but o f this sum something more than one-fourth is returned to these m ines to pay the costs o f production; so that not much more than 1 8 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 reals, (about £ 1 8 0 ,0 0 0 ,) are available in the shape o f revenue to the Spanish governm ent. T h e cost is, certainly, much greater than it would be if improved machinery were employed. ticular, severe and expensive. A T h e labor o f unwatering the m ine is, in par grand reservoir has been form ed in the rock in the fifth level, and into thi3 the water o f the lower levels is elevated by hand-pumps, at an expense o f manual labor o f 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 reals per annum, although the elevation o f this g e neral receptacle above the greatest depth is only 110 varas. It is then pumped to the surface by a single-stroke steam -engine, the annual cost o f which performance is reckon ed at 6 0 ,0 0 0 reals, ( £ 6 0 0 sterling.) T h is engine is constructed in imitation o f W a t t ’s first engine, with various subsequent additions, which are the very reverse o f im prove m ents ; and which, by som e miracle, found its w ay to A lm ad en in the year 1 7 9 9 , having been, probably, rejected thirty years before in England. It is an im m ense, lumbering, counterpoise affair, with a long cooling-pipe betw een the boiler and the cylinder, and no valve between, so that the principle o f expansion cannot be applied. T h e condenser sends forth the water nearly boiling hot, which is no wonder, seeing that its valve has no governor, and no connection with the m oving machinery. In consequence, the boiler takes exactly double the fuel requisite to raise the quantity o f water from the mine that it ought to do ; and the engine, calculated to be forty-two horse power, only does the w ork o f twenty and a half. B esides these motive powers, steam and manual, there is an establishment o f from thirty-five to forty excellent m ules, which are kept constantly at w ork, eight at once, in drawing up the ore by a very rude w heel capstan, the friction o f w hich is so great, that the animals can only work three hours in the twenty-four. There is no water-power available to m ove machinery in these m ines, but there has been very little care bestowed to render any o f the mechanical powers available for the abridgment o f labor. E ven the ore, which is brought up from the deep sinkings by mules, at the rate o f 3 ,5 0 0 arrobas (2 5 lbs. each) per day o f twelve hours, is all drawn to the furnaces by oxen, in rude carros, without the slightest aid from a railway. C O A L M IN E S O F P R U S S IA . Prussia possesses 5 4 0 coal m ines, giving employment to 1 2 .0 0 0 workm en. T h e pro duce in 1 8 4 4 amounted to 5 3 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 cw t., or a value o f $ 4 ,5 0 0 ,0 0 0 , (£ 6 7 5 ,0 0 0 .) Journal o f M ining and M anufactures . M ANUFACTURE OF C AB LES AN D CORDAGE A T 317 M A N IL L A . W e find in the Friend o f China and H ong K on g Gazette, the following account o f the establishment o f a manufactory o f cables and cordage at M anilla, by an Am erican. “ W e are truly glad,” says the G azette, “ to observe and applaud any attempt to open up the abounding resources o f the Philippine Islands.” T h e article is translated from an in telligent correspondent residing at Manilla. European arts and industry have, hitherto, been almost unknown in the Philippine Islands. O f late, an attempt has been made to introduce them, and it is much to be wished that this first enterprise m ay be successful, as i f so, there is little doubt that other individuals will be disposed to engage in undertakings which may develop the great, but very imperfectly know n resources o f these rich islands. A n Am erican, named M r. O ’ K eating, has lately established in the environs o f M anilla a manufactory o f cables and cordage, from the native hemp, (Abaca,) upon the most im proved system now in use in E n gland and xVmerica. After having passed several years at M anilla, and collected all the information necessary for the execution o f his project, M r. O ’K eating returned to the United States, in order to procure the necessary apparatus and machinery. H e brought from Boston a high pres sure steam -engine, o f thirty horse power, with all the requisites for dressing the hemp and converting it into rope. T h e factory is situated on the banks o f the Passig, near the village o f Nactajan, about three miles from Manilla. T h e first floor is occupied with the dressing machines, three o f which are cylinders o f wood, covered with points o f iron o f about two inches in length, distant from each other about in ch es; these first open the fibre o f the hemp, which then passes to another m achine, under a cylinder o f much larger diameter, o f which the points (cards) are much smaller, and placed close together. Th ese separate the fibres o f the hemp into a thread much finer, and divest them o f the w oody or useless particles. A fter this preparation, the hemp passes betw een tw o iron cylinders, which compresses it very strongly; from thence, it is conducted to a smaller machine, which gives the first twist, and winds it on a bobbin o f about six inches diameter. T h e dimensions o f the cord are increased or diminished by means o f an iron screw which adjusts the diameter o f the hole (through which the fibres pass) to the required size. T h e ropery is a building eight hundred feet in length, built entirely o f Am erican timber, with a shed at each extremity ; in the one farthest from the house is the rack upon which the bobbins are ranged. E igh t or ten bobbins o f hemp suffice to make a cable o f a large size. T w elv e or fifteen m ay be made at a time. T h e strings o f the bobbins pass through round holes, pierced in a plate o f brass,-having an octagonal form fixed on another rack (ratclier) perpendicular to the line o f the ropery. T h e mass o f strings or strands are united together by an iron hook, which is fixed on a carriage with a double catch, drawn by the steam -engine o f a railway. T h e engine is high pressure, on a construction re markably simple. T h is manufactory was begun in M a y , 184 2 . T h e article produced is very superior to that made by hand, and in strength and durability, there is no comparison between the tw o articles. It should be said that, by this machinery, the hemp is better cleaned o f its woody and useless parts, which, whilst it improves the cordage, considerably increases the cost from the greater loss o f material in this process. A t present, the steam cordage sells at eight dollars per picu l; the ordinary kind, at six and a half dollars. About sixteen piculs can be produced daily. T h e cost o f the raw material is four dol lars per picul. N early forty natives are em ployed, whose average daily pay is about thirty-eight cents. T h e engine fuel is w ood, which costs $ 1 . 2 5 the talaxan — contents seventy-tw o cubic feet. W OOLLEN M A N U F A C T U R E S IN TURKEY. Information has been received in England from N e w L eeds, Iznim itz, on the shores o f the Black Sea, in reference to the woollen manufactory which was com m enced up wards o f ten years ago by the Turkish government, under the m anagem ent o f a L eeds gentleman. H ere the present Sultan has, at very great cost, built a woollen factory. The undertaking has proved successful, and the gentlem an who went from L e ed s to conduct it has received the unqualified approval o f the Sublime Porte, as w ell as som e valuable tokens o f the estimation in which he is held. 318 Journal o f M ining and Manufactures. U N IT E D STATES P A T E N T O F F IC E , IN 1845 . T h e annual report o f the Com m issioner o f Patents, for the year 184 5 , (m ade in com pliance with an act o f Congress, entitled, “ A n act in addition to the act to promote the progress o f science and the useful arts,” approved March 3d , 1 8 3 7 ,) was laid before Congress, February 24th, 1 8 4 6 . It is quite voluminous, covering 1,3 7 6 pages, and em braces a vast amount o f information, alike valuable to the manufacturer, farmer and m e chanic. It altogether affords abundant evidence o f the fitness for the station he so ably fills, o f the new commissioner o f patents, the H on. E B u r k e , o f which, indeed, dmund from his industrious habits and w ell-kn ow n character for intelligence, w e never enter tained a doubt. T h e progress o f inventive genius in this country is truly remarkable. T h e w hole number o f applicants for patents received at the office, during the year 184 5 , was 1 ,2 4 6 ; and the whole number o f caveats filed, during the same tim e, 4 5 2 — the nu m ber issued, 5 0 2 , including six re-issues, six additional improvements, and seventeen de signs. During the same period, 4 7 0 patents have expired. T h e business o f the office, from Jan. 1, 1 8 4 0 , to D ecem ber 3 1 , 1 8 4 5 , has greatly increased. In 1 8 4 0 , the number o f applicants for patents was 7 6 5 , and during the year 1 8 4 5 , they amounted to 1 ,2 4 6 , nearly doubling since 1840 . T h e applications o f 1 8 4 5 exceeded those o f any previous year, except 1 8 4 4 ,3 9 9 ; and the number o f caveats filed, 1 37. T h e receipts o f the office, for the year 1 8 4 5 , from all sources, amounted to $ 5 1 ,0 7 6 .1 4 ; o f which sum , $ 8 ,2 2 3 .3 3 w as paid on applications withdrawn. T h e expenses o f the office, during the sam e period, amounted in the w hole to $ 3 1 ,1 7 2 .3 2 ; leaving a nett balance o f $ 1 1 ,6 8 0 .4 9 , to be cred ited to the patent fund. T h e letter o f M r. Burke, communicating the report to Congress, contains many valuable suggestions for im proving the condition o f the office, which are deserving the attention o f Congress. TRANSPARENT M ALLEABLE GLASS. T h e Mercure Segusien speaks o f a marvellous invention which has come to light with in the walls o f St. Etienne— the production o f a sort o f glass, as malleable when cold as while red h o t T h e M oniteur des A rts says, in reporting i t :— “ T h is new m etal, w hich, ere long, will be o f more value than gold, and which the inventor has called silicon, is o f white color, very sonorous, and as brilliant and transparent as crystal. It can be ob tained, with equal ease, opaque or colored ; combines with various substances, and some o f these combinations produce shades o f extraordinary beauty. very ductile, very malleable, and neither air nor acids affect it. It is without sm ell, It can be blown like glass, m elted, or stretched out into lon g threads o f perfect regularity. I t is hard, very tough, and possesses the qualities o f molten steel in the very highest degree, without re quiring to be tempered by the existing process, which, as it is well know n, offers no cer tainty— while the result o f the new method is sure. A variety o f objects have been manufactured with this silicon, which are about to be submitted to public exhibition at the place o f the H otel de V ille, at St. E tien ne. M A N U F A C T U R E O F S IL K IN NEW ENGLAND. In 1 8 4 2 , in six towns in Massachusetts, and four in Connecticut, the quantity o f silk manufactured amounted to only 5 ,2 6 4 po u n d s; in 1 8 4 5 , the sam e towns manufactured silk to the amount o f 4 7 ,1 2 0 pounds— o f w hich, Canton made 5 ,2 0 0 ; Boston, 3 ,9 0 0 ; D edham , 5 , 2 0 0 ; South W obu rn , 3 ,9 0 0 ; N eedham , 1 ,3 0 0 ; Northam pton, 6 , 5 0 0 ; all in M assachusetts; and in Connecticut, M ansfield made 1 3 ,4 2 0 ; W ellin gton , 3 ,8 0 0 ; M a n chester, 2 ,6 0 0 , and W in d so r, 1 ,3 0 0 . T h e increase in these towns from 1 841 to 184 5 , was 4 1 ,8 5 6 pounds in favor o f last y e a r ; nearly 8 0 0 per cent. 319 Journal o f M ining and Manufactures. CONCENTRATED EXTRACT OF M A L T AN D H OPS. F e w m odem inventions are likely to prove a greater source o f public benefit than this important patented article, which is now being extensively manufactured in London by a com pany established solely for that purpose. I t is a thick, straw-colored, saccharine es sence, and has only to be dissolved in hot water, and fermented, to afford fine home brewed ale. A ll the inconvenience, waste, loss o f time, and uncertainty attending the old method, w hen using the malt direct, for fam ily brewing, is avoided. B y this compact and cleanly process, one or more butts o f beer m ay be got ready for fermentation within half an hour. T h ose w ho know the medicinal virtues o f malt and hops w ill, no doubt, avail themselves o f this efficient m eans o f obtaining a glass o f fresh wort at pleasure. It is well said that brewers are their ow n doctors, such is the efficacy o f sw eet wort to in vigorate a declining constitution. LAKE S U P E R IO R C O P P E R M IN E S . It appears from reports from the Ordnance Department, submitted to a committee o f the H ouse o f Representatives o f the United States, that there have been employed, since 1 8 4 3 , in the L ake Superior copper mining region, seventeen agents and other officers, at the expense o f $ 1 2 ,8 9 5 63 for salaries, and $ 1 6 ,9 0 7 3 8 for contingent expenses ; m ak in g the aggregate sum o f $ 3 2 ,8 0 5 0 1 , and the receipts for rents, up to April 7th, 184 6 , are $ 1 9 2 2 2 . T h a t there have been granted 6 0 leases o f three square miles, and 2 2 4 o f one m ile, m aking an area o f 7 6 4 square miles under lease, on the 30th o f M arch. In addition to those leases, 1 5 5 others are now prepared and sent to the parties for execution, an d 2 4 3 permits are yet out. IR O N M IN E S O F G E O R G IA . T h e Baltimore Am erican says that inexhaustible beds o f iron ore exist in Cass county, G a ., and that the quality o f the metal manufactured from it has been tested, and pro nounced very superior for foundry purposes. T h e A m erican adds that the furnace is on the cold-blast principle, and produces iron at almost the same cost as the sam e description o f furnaces in Pennsylvania. It has connected w ith it a forge, which m akes a superior quality o f bloom and bar-iron; and the proprietors have it in contemplation to erect a rolling-m ill, to be driven by the abundant w ater-pow er which now drives their forge. The H on. M ark A . Cooper, formerly a representative in Congress from Georgia, is largely in terested in the undertaking, and it promises to yield a much better return for the capital and labor expended than m any o f the operations in gold-m ining in that State. THE TUSCAN STRAW B R A ID E R . T h is extraordinary m achine, recently invented by Elisha Fitzgerald, an ingenious m e chanic o f N e w Y o r k city, is so small and beautiful that it would be an ornament to a parlor, and so simple in its managem ent that a child could attend a dozen or twenty of th em w ith ease. H aving a quantity o f the short straws which are imported from T u s cany put into a receptacle, it selects one at a tim e, and adds it to the braid, at the sam e time cutting off the refuse end o f the one whose place it supplies, and forms the braid, with its iron fingers, m uch better than could ever be done by the most experienced braider in T uscany, and with such speed that one machine would do m ore w ork in a day than fifteen or twenty operatives. I f a straw is too large, the machine rejects i t ; and i f by any accident a straw is m issed, it stops o f itself. 320 Railroad and Steamboat Statistics. RAILROAD AND STEAMBOAT STATISTICS. B R IT IS H In M A IL ST E A M E R S B E T W E E N L IV E R P O O L A N D BOSTON. an article on the “ Progressive W e a lth and Com m erce o f Boston,” in the M er chants’ M agazine for July, 184 6 , prepared chiefly from the report o f L em uel Shattuck, E sq ., under the direction o f the city authorities, w e gave a summary o f voyages, average length, passengers to and from Boston, Liverpool, and H alifax— (see Merchants’ M aga zine, V o l. X I V ., page 3 9 .) W e now subjoin, (for record and reference,) the particulars o f each voyage from the com m encem ent, to January 1, 184 6 . STATEMENT OF THE VOYAGES MADE B Y THE BRITISH MAIL STEAMERS, FROM THEIR COM MENCEMENT, TO JANUARY 1, 1 8 4 6 , SHOWING THE DATE OF ARRIVAL, LENGTH OF PASSAGE, PASSENGERS BROUGHT, ETC. PASSENGERS FROM N am es. Unicorn,......... B rita n n ia ,,... A c a d ia ,.......... B ritan n ia,,... Caledonia,™. A c a d i a ,......... B ritan n ia,.... Caledonia,.... A c a d i a ,......... T im e o f arrival. L ’ th o f pass’ ge. 1840. d. h' June 3 July 18 A u g . 17 Sept. 18 O ct 3 17 N ov. 3 19 D ec. 21 18 14 . 8 H a lifa x . PASSENGERS TO L iv e r - L e f t at pool. H a lifa x . T im e o f departure. H a lifa x . L iv e r p ool. 1810. 12 12 12 13 26 18 20 24 48 63 50 39 52 13 15 17 11 52 16 19 40 73 135 441 10 9 5 75 80 38 51 50 31 42 46 29 42 47 60 78 75 70 80 93 55 34 32 6 50 7 — — — 296 1 ,1 5 8 445 243 871 12 12 12 13 13 9 . 8 . . T o ta l,... June 10 Aug. 1 Sept. 1 Oct. I 16 N ov. 1 D ec. 1 Jan. 2 Feb. 1 40 19 6 17 7 13 9 40 18 48 48 45 43 42 62 135 346 4 7 13 16 11 4 18 19 8 28 14 25 8 33 69 51 79 83 43 69 62 59 38 44 19 32 61 35 14 12 15 12 1841. 16 17 15 18 15 16 14 13 . 12 5 12 . . 12 12 C o lu m b ia,.... B ritan n ia,.... C aledonia,.... A cadia,........... C o lu m b ia ,.... B ritan n ia,.... C aledonia,.... A c a d ia ,.......... Columbia, . .. B rita n n ia ,.... C aledon ia,.... A cadia,........... C olu m b ia ,.... B rita n n ia ,.... C aled on ia,... A cadia,........... C o lu m b ia ,,... B rita n n ia ,.... C aled on ia,. .. A cadia,........... Jan. 21 F e b . 22 M ar. 2 0 A p ril 7 19 M ay 6 19 June 2 17 July 3 17 Aug. 2 19 Sept. 2 18 Oct. 5 7 18 7 14 13 13 16 15 17 14 18 C o l u m b i a ,.... 21 16 21 21 N ov. D ec. 19 36 3 18 9 6 18 10 10 12 12 13 12 13 . 12 12 16 12 18 . 18 . 6 12 6 7 12 25 27 19 16 20 M ar. 4 8 28 30 56 36 19 25 21 27 April M ay June July Aug. 12 25 35 33 20 7 34 8 Sept. O ct. N ov. D ec. 10 2 16 1 17 1 16 1 16 1 17 1 16 1 16 2 16 1 16 1 20 7 14 15 17 13 3 6 6 16 1842. — T o t a l,... — Jan. 1 20 Railroad and Steamboat Statistics , 321 STATEMENT— CONTINUED. PA8SKNGKRS FROM Names. Time of arrival. L ’ th of pass’ge. Halifax. 1842. d. h. B ritan nia,.... U nicorn,*...... U nicorn,........ Unicorn,........ B r ita n n ia ,... C a le d o n ia ,.. A c a d ia ,........... C o lu m b ia ,... B r ita n n ia ,... C aledon ia,... A cad ia,........... C o lu m b ia ,... B r ita n n ia ,... Caledonia,.... A c a d ia ,.......... C olu m bia,.... B ritan n ia,.... Caledonia,.... A cad ia,........... C o lu m b ia ,... Jan. 22 Feb. 27 M ar. 11 27 April 20 M ay 5 21 Jane 2 18 July 5 21 Aug. 1 19 Sept. 2 18 Oct. 4 18 JNov. 2 17 D ec. fi 18 2 2 2 14 15 16 13 14 15 15 12 14 13 14 13 13 13 12 16 . . . 12 12 12 8 12 18 16 6 12 9 12 . 12 18 18 12 12 18 7 . Britannia....... 21 17 . PASSENGERS TO Liver Left at pool. Halifax. Time of departure. Feb. M ar. 77 a 7 7 10 5 10 5 6 12 15 13 12 7 9 11 3 7 52 35 31 29 31 10 35 35 35 29 64 67 41 61 64 32 43 18 "8 4 13 42 19 9 12 22 17 11 22 10 23 7 14 4 8 9 7 29 6 April M ay June July Aug. Sept. O ct. N ov. D ec. Hali fax. Liver 12 7 29 6 4 8 11 6 9 11 19 18 19 19 18 10 4 6 12 2 5 8 13 35 31 20 46 45 40 10 25 26 22 25 14 8 18 17 1 1 15 2 1 16 1 16 2 16 1 16 1 17 1 16 1 16 2 16 pool. 1848. - ---------- T o t a l,... 171 818 Jan. 1 . 271 8 2 — ■ 202 446 3 2 10 12 8 15 3 12 6 12 4 9 26 14 36 70 50 56 60 69 20 38 42 37 32 42 20 26 18 28 13 1841. Caledonia,.... A cadia,........... C olu m bia,.. . B ritan nia,.... H ib e r n ia ,.. . Caledonia,.... A c a d ia ,........... C o lu m b ia ,!... H ib e r n ia ,.... C aledon ia,.... A c a d ia ,........... H ib e r n ia ,.... B ritan n ia,.... C aledon ia,. .. A c a d ia ,........... H ib e r n ia ,.... B ritan n ia,.... Caledonia, ... A c a d ia ,........... Jan. Feb. M ar. Ap ril M ay June July Aug. Sept Oct. N ov. D ec. 25 19 20 19 4 19 1 18 3 17 2 17 3 20 3 18 4 20 6 20 14 15 14 14 14 12 14 13 13 14 13 14 14 13 14 16 15 17 12 . 12 9 12 6 12 . . . . 6 12 12 3 . . 12 . 5 8 4 20 14 18 4 8 9 3 2 3 8 9 4 7 7 10 4 36 29 49 43 83 48 32 24 64 66 59 64 61 70 35 89 79 55 35 2 9 20 24 25 10 13 18 9 8 10 15 18 14 10 8 3 2 20 15 . 8 48 2 ... Feb. M ar. Ap ril M ay June July Aug. Sept O ct. N ov. D ec. 2 1 2 1 16 1 16 1 15 1 16 1 16 1 16 1 16 1 16 7 6 6 2 2 3 1844. H ib e r n ia ,.... — T o t a l,... 155 1,0 6 9 — 220 Jan. 12 1 — 41 — 134 738 * In February and M arch, 1 8 4 2 , the Unicorn made three voyages— the first from H ali fax, to take the mail, in consequence o f the non-arrival o f the Caledonia from L iverpool; the second, to take the mail and passengers o f the Acadia, stopped at H alifax to refit; and the third, with the passengers o f the Columbia, which left Liverpool on the 4th, and arrived at Halifax after a passage of 2 0 days, 15 hours, t T h e Columbia was wrecked in July, on Black L ed ge, near Seal Island. VOL. XV.--- NO. III. 21 322 Railroad and Steamboat Statistics. STATEMENT— CONTINUED. PASSENGERS FROM N am es. T im e o f arrival. 1844. B ritan n ia,*.. H ib e r n ia ,.... C aledon ia,... A cadia,........... H ib e r n ia ,.... B ritan nia,.... C aled on ia,... A cad ia,.......... B ritan n ia,.... H ib e r n ia ,.... C aledon ia,... A c a d ia ,........... H ib e r n ia ,.... B ritan nia,.... C a le d on ia,... A c a d ia ,.......... H ibernia,...... B ritan nia,.... C aledon ia,... Jan. Feb. M ar. Ap ril M ay June July Aug. Sept. O ct. L ’ th o f H a li- pass’ge. PASSENGERS TO fax. L iv e r - L e ft at pool. H a lifa x . T im e o f departure. 14 10 16 5 11 1 9 13 9 5 10 22 19 15 10 18 12 8 6 61 76 42 73 75 40 61 58 73 102 81 77 98 75 80 68 94 44 35 Feb. M ar. A p ril M ay N ov. 2 D e c. 22 7 16 13 17 17 16 13 12 14 13 12 13 14 12 12 13 16 14 16 17 21 12 ... ... . .. 12 15 12 10 9 ... . .. ... 12 14 . .. 10 12 15 L iv e r pool- 7 8 7 9 8 4 18 12 13 17 10 4 12 11 9 12 2 2 ... 48 32 78 84 68 67 93 65 57 50 38 45 32 38 51 21 40 38 24 11 56 176 1,0 2 5 4 5 13 21 20 10 19 17 11 5 11 7 1 5 35 30 115 57 101 65 65 66 86 22 84 38 38 62 77 49 28 67 57 5 67 211 1,2 0 9 1844. d. h. 21 19 22 21 5 18 1 19 3 17 1 18 1 17 3 20 H a lifax. 15 5 9 19 31 10 11 7 8 9 10 32 22 14 8 16 8 6 3 3 1 1 1 16 1 16 1 16 1 16 1 16 1 16 1 16 1 16 June July Aug. Sept. Oct. N ov. D e c. 1845. A cadia,........... 21 16 12 T o ta l,... 10 55 223 1 ,3 6 8 245 13 13 16 27 6 13 18 16 16 17 8 25 32 18 11 13 11 5 23 78 70 52 63 98 46 59 61 67 66 97 95 86 74 72 86 105 72 73 2 5 306 Jan. 1 1845. C a m b ria ,. . . H ib e r n ia ,.... Cambria, . . . . C aledon ia,... H ibernia,___ B ritan nia,,... C a m b ria ,. . . . C a le d o n ia ,.. A cad ia,.......... B r ita n n ia ,... C am b ria,. . . . H ib e r n ia ,.... C aledon ia,... B ritan nia,.... C am b ria,. . . . H ibernia,...... C a le d o n ia ,... B r ita n n ia ,... C a m b ria ,. . . Jan. F eb. M ar. April M ay June July A ug. Sept O ct. 24 19 18 21 6 19 1 19 2 19 30 17 3 19 2 19 N ov. 3 20 D ec. 5 19 14 13 16 16 14 12 14 13 14 11 12 14 14 13 14 14 16 15 12 12 11 12 8 12 4 18 ... 12 4 ... 12 13 . .. 8 12 ... . .. 13 44 22 21 31 2 22 5 Feb. M ar. Ap ril M ay June July Aug. Sept 9 18 23 9 8 11 D ec. 72 5 Jan. 1 ,4 9 2 245 O ct. N ov. 1 1 1 1 16 1 16 1 16 1 16 1 16 1 16 1 15 2 16 11 11 17 10 8 1846. A c a d ia ,.......... T o t a l,.. 19 14 12 1 * In the month o f February, 184 4 , the Britannia w as detained tw o days by ice in B o s ton harbor, and did not depart until an artificial channel had been cut, for seven m iles, by the citizens. 323 Railroad and Steamboat Statistics. THE N E W S T E A M B O A T A T L A N T IC , OF THE NORWICH AND WORCESTER RAILROAD AND STEAMBOAT COMPANY. T h e progress o f steam since its first practical application by Fulton to the navigation o f the H udson River, is very rem arkable; and the improvements made in steamboat ar chitecture as regards strength, splendor, and speed, still more so. Every new steamer launched upon our waters seems to have reached the very acme o f perfection, which, indeed, now appears to be almost attained in the steamer “ A tlantic,” which made an e x perimental excursion in the harbor and bay o f N e w Y o r k , on the 15th Au gust, 1 8 4 6 , and her first regular trip to N orw ich, on the 18th o f the sam e month. W e had the pleasure o f witnessing her performance in the excursion alluded to, in company with som e ten or eleven hundred ladies and g en tlem en ; and it affords us pleasure to state that it was entirely satisfactory in every respect, and we have no hesitation in saying that she will sustain a high rank am ong the m any excellent steamers that ply between N e w Y o rk and other ports on the Hudson River and the L o n g Island Sound. T h e Atlantic is the largest steamer built in the United States, being 3 2 0 feet in length, 36 feet beam inside, and 64 feet over the guards. H er engines are o f 1,3 7 3 horse power— the cylinder 72 inches in diameter, and 11 feet stroke. She measures 1,400 tons. wrought iron, the former being 18£ inches in diameter. ameter, with a surface o f 9 feet. T h e cranks and shafts are o f T h e wheels are 3 6 feet in di T h e Atlantic possesses one advantage over all other boats in the port o f N e w Y o r k , and probably in the world, which will commend her to the travelling community ; and that is, the security afforded by a water-tight bulkhead of oak, six inches thick, which is built across, 4 4 feet from the stem, that, if by any possible chance she should be run on a rock, and knock her bow in, it would not be cause for the least alarm, for no water could reach the body o f the boat. * But in case even that should fail, there is one other provision on board which shows the care and forethought o f those w ho have been so liberal o f their means in building this boat. There are one hundred mattresses on board, each o f which is supplied with six six-inch air-tight cylinders, each capable o f supporting two large men. Th ese cylinders are so disposed that they can be reached at an instant’s warning, and thus sixteen hundred infallible life-preservers are constantly at hand. She combines, in an em inent degree, both / beau ty and stren g th , and but little doubt is entertained o f her power to cross the Atlantic Ocean with perfect safety. She has been built under the immediate personal inspection o f Capt. I s a a c who has commanded at times, the “ Clifton,” “ Lexington,” “ N e w D ust a n , H aven ,” “ Cleopatra,” & c ., and navigated the waters o f N e w Y o rk and elsewhere, more than eleven hundred thou sand miles. Capt. Dustan has a head, i f we may be allowed to speak phrenologically, the prominent developments o f which are strikingly manifested in the construction of this noble boat. T h e large benevolence, cautiousness, ideality , and form , are discovered in the various appointments in furnishing and constructing, as described in the present notice, which have been faithfully carried out by the mechanics and artists employed in building. A n d here we should not omit to mention that she was built by Bishop & S i m onson. T h e engines are from the workshop o f Secor &c C o.; the joiner work by C. M . Sim on son ; the painting by W m . H o lm e s ; the upholstery by M r. D e F o reest; the furniture, curtains, & c., from Paton & C o., and the silver plating, which alone cost upward o f $ 1 ,6 0 0 dollars, from Coombs & Anderson. T h e entire cost o f the boat, fix tures, and furniture, amounts to $ 1 4 5 ,0 0 0 . T h e interior arrangements are in perfect keeping with the more substantial qualities o f strength and safety evinced in the construction. T h e ladies’ upper saloon, with sixty berths, is richly and tastefully finished, and furnished with the most costly Axm inster carpets, rose-wood and satin-damask sofas and chairs, magnificent satin-damask curtains, gilded cornices, superb mirrors, and, in short, everything to gratify the taste and comfort 324 Railroad and Steamboat Statistics. o f the fair traveller. T h e ladies’ low er saloon contains twenty berths, and the gentle m en’ s one hundred and ninety-one berths, furnished with the best o f bedding, while, by a new arrangement in hanging the drapery, each tier o f berths can be at once converted into an airy, but secluded state-room. T h e upper saloon contains fifty-six single state room s, with two berths each, and six double, with French bedsteads, all magnificently fur nished. She is lighted by gas, manufactured on board, in a room on the main deck ap propriated to that purpose. Bathing rooms are furnished, where the passengers m ay en jo y warm or cold, fresh or salt water, shower or plunge bath s; and the convenience and comfort o f the passengers have been consulted, in the most private arrangements, as we have never seen them before. Our description o f the boat is necessarily imperfect, but we feel quite sure that all who exam ine her will find our statements more than realized. A personal acquaintance with her worthy commander, Capt. Dustan, enables us to speak o f him as he is— as one o f the most experienced, benevolent, (in the latter term is comprehended courteous,) offi cers in the steam service in, or out, o f any port on the Atlantic sea-board. R ATES OF FARE ON R A IL R O A D S IN NEW ENGLAND. W e give below a tabular statement o f the rates o f toll on the principal railroads in Massachusetts, M aine, and Rhode Island. T h e table shows the distance, price o f annual and semi-annual tickets, and single passage tickets. T h e plan o f low fares originated in Boston, and it is in a good measure ow ing to the enlightened advocacy o f the policy by E. H asket D erby, E sq ., that it has been adopted. W e believe that still larger reductions can be made with enhanced benefit to stockholders and the public. BOSTON AND MAINE RAILROAD. Miles. Boston to M a ld en ,.............. North M alden,. South Reading, R e a d in g ,............ W ilm in g to n ,... Andover............. Haverhill,........... One year. 5 7 10 12 16 23 32 $35 40 45 50 60 80 100 Six months. Three months. Single ticket. 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 $19 22 24 27 33 40 50 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 $10 12 13 15 18 20 25 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 15 cents. 20 “ 25 “ 30 “ 40 “ 60 “ 85 “ Single ticket. BOSTON AND PROVIDENCE RAILROAD. Miles. One year. Six months. 4 11 14 $ 2 5 00 50 00 ......... ......... $ 2 7 50 35 00 Boston to Jamaica Plain......................... D edh am ,..................................... C a n to n ,....................................... 12£ cents. 25 “ 40 “ BOSTON AND WORCESTER RAILROAD. Miles. One year. 5 9 13 $ 3 5 00 40 00 50 0 0 Boston to B righton,.. N ew to w n ,. N eedham ,. Six months. Three months. $23 25 30 00 00 00 $ 1 5 00 16 00 2 2 00 Single ticket. notascertained. BOSTON AND LOWELL RAILROAD. Miles. B oston to L o w e l l , . . . . .................. 26 Six months. Three months. Single ticket. $ 6 5 00 $ 3 2 50 65 cents, and in sam e proportion for less distances. EASTERN RAILROAD. Boston to L y n n ,.................. Salem ,................ Ipswich,.............. Miles. One year. Six months. 9 13 24 $ 5 0 00 75 00 100 0 0 $ 3 5 00 50 00 75 00 Three months. Single ticket. $ 2 0 00 30 00 4 5 00 2 5 cents 40 “ notascert’ d. On the Eastern Railroad, single tickets by the quantity may be purchased at the fol low in g rates o f discount:— 325 Railroad and Steamboat Statistics, 100 to 2 0 0 tickets,........................ 2 0 0 to 3 0 0 “ ........................ 3 0 0 to 4 0 0 “ ........................ .............. .............. 5 0 0 to 6 0 0 “ 25 33J 40 45 ........................ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ A season ticket entitles the purchaser on all these roads to two passages a day, and, o f course, is not transferable. B y comparing the prices above mentioned, it will be seen that the price of a single passage to a person having a season ticket, is from one-half to one-quarter o f the ordinary rate. T h ese companies have found it to be their best policy to put their prices low , and that the reduction o f the fare has been followed by an in crease o f travel, more than sufficient to compensate the loss on each ticket. O n the L ow ell railroad, the price o f single tickets was formerly one dollar, but it has been gradu ally lowered, till now it is but sixty-five cents, and so on the other roads. W e unite with a correspondent o f the Baltimore Am erican, in expressing a hope that the example o f the Bostonians will be followed, and that a reduction will shortly be made on the lines o f all our railroads, not only with respect to passengers, but to all articles o f merchandise ; that the local travel will be supported and encouraged ; for the result can not fail to be greatly beneficial to the railroad companies throughout the country. H UD SO N AND B E R K S H IR E R A IL R O A D . T h is road extends from the city o f H udson, N . Y . , to W e s t Stockbridge, M ass., and connects at that place, and also at Chatham , with the W estern Railroad to Boston and A lbany, and the Housatonic Railroad. September, 183 8 . It was chartered in April, 183 2 , and opened in T h e length o f the road is 31 m iles, and the original cost o f construct ing the whole distance, including outfit, & c ., was $ 5 7 5 ,6 1 3 . According to the report o f the Company to the last Legislature o f N e w Y o rk , it appears that the whole number o f through and way passengers transported over it in 1 845 was 17,989. Y o r k loaned the company $ 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 o f State stock. T h e State o f N e w T h is road has never paid a dividend to its stockholders, its receipts only enabling the Company to keep the road in repair, and pay the interest on the $ 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 borrowed o f the State. T h e completion o f the Albany and W e s t Stockbridge road, in 1 8 4 2 , which forms a link in the Great W estern Road be tw een Boston and Buffalo, has turned the travel in that direction to Albany, instead o f Hudson. Considerable freight, however, passes over the road ; the income o f which, in 1 8 4 5 , amounted to $ 2 7 ,5 7 2 . T h e H udson and Berkshire road forms the most direct and shortest route for summer travel from N e w Y o r k city, and indeed all the towns on the river below Hudson, to N e w Lebanon Springs, one o f the most delightful watering-places in the U nited States. B y this route, the traveller can leave N e w Y o r k at seven o’ clock every morning, by the steamer “ T roy” or “ N iagara,” and reach Hudson at three o’ clock, P. M ., where the cars o f the Hudson and Berkshire Railroad are in waiting to carry him to “ Edwards’ D epot,” 2 8 miles from Hudson, and about 8 miles from the Springs, where ■the Railroad Com pany have in readiness a line o f stage-coaches, with careful drivers and fleet horses, that in an hour reach N e w Lebanon Springs. T h e Hudson and Berkshire Com pany have recently placed upon their road elegant and commodious cars, o f T roy manufacture ; and, although the flat rail is at present in use on this road, w e venture to say that no line is conducted with more care. Indeed, as evidence o f this, it may be stated that, from its first opening, in 1 8 3 8 , not a single passenger has lost his life upon it, or been otherwise injured. M r. H olm es, the engineer, is a most faithful, capable, and experienced officer; and we have never met w ith more careful or attentive conductors. 326 Commercial Statistics. COMMERCIAL C O M M E R C IA L STATISTICS. S T A T IS T IC S O F T H E U N IT E D STATES. MANUFACTURES OF WOOL. A statement exhibiting the value o f manufactures o f Wool imported into the United States, from 1821 to 1 8 4 5 , inclusive. Years. 1 821.......... 1 8 2 2 ,........ 1 82 3 ,........ 1 8 2 4 ,........ 1 82 5 ,........ 1 826.......... 1 8 2 7 ,........ 1 8 2 8 ,........ 1 82 9 ,........ 1 830.......... 1 8 3 1 ,........ 1 83 2 ,........ 1833.......... 1 83 4 .......... 1 835.......... 1 83 6 ,........ 1837.......... 1 8 3 8 ,........ 1 83 9 ,........ 1 8 4 0 ,........ 1 8 4 1 ,........ 1 842.......... 1 84 3 ,........ 1 8 4 4 ,........ 1 84 5 ,........ Cloths, merino shawls, &c. $ 5 ,0 3 8 ,2 5 5 8,491,935 5,844,068 5,202,009 5 ,264,562 4 ,546,714 4,285,413 4,3 1 5,71 4 3,335,994 2.854,339 6,121,442 5,101,841 6,133,443 4,364,340 7,048,334 8,945,509 3,015,783 5,348,928 7,361,373 4,823,138 5,042,045 4,1 8 0,87 5 1,398,064 5,049,474 5,638,167 Blankets. $ 4 3 4 ,2 5 6 991,147 604,896 526,023 891,197 527,784 703,477 624,239 455 ,46 7 594,044 1,180,478 602,796 1,165,260 1,068,065 1,865,344 2 ,397,822 959,814 946,546 1,356,086 570,417 691,895 566,233 2 01,454 1,004,826 998,914 Hosiery, gloves, in its, &c. $ 1 9 8 ,7 8 3 433,309 314,605 317,778 369,747 189,993 376,927 365,339 230 ,98 6 133,453 325,856 260,563 463,348 383,977 652,680 700,530 177,092 356,965 1,037,096 506,452 471,877 375.297 61,073 662,905 741,242 Worst, staffs. $ 1 ,7 6 6 ,4 4 3 2 ,269,513 1,504,469 2,158,680 2 ,2 7 7,48 6 1,143,166 1,382,875 1,446,146 1,600,622 1,397,545 3,392,037 2,6 1 5,12 4 4,281,309 5.055,021 6,548,278 6,669,312 3 ,350,266 3,9 3 3,45 5 7,025,898 2,3 8 7,33 8 3 ,712,206 2 ,366,122 456,051 1,835,875 1,938,109 STATEMENT— CONTINUED. Years. 1821, 1822 1823, 1 8 2 4 ,........ 1 8 2 5 ,........ 1 82 6 ,........ 1 8 2 7 ,........ 1 8 2 8 ,........ 1 8 2 9 ,........ 1 8 3 0 ,........ 1831,........ 1 83 2 ,........ 1 83 3 ,........ 1 8 3 4 ....... 1 83 5 ,........ 1 8 3 6 ,........ 1 83 7 ,........ 1838,........ 1 8 3 9 ,........ 1 8 4 0 ,........ 1 8 4 1 ,........ 1 84 2 ,........ 1 84 3 ,........ 1844,........ 1 84 5 ,........ W o o l l e n and w orsted yarn. $ 1 0 2 ,7 1 9 166,507 262,515 212,706 172,462 136,689 368,958 104,738 158,224 217,611 60,961 159,020 187,975 C arpeting. $ 3 7 ,8 3 4 515,391 545,148 511,186 581,946 3 2 3 ,2 5 4 201,649 421,099 557,775 319,592 396,868 603,084 964,655 623,101 315,353 612,607 338,501 345,488 242,309 181,810 289,475 431,914 F la n n e ls an d baizes. $ 1 ,0 6 5 ,6 0 9 586,823 587,250 667,722 383,208 266,060 695,666 503,193 286,299 240,663 399,785 475,712 111,249 159,979 291,373 118,715 184,911 90,289 37,449 78,009 176,387 A l l other m a n . o f w o o l. $ 1 4 4 ,2 7 3 1,008^272 892,346 895,573 678,399 551,958 319,306 490,651 351,132 510,539 203,787 453,404 713,757 90,525 315,005 5 22,554 221,885 395,293 336.989 75,292 396,178 553,468 Tot. value o f man. o f wool. $ 7 ,4 3 7 ,7 3 7 12,185,904 8,2 6 8,03 8 8,386,597 11,392,264 8,4 3 1,97 4 8,742,701 8 ,679,505 6,881,489 5,766,396 12,627,229 9 ,992,424 13,262,509 11,879,328 17,834,424 21,080,003 8,5 0 0,29 2 11,512,920 18,575,945 9,071,184 11,001,939 8,375,725 2,4 7 2,15 4 9,475,762 10,666,176 % 327 Commercial Statistics. TABULAE STATEMENT EXHIBITING THE VALUE OP IMPORTS, AND ALSO THE AMOUNT OP TONNAGE EMPLOYED IN FOREIGN TRADE ANNUALLY, FROM 1821 TO 1845. TONNAGE. VALUE OF IMPORTS. A m erican vessels. Year. 1 8 2 1 ,........ $ 6 2 ,5 8 5 ,7 2 4 1 82 2 ......... 83,241,541 1 8 2 3 ,........ 77,579,267 1 82 4 ,........ 8 0,549,007 1825, ..................... 96,340,075 1826, ..................... 84,974,477 1 8 2 7 ,........ 79,484,068 1 8 2 8 ,........ 88,509,824 1 82 9 ,........ 74,492,527 1 8 3 0 ,........ 70,876,920 1831,........ 103,191,124 1 832,........ 101,029,266 1 8 3 3 ,........ 108,118,311 1 83 4 ,........ 126,521,332 1 8 3 5 ,........ 149,895,742 1 83 6 ,........ 189,980,035 1 837,........ 140,989,217 1 838,........ 113,717,404 1 83 9 ,........ 162,092,132 1 8 4 0 ,........ 107,141,519 1 8 4 1 ,........ 127,946,177 1842,........ 100,162,087 1 843.......... 64,753,799 1 844.......... 108,435,035 1845,........ 117,254,564 C leared. 804,947 813,748 810,761 919,278 960,366 953,012 980,542 897,404 944,799 971,760 972,504 974,865 1,142,160 1,134,020 1,400,517 1,315,523 1,266,602 1,408,761 1,477,928 1,647,009 1,634,156 1,536,451 1,268,083 2,010,924 2,053,977 E ntered. 765,098 787,961 775,271 850,033 880,754 942,206 918,361 . 868,381 872,949 967,227 922,952 949,622 1,111,441 1,074,670 1,352,653 1,255,384 1,299,720 1,302,974 1,491,279 1,576,946 1,631,909 1,510,111 1,143,523 1,977,438 2,035,486 F oreign vessels. Entered. 83,073 81,526 97,490 100,541 119,468 119,740 102,552 102,367 95,080 92,927 99,417 105,654 131,250 137,589 151,030 150,223 133,006 130,743 133,436 131,900 271 ,99 4 281,948 393,038 387,505 4 9 6 ,7 0 5 497,039 568,052 577,700 630,824 641,310 674,721 680,213 765,703 756,292 592,110 604,166 624,814 611,839 706,486 712,363 736,849 736,444 732,775 740,497 534,752 523,949 906,814 916,992 910,563 930,275 C leared. MANUFACTURES OF COTTON. A statement exhibiting the value o f manufactures o f Cotton imported into the United States, from 1821 to 1 8 4 5 , inclusive. Y ea r. D y e d or colored. W h ite . 1 8 2 1 , $ 4 ,3 6 6 ,4 0 7 $ 2 ,5 1 1 ,4 0 5 5 ,8 5 6 ,7 6 3 182 2 , 2 ,9 5 1 ,6 2 7 182 3 , 4 ,8 9 9 ,4 9 9 2 ,6 3 6 ,8 1 3 1824, 5 ,7 7 6 ,2 1 0 2 ,3 5 4 .5 4 0 182 5 , 7 ,7 0 9 ,8 3 0 3 ,3 2 6 ,2 0 8 1826 , 5 ,0 5 6 ,7 2 5 2 ,2 6 0 ,0 2 4 5 ,3 1 6 ,5 4 6 2 ,5 8 4 ,9 9 4 182 7 , 2 ,4 5 1 ,3 1 6 182 8 , 6 ,1 3 3 ,8 4 4 1829, 2 ,2 4 2 ,8 0 5 4 ,4 0 4 ,0 7 8 183 0 , 4 ,3 5 6 ,6 7 5 2 ,4 8 7 ,8 0 4 1831, 1 0 ,0 4 6 ,5 0 0 4 ,2 8 5 ,1 7 5 183 2 , 6 ,3 5 5 ,4 7 5 2 ,2 5 8 ,6 7 2 1833 , 1 ,1 8 1 ,5 1 2 5 ,1 8 1 ,6 4 7 1834, 6 ,6 6 8 ,8 2 3 1 ,7 6 6 ,4 8 2 183 5 , 1 0 ,6 1 0 ,7 2 2 2 ,7 3 8 ,4 9 3 183 6 , 1 2 ,1 9 2 ,9 8 0 2 ,7 6 6 ,7 8 7 1837, 7 ,0 8 7 ,2 7 0 1 ,6 1 1 .3 9 8 183 8 , 4 ,2 1 7 ,5 5 1 9 8 0 ,1 4 2 183 9 , 9 ,2 1 6 ,0 0 0 2 ,1 5 4 ,9 3 1 1840, 3 ,8 9 3 ,6 9 4 9 1 7 ,1 0 1 184 1 , 7 ,4 3 4 ,7 2 7 1 ,5 7 3 ,5 0 5 1842, 6 ,1 6 8 ,5 4 4 1 ,2 8 5 ,8 9 4 184 3 , 1 ,7 3 9 ,3 1 8 3 9 3 ,1 0 5 1844, 8 ,8 9 4 ,2 1 9 1 ,6 7 0 ,7 6 9 1845, 8 ,5 7 2 ,5 4 6 1 ,8 2 3 ,4 5 1 H o sier y , T w is t , g l’ ves, m its y a r n , a n d & bindings, th read. N an keen s, from C h in a . $ 198,783 $ 1 5 1 ,1 3 8 $ 3 6 1 ,9 7 8 1 8 1 ,8 4 3 ' 8 2 3 ,3 6 5 4 3 3 ,3 0 9 1 0 3 ,2 5 9 6 0 0 ,7 0 0 3 1 4 ,6 0 6 140,0 6 9 3 8 7 ,5 1 4 188 ,6 3 3 5 4 5 ,9 1 5 2 0 1 ,5 4 9 3 5 0 ,2 4 3 3 0 4 ,9 8 0 4 0 4 ,8 7 0 175 ,1 4 3 4 3 9 ,7 7 3 2 6 3 ,7 7 2 2 5 6 ,2 2 1 6 4 0 ,3 6 0 3 4 4 ,0 4 0 3 8 8 ,2 3 1 5 8 6 ,9 9 7 173 ,1 2 0 5 4 2 ,1 7 9 3 8 7 ,4 5 4 1 7 2 ,7 8 5 2 2 8 ,2 3 3 8 8 7 ,9 5 7 3 9 3 ,4 1 4 1 1 4 ,0 7 8 1 ,0 3 5 ,5 1 3 3 1 6 ,1 2 2 1 2 0 ,6 2 9 623 .3 6 9 343,0593 7 ,0 0 1 7 4 9 ,3 5 6 3 7 9 ,7 9 3 4 7 ,3 3 7 9 0 6 ,3 6 9 5 4 4 ,4 7 3 9,021 1 ,3 5 8 ,6 0 8 5 5 5 ,2 9 0 2 8 ,3 4 8 1 ,2 6 7 ,2 6 7 3 5 ,9 9 0 4 0 4 ,6 0 3 7 6 7 ,8 5 6 2 7 ,0 4 9 2 2 2 ,1 1 4 3,7 7 2 1 ,8 7 9 ,7 8 3 7 7 9 ,0 0 4 1,1 0 2 7 9 2 ,0 7 8 3 8 7 ,0 9 5 217 9 8 0 ,6 3 9 8 6 3 ,1 3 0 1,027 ,6 2 1 53 4 5 7 ,9 1 7 3 0 7 ,2 4 3 2 6 ,2 2 7 1 ,1 2 1 ,4 6 0 6 3 7 ,0 0 6 1 ,3 2 6 ,6 3 1 5 6 5 ,7 6 9 A r ticle s n o t sp e citied. $ 4 8 ,7 9 1 3 7 5 ,7 7 1 1 4 6 ,2 9 2 4 5 4 ,8 4 7 1 ,0 3 8 ,4 7 9 4 1 2 ,8 3 8 2 2 9 ,3 7 5 3 6 3 ,1 0 2 3 1 3 ,2 4 2 2 9 3 ,8 6 1 5 3 3 ,3 9 0 5 5 8 ,5 0 7 9 7 4 ,0 7 4 7 4 4 ,3 1 3 3 8 4 ,6 1 8 8 7 4 ,6 9 1 5 1 3 ,4 1 4 9 0 4 ,8 1 8 6 3 8 ,4 8 6 4 9 2 ,9 0 3 1 ,3 1 8 ,0 2 4 1 ,5 7 4 ,8 8 5 T o ta l. ',5 8 9 ,7 1 1 1 0 ,2 4 6 ,9 0 7 8 ,5 5 4 ,8 7 7 8 ,8 9 5 ,7 5 7 1 2 ,5 0 9 ,5 1 6 8 ,3 4 8 ,0 3 4 9 ,3 1 6 ,1 5 3 1 0 ,9 9 6 ,2 7 0 8 ,3 6 2 ,0 1 7 7 ,8 6 2 ,3 2 6 1 6 ,0 9 0 ,2 2 4 1 0 ,3 9 9 ,6 5 3 7 ,6 6 0 ,4 4 9 1 0 ,1 4 5 ,1 8 1 1 5 ,3 6 7 ,5 8 5 1 7 ,8 7 6 ,0 8 7 1 1 ,1 5 0 ,8 4 1 6 ,5 9 9 ,3 3 0 1 4 ,9 0 8 ,1 8 1 6 ,5 0 4 ,4 8 4 1 1 ,7 5 7 ,0 3 6 9 ,5 7 8 ,5 1 5 2 ,9 5 8 ,7 9 6 1 3 ,6 4 1 ,4 7 8 1 3 ,8 6 3 ,2 8 2 328 Commercial Statistics. MANUFACTURES OF IR O N AND STEEL. A statement exhibiting the value o f manufactures o f Iron , and Iron and Steel, imported into the United States, from 1821 to 1 8 4 5 , inclusive. Y e a rs . P a y in g d u ties ad v a lo re m . P a yin g spe cific du tie s. 182 1 , 1822, 1823, 182 4 , 182 5 , 1826, 182 7 , 182 8 , 1829, 1830, 1831 , 1832, 183 3 , $ 1 ,6 3 0 ,1 2 9 2 ,7 6 7 ,7 5 7 2 ,5 6 8 ,8 4 2 2 ,5 0 5 ,2 9 1 3 ,3 1 2 ,7 5 8 2 ,8 3 1 ,3 3 3 3 ,5 2 5 ,4 3 3 3 ,5 5 9 ,9 8 2 3 ,1 0 0 ,6 3 0 3 ,3 7 2 ,1 4 6 4 ,3 5 8 ,9 2 1 4 ,6 9 7 ,5 1 2 3 ,3 6 1 ,5 8 2 $ 2 3 8 ,4 0 0 3 8 7 ,8 1 8 3 9 8 ,2 7 9 3 2 6 ,4 1 1 3 9 3 ,6 5 8 3 5 5 ,1 5 2 4 4 8 ,1 5 4 6 2 0 ,9 3 3 3 3 0 ,2 7 8 2 8 3 ,7 0 2 4 6 8 ,9 1 2 608 ,7 3 3 7 7 3 ,8 5 5 Total. $ 1 ,8 6 8 ,5 2 9 3 ,1 5 5 ,1 7 5 2 ,9 6 7 ,1 2 1 2 ,8 3 1 ,7 0 2 3 ,7 0 6 ,4 1 6 3 ,1 8 6 ,4 8 5 3 ,9 7 3 ,5 8 7 4 ,1 8 0 ,9 1 5 3,43.0,908 3 ,6 5 5 .8 4 8 4 ,8 2 7 ,8 3 3 5 ,3 0 6 ,2 4 5 4 ,1 3 5 ,4 3 7 Y ea rs. P ayin g duties ad valorem . P a y in g sp e cific d u ties. 1834 , 1835, 1836, 1837 , 1838, 1839, 1840 , 1841 , 1842, 1843 , 1844 , 1845 , $ 4 ,0 9 0 ,6 2 1 4 ,8 2 7 ,4 6 1 7 ,0 0 1 ,4 0 4 5 ,4 8 8 ,3 1 1 3 ,0 6 9 ,5 0 7 5 ,5 8 5 ,0 6 3 2 ,5 7 5 ,2 2 9 3 ,4 2 8 ,1 4 0 2 ,9 1 9 ,4 9 8 7 3 4 ,7 3 7 2 ,7 8 2 ,1 3 7 4 ,1 6 9 ,7 4 5 $ 6 5 6 ,0 0 0 5 2 4 ,1 5 5 8 7 9 ,4 6 5 1 ,0 3 8 ,3 8 2 5 4 3 ,7 7 9 9 2 2 ,4 4 7 609 ,6 7 1 8 2 7 ,8 2 0 6 5 2 ,5 8 3 2 7 7 ,3 4 9 5 3 1 ,6 5 9 9 0 8 ,0 4 3 UNMANUFACTURED IR O N AND Total. $ 4 ,7 4 6 ,6 2 1 5 ,3 5 1 ,6 1 6 7 ,8 8 0 ,8 6 9 6 ,5 2 6 ,6 9 3 3 ,6 1 3 ,2 8 6 6 ,5 0 7 ,5 1 0 3 ,1 8 4 ,9 0 0 4 ,2 5 5 ,9 6 0 3 ,5 7 2 ,0 8 1 1 ,0 1 2 ,0 8 6 3 ,3 1 3 ,7 9 6 5 ,0 7 7 ,7 8 8 STEEL. A statement exhibiting the value o f unmanufactured Iron and Steel imported into the United Stales, from 1821 to 184 5 , inclusive. Y ears. B ar, m a n u f ’ d by rolling. 1821 , 1822, 1823 , 1824, 1825 , 1826, 1827, 1828, 1829, 1830, 183 1 , 183 2 , 183 3 , 183 4 , 183 5 , 183 6 , 183 7 , 1838 , 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842, 1843 , 1844, 1845, $ 1 ,2 1 3 ,0 4 1 1 ,8 6 4 ,8 6 8 1 ,8 9 1 ,6 3 5 9 6 2 ,8 9 7 2 2 4 ,4 9 7 2 2 3 ,2 5 9 3 4 7 ,7 9 2 4 4 1 ,0 0 0 1 1 9 ,3 2 6 2 2 6 ,3 3 6 5 4 4 ,6 6 4 7 0 1 ,5 4 9 1 ,0 0 2 ,7 5 0 1 ,1 8 7 ,2 3 6 1 ,0 5 0 ,1 5 2 2 ,1 3 1 ,8 2 8 2 ,5 7 3 ,3 6 7 1 ,8 2 5 ,1 2 1 3 ,1 8 1 ,1 8 0 1 ,7 0 7 ,6 4 9 2 ,1 7 2 ,2 7 8 2 ,0 5 3 ,4 5 3 5 1 1 ,2 8 2 1 ,0 6 5 ,5 8 2 1 ,6 9 1 ,7 4 8 Bar, m a n u f’ d o th e rw ise. $ 4 8 3 ,6 8 6 1 ,5 6 2 ,1 4 6 1 ,5 9 0 ,3 5 0 1 ,3 2 3 ,7 4 9 2 ,1 4 1 ,1 7 8 1 ,8 8 4 ,0 4 9 1 ,7 3 0 ,3 7 5 1 ,2 6 0 ,1 6 6 1 ,9 2 9 ,4 9 3 1 .8 3 7 ,4 7 3 1 ,7 4 2 ,8 8 3 1 ,6 4 1 ,3 5 9 1 ,8 9 1 ,2 1 4 2 ,0 1 7 ,3 4 6 1 ,1 6 6 ,1 9 6 2 ,0 5 4 ,0 9 4 1 ,6 8 9 ,8 3 1 1 ,6 1 4 ,6 1 9 1 ,0 4 1 ,4 1 0 3 2 7 ,5 5 0 5 8 3 ,0 6 5 8 7 2 ,1 5 7 Pig iron. $ 3 ,4 4 4 3 6 ,5 1 3 6 7 ,0 0 4 4 6 ,8 8 1 9 3 ,0 2 5 2 8 ,8 1 1 2 5 ,6 4 4 160 ,6 8 1 2 2 2 ,3 0 3 2 1 7 ,6 6 8 2 7 0 ,3 2 5 2 8 9 ,7 7 9 2 7 2 ,9 7 8 4 2 2 ,9 2 9 3 1 9 ,0 9 9 2 8 5 .3 0 0 114 ,5 6 2 2 2 3 ,2 2 8 2 0 5 ,2 8 4 4 8 ,2 5 1 2 0 0 ,5 2 2 5 0 6 ,2 9 1 P R O D U C T IO N S A N D Old & scrap iron. S te e l. T o ta l v a lu e . $ 2 4 ,0 3 5 3 3 ,2 4 3 1 1 ,6 0 9 2 8 ,2 2 4 18,391 7 ,5 6 7 10,161 1 5,749 1 0 ,5 3 7 8 ,2 0 7 2 ,7 4 3 4 3 ,3 9 6 1 1 9 ,7 4 0 $ 1 3 1 ,2 9 1 1 8 9 ,6 1 3 2 2 4 ,5 9 5 2 3 6 ,4 0 5 2 9 1 ,5 1 5 3 8 4 ,2 3 5 3 1 0 ,1 9 7 4 3 0 ,4 2 5 2 8 9 ,8 3 1 2 9 1 ,2 5 7 3 9 9 ,6 3 5 6 4 5 ,5 1 0 5 2 3 ,1 1 6 5 5 4 ,1 5 0 5 7 6 ,9 8 8 686 ,1 4 1 8 0 4 ,8 1 7 4 8 7 ,3 3 4 7 7 1 ,8 0 4 5 2 8 ,7 1 6 609,201 5 9 7 ,3 1 7 2 0 1 ,7 7 2 4 8 7 ,4 6 2 7 7 5 ,6 7 5 $ 1 ,3 4 4 ,3 3 2 2 ,0 5 4 ,4 8 1 2 ,1 1 6 ,2 3 0 1 ,6 8 6 ,4 3 2 2 ,1 1 4 ,6 7 1 2 ,2 6 4 ,8 4 8 2 ,0 2 8 ,6 1 9 3 ,1 0 5 ,6 2 8 2 ,3 2 2 ,0 1 7 2 ,2 7 3 ,6 1 2 2 ,3 6 5 ,1 4 6 3 ,4 9 8 ,8 5 5 3 ,6 0 5 ,0 4 2 3 ,7 8 7 ,8 3 7 3 ,5 6 9 ,8 8 7 5 ,0 1 0 ,3 8 5 5 ,8 3 6 ,8 5 0 3 ,8 0 5 ,3 1 7 6 ,3 0 2 ,5 3 9 4 ,0 5 6 ,5 0 7 4 ,6 2 9 ,8 6 3 3 ,9 9 5 ,6 7 1 1 ,0 9 1 ,5 9 8 2 ,3 8 0 ,0 2 7 3 ,9 6 5 ,6 1 1 EXPO RTS OF JAVA. “ A t the present tim e,” says the London (E n g.) Econom ist, “ when the abolition o f the protective principle has been adopted with respect to m any o f our British products, both home and colonial, and w hen an extension o f those principles must shortly lead to their further application, especially in the colonies, it cannot fail to be in the highest degree in teresting to observe what has been the progress o f cultivation in the unprotected colonies o f H olland. In H olland, no protective duty whatever is imposed in favor o f the produc tions o f the colonies. T h e sugar and coffee o f Brazil and Cuba, and the indigo o f India, are imported exactly on the same terms as the produce o f Java. There is a difference o f d u t y in favor o f D utch ships, and o f those with w hom H olland has treaties o f navigation, 329 Commercial Statistics, but none in regard to produce. T h is distinction has, however, in som e instances, been mistaken for a protective duty. A little reflection w ill show that it is not so. Java sugar is imported into H olland at a lower duty in a D utch ship, than in a foreign ship, not be longing to a country having a treaty o f reciprocity, but the sam e duties precisely are chargeable on sugar, the produce o f Brazil or Cuba, imported in Dutch or foreign ships respectively.” T h e follow ing table shows the quantity o f produce o f each kind exported from Java in each year since 183 6 , under those circumstances o f open competition:— EXPORTATIONS FROM JAVA FROM 1 8 3 6 TO 184 5 , INCLUSIVE. A r tic le s . C o ffe e, ................................... .picols S u g a r,................................ R ice,.................................... In d igo ,............................... T i n ,.................................... .picols Rattans,............................. Pepper,.............................. H id es,................................. pieces A rrac,................................ ..pipes N u tm e g s, ........................... . picols M a c e , ..................................... C loves,............................... T e a , ........................................ C ochineal, ........................... Sapan w ood ,.....................picols 1847. 1836. 4 9 8 ,0 7 7 5 0 9 ,5 1 3 1 ,0 9 2 ,9 0 0 4 0 7 ,1 0 0 4 7 ,7 3 9 4 9 ,9 6 8 7 ,0 7 6 1 2 9 ,0 0 0 4 ,4 7 7 3 ,8 8 6 990 2 ,1 8 5 6 8 4 ,9 4 7 6 7 6 ,0 8 5 1 ,0 0 3 ,5 5 0 8 2 2 ,4 9 2 4 4 ,4 5 7 .33,539 1 4 ,4 8 7 9 3 ,0 0 0 1,603 5 ,0 2 2 1,213 2 ,9 2 5 1818. 1819. 5 9 ,0 0 0 7 3 5 ,0 0 0 9 5 0 ,0 0 0 7 4 3 ,0 0 0 1 4,513 3 5 ,3 6 0 8 ,5 7 7 7 1 ,0 0 0 2 ,9 5 4 5 ,8 3 0 1,5 0 0 2 ,9 1 2 7 5 7 ,4 7 6 8 7 1 ,7 4 7 1 ,1 1 2 ,0 0 0 1 ,1 9 6 ,6 3 6 4 7 ,6 3 1 4 0 ,0 6 8 1 1 ,0 3 4 1 3 0 ,0 0 0 4 ,2 6 1 5 ,0 2 6 1,580 4 ,3 3 4 1840. 1 ,1 3 2 .1 2 4 1 ,0 2 4 ,4 9 3 6 8 0 ,9 0 9 2 ,1 2 3 ,9 1 1 6 2 ,3 3 4 2 8 ,0 3 2 9,9 1 1 1 1 0 ,4 9 4 5 ,2 6 1 3 ,6 0 0 870 53 ... TABLE---- CONTINUED. 1841. C o ffe e ,................................ S u g a r,................................. R ic e ,.................................... Ind igo,............................... T i n ,.................................... . Rattans,............................. P epper,.............................. H id e s,................................ .pieces Arrac,................................ N u tm egs,........................... M a ce,.................................. C lov es,............................... T e a ,.................................... ■Cochineal............................ Sapan w ood, ..................... .picols 1842. 9 6 1 ,4 6 6 1 ,0 1 3 ,8 5 4 8 8 4 ,6 8 5 1 ,0 4 6 ,5 7 8 6 7 6 ,2 1 2 8 8 4 ,1 5 7 1 ,8 2 7 ,3 8 6 1 ,6 2 7 ,4 3 7 4 8 ,3 3 9 6 9 ,1 2 7 3 7 ,0 1 7 3 6 ,5 9 4 1 3 ,2 4 5 10,441 1 2 0 ,0 7 4 1 6 7 ,6 7 7 4 ,6 7 0 4 ,6 6 8 5 ,1 2 5 5 ,1 2 9 1,171 1,4 3 2 7 ,6 0 0 1,7 1 8 ... 1841. 1S44. 1845. 1 ,0 1 8 ,1 0 2 9 2 9 ,7 6 9 1 ,0 0 8 ,7 7 4 1 ,8 9 0 ,1 2 9 4 5 ,7 0 5 7 3 ,5 3 5 2 3 ,0 8 3 1 5 2 ,3 1 0 6,362 2,11.3 486 2 ,0 2 7 1 ,2 3 9 ,9 3 5 1 ,0 0 8 ,6 3 2 7 8 5 ,2 7 6 1 ,6 4 8 ,5 2 0 6 8 ,7 2 9 7 3 ,6 0 0 1 2 ,4 8 4 1 5 6 ,2 2 4 6 ,2 5 8 8,131 2 ,3 0 0 2 ,8 0 0 1 ,0 0 5 ,7 5 0 1 ,4 5 0 ,0 0 0 4 4 7 ,4 5 0 1 ,6 5 3 ,7 0 0 7 4 ,4 0 0 5 0 ,6 2 5 1 1,445 1 0 5 ,7 8 0 4 ,8 5 8 3 ,4 2 5 826 2 ,2 3 5 4 4 5 ,0 0 0 8 2 ,4 2 0 5 ,6 5 0 ... N o t e .— T h e exports o f Tea , Cochineal, :and Sapan wood, for the years 1 8 3 6 to 184 4 , inclusive, are unknown. T h e crops o f 1 8 4 5 and 184 6 look most favorable, and promise m ost abundant, as re gards every article, according to the letters o f the 30th o f M arch. A picol, though strictly only 1 3 3 J lbs., is calculated at Batavia at 1 3 6 lbs. If, however, w e go hack ten years m ore, to 1826 , we find the comparisons are still more striking. T h e follow ing were the quantities o f the most important articles o f produce.exported in 182 6 , an d as above in 184 5 :— 1828. Sugar,..................................................................cwL C offee,....................................................................:lbIn d ig o ,......................................................... .lb . R ic e ,.................................................................... cw t. T i n ,.................... do. C lov es,....................................................................lb. 2 3 ,5 6 5 4 5 ,3 4 1 ,2 0 0 1 0 ,2 1 0 1 8 8 ,6 5 6 1 6 ,4 3 5 7 2,221 1815. 1 ,7 6 0 ,7 1 4 1 3 6 ,7 8 0 ,6 4 0 1 ,6 5 3 ,7 0 0 5 4 3 ,3 3 1 9 0 ,3 2 1 3 0 3 ,9 6 0 In 182 6 , the article o f tea w as not even know n as an export, or as a product o f the island. 330 Mercantile Miscellanies. MERCANTILE MISCELLANIES. T H E P O L IC Y O F IM P R IS O N M E N T T he FOR D EB T. judgm ent o f all the great moral writers o f the age has condemned the practice o f imprisonment for de b t; all experience is against i t ; there is not a jailer or a turnkey that ever closed the door on a prisoner who will not confess its inefficacy ; w e will say nothing o f the denunciations o f the Scriptures against those w ho oppress and trample on the poor and the unfortunate, because in this so-called Christian country, Christian principles are al ways disregarded when any question relating to the m aking o f money is to be considered ; but w e will speak o f it only as a matter o f expediency; not as a mattdr o f religion, or o f charity, or o f justice, or o f humanity, but merely as a m atter o f exp ediency; and we con tend that, viewed only in respect to its unprofitable operation on the commnnity, inasmuch as it prevents a vast number o f people from adding by their labors to the general wealth o f the country, imprisonment for debt is statistically an inexpedient practice. It cannot be defended as a punishment, because, when plainly stated in that light, it cannot be allowed that punishment should be inflicted before crime be proved, and no one can have the hardihood to say that the bare circumstance o f a person not being able to pay his debt makes his failure crim inal; because if he were to be considered criminal, it would follow that because the default o f A prevented B from paying C , that therefore B , w ho was pre vented, not by his own fault, but by the default o f A , from paying C , was a criminal de serving o f punishm ent! a conclusion w hich, when thus stated, is too absurd for any sane man to assent to. But the actual operation o f the law is to punish the innocent m an B , for the failure o f the other m an A ,: an injustice so monstrous, that, from its injustice alone, it is a matter o f am azement how such a law can be persevered in, as it still is, in several o f our democratic States 1 B ut, seeing the sure and certain progress o f reform, w e are led to hope that m en will be wise at last, and place the question upon its proper footin g; and com e, in the end, to see that it is exceedingly prejudicial to the community at large, to strip one o f its mem bers o f all that he possesses, and to turn him houseless, naked, and friendless, into the streets 1 C IN C IN N A T I M E R C A N T IL E L IB R A R Y R O O M S. A late number o f the Cincinnati Com m ercial Chronicle furnishes the following de scription o f the new rooms recently fitted up in that city for the use o f the Mercantile L i brary Association:— T h e new rooms, in the college, o f the M ercantile Library Society, were opened to the public last evening. T h e fitting up, order, arrangement, and tout ensemble are admirable. T h e library is placed in alcoves, classified by subjects, m aking the books easy to reach, on any topic. In the reading room, the papers are all fired on beautiful black walnut desks, marked with the name o f the State or city where the papers are issued. T h e desks are much more convenient than those-we saw in the Atlantic cities. T h e rooms are very handsomely carpeted, hung with chandeliers, and adorned with many fine specimens o f the arts. T h e portrait o f C h a r l e s H a m m o n d , very properly, is placed at the head o f the reading room. T h a t o f G e n e r a l H a r r i s o n is at the head o f the library. T h e large E x c h a n g e r o o m w e hope w ill be occupied for the purpose intended. It would be strange i f so m any and so intelligent a body o f merchants as are now in Cincinnati, could not sustain an exchange. O n the whole, w e have seen nothing in the country established w ith more just perceptions o f its object, and with more promise o f success, than the Mercantile Library rooms o f Cincinnati. T h e institution confers the highest credit upon its officers and members, and upon the liberality o f the mercantile community. T h e so ciety now numbers seven hundred members ; and w e hope it m ay prove a strong attrac tion to young merchants. Mercantile Miscellanies, A LARGE AND 331 L IB E R A L M E R C H A N T . M r . ------------ followed up his business with an energy and an ardor which were rem ark able, even am ong the merchants o f London. whole earth was embraced in his speculations. T h e seas were covered with his ships ; the H is name was familiar am ong merchants over all the g lo b e ; and his signature to an obligation was as current in value as the coin ed money o f a crowned king. H is income more resembled the revenue’ o f a state than the incom e o f a private gentleman ; and by the influence o f his wealth, he was a power in himself, to which the governments o f kingdom s paid deference, and to whom they ap plied in their pecuniary emergencies as to one whose decision was able to precipitate or prolong the war or peace o f empires. W i t h all this, instead o f grow ing hard and covet ous with the increase o f wealth— an effect which it is sorrowful to observe riches too often produce— he became more kindly and affable ; his heart grew’ more compassionate towards the wants and necessities o f his fellow creatures; his benevolence increased with his m eans o f doing good ; so that it is no wonder that he was as popular am ong the poor as he was reverenced by the rich, and esteem ed by the wise and good. THE B R IT IS H M ERCHANT. T h e following picture, w e cannot say how correctly drawn, o f the British merchant, is abstracted from Chronicles o f “ T h e F leet,” by a Peripatician, which contains two in teresting stories, the “ Ruined M erchant,” and the “ T u rnk ey’s Daughter.” There certainly is no character on the face o f the earth more estimable than that o f the British merchant. H is enlarged intercourse with the world leads to an enlarged and liberal spirit o f dealing with mankind ; his necessary avocations exercise his mind in a wholesom e activity; his daily experience o f the value o f character and o f a good nam e, stimulates him to preserve them , and trains him and fixes him in habits o f truth and o f fair dealing. Liberality is his motto, charity his virtue, generosity his practice. H e is always ready to lend a helping hand to the w eak, an assisting one to the unfortunate, and to look with indulgence on the errors o f the head, when not accompanied by vices o f the heart. H is vocation, at the same time that it is one o f the most honorable in itself, is also one o f the most useful to society. H e is one o f the connecting links o f nations ; he is the great agent in the interchange o f the products o f various lands, and o f the com modities and manufactures o f different and distant countries— the distributor o f the wealth o f the world. H e is one o f the prime promoters and conservators o f peace on earth; for no one feels more strongly than he how much the good-w ill, and the civiliza tion, and the inestimable benefits which enlightened commerce brings, are marred and thrown back by the evil effects o f war. H e is the friend and the protector o f the rights o f the laboring poor, because he know s that by their labor all wealth is created. C O T T O N -P R E S S — L A R G E C A R G O E S . T h e advantages arising from the introduction o f the cotton-press, says the Savannah Georgian, were again illustrated lately in the case o f the bark G eorgia, which cleared at Savannah, for Liverpool. T h e following is the statement o f her cargo, as compared with her last, which consisted wholly o f uncompressed cotton, v iz : Present cargo, 1 ,5 8 0 bales — 6 2 4 ,2 0 0 lbs. com pressed; last cargo, 1,3 4 0 bales— 4 7 8 ,5 3 8 lbs. uncompressed. T h is shows a gain o f 2 4 0 bales, or about 1 4 5 ,6 6 2 lb s .; equal, at the present rate o f freights, to about $ 1 ,5 0 0 , which is more than sufficient to pay all the expenses o f the bark while in port, including the compressing and storing o f cargo. T h is advantage is not altogether in favor o f the ship-owner. A part o f it, and not an unimportant part, either, goes to the planter who has foresight enough to put up his cotton in square bales. S P A N IS H FLO UR IN ENGLAND. A cargo o f Spanish flour, arrived at Lerw ick, w as sold in the public rooms there, by public auction, recently, and the following prices were obtained:— First quality, 36s. per barrel o f 196 lb s.; second do., 3 1 s .; third do., 16s. per barrel o f 189 lbs. T h e vessel that brought this cargo is now taking on board a cargo o f fish for Spain, and it is expected she will soon return with more flour. 332 The Book Trade. THE BOOK T R A D E . 1.— E c c l e s i a s t i c a l R e m i n is c e n c e s o f th e U n ited S ta t e s . B y th e R e v . E dw ard W aylen , late R e ctor o f C h rist C h u r c h , R o ck v ille , M a r y la n d . 8 v o ., pp. 501. N e w Y o r k : W i l e y & P u tn am . M r. W a y l e n , th e au th or o f this w ork, visited th e U n ited States in 1834, an d th ese rem in isc e n se sa r e th e resu lt o f e le v e n years’ residen ce h ere , during w h ic h tim e h e rece iv e d Orders in th e Protestant E p isc o p a l C h u rc h , and w a s rector o f se v er a l ch u r ch e s in different sections o f th e cou n try, an d a pretty e x te n s iv e traveller in oth er parts. A ft e r taking orders in the C h u rch h ere , h e returned to h is n a tiv e co u n try ; but, n ot su cceed in g in E n g la n d in obtain in g orders, h e revisited th e U n ite d S ta tes, and resu m ed h is rectorsh ip in M a r y la n d . H e h a s fin ally returned to E n glan d , an d p u blish ed the pre sent v o lu m e , w h ic h em b races a series o f observation s relatin g to e ccle sia stica l affairs in th is cou n try, th e clerg y , a n d , in c id e n ta lly , the u su a l n otices o f m en and th in gs w h ic h v e ry n atu rally attract th e attention o f th e foreign residen t or trave lle r. M r. W . r em ark s, in h is w o r k , th at “ h is h a v in g spoken fa v o r a b ly o f th e A m e ric a n s a s a p eop le, arises from h is lon g an d in tim a te acqu ain tan ce w ith t h e m ; d uring w h ic h , h e h a s associated w ith alm o st e v e r y c la ss in th e c o m m u n ity .” “ T h e A m e ric a n s, as a race o f p e o p le ,” h e fu rther rem arks, “ in h erit m o s t o f th e good, an d are free from m a n y o f th e bad q u a lities, w h ic h d istin guish th e n ation w h e n c e th e y sp ru n g ; nor h a s th e free interm ixture o f conti n en ta l blood effected an y deterioration in th eir m en tal or p h ysical q u a litie s.” W i t h o u t a n y rem ark a b le d e p th o f observation , th e w riter g ives a ve ry fa ir and im partial sta tem e n t o f th e A m e ric a n c h a racter and in stitu tio n s; an d h e h a s m ade n o attem pt to sh a p e or adapt h is n arrative to a n y e stablish e d m o d el in th e s a m e d epartm en t o f au th o rsh ip . 2. — T h e L i f e a n d C o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f J o h n F o s t e r . E d ite d b y J . E . R yland . W i t h N o tic e s o f M r. F o ster as a P rea ch er an d a C om pan ion . B y J ohn S heppard , au th or o f “ T h o u g h ts o n D e v o tio n ,” e tc ., e tc . 2 v o ls ., 1 2 m o ., pp. 306 and 3 85 . N e w Y o r k : W i l e y & P u tn am . M r. F oster, w h o s e m em o irs and correspon dence are con tain ed in th e se v o lu m e s , is w e ll k n o w n to th e m ore serious reader, from h is ab le e s s a y o n “ D e cision o f C h a r a c t e r a w o r k o f great practical u tility , an d end u rin g m erit. T h e presen t m em oir, c h ie fly com piled from h is letters, presents, perh aps, a m ore v iv id a n d tru th fu l e xh ib ition o f ch aracter, th a n e v e n a record, b y a self-ob server, h o w e v e r fa ith fu lly in ten ded, i f com p osed after th e lapse o f y e a rs, w h e n th e e v e n ts and em otion s th e y c a lle d fo rth h a v e begun to fa d e upon th e m em o ry . M r . R y la n d , th e editor, w h o s e e m s to h a v e ch er ish e d , fro m e a rly y e a r s , sen tim en ts o f affectionate ven eration tow ards th e su b je ct o f h is m em oirs, appears to h a v e se le c te d , from th e am p le m aterials placed a t his d isp o sa l, w h a te v er w o u ld best illustrate th e in te lle c tu a l a n d m oral qu a lities, th e prin ciples an d opin ion s o f so distin guished a m a n ; an d w e are a ssu red th at “ h e h a s n ot ce n soriou sly a llo w e d th e representation to be m ou ld e d in to a co n fo rm ity to h is o w n v ie w s or con viction s, either b y om ission , on th e one h a n d , or, o n th e oth er, by givin g greater p ro m in en ce to a n y class o f sentim en ts th an th e place th e y occu p ied in M r. F o ste r’ s e stim ation w o u ld j u s t if y .” M r. F o ste r appears to h a v e dissen ted on one point, o n ly , o f d ogm atic th e o lo g y , from th e religious c o m m u n ity w ith w h ic h h e w a s m o st in tim a tely co n n e cte d ; an d th a t w a s , th e duration o f fu tu re p u n ish m e n t, w h ic h h e h a s d iscu ssed a t som e len gth , in a letter to a y o u n g m in ister. 3. — M e m o i r s a n d E s s a y s , i l l u s t r a t i v e o f J lr t , L i t e r a t u r e , a n d S o c ia l M o r a l s . B y M r s. J ameson , a u th or o f “ T h e C h aracteristics o f W o m a n ,” “ M em oirs o f F e m a le S o v e re ig n s,” “ W i n t e r S tu d ie s a n d S u m m e r R a m b le s ,” e tc . N e w Y o r k : W i l e y & P u tn a m ’s L ib rary o f C h o ice R eadin g, N o . L X I V . M r s . J a m e so n is fa v o r a b ly k n o w n to th e reading pu blic o f E n glan d and th is cou ntry a s a b e a u tifu l e s s a y is t, a n d th e presen t vo lu m e w ill n ot detract from h er p reviou sly w e ll-e a r n e d repu tation , a s a ch a ste an d vigorous w riter, an d a h e a lth fu l, i f n o t p rofoun d th in k e r. T h e presen t v o lu m e con tain s s ix papers o f in terest, a ll e vin cin g, in a rem arkable degre e , th e p e cu liar featu res o f h e r m in d , as dis p la y ed in h er form er productions. 4. — W o r k s o f th e P u r it a n D iv in e s . 1 8 m o ., pp. 2 8 6 . N e w Y o r k : W i l e y & P u tn am . T h is th ird v o lu m e o f a u n iform se ries o f w ork s w h ic h are b e in g reprodu ced in E n g la n d an d th e U n ite d S ta tes, em b race s a m em oir o f th e R e v . Joh n H o w , o n e o f th e old Pu ritan d ivin e s o f th e s e v e n te e n th century, an d a colle ction o f se v er a l o f h is m o st rem arkable discou rses and e ssays on reli g io u s su bjects, w h ic h are th u s giv e n in th e t itle -p a g e :— “ T h e R e d e e m e r ’ s T e a r s , W e p t O v e r L o s t S o u ls ; U n io n a m o n g P r o te sta n ts; C arn ality o f R e ligiou s C o n te n tio n ; M a n ’ s E n m ity to G o d ; and R e c o n c ilia tio n b e tw e e n G od an d M a n .” O n se veral a cco u n ts, w e con sider th e repu blication o f th e se old w ritings a s v a l u a b le ;— the m o st in terestin g to u s , h o w e v e r , is, th a t th e y give a v e ry good v ie w o f th e g e n iu s, p h ilo so p h y , and. th e o lo g ica l spirit o f th e age in w h ic h th eir e m in e n t a u th ors liv e d . 5. — R e s p o n s e s o n th e U s e o f T o b a c c o . B y th e R e v . B enjamin teries o f T o b a c c o ,” e tc . N ew ' Y o r k : W i l e y & P u tn am . I ngersoll L ane , au th or o f th e “ M y s A n o th e r lectu re on th e u se o f tob acco, in w h ic h th e positions a s to its deleterious in fluen ce on h e a lth are fortified b y a h o st o f letters from doctors o f m ed icin e an d d iv in ity , h on orab le legislators a n d c iv i li a n s ; m a n y o f w h o m , n o doubt, sp e ak o f its ev ils fro m exp erien ce. \ 333 The Book Trade. 6. —A Practical Treatise on Dyeing and Calico Printing, including thelatest Inventions and Improve ments : also aDescription of the Origin, Manufacture, Uses, and Chemical Properties of the various Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Substances employed in these Arts : with an Appendix, comprising Definitions of Chemical Terms ; with Tables of Weights, Measures, Thermometers, Hydrometers, be. Q-c. B y an exp erien ced D yer, assisted by se veral scientific G e n tle m e n . W i t h E n gravin gs on S te e l an d W o o d . O c ta v o , pp. 704. N e w Y ork : H arper & B ioth e rs. N o n e o f th e w o rk s on th is su b ject h eretofore pu blish ed, contain a n y im provem en ts m ad e in d ye in g sin ce 1814. T h e objects o f th e presen t w ork are th u s described by th e au th or in th e p r e fa c e : “ 1 . T o reduce the w h o le theory o f d ye in g to th e u tm o st s im p lic ity and a ccu ra cy . ‘ *2 . T o c la s s ify , arrange, and define colors, in order to e n a b le th ose w h o are pursuing th e related bran ches o f s tu d y , as w ell as the artist, to com preh en d m ore e a sily the nature o f e a c h particular h u e . tint, and sh a d e, an d th e relation it bears to th e prim ary e le m e n ts o f light, darkness, an d c«ilor. “ 3 . T o e lu c id a te e a c h particular su b ject in su ch a m an n er a s, it is h oped, w ill im part substan tial k n o w le d g e to those seek ing it, an d at the sa m e tim e ex h ib it th ose sh o a ls tow ard w h ic h so m a u y h a v e been attracted by erroneous deduction s and fa lse co n clu sion s. “ 4 . T o se t forth th e actual properties, ch aracters, and u ses o f th e variou s a n im a l, v e g e ta b le , an d m in eral su bstan ces em p lo y e d in d y e in g an d th e a u xiliary arts ; and, “ 5 . T o define th e various c h e m ic a l and te ch n ica l term s e m p lo y e d in th e d y e -h o u s e , print w ork s, & c .” T o th o se en g a g ed in d yein g an d calico printing, w e sh o u ld con sider th is w ork in d isp e n sab le. w ill lik e w ise It be u se fu l to th e m erch an t im porting or dealin g in a rticles u se d in d y e in g ; as e a ch su b sta n c e , as w e ll a s p rocess, e m p loye d in th is bran ch o f m a n u fa ctu re, r ece iv e s particular attention. 7. — The Modem British Plutarch; or, Lives of Men distinguished in the Recent History of Eng land fur their Talents, Virtues, or Achievements. B y W . C . T aylor , L L . D ., o f T r in ity C o lle g e , D u b lin , au th or o f 4* A M an u al o f A n c ie n t an d M o d e rn H isto r y ,” e tc . thers’ N e w M isc e lla n y , N o . X V I I . N e w Y o r k : H arp er &. B ro In e a rly y o u th , a n d m ore a d van ced nge, w e h a v e fou nd biograph y one o f th e m o st in terestin g and in stru ctiv e kinds o f reading. It h a s con soled u s in trou ble, encou raged u s to o v e rco m e the e v ils an d d ifficulties, an d w a rn ed u s o f th e d an gers th at b e se t ou r footsteps in th e p a th w a y o f life ; a n d , i f read ing the “ liv e s o f great m e n ” h a s n o t e nab led u s to “ m a k e o u r ^ f e s u b lim e ,” it h a s been o f m ore a d v a n ta g e to u s th an w e can w e ll describe in th is p la c e . T h e v o lu m e before u s in clu d e s com preh en s iv e biographies o f n ea rly forty m e n , w h o se n a m e s w e h ea r a lm o st d a ily , in th e course o f casu al co n v ersa tio n — o f su ch m e n , ia th e past and passing gen eration , as appear to h a v e h ad m o st in fluen ce in m o uld in g th e o p in ion s, an d sh ap in g th e d estin ies o f th e A n g lo -S a x o n r a ce, n ot o n ly in G r e a t Bri ta in , bu t in our o w n co u n try. T h e biographies are n ece ssa r ily b r ie f; bu t th e com p iler appears to h a v e s e le c te d the m o st s a lie n t traits o f ch aracter, an d d w e lt o n ly on s u c h e v e n ts a s h ad a pu blic and h istorical im p o rta n ce. T h e list e m b race s p h ilosophers, sta tesm e n , d iv in e s, au th ors, p oe ts, n a v ig a tors, in v en to rs, &.c. 8. —Life of the Rt. Hon. George Canning. “ L iv e s o f E n g lish P o e ts,” e tc . B y R obert Be l l , au th or o f “ T h e H istory o f R u ssia ,” N e w Y o r k : H arper & B rothers’ N e w M is c e lla n y , N o . X V I . F e w m en h a v e been so popu lar in th e British H o u se o f C o m m o n s a s M r. C an n in g, and still fe w e r h a v e run th eir w a y again st greater prejudices. H is pu blic life is in tim ately associated w it h th e h is tory o f th e B ritish g o v e r n m e n t; an d w e are scarcely acqu ain ted w ith th e b iograph y o f a m odern sta tesm a n m ore interesting in its d etails, or one th at w ill prove m ore in stru ctive to th ose w h o w o u ld acqu ire a k n o w le d g e o f th e civil an d political h istory o f E n g la n d during a part o f th e e ig h te en th , and first quarter o f th e presen t cen tu ry. 9. —The Expedition to Borneo of H. M. S. Dido, for the Suppression of Piracy ; with Extracts from the Journal of James Brooke, Esq., of Sarawak, (now Agent of the British Government in Borneo.) B y C a p ta in th e H o n . H enry K eppel , 11. N . N e w Y o r k : H arper &. B roth ers’ N e w M isc e lla n y . T h e v isit o f th e British sh ip D ido to Borneo, and h er se rv ices again st th e pirates, o ccu p y com para tiv e ly a s m a ll portion o f this v o lu m e o f m ore th a n fou r h un dred pages. C aptain K e p p e l procured fro m M r. B rook e h is m anu script jo u rn a l, a large portion o f w h ic h h e h a s e m b od ie d in th e present w o rk . T h e c ir cu m sta n ce s con n ected w ith B r o o k e ’ s extraordinary career a s a ruler in B orn eo, an d th e rem ark able career through w h ic h h e reach ed th at e le v a tio n , appear to be fa it h fu lly traced in this n a rra tiv e. B e sid e s th e au tobiographical sk e tch , e m b racin g so sin gu lar a portion o f h is life , extracted fro m th e n otes confided to Captain K ., it abou n ds w it h in form ation con cern in g th e n ative s, th eir h isto ry , habits, m a n n e rs, and indeed all those facts th a t g iv e v a lu e an d im part inform ation , alik e in terestin g an d u sefu l, at a tim e w h e n civilization an d co m m e r cia l enterprise are a liv e to e v e r y n e w opening for th e ex te n sio n o f th e ir in fluen ce and their operation s. — Temper and Temperament; or, Varieties of Character. E n g la n d ,” e tc ., e tc . N e w Y o r k : Harper & Broth ers. 10. B y M rs. E llis , au th or o f “ W o m e n o f T h e d esign o f th is story is e x cellen t, in asm u ch a s, in th e d elin eation o f ch aracter, referen ce is h ad to its v a rieties, and the p ecu liar requirem ents o f differen t disposition s. B u t te m p eram en t m a y be m od ified , and tem p er im p roved, by early and ju d icio u s culture— and it is th e o b je ct o f M rs. E llis to e n fo rc e the im portan ce o f a ll th ose lesson s o f w isd om th at grow o u t o f th e s u b je c t ; n ot th e le a s t o f w h ic h is, th a t c h a rity th a t en d u reth , h o p eth , an d belie v eth a ll th in gs. 334 11. The Booh Trade, —Discourses and. Reviews upon Questions in Controversial Theology and Practical Religion. O rville De w e y , D . D .. Pastor o f the C h u rch o f th e M e ssia h , in N e w Y o r k . 1 2 m o ., pp. 3 38 . By N ew Y o r k : C . S . F ra n cis & C o. T h e p resent c o lle ctio n o f D r. D e w e y con sists p artly o f discou rses n ot before pu b lish ed , an d partly o f reprints o f form er p u b lic a tio n s; the design o f w h ic h , a s stated by th e au th o r, is to give a com pre h e n s iv e rep ly to th e q u estion , “ W h a t is U n itarian isin V’ A s , h o w e v e r , u n iform ity o f faith , e x ce p t o n one or tw o p oints, in w h ic h a ll se cts agree, form s n o part o f th eir creed, w e sh o u ld suppose it w o u ld be difficult to m ake a statem en t o f b e lie f for su c h a d en om in ation . D r. D e w e y , h o w e v e r , in th e m a in , m a y be con sidered th e exp on en t o f the con servative portion o f th e U n itarian se ct, an d T h e o d o r e Parker, o f Boston, an d o th ers o f th e sam e stam p, as th e m ore radical, or tran scen dental r ep resen ta tiv es o f U n itarian C h ristian ity. “ T h e au th or’ s pu rpose, in th is v o lu m e , h a s b een , in the first p la c e, to offer a v e ry b r ie f su m m ary o f th e U n itarian b e l ie f ; in th e n ext, to la y dow n th e e ssen tial principles o f religious faith ; th ird ly, to state an d d e fen d th e U n itarian con struction o f th e C h ris tia n d o c tr in e s ; fo u rth ly , to illustrate, b y a n a lo g y , th eir v ie w s o f practical r e lig io n ; an d fin ally, to presen t th e g eneral v ie w s entertained a m on g ‘ orth odox’ U n itarian s o f th e scriptures ; o f th e grounds o f b e lie f in th e m ; o f th e nature o f th eir in spiration,” e tc. T h e ch aracteristics o f Dr. D e w e y ’ s style a r e, great vigor, fo rce, and clearn ess ; an d h is w ritings e x h ib it an apparent boldness in th e expression o f th o u g h ts an d se n tim en ts, not particu larly origin al, b u t as m u c h so , perh aps, a s “ th ou gh ts an d se n tim e n ts” on s u c h su bjects u su a lly are. n o m in a tio n , a s a ju d ic io u s expose o f O n th e w h o le , th e se discou rses w ill be con sidered, by th e d e the lead in g featu res o f th eir fa ith an d practice ; an d a s su c h , w ill be v a lu a b le to th e th e o logical inquirer. 12. — Zenobia; or, The Fall of Palmyra. A Historical Romance. In Tetters of L. Manlius Piso from Palmyra to his friend Marcus Curtius, at Rome. S ix th edition. C a b in e t L ib ra r y . N e w Y o r k : C . S . F ra n cis & C o . B oston : J. H . F ran cis. I t is h a rd ly n ec e ssa r y to com m e n d a w o r k so w e ll k n o w n a s th is. w o u ld w e ll rep a y us for th e p e ru sal. Its fin ish ed b e a u ty o f sty le B u t it h a s h igh er cla im s in its noble sen tim en ts, an d th e deep in terest atta ch ed to th e h isto rica l'ch a ra cte rs in trodu ced. Z e n o b ia , in a ll h er b e a u ty , p o w e r, an d true n o bility o f so u l, liv e s an d m o v e s before us as w e r e a d ; and th e learn in g and w isd o m o f L o n g in u s m a k e h im s e e m lik e a con qu eror, e v e n in his prison. A u r e lia n n e v e r appeared so m a je stic as th is v ic tim o f h is am bition , w h ile layin g his h e a d on th e fa ta l block. T h e au th or, R e v . H e n ry A . W a r e , h a s d on e good service for th e literature o f A m e ric a by th e production o f th is truly c la ssica l an d e le gant w ork . T h e p u blish ers w e r e w ise to in clu d e it in th e ir ch o ice L ib ra r y . —The Epicurean. A Tale. 13 By T homas M oore , E s q ., au th or o f “ L a l la R o o k h ,” e tc ., e tc . N ew Y o r k : C h a rle s S . F ran cis. T h is w e ll k n o w n and popu lar tale n o w form s on e o f “ F ran cis & C o .’ s C a b in e t L ib rary o f C h o ice P ro se an d P o e tr y .” A n y th in g like criticism , on th is w ork , w o u ld be ou t o f p la c e . It is, h o w e v e r , a h a n d so m e e d itio n ; a n d its pu blication in th e present form w ill be h ig h ly acce p ta b le to all w h o a ppre ciate th is a d m irable series o f p u blication s. — The Principles of Physiology applied to the Preservation of Health, and to the Improvement of Physical and Mental Education. B y A n drew C ombe , M . D . T o w h ic h is added N o te s an d O b 1 4. serv a tio n s b y O . S . F o w l e r , P ractical Ph ren ologist. N e w Y o r k : F o w le r & W e l ls . T h i s w o rk w a s first p u blish ed in E d inb urgh , in 1 8 3 4 -5 ; an d a t th e close o f 1838, six editions, c o n sistin g together o f e le v e n th ou san d copies, w e re sold in S cotlan d a lo n e . S e v e r a l editions h a v e been p u blish ed in th is co u n try, w h er e its circu lation h a s b e e n e v e n m ore e x te n siv e ; besid e s, it h a s been tra n sla ted in to se v er a l o f th e E u r o p e a n la n g u a g e s. T h e present edition n ot on ly e m b ra ce s num erou s a n d e x te n siv e addition s m ade b y D r. C o m b e , bu t m a n y v a lu a b le n otes and observations, th e r esu lt o f th e in d efa tig a b le labors o f M r. F o w le r , w h o se large exp erie n ce in practical ph ysiology an d p h re n o lo g y contribute m a te ria lly to th e v a lu e an d in terest o f th e w ork , and render it a ltoge th er th e best an d m o s t p e rfe c t ed ition e x ta n t. T h e design o f the w o r k is too w e ll k n o w n to require d e scrip tio n ; w e con sid er it o n e o f th e b e st in th e E n g lis h la n gu age , an d h ope to see its su ggestion s u n iv er sa lly a d o p te d . —Love and Parentage, applied to the Improvement of Offspring ; including Important Directions and Suggestions to Lovers and the. Married, concerning the Strongest Ties, and the most Sacred and Momentous Relations of Life. B y O . S . F o w le r , Practical P h renologist. 15. T h i s little w o r k , b a se d on the scie n ce o f p h ren ology, h a s alread y passed through ten edition s. The declared o bject o f M r. F o w le r is to d e v elo p th ose la w s w h ic h govern th e pure and tender p assion o f lo v e , an d a n a ly z e its fa cts— “ sh o w w h a t paren tal con ditions, p h y sica l an d m e n ta l, w ill sta m p th e m o s t fa v o ra b le im p ress on th e p rim itive organization, h e a lth , talents, virtu e, Sec., o f y e t u n cre ate d m o rta ls ; and w h a t m u st n atu ra lly e n tail p h y sica l d ise a se s, m en tal m alad ies, an d v icio u s predisposi tio n s .” T h e su b jec t is one o f serious an d absorbing in terest to th e race ; an d M r. F o w le r h ere dis c u s s e s it w ith great d e lic a c y o f fe elin g , an d in a m ann er th at can not fa il o f secu rin g th e atten tion o f th e inquirer. I t w ill, w e h a v e n o dou bt, be productive o f great good to a ll w h o m a y be guided b y its su ggestion s an d its c o u n se ls. 335 The Boole Trade. 16 . — C o n s u e lo . B y G eorge W . D . T ic k n o r & C o . Sand . In tw o v o lu m e s. T r a n s la te d b y F rancis G . S h a w . B o s to n : T h is w ork d e serv e s, m ore th a n a n y oth er w ork o f th e i se a so n , to w in the interest o f th e reading p u b lic , an d particu larly o f th a t large c la ss o f progressive m in d s w h o regard art as a great in stru m en t in a d v a n cin g th e p erfection o f th e ra ce. T h e r e is m u c h th at sp e a k s th e ard en t so u l, an d storm ful h ea rt o f th e a u th o r ; for, h a v in g drank o f life , in n e w an d original form s, to its v e ry dregs, an d an a ly z e d e v e r y creation , th e w orkin gs o f e v e r y p assion , in h er o w n scarred an d black en ed breast, sh e n ee d e d but to lo o k w ith in h e r se lf, an d w rite , to produce th e m o st po w e rfu l o f fiction s. L ik e D an te, d escen d in g in to a v e ry h e ll o f fierce p assion s an d sorrow s, w h ic h h ad seared h er s o u l ; and like h im , a m id a ll h er su fferings, soaring still often in to th e h e a v e n o f b e au tifu l an d pure aspirations, sh e h a s le ft m u c h o f s u c h a w a y w a r d e x p er ie n ce in this fiction . T h e se cre t o f its superiority, as a n in te lle c tu a l production , is, th a t th e in te rest c a lle d forth is not in th e in cid en ts an d adven tu res o f the principal ch a ra cter, bu t in th e grad ual d e v e lo p m e n t o f a pure spirit, w a g in g ferven t con test w ith e v il and tem p tation, and con qu erin g th rough th e q u ie t p o w e r o f go o d n ess. In displayin g a pe rfe ct k n o w le d g e o f th e w o n d ro u s spirit o f art, an d w e a v in g th e w e b o f th e ch aracters, an d particu larly th a t o f C o n su e lo , a s s k ilfu lly and tru ly a s nature an d d e stin y w o u ld h a v e d on e it , th e au th or s h o w s h e r s e lf a s e c o n d C r e a t o r , a s th e A r t i s t a l w a y s i s . In a historical poin t o f v ie w , th e book is in terestin g ; as con tain in g, in addition to m u c h upon th e m u sica l artists a t th e European courts a ce n tu ry ago, so m e a ctu al in ci d e n ts in th e life o f th e ce le brate d H a y d n , on e o f th e principal m u sician s o f th e court o f M aria T h e resa. T h e se q u el w ill f o llo w , em b racin g th e term ination o f th e story o f C o n s u e lo ; and w e ca n h a v e n o d o u bt o f th e a n x ie ty w ith w h ic h it w ill be a n ticip ate d , an d th e in terest w ith w h ic h it w ill be fr a u g h t. T h e m oral o f the book se em s to b e , th a t th e sp on tan eou s pu rity o f h eart w h ic h m arks th e in n o c e n t an d g ood , is su fficien t to en ab le th e m to b e a r u p u n d er e v e r y e v il in flu e n ce, an d resist e v e r y tem p tation. 1 7. — L i f e o f G e n e r a l Z a c h a r y T a y l o r ; w it h a n A c c o u n t o f h is B r i l l i a n t A c h ie v e m e n t s o n th e R i o G r a n d e a n d e l s e w h e r e , i n c lu d i n g th e D e f e n c e o f F o r t H a r r i s o n , a n d th e B a t t l e o f O k c e-c h o -b ee . A l s o , S k e tc h e s o f th e L i v e s a n d H e r o i c A c t s o f M a j o r R i n g g o l d , M a j o r B r o w n , C o lo n e l C r o s s , C a p t a in M o n t g o m e r y , C a p ta in M a y , C a p ta in W a l k e r , L i e u t e n a n t s R id g c le y , B l a k e , J o r d a n , e t c . B y C . F rank Po w e l l . Illu strated w ith a Portrait o f G e n e ra l T a y lo r . N e w Y o r k : D . A p p le to n & C o . P h ila d e lp h ia : G . S . A p p le to n . T h is p a m p h le t, o f n in e ty -six o ctavo pages, h a s been p u blish ed to m e e t th e in terest an d cu riosity o f our peop le in r ela tio n to G e n e r a l T a y lo r , and th e officers belonging to th e arm y, e n gage d in th e u n n e c e ssa ry an d w ic k e d w a r th a t e xists b e tw e e n M e x ic o an d th e U n ite d S ta tes— sister repu blics, w h o w o u ld be better e m p lo y e d in prom otin g, b y th e p e a c e fu l arts o f life , th e a d v a n ce m e n t o f repu blican in stitu tio n s, a n d th e progress o f so cie ty . 18. — T h e C u ltiv a tio n o f A m e r ic a n ly n : A . S p o o n er & C o ., Printers. G r a p e V in e s , and M a k in g W in e . By A lden Spooner . B rook T h e in te llig en t an d w o r th y au th or o f th is v o lu m e h a s, for m ore th an h a l f a ce n tu ry, tak e n a d e ep in te rest in th e cu ltiv a tio n o f th e grape ; an d th e p resen t v o lu m e is th e resu lt o f h is experien ce on th e s u b jec t. I t e m b o d ie s a h isto ry o f th e first cu ltu re o f th e Isa b e lla grape, an d a com pen diou s v ie w o f th e m eth o d o f c u ltiv a tin g it w ith s u c c e ss. It is ju s t su c h a book a s sh o u ld be p u t into th e h a n d s o f a ll w h o w o u ld prom ote th e in n o ce n t e n jo y m e n t o f our cou n trym en an d w o m e n . T h e r e is n ot, per h a p s , a b ran ch o f h orticu ltural in dustry th at, in a com m e rcial poin t o f v ie w , offers larger returns, for th e a m o u n t o f labor an d capital requisite fo r its s u c c e ssfu l cu ltu re . 1 9. — P o v e r t y : it s I lle g a l C a u ses, and L e g a l C u r e. M arsh . P u t forth b y L ysander Spooner . B oston : B e la W e m a y s a y , w ith o u t asse n tin g to a ll th e position s or co n clu sion s to w h ic h M r. Spoon er h a s ar rived on th e im p ortan t su bjects d iscu ssed in th is w o r k , th a t it is an ab le e x p o s e o f th e au th or’ s v ie w s , w h ic h are g e n e ra lly e x p re sse d in a clea r, forcible, an d lo gical m a n n e r. a n d original th o u g h ts. It m ore ove r abou n ds in bold T h e illegal c a u ses o f p o v e rty are stated , an d a n u m be r o f im portan t proposi tions bearing o n th e s u b ject laid d o w n ; and, o n th e w h o le , w e con sider it a w ork w e ll w o r th stu d y in g— affording, as it d o es, m a n y v a lu a b le h in ts to th e sta te sm a n an d political e co n o m ist. G reat good m u s t resu lt fro m th e d iscu ssion o f s u c h su b je c t s ; an d w e co n fe ss th at, w it h a m ore ju s t an d e q u a l distribu tion o f w e a lt h , w e lo o k for a m arked im p rovem e n t in th e p u b lic m o ra ls. 2 0 . — T h e M o d e r n S ta n d a rd D r a m a ; a C o lle c tio n o f th e m o s t P o p u l a r A c t i n g P l a y s , fa ith C r i t i c a l Re m a r k s . A l s o , th e S t a g e B u s i n e s s , C o s tu m e s , C a s t o f C h a r a c t e r s , ir e . E dited by E pes S a rg en t , a u th o r o f “ V e la s c o , a T r a g e d y ,” e tc. W i t h a P ortrait an d M e m o ir o f M r. C h arle s K e a n . 12m o. N e w Y o r k : W i ll i a m T a y lo r . T h i s v o lu m e corresponds in siz e w ith the first, p u b lish ed so m e m on th s sin ce, an d noticed in a former n um ber o f th is M a g a z in e . “ G ra n d fa th e r W h it e h e a d ,” It con tain s e igh t o f th e m o st popu lar acting p la y s, v i z :— “ T h e Stran ger,” “ R ich ard the T h ir d ,” “ L o v e ’ s S a crifice ,” “ T h e G a m e ste r ,” “ C u re for th e H e a r ta c h e ,” “ T h e H u n c h b a c k ,” an d “ D o n Cassar de B a z a n .” M r . Sargen t fu lly appreciates th e ch a ra cter o f w h a t is term ed th e “ legitim ate d r a m a a n d h is n otes an d rem arks are g e n e ra lly w e ll tim e d a n d ju d ic io u s. 336 The Book Trade. 21. — E u rop ea n A g r ic u ltu r e and R u r a l E con om y, fr o m V o l . I I , P art V I . B o s t o n : A rth u r D . P h e lp s. P e r s o n a l O b s e r v a t io n . By H enry C olm ah. I t is the design o f th is treatise to ex h ib it fh e actu al condition o f agricultural operation s, in a ll their b ra n c h e s, in Eu rop e ; a n d it is understood fliat M r. C olu m n , its au th or, is n o w sojourning in G r e a t Bri ta in , for th e purpose o f acqu irin g the m ost practical and a u th en tic inform ation upon th is su b ject. F r o m th e m ore a d v a n c ed state o f th e scie n ce o f agriculture abroad, it w a s th o u g h t th at th e e x p eri e n c e an d p ractice co n n ected w ith this u se fu l pursuit in E u rop e — a pursuit constituting the fou ndation o f n a tio n a l w e a lt h — c a r e fu lly co lle cte d , w o u ld be o f som e service to th at n u m e ro u s cla ss w h o are engaged w ith u s in this im portan t b ran ch o f enterprise ; an d th e w ork , so far as co m p le te d , is th e re su lt o f th e undertakin g. T h e w h o le treatise is to be com prised in ten n u m b e rs. T h a t particular portion w h ic h h as been p u blish ed , em b race s a lm o st e v er y th in g o f in terest u pon th e topic ; relating to m a r k ets, m o d es o f tillage, parks an d orn am ental grounds, clim ate, th e agricultural popu lation , im p rove m en ts, agricultural ed u cation , and in deed th e variou s su bjects belon gin g to agricu ltural operation s th ro u g h o u t th e U n ite d K in g d o m . It is, m oreover, w r itten in a sty le con d en se d , c le a r , an d concise ; and m a n y o f its d escrip tion s o f rural life are picturesque and e le g a n t. It w ill h a rd ly be qu estion ed th a t th e au th o r h a s , thus far, a b ly ex ecu te d h is t a s k ; an d , w h e n th e entire se ries o f h is reports sh a ll h a v e been c o m p le te d , th e w ork w ill be a v a lu a b le exhibition o f th e a ctu al state o f E u ro p ea n ag ricu ltu re. 22. — S m a ll B o o k s o n G r e a t S u b je c ts . P h ila d e lp h ia : L e a &. B lan ch ard . U n d e r th is title, a se ries o f w orks la te ly appeared in L o n d o n , w h ic h h a v e attracted m u c h atten tion fro m th eir o r ig in a lity , strength, an d co n c ise n e ss. O f this se ries, w e h a v e r e c e iv e d N o s . I ., I I ., and X . , rep rod u ced b y th e enterprising P h ila d e lp h ia p u blish ers, in th e form o f I 8 m o . paper-covered p a m p h lets, v a ryin g from s e v e n ty to one h u n dred closely -p rin te d p age s. lo so p h ic a l T h e o r ie s and P h ilosop h ical E x p e rie n ce O n e is d e v o te d to a variety o f “ P h i a n oth er to the “ P rinciples o f C rim in al L a w ,” and th e third to “ T h e C on n e ctio n b e tw e e n P h y sio lo g y and In te lle c tu a l P h ilo so p h y .” T h e se v e r a l su bjects are treated in a popular m a n n e r, an d are e v id e n tly th e productions o f m in d s fam iliar w ith th e topics th e y p rofess to discu ss. # 2 3 — A C o n c i s e a n d P r a c t i c a l S y s te m o f G e o g r a p h y f o r C om m on S ch o o ls , f o r A c a d e m ie s , a n d F a m il ie s . D e s i g n e d a s a S e q u e l to th e “ F i r s t B o o k . " i l l u s t r a t e d w ith T h i r t y S te e l M a p s , a n d n u m e r o u s e n g r a v i n g s . B y R osw ell C . Sm it h , A . M . N e w Y o r k : Paine & B u rgess. T h e a d v a n ta g e s cla im ed by the com piler o f this G e o g ra p h y an d A t la s , con sist in large, open , an d e le g a n t typ e ; in b o ld , e ffective, and in stru ctive c u t s ; in n u m e rou s p lain , elegan t, and correct m a p s ; in a c o n c ise , u s e fu l, an d in stru ctive t e x t ; in its ad aptation to th e m in ds o f ch ild ren , w h ile it form s a co n c ise sy ste m , ad ap ted to a lm o st e v e r y description o f stu d e n ts. M o st o f th e se cla im s w ill be a p p a ren t to th e m o s t su p erficial o b s e r v e r ; a n d , as far as our k n o w le d g e e x te n d s, w e b e lie v e it to be a ccu ra te. 24. —T h e G r a m m a tic R e a d e r . By E dw ard II a ze n . N e w Y ork : J. S . R e d fie ld . T h e plan o f th is little m an u al, w h ic h is clea rly e xp lain e d in th e p r e fa ce , is a d m ir a b le ; and w e re gret th a t w e c a n n o t afford space to give it in th is p la c e . I t is a sort o f pictorial gram m atical r e a d e r ; an d w e h a v e n o hesitation in pronouncing it, w ith o u t a n y qualification , th e m o st b e a u tifu l sch o o l bo o k y e t p u b lish ed , a t le a st so far as our k n o w le d g e ex te n d s. T h e e n gravin gs are th e m o st perfect o f th eir kin d, an d com p are w e ll w ith the b e st pictorial w orks o f th e d a y , designed and e x e cu te d after a correct an d h ig h stan dard o f ta ste. 25. ________ R u l e s o f O r d e r : a M a n u a l f o r C o n d u c tin g B u s i n e s s i n T o w n a n d W a r d M e e t i n g s , S o c i e t i e s , B o a r d s o f D i r e c t o r s a n d M a n a g e r s , a n d o t h e r D e l i b e r a t i v e B o d i e s . By B enjamin M a t t h ia s . 18in o ., pp. 130. N e w Y o r k : J. C . R iker. M r. M a tth ia s is e v id e n tly n ot o f th e n u m be r w h o discard all ru le s o f order, a s anti d e m ocratic, or in co m p a tib le w ith free d om o f s p e e c h ; and th erefore, in this little m an u al, h e fu rn ish e s, in a clear and d istin ct m a n n e r, the rules w h ic h all e xperien ce h a s proved to be requisite for th e m o st cou rteou s, prom pt, an d efficient co n d u ct o f deliberative bodies, u n der a ll circu m stan ces. 26. — T h o r n b c r r y A b b e y : p T a l e o f th e T im e s . N e w Y o r k : E d w ard D u n igan . T h is little v o lu m e , r ea lly attractive in its e xtern al appearan ce, w ill, w e h a v e n o dou bt, be e q u a lly s o in its in ternal ch aracter, to e v e r y good C a th o lic C h ristian . m o v e m e n t o f th e A n g lic a n C h u r ch tow ards th e C a th o lic. It is a C a th o lic story, an d refers to th e It form s on e o f the se ries o f w o r k s pu b lish e d u n d er th e general title o f “ D u n ig a n ’ s H o m e L ib rary.” 27. ________ M i t c h e l l ' s S ch o o l G e o g r a p h y a n d A t l a s . P h ila d e lp h ia : T h o m a s , C o w p e rth w a it & C o. T h is se c o n d edition o f th is ve ry popular, an d w e m a y s a y e x c e lle n t S ch o o l G e o g ra p h y an d A t la s , h a s b e e n th o ro u g h ly r e v ise d , an d th e m o st rece n t statem e n ts introduced ; so th a t its d e ta ils, statis tic s, e tc ., are brou ght d o w n to th e present tim e . been a d d e d . T o th e a tlas, several n e w and u se fu l p lates h a v e x
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