Full text of The Merchants' Magazine and Commercial Review : October 1856, Vol. XXXV, No. IV

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HUNT’S

MERCHANTS’ MAGAZINE
AND

COMMERCIAL REVIEW.
O C TO B E R ,

Art.

1 8 5 6.

I. — Q U A R A N T I N E .

T he rigid and isolating measures of ignorance and coercion in endeav­
oring to put a stop to epidemics, have always increased their virulence and
added to their expansion, while a careful and humane attention to the
wants and miseries of the sick has contributed to both the prevention and
spread o f disease, and to its speedy termination. The most ancient physi­
cians, even as early as the sixth century, argued that epidemics did not
spread by contact; they were therefore opposed to isolating the sick, and
supported the principles o f humanity inculcated in the constant care of
the diseased by the healthy, as not only the most effectual means of curing
sickness, but as being equally efficacious in preventing its extension. The
experience o f all ages accords with these most ancient views.
Quarantine originated with the great epidemics of the fourteenth cen­
tury. It derives its name from the last or fortieth critical day, according
to that age of medicine when the course of “ ardent ” diseases was thought
to be marked by particular crises.
Jv.IIecker, a believer in the benefits of quarantine, informs us that the
first regulation which was issued for this purpose originated with Viscount
Bernabo, and is dated the 17th January, 1374. Every plague-patient
was to be taken out o f the city into the fields, and there to die or recover.
Those who attended upon a plague-patient were to remain apart for ten
days before they again associated with any one. The priests were to ex­
amine the diseased, and point out to special commissioners the persons in*
fected, under punishment of confiscation of their goods, and o f being
burned alive. Whoever imported the plague, the State condemned his
goods to confiscation.




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Finally, none except those appointed for the purpose were to attend
plague-patients, under penalty o f death and confiscation.
In 1383 the
same prince forbade the admission o f people from infected places into his
dominions, on pain of death. Bernabo’s example was imitated in numer­
ous places during his lifetime, and enforced with all the spirit of the age.
An individual, whose human kindness exposed him to even the last look
of sympathy from a dear departing one, was shunned with hideous terror,
forced into seclusion, or burned to death by the stern executioners of the
law.
Yet “ Black Death” reigned with unprecedented sway. The southern
commercial States o f Europe strictly enforced, with the wildest fanaticism,
the severest laws of quarantine, and their commercial cities were almost
closed against navigators, for fear of the importation o f plague, as they
professed in most cases to trace its outbreak to the arrival o f some ship.
In 134V it was said to have been imported into Genoa by ships from the
Levant; on this account suspected ships were forbade entrance into their
ports, and consequently sailed to Pisa and other cities on the coast, where
plague likewise prevailed, and wras likewise attributed to importation by
ships.
In the latter part of the fifteenth century— when plague and the se­
verest quarantine laws were prevailing together with an unheard-of vigor
and fatality— a special council o f health was established in Venice for the
prevention of its entrance there; but scarcely had the force o f their stric­
tures been realized ere they were followed by a plague so severe as to
create a suicidal frenzy, rather than fall victims to the plague, or its alter­
native, the quarantine. In its progress, every human barrier seemed to
add fuel to its terrible ravages; one fled from another— a neighbor from
his neighbors— a relation from his relations— terror took the place of
every kindly emotion— brother forsook brother, sister the sister, the wife
her husband, the mother her ch ild! Each and all abandoned, unvisited,
uncared-for, unsoothed— quarantined !
Bills of health were probably first introduced in Italy during the preva­
lence of plague about the year 1527, though Lazarettos had been estab­
lished some forty years before. These were usually upon islands at a
distance from cities, where all persons coming from places suspected of
plague were detained, in conjunction with the sick, under a strict guard.
If the disease appeared in the city itself, the sick (with their families) were
dispatched to the old Lazaretto, where they were to remain, with all those
who had intercourse with them, till cured— or until, what was much more
frequently the case, they died; then they were transferred to the new
Lazaretto, situated on another island, where they were detained forty days
longer.
In this way Venice was the pioneer “ council of health.” Other
commercial cities followed the Venetians, and about the year 1665, hills
o f hea'th had become general.
Defoe, in his “ History of the Plague in London in 1665,” who, though
like He -ker, believed plague to be contagious, fully shows that the terrible
horrors of quarantine were, nevertheless, even worse than the plague
itself:—
“ A whole family was shut up and locked in, because the maid-servant was
taken sick ; these people obtained no liberty to stir, neither for aid nor exercise,
for forty days; want of breath, fear, anger, vexation, and all the other griefs
attending such an injurious treatment, cast the mistress of the family into a fever;




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405

and visitors came into the house and said it was the plague, though the physicians
declared it was not. However, the family were obliged to begin their quarantine
anew, on the report of the visitor or examiner, though their former quarantine
wanted but a few days of being finished. This oppressed them so with anger
and grief, and, as before, straitened them also so much as to room and for want
of breathing and free air, that most of the family fell sick— one of one distemper,
one of another, chiefly scorbutic ailments, only one a violent cholic—until, after
several prolongations of their confinement, some or other of those that came in
with the visitors to inspect the persons that were ill, in hopes of releasing them,
brought the distemper along with them, and infected the whole house, and all or
most of them died, not of the plague as really upon them before, but of the plague
that those people brought them who should have been careful to have protected
them from i t ; and this was a thing which frequently happened, and was indeed
one of the worst consequences of shutting houses up.”
Watchmen were placed at the doors o f the sick to prevent escape, and
the passer-by shuddered when he looked up and saw the fatal mark of
isolation on the door— a large red cross painted on the door, written over,
“ Lord, have mercy upon u s!”
This merciless imprisonment was pur­
sued with a heartless obduracy engendered by the belief that it was the
only means of averting death to those who inflicted it.' The same histo­
rian records the noble deeds of some of the health officers and some coun­
try people, who constantly sought out the suffering, procured and carried
them food, and such “ very seldom got any harm by it,” and were there­
fore deemed to have been miraculously preserved; while hundreds and
thousands of those who fled, died in their flight. “ They had the taint of
the disease in their vitals, and after their spirits were so diseased, they
could never escape it.”
And thus prevailed the epidemic of quarantine, with its attendant symp­
toms of terror, starvation, and suicidal mania, “ until it was impossible to
beat anything into their heads, (convince them ;) they gave way to the
impetuosity of their tempers, full of outcries and lamentations when taken,
but madly careless of themselves, fool-hardy and obstinate while they
were well. Where they could get employment, they pushed into any kind
of business, the most dangerous and the most liable to infection ; and if they
were spoken to, their answer would be, ‘ I must trust to God for thab—
if I am taken, then I am provided for, and there is an end o f me.’ ‘ W hy,
what must I do ? I cannot starve; I had as good have the plague as
perish for want; I have no work, what could I do ? I must do this or
beg.’ Burying the dead, attending the sick, or watching the infected,
their tale was the same.” Many such were “ miraculously preserved,” and
as their number increased, whether by defiance o f quarantine or selfsacrificing humanity, the epidemic declined.
The plague broke out in Leghorn about the beginning of the present
century, unattended by the incidental arrival o f any ship or importation
to which it could be assigned. Finally, it was traced to a mummy which
some scientific men had unrolled for examination. On this the contagionists rested, though it had been locked up for a period o f over two thousand
years!
Ingram, an English writer on plague about the middle o f the last cen­
tury, records that—
“ If in the sultry months we examine into the diseases of Newgate, the Savoy,
or any of the jails in England, or those of other cities in Europe, we shall find a
pestilential disease every year in them, though not so malignant as the pestilence




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in sultry climes, nor of so long continuance, yet sufficient to destroy many of tlie
prisoners. And this disease is also contagious, because it takes its origin from
putrid air. Mariners also, in long voyages, especially those that belong to the
navy, frequently too have felt the experience, not so much from the coarse diet,
as from the ships being crowded from such numbers of men, from whose breath
and bodies arise hot steams, which shows the necessity of ventilators to draw
forth the corrupted air, and at the same time to refresh them with better. The
breaths of people confined a short time will destroy themselves, as about nine
years ago, in St. Martin’s prison, many being close shut up, some died in a few
hours.
“ Such like epidemics are not confined to jails, navies, or camps, but they are
almost yearly felt in many cities, and sometimes they are so virulent even as to be
contagious, terminating in carbuncles, one of the true symptoms of the plague ;
so that wo may affirm that every year we are afflicted with the plague, in a milder
degree than those cities which lie in southern latitudes.”
This concise statement of contagion and its cause is worth more than
all the volumes that have ever been written on it, for a proper apprecia­
tion of the nature of epidemic contagion.
Plague has thus lengthily been dwelt upon, because it has usually been
considered among the most contagious o f epidemic diseases. When
cholera broke out in 1832, the measures o f isolation were begun with the
same vigor as characterized the quarantine of plague, centuries before.
Attempts to isolate the sick and intercept their intercourse with the well,
were set about with an alacrity only surpassed by the alertness of the dis­
ease. Calling out troops or a strong body of police around infected places
was even talked of, as one means o f staying its progress. Proposals for
locking up infected houses and dropping food at the doors, which was to
be taken in by ingenious machines to be worked by the collapsed patients,
were discussed as of more importance than the uncleaned gutters and
lanes flanked by dark, airless abodes, on which the sun had never shone.
Illy-ventilated emigrant ships were detained at quarantine stations, or
their passengers transferred to the devitalized air of hospitals to await its
ravages.
Yellow fever has been no less the subject o f quarantine, and innumer­
able are the cases of mild intermittents, which would have speedily been
eliminated with the privilege o f pure air, doomed to black-vomit by quaran­
tine detention.
The haunts o f deadly reptiles are not more peculiar to their localities,
than are the equally native diseases nourished and propagated by causes
in proportion to their abundance.
The most favorable comparison of the advancement of human science
is, that the benefits it has conferred on mankind are entirely consistent
with such arrangement of the elements o f the universe, that wherever
there is an evil arising, an all-wise Providence has endowed man with the
means, through the exercise of wisdom and virtue, of overcoming it. “ If
there be in the land famine; if there be pestilence, blasting, mildew,
locust; or if there be caterpillar; if their enemy besiege them in the land
of their cities; whatsoever plague, whatsoever sickness there be,”— from
the plagues which Pharaoh so stubbornly resisted, to the latter part of the
last century—




“ Hypochondriac fancies represent
Ships, armies, battles, in the firmament,
Till steady eyes the exhalations solve,
And all to its first matter cloud resolve.”

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407

Animal and vegetable decomposition, dwellings without provision for
light and fresh air, filth and vermin, were then, as they are now, beneath
the notice of the ignorant and uneducated, while they can grasp at comets,
meteors, and earthquakes.
In early ages, before agriculture became general, epidemics were o f
much more frequent occurrenee wherever large bodies of men were gath­
ered together, than they are at this day. The soil was everywhere
covered with animal and vegetable matter in such abundance as to absorb
the greatest possible amount o f moisture, in order to its decomposition,
the going on of which, whenever temperature favored, evolved the cause
o f disease to such an extraordinary degree as to be followed by effects
which we are now taught to appreciate, by confining our observations to
such conditions as comprehend the same circumstances.
The differences in epidemics, though they all pertain to the same gen­
eral causes, arise from the development o f organic matters with different
properties, depending upon particular conditions connected with local cir­
cumstances and constitutional tendencies. That such is the case, may be
deduced from the specific effect of certain medicines, food, and drink, as
well as the circumscribed limits o f some epidemics. The most deadly
epidemics of ancient times are usually characterized by the numbers they
destroyed, and it is only by studying the history o f cotemporary circum­
stances that we can approach the true causes and nature of them. The
“ hot, burning boils and blains, breaking forth into pustules and corroding
sores upon man and upon beast,” as signified by the blistering ashes from
the furnace, is no unfit emblem of smallpox; and that a grievous hail, in­
undation, drought, heat, and famine, were followed by a pestilence, which
arose at midnight and attacked with characteristic severity the wealthy
and luxurious Egyptians who resided on the banks of the Nile, is but a
faint illustration of the effect of the same causes whenever and wherever
they exist.
Epidemic is a word used to designate that character o f a disease which
attacks a large number of individuals at the same time.
Endemic is an epidemic confined to a particular place— as goitre and
cretenism in the Alps, cholera in the delta o f the Ganges, plague in the
delta of the Nile, and yellow fever in the delta of the Mississippi. An
endemic that leaves its place of usual prevalence, as cholera has most fre­
quently of late years, becomes a true epidemic. There is no difference in
the disease ; epidemic and endemic are the same— only one, epidemic, is
general, and the other, endemic, is local.
Infectious diseases are those produced by a vitiated state of the atmos­
phere, a condition always owing to the want o f free access of pure air
and light, the which, were they constantly present, would wholly do away
with infection. Persons in health may be kept in confined air until it
becomes vitiated and infectious to themselves, and consequently they may
become poisoned and killed by i t ; and such air will affect alike one or
many individuals who may be exposed to it, whether the infection has
arisen from the deadly effect of too close confinement of diseased or (to
begin with) healthy individuals.
Epidemic, endemic, and infectious diseases are uncertain in their devel­
opment from the time o f exposure to the time o f attack; disease may
occur very soon— immediately— or it may not for months.
Contagious diseases are those epideinics which at first arise from the




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same common causes as others, but which are afterwards communicable
from one individual to another by contact or such immediate vicinity as
to be subject to respiring the same air. They differ from infectious dis­
eases in the specific time or certain period of incubation, from the time of
exposure to the time o f attack. The poison in these contagious diseases
requires a particular and certain period for development, which, no matter
how concentrated it may be when taken into the system, rarely or never
produces disease within certain limits o f time. They run a regular course
of development, maturity, and decline, and are not subject to relapse nor
recurrence. Exceptions to this distinction are extremely rare. Conta­
gious diseases are always epidemic, though epidemics are not necessarily
contagious.
Epidemic is the one quality which all alike possess
Epidemic is the
g e n u s ; endemic, infectious, and contagious are species.
The germ of all epidemic diseases consists in the introduction of an or­
ganic poison into the circulation. A poison circulating and multiplying
itself in the blood is fully adequate for the production o f local peculiarities
as applied to individuals or atmospheric conditions, and is equally the
cause of cholera in one or ship-fever in another, so that whatever may be
the cause of either is equally the cause of both. A French author relates
that twenty-eight soldiers were working in a marshy and insalubrious place
in Saint Louis. They were all taken sick ; three died of cholera morbus,
five of bilious dysentery, four with yellow fever. The others were affected
with the worst form (pernicieuse) o f intermittent fever. In ancient times,
when plagues and pestilences were much more common, and men’s minds
were more clouded with superstition, the visitations o f epidemics were
reckoned the immediate effect o f Divine vengeance, and their natural
causes were not inquired into. But later, all epidemic putrid diseases were
said to derive their origin from unknown qualities of the atmosphere, and
these qualities were attempted to be rectified by large fires of aromatic
substances, but as such efforts were rarely or never followed by any good
effects, it at last became doubtful with some whether any such malignant
qualities ever existed, and as they could not detect them it was insisted
upon that no state of the atmosphere had any influence in producing dis­
ease. While, on the other hand, some contended that the malignancy of
the atmosphere was the origin o f every disease for which no other cause
could be assigned. Notwithstanding a warm and humid state of the
atmosphere generally precedes epidemics, and that the same disease gene­
rally prevails endemically in localities favoring such a condition, there is
nevertheless good reason to believe that it rarely does more than predis­
pose the system to the reception of the poison which is developed by the
same state, and which, when applied, produces the disease. The humidity
causes the noxious qualities of the injesta to be retained in the circulation,
which results in disease, but the poison is not that humidity, it is an
organic one, which under favorable circumstances would be wholly
eliminated.
Volatile conclusions, deduced from gaseous and vaporous emanations as
generally the causes of disease and weakly constitutions, are mere assump­
tions, without the remotest evidence; for, admitting that contagious matter
may exist in the atmosphere, it is utterly impossible for a gas to remain
permanent in the air. It would be as easy for a body of fresh water to
endure amid the ocean. A ll gaseous emanations must of necessity disperse




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in proportion as they are exposed to the air, which contains within itself
the means of purification, slowly but certainly converting all organic sub­
stances, which are the true causes o f disease, exposed to it into simpler
forms— gases, watery vapor, carbonic acid, nitric acid and ammonia,
whence they cease to be deleterious.
W hat are the sources of organic poisons ?
Animal matter is exhaled from the pulmonary and cutaneous surfaces,
and, however small the particles, they are nevertheless organic, possess no
elasticity, and have none of the diffusive qualities pertaining to vapors, and
therefore only float in the air until decomposed and neutralized by it. Any
obstacle, therefore, to the free access of air may develope disease from this
source. Every one is familiar with the circumstance that the breath occa­
sionally, and in some persons constantly, emits an offensive odor, which,
when it does not proceed from carious teeth, or similar causes immediately
exposed to the contact o f the respired air, is exhaled with the vapor from
the pulmonary surface. This, too, is sometimes suddenly developed when
the digestive apparatus is disordered, or under other derangement of health.
As a test of its containing organic matter, when it is passed through
sulphurous acid that liquid acquires a reddish tint.
The worst epidemics most frequently appear in certain localities in hot
climates, and they are generally ascribed to local causes, confined within
well-defined limits, so that those who keep beyond them are never affected
with the same virulence, even if at all subject to the prevailing type.
From the three great deltas o f the world— the Nile, the Ganges and the
Mississippi, arise the three great epidemics of modern times, the plague,
cholera and yellow-fever, all usually accompanied with, preceded and fol­
lowed by, milder types of their relatively characteristic symptoms, in a less
intense stage of development. This remarkable analogy extends to a'l the
peregrinations of these several manifestations o f the same poison, varying
only by reason of place and conditions of development as well in intensity
as in type.
Stagnation and subsequent evaporation of moisture from the surface of
the earth are essential to the development of an epidemic, and the higher
the temperature within certain limits at which evaporation takes place,
the more violent is the poison generated, and the more fatal is the disease.
This is due to the acceleration of putrefaction and decomposition, which goes
on fastest at the temperature of about 100° F. Organic poison being once
produced or set in motion, however, does not only not require a continued
high temperature to keep it in existence, but a cool atmosphere and high
winds facilitate both its extension and fatality. This is owing to the
increased condensation and circulation of the watery vapor which serves
as a carrier of the poison. Hence it is that epidemics in unusual places
are frequently much more fatal than when prevailing endemically. This
has been specially manifest within the last few weeks at Fort Hamilton,
near New York. The poison having been once set in motion, there was
an apparent cessation while the weather continued moderate and dry, but
succeeding this, an unusual degree of cold, with high winds, gave the
disease not only a new impetus as to numbers, but in fatality, surpassing
even its greatest malignity in New Orleans and Vera Cruz. The same
thing occured last year in Norfolk. The evaporation o f pure water, or the
existence o f vapor from it alone in the air, in temperate abodes, is rarely
or never injurious, and its neighborhood is generally salubrious. It is after




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the cessation of the evaporation o f pure water from alluvial and diluvial
earths that epidemics always take their rise. During and immediately
after rainy seasons and inundations, when nothing but pure watery vapor
exists in the air, health is but rarely interrupted, but when the surface of
the earth begins to dry and the temperature increases to some depth, so
that the matters therein contained ferment and decompose, the specific
poison is generated, and floating in the air, causes and accelerates disease.
If we are living in a highly rarified atmosphere, or amidst exhalations from
crowded and badly ventilated apartments, dark and damp streets, sewers,
churchyards, vaults, cesspools, slaughter-houses, pounds, stables, piggeries,
filth constantly commingling, notwithstanding the wonderful provision of
nature for the speedy decomposition and destruction of organic matter, the
density of the poison— for vegetable and animal exhalations are equally
organic and poisonous— impresses its destructive influence at the outset
and continues its deadly action during its transition.
As it is perfectly natural for us to look upon pure air as the greatest
possible source of health, it is equally so to regard an impure one as the
most extensive cause o f disease, and to attribute to it and its various
changes from hot to cold, moist to dry, and the various particles which are
continually floating in it, many diseases which we cannot otherwise ac­
count for. Whatever may be the state of the air, it is an indispensable
necessity which can never be done without, for ever so short a time, with
the continuance of life. However necessary food, drink and whatever else
we make use of, they are only requisite at particular times, but air is
necessary every moment of our existence. It is not only in contact with
our bodies but it is continually entering into our lungs, and from them
passing directly into our blood, pervades every pore, and constitutes an
ingredient in every part of our composition.
The quantity of air necessary for healthy respiration can be easily esti­
mated by calculating the amount drawn into the lungs at a single inspira­
tion and during a given time, estimating from fourteen to twenty-two
respirations per minute in a state of repose, for the difference in individuals;
yet measurement should never be acted upon with reference to due provi­
sion. In order to secure a pure atmosphere means o f renewal should exist
under all circumstances. No amplitude of space, if it is confined, can
possibly compensate for the renewal and circulation o f the air which are
always essential to its purity.
Gibbon says, that “ In all ages Ethiopia and Egypt have been stigmatized
as the source and seminary o f plague. In a damp, hot, stagnant air, the
African fever is generated from the putrefaction of animal substances, and
especially from the swarms of locusts, not less destructive to mankind in
their death than in their life.”
The habits of the Egyptians are filthy in the extreme. They live in
little damp close-crowded huts, thick with the odors of their own impuri­
ties mixed with the heated marshes, and here cook their scanty stale meats
and fish over fires made with dried manure. Ignorance, despotism and
poverty combine to make them in all respects a degraded people.
The delta of the Nile is a plain o f uniform level, and the peasants, in
constructing their habitations, make excavations near them to receive the
water at the annual inundation. These pits remain stagnant during the
interval of hot, dry weather that succeeds the retiring of the Nile, and the
myriads of insects in all stages, frorn their first development to decomposi­




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tion, mixed with the thick mould that covers the surface qf this water,
fortunately render them so repulsive to the sense of smell as to repel the
wayfarer before his stomach revolts at the sight of them. Yet it is in these
ponds that they perform the daily ablutions enjoined by their religion, and
from which they draw all the water they drink and use for cooking pur­
poses 1 W hile the almost naked Fallah sows and works in the mud of
the rice grounds, his wife and children are usually collecting the material for
fuel near their dwellings, and mixing it with the foetid mud from the ponds
they mould it with their hands into masses, which they stick on their
dwellings to d ry ; and as if to concentrate the noxious emanations they
pile around their huts and villages rubbish of all kinds. Thus inclosed in
a focus of corruption, he dresses himself in rags, which seem to answer the
double purpose of absorbing the poisonous air that surrounds him, and of
retaining the vermin with which he is infested. Wherever there is a
mosk a large receptacle of water is provided for ablutions, and here the
water is as above described. Hundreds of Mussulmen are collected together
into yards from which the waters in which they wash flow into open
canals, which terminate in a general reservoir in a public square, usually
surrounded by habitations. This receptacle has no outlet, and the ditches
to it are never closed nor empty. As the contents overflow they soak
into the earth, there to moulder till awakened by the sun’s rays in a new
form, to retaliate on the miserable creatures who impelled it into being.
Cairo is but a magnificent collection of such habits and habitations. A
large canal passes through the centre of the city, into which is thrown all
manner of carrion, filth and offal. The intolerable stench arising from it
only ceases upon the overflowing of the Nile, which washes away this load
of filth. Erzeroum, another large town, situated on a peninsula formed by
the two northern sources o f the Euphrates, where plague rises spontane­
ously, is equally noted for its intolerable filth.
In the delta of the Ganges, the Iloogly is esteemed by the Hindoos the
most sacred branch, and on this account it is consecrated by being made
the depository of the dead of such persons as cannot afford to burn their
bodies, and this is the home o f cholera.
The other delta, of the Mississippi, is not noted for the filthy habits o f
its inhabitants, but, in common with the other two, it brings down its load
of animal and vegetable matter and deposits it over a large extent of soil,
which is the most fruitful source of yellow fever on the face of the earth,
while there is no one who occupies it but is familiar with the benefits of
cleanliness.
In the vast plains of South America, a burning sun operating on the
extensive swamps, and the inundations that succeed the rainy seasons,
sometimes generate dreadful epidemics. Missionaries have frequent records
of the most fatal distempers prevailing among the Indians, which at times
desolate whole villages. Small-pox everywhere makes great ravages, as,
from want of care united with their filthy habits, very few who are attacked
recover from it. The smallpox and malignant fevers which desolate Para­
guay are called plagues, on account o f the great numbers they destroy.
Vancouver accounts o f extraordinary desolations from these causes still
further north.
Such are, in brief, the conditions the most promotive of epidemics the
world over, and what is the action of Christianity and civilization on the
experience and learning of the last three centuries ?




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The origin of quarantine was based upon the contagiousness of epidemic
diseases, but the prime sources of the “ contagion,” — the causes which set
the disease in motion, were not considered, and in enforcing the laws for
its execution innumerable foci for its propagation were constituted and
preserved with an ignorance o f this means of dissemination which can
only be excused by the then limited extent of scientific investigation. The
rigors of quarantine were then enacted and enforced with a full persuasion
of the certainty of disease and death to whomsoever might come in com­
munication with persons already affected. Had this been so, had the
disease which Viscount Bernabo so vigorously tried to barricade, been as
communicable from one person to another as he thought it, it never could
have ceased till the whole earth had been depopulated. If the subtle poison
which leaped the bounds and escaped through the crevices of the most
confined barricades with a continually multiplying strength, had passed
along mankind as a common battery of so many jars for an electric cur­
rent, it never could have censed so long as a subject remained on the face
of the earth. If the number attacked were only as one when one had it, it
would have increased in geometrical proportion, and they would have been
as ten times ten when ten had it, one hundred times one hundred to a hun­
dred, and so on— a proposition which needs only to be stated to be appre­
ciated. But, besides, even were contagion by contact true, does not the
history of every epidemic prove that complete isolation is impracticable,
that no strictures, however severe, can control the sympathies and affections
of the human soul when thoroughly aroused— that even the penalty of
burning alive can not extinguish the spark of human kindness when once
enkindled.
Everywhere dense population, misery, want and filth constitute the
source as well as the contagion of epidemics, but at this very day, the 1st
day of September, 1856, almost in the centre o f the largest commercial
city in the world, is gathered the detritus of every sickly clime, to be
crammed in and crowded round the quarantine of New Y o r k ! Do the
rags of Alexandria— for there has been an infected ship and cargo of them
at New York quarantine since June last— grow less “ contagious” from
the heat, darkness and confinement o f the hold of a ship ? Do the putrid
hides of South America and the goat skins o f Cape de Verdes become
tanned of their poison by wreaking it on the inhabitants of a populous
city ? A y ! they do. O ne H undred an d F ift y of such S h ip s an d such
C a r g o e s are now surrounded by the bay of New York !
But, alas! for the poor passengers and sailors, they are quarantined;
many of them quarantined as are the victims o f this relic of barbarism, on
the Bay Ridge from Fort Hamilton to Brooklyn.
Yet these ships and these cargoes are now as they would have been
centuries ago, they are as the thirty feet deep of slime from the table lands
of Abyssinia deposited in the lap of Egypt, as the Hoogly exhaling its
putrid remains, or as the gleanings o f the Father of Waters, in which cro­
codiles only can revel,— all, all these things lost sight of in the heartless
selfishness which dictates a quarantine for persons— a seclusion of the sick
and needy! It is an anomaly in the age of Christianity and civilization.
In the midst of free schools, free academies and public charities, we are
appalled by an infatuated fanaticism which should only be measured by
the ages which gave it birth. Every ennobling sentiment of the human
soul revolts with horror at the idea of the seclusion which the enforcers of




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413

quarantine would practice upon one in the time o f greatest need. It is
adverse to every impulse of sympathy— antagonistic to all the kindly emo­
tions of the heart, it inculcates a beastly selfishness and fratricidal barbar­
ism which has, in the nature of causes, always brought upon the enforcers
o f it a retributory certainty of infliction with the worst horrors o f their
imagination, in a degree of concentrated strength proportionate to their
efforts to restrain it. The barricaders of black death who were infatuated
by the hideous terror of judgments inflicted for secret sins, were in some
degree excusable in acts measured by the light of science, but that such
inhumanity, such remorseless heartlessness and cowardly selfishness should
exist and be tolerated now, is surely the most inconceivable incident of
barbarism connected with the present age.
There are at this time agitators for the removal of the New York quar­
antine from its present site to a greater distance from this city, with the
avowed object o f effecting a more perfect seclusion of the sick. Surely
every individual of common intelligence can now comprehend the practical
truth, that pure air is the only real security against epidemics. In all the
regulations of quarantine this prime necessity has ever been overlooked ;
confinement in a foul atmosphere has been the distinguishing feature of
sickly ships, quarantine hospitals and lazarettos, in all ages, everywhere ;
they convert common fevers into pestilence, which, in their attempts to
restrain, they oftentimes render contagious, and they are o f all others the
most concentrated foci o f disease. They constantly avert the attention of
the public from the true precautionary sanitary measures, under the absurd
impression that epidemics can be shut out or barricaded like unwelcome
visitors.
It is unnecessary now to state that there is no disease to which mankind
is heir, contagious or non-contagious, which may not be aggarvated by
the infliction of quarantine, and quarantines are necessarily dangerous and
disease-producing in proportion to the strictness with which the laws that
govern them are enforced. W hat is the disease which any community
would fear from contagion ? Small-pox is perhaps the most pre-eminently
contagious epidemic that prevails, but can it prevail in any civilized com­
munity in the world ? Certainly not. The guard against it from contact
is perfect by vaccination, which can be made universal without an item of
expense to the city or State.
There is no disease compatible with cleanliness which may occur at all,
that can be otherwise influenced than aggravated by the quarantine of
persons.
But of things. W ell ventilated and cleanly ships rarely or never have
to stand quarantine, no matter what their cargo, or port from which they
last cleared.
Ships which are built without proper provision for fresh air, overcrowded
with passengers, or not kept clean, are those which come into port infected.
That a large number of such, congregated together, may prove a fruitful
source for epidemics, there is abundant evidence ; a prominent exemplifi­
cation now exists at the New York quarantine. And the spread o f disease
from them can only be measured by the conditions adequate to its
support.
It'ships are properly ventilated and kept clean they are the most healthy
of human abodes, because they have the freest access of pure air. Ships
without proper provision for fresh air sometimes lie for long periods in




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Quarantine.

sickly harbors and take in such cargoes as may render it impossible to
prevent their accumulating the seeds o f disease; others take on board loads
o f human beings with closely packed clothing and rubbish, frequently from
the vilest dens of corruption; and others are freighted with filthy rags, hides,
&c., liable to contain infection to begin with, and sure to generate it if not
exposed to the free access o f air, which will multiply and break forth with
violence commensurate with the conditions which favor it. On arrival,
the practice of quarantine is— if any one on board is sick of an infectious
disease, not only to detain such one on board to continue inhaling the
poison which is destroying life, but to detain all the rest, likewise, till they
are also poisoned— the alternative to this is the quarantine hospital, to be
surrounded by misery in order to alleviate i t ! Nor does it end here; the
ship and cargo of poison is anchored in the midst of a populous community
for the exhalations which arise from her hold to poison the air they
breathe,— disease and death thus stabbing in the dark, while the victim is
under a false sense of security, from the traitor which he has nourished in
his bosom.
Can any one now survey the quarantine ground and harbor of New
York— and other quarantines are just as bad— and view the crape-clad
mansions which border the finest bay in the world, without revolting from
his inmost soul against quarantines ?
But what should be done with infected ships and cargoes ; the infected
t h i n g s which entail disease and death ?
The principles of economy alone
will dictate a ready reply. Let storehouses be erected, with proper pro­
vision for security and the admission o f free air— nature’s great disinfector
— at a sufficient distance from the city, and there let every infected ship
be at once unladen, and the ship ventilated and permitted to go to sea
again.
And of persons', would any one, van any one, apply quarantine to him­
self, and say, seclude them from all human sympathy, from the tender look,
the gentle hand, the—•
N o ! never! Persons communicate no infection— carry no epidemics.
Banish the very name o f quarantine as applied to them, and require that
they only be detained, when necessary, long enough to secure cleanliness,
and prohibit the taking of clothing, baggage and the like, which has been
subject to infection, till it is cleansed and purified.
Things and not persons cause and propagate disease.




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415

Art. II.— W ESTWARD SCIENCE IN AMERICA.
T he swallow travels, and the bee builds now, as these creatures of instinct
traveled and built in the days of Moses and Job ; but the capabilities and
acquisitions of rational man are all progressive, not only as an individual,
from infancy to age, but as a species from the beginning to the end of time.
This is shown by every art which man has invented and in every science
he has employed. Let us proceed to open up more specifically this illustra­
tive department of our general theme, and consider the three-fold advan­
tages,— political, mechanical and educational— which the age of Washing­
ton permits us to enjoy.
The science of government, as practiced in this country, is undoubtedly
constructed on the loftiest principles of common sense, and constitutes the
best model and most salutary protection to each subordinate department
of productive thought. Here the division of labor has been carried to the
greatest extent, not only in the deliberative, but in the executive depart­
ments ; and progress is steadily pursued without attempting to anticipate
results either by springing forward after crude theories or backward in
attempts to copy extinct forms. Our view of liberty differs essentially
from that held by the ancients. B y the latter, citizenship was regarded as
the highest phase of humanity, and man, as a political being, could rise
no higher than to membership in a State; therefore it was that Aristotle
affirmed the State to be before the individual. But with us the State, and
consequently the citizenship, only affords the means o f obtaining still
higher objects, the fullest possible development o f human faculties both in
this world and in that which is to come.
The science of freedom, which is destined to spread its irresistible empire
over this continent, started its primary germ in the bosom of our anti­
podes. Long before the words people, law, equality, independence and
equitable legislation had found a place in refined languages, republicanism
glowed in the mind of Moses, and was partially enbodied in the Hebrew
commonwealth. The safeguard of all races as they were propagated, and
the ennobler of all thoughts as they were colonized, this blessing of blessings
has ever migrated with advancing humanity from age to age, till at length
a fitting field has been attained for its fullest and most fruitful develop­
ment.
Heeren well observes that Greece may be considered as “ a sample paper
of free commonwealths.” But even that renowned land never saw her
people enjoy their just rights; nor was such an exalted privilege realized
by the nations of continental Europe, until the great principle of popular
consent was recognized as the foundation of righteous authority. The
crusades broke down feudalism, and elective monarchies grew increasingly
representative of the popular will, up to the transition period, when James
II. was hurled from his tyrannical throne, and William o f Orange became
the people’s king. All the best political science of the old world went
with the latter from the comparatively free Netherlands, to ameliorate
England, and foster her colonies in America. The essence o f the great
revolution of 1688 was eminently pacific and progressive, occasioning no
sacking of towns nor shedding o f blood. According to Macaulay, it an­
nounced that the strife between the popular element and the despotic
element in the government, which had lasted so long, and been so prolific




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in seditions, rebellions, plots, battles, sieges, impeachments, proscriptions,
and judicial murders, was at an end ; and that the former, having at length
fairly triumphed over the latter, was thenceforth to be permitted freely to
develop itself, and become predominant in the English polity.
In tracing kindred paths of human progress, we have constantly had
occasion to note how the affairs of all consecutive ages, though produced
immediately by the voluntary agency o f diversified actors, have, neverthe­
less, been controlled by the divine counsel, and contributed to execute the
perfected unity of the divine plan. How great and manifold were the
purposes which Providence comprehended in the discovery o f America,
and the peculiar colonies planted on its shores, we need not attempt to
portray. But it is impossible to doubt that prominent among these were
improvements in the science of government, the evolution of new theories
o f civil polity, and a grander application of such principles as had already
been made known.
As a new world was about to be civilized, and required the highest
measure of free intelligence, Bacon, Harrington, Sidney, Milton, Locke,
Grotious, Puffendorf and Montesquieu, arose to pour successive shafts of
light upon the new but sombre skies. Parental injustice and colonial
strife for a while darkened earth and heaven; but in due time the sun of
American freedom ascended with auspicious splendor, when the mists of
prejudice was dispersed and the fresh revelations of a new political science
appeared like some glorious landscape, amid clear shining after rain. All
the brightest beamings of antecedent light fell concentrated in that ray
which illumined the cabin of the Mayflower, and kindled the fairest beacon
of freedom on the eastern extremity o f our continent. It was an effulgence
given to be thenceforth diffused westward evermore, often buffeted, indeed,
by adverse elements, but never impeded in its predominating progress,
and much less diminished or obscured.
Before the pilgrim fathers disembarked, on the 11th o f November,
1620, off Cape Cod, they drew up and subscribed a formal social compact,
from which is the following extract: “ W e, whose names are under-written
* * * do, by these presents, solemnly and mutually, in the presence of
God, and of one another, covenant and combine ourselves together into a
civil body politic, * * * * and by virtue hereof, to enact, constitute
and frame such just and equal laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions, offices,
from time to time, as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the
general good of the colon y ; unto which we promise all due submission
and obedience. In witness whereof we have hereunder subscribed ou r
names.” To this remarkable document were appended the names o f all
the male adults on board the ship; the whole number o f both sexes being
a hundred and one, who took possession of a desert island, where day now
first dawns on the sublimest republic of earth.
According to an Eastern fable the world is a harp. Its strings are earth,
air, fire, flood, life, death and wind. A t certain intervals an angel, flying
through the heavens, strikes the harp. Its vibrations are those mighty
issues of good and evil, the great epochs which mark the destiny of ourrace. In allusion to this, E. C. Wines remarks : “ The mystic harp was
touched when the pilgrims set foot on Plymouth Rock. Its quivering
strings discoursed their most eloquent music. The burden of the notes
was human freedom, human brotherhood, human rights, the sovereignty
o f the people, the supremacy of law over will, the divine right of man to




Westward Science in America.

417

govern himself. The strain is still prolonged in vibrations of ever-widening
circuit. That was an era o f eras. Its influence, vitalized by the American
Union, is fast becoming paramount throughout the civilized world. Europe
feels it at this very moment to her utmost extremities, in every sense, in
every fiber, in every pulsation of her convulsed and struggling energies.
“ The great birth of that era is practical liberty ; liberty based on the
principles of the Gospel; liberty fashioned into symmetry and beauty and
strength by the molding power of Christianity; liberty which ‘ places
sovereignty in the hands o f the people, and then sends them to the Bible
that they may learn how to wear the crown.’ And what a birth 1 Already is
the infant grown into a giant. Liberty, as it exists among us, that is, secured
by constitutional guaranties, impregnated with Gospel principles, and freed
from alliance with royalty, has raised this country from colonial bondage
and insignificance to the rank o f a leading power among the governments
of earth.
“ The union of these States under one government, effected by our na­
tional Constitution, has given to America a career unparalleled in the
annals of time for rapidity and brilliancy. Her three millions of people
have swelled, in little more than half a century, to twenty-five millions.
Her one million square miles have expanded into nearly four millions.
Her thirteen States have grown into thirty-one. Her navigation and com­
merce rival those of the oldest and most commercial nations. Her keels
vex all waters. Her maritime means and maritime power are seen on all
seas and oceans, lakes and rivers. Her inventive genius has given to the
world the two greatest achievements of human ingenuity, in the steamboat
and the electric telegraph. Two thousand steamers ply her waters; twenty
thousand miles of magnetic wires form a net-work over her soil. The
growth of her cities is more like magic than reality. Hew York has
doubled its population in ten years. The man is yet living who felled the
first tree and reared the first log-cabin on the site of Cincinnati. Now that
city contains one hundred and fifty thousand souls. It is larger than the
ancient and venerable city o f Bristol, in England.”
Thus the founders of our national compact have proved themselves the
unsurpassed adepts in political science. They unquestionably belonged to
that select number of whom Bolingbroke said that it has pleased the
author of nature to mingle them from time to time, at distant intervals,
among the societies o f men, to maintain the moral system of the universe
at an elevated point. Nor shall we find less variety of profound invention,
or less popular advantages derived from practical applications in the realm
of American mechanical science, than in the primary one o f civic excel­
lence just considered.
The labors o f cotemporaries generally are in harmony with the epoch ;
and in America especially do they all tend to promote that ultimate des­
tiny which promises to be much better as well as greater than the past
sufferings, commotions and hopes of mankind. The Westering career of
inventive genius reminds one of Milton’s hero marching through the dark
abyss to discover fairer realms beyond. Though assailed by feelings of
discouragement, and fantastic apparitions rise before him, still he persists
ingly rises from the dark depths, to set his foot on the gigantic bridge
that leads from gloom to brightness, and sees at length the pendant new
world hanging in a golden chain, fast by the empyreal heaven, “ with opal
towers and battlements adorned o f living sapphire.”
v o l . xxxv.— n o . iv.
27




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Westward Science in America.

Modern science has produced a splendid mass of evidence as to the
growing power and capacity of the human m ind; of its independence,
freedom and ability to direct its own movement; o f resisting the influences
of external agents; o f inquiring after original truths, and acting according
to its own ideas of propriety, justice or duty. As by the use of armed
vision, and other mechanical aids, the modern scholar can extend his intel­
lectual view to things, laws and results beyond the most distant conceptions
o f uncultivated mind, so will like means bring into near neighborhood
nations and continents heretofore the most remote.
The mechanical inventor stands prominent among the chief heroes and
benefactors of every productive people, and especially is this true o f the
mightiest in our day, the English race. Their bloodless conflict with, and
conqnest over the forces of nature, transcend in importance all the glitter
o f ancestral fame and the proud spoils o f foreign wars. Nothing in
ancient annals is comparable to the prodigious feats of human industry and
skill which have been witnessed since the age of Washington began. Not
to go east of our own immediate ancestors, it is interesting to see how the
old haunts of power are now but the abandoned monuments o f progress,
the means of which are mostly mechanics, all the chief seats of whose
influence have migrated to the West. Canterbury, Lincoln, Salisbury and
Winchester have remained almost stationary ever since the United States
were organized; while Leeds, Paisley and Glasgow, Birmingham, Man­
chester and Liverpool have become the comprehensive centers of the most
productive and beneficent life. The growth of the latter town has corre­
sponded with our own great commercial metropolis which, like it, is truly
a city of the young and auspicious age. Sitting there upon a rock over­
looking the Atlantic, and enriched with the merchandise o f many nations,
the modern Tyre of the old world, whose rugged Lancastrian dignity com­
ports well with the majesty of universal commerce, relies for her principal
support on her rival, New York.
Previous to the eighteenth century great ingenuity and fertility of
invention was manifested in theoretical representations of mechanical prin­
ciples and complicated machines. But in all that relates to efficient
construction and adaptation to practical use, a total absence of scientific
insight was manifested. The puny engines might act very well in the form
of models, if not set to work out something in good earnest, but otherwise
they were sure to knock themselves to pieces in a very short time. On the
contrary, this century is distinguished in nothing more than by the potent
simplicity and prolific benefits to which all its great mechanical inventions
are reduced. The hundred eyes of Argus and the hundred hands of
Briareus are at once laid under contribution to the widest good in the
simultaneous action of all their most concentrated powers. Inventive
genius, divinely guided, is fast altering the face o f earth, and converting
the elements of nature, together with her laws, into instruments and artifi­
cial powers, wherewith to augment the fruitfulness of human industry, and
the products of cultivated soils. Labor-saving machinery increases the
yield of agricultural science, facilitates transportation, and enriches com­
merce through the varied wealth it affords for exchange. The steamengine, spinning-jenny and power-loom, consume neither food nor clothing,
while they accomplish more labor than millions o f weary human hands.
How wonderfully does mechanical science augment the products of indus­
try, multiply the comforts and diminish the diseases o f life, develop­




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410

ing the resources, and increasing the capital, intelligence and power o f a
nation!
W ith the exception of a few islands in hot climates, agriculture never
did flourish in any country where the mechanic arts were not flourishing.
Nearly all the grains, vegetables and plants, as well as fruits, which afford
support to our spreading population and replenish the marts of trade, once
grew spontaneously in Eastern climes, whenee they were transplanted to
constitute the advantage and reward of Western agriculture. As soon as
the pioneer of a new region acquires sufficient knowledge o f the mechanic
arts, and learns to construct tools adapted to the cultivation o f earth, he is
able to convert its products into the means o f comfort, and the staples of
commerce. One discovery leads to another yet more prolific of good, and
every improvement in mechanical science not only multiplies the enjoy­
ments o f rational man, but contributes to promote his health, increase his
longevity, and augments the products o f every realm o f nature, in quantity,
quality and value. Agriculture is therefore dependent upon mechanical
science, not only for its origin, but also for every step o f its progress in
the sublime march of invincible civilization. Agriculture has less direct
influence upon the wealth and power of a nation than commerce, but it is
most conservative of the highest national weal. Minds engaged in the
latter pursuit are more active and acute, more inclined to seek after new
discoveries and such inventions as most favor zealous enterprise ; hence,
nearly all great material improvements have been made by the mechanical,
manufacturing and commercial classes. Their minds are fuller o f schemes
and projects, often ill-digested; and they have more energy, but less sta­
bility of character, usually, than agriculturists. They are more daring, but
less safe; their operations, unlike the salutary effects of bucolic toil, fre­
quently partaking of the character of gambling speculations.
Most of our colonies were planted by commercial companies, and pri­
marily depended on commercial gain for their chief support. But as our
national resources and dangers have multiplied, very fortunately the con­
servative power of the rural populations has proportionately increased; so
that at the present moment of peril, the mighty palladium of our Republic
lies along the magnificent expanse of our Western agriculture.
The propulsive energies and ennobling tendencies of this age and nation
consists mainly in its mechanical, mining and manufacturing industry, as
the main feeders and conservators o f its commerce. These lead to mental
activity and independence, enterprise and inventions, which contribute to
the largest measure o f productive results, and most ameliorate the varioug
conditions o f life. Had we long been limited to the narrow area o f the
original thirteen colonies, the preponderance of the commercial spirit would
probably have ruined us; but happily the maritime coast around the little
East, extended as it may appear, is vastly exceeded by the widening
dominions of agriculture opened in the great West, whose inexhaustible
richness guaranties the perpetuity o f our Union and the supplies of our
food. Thither milions are escaping from the old world, painfully recol­
lecting how many small homes they have seen demolished to make way
for the exclusive parks and aristocratic mansions wherin they could find
neither sympathy nor support. But on the virgin soil where rugged emi­
grants build their cabins of content, the sense o f property becomes the
truest of magicians; it is to them the consciousness of power, and the
feeling of value in self-relying effort. Arthur Young well said, “ Give a




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man nine years’ lease of a garden and he will turn it into a desert; give
a man entire possession of a rock and he will turn it into a garden.” The
vast basin of the Mississippi will soon become the paradise of republican­
ism, the chief fountain of ameliorating civilization, and the central granary
of the world.
The first canal that was opened in the United States extended from Boston
to the river Merrimac. The “ Great Western ” soon after was undertaken,
and now the finest canals in the country connect the Hudson with the
grand series of inland seas, and thence extend beyond the Ohio. The first
railroad was also constructed at the eastern extremity of our republic, and
was the beginning of a continuous thoroughfare of rock and iron which at
this time extends due west a greater length, and with more abundant
profit than can elsewhere be found on earth. The first steamboat was
built in the city of New York, and made her trial trip between the focal
point o f universal maritime navigation and the predestined line o f the
grandest inland travel direct from East to West. As canal, railroad and
steamboat were wanted they were produced, exactly in the places and exi­
gencies best fitted to give them the widest and most salutary use. Neither
Fulton nor Clinton dreamed o f what gigantic results they were the incipi­
ent agents.
Even Jefferson, who as unconsciously served the hidden
purposes of Providence in the purchase o f Louisiana, when told of the
proposed artery of commerce which now winds like a thread of silver
through this imperial Commonwealth, said that “ it was a very fine project
and might be executed a hundred years hence.” A hundred years hence !
What will science have done for our nation before that period shall have
transpired ?
The advanced races are always the goers, while the less advanced are
the stayers at home. Therefore the improvement of locomotion is one of
the first essentials in the progression of mankind, to clog which is not
merely a crime against the individual, but against humanity itself. Man,
aided by the facilities which mechanical engineering has provided, is armed
with the powers of nature ; he has vanquished his opponent, and enlisted
her forces in his service. Matter is no longer an impediment to oppose
him, but the arsenal from which he draws his mightiest weapons and
richest stores. Coal and water become concentrated forces, whose powers
he may develop and control for the extension and improvement o f his ter­
restrial dominion. One single steam-engine, constructed by mechanical
science, is of more real importance than all the powers o f Borne, and a
single printing-press than all the arts of Greece. They are more than
mere instruments, they are prodigious powers, placed at human disposal.
They are products o f reason; and just as that highest mental attribute
learns to see further and further into the processes of nature, so does man
by such means acquire new power for extracting welfare from the earth.
When Humbolt would enumerate only a few o f the instruments whose
invention characterizes this great epoch in the history of civilization, he
names “ the telescope, and its long delayed connection with instruments
of measurement; the compound microscope, which furnishes us with the
means of tracing the conditions o f the process of development o f organs,
which Aristotle gracefully designates as the formative activity of the source
of being; the compass, and the different contrivances invented for measur­
ing terrestrial magnetism; the use of the pendulum as a measure o f tim e;
the barometer; hygrometric and electrometric apparatuses; and the




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421

polariscope, in its application to the phenomena of colored polarization in
the light of the stars, or in luminous regions of the atmosphere.” Chemis­
try instructs us as to what and whence the metals are; and from the
grossest dregs elicits flaming gas, that great moralizer of modern cities,
more powerful than an armed police. Mechanics and chemistry furnish us
with an endless variety of substances, in combinations infinitely diversified,
all tending to give man more power, leisure and comfort; to make him,
in fact, freer and more elevated in his position on the globe. Instead of
being the slave of physical nature, science renders man its master, as the
Creator intended him to be when he gave him an earthly dominion.
An immense amelioration has taken place in the condition of modern
society. Man has extended the limits of his life, has intelligently con­
structed circumstances less fatal to his organism, and has vastly diminished
his liability to dissolution; in fact he has, to a certain extent, beaten the
evils of the physiological world, exactly as he has vanquished the difficulties
of the mechanical world. Better dwellings, clothing and fo o d ; more
abundant supplies of water and pure air, and prompt treatment under
acute disease; inoculation aud vaccination; the improvement o f prisons
and workhouses, and a more rational mode of treating the human frame,
both individual and collective, has secured to civilized man a longer ten­
ancy and happier use of terrestrial existence. Thus the sciences not only
lead to an amended order of action, but also to a condition amended and
improved as well. And we confidently believe that the very same kind of
improvements that have followed the mathematical and physical sciences,
will supervene upon social science, and achieve in the world of progressiva
man far greater and more beneficent wonders than have yet been achieved
in the world of subordinate matter.
Civilization was born on the banks of the great rivers o f the East, and
its grandeurs were first accumulated round the Mediterranean, under the
sway o f Greece and Rome. The medieval age enabled European nations
to develop their ultimate energies on the border of the Atlantic, and, with
ships vastly superior to the triremes of antiquity, to take possession of the
immense expanse of oceanic billows.
Coincident with the establishment
of great commercial exchanges in this new world, that masterly monument
of mechanical science, the Eddystone Lighthouse, arose on the line o f all
progress, and guided the old powers and inert capital of Europe to im­
proved enlargement and use in America. The great currents o f the sea
and trade-winds o f heaven move Westward alike and evermore. Science
daily adds new capacities and momentum in aid o f transportation. Young
as we are as a nation, our boats, yachts, clippers, and steamships are the
first in the world. The child of the East has become a man in the West,
where Oriental toys have expanded into colossal instruments proportioned
to the occasions and efficiency o f their requisite use. But no inventor is
taken captive by his inventions here, however potent they may be. Every
improvement lessens the impress o f local character, and prevents a separa­
tion of the nation into distinct peoples'. Petty cliques and transient con­
flicts may sometimes occur; but deep in the popular heart the great social
country engrosses the profoundest regard, and entirely preponderates over
the geographical country.
The finest bricks are made on the western shore o f Lake Michigan; and
the best materials for the manufacture of flint-glass abound in Minnesota.
Lead and copper of great purity, and in astonishing abundance, attract and




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Westward Science in America.

reward industry beyond the grandest of inland seas; and silver, mixed with
gold, in fabulous profusion, draws enterprise over the diameter of earth to
explore nature’s great storehouse along the Pacific shores. But better
and more pemanently profitable for man than all else o f mundane wealth,
are the more substantial treasures which are buried with inexhaustible
richness on the terra firma route, preordained for ameliorated humanity to
pursue from East to West. Coal and iron constitute the chief motor and
metor of all physical improvement. Like freedom, superior intelligence,
and exalted moral worth, they are the special gifts o f God to those who
speak the English language, and will be found most copious in those re­
mote regions where republicans are destined to be most free.
As the prominent inventions o f a people are the best exponents of their
peculiar genius, and the clearest prophecies o f prospective triumphs, so
does the energy of their educational zeal indicate the measure and imme­
diateness of their success. The successive departments o f political and
mechanical science we have severally considered above; let us now give
more particular attention to the science of education, as exemplified in our
land.
All human progress— political, intellectual, and moral— is inseparable
from material progression, by virtue of the close interconnection which
characterizes the natural course o f social phenomena. But the educational
element must form the principal band of the scientific sheaf, from its va­
rious relations, both of subordination and of direction to all the rest. It
is in this w'ay that the homogeneous co-ordination of legitimate sciences
proceeds to the fullest development, and for the widest ulterior influence
on human destiny. The filiation and adaptation o f all great discoveries
for the popular good, affords a fine subject for grateful contemplation, and
is the most exhilarating guaranty to the loftiest hopes. The general in­
tellect, under the auspices of American freedom, now, and for the first time,
is entering upon the age o f ameliorating science. It is an advent to be
hailed with chastened joy, and to be guarded by vigilant expectation. In
comparative anatomy, it is well known that a Cuvier may determine, from
a single joint, tooth, or other fragment o f an animal, whose species had
never entered human eye or imagination, not only its general configura­
tion, size, family, and grade in the series of organic beings, but also its
physiological constitution, its manners, its food, its climatic habitation,
whether in the geography or the chronology of the globe. Even so equal
knowledge of the analogous laws of symmetry and mutual dependence in
the social system, eventually attainable, and to be applied to extant usages
or disinterred relics, will enable its possessor, by a single specimen, ac­
curately to fix the entire condition of the corresponding people on the
scale of civilization. Tried by this criterion, what monuments of national
mind may we not anticipate for the future, while we contemplate the re­
sults already attained by our brief but glorious past! As the greater
Newton succeeded the great Kepler, and was in turn followed by La Place,
who explained the physical counterpart of his predecessor’s theory by the
law of gravitation imperfectly understood by its own discoverer, so do we
believe that the inductive method re-established by Francis Bacon will be
consummated in our central clime, amid greatly increased splendors, by
the mental manhood o f the twentieth century.
The great prophet of science to whom we have just referred, lived mostly
in the future, and in his last will he left “ his name and memory to foreign




Westward Science in America.

423

nations and to the next ages.” He liad crossed the Atlantic, whose storms
men had penetrated for ages without perceiving the fair omens of prog­
ress, but in the confidence o f his prophetic intuition he gave the name of
Good Hope to the headland he had reached; as Magellan, when he beheld
the boundless expanse of waters in another direction, called it the Pacific.
The seeds which Bacon sowed have here sprung up, and are growing to a
mighty tree, and the thoughts of millions come to lodge in its branches.
Those branches spread “ so broad and long, that in the ground the bended
twigs took root, and daughters grew about the mother tree, a pillared
shade high overarched, and echoing walks b e t w e e n w a l k s where Litera­
ture may hang her wreaths upon the massy stems, and Art may adorn
that Religion, of which Science erects the hundred-aisled temple. The
preparation made for the present age, and the high anticipations enter­
tained by the last and wisest of its precursors, is set forth as follows near
the close of his “ Advancement o f L e a r n i n g —
“ Being now at some pause, looking back into that. I have passed through, this
writing scemeth to me, as far as a man can judge of his own wrnrk, not much bet­
ter than that noise or sound which musicians make while they are tuning their
instruments ; which is nothing pleasant to hear, yet is a cause why the music is
sweeter afterward : so have 1 been content to tune the instruments of the muses,
that they may play who have better hands. And surely, when I set before me
the condition of these times, in which Learning hath made her third visitation or
circuit, in all the qualities thereof—as the excelleucy and vivacity of the wits of
this age—the noble helps and lights which we have by the travails of ancient
writers—the art of printing, which communicateth books to men of all fortunes—
the openness of the world by navigation, which hath disclosed multitudes of ex­
periments and a mass of natural history—the leisure wherewith these times abound,
not employing men so generally in civil business, as the States of Greece did in
respect of their popularity, and the State of Rome in respect of the greatness of
her monarchy, the present disposition of these times to peace, and the inseparable
propriety of time, which is ever more and more to disclose truth—I cannot but
be raised to this persuasion, that this third period of time will far surpass that
of the Grecian and Roman learning.”
In 1647 the Plymouth colony o f Massachusetts passed an act “ that
every township of fifty householders should appoint a person to teach all
the children to read and write, and that every township o f one hundred
families should support a grammar-school.”
In the following year (1648) the Legislative Assembly o f the colony o f
Connecticut passed a statute in relation to education of very nearly the
same purport as that passed in Massachusetts. The Puritans o f New Eng­
land entertained the same opinion as the Presbyterians of Scotland, that
education is necessary to the performance of religious d u ty ; and the
former seem to have borrowed their ideas and system of education sub­
stantially from the latter. This was the foundation of the system o f com­
mon-school education which was adopted in the State o f New York in the
early part of the nineteenth century, and has been more recently adopted
in nearly all the free States. W hile no effort has been made to give the
whole population of England a common-school education, and Parliament
persists in discouraging such an undertaking, our newest Western States
even exceed New England in their educational zeal.
The first college in America was founded on the eastern edge of Plym­
outh colony, and has been succeeded by a series o f rivals stretching due
west, so rapidly and widely multiplied in numbers and patronage, that




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Westward Science in America.

now the new States possess richer advantages for learning than the old.
A self-educated seaman, born in the same region of rock and ice, was the
first to translate and publish with emendations the profoundest mathemat­
ical works of modern times; and now there are successful aspirants after
like distinction, whose towers o f science stand reflected on the banks of
the Ohio, casting their shadows still onward before the ascending sun. It
was fitting that the most learned President of the United States should
travel from Pilgrim Rock to the “ Mount Adam s” o f Westward empire,
whereon he laid the corner-stone o f the only observatory extant, which is
sustained by popular subscription, and rendered renowned by private en­
terprise. In that “ Queen City,” which seems like a thing o f yesterday,
not only has the pendulum of Galileo been made to measure the diameter
of a single planet, but one o f the most valuable inventions o f this age, the
astronomical clock, there first beat in its sublime reckoning o f the universe.
A printer, born in Boston, was armed by Providence with paper and twine,
through which to draw harmless lightnings from the skies; and a painter
in New York, through the same heavenly guidance, and at the fitting time,
charged the celestial messenger with a kindred burden o f human intelli­
gence, and dispatched it first from the capitol of our Union to instruct and
ameliorate mankind.
Coincident with the latter discovery, mechanical science in this great
metropolis perfected a still more imperial civilizer, the steam power-press;
and now not an element of nature expands, not a conquest of science is
matured, and not an inspiration of genius fulmines in the gloom of pen­
ury, or around the pinnacles of power, that the press does not gather all
the aggregated excellence in subordination to its use, to enhance the bene­
factions of ennobling intelligence upon which it subsists. In Boston,
ether was first applied to ameliorate the dreaded pain of surgical steel,
to mitigate the bitterest physical pangs, and rob Death himself of half his
spiritual terrors. In Cincinnati, the steam fire-engine has just been added
to other mighty conservative agents. As the general alarm aggravates
midnight terrors, and the gains o f a toilsome life are threatened by the
remorseless conflagration, glaring in 1ofiy defiance to ordinary resistance,
a tiny match kindles the ardor of invincible union between diverse ele­
ments in united opposition, and agitated crowds are soon awed into ad­
miring silence, as the mighty flames are speedily drowned.
One of our
citizens has recently mapped the ocean o f international commerce, with
all its old currents of power sagaciously discriminated, and newly traced
as the best channels o f safety. Another, venturing where no predecessor
had ever been, has just returned from the regions of perpetual ice, to win
the grateful applause o f Christendom for the material wonders he discov­
ered and the beneficent spirit he displayed. A clergyman o f this city, for
his researches in Palestine, was the first o f four Americans who, within
the last fifteen years, have been decorated with the golden medals of for­
eign honors; one o f whom, on account o f his explorations in the opposite
direction, whither tends the greatest public good, has just been nominated
to the highest secular dignity possible on earth.
The restless and insatiable activity of Americans in scientific research
and moral heroism, was finely personated by Ulysses of old. Sick of
Ithaca, Argos, Telemachus, and Penelope even, the old and indomitable
mariner-king panted for untried dangers and undiscovered lands. His
purpose was “ to sail beyond the sunset, and the baths o f all the western




Westward Science in America.

425

stars, until he died.” Thus actuated, man is lifted to a higher platform of
observation, whence he may read the book of gemmed pictures illumi­
nating his nights, and revealed to fill his soul with an inspiration more
grand and inspiriting than any terrestrial object can communicate It is
the legitimate and appropriate sequence of the new revelations of modern
science, and is designed more and more to render the master o f earth free
of the universe. In his heavenly Father’s house are many mansions, and
these with all their expansive marvels are unfolded in salutary enlarged­
ness, in order that their predestined possessor, through a corresponding
education in their presence, may expand his spirit till it shall become approximatively unbounded in a creation without bounds. The telescope,
the compass, the press, the locomotive, and the telegraph, have in succes­
sion, and with vastly increased degrees of power, infused into the heart of
humanity a sense of freedom, and in that influence their chief benefaction
consists. Each new province annexed to the magnificent domain o f pres­
ent knowledge points more clearly to still richer provinces beyond ; and
on the remotest border of all, human immortality and infinite progress are
most legibly inscribed. “ Forward” and “ forever” are exhortations not
only vocal in the music o f the spheres, but are repeated to the adventurer
by the remotest billows, and quicken the passion for profounder investiga­
tion in the darkest depths.
The regulator of the steam-engine was invented in Massachusetts, where
also originated most o f the superior cotton and woolen machinery now gen­
erally employed. The locomotive was there entirely re-cast, and immensely
improved. When the perfected “ iron horse” thence advanced, surmounted
by that indigenous embodiment o f democratic huzzas, the steam-whistle,
“ Young Am erica” was just beginning to go ahead. When, in the labor­
atory of the University in this city, the sun-picture was first invented,
simultaneously with the labors of Daguerre, the same promising youth
was favored with a glance o f what he is yet to be. And when that first
telegraphic message, “ What hath God wrought!” was let fly with the
lucid freedom of lightning, Young America, standing on the summit of
six thousand years, and born to renovate the race whose final destiny he
represents, had then, indeed, begun to talk.
A comprehensive view of political, mechanical, and educational science
in our country, will teach us that the mightiest minds are more and more
compelled to serve the masses: and that the most enormous outlay of cap­
ital, in either ponderous or exquisite producing agents, is all in favor of
the undistinguished populace, and not for the special advantage of a select
few. The most subtle and refined machinery, for example, is not applied
to the most delicate and elegant kind of wrork, such as gold and silver,
jewels and embroidery. These luxuries are mainly executed by hand,
while the most expensive machinery is brought into play where operations
on the commonest materials are to be performed, because these are exe­
cuted on the widest scale. Such is especially the case when coarse and
ordinary wares are manufactured for the many. This is why such a vast
and astonishing variety o f artificial power is used in our country and age.
The machine, with its million fingers, works for millions of purchasers,
while in lands less free, w'here magnificence and beggary stand side by
side, tens of thousands work for one. There, art and science labor for
princely aristocrats on ly ; here, the great mass o f the people are their
chosen and most munificent patrons.




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Westward Science in America.

All great workers, and the improvements they originate, find their
legitimate use only in the enunciation o f great truths for the popular
good. Thus it is that the relation o f men to each other and to the whole
world is progressively changed, and that always in the direction of in­
creased equality. The universal mind receives simultaneously the impres­
sion of each new idea; it imprints itself upon domestic institutions, infuses
itself into literature, reconstructs political formulas, and, in some measure,
both impels and controls the religious life. It has lately been proved that
the whole earth is a magnet, and all mental achievements in our day tend
to render the domain of American civilization one immense university of
science. A t each remove toward Western freedom, progressive man has
shown his mastery by compelling all the elements to help to create and
grace his triumphs. The waters turned from their courses to move his
mills; the sportive zephyrs and angry winds imprisoned in his sails ; the
flying vapor taken captive to whirl Ids myriad of spindles, or send the
“ iron missionary ” tramp, tramp over the earth, splash, splash across the
sea; the soft light he makes ministrant to the dearest joys, depicting by
it the portrait of tenderest lov e; and the latent flame which sings along
the wires by lines o f railway, all alike and together prophesy o f mightier
and better things to come.
Facilities of knowledge are the auspicious means of transfusing into the
soul those ideas which are the tools vouchsafed to shape the destiny of
our race. The dynasty o f a new thought is much more glorious than the
pedigree of old kings; and the future of free America will infinitely tran­
scend in worth and well-doing all the arbitrary dignities and adventitious
splendors gone by.
The machinery of production in America is already greater than that
of England.
Our twenty-three millions o f citizens produce a larger
amount of valuable staples, while they build twice as many houses; make
twice as many roads; apply three times more labor in the improvement
of land ; build four times as many school-houses and churches; and print
ten times as many newspapers. W e have laid the foundation o f a pyramid
whose base is a million of square miles, studded all over with innumerable
little communities, each one of which occupies space sufficient for a large
one, with its academy or its college, its journals, book-stores, and libraries,
all aiding to give to the superstructure a magnificence proportioned to the
breadth and stability of its base. Among the more Western States, not
less than in the Eastern, there is universal activity and intelligence. It is
safe to repeat that the Commonwealths recently organized have more and
better printing-presses, and consume more well-read paper; that they have
more commodious school-houses, and more scholars in them ; more
churches, and more devout Christians in them ; more well-selected libra­
ries, and more thoughtful readers in them, than any other nation on
earth.
W hat our future may become, our brief past will best suggest. W e
know that however high we may ascend the course of history, we see, not
in each or any particular people, but in the human family as a whole, an
uninterrupted endeavor to enlarge the boundaries of. knowledge, always
progressive; so that from the obscurity o f earliest time, we arrive step by
step to modern science, more certain, more extended, and more prolific in
practical results than was ever known in preceding ages. This progress
is proved by the sovereignty which man has successively acquired over




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Usury Laws.

nature, subordinating to bis will her most energetic forces, and compelling
them to accomplish the highest ends in the surest manner. W e see what
the earth, transformed in an immense portion of its best surface, has be­
come under his hand. He subdues the billows, traverses seas, and his in­
vincible thought, aspiring to still sublimer empire, makes his necessities to
be served by the stars which vainly flee in the deserts of space.
From the survey which has been taken above of the spreading o f amel­
iorating empire in the great West, it is evident that its central throne
must soon rest on the granite heights beyond the great lakes, near the
sources of the mighty Mississippi. Thither the free and brave millions are
fast gathering, w'hose noble progeny will people the entire continent and
bless the world. The denizens of those wealthy regions, and the patriots
of those happy times, will be both intelligent and brave beyond precedent,
in conserving the republican institutions they have received to perfect and
perpetuate. The sentiment o f the great man of the extreme East will be
best appreciated and most sublimely exemplified, in proportion as it sweeps
with the sun from the horizon of its origin, and from the loftiest Rocky
Mountains resounds simultaneously from ocean to ocean the profoundest
sentiment of undivided peoples, “ Liberty and union, now and forever, one
and inseparable!”

Art.

111. — U S U R Y

LAWS.

T h e r e are no laws on statute books so lightly regarded, and so rarely
enforced, as those which relate to the rate o f interest. The readiness with
which, and the facilities for evading them, seem to pacify that large class,
the lenders, who would otherwise regard them as most obnoxious; while
the fancied security' which they seemingly afford to another class, the
borrowers, quiets all agitation from that quarter. That the evasions are
easily and often made, and the security they afford to the borrower only
apparent, no one can doubt who devotes the least attention to the subject.
And sucb being the case, it is a matter of surprise that wise legislators
should have allowed laws to remain upon the statute book which, to say
the least, are manifestly and openly violated. Some reproach, at least,
must rest upon those legislators who, with the glaring evasions before
their eyes, have remained quiet upon this subject; for if the laws are just
and wise it is the duty of every legislator to see that they are enforced,
or, at any rate, to fix penalties corresponding to the facilities with which
they may be violated.
It will be my object in this communication, as far as the limits o f your
Review will permit, to show—
1st. That all usury laws are founded upon wrong and erroneous princi­
ples, and therefore fail to accomplish the end for which they were de­
signed.
2d. That they tend rather to increase than to lower the rate of interest.
3d. That if the laws were strictly enforced, as in every well disposed
government they should be, they would prove a curse rather than a
blessing.
The idea of usury is of very ancient date. In the first account we have




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Usury Laws.

of it, anything over and above the actual amount of the sum lent was
called usury. The laws of usury which existed among the Jews, and that
we find recorded in the Bible, has been the groundwork of the general
opinions of the sinfulness of usury, that have prevailed in the earliest
periods of the world’s history. The Romish church, always influential in
spreading error, were especially instrumental in sowing broadcast these
opinions, and usury is denounced by the canon law. It is clear, how7ever,
that the Jews did not regard usury as a sin, since they only prohibited it
between Jew and Jew. Had it been a sin per se, they would have dedounced it universally. W ith them it was a legal, and not a moral sin.
The opinion with regard to its sinfulness became, at a very early period,
almost universal; and we find that most stringent laws were enacted
against usury, and money-lenders most rigorously persecuted. It was not,
in England, until the 37th year o f the reign o f Henry the Eighth, that a
distinction was made betw'een interest and usury. This was a great re­
form, as it evinced a different feeling with regard to the sin o f usury; and
perhaps the reform would have been greater, if at that very time it had
not been legal to regulate the price o f provisions by law. This was the
first legal interest known in England. According to Hume, “ the pre­
amble of this very law treats the interest of money as illegal and crimi­
nal.” So strong v'ere the prejudices o f the nation, that Edward VI., a
boyish and superstitious king, revived the old laws, but they were inef­
fectual, for during his reign money was worth from ten to twelve percent.
Elizabeth revived the law of Henry VIII., and from that day to the pres­
ent time the reform has been gradually extending, until now, in England,
all usury laws have been abolished. The whole history of these laws
show a gradual progress and revolution, all tending to the same result
A superstitious belief in the sin o f usury, fostered and encouraged by tho
Romish church, formed their only foundation.
It was not strange, then, that our forefathers, coming from a land where
sentiments prevailed, almost universally, that usury was sinful, and turn­
ing for all law, human and divine, to the Bible, should re-enact the old
Jewish law7. In 1641, in Massachusetts, it was ordered, decreed, and by
the court declared, “ That no man shall be adjudged for the mere forbear­
ance of any debt above £8 in the 100 for one year, and not above that
rate proportionably for all sums whatsoever, bills of exchange not except­
ed ; neither shall this be a color or countenance to allow any usury
among us contrary to the law o f God.” This law remained in force till
1693, when a law was passed fixing the rate of interest at six per cent,
under penalty of forfeiting value of money or what was lent. In 1750
borrower and lender could come into court and testify; and in 1783 it
was still further amended, by making the penalty recoverable by indict­
ment, or by an action on the same. In 1825 the law was wholly repeal­
ed, and the statutes o f 1S25-6, with a slight amendment in 1846, are in
force. Since 1825-6 they have been allowed to remain a dead letter. And
we may say, in the words of another, “ It is singular that an enactment
which contradicted the most obvious principles, and has been repeatedly
condemned by committees of the Legislature, should have been allowed
to remain upon the statute book so long.”
Having thus briefly given the history of the usury laws, we will consid­
er our first proposition, “ That all usury laws are founded upon wrong
and erroneous principles.” It is evident that when any rate o f interest is




Usury Laws.

429

allowed to be right, the doctrine of the sinfulness of usury is no longer
tenable. The laws must rest upon some other foundation, and that foun­
dation can be none other than the assumption, that law can and should
regulate the price of money. It is not necessary to multiply facts, for
they are abundant, and within the experience of all persons, that such
laws never have and never did produce such a result, and that money' has
had a value depending upon the same causes as those which regulate the
prices o f all merchandise. Indeed, the laws have had no effect in producing
such a result, but on the contrary, have had an entirely different effect.
It is an historical fact, that in all countries where there have been strin­
gent usury laws, there the rate of interest has been the highest. In coun­
tries where the Koran is used, which book expressly forbids usury, there a
high rate of interest exists. Says McCulloch, an able writer on political
economy, “ Legislative enactments invariably increase the price of money,
for if the rate fixed by law is less than the market rate, lenders and bor­
rowers are obliged to resort to circuitous devices to evade i t ; and there­
fore, as there is more risk, there is more interest, or a greater price to be
paid.”
Examine, for a moment, the causes which must and always will pro­
duce this result wherever such laws exist. It is perfectly evident, that if
the legal rate was the only price of the value of money, that such effects
as we have mentioned could not result. But there is a market rate for
money, and this rate must exist whenever money can be invested moro
profitably by the capitalist than it can be if loaned at the legal rate of in­
terest, for surely no one would wish to loan his money at six per cent
when he could obtain by its investment from ten to twenty. The market
rate of money is what it is worth to the owner for investment, and of
course what it will bring with borrowers. It is manifest that this rate
cannot be uniform, but its degree must depend upon various circum­
stances, such as the character o f the loan and of the individual to whom
the loan is to be made, and the character o f the government. Every one
must be cognizant of the variety o f circumstances which go to make up
the risk attending loans. A market rate of money always has and always
will exist, as fluctuating as the prices of the various products o f human
labor. N o one will presume to deny this; and all laws which affix a pen­
alty for loaning money at above a fixed rate must, when that is below the
market rate, increase the risk and o f course the price. There are histori­
cal facts which bear me out in this assertion. I will mention a few o f
them. In England, when the laws were most rigorous against usury, the
rate of interest or market rate was 46 per cent. From the time of King
Alfred, A. D. 800, to 37th year of Henry VIII., money-lenders w'ere most
rigorously persecuted, and at no time was the price of money greater.
A t Rome, under the Republican government, the rate o f interest was ex­
ceedingly high. In reign o f King John 86 per cent was asked for money.
In view of these facts, and from experience and the light which history
gives us, I think it would not be presumption to say, that if usury laws
were strictly enforced, that the market rate o f interest, instead of ranging
from six to ten per cent, w'ould range still higher, and there would imme­
diately be petitions for their abolishment. It has been the violation of
the laws and the permitting the offenders to go unharmed, with the al­
lowed publication of the market value of money in the newspapers of
the day, that has kept these laws upon the statute book so long. But




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Usury Laws.

since legislation cannot and does not control the price o f money, or comp'el the lender to take the legal rate only for money, it seems just and
right to ask that they may he abolished, or at least that principle of these
laws which fixes one rate for money under ,<4ll circumstances. They
should be abolished, because they are founded upon a wrong and errone­
ous principle, that law can control the price of money. I pass now to my
second proposition, which is “ That usury laws tend rather to increase
the price of money.” This is almost self-evident. For if the rate fixed
by law is not maintained, whenever a loan is made above that rate the
laws must increase the price, as the lender will demand of the borrower
something for the risk he incurs in infringing the law. This is a direct
injustice to the borrower, for the law not only obliges him to pay more
for a loan, but drives him from those law-abiding men who would willing­
ly lend him if the law did not forbid, yet who are obliged, on account of
its existence, to either hoard their money or place it where they can get
its market value— drives him to men less conscientious and less fearful of
the terrors of the law, w'ho, taking advantage o f his necessities, often­
times ask more than the market rate. Many a borrower is driven from
his neighbor who has money in abundance, but will not lend it to become
the prey of sharpers. Again, they increase the price of money by driving
it, if the rate is low at home, to other States, where the legal rate may be
higher, and thus diminish the supply at home to meet the demand. It is
well known that the legal rate is higher in New York than in Massachu­
setts, and of course a great deal o f the unemployed capital goes to New
York from Massachusetts. In every instance when the value of money is
high, there is a large amount of money which would come into the mar­
ket., and tend to lower the rate, if there were no laws, and if a fair com­
petition existed in the money as well as in the meat market. Not a mill
o f money which is hoarded up in a money pressure that does not tend to
raise the price which the borrower must pay.
Indeed, those laws close the only safety-valve which oftentimes exists to
relieve a money pressure. For if no usury laws existed, whenever the
market was tight, to use a familiar expression, the price or interest of
money would rise in proportion, and the consequence would be that
money uninvested would flow in from all quarters to obtain the increased
rates, and as happens in all departments of trade, a diminished rate would
speedily be the result, and great relief to the money market. This is not
a fancy sketch, for it is what takes place every year in every department
o f trade. There would be the same competition in the sale of money as
of merchandise, and, as a necessary result, more favorable terms. At
present there is an actual monopoly of trade in money when the rate is
high by those who are willing to evade the laws, while all law-abiding
citizens are shut out from the market.
Still again. The laws, by establishing a fixed rate for all loans, with­
out regard to their nature or risk, are unequal and unjust in their opera­
tion. For instance, suppose A has one thousand dollars to loan, B and C
wish to hire, B can give better security than C, but C can, by giving more
than the legal rate of interest, and his business will allow o f it, make it
better for A to lend him. But A is not willing to take more than the
legal rate, and therefore B obtains the money and C must suffer. This
simple case serves to show that the laws operate to the disadvantage of
those whose securities may be questionable, but yet whose capacities and




Usury Laws.

431

credit arc excellent— to the disadvantage o f the farmer and mechanic.
For no sane man would lend at the same rate to a man with good and a
man with questionable security. It is evident that a greater price would
be demanded of the one who could only offer doubtful security, but the
law o f usury compels you to ask the same. Now what justice is there
in this ? W hat right has the law to step in and say you have no right
to give for an article what you think it is worth— you have no right to
take as much for your money as any individual can afford to give ? The
laws do not do this with regard to other things of like exchangable value.
If the principle of these laws is correct, then it should be carried out
with regard to every article, and no man should be allowed to take from
another more than the actual worth of an article, for the principle of in­
terest is involved in the sale of every article o f merchandise. For in­
stance, if a man sells a barrel of flour which is worth but $12 for $16,
he actually receives $4 interest. It may be objected that money is not
merchandise. To be sure money differs from merchandise in its greater
exchangable value, and the necessity of money to every individual. This
exchangable value and necessity of money to every individual constitutes
its value, and of course belongs to the owner of money, with the same
liability as merchandise, to fluctuations in price. Indeed, money differs
from the products of labor only by possessing those qualities in a higher
degree. The right o f an individual to money is as absolute as his right
to any o f the products of his labor, and he has the same control of it.
When an individual obtains money, he is certainly possessed o f the pow er
which it gives; he has given the value of it and of all the qualities which
attach to it. Nothing can be more false in theory and practice than
that legislation can control the price of money. Indeed, the very exist­
ence of usury law's on the pages of the statute book tends to increase the
price of money, injures the borrower, and is a clog to the mercantile com­
munity, and a relic of the past. The Governor o f Louisiana, in a veto of
a usury bill in that State, said: “ History shows that the price o f all pro­
ducts of labor have been the subject of legislation, and gradually, as civ­
ilization and knowledge advanced, were removed. This is the last relic
of such legislation. The people should be left to manage their own con­
cerns. It is certainly as competent for two individuals to agree upon the
price of a loan as upon the rent of a house or the wages o f labor, the
contract betwreen the borrower and lender being of the same nature.” It
is asserted, that if we repeal the laws of usury that the price or interest
of money will be still higher than it is now, because capitalists will com­
bine together and ask any amount they choose. This is a great mistake,
and arises from the erroneous idea that individuals can control the price
of money. How utterly erroneous such an idea is, must be evident when
we consider that there is nowr a constant fluctuation in the market price
of money, which no one will for a moment attribute to the power of law,
nor the will or caprice of individuals. If it is in the power o f individuals
to combine together and fix a market rate for money, why do they not do
it now ? Is it on account of law ? Is there .anything in the laws which
will prevent them ? No, for it is because they have not the power. It is
because the fluctuations in the price o f money depend upon causes beyond
the control of individuals and of law. I will just mention a few causes
which must influence the rate of interest o f money. One principal cause,
and one which regulates the price o f all the products o f labor, is supply




432

Usury Laws.

and demand. Money is disposable capital. Money as money lias no
value. Its value consists in its use in purchasing the products of human
labor and in facilitating exchanges, and the price demanded for its use
hears some proportion to the profit made by its employment. When ex­
changes are frequent, or business good, then the demand for money will
be great, while the supply will be diminished, and of course, as a natural
consequence, an increased rate o f interest, other things being equal. On
the other hand, if exchanges are less frequent, the demand will be dimin­
ished and an increased supply, and as a result, a lower rate of interest. I
would by no means assert that a high rate of interest is a necessary result
o f good business, or a low rate o f bad business, though such a state of
things may be said generally to exist. In America and Turkey, general­
ly, the rate of interest is high, but it is clear that the same cause does not
exist for it in both countries. In the latter, the bad character o f the gov­
ernment contributes to that result; while the prosperity of the former,
and the increased demand for money that exists, increases the rate
there.
The bad character of government, then, is still another cause o f in­
crease of the price of money beyond the control of individuals. If a
government does not regard the right of property— if contracts are allow­
ed to be broken with impunity— if there is no security to personal prop­
erty, it is obvious that under such a government the price of money must
necessarily be high. It is not necessary to multiply other causes, since
they will readily suggest themselves to the reader. I have mentioned a
sufficient number to show that they are wholly removed from the power
of the individual, and that it is impossible for any individuals, by any
combination, to establish any rate o f interest they may choose. What
the law cannot do, it is not reasonable to expect can be done. If the law
cannot enforce a legal rate of interest, will any individual or number of
individuals be able to do it ? That some may be cheated, in paying for
money an exorbitant rate, if the laws o f usury are abolished, there can
be no doubt, but this is no more than occurs every day now. To pro­
scribe the taking the value of the use of money from any one, because for­
sooth one may take advantage o f the necessities o f another and take more,
would be as unjust as it would be to proscribe the taking of a fair profit
for a barrel of flour, because perhaps some one or two individuals should
take more than a fair profit. There is no possibility or probability, if the
laws o f usury were repealed to-day, that danger would arise from combi­
nation among capitalists to keep up a high rate. It is enough to say, and
a sufficient reply to all objections that may be made, that whatever is
done, whether the laws of usury are repealed or not, it will be impossible
to prevent usury without preventing all dealings between individuals.
I pass now to m y third and last proposition, which is, “ That if the laws
■were strictly enforced they would prove a curse.” This hardly needs
proof, for it is of itself self-evident, and one single supposition will be all
that it is necessary to make. Suppose that in times when failures are
prevalent, the strongest business firms apparently tottering on the verge
of bankruptcy, confidence first being lost in all firms, that the law of
usury were strictly enforced, and capitalists who had money to loan were
obliged to loan at six per cent, if they loaned at all, how many would be
willing, at such a time, to risk their money for such a pittance. W e
should hardly consider a man sane who should do it. The result would




Commercial and Industrial Cities o f the United States.

433

be unavoidable— failures upon failures would take place, wliicb would per­
haps be avoided were there no law to interpose.
This article has already been continued beyond the limits I proposed
when I commenced. If the arguments I have offered against the present
laws of usury shall do anything to turn the attention o f legislators and
the community to the absurdity of these laws, and the folly of allowing
this relic of a barbarous age to remain longer to disfigure our statute
books, the object o f my writing will be accomplished.

Art. IV.— COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES.
NTTMBEE X L IV .

M ILW AU K IE, WISCONSIN.
M il w a u k ie , a port o f entry, is situated on the west shore o f Lake
Michigan, at the mouth of Milwaukie River, 90 miles north from Chicago,
and 75 miles east from Madison. It is pleasantly located on the flats
bordering the river, and on the bluffs which rise abruptly from the margin
of the lake to the height of about 100 feet. The river approaches from
the north in a direction nearlv parallel with the lake shore, and is joined,
about one mile from its mouth, by the Menomonie River, which flows in
from the west. The largest boats o f the lake ascend the river two miles
from its mouth. The general appearance o f the city is described as pecu­
liar and striking, from the color and superior quality of the bricks manu­
factured there. They have a delicate cream or straw color, agreeable to
the eye, and not affected by the action of the elements. Many o f these
bricks are exported to different parts of the Union. The bricks used in
the erection of a building on Broadway, New York, were, we believe, ob­
tained at this place.
Milwaukie contains about 30 churches, of which 20 are Protestant, and
4 Catholic; 6 public schools, a university institute, a female college, sev­
eral academies, 3 orphan asylums, and other benevolent institutions. The
streets, stores, &c., are lighted with gas.
At a meeting of the Milwaukie Board o f Trade, in 1855, Mr. A. J.
Aikens was appointed to prepare a report of the statistics of the com­
merce and manufactures of that city. This report, which is now before
us, and from which we take most of the facts and figures in the present
article, was the result of two months’ labor, and is, beyond all question,
as reliable as anything of the kind. It certainly exhibits the commercial
and industrial condition of the place in a favorable light.
I mports a n d E x p o r t s .
Milwaukie is fast rising into notice as an in­
land port of more than ordinary importance. It was thought the year
1854 was particularly auspicious in its exhibit of the commerce of the
city, having imported about $12,000,000 o f various articles of commerce,
and exported about $8,000,000. The wheat exports were thought by some
to beau example of peculiar and isolated productiveness, being 2,062,000
bushels, but the export of that article, the year 1855, proves that the re­
sources of the State have but just begun to be developed. Notwithstandvol. xxxv.— no. iv.
28




434

Commercial and Industrial Cities o f the United States :

ing the forehandedness of the producers and their ability to hold the last
crop, there was exported from the port of Milwaukie alone 4,028,966
bushels of wheat, valued at $6,621,863 ; and o f flour, 235,691, worth
$1,887,688— showing a total valuation in breadstuff's of more than
$8,500,000. Wisconsin wheat, we are told, commands a premium in all
Eastern markets, of from 5 to 10 cents, over other Western wheat.
The total value of the imports of Wisconsin in 1854 amounted to
$11,124,803, and in 1855 to $18,649,832— showing an increase o f more
than $7,000,000 in favor of 1855. W e extract from the report the sub­
joined table, showing the quantity and value o f each article received at
Milwaukie during the year 1855 :—
IM P O R T S.

Names o f articles.

Lumber, joists, &c.............................................feet
L a th ......................................................... .. .pieces
Shingles...................................................................
Shingle bolts.................................................... cords
B ark ..........................................................................
Square tim ber...................................................feet
Merchandise, &c., not otherwise enumerated. tons
S u g a r............................................................... hhds.
Sugar................................................................. bbls.
Molasses and sirup..................................................
Coffee................................................................. bags
Codfish............................................................. boxes
Mackerel...........................................................bbls.
Dried apples.....................................................bush.
Dried peaches.........................................................
Green apples................................................... bbls.
Green peaches............................................. baskets
T e a ................................................................. chests
Raisins.............................................. boxes & kegs
G lass............................................................... boxes
N a ils................................................................. kegs
A x e s ................................................................ boxes
Candy .......................................................................
Starch .......................................................................
R ice ................................................................ tierces
T ob a cco...............................................................lbs.
Soap................................................................. boxes
Candles....................................................................
O il..................................................................... bbls.
Saleratus.........................................
boxes
W bitelead........................................................ kegs
Cheese.................................................................lbs.
L iq u or...............................................................bbls.
S te e l...................................................................tons
Ir o n ...........................................................................
Railroad iro n ...........................................................
C o a l..........................................................................
Leather..............................................................rolls
Horses......................................................................
S a lt ................................................................... bbls.
S a lt.........................................................
.sacks
Stoves .......................................................................
W agons....................................................................
Barrels, furniture, (fee..............................................
Cider and vinegar........................................... bbls.
Plaster......................................................................




Am ount

Value.

63,000,000
17.850.000
16.200.000

$ 1,008,000
80,325
60.750
16,000
16,160
1,500
10,300,000
1,470,000
550,800
291,540
505,500
108,000
16,800
21,869
31,058
119,046
13,566
499,400
110,412
63,662
169,304
34.750
5,976

1,000
2,860
150.000
73,300
21,000

30,600
19,436
33.700
9.000
2,100
13,452
10,346
51,523
4.500
22.700
36,500
25,442
42,326
3,475
1,992
8.000
338
1,400,000
25.000
12.000
6,300
8,674
22,000

383,500
15,534
200
6,465
13,992
74,841
4,900
2,263
74,592

122.000
22,200

2.500
10,000

3,000
5,800

20,000
9,126
168,000
50.000
96.000
252.000
21,675
55.000
42,185
233,010
29.000
387,900
839,520
337,285
294.000
181,040
130,536
15,860
250.000
225.000
100.000
12.000
16,400

Milwaulcie, Wisconsin.

435

The following table, from the same authentic source, presents a com­
parative view of some of the principal articles imported into Milwaukie in
1854 and 1855:—
C O M P A R A T IV E

IM PO R TS.

Boards, joists, die.............................
Shingles............................................
Lath................................................
Railroad iron...................................
N ails................................................
S u gar..............................................
Su gar..............................................
Molasses and sirup.........................
Apples.............................................
S a lt ................................................
S a lt ................................................
Merchandise, not specified...........
Whitelead ....................................
G lass..............................................
C o a l................................................

1854.

1855.

27,750,000
10,480,000
7,000,000
6,225
22,043
3,705
13,779
3,890
23,804
54,317
58,524
$6,627,000
15,594
15,936
8,400

63,000,030
17,850,000
16,200,000
13,992
42,836
21,000
40,600
19,436
51,423
122,000
74,592
$10,300,000
22,000
25,442
74,000

The amount and value of the exports for the year 1855, as given by
Mr. Aiken, the Secretary o f the Board o f Trade, will be seen in the follow­
ing table:—
EXPORTS.

Names of articles.

Merchandise....................................................... tons
Flour.................................................................. bbls.
F e e d ................................................................. bush.
W h eat. .
Barley .
Corn . . .
Oats. . . .
Beans . .
Eye . . . .
Potatoes
M a lt ....
P i g ir o n ............................................................................. to n s
A s h e s ..................
ca sk s
G r a s s - s e e d ...........................................................................lb s .

W o o l......................................................................
S o a p ................................................................................. b o x e s
S a l e r a t u s ....................................................................................
L i m e ................................................................................... b b ls .
B e e r ...............................................................................................
B a c o n ..................................................................................... lb s .
H a m s a n d s h o u l d e r s ................................................. b b ls .
L a r d ..............................................................................................
L a r d ..................................................................................... k e g s
P o r k ............................................................................
.b b ls .
B e e f ..............................................................................................
F i s h ...............................................................................................
B u t t e r ..................................................
lb s .
S u n d r ie s ...................................................................p a c k a g e s
C r a n b e r r ie s ......................................................................bu sh .
E g g s ....................................................................................b b ls .
B r i c k ............................................................................. n u m b e r
P r o v is io n s , m e r c h a n d is e , & c .................................v a lu e
F a r in a , w h e a t ..........................................................................
V i n e g a r ...................................................................... .b b l s .




Amount
10,300
235,661
8,000
4,028,966
92,291
117,000
24,000
1,818
61,646
44,703
17,925
616
3,500
365,000
625,280
4,157
2,448
20,000
10,255
1,170,000
13,704
4,423
501
36,546
9,976
2,140
450,000
12,000
500
500
6,500,000
1,200

Value.
$5,150,000
1,889,788
1,600
6,621,863
110,749
7,020
10,800
4,999
61,646
29,057
26,887
22,792
87,500
228,113
237,600
10,395
6,120
30,000
102,550
99,450
232,968
97,306
275
653,282
119,712
17,120
72,000
275,000
2,000
7,500
65,000
500,000
3,000
7,200

436

Commercial and Industrial Cities o f the United States:
Names o f articles.

Amount.

Glue..................................................................... bbls.
Whisky......................................................................
Broom corn........................................................ bales
T obacco................................................................ lbs.
S h o t.................................................................*____
Leather.....................................................................
H ops..........................................................................
S ta ves.......................................................................
H oles.........................................................................
Candles...........................................................boxes
Packing barrels....................................................
Merchandise and fruit, not enumerated . . . .tons

Value.

175
1,805
510
125,000
56,033
125,473
40,000
700,978
15,000
3,000
5,000
3,000

Total, 1855 ......................................................
Total, 1854 ......................................................

.........
.........

$2,800
30,685
4,500
31,250
2,201
62,736
5,000
10,5 15
60,000
9,000
6,875
800,000
$17,829,571
7,709,531

The total exports, according to the above table, amounted (1855) to
$17,329,571. Mr. Aiken gives the total o f 1854 at $7,709,531— an in­
crease of more than $10,000,000 in favor of 1855. W e also add a table,
showing the comparative exports of principal articles for the last four
years— that is, from 1852 to 1855, both years inclusive:—
C O M P A R A T IV E

EXPORTS.

1852.
F l o u r ...........................
P o r k ..............................
B e e f................................
W heat...........................
C u ts...............................
B arley...........................
R y e ...............................
Grass seed.....................
B e e r ...............................
S to v e s...........................
Brick.............................
Lard....................... ........
W ool............................. .
Butter.............................
Hams and shoulders ..
Ashes .............................
E g g s .............................
Packing barrels...........

88,213
21,522
6,767
428,512
295,895
285,237
65,142
6,696
645
128,250
701,000
84,830
2-9,784
208,058
152,711
316
39,700
1,162

1851
159,216
12.741
4,790
1,181.000
152,283
250,727
97,271
11,134
3.639
537,734
3,425,000
219,912
412,431
92,630
156,160
467
131.700
2,527

1854.
155,061
24,558
7,524
2,052,316
424,487
323,267
132,178
17,503
8,500
671,200
3,645,000
624,120
226,458
405,600
*2,047
57,300
17,225

1855.
235,000
86.546
9,476
4,028,966
24,000
92,291
61,640
8,000
10,255
708,978
6,500,000
934,706
625,230
450,000
1,640,800
*3,500
41,250
5,000

The duties collected at the port during the year 1855 amounted to
$173,130.
N avigation '. The harbor o f Milwaukie, as now nearly completed, is
the finest on the whole chain o f lakes, and has been constructed at a cost
to the city o f over $60,000. The straight cut can be entered under the
heaviest northeaster that has ever blown, and, with a little river dredging,
there is dock room for ten times the present shipping. Something of the
importance of Milwaukie as a lake port, may be found in the annexed
table of arrivals for the year 1855 :—




* Casks.

Milwaukie, Wisconsin.
A R R IV A L S

OF

VESSELS

AT

THE

PORT

OF

M IL W A U K IE

OF

Btearavessels.
M a r c h ...............
A p r i l ................
M a y ...................
• T une................

20
106
166

J u l y ...................

D U R IN G

25
166
327
346
367

TH E

N A V IG A T IO N

S EASO N

1855.

Sailvessels. Total.

5
60
173
180
193

437

Steamvessels.
A u g u s t ................
S e p t e m b e r ...
O c t o b e r ................
N o v e m b e r ..........
D e c e m b e r ...........

Sailvessels. T otal

166
150
148
110
15

153
158
198
130
43

319
808
346
240
58

1,204

1,298

2,502

Not reported, 300, making a total for the year, of 2,802, and a total
tonnage, of 980,700.
W e give a list o f sail-vessels and steamers, belonging to the district of
Milwaukie, on the 31st of December, 1855 :—BARKS.

Names.
Badger State.....................

Tonnage.
491 6

Names.
E. C. L ................................

Tonnage.
341 53

PROPELLERS.
Geo. W. T ifft...................

81 26
BRIGS.

A lgom a.............................. .
David Ferguson................. .
C. I. Hutchinson.................
Ocean.................................

269
320
241
257

15
18
42
81

Active................................. .
Adda . . *............................
Albany ...............................
A. V. Knickerbocker........
B a ltic.................................
Churubusco......................
Calcutta.............................
Congress............... . . . . . .
C. Harrison.........................
Charley H ibbard............
D. O. Dickinson.................
E. Cramer..........................
Emma.................................
E m ily .............................
Fred H ill.........................
Fannie and F l o y .............
Farmer.............................
Gazelle ...........................
Henry Hagar.................. .
Henry C la y .....................
Indus................................
Juniatta Patton.................
J. F. Porter........................
J. Ste.inhart..................... .
J. and A. Stronach.........
J. M . Jones.......................
Josephine Lawrence........
K ir k W h ite.....................
Kitty Grant.....................
Lester R. Rockwell.........
L. Ludington...................

25
274
144
61
96
254
116
206
187
209
333
160
157
69
268
143
100
104
237
69
246
260
124
68
146
156
110
184
105
115
234

62
53
2
57
4
11
26
32
11
38
33
79
87
7
85
35
2
40
50
40
70
65
49
64
25
53
26
3
90
54
52

P re b le ...............................
B e lle ..................................
Powhattan.........................
Racine................................

217 32
276 2
234 41
229 5

SCHOONERS.




Milwaukie B e lle ...............
Major Barnum.................... .
May Q ueen........................
Nebraska...........................
Napoleon...........................
North C a p e .......................
N orw a y ..............................
O dine..................................
Robert B. C am pbell........
R o v e r.................................
Republic.............................
Sam H ale........ ...................
Souvenir...........................
Sandusky ...........................
Sacramento.....................
Sam Strong.......................
Tem pest.............................
Toledo...............................
Twin Brothers...................
Undine..............................
Virgin Purdy...................
William H. De Witt . . . .
W ollin ...............................
W a y n e...............................
William H. Stephens . . .
A m elia .............................
Active.................................
A . C . Van R alte...............
Belle City.........................
Cherokee............................
D . N ew hall.......................

368 6
65 70
82
71
82
102 73
32
16
72
35 74
70
93
2
34
93
222 58
50
62
40
6
301 96
248 9
67
80 30
297 12
55 62
66
21 36
168 4
85
88

438

Commercial and Industrial Cities o f the United States :
SCH OONERS.

Names.
E r i e ........................................
F a s h io n ................................
G ilb e r t K n a p p ................
J u l i a n a .................................. ___
L i b e r t y ................................
M o n s o o n ............................... ____
P a c i f i c ................................... ____
R a m b l e r ..............................
T h r e e B e l l s ....................... ____
U n i o n ...................................

Tonnage.

L a d y A n n ........................ ____

30 37

Names.
W h ir lw in d . . . . . . . .
C h a r l o t t e ........................
C . N o r t h ...........................
D e f i a n c e ............................ .......
J. S. H a r v e y ................... .......
M a r in e r .............................. _____
C h a l l e n g e ........................
L. B. N i c h o l s ................ ...........
T r a v e l e r ........................... ...........

197 90
1133
189 52
122 36
80 80

Tonnage.

110 29
299 6
159 63
SO 10
74 90

SLO O PS.

|

W u n x ................................

M an u f a c t u r e s . The manufactures o f Milwaukie are no inconsiderable
part of its industry. The extensive water power of the river constitutes
an important element in the property of the city. The reported value of
articles manufactured in 1852 was only about $2,000,000; in 1854 it
reached §4,633,112; and in 1855 the manufactures amounted to more
than $5,500,000.
The following table of the manufactories o f the city of Milwaukie com­
mences on the 1st day of January, 1855, and ends on the 31st day of
December, 1855 :—
MANUFACTURES OF MILWAUKIE IN 1855.
Articles.
** Value.
Ale and beer, 50,578 bbls..................................................................................... $431,710
Brick, 25,650,000 ...................................................................................................
164,850
Barrels (flour, pork, and w h isky).......................................................................
112,500
Boots and shoes.....................................................................................................
185,350
Burr millstones......................................................................................................
12,000
Bookbinding..........................................................................................................
22,000
Bedstead and wood turning........................................
35,000
Sheekskins, morocco, &c., tanned.......................................................................
42,000
Pails and tubs, (1 factory 9 months in operation)............................................
14,657
Tannery, 1 ............................................. ...............................................................
75,000
Lumber planing, sash and door factories...........................................................
175,300
Bread and cracker bakeries..................................................................................
120,000
Brooms, 1 factory...................................................................................................
6,616
Billiard tables........................................................................................................
42,000
Clothing...................................................................................................................
318,500
Cabinet furniture..................................................................................................
187,200
Confectionery.........................................................................................................
20,000
Carriages...............................................................................................................
21,000
Caps, hats, and fu rs ..................................................
30,000
Camphene and burning fluid................................................................................
9,391
Drugs, paints, patent medicines, <fec.....................................................................
5,500
Flour, 106,500 b b ls .....................................
852,000
Guns and pistols...................................................................................................
6,500
Glue, 1 factory.......................................................................................................
10,000
Ir< n manufactured, machinery, locomotives, stationary engines, and various
other castings....................................................................................................
532,788
Other miscellaneous articles in this connection, not enumerated...................
150,000
Matches, 1 fa ctory....................................................................... . .......................
38,000
Piano-fortes.............................................................................................................
8,500
Marble cutting, 1 yard..........................................................................................
7,000
Vinegar, 3 factories, 2,000 bbls............................................................................
4,500
Harness, carriage trimming, saddlery, and truuks..........................................
75,000
Jewelry, silver and plated ware.........................................................................
15,000




Milwaukie, Wisconsin.

439

Articles.
Value.
Threshing machines, straw cutters, wagons and tr a c ts .................................. $120,000
Sheet iron, tin, and copper manufactures...........................................................
125,000
Stone and earthen ware................
16,000
Pork and beef packing, 43,404 b b ls .................................
664,252
Soap and candles, 30,350 b ox es.........................................................................
121,400
Bone black and grease, 1 factory.......................................................................
4,000
Soap, candle, and wine box factory, 1 . . . . ......................................................
6.600
Job printing...........................................................................................................
31,975
50,183
Paper, 1 factory........ .......... ■............................................................................... '
Daguerreotypes and photographs.......................................................................
23,500
Wire screening ....................................................................................................
10,000
Patent machine factory........................................................................................
15,000
Maps, charts, <fcc....................................................................................................
6,000
W ool and yarn, 1 factory.....................................................................................
31,200
Stone-cutters, 2 yard s..........................................................................................
6,000
Patent safe, 1 factory............................... .....................
. ...........................
15,000
Ship-building..........................................................................................................
140,000
P low s......................................................................................................................
4,000
Stoves and hollow-ware........................................................................................
20,000
Starch, 1 factory........................
10,000
Umbrellas, <fcc.........................................................................................................
1,000
Lime, 60,000 bbls..................................................................................................
45,000
Gas, 11,016,252 cubic feet...................................................................................
38,556
Rectified spirits and cordials...............................................................................
8,000
Gloves and m its ....................................................................................................
6,500
Saleratus, 1 factory, 260 ton s.............................................................................
26,000
Shingles, 2,000,000................................................................................................
81,000
Horseshoeing and other smiths’ work, not enumerated..................................
30,000
10,000
Railroad passenger cars.......................................................................................
Engraving and lithographing..............................................................................
6,000
Millinery establishments......................................................................... . ..........
41,200
Brass, ivory, and wood turning, of which there are several small establish­
ments not included in the foregoing...............................................................
5,000
Cow bells, 1 factory..............................................................................................
800
Whisky, 22,172 bbls..............................................................................................
283,732
Root-beer factory.........................................
6,000
Cigars and tobacco................................................................................................
45,662
Plane factory, 1 ....................................................................................................
2,000
Window shades......................................................................................................
3,000
Baking-powder, 1 factory....................................................................................
3,000
Total, 1855.................................................................................................... $5,590,412
Total, 1854.................................................................................................... 4,633,712
B a n k in g an d M o n e y M atters .— There are six banks o f issue in Mil­
waukie, with an aggregate capital of $975,000, divided as follows :—
1. State Bank of Wisconsin... $400 000
2. Farmers’ and Millers’ Bank. 250 000
3. Bank of Milwaukie............... 100 000

4. Bank of Commerce.............. $100 000
5. Wisconsin Mar. <Si Fire In. Co 100 000
6. Peoples’ Bank......................
25 000
$975 000

These six banks discounted bills to the following amounts,, during each
week of the year 1855 :—
Jan. 6.......... . . .
Jan. 13..........
Jan. 20..........
Jan. 27......... . . .
Feb. 3..........
Feb 10.......... . . .
Feb. 17.........

$84,801
166,669
112,351




Feb. 2 4 . ___ . . . $130,674
Mar. 3.........
Mar. 10......... . . .
166,623
Mar. 17......... . . . 150,467
Mar. 24......... . . .
172,789
Mar. 31........ . . . 142,187
April 7........, . . . 131,724

April 14. . . . . . .
April 21..........
April 28........ . . .
May 6............ . .
May 12.......... . . .
May 19.......... , . .
May 26 ........ . . .

$98,184
151,960
176,608
161,266
129,297
171,089

440

Commercial and Industrial Cities o f the United States:

June 2 . . . . . . . $175,999
June 9 ___ . . . 114.457
June 1 6 . . . . . . . 183,448
June 23___ . . . 196,335
June 30___ . . . 223,632
July 7 ___
July 14___ . . . 170.492
July’ 21___ . . . 118,756
July 2 8 ----- . . . 136,860
. . . 145,715
Aug. 11___

Aug. 1 8 . . . .
Aug. 25.........
Sept. 1.......
Sept. 8.......
Sept. 15........
Sept. 22........
Sept. 29........
Oct. 6...........
Oct. 13..........
Oct. 20......
Oct. 27...........

...
...

156,590
183,412

...
...
...

318,524
313,273
829 938

Nov. 3 . . . .
Nov. 10 . . .
Nov. 17........
Nov. 24........
Dec. 1..........
Dec. 8..........
Dec. 15..........
Dec. 22..........
Dec. 29..........

. . . $370,304
309.652
. . . 295,661
. . . 280.304
. . . 249,180
. . . 336,587
. . . 337,054
. . . 239.804
. . . 358,827

Total.. . . . $9,869,728

The Farmers’ and Millers’ Bank capital was increased on the 1st of July,
1855, from 1100,000 to $250,000. The stock of the Bank of Milwaukie
was not all paid in until the 1st July, 1855.
Mr. Aiken and the Board o f Trade think the business of Milwaukie
really requires $3,000,000. W e quote from the report on this head, as
follows:—
“ Our banking capital is slowly enlarging, and we venture to say that there is
not a more favorable location in the Union to enter upon banking than Milwaukie
at the present time affords. Our law is confessedly the best in the Union, and
there are good customers here for as large banking facilities as are given to Troy
or Albany or Hartford. Banking paper here is not accommodation notes, but
based upon actual produce transactions—which brings the paper within the strict
rule of commercial banking, and discounting such paper, a bank wdth ordinary
good management, cannot fail. But we also need banks that can discount manu­
facturers paper—similar to many institutions in New England, and which have
been the means of adding so largely to the industrial activity that has converted
the water-power on its mountain streams into engines of productive industry.”
R e a l a n d P e r so n a l E state .— The assessed valuation of the city on
the 31st of December, 1855, was $17,'789,352. Divided among the five
wards as follows :—
First Ward, Real and Personal......................................................................
Second Ward
“
“
Third Ward
“
“
Fourth Ward
“
“
Fifth Ward
“
“

$6,029,840
2,659,040
4,267,900
2.790,420
2,052,072

Total Real and Personal property................................

$17,789,352

Real estate has constantly advanced in Milwaukie, though not with
spasmodic steps. The demand during the year 1855 for building lots
exceeded that of any former year. The sales of this class of property have
been from three to four millions of dollars. Mr. Aiken estimates the gene­
ral rise on city lots at from 25 to 50 per cent for the whole year 1855.
I n su ran ce C o m p a n ie s .— There are three in the city. In marine insu­
rance the Commercial and Merchants Mutual do a large business, their
receipts amounting to about $225,000 for the year 1855, and their losses
amounting to about $115,000. They both declared good dividends at
their annual meetings in Feb., 1850. The United States is a young com­
pany, but does a good business, and declared paying dividends.
R a il r o a d s .— The Milwaukie and Mississippi Railroad connects Prairie
Du Chien with Milwaukie, a distance o f 190 miles. The La Crosse and
Milwaukie Railroad, connecting the two places, is 108 miles in length.
The Milwaukie and Watertown road is 14 miles in length, intersecting
with roads to Madison, &c. The Green Bay, Milwaukie and Chicago




441

Milwaukie, Wisconsin.

Railroad, commonly known as the Lake Shore Road, has been in operation
about eight months for passenger business, and about one month of 1855
for freight. In the absence of the Annual Report of the road and of any
extended freight business, we are unable to give any report of the business
of this road.
It is sufficient to say that the officers have more than
realized the most sanguine expectations o f its profitableness. As an
accommodation to the traveling public, to Milwaukie and Chicago, it is
indispensable. One o f its important features is the winter freighting
accommodations which it gives to merchants, enabling them to bring for­
ward additional supplies of merchandise, as the demand may seem to
require. It also proves a successful rival to the Lake steamers, proving
that additional facilities for travel creates intercourse between cities and
States.
This road is to Wisconsin what the Hudson River Road is to New
York.
The Board of Directors of the Milwaukie and Mississippi Railroad declared
in 1856 a dividend on their last six months’ business o f 5 per cent in cash,
and seven per cent in stock, making, with the 5 per cent cash dividend in
July, 1855, a total for the year of seventeen per cent. The dividends on
stock, standing on the books of the company at Milwaukie, are payable on
and after the 1st of February, 1857.
The earnings of this road have been, by months, for the years 1854 and
1855, as follows:—

1855.
January.........................................................................
February.........................................................................
March...............................................................................
April................................................................................
May.................................................................................
June .............................................................................
J u ly ................................................................................
August.............................................................................
September......................................................................
October...........................................................................
November.......................................................................
December.......................................................................
Total earnings.................

$33,247
26,808
30,456
33,008
66,944
65,127
47,158
55,095
87,764
112,162
84,182
49,888

1851.
00
00
28
83
16
39
14
81
93
41
94
05

$691,843 94

$23,224
26.192
20,773
18,318
41,751
45,164
85,555
32,324
60,153
66,875
55,138
29,578

29
33
98
45
31
90
54
63
64
31
96
45

$465,051 19

Milwaukie is remarkable for the rapidity o f its growth, which has not
been surpassed, if equaled, by any of the Western towns. It maintains
intimate relations with a region to which a large emigration is flowing— a
region which, a few years ago, was a solitary waste, or field of savage war­
fare, but is now appropriated to the peaceful pursuits and liberal institutions
of civilized society. The place was settled in 1835, and incorporated as a
city in 1846.
The population in 1840, according to the census, was
1754 ; in 1850, 29,061 ; and now, in 1856, it cannot be less than 45 or
50,000.




442

The Causes o f Marine Disasters.

Art, V.— THE CAUSES OF MARINE DISASTERS.
The marine disasters of 1853-54, if we take into account the number o f
lives lost, and the value o f merchandise and other property destroyed, is
almost, if not quite, without a precedent in the annals o f navigation. A
writer in the Philadelphia Bulletin takes a practical view of the subject,
and his suggestions are well worth considering. W ith a view of exciting
an interest in a subject o f so much importance to the interests of commerce,
and the “ higher law " o f humanity, we give place in the Merchants'
Magazine to the well-timed remarks and suggestions of the Bulletin's
correspondent:—
Having improved, by adequate measures, the condition and character of the
vessels themselves, and secured the services of more competent masters, the next
desideratum is to procure more efficient and larger crews. Without good seamen,
and enough of them, the finest ship and the most skillful officers must in vain struggle
against the elements. ’Tis impossible to avert disaster, if there is not even physical
strength enough to handle the ship, and if, as is now generally the case, the men
are ignorant of their duty, and besides unwilling to discharge it when able to do
so. The scarcity of seamen has in fact become a national evil of the most serious
magnitude. The government finds extreme difficulty in manning even one ship,
though paying a liberal bounty to all who will enlist. I question whether it would
be possible to obtain a crew of even the most inferior quality, for an ordinary
sized squadron, under twelve months at least. In the merchant service no less
difficulty is experienced. The best and most valuable ships are daily sent to
sea with less than the full complement of men allowed them under even the present
restricted system. Four-fifths of their crews, moreover, are foreigners of the
lowest and vilest stamp, and one-half or more of these, landsmen. Disasters simi­
lar to that which befell the British ship Tayleur, are by no means rare. Of this
vessel it is reported that the inefficiency of her crew was the chief cause of her
loss—15 only-out of 50 men were able seamen.
The crew included Chinese and Lascars, who were unable to understand the
English language, and the orders, therefore, could not be executed. The vessel is
said to have drifted about at the mercy of the winds and waves for several hours
before the wreck. The loss of life was frightful; out of 660 only 280 were saved;
250 women and children were drowned. Many of our vessels are exposed to a
similar risk, and I have no doubt not a few have been lost from just the same
cause. ’Tis peculiar to the English and American nations to pay the least regard
to the qualifications of both their shipmasters and crews, because, I presume, they
can best afford to pay for marine losses. Instances have frequently come under
my own observation, in which not more than two seamen could be found among
a crew of six or eight men, and but one of these two able to box a compass, or tie
a reef-knot; and a sailor only by comparison with his more ignorant shipmates,
the master, in fact, not knowing how to clew up a top-gallant sail properly; and
the evil is daily becoming worse. ’Tis a common question, “ what has become o f
the sailors ?” Doubtless the present scarcity is in part owing to the discovery of
gold in California and Australia, and the consequent inducements held out to sea­
men to make their fortunes on shore. ’Tis estimated that upwards of GOO vessels,
mostly square-rigged, have doubled Cape Horn since 1848, of which number a
large proportion have never returned, chiefly for want of men to bring them back.
These ships have generally been wrecked, or suffered to rot in the harbor of San
Francisco, while their crews are lost to the commerce of the country. The war
in Europe also employs an unusually large number of sailors, but neither of these
reasons furnish the true answer to the question, and besides will only produce
temporary effects. The very fact that the commerce and the navy of the country
can be thus crippled by the withdrawal of even a large portion of our seamen, is
in itself proof that we need more, and especially that we need the adoption of




The Causes o f Marine Disasters.

443

some plan whereby such evils may not be of frequent recurrence. It is clear, that
unless measures be at once devised whereby we can supply the places of the sea­
men thus withdrawn, we shall, ere long, be without any at all. Of those who are
now employed on shore in California, &c., or in the British navy, it may be fairly
presumed the largest portion will never return. We must look, then, to the crea­
tion of a new generation of sailors. We shall otherwise be brought to a stand in
our progress towards commercial supremacy, by the want of men to carry on the
work—like a successful general who, on the field of victory, and in the midst of
triumph, is arrested by the disappearance of his army. Since commencing the
discussion of this subject, I learn that the Marine Society of New York has drawn
up a memorial to Congress, requesting the passage of a law by which every vessel
shall be required to ship a certain number of apprentices, proportioned to her
tonnage.
This measure, if adopted and enforced, will prepare the way for securing, during
the present generation, a fine body of native seamen ; and I hope the mercantile
community will urge its passage by Congress, before their adjournment. Let the
bill further provide that the most promising and deserving of these apprentices be
sent to a nautical school, where they may be educated in the higher branches of
their profession, with a view to the command of vessels, each master being requir­
ed to report their individual character and progress to the owner of the vessel in
which they may be shipped. Then if Congress will not, or can not, provide for
the establishment and maintenance of a nautical school, let it be done by private
enterprise and contributions. A movement in this direction has been already
made in Searsport, Me., where a few energetic shipmasters and public-spirited
citizens have founded a school for educating young men for the sea. If, according
to the London Shipping Gazette, “ the empire of the seas must before long be
ceded to America,” ’tis certainly the policy of the government to take this matter
in hand; but if they will not, or can not, then I say let owners and underwriters,
and the patriotic generally, undertake and prosecute the w'ork.
Encouragements should be held out to the bold and hardy young men of our
country to select the sea as their scene of life and usefulness, and this they will do,
and in great numbers, too, if advantages such as are proposed should be secured
to them. While liberally-patronized schools are established and sustained
throughout the country, to meet the necessities of almost every other class of our
citizens, none (with the single exception referred to,) have been provided for the
sailor. The boy whose taste and ambition lead him toward the ocean, must
educate himself for his arduous and most useful calling, or assume its responsibili­
ties (second to none other) destitute of the knowledge which is absolutely essential
to their proper discharge. The youth of our country are thus invited and pre­
pared to enter any and every other line of life ; educated, too, on the most liberal
scale, at public expense; while those who would be sailors are, in fact, deferred
from their purpose by the want of means and opportunity of qualifying themselves
for the profession of their choice; a profession which, at no time inferior either in
honor or utility to those which are fostered by public care, is at this particular
crisis, in some respects, perhaps, the most important to our national interests.
Let schools for sailors, then, be established at once, and let efforts be made to
induce young men to enter into the merchant service. The expense, even if they
be entirely free schools, will be more than repaid, and that soon, by the increased
security to life and property at sea which will ensue, while provision will thus
be made for the permanent supply of seamen proportioned to the increasing
demands of commerce.
To meet present necessities, however, there are other measures which should be
adopted. The plans suggested for the creation of a new and better class of sea­
men are rather prospective than immediate in their results. Notwithstanding the
actual deficiency as to numbers from which commerce now suffers, our vessels may
be supplied with far better average crews, if the present system of shipping men
were abolished. In no department of trade does such an anomaly exist as that
which prevails in reference to this point. To purchase an article without inspec­
tion, or to pay for what is not received, is peculiar to ship owners. They employ




444

The Causes o f Marine Disasters.

men as sailors who are not sailors—they hire laborers as able-bodied and efficient
who are feeble and impotent, and then besides pay them in advance for work not
yet performed, thus giving a premium for desertion and consequent loss. Why
should the responsibility of supplying a crew be left with persons who have no
direct interest in the matter at all ? whose only care is to secure to themselves the
payment of a debt -which, in nine cases out of ten, is only a fraud on the sailor ?
The shipment of seamen should be at once taken out of the hands of the landlords,
and the payment of advances stopped. Until this be done, it will be vain to ex­
pect any improvement in the quality of seamen, and the rates of advance will
continue to increase.
The landlords will require more and more advance money, for the simple reason
that the large sums paid nominally to the sailor furnish only so much increased
plunder (significantly termed “ blood-money”) for the landlord. ’Tis a fact too
monstrous to require proof, that the bills for grog, &c., contracted at the board­
ing-house, swallow up the far greater share of the sailor’s advance, and these bills
usually bear a remarkable proportion to the state of the shipping-market. Why
merchants will aid in supporting such a system it is hard to imagine, unless they
be supposed ignorant thereof. I would propose, then, for consideration, either
that masters of vessels ship their crews themselves, which would enable them at
least to know whether they were going to sea with sailors instead of landsmen ;
or, as a more sure and efficient remedy for existing evils, that there be established
in every port, (the large ones at least,) a shipping-house or rendezvous, conducted
on a plan similar to that which the government pursues with regard to the navy.
Let competent persons be appointed, whose duty it shall be to examine every
man who offers to ship, as to his qualifications. No one who was not a sailor
could then be palmed off on some luckless master as an efficient hand.* There
should also be a surgeon to examine into the physical condition of the men, which
would save owners the expense of maintaining a hospital on board their ships,
and secure masters the services of the whole crew. The joint interest of owners,
underwriters and masters, should unite them in adopting and carrying out this
measure. It has been partially in operation at New Orleans for about six months,
and already produced many good results.
The expense would be trifling compared with the sure benefit. Two or three
retired masters could easily be found in every port, who would gladly and faith­
fully superintend the shipping and examination of the men, and the services of a
surgeon for a few hours every day could be secured at no great cost. Instead of
paying advances, which, as I have stated, rarely enrich the sailor, let other meas­
ures be adopted to induce men to ship. The system pursued by the whalers, is in
principle an excellent one. Let the sailor have an interest in the voyage, by re­
ceiving a small portion of its profits. This will attach him to the ship, and stim­
ulate him to do his duty. An honest owner would thus, too, secure the confidence
and affection of a crew, and always be able to man his ship efficiently, while the
influence upon the sailor will be most salutary, tending to beget in them habits of
economy, and a healthful professional ambition. A retired shipmaster thus writes
upon this point: “ During the period in which I sailed before the mast, I made a
voyage in a Salem East Indiamau to Sumatra and thence to Europe. On board
that ship the custom prevailed of allowing to each of the crew a half a ton privi­
lege, to be filled with the sailors’ venture, the captain effecting sales on the sea­
mans’ account, without charge. Navigation was also taught on board by the
officers. As the result of all this pains-taking to benefit seamen, nearly all of
that crew subsequently became officers of vessels. Much of the evil now exist­
ing in reference to the scarcity of seamen, is owing to the fact that there is no tie
connecting them with the owners and masters; no common bond of interest—
they are only as day-laborers hired by the job.”
They care for neither ship nor owner beyond the present; but let it be an
established system that a successful voyage shall proportionately benefit the sailor,
whose toils have contributed to the result, as well as the owners, and let every
* See an article in “ Sailors’ Magazine,” November, 1853, p. 89.




The Causes o f Marine Disasters.

445

man who exerts himself to do his duty, who is obedient and respectful to his offi­
cers and faithful to his employers, be rewarded by increased compensation, and
by being retained in the employment of the merchant whom he has thus served,
and there will be no difficulty in securing good and true men. Once make it the
interest of the sailor to stick by his ship and his captain, and reward fidelity with
a preference over mutiny and desertion, and you will furnish a motive to good
conduct, which is -at present but seldom regarded. The more intimately ac­
quainted owners, masters, and seamen can mutually become, the better for all
parties, and, therefore, as many inducements as possible should be devised to at­
tach men to their ships.
The system of shipping for the run should be abandoned, as far as practicable,
and whenever a crew is discharged, each man should receive a certificate of said
discharge from the master, stating what his character and conduct had been
during his term of service. These certificates should always entitle those who
were commended, to a preference at the rendezvous. So long as sailors are all
treated alike, the good faring no better than the bad, neither owners nor masters
troubling themselves to find out which among them is worthy, or offering any re­
ward for meritorious service, it were unreasonable to expect any material change
for the better. Sailors will continue to wander about from port to port, indiffer­
ent as to the owner or master into whose hands chance or necessity may throw
them, regarding all as equally their enemies, or at least as equally unconcerned
about their welfare. A mere increase of wages will effect no improvement; and
so long as the landlords fatten upon the spoils, merchants may expect to pay more
and be worse served, for the result is to crowd our ships wdth foreigners, to in­
crease anarchy, and to drive good men out of the service.
There are other suggestions that occur to me, in this connection, but the subject
has already so far exceeded reasonable bounds, that I will now bring it to a close.
If, by the means advised, the character and qualifications of masters and crews
can be raised to the required standard, all other needed improvements will follow
of themselves in due order and season. The construction and equipment of ves­
sels will be rendered more perfect and complete. A good master and a smart
crew will not be long in an unseaworthy craft. With properly educated masters,
the necessary instruments and other appliances for skillful navigation will, as a
matter of course, bo supplied—thus prepared for the. voyage, the risks of speed
will also be greatly diminished. We shall be enabled to drive the ships, if not
with entire safety, at least with greatly diminished peril; and we may then hope
to restore order and obedience among the crews, the last but not the least of the
alarming evils now prevalent. Insubordination stalks unchecked on the decks of
our ships. Mutinies, desertion, and anarchy bid fair to destroy our commerce.
Power has been taken from the officers, while yet nothing is being done to secure
moral improvements among the men. In theory, it may be very well to rely on
the good disposition of a crew ^ but in practice, the result has been that resist­
ance to authority, conflicts between officers and men, skulking from duty, meeting
of vessels, trials, and loss to all concerned, arc now more frequent than ever be­
fore, and are, besides, multiplying daily.
Something must be done, and done speedily, or we must be prepared for even
worse evils. That sailors should be, and can be controlled, without the lash, I
have never doubted; nor am I an advocate for the restoration of this particular
mode of punishment; but, at the same time, I am thoroughly persuaded that
unless the character and qualities of seamen be improved by some measures simi­
lar to those proposed, we shall be compelled either to go back to the old code, or
adopt one in reality more severe; or else—and it is an alternative as certain as
alarming—surrender our ships to the command of their crews. If the public,
during the last nine months, has lost upwards of $9,000,000 by marine disasters,
under the present system, to what an amount the losses of the next year will prob­
ably be swelled, is a problem that should be calculated. It is clear that there are
evils to be corrected of the most portentous magnitude. A common interest
should unite all good men together in devising remedies. I have assumed through­
out my discussion of the subject that such is the general feeling. Increased se­




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Journal o f Mercantile Law.

curity of navigation is as profitable at least to the owner as to the underwriter.
Each loss prevented is so much added to the chances in favor of the owner, and
consequently lowers the rates of insurance ; and it is self-evident that every dollar
saved to the insurance office is saved to the public.

JOURNAL OF MERCANTILE L'AW.
C O L L ISIO N -----L IG H T S — A P P O R T IO N M E N T .

United States Circuit Court. Before Judge Nelson. The schooner Industry
vs. Robert J. A. and John "Ward, owners of the schooner Thomas Martin. A p­
peal in Admiralty, September 11, 1856.
The libel in this case was filed by the owners of the Industry to recover dam­
ages against the Thomas Martin for a collision that happened in the neighborhood
of Great Egg Harbor, several miles off the coast, in which the Industry was run
down, and became a total loss. The collision took place about nine o’clock at
night, on the 14th May, 1849, the Thomas Martin going down the coast, in bal­
last, bound for Norfolk, Virginia, and the Industry coming up heavily laden with
corn, and bound for New Bedford.
The direction of the coast where the collision occurred is nearly northeast and
southwest, along which the two vessels were moving in opposite directions. The
wind was north, or west by north, and both vessels claim that they were close
hauled— the Industry on the larboard, and the Thomas Martin on the starboard
tack ; and, at the same time, each insists that she was the privileged vessel, and
that the other had the wind free. The Industry further insists that she W'as bear­
ing in a direction towards the land, so as to get into smooth "water under a lee
shore, and was necessarily, therefore, close hauled from the course of the vessel.
The Industry had a bright light on her fore rigging, and was seen by the hands
on the Thomas Martin some fifteen minutes or more before the collision ; and as
the combined speed of the two vessels was some ten or eleven .miles an hour, the
vessels must at this time have been between two and three miles apart. The
Thomas Martin had no lights, and she was not discovered by the hands on the
Industry till within a few minutes before the collision occurred. The night was
cloudy and the sky overcast, and although there is some discrepancy as to the
degree of darkness, it seems to be generally agreed that a vessel without lights
would not be discovered beyond half a mile. Several of the witnesses fix the
distance considerably short of this. A t half a mile’s distance the two vessels,
with their combined speed, would meet in some three minutes. Both vessels
claim that when they saw each other, the approaching vessel was to the leeward,
and continued so till the moment of the collisfbn ; and, as a consequence of this
collision, each, in the emergency, putting the helm hard down, both luffing into
the wind, and into each other. The better opinion is, that if either of the vessels
at this time had bore away, and the other had put his helm hard down, the col­
lision would have been avoided.
Judge Judson, who heard the cause below, dismissed the libel, holding that the
Industry wTas in fault in not putting her helm to port, instead of hard down, and
bearing away before the wind. The learned judge arrived at this conclusion upon
the application of the nautical rule, which is well settled, that when two sailingvessels are approaching each other, both having the wind free, and consequently
the power of readily controlling their movements, the vessel on the larboard tack
must give way, and each pass to the right; and the same rule governs vessels sail­
ing on the wind, and approaching each other, when it is doubtful which is to
windward.
I agree to this conclusion, as I am inclined to think, according to the evidence
of the hands on the Industry, when properly weighed, her position was such in
relation to the other vessel, that her helm should have been ported, and she should




Journal o f Mercantile Law.

447

have passed to the right, instead of luffing into the wind with the idea of passing
on the other side.
But I am unable to concur with the Court below in the other branch of the
case, namely, that the Thomas Martin was not in fault. I do not intend to dis­
turb the general usage that prevails—both in narrow rivers and open seas— that
sailing-vessels are not bound to carry lights when under way at night. This
usage has long prevailed, and has been recognized, to a certain extent, by the
courts generally in this country and in England. It was said, on the argument,
that the rule had been recently changed in England by the Trinity Masters. The
soundness and propriety of the usage have often been questioned heretofore by
eminent judges, both in England and this country. The fault, I think, chargeable
upon the Thomas Martin, is her neglect to show7a light after she discovered the
light of the Industry. If she had done so, there is every reason for believing the
collision would not have occurred. As we have already shown, at this time the
two vessels were from two to three miles apart, and within this distance, while
running with the combined speed only of ten or twelve miles the hour, if each ves­
sel had seen the other, it would have been strange if they could not have avoided
the meeting. Although the night was not unusually dark, yet the sky was so over­
cast and cloudy, that it is admitted a vessel could be seen without a light not ex­
ceeding half a mile. While, therefore, the hands on the Thomas Martin had
fifteen minutes more time and the distance of some two-and-a-half miles running
within which to adopt the proper measures for avoiding the Industry, the hands
on board of her had only some three minutes’ time and half a mile’s distance,
within which to adopt the like measures. The practice of showing lights when a
vessel is approaching' in a dark or cloudy night, i3 common among prudent and
skillful navigators, and has frequently been a subject of commendation by the
courts, and taken into consideration in determining cases of this description. Its
fitness and propriety are too obvious to require illustration or argument. This
case furnishes a striking exemplification of its necessity, and the misfortune at­
tending its neglect. The danger was impending almost at the moment of the
discovery of the Thomas Martin, and this from neglect in not showing a light at
the proper time.
I am also inclined to think the Thomas Martin in fault for racing with the
schooner John Cunningham on that night. She had all her sails set, with a
pretty fresh wind, and was running at a rate of speed, and under circumstances
that cannot well be justified, considering the character of the night. This vessel
had passed the Cunuingham, aud was some two miles ahead at the time, which
the counsel supposed put an end to the racing. But the struggle was to see which
vessel could reach Norfolk ahead; and this accounts for all sails being kept set in
the night, when most of the vessels running the course at the same time had taken
in their light sails, in consequence of the freshness of the wind.
Upon the whole, I think both vessels in fault, and that the loss must be appor­
tioned.
L IB E L

B Y ST E A M B O A T TO R E C O V E R D A M A G E S F O R C O L LISIO N ON N O R T H R I V E R .

In United States Circuit Court, October, 1853. Before Chief Justice N e l s o n .
The steamboat Splendid vs. the scow Globe. His honor delivered the following
opinion on an appeal from Judge Betts, sitting in the Court below, as Admiralty
Judge:—
N e l s o n , C. J.—The libel was filed in this case by the steamboat against the
scow, to recover damages for a collision that occurred on the North River, on tho
6th November, 1850, about 11 o’clock at night, opposite the Twin Brothers, a
ledge of rocks a little below Cold Spring.
The steamboat was going up the river with a load of passengers for Ham­
burgh, her place of destination, and the scow was descending with a cargo of
lumber. The scow struck the steamboat nearly head on against her stern, a little
to the starboard, knocking the stem out and breaking the planks, so that she waa
obliged to be run on to the west shore, where she filled and sunk.




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Journal o f Mercantile Law.

The testimony is quite contradictory in the case, in respect to the management
and course of the respective vessels; the persons on the steamboat maintaining that
as she rounded Magazine Point,, and was in her usual course for Cold Spring, one
of her stopping places, and on the eastern shore of the river, the scow, in descend­
ing the river on a course off her larboard bow, suddenly changed it more easterly,
and persevered in the same until the collision occurred, while those on board the
scow insist that she pursued her course down the river, giving a wide berth to the
steamboat to pass on her larboard side ; but that as the two vessels approached
each other, the steamboat took a sheer to the west, and persevered in it till a
collision was unavoidable. The night was very dark, and the wind fresh from the
northwest, the scow moving from five to six knots an hour, and the steamboat
about eight. There were four hands on board the scow—the captain, first and
second pilots and steward, all of whom saw the steamboat at a considerable dis­
tance, and were on the look-out from the time she was first discovered until the
collision, who concur in maintaining the position and course of scow and fault
of the steamboat. While on the other side, the pilot was the only person on
board who saw the scow, until the moment of the collision. In this conflict of
evidence, whatever may be the real truth of the course and management of the
vessels preceding, and at the time of the accident it is impossible for us to say, as
the case stands, that the scow was in fault, so as to hold her responsible forjhe
consequences. The misfortune of the steamboat is, that under the circumstances
of the night and weather, she had no proper look-out on board, and, hence, in
addition to this neglect of prudence and of the established nautical rule, she is
deprived of the usual and most important witness on these occasions, as to the
position and course of the two vessels. Although the pilot may be a witness
deserving great consideration in respect to the course of his own vessel, he is not,
from the necessity he is under, of attending specially to his own peculiar duties,
the best witness in respect to the position and course of the approaching vessel,
in a dark and cloudy night. A competent look-out, at a station the most favor­
able to discharge his duty, is much more reliable under such circumstances. The
scow has decidedly the advantage in this respect. Her master, in consequence of
the darkness of the night, gave his helm to the pilot, and took the post of look­
out himself; and, as a consequence, is enabled to give us a clear and intelligible
account of the circumstances that led to the unfortunate accident; and he is con­
firmed by the other hands on board ; and, also, as far as they go, by hands on
board the sloop “ Index,” in the vicinity at the time.
The gravamen of the libel is, that while the steamboat was on her course N. E.
to Cold Spring, and passing in a direction as near the Twin Brothers as was safe,
the scow changed her course from her direction down the river to the eastward,
which compelled the former to slow and stop, to avoid running upon the rocks,
which had the effect to change her position, by swinging her stem somewhat more
up the river, or westerly; and, while in this crippled condition, she was run into
by flic scow, which at the time had the wind free, and might have borne further
towards the middle of the river. But the difficulty is, the weight of the proofs
is against this theory.
No persons having been stationed onboard the steamboat to look out, the night
beiug dark, and none of the hands but the pilot having seen the scow till in the
midst of the alarm upon the ringing of the bells to slow and stop, we have no
intelligible or reliable account of the transaction from her; and the persons on the
dock at Cold Spring knew nothing about it as the night was too dark for them
to see it.
It has also been urged that the scow made a wrong manuever at the time of
the collision, by ordering the man at the helm to keep hard away, thereby bearing
more to the eastward ; but the hands on the scow all agree that this order was
given from the steamboat, and was followed at the moment of the peril, in deference
to the supposed superior opportunity and skill of those on board of her.
Without pursuing the examination of the case further, I am satisfied the decree
of the Court below is right, and should be affirmed with costs. In the Court below
Judge Betts dismissed the libel.
,f.




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Journal o f Mercantile Law.
L IB E L

TO R E C O V E R D A M A G E S

FOR

M E R C H A N D IS E
NEW

S H IP P E D

F RO M

H A M B U R G H TO

YORK.

United States Circuit Court. Before Judge Nelson. Decision on appeal from
the Judge at Admiralty. Sept. 15, 1856. The Bark Colombo vs. Otto Dill et al.
The libel was filed in this case by Dill and others, to recover damages for an
injury to one of the casks of bristles in a cargo shipped from Hamburgh to this
port. The libel avers that the goods were shipped under a bill of lading, in which
the master acknowledged the receipt of the goods on board the vessel in good or­
der and condition, and engaged to deliver them in like good order and condition
to the consignees. The answer denies the allegations in the libel. The cask in
question was one in thirteen shipped to the libelants, each containing some eight
hundred pounds of bristles, and worth about two hundred dollars. The casks are
slightly made in the form of barrels or hogsheads, covered by matting, and well
secured with cords around the body and ends. The carman who carried the
goods from the ship went into the hold of the vessel to assist in taking them out;
when he pressed his foot upon the cask he discovered it was broken. It did not
appear injured till he put his foot on it, and it could have been raised from the
ship without discovering the break. The cask was found broken at the bilge,
when the matting was removed, after delivered at the store. The bill of lading
was not proved either in the court below or in this court, and I entertain strong
doubts if it should be regarded as a part of the case. The clerk who testifies it
was received from the shippers at Hamburgh by the consignees at this port, in a
letter, speaks only from hearsay, not of his own knowledge ; and even if he did,
his evidence can hardly be regarded as a proof of its execution by the masters.
The delivery of the goods by the masters to the consignees named in it, may raise
an implication in favor of the genuineness of the instrument. But the evidence
is very loose, and might be abused if allowed as generally satisfactory. I do not
mean, however, to put my opinion upon this point of the case. The bill of lading
produced contains the clause “ weight and contents unknown.” When the mat­
ting and ropes were removed, the bristles in the cask were found to be very much
deranged and the bunches broken and in confusion, so that it would be difficult to
assort them. Now, as I understand the effect of this clause in the bill of lading,
there is no admission by the masters as to the goods beyond that visible to the
eye, or from handling the casks or boxes, or outside protection, whatever it may
be. If it does not mean this I am not aware that any effect can be given to it
(12 How., 272.) It is observed by Mr. Abbot, (Abbot on ship, p. 339,) “ that
if there is any dispute about the quantity or condition of the goods, of if the con­
tents of the casks or bales are unknown, the words of the bill of lading should be
varied accordingly.” As far as my experience goes, I think this effect of the
clause is in accordance with the general understanding of those concerned in the
carrying of goods, shippers and owners. When, therefore, a question arises as to
the condition of the contents of casks or bales, or cases, where this clause is in­
serted in the bill of lading, the burden rests upon the shippers, in the first instance,
to prove the condition of the goods at the time of shipment; and I remember
several cases before me in which commissions were executed abroad, and an elab­
orate inquiry made on his behalf for the purpose of establishing the fact. If the
external covering of the goods is damaged, accounting for the injury to the con­
tents, then the evidence may be dispensed with. The admission in the bill of
lading would be prima facie sufficient. It was said on the argument, that the ex­
ternal covering or protection, in this case, was damaged, and that, if in this con­
dition at the time the goods were shipped, the master must have known it, or at
least is chargeable with knowledge. But I am not satisfied that this is a just or
reasonable conclusion from the evidence. The carman states that the cask, ap­
parently, was externally uninjured, and that it might have been raised from the
hold without discovering the break, and if so, it might have been stored there
without discovering the fact. Indeed, it appears from the evidence, that the
covering of this cask with the mat, well secured with cords both around the body
and end, would prevent any discovery of the break, unless there was some special
VOL. X X X V .---- NO. IV .
29




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Journal o f Mercantile Law.

examination. It seems to me, therefore, that the case is one in which effect should
be given to the clause in question, and in which the burden lay upon the libelants
to prove the condition of the contents at the time the goods were delivered on
board the ship; and that, in the absence of such proof, the carrier is not properly
chargeable for the condition of the contents. It would be very unjust to charge
him, if they were delivered to the consignee in the condition received on the ship,
and for aught stipulated on the bill of lading we think they have been. Decree
reversed with costs.
SE A M E N S’ W A G E S — SE R V A N T S F O R H IR E .

In the United States Circuit Court, (New York, Sept., 1856,) before Judge
Nelson. The Ship Buena Yista agt. Thomas Bolton. Appeal in Admiralty,
September 9,1856.
N e l s o n , C. J.
This was a libel filed against the ship for seaman’s wages.
Bolton shipped at the port of Callao, in Peru, as steward of the vessel, on her
voyage from that port to the port of New York, at the rate of fifty dollars per
month, and signed the usual shipping articles. Some two months wages were ad­
vanced, and the libel is filed to recover the balance, which would be eighty dol­
lars, at the agreed rate.
The defence set up is, that Bolton misrepresented his fitness and qualifications
as steward, and also that he was unfaithful, and grossly inattentive to his duties
on board the vessel during the voyage. The proofs in the case are all one way,
establishing utter incompetence and unskillfulness as steward of a vessel, and also
willful negligence, and inattention to his duties after repeated warnings and ad­
monitions by the officers of the ship.
The answer given to this evidence is, that the master, under the facts stated,
should have discharged the libelant, and that, inasmuch as he was continued in
employment as steward for the voyage, according to the agreement, and until its
termination, the defence is unavailable. We agree, that if it had heen shown in
the case that the masters, after having discovered the unfitness of the seaman for
the duties for which he shipped, had an opportunity to discharge him from the
vessel, or, from the condition of his crew, might have disrated him, and put an­
other in his place, it would be unreasonable, if not unjust, to permit a defense of
this description. But there is no such evidence before us. In the case of shore
duty, or duty upon coasting vessels, we should be strongly disinclined to encour­
age a refusal to pay full wages where the period of employment had been worked
out. But a voyage at sea is different. There may be no opportunity to discharge
the seaman from the ship, or the complement of hands may not be such as to dis­
pense with the service, unless a substitute could be procured, and if disrated or
discharged, under circumstances in which he could not be put ashore, he must be
supported the remainder of the voyage. In all such and like cases, the only pro­
tection of the master and owners against imposition, or willful negligence of the
seaman, would seem to be to permit the defense set up here, namely, an abate­
ment of wages. Hands obtaining employment of a special character on board a
vessel, as steward or able-bodied seamen, are responsible for reasonable skill as
such, and acquaintance with their duties, and for an honest and faithful discharge
of them.
There is no difference in this respect between the condition of seamen and any
other description of service for hire. Courts are more indulgent in the case of
seamen’s contracts, from a consideration of their dependent condition, and we
would not lightly interfere in a claim for wages after service for the period stipu­
lated in the articles.
The learned Judge Ingersoll, who decided this case, thought the master should
have discharged the libelant, and that the defence was not available after his con­
tinuance in service during the whole period contracted for. For the reasons
above stated I am unable to concur in that opinion.
Decree reversed and libel dismissed with costs.




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Journal o f Mercantile Law.
P R O V IS IO N S OP T H E P A S S E N G E R A C T O P M A R C H

3, 1855,

IN R E L A T IO N TO S T E E R A G E

PASSEN GERS.

In the United States District Court, (California,) at the suggestion of Colonel
Inge, United States District Attorney, Mr. Justice McAllister delivered a special
charge to the Grand Jury on the construction of the provisions of the Passenger
Act of March 3,1853.
His Honor said, since the year 1819, about which time there was a press of
European immigration to this country, Congress has passed various laws in rela­
tion to the carriage of passengers in vessels. When, in the course of circum­
stances, such measures became matters of great necessity, Congress followed out
the legislation on the subject by an act in the year 1847, and different acts in
the ensuing years—all these acts having for their object the safety and the health
of passengers. The act of the 3d of March, 1855, repeals, and, as it were,
codifies all the laws passed by Congress in relation to the transportation of pas­
sengers by sea. This act was passed by Congress on the last day of its session,
and its provisions are somewhat obscure, and, to a certain extent, difficult of con­
struction.
The Court proceeded to construe the law by a course of reasoning, and con­
cluded that, under the provisions of the first section, two distinct offenses were
specified :—
1. The taking on board a greater number of passengers than in proportion of
one to every two tons of the vessel.
2. The following portion of the section referred to appropriated certain spaces
on the deck for the use of the passengers, viz., sixteen superficial feet on the main
and poop deck and deck-houses, and eighteen superficial feet on the lower deck,
for each passenger. The proper construction of this provision was that if the
whole number of passengers exceeded the aggregate amount of space appro­
priated, without reference to their actual distribution on the different decks, the
master of the vessel was liable to prosecution for misdemeanor, and to pay a fine
of $50 for each passenger in excess.
His Honor referred to the 10th section of the law making the provisions re­
lating to the space in vessels appropriated to the use of passengers applicable to
the carriage of steerage passengers in steamers. According to the principle of a
strict construction of penal statutes and the rule, expressio unius, exclusio allerius,
his Honor decided that the number of steerage passengers which a steamer was
entitled to transport, was to be estimated exclusively by the proportions of
space, and not by the proportion referred to, of one passenger to two tons of the
vessel.
CO RN M E R C H A N T S— A C T IO N F O R

BREACH

OF

CONTRACT.

Crown Court, Liverpool, April 5th, 1856—before Mr. Baron Martin.
and others vs. Schilizzi the Younger.

Smyth

This was an action for breach of contract, brought by Messrs. Moss, Thomp­
son, Smyth & Co., corn merchants, against a Greek merchant of this town, who
is the representative of a Greek house at Constantinople. The contract was be­
tween Mr. Blain, on the part of plaintiffs, and the defendant for the sale, by the
former, of 2,500 sacks of flour, at 80s. per sack of 48 lbs., and, if the vessel re­
quired further cargo, an additional lot of 1,500 sacks, at 81s. per sack. It was
stipulated that a first-class steamer should be employed to load the flour at San­
tander and deliver it at Constantinople, at £5 10s. per ton; if delivered at Liver-




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Journal o f Mercantile Law.

pool or Havre, half that rate to be charged. It was also agreed that the vessel
should be ready to load on the 1st December, and that if she were not ready by
the 4th, Mr. Schilizzi could, if he chose, repudiate the contract. The steamer
selected was the Tamaulipas. The steamer arrived at Liverpool on the 24th of
November, but in consequence of some accident she had met with on her voyage,
she was compelled on her arrival to go into the graving dock, and, though the
repairs were conducted without cessation day and night, she was not ready for
sailing before half-past three o’clock on the 4th of December. The weather,
however, looked so foul that the pilot would not take the vessel out, and she did
not actually sail until ten o’clock on the morning of the 5th of December. The
defendant wrote to the plaintiffs, repudiating the contract, as the vessel had not
sailed punctually. This letter they received about an hour after the steamer’s
departure.
The steamer called at Santander, took in the cargo, and went thence to Con­
stantinople, where the cargo was sold “ for the benefit of whom it might concern,"
and the loss entailed by this proceeding was estimated at £6,089, which it was
sought now to recover.
On the part of the defendant, it was contended that the defendant had every
right to repudiate the contract, and several statements were adduced to show that
the vessel was not ready for sea even late on the evening of the 4th.
The jury, after some consideration, returned a verdict for the plaintiffs—
damages £6,089.
NEW

YORK

L IE N

L A W — MORTGAGEE A LLO W E D TO D E F E N D .

In the United States Circuit Court, September, 1856. Before Judge Nelson.
Albert Yan Winkle agt. the steamboat “ Jenny Lind.” Appeal in Admiralty,
September 9,1856.
N elson , C. J. The libel was filed in this case to recover a running account of
stores furnished the Jenny Lind, commencing on the 29th April, 1854, and ending
19th October following, amounting in the aggregate to the sum of $156 27.
Dennis Harris, the claimant, was mortgagee of the vessel, and on application to
the Court was allowed to come in and defend, and obtained a discharge of her
from the attachment, on giving the usual bond.
The default in payment of one of the instalments due on the mortgage occurred
on the 21st October, which gave to the mortgagee the right of possession. This
happened the day after the levying of the attachment under the libel, and it has
been urged that, as the claimant had no present right to the possession at the time
the vessel was seized, he was improperly allowed to come in and defend. The
position cannot be maintained. A party becoming interested in the subject mat­
ters of the litigation, after the institution of the suit, may be admitted to come in
and protect his interest, if application is made within a reasonable time. This is
a common practice both in the Admiralty and Equity Courts; and it would be
very unjust, besides leading to vexatious litigation were the rule otherwise. The
party would necessarily be driven to a cross suit.
It was also urged that a mortgagee had not such an interest in a vessel as would
authorize him to appear and defend. How this would be, in a case where the
right to the possession did not exist, it is not material to determine. In this case,
the right of possession existed, and not only so, the vessel was reduced to actual
possession, and the mortgagee had a right to hold it for the satisfaction of his
debt.
It has also been urged that, assuming the mortgagee had the right to come in
and defend, for the purpose of protecting his interest, still the libelant had shown
a valid lien upon the vessel, which the court should enforce.
The Jenny Lind was a domestic vessel, and a lien for the stores depends upon
the local law.
The statute of New York giving the lien provides that, if the vessel shall depart
from the’port at which she was when the debt was contracted, to some other port
within the State, the debt shall cease to be a lien at the expiration of twelve days




Journal o f Mercantile Law.

453

after the day of such departure. During the period within which this account
accrued, the Jenny Lind was engaged in the daily transportation of passengers
and freight from this port to Ilaverstraw, touching at Sing Sing and Tarrytown,
Westchester County. We have repeatedly held that voyages to this extent were
departures within the meaning of the statute, and if the twelve days elapsed before
libel filed, the lien ceased.
We think the decree below, dismissing the libel, was right, and should be
affirmed.
C O L LISIO N — LO O K -O U T-----E X C E SS OF S P E E D .

United States Circuit Court. Appeal in Admiralty. September 12th, 1856.
Before Judge Nelson. The schooner Trader agt. the steamboat James Adger.
The libel was filed in this case by the owners of the schooner Trader against
the James Adger, to recover damages for a collision that occurred on the morning
of the 1st April, 1855, off the Capes of the Delaware, in which the schooner was
run down and became a total loss. She was on her voyage from St. Mary’s,
Georgia, to New York, and the James Adger from New York to Charleston,
South Carolina. The wind was north-east by east, and the schooner close hauled,
heading about east south-east. She was struck on her larboard bow, near the
fore rigging, by the starboard bow of the steamer. The wind was light, between
two and three knots the hour, the night rainy and hazy. The steamer was going
at the rate of between nine and ten knots the hour. Her lights were discovered
by the hands on the schooner when she was some three-quarters of a mile off, and
a light was immediately shown in a conspicuous place by the mate of the vessel,
who had charge of the watch at the time. There is some difference of opinion
among the witnesses as to the darkness of the night, and the distance a vessel
could be seen at the time of the collision, but we are quite satisfied that if a vigi­
lant look-out had been kept on the steamer, the schooner with her light would
have been discovered in season to have avoided her. And we may add, if the
night was as dark as stated by some of the leading witnesses on behalf of the
steamer, her rate of speed was too great for the reasonable security of sailing ves­
sels in her track.
In answer to this, it is said that she is under a contract to carry the mail of the
United States between New York and the city of Charleston, and to make the
passage in sixty hours. But we cannot agree that this affords any excuse for a
rate of speed which the law regards, under the circumstances, as dangerous to the
lives and property of our citizens, or any exemption from the responsibility com­
mon to this species of our commercial marine.
There is another observation that should bo made, concerning the conduct,of
the mate, who was in charge of the steamer at the time. On the report of the
vessel to him as ahead, by the look-out, he immediately ordered the helm to be
put hard-a-starboard, which was done. He admits the look-out did not report
the course the vessel was heading, nor did he stop to ascertain the fact before he
gave the order. He also admits, if he had known the position of the vessel he
would have ported his helm, instead of putting it hard-a-starboard, and which
would have carried the steamer under her stern, and, we may add, would proba­
bly have avoided the misfortune.
We think the decree below right, and should be affirmed.
AG E N C Y — W H E N P R O M ISE OF IN D E M N IT Y W IL L

BE

IM P L IE D A G A IN S T P R IN C I P A L F O R

I L L E G A L A C T OF A G E N T .

When an agent is employed by his principal to do an act which is not mani­
festly illegal, and which he does not know to be wrong, (as to take personal pro­
perty, which, though claimed adversely by another, he has reasonable grounds to
believe belongs to his principal,) the law implies a promise of indemnity by the
principal for such losses and damages as flow directly and immediately from the
execution of the agency. (Moore vs. Appleton. Supreme Court of Alabama.)




454

Journal o f Mercantile Law.
M A R A T IM E

L IE N — D E B T

F O R M A T E R IA L S .

United States District Court of the Northern District of Ohio, July Term,
1856. Elijah K. Bruce vs. the tackle, apparel and furniture of the steamboat
“ America.” This case came on to be heard upon the following agreed statement
of facts:—
It is agreed that Bruce, the libelant, is a citizen and resident of the State of
New Tork. That the steamboat “ America” was owned and enrolled in the
State of Ohio at the time when the debt for materials sued for was contracted,
and at the time she was lost off Point au Pelee, on Lake Erie. That said debt
is unpaid, and would be a good and valid claim against the steamboat “ America”
were she still navigating the Lakes. That some time in November, 1854, said
steamboat was sunk off Point au Pelee, in Lake Erie, and after vain endeavors
to raise her, was dismantled by her owners, and such of her rigging apparel, fur­
niture, machinery, &c., as could be removed, was taken from her ; and for the pur­
pose of getting the iron which composed her in part, she was burned to the
waters’ edge. That such of the apparel, rigging, furniture, machinery and iron
as had been thus saved was brought to Cleveland and seized by the Marshal, in
this suit. It is admitted that the steamboat “ America,” as a water craft, is
wholly abandoned.
The case was argued by Messrs. Backus & Noble for libelant, who claimed
that the liens of material men and seamen were equal and of the same nature and
effect on the water craft, except the right of priority of the seamen in marshaling
the liens ; and they cited the Mary Ann, Ware’s B. 103 ; the Jerusalem, 2, Gallison B. 346 ; Conkling’s Admiralty, 14-—52— 60 ; Abbot on shipping, 179 and
292 ; Bess B. 784, Wheat, 438 ; 9th do. 409 ; 3, Kent’s Com, 168 ; 1 Paine C.
C. B., 620 ; 2 Paine, 131; Gilpin’s B., 1 and 184, and 8,12 and 13, Buies of
Admiralty Practice.
Messrs Spalding & Parsons elaborately argued the case for the claimant, and
contended that the lien of material men becomes extinct when the vessel is wrecked
or derelict, and insisted that the rule of maritime law, that the “ mariner’s lien
attaches and adheres to the last plank of the ship,’’ should not apply to the liens
of material men. They cited 1, Haggard’s B. 227 ; Abbot on Shipping, 754 ;
the Elizabeth and Jane, Ware’s B. 41, and the Eastern Star, Ware’s B. 186 ;
the Down, Davies’ B. 128 ; the sloop Louisa, 2, Wood, and Minet B. 56, and
Buie 12 of the Admiralty Practice.
W i l s o n , Judge, Held—
1st. That the maritime lien of seamen for their wages, and material men for
supplies and repairs, fe a species of proprietory interest in the ship or vessel itself,
and which, except on paymeut, cannot be divested by the acts of the owner or by
any casualty.
2d. Such lien inheres to the ship and all its parts, wherever found, and whoever
may be the owner. It attaches to the parts of a dismantled vessel the same as to
a ship or vessel in integra.
3d. Wherever there is a maritime lien it may be enforced in the Admiralty by
a proceeding in rem. And when the parts of a wrecked vessel are saved by the
owners and not by the sailors, the Court, in marshaling the liens and disposing of
the proceeds of the sale of the property, will order payment in discharge of the
liens.
1st. To seamen.
2d. To material men.
Decree for libellant, accordingly.
C O N T RA CT S— IM P O S S IB L E C O N S ID E R A T IO N S .

One who contracts with a workman for services within his art or calling, has a
right to rely upon his representations as to his skill; and although the law will
not seek to compel a man to do that which is impossible, yet it will not allow the
workman, after he has obtained money as the price of stipulated services which




455

Journal o f Mercantile Law.

he cannot perform, by false and fraudulent representations as to his skill in his
business, to defeat a recovery for the deceit and consequent injury by setting up
the impracticability of those services. McG-ar vs. Williams. Supreme Court of
Alabama.)
CO L LISIO N — L OO K OUT.

United States Circuit Court, (Sept. 13, 1856,) before Judge Nelson. The
sloop George M. Dallas agl. the steamboat New Haven. Appeal in Ad­
miralty.
This libel was filed by the owners of the sloop to recover damages for a colli­
sion, a little below Piermont dock, on the North river, on the night of the 7th of
May, 1855, in which she was run down and sunk by one of the barges of the tow
of the steamboat New Haven. The night was somewhat dark and cloudy. The
sloop was coming down the river, the wind about S. S. E., with a moderate breeze,
the steamboat ascending, making for Piermont dock. The hands on the sloop
testify that she was coming down on the west shore of the river, and that the
steamboat was ascending east of her, and took a sheer to the west that led to the
disaster; while the hands of the steamboat aver that she was ascending on the
east shore, and that the sloop was coming down east of them, and suddenly
changed her course towards the west, crossing the bows of the steamer. Judge
Ingersoll, who heard and determined the case below, held the steamer was in
fault in not having a competent look-out stationed in the forward part of the boat,
whose duty it was to descry and report to the proper officer vessels approaching
at the earliest possible moment. She had no look-out, in the maritime sense of
that term. The pibt and captain were on the pilot-house, which was some fifty
feet from the stem of the vessel; at the time of the collision the pilot was at the
wheel. There seems to have been no person on board whose especial duty was
to look out for vessels ahead. We have repeatedly held, that this neglect was a
fault in the navigation of a vessel that would charge her in case of the happening
of a collision.
It is insisted for the respondents, that the sloop was in fault also, for not keep­
ing her course, and that the sudden change of it led to the collision. We are not
satisfied that any change of course took place on her part until the danger of a
collision was impending: and further, we think, if there had been a competent
and vigilant look-out on the steamer, the disaster might have been avoided.
Judge Ingersoll has examined the evidence with great care, and has stated the
reasons at large for his conclusion in charging the New Haven; and we fully
concur in the views he has taken of the case, and the result to which he arrived.
It is a matter of surprise that masters of steamboats should be found so fre­
quently neglectful of their duty in omitting to station a look-out at a proper
place on the boat, especially in dark and cloudy weather, after the necessity of
the observance of it has been so repeatedly enforced by the courts, and several
condemnations of veseels for the omission. The duty was most manifest, in this
case, considering the weather, and the moving mass upon the river of one hun­
dred and sixty feet width comprising the steamboat and her barges. Decree
affirmed.
U N A U T H O R IZ E D

D ISC H A R G E

O F J U R Y E Q U IV A L E N T TO A N

A C Q U IT T A L .

The constitutional guaranty of a trial by jury “ in all criminal prosecutions,”
includes the right to have the deliberations of the jury continued when once they
have begun the trial and heard a portion of the evidence, until the occurrence of
a sufficient legal reason for their discharge, and the chance of acquittal at their
hands during all that time; and therefore the unauthorized discharge of a jury in
any criminal case, either for a felony or for a misdemeanor, is equivalent to an
acquittal. (McCauley vs. the State. Supreme Court of Alabama.)
Chilton, C. J., expressing no opinion.




456

Commercial Chronicle and Review.

COMMERCIAL CHRONICLE AND REVIEW.
T H E S U P P L Y OF B R EA D STU FF® — T H E S P E C U L A T IO N IN SU G A R — T H E T R A D E IN

REAL SO U RCE O F D A N G E R TO T H E P E A C E A N D

F O R E IG N F A B R IC S — T H E

P R O S P E R IT Y O F O U R C O U N T R Y — C O N S E R V A T IS M

OF

T H E C O M M E R C IA L C L A SS E S— R E C E IP T S O F G O L D F R O M C A L IF O R N I A , A N D D E P O S1T 8 A N D C O IN A G E —
THE

B A N K M O V E M E N T — IM P O R T S O F F O R E IG N G O O D S I N A U G U S T A N D S IN C E J A N U A R Y 1 S T — E X P O R T S

TO F O R E I G N P O R T S I N A U G U S T , A N D F O R E IG H T M O N T H S — M O V E M E N T O F D O M E S T IC P R O D U C E , E T C .

There has been a marked activity in the exports’of breadstuffs from the Atlantic
seaboard during the last month, thus realizing the anticipations expressed in our
last. The harvests in England are much more satisfactory than expected, but the
yield will fall below the average of the past five years. After the wheat was cut,
hope and fear alternated for nearly two weeks, while the abundant rains prevented
any attempt to gather it. A t last the sun came out, the weather became settled,
and the crop was saved. This has created a depression in the markets of this
country, but it occurred at a very opportune moment, just as our farmers were
becoming excited, and resolving to hoard for higher rates. There can be no ques­
tion but what the United Kingdom will be a good customer for our surplus pro­
duce, and it is better that the demaud should not be active enough to advance
prices above a healthy limit. In other quarters the aspect of the export question
is unchanged. Spain and Portugal are buying of us freely, while France must
look to us for enough to make up her admitted deficiency.
There has been a decline of about lc. in raw sugar, but prices immediately
recovered again, and advanced above the highest point of the previous excitement.
The supply is light, and nothing but a check to the general consumption from
very high rates will equalize the supply and demand, and restore a moderate
quotation.
There has been less of panic among the importers of foreign dry goods. Large
portions of the stock have been sold off by auction, and this, with the rapid advance
in raw silk, and increasing firmness in other raw materials abroad, has increased
the courage of holders. The consumption will be increased by a decline in the
cost of breadstuffs and other necessaries, but we cannot give our trails-Atlantic
friends any hope of realizing a profit upon the prices now demanded in Europe.
If the quotations abroad are correct, staple fabrics might be reshipped from New
York in bond, and sell to better advantage at the place of original shipment, than
in the market for which they were intended.
The public mind has become quieted in regard to the difficulties with foreign
countries, and no war now lowers on the horizon which bounds our view of
Europe. But there is a question of danger nearer home; a question which some
who love their whole country with an undivided affection, dare only revolve in
their hearts, without trusting it to their lips. The inquirer who should begin
with the opening history of the American Colonies, and trace their early trials,
self-denial and victories down to the Declaration of Independence, and thence
through the arduous struggle which resulted in the establishment of these United
States under a glorious constitution, the almost unanimous choice of a brave, free
and intelligent people,—would not conjecture that the first serious question con­
cerning our national safety would come in the shape of disunion. We do not
propose to enter into the discussion of the causes which have led to the utterance




457

Commercial Chronicle and Review.

of this fearful word. However interesting such an inquiry, it does not come
within the province of a commercial editor.
But the fact cannot be longer dis­
guised that there is a growing alienation of feeling between various parts of this
great confedracy, which must inevitably result in a disruption of the union, unless
it can be checked by mutual concessions, and the restoration of the old fraternal
regard. The commercial aspect of this question is of the utmost importance. The
credit system is so interwoven with our prosperity that it cannot be shaken with­
out creating wide-spread disaster. The confidence necessary to the perfection of
this system is wanting. Men of all political parties look anxiously into the future,
and however much they may bluster and assume a courage for political effect, they
cannot avoid the sight of the thick darkness which shrouds every step beyond the
prospect of disunion. Once snap the bonds that make us one nation, and more
than half the wealth of the country is annihilated at a blow. No matter where
the dividing line may be drawn, the ruin will be equally complete; for the great
problem our fathers sought to solve in favor of free institutions will be decided
against them, and the hopes of the oppressed throughout the world will fade like
a dimly remembered dream. It is vain to say that the bonds cannot be easily
severed. Every angry and bitter word uttered North or South, every unjust asper­
sion or ungenerous allusion—nay, every unkind thought cherished in the heart,
weakens the ties that unite us, and add a spark to the fire that shall kindle into
a flame of civil war. We think that politicians, intent upon their own selfish
purposes, have been allowed too much influence upon the public mind ; and our
hope lies less in their forbearance than in their utter recklessness. They will go
to such lengths as to expose the hollowness of their pretensions, and the fictitious
character of their zeal; and the honest-hearted of all parties will shrink from
the precipice to which mad factionists are leading them. The commercial classes
have ever been the true conservators of the nation’s peace. It may be that reasons,
founded in their self interest, have urged them to this course, as they are among
the first sufferers by the calamities of war; but there is something due, also, to
the fraternal feeling fostered by their calling. The merchants and bankers who
are brought into business relations with distant communities, soon learn to forget
sectional distinctions; and with the largeness of heart engendered by this process,
comes also a brotherhood of feeling with the whole human family.
The receipts of gold from California have not been quite as large since our last,
but the total since January 1st is in advance of the corresponding date of last
year. But little of this is now sent to the New York Assay Office, most of it
being assayed and refined at San Francisco. The following will show the busi­
ness at the Assay Office :—
D E P O S IT S A T T H E A S SA Y

O F F IC E , H E W

Y O K E , F O E T H E M O U T H O F AU GU ST.

Gold.
F o r e ig n c o in s ...............................................
F o r e ig n b u l l i o n ..........................
D o m e s t i c b u l l i o n ..................................
T o t a l d e p o s i t s .............................

$ 3 ,9 0 0
4 3 ,6 0 0
1 ,1 0 2 ,5 0 0

Silver.
00
00
00

$ 1 ,1 5 0 ,0 0 0 0 0

$ 5 ,4 0 0 0 0
840 00
9 ,8 6 0 0 0
$ 1 6 ,1 0 0 0 0

D e p o s it s p a y a b le in b a r s ..............................................................................................
D e p o s it s p a y a b le in c o i n ...............................................................................................
G o l d b a r s s t a m p e d ............................................................................................................
T r a n s m it t e d t o U . S t a t e s M in t, P h ila d e lp h ia , fo r c o i n a g e ........................




Total.
$ 9 ,3 0 0 0 0
4 4 ,4 4 0 0 0
1 ,1 1 2 ,3 6 0 0 0
$ 1 ,1 6 6 ,1 0 0 0 0
1 ,1 5 4 ,6 0 0
1 0 ,0 0 0
1 ,3 9 2 ,7 6 8
7 7 ,2 2 3

00
00
00
00

458

Commercial Chronicle and Review,

In the deposits are included §300,000 of California Mint bars, but a much
larger amount of the same description were exported directly, without being
remelted at New York.
The following is a statement of the operations at the Mint of the United States
in Philadelphia, during the month of August, 1856 :—
GOLD

D E P O S IT S .

California gold.....................................................................
Gold from other sources.....................................................

$45,485 00
14,815 00
$60,300 00

S IL V E R

D E P O S IT S .

$195,750 00

Silver deposits, including silver purchases...................

195,750 00
$256,050 00

Total deposits......................................................
R E C A P IT U L A T IO N .

Gold coinage....................................................
Silver coinage...................................................
Copper coinage.................................................

111,782
812.000
191,152

111,782 00
63,300 00
1,911 52

Total.............................................................

1,114,934

$176,993 52

There remained on hand at the Mint of the United States, in Philadelphia, coins
of the following denominations, at the close of business for the day, August 30,
1856 :—
GOLD.

S IL V E R .

Double e a g le s .........$291,320
Eagles.........................
44,200
Half eagles...............
26,070
Quarter-eagles......... 430,430
Three dollar pieces..
22,791
Dollars.......................
33,953
Bars............................
16,913

00
00
00
00
00
00
10

T o ta l..................... $665,677 10
Balance on h a n d ..........................

D ollars.....................
Half dollars...............
Quarter-dollars.........
D im es.......................
H alf dimes................
Three cent pieces . . .
Cents..........................

$10,946
596,443
698,256
128,877
131,533
25,996

00
00
00
50
75
92
81

Total................... $1,592,053 98
.............................. 2,257,731 08

The contraction of the banks has not been as rapidly as generally expected.
The following is a statement of the weekly averages of the New York city
banks:—
W EEKLY

Date.

Capital.

Jan. 5,1856.
Jan. 1 2 ..
Jan. 1 9 ..
Jan. 2 6 ..
Feb. 2 . .
Feb. 9 ..
Feb. 1 6 ..
Feb. 2 3 ..
March 1 , .
March 8 . ,
March 15. . ,
March 22 . .
March 29 . .
April 5 , #
April 12 ••

49,453,660
49,453,660
49,453,660
49,692,900
49,692,900
49,692,900
49,692,900
49,883,420
49,784,288
49,784,288
49,784,288
49,784,288
51,113,025
51,113,025
61,113,025




AVERAGES NEW

Loans and
Discounts.

95,868,390
96,145,408
96,382,968
96,887,221
97,970,611
98,344,077
99,401,315
100,745,447
102,632,235
103,909,688
104,528,298
104,533,576
104,746,307
106,962,018
107,840,435

Y O R K C IT Y B A N K S.

Specie.

11,687,209
11,777,711
13,385,260
12,733,059
13,640,437
14,233,329
15,678,736
15,835,874
16,640,687
15,170,946
14,046,024
14,369,556
14,216,841
13,381,454
12,626,094

Circulation.

7,903,656
7,612,507
7,462,706
7,506,986
7,622,827
7,819,122
. 7,693,441
7,664,688
7,754,392
7,888,176
7,863,148
7,912,581
7,943,253
8,347,498
8,281,525

Deposits.

83,534,893
77,931,498
82,652,828
78,918,315
82,269,061
82,848,152
88,085,944
87,680,478
' 88,604,377
88,749,625
88,621,176
89,390,261
88,186,648
91,008,408
91,081,975

Commercial Chronicle and Review.
Bate.

April
April
May
May
May
May
May
June
June
June
June
July
July
July
July
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Sept.
Sept.

1 9 ..
2 6 ..
3 ..
1 0 ..
1 7 ..
2 4 ..
8 1 ..
7 ..
1 4 ..
2 1 ..
2 8 ..
5 ..
12. .
1 9 ..
2 6 ..
2 ..
9 ..
1 6 ..
2 3 ..
3 0 ..
6 ..
1 3 ..

Capital.

Loans and
Discounts.

51.113.025
51.113.025
51.113.025
51.113.025
51.113.025
51.113.025
51.458.508
51.458.508
51.458.508
52.705.017
52.706.017
53.170.317
63.170.317
53.170.317
53.170.317
53.658.039
53.658.039
53.658.039
53.985.068
53.985.068
53.985.068
63.985.068

106,765,085
105,538,864
105,325,962
103,803,793
103,002,320
102,207,767
102,451,275
103,474,921
104,168,881
105,626,995
107,087,525
109,267,682
109,748,042
110,873,494
111,346,589
112,221,563
112,192,322
111,406,756
110,188,005
109,373,911
109,560,943
109,579,776

Specie.

12,958,132
13.102.857
12,850,227
13,317,365
12,796,451
13,850,333
14,021,289
16,166,180
17,414,680
17,871,955
17,069,687
16.829.236
14,793,409
15,326,131
13.910.858
14,328,253
13,270,603
12,806,672
12,914,732
12.965.236
13,098,876
12,281,387

459

Circulation.

8,221,618
8,246.120
8,715,163
8,662,485
8,488,152
8,335,097
8,269,151
8,430,252
8,360,735
8,278,002
8,250,289
8,637,471
8,405,756
8,346,243
8,386,285
8,646,043
8,676,759
8,584,499
8,588,413
8,589,745
8,887,860
8 ,7 4 1 ,0 6 4

Deposits.

90,875,737
89,627,280
92,816,068
89,476,262
88,720,415
87,094,300
86,775,313
90.609.243
91,602,245
93,715,837
93.239.243
100,140,420
. 95,663,460
95,932,105
92,365,040
93,847,317
92,220,370
92,013,229
90,127,223
87,776,242
89,350,154
88,044,074

We also annex a continuation of the weekly statements of the Boston banks :—
W E E K L Y AVERAGES AT BOSTON.

August 25.
September 1. September 8. September 15.
Capital............................................. $31,960,000 $31,960,000 $31,960,000 $31,960,000
Loans and discounts....................... 63,172,935 53,160,952 53,617,342 53,733,500
Specie................................................
3,943,790
3,727,085
3,629,170 3,519,000
Due from other banks.....................
5,569,574
5,661,102
6,020,707 5,928,000
Due to other banks..........................
4,773,135
4,674,946
4,718,741 4,940,000
D eposits........................................... 15,782,309 15,643,629 15,941,013 15,703,000
Circulation.......................................
6,751,804
6,688,044
7,121,437
6,972,000

The imports of foreign goods at New York for the month of August were
$7,413,266 greater than for Aurust, 1855, $835,532 in excess of the very large
total for August, 1854, and $3,725,921 greater than for August, 1853. During
the month, as in the corresponding period of 1854, upwards of four millions were
thrown into warehouse, while in August last year nearly all the receipts were
thrown directly upon the market. The imports of free goods show no material
change. W e annex a comparative summary:—
FOR EIGN IM PO RTS AT N E W Y O RK IN AUGUST.

1851.

1854.

1855.

1856.

Entered f o r

c o n s u m p t i o n _____
E n t e r e d f o r w a r e h o u s i n g ____
F r e e g o o d s ........................................
S p e c i e a n d b u l l i o n .....................

$ 1 6 ,7 8 8 ,3 6 2
2 ,2 2 6 ,2 9 9
6 6 7 ,4 0 8
5 1 1 ,7 1 5

$ 1 7 ,4 7 9 ,9 9 2
4 ,1 2 3 ,7 8 7
1 ,3 0 4 ,6 6 2
1 7 5 ,6 9 2

$ 1 3 ,8 9 9 ,7 5 8
1 ,3 5 6 ,4 2 8
1 ,2 0 1 ,5 7 0
4 8 ,6 4 3

$ 1 8 ,3 7 5 ,9 8 6
4 ,1 3 6 ,7 1 6
1 ,3 0 3 ,7 9 0
1 0 3 ,1 7 8

Total entered at the port....
Withdrawn from warehouse..

$20,193,744
1,745,864

$23,084,133
3,038,056

$16,506,399
2,889,884

$23,919,665
2,524,407

This makes the total imports at that port since January 1st $57,175,131
greater than for the corresponding eight months of 1855, $19,812,048 greater
than for the same time in 1854, and $19,829,102 greater than for the same period




460

Commercial Chronicle and Review.

of 1853. A considerable portion of this increase has been in goods entered for
warehousing, as will appear from the annexed comparison :—
FOR EIGN IMPORTS AT

NEW Y O RK FOR EIGHT

1858.

MONTHS, FROM JANUARY 1ST.

1854.

1855.

1856.

Entered for consumption___ $110,347,169 $102,181,103 $72,806,038 $117,965,766
Entered for warehousing. . . .
15.813,888
21,814,110
17,621,075 25,230,040
10,336,526
12,348,863
9,763,868 13,676,437
Free g o o d s .............................
Specie and b u llio n ...............
1,611,231
1,781,782
571,794
1,066,673
Total entered at the p o r t....
"Withdrawn from warehouse.

138,108,804
9,972,966

138,125,858
14,382,932

100,762,775
17,160,118

157,987,906
15,629,611

The great increase in the imports, as compared with the same period of last
year, is very evenly divided between dry goods and general merchandise, as will
appear from the annexed very interesting summary
COMPARATIVE SUMMARY

OF FOREIGN IMPORTS AT N E W YO RK FOR EIGHT MONTHS, FROM
JANUARY 1ST.

1853.
D r y g o o d s .....................
General merchandise. . .
Total imports..............

1854.

$67,348,005
70,760,799
$138,108,894

1855.

$66,898,081
71,227,797

1856.

$43,026,641
57,736,134

$71,990,039
85,947,867

$138,125,858 $100,762,775 $157,937,906

We have now reached the point where the great decline in imports last year
was checked ; and the increase henceforward will be much less rapid than through­
out the last eight months, and it is possible the total in some of the remaining
months of the year may show a slight decline. A part of the increase was ex­
pected, and needed, but the total stock of foreign merchandise of many descriptions
is far above the wants of the trade.
We annex our usual tables, specifying the description of dry goods im­
ported :—
IM PORTS OF FOR EIGN D R Y GOODS AT THE P O R T OF N EW Y O RK FOR AUGUST.
ENTERED FOR CONSUMPTION.

1853.

1854.

1855.

1856.

Manufactures o f w o o l................. .
Manufactures o f cotton................ .
Manufactures o f silk.................... .
Manufactures o f flax....................
Miscellaneous dry good s.............

$3,605,759
1548,745
2,981,048
712,342
516,007

$3,354,380
1,608,019
3,506,467
755,333
648,620

$2,552,263
806,606
3,574,030
507,196
638,912

$3,867,718
1,490,021
3,887,008
724,075
821,341

Total........................................... .

$9,363,901

|9,771,819

$8,079,007 $10,790,163

W IT H D R A W N FRO M W AREHOUSE.

1853.

1854.

Manufactures o f w o ol...................
Manufactures o f c o t to n .............
Manufactures o f s ilk ...................
Manufactures o f flax...................
Miscellaneous dry g o o d s ...........

$788,165
322,066
394,493
78,536
33,155

Total........................................
A dd entered for consumption . .

$1,611,415
9,771,819

Total thrown on the m arket. .




1855.

1856.

$402,640
128,779
324,445
99,286
33,016

$683,959
118,004
132,938
38,764
15,994

$889,659
$988,166
8,079,007 10,790,163

$9,922,216 $11,383,234 $9,067,173 $11,679,822

Commercial Chronicle and Review.

461

Manufactures o f w o o l ......................
Manufactures o f cotton .................
Manufactures of s ilk ......................
Manufactures o f flax.......................
Miscellaneous dry g o o d s ...............
T otal........................................
A dd entered for consumption. . . . ..

1851.
$270,368

OO

ENTERED FOE W AREHOUSING.

47,881
12,436

1854.
$815,636
300,869
479,160
175,742
45,862

$95,269
47,272
28,954
28,434
23,312

1856.
$455,059
172,872
141,124
122,496
11,379

9,363,901

$1,817,269
9,771,819

$223,241
8,079,007

$902,930
10,790,163

Total entered at the p o r t....... . $9,926,386 $11,589,088 $8,302,248 $11,693,693

The above shows that the total for August has been $3,390,845 larger than
for August, 1855, $104,005 larger than for August, 1854, and $1,766,707 larger
than for August, 1853.
The following also specifies the imports of this class for eight months :—
IMPORTS OF FOREIGN D RY GOODS AT THE PORT OF NEW Y O RK FOR EIGHT MONTHS FROM
JANUARY 1ST.
ENTERED FOR CONSUMPTION.

1851.
M a n u fa c t u r e s
M a n u fa c tu r e s
M a n u fa c t u r e s
M a n u fa c t u r e s
M is c e lla n e o u s

o f w o o l ............................$ 1 8 ,5 1 8 ,9 8 1
o f c o t t o n ......................
1 1 ,0 1 7 ,7 6 2
o f s i l k ...........................
2 3 ,6 6 0 ,5 0 2
o f f l a x ..............................
5 ,6 3 1 ,2 0 9
d r y g o o d s .....................
3 ,8 7 2 ,5 1 8

1851.

1855.

1856.

$ 1 5 ,2 6 8 ,1 3 1 $ 1 0 ,4 1 7 ,0 7 3 $ 1 9 ,1 6 1 ,0 3 2
1 1 ,7 4 8 ,6 6 1
5 ,4 7 1 ,8 3 7
1 1 ,7 1 2 ,1 5 4
2 0 ,6 7 1 ,3 4 0 1 4 ,8 3 1 ,8 1 4 2 3 ,3 7 3 ,6 5 6
5 ,0 5 9 ,0 0 4
3 ,4 2 2 ,6 5 1
5 ,8 3 3 ,8 1 7
4 ,0 8 4 ,7 9 6
3 ,4 2 8 ,5 5 7
6 ,2 7 3 .4 4 3

T o t a l ........................................................ $ 6 2 ,7 0 0 ,9 7 2 $ 5 6 ,8 2 1 ,9 3 2 $ 3 7 ,5 7 1 ,3 3 2 $ 6 5 ,3 5 4 ,1 0 2
W IT H D R A W N FRO M WAREHOUSE.

185!.
M a n u fa c t u r e s o f w o o l ..........................
$ 1 ,6 1 0 ,2 0 7
M a n u fa c tu r e s o f c o t t o n .......................
7 8 7 ,6 0 9
M a n u fa c t u r e s o f s i l k ............................
1 ,1 0 9 ,6 4 3
M a n u fa c t u r e s o f f l a x ...........................
1 6 4 ,3 1 3
M i s c e l la n e o u s d r y g o o d s ................... •
2 5 8 ,2 4 2

1851.
$ 2 ,6 9 3 ,7 3 5
2 ,1 0 4 ,1 2 6
2 ,1 9 3 ,1 6 4
6 3 9 ,9 8 1
2 9 6 ,0 3 6

1855.
$ 1 ,9 4 5 ,2 5 7
1 ,9 0 1 ,6 3 2
2 ,1 5 7 ,8 7 8
9 7 1 ,3 8 6
6 1 1 ,7 6 1

1856.
$ 1 ,7 9 3 ,3 9 7
1 ,6 5 3 ,1 8 3
1 ,6 0 0 ,7 3 7
7 8 4 ,7 1 9
3 1 4 ,8 0 0

T o t a l w i t h d r a w n ..............................

$ 3 ,8 3 0 ,0 1 4

$ 7 ,9 2 6 ,0 3 2

$ 7 ,5 8 7 ,9 1 4

$ 6 ,1 4 6 ,8 3 6

Add entered for consumption . . .

62,700,972

56,821,932

37,571,332

65,854,102

Total thrown upon the market. $66,530,986 $64,747,964 $45,159,246 $71,500,938
ENTERED FOR W AREHOUSIN G.

185!.

1854.

1855.

1856.

Manufactures of w ool ..... ....... ,.
Manufactures of cotton............ .
Manufactures of silk ................
Manufactures of f la x ...................
Miscellaneous dry goods......... .

$1,924,619 $3,996,996
993,619
2,179,512
1,214,821
2,817,373
238,626
752,335
275,348
329,933

Total................................. .
Add entered for consumption.. . .

$4,647,033 $10,076,149 $5,455,309 $6,635,937
62,700,972 56,821,932 37,571,332 65,354,102

$1,357,630
1,142,652
1,670,228
725,226
559,673

$2,438,657
1,433,185
1,688,628
636,779
438,688

Total entered at the port . . . $67,348,005 $66,898,081 $43,026,641 :$71,990,039
The above shows that the total receipts of dry goods since January 1st, are
$29,963,398 greater than for the corresponding eight months of 1855, $5,091,958




Commercial Chronicle and Review.

462

greater than for the same time in 1854, and 84,642,024 greater than for the same
time in 1853.
The E xports also show a large comparative gain. The total shipments from
New York to foreign ports for the month of August, exclusive of specie, are
81,257,864 in excess of the corresponding total for last year, 8656,257 greater
than for August, 1854, and 8915,043 greater than for August, 1853, as will ap­
pear from the annexed comparison :—
E X P O R T S F RO M N E W T O R E TO FO R E IG N POE TS

FOR THE MONTH OF AUGUST.

1853.

1854.

1855.

1856.

Domestic produce...........................
Foreign merchandise (free).........
Foreign merchandise (dutiable)..
S p ecie-.............................................

£4,450,383
79,857
377,720
1,183,973

$4,487,619
253,857
515,270
4,548,320

$4,281,481
151,482
222,176
2,609,393

$5,612,828
88,242
211,933
3,202,053

Total exports..............................
Total, exclusive o f s p e cie .........

16.181,933
4,997,960

$9,805,066
5,256,746

$7,264,532
4,655,139

$9,115,056
5,913,003

This makes the total exports from New York to foreign ports (exclusive of
specie) since January 1st, 811,573,738 greater than for the same time last year,
89,192,185 greater than for the same time in 1854, and 814,204,287 greater than
for the same time in 1853.
The increase in domestic produce is still greater, but there has been a consider­
able decline in the re-export of foreign goods. We annex a comparative sum­
mary :—
E X P O R T S FRO M N E W YO R K TO F O R EIG N PORTS F O R EIGHT MONTHS, FROM JANUARY 1 ST.

1853.

1854.

1855.

1856.

Domestic produce............................. $34,845,630 $39,453,720 $34,579,662 $50,290,993
Foreign merchandise (free)..........
1,090,526
1,218,460
3,440,596
680,750
Foreign merchandise (dutiable)...
2,865,901
3,161,979
3,422,348 2,044,601
S p e c ie .............................................. 13,763,567 23,656,639 22,607,612 23,748,539
Total e x p o r ts ..............................$52,565,624 $67,480,798 $64,050,118 $76,764,883
Total, exclusive o f specie......... 38,802,057 43,824,159 41,442,606 63,016,844

We look for large exports, especially of domestic produce, throughout the re­
remainder of the year. The cash revenue at the port of New York shows a large
increase, and for the last eight months is greater than for any previous similar
period in our history
CASH DUTIES RECEIVED AT N EW YORK.

1853.

1854.

1855.

1856.

First 6 m onths.........$21,167,329 50 $19,737,960 76 $14,299,945 71 $22,541,145 78
In July.......................
4,640,107 15
4,045,745 78
3,787,341 95
5,441,544 27
In A u gu st.................
4,746,657 81
5,214,629 78
4,290,796 15
5,286,399 11
Total since Jan. 1st. $30,554,094 46 $28,998,336 32 $22,378,083 81 $33,269,089 13

The money has accumulated in the Sub-Treasury far beyond the wants of an
economical administration, and will probably continue to accnmulate until some
change is made in the Tariff.
We annex our usual comparative tables, showing the shipments of certain de­
scriptions of domestic produce from New York since January 1st:—




Commercial Chronicle and Review.
EXPORTS

OF

C E R T A IN

A R T IC L E S O F

D O M E S T IC

PRODUCE

FROM

NEW

463
YORK

TO

F O R E IG N

POR TS FROM JANDARY 1ST TO SEPTEMBER 1 6 T H :----

18®.

1856.

18®.

1856.

6,650 Naval s to re s .. . .bbls. 519,931 379,909
962 Oils— w h a le .. . .galls. 191,121
28,912
sperm ........... 580,032 389,445
165,762
l a r d ..................
79,779
38,064
Breadfluffs—
lin s e e d ............
8,685
4,006
Wheat flour . .bbls. 334,647 1,305,586
R ye flo u r ...............
15,907
10,871 Provisions—
129,596 118,886
Corn m eal...............
87,620
56,855
Pork............... bbls.
53,744
W h e a t.............bush. 152,313 4,177,281
Beef.........................
58,640
Cut m e a ts,lb s.. . 14,968,962 25,766,716
R y e ............................
12,9111,170,938
B u tt e r .................... 603,284 915,138
Oats ...........................
12,211 11,618
C o rn ........................ 3,136,667 2,578,206
Cheese.......................2,983,805 1,250,134
Candles— mold..boxes
39,063
35,267
L a rd ......................... 6,122,905 8,862,412
sperm .........
8,955
2,939 R i c e ..................... trcs
12,523
28,708
C oa l....................... tons
7,752
5,453 T allow ..................lbs. 1,138,946 1,060,108
Tobacco,crude,
.pkgs
23,741
28,349
Cotton................. .bales 200,496
150,218
H a y..............................
4,174
3,161 Do.,manufactured.lb8 3,751,694 4,070,017
H o p s ............................
8,228
3,001 W h alebone................ 1,485,320 1,337,449

Ashes— p o t s ....b h l s
10,*706
1,872
p e a rls...........
Beeswax..................lbs. 134,098

This table presents an immense increase in the shipments of wheat and flour,
the former particularly, but a falling off in Indian corn. The latter is now going
forward more freely, and we look for large shipments throughout the winter. It
is said that the potato crop of Ireland is seriously injured, and if the damage is as
extensive as now feared, there is nothing but this cereal which can supply the
vacancy. There has been a decline in the exports of pork, but in other meat
provisions the shipments are very large. The increase in cut meats is enormous.
Lard has also gone forward freely, and is still in demand abroad, while the price
at home advanced so as to come within the range of low grades of butter.
N EW YORK COTTON MARKET FOR TH E MONTH ENDING SE PT E M B E R 20.
PREPARED FOR THE MERCHANTS’ M AGAZINE B Y CHARLES W . FEEDERICKSON, BROKER, N EW YORK.

Our cotton market, since the date of my last report, August 22d, has improved
fully f to i ct. per lb. on all grades, owing to light receipts at the South, and
small stocks in the shipping ports, together with reports of injury to the growing
crop, already magnified to a reported positive injury of at least 200,000 to
300,000 bales. The transactions of the past month have been largely of a
speculative character, and for home consumption. The quantity for export has
been small, and confined principally to the continental ports. The English ad­
vices received have not been of as favorable a character as looked for, although it
is expected that future accounts may represent a more favorable aspect for the
trade here. The season thus far has opened at prices much beyond the views of
prudent operators ; and if maintained, must seriously affect the ratio of consump­
tion both here and abroad. It is no proof that because the largest crop ever
made has been profitably disposed of, that a smaller crop will readily command a
relatively higher price. Low prices invariably extends the increase and consump­
tion of the raw material;—and the millions of dollars invested in manufactures
would have sought other channels of investment if cotton, as at present, was not
to be had, unless at an advance of one hundred to one hundred and fifty per cent
upon the cost of production.
The cotton crop just closed reaches 3,527,845 bales, being an increase over pre­
vious year of 680,506 bales. The total foreign export was 2,954,606 bales—
increase over previous year, 710,397 bales, of which Great Britain took 1,921,386




464

Commercial Chronicle and Review.

bales, France 480,637 bales, north of Europe 304,005 bales, other foreign ports
248,758 bales. The amount taken by manufacturers north of Virginia 652,739
—south and west of Virginia (estimated) 117,500 bales, being a total increase
over previous year of 91,655 bales, an increase gratifying to the progress and
extension of American manufactures, and indicative of the giant steps this national
branch of industry is destined to exert, not only upon the cotton crop, but upon
the machinery of Europe.
The sales for the week ending August 29th were 7000 bales, mostly for home
consumption .and the continent. Prices were firm at the close, under unfavorable
crop accounts.
PRICES AD O PTED AUGUST 2 9 t H FOR T H E FOLLO W IN G Q U A L IT IE S :—

Ordinary.............................................
Middling.............................................
Middling fa ir ....................................
Fair.....................................................

Upland.

Florida.

Mobile.

N. O. &. Texas.

10
Ilf12f
12f

10 k
11|12J
12f

10
I lf
12f
13f

10f
Ilf
12f
13f

For the week ensuing, the sales reached 9,000 bales, at a slight improvement.
Speculators were free purchasers, and the quantity on sale was much reduced by
the indisposition of holders to accept of the following rates :—■
P R IC E S ADOPTED SEPTEMBER 6 T H FOR THE FOLLO W IN G QUALITIES :—

Upland.

O rdinary................................................
Middling.............................................
Middling f a ir ....................................
F a ir ....................................................

10
I lf
12|
12f

Florida.

10
D f
12J
13

M obile. N .O . & Texae.

lO f
I lf
12f
13f

10f
Ilf
13
13f

A speculative demand existed during the week ending September 12th, and on
sales of 10,000 bales there was an advance of fc. a fc. per pound. The market
closed firm, with a fair demand, at the following:—
PRICES ADOPTED SEPTEMBER 1 2 T H FOR THE FOLLO W IN G Q U A L IT IE S:----

Upland.

Ordinary.............................................
Middling............................................
Middling fa ir ....................................
F a ir....................................................

Florida.

lO f
Ilf
12f
12f

lO f
I lf
12f
12f

M obile.

N .O.& . Texas.

lO f
I lf
12f
13f

lO f
12
13
13f

The transactions for- the week ending September 19th were limited by the
small amount on sale and the firmness of holders. Prices had, however, an up­
ward tendency; the sales were 7,500 bales, the market closing buoyant at the
following:—
P R IC E S AD O PTED SEPTEMBER 1 9 T H

FOR T H E FOLLO W IN G Q U A L IT IE S:----

Upland.

Ordinary.............................................
M iddling...............
Middling fair.....................................
F a ir....................................................

Florida.

lO f
Ilf
12f
12f

lO f
I lf
12f
18

M obile. N. O. &: Texae.

lOf
12
13
13f

lO f
12f
13f
13f

For the week closing at date, under a continuation of unfavorable accounts as
regards the gathering crop, and continued light receipts and advancing prices at
the South, our market was active at a further advance of fc. a Jc. per pound.
The sales for the week were estimated at 10,000 bales, the market closing, with a
small amount on sale, at the following:—
P RICES ADOPTED

SEPTEMBER

2 6 t H FOR THE FO LLO W IN G Q U A L IT IE S :—

Upland.

Ordinary......................................... .
Middling.............................................
Middling f a ir ....................................
Fair.....................................................




lO f
12
12f
13

Florida.

,

lO f
12f
12f
IS f

Mobile. N. O. & Texas.

lO f
12f
18f
18f

lO f
12f
1S§
13f

Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance.

465

JOURNAL OF BANKING, CURRENCY, AND FINANCE.
SAVINGS BANKS IN EU RO PE.

The last Paris papers bring us ail official report on the operation of the Savings
Bank of Paris, and of similar institutions throughout Prance for the year 1855.
The sum in hand in the Paris Bank, on the 31st of December, 1854, amounted to
48,182,475 francs, belonging to 212,308 depositors; the amount received was
26,826,352 francs, that paid out 28,064,504 francs—and there remained in hand
on the 31st of December last 46,944,324 francs due to 216,032 depositors. The
amount of deposits in the course of the year shows an augmentation of 4,358,860
francs in money, and of 4,000 in the number of depositors over the preceding
year. This increase, considering the dearness of living, the high rents, the war,
and other unfortunate circumstances, is remarkable. In 1854 only 14,439 of the
total number of depositors were working men, while 16,157 of that class are in­
cluded in the total of 1856. The number of savings banks in all France, inclu­
ding that of Paris, was 363, and the number of depositors 865,478—the amount
of their deposits being 271,556,668 francs. As the population of the empire is
35,781,000, there was one depositor for every 41 persons. The proportion of de­
positors to the population varies considerably in the different departments. In
England, Ireland, and Scotland, where savings banks are infinitely more develop­
ed, the number of them last year was 584, the number of depositors over 1,300,000
and the amount of deposits 822,324,000 francs; and the proportion of depositors
to population was (the report only calculates the population at 26,000,000) one
for every twenty persons, or rather more than double that of France. The gen­
eral condition of the savings banks in Austria and the German States cannot,
from the want of sufficiently precise returns, be ascertained ; but at Vienna there
was one depositor for every two and a half persons; in the kingdom of Bohemia,
one for every sixty-four; at Berlin, one in twelve; Leipsic, one in five; at Frank­
fort, one in ten ( at Hamburg, one in six; and at Altona, one in three. As re­
gards other parts of Europe, there is one depositor for every twelve persons in
Denmark; one in three in Basle; rather less in Geneva and Neufchatel; one in
twenty-seven at Turin, and one in forty-three at Madrid. In the United States
the proportion is one to sixteen.
OF TH E STOCKS AND COUPON BONDS OF VIRGINIA.

Among the laws passed by the Legislature of Virginia at its last session was,
“ an act providing for and regulating the issue of certificates of registered stock in
lieu of coupon bonds.” The only clauses of public interest are the following.
The balance of the act refers to the duty of the Treasurer:—
“ Be it enacted, that the holder or holders of any coupon bond or bonds of this
Commonwealth, upon presenting the same to the Second Auditor, may have in
lieu thereof issued to him or them a certificate or certificates as prescribed by the
44th chapter of the Code of Virginia, redeemable at the time said coupon bond is
redeemable, and bearing interest at the rate of interest which the coupon bond
bears, from the first day of January or July, preceding the issue of said certificate,
to be paid semi-annually at the Treasury. The Treasurer of the Commonwealth
with whom any bank now in existence, or which may be hereafter established, has
or may hereafter pledge any coupon bond or bonds as security for the circulation
VOL. X X X V .-----N O . IV .
30




466

Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance.

of such bank, may, with the asseut of the bank, procure a certificate or certificates
to be issued, in accordance with this act, to him in trust for the purposes for
which the coupon bonds were deposited with him.”
C IS C IM A T I KATES OF SIGHT EXCHANGE IN 1 S 5 5 -5 G ;
ON

NEW

YORK

AND

TH E

EASTERN

C IT IE S
A U G U ST

"Week ending—
S ep tem b er 7 .................
1 4 .................
2 1 ...............
2 8 .................
6 .................
O ctob er
1 2 .................
1 9 .................
2 6 .................
5 ...............
N ov em b er
1 2 .................
1 9 .................
2 6 ...............
3 .................
D ecem b er
1 0 ...............
1 7 ...............
2 4 ...............
3 1 ...............
7 .................
January
1 4 ...............
2 1 ...............
2 8 ...............
4 .................
F eb ru a ry
1 1 ...............
1 8 .................
2 6 ...............
4 .................
M arch
11 ............
1 8 ...............
2 6 ...............
1 .................
A p ril
8 ...............
1 5 .................
2 2 .................
2 9 .................
6 ...............
May
1 3 .................
2 0 .................

June

July

2 7 ...............
3 ...............
1 0 ...............
1 7 ...............
2 4 ...............
1 .................

8 .................
1 5 ..................

2 2 .................
2 9 .................

August

5 .................

..........

1854 - 5 .
P ’m.
Dis.

t

..........
..........
..........

If

If

If

.

f
f
f
f
f
f

1855—6.
P ’m.
Dis.
f
f
f
f
f
..
i
f
f
f
f
par
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f

f
f
f
f
1

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

f
f
f
f
f
f
t
f
f
i
f
f

f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
t
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
t

f
f
f

f
f
..

1 2 .................
1 9 ................. ..........




E N D IN G

o i LLEANS--------- ^
1 8 55-6 .
P'm.
Dis.
f
f
f
f
f

i
l

par

par

f
f
f
par

par

f
f
f

l
f
f
..
f
l
l
l

f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f

i

i
f
f
f
. .

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

2 6 ................. ..........
3 1 .................

YEAR

,---------Ni:w

if
if
H
if
if
3

..........
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

O R L E A N S , D U R IN G

1854—5.
P’m.
Dis.
14

if

..........

NEW

,-----------NEW YORK-----------\

n
..........
..........
..........
..........
..........

AND

31, 1856.

l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
f
f
p ar
par
par
par
..
..
..
p ar
par
..
par

f
f
f
f
..
f
f
..
f
f
f
f
par
f
f
f
f
f
f
•.
f
..
..
f
i
f
f
••

Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance.

467

RATES OF EXCHANGE AT NEW ORLEANS.

The following table, showing the rates of exchange on London, Paris and New
York, on the first of each month for three years past, (GO day bills,) is derived
from the New Orleans Price Current:—
ft

A m

S e p t.......... .
O ct..............

Nov........... . .
D ec...........
Jan............ . .

7|
71

F e b ............

March. . . .
April . . .
May...........
June.........
J u ly .........
Aug..........

91
91
91
91

6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5

15
20
30
25
30
35
25
25
19
20
15
15

1854

r

London.
Paris. N. Y.
P’m. Per Doll. Dis.
2
2
21
H

21
21
2
21
21
11

H
11

5

London.
Paris.
P ’m. Per doll.
91
91
91
81
7
7
81
91
10
101
101
91

5
5
5
5
5
5
6
5
5
5
5
5

15
12
12
15
23
25
24
19
12
07
07
10

A m

\

"\
N. Y. London. Paris. N. Y.
Dis.
P’m.
Per doll. Dis.
if
u
H
21
2f
21
21
11
H
i
1
21

91
9
91
9
81
71
71
81
9
9
8}
91

5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5

10
20
12
20
22
25
27
12
08
15
17
15

if
21
21
21
2
21
21
11
2
2
21
2

SIGHT BILLS AND T IM E CHECKS.

One of the mooted points of commercial law is, whether bank checks drawn
payable at a future day, or commercial bills at sight, are entitled to grace. The
decisions of the courts have been variant, and the practice of bankers is not uni­
form, though the denial of grace days is becoming more general. A recent case
in Ohio, of Martin vs. Bailey, brought the following ruling on the subject from
Judge Bartley, of the District Court:—I. That a draft of money payable at a day subsequent to its date, although
otherwise in the ordinary form of a check, is a bill of exchange, and subject to
the usages and rules that govern bills of exchange, and, as such, is entitled to
days of grace.
II. The distinction between a bill and a check does not depend upon whether
drawn payable to order or bearer, or whether drawn upon a bank or a banker, or
not; but it is founded in the difference in nature or character of these two classes
of commercial paper.
III. A check and a bill of exchange, though in many respects similar, are to be
distinguished in the following particulars, viz.:—
1st. A check is drawn upon an existing fund, and is an absolute transfer or
appropriation to the holder of so much money, in the hands of the drawee, but
very frequently drawn in anticipation of funds, upon a previously arranged credit.
2d. The drawer of a check is always the principal, whereas the drawer of a
bill frequently stands in the position of a mere surety.
3d. Although demand of payment and notice of non-payment in due time may
be essential to hold the endorser of a check, yet a failure in this respect does not
discharge the drawer, unless an actual loss to him can be shown to have arisen
from such delinquency on the part of the holder.
4th. A check requires no acceptance, and when presented, is presented for pay­
ment.
5th. It is not protestible, or, in other words, protest is not requisite to hold
the maker or an endorser.
6th. From these distinguishing characteristics, arising out of the nature of
these two classes of instruments, it follows, that a check is payable on presenta­
tion and demand, and cannot be made payable on a specified day in future, and
consequently not entitled to days of grace.




468

Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance.

7tb. Any supposed usage of banks in any particular place to regard drafts
upon them payable at a certain day, as checks, and not entitled to days of grace,
is inadmissible as evidence to control the rules of law in relation to such paper.
COINAGE OF GREAT BRITAIN FROM 1846 TO 1 8 5 6 .

An account has been published of the coinage of gold, silver and copper at the
Royal Mint of Great Britain, from 1846 to 1856, from which the following totals
have been gathered :—
Years.

1846 to 1852.......................
1863......................................
1854 ..................................
1855 ...................................
Total...................

Gold.

Silver.

£28,757,825
11,962,391
4,152,183
9,008,664

£1,246,873
701,544:
140,481
195,511

Copper.

£53,871,563

£2,284,409

£27,765
9,072
60,866
41,092

*

£138,996

Thus, while the average of gold coined in the seven years, 1846 to 1852, was
£4,108,300, it has subsequently been £8,371,000, or more than double. Mean­
while, the increase in France and the United States has been on a scale of equal
magnitude. With regard to silver and copper, the present statement shows that
the cost of the silver for the coinage of the above sum of £2,284,400, was
£2,214,151, leaving a surplus of £70,258 ; the copper for the coinage of £138,795
cost £69,303.
DIVIDENDS OF LONDON BANKS.

The dividends declared lately, for 1856, by the principal joint stock banks, are
as follow s:—
and Westminster................... ...........
London Joint S t o c k ........................... ...........
Union Bank..........................................
London and County ...........................
Commercial..........................................
Royal British........................................
City Bank............................................
Bank of Lon don ..................................
L odoou

Capital.
£1,000,000
600,000

Deposits.
£11,170,000
7,873,000
9,045,000
4,213,000
1,536,000
352,000
736,000
1,363,000

Dir.
16
221
171
10
11
4

5
5

EX PO R T OF SILV ER FROM GREAT BRITAIN TO INDIA.

The export of silver to India from England has been £4,808,908, and of gold,
£201,725, during the first six months of the year, against £3,514,800 for the same
period of 1855, an increase of nearly 100 per cent. The London Daily News
says :—
“ The increased velocity with which the current of the precious metals has lately
set towards India, will be best shown by a recapitulation of the total exports
from England by the Eastern steamers during the last five years. These remit­
tances amounted in 1851 to £1,818,380, in 1852 to £3,551,977, in 1853 to
£4,590,867, in 1854 to £4,300,302, and in 1855 to £7,358,161. In the present
year they are proceeding at the unprecedented rate of nearly ten millions and a
quarter sterling per annum.
*
*
*
*
*
*
“ The influence exercised upon the European money markets by the flow of
silver to the East being thus powerful, it would be particularly interesting if any
reliable estimate could be formed as to the extent of the capacity of India to
absorb silver. He must be a bold man, however, who will venture upon positive
assertions on this point. From time immemorial India has been notoriously a
complete sink of the precious metals.”




469

Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance.
CONDITION OF TH E BANKS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

The following table, compiled from the returns made to the Controller General
of the State, shows the discounts, deposits, specie, and circulation of the several
banks of South Carolina on the 31st of July, 1856 :—
Banks,
B a n k o f S t a t e ...................................
B r a n c h C o lu m b i a ...........................
B r a n c h C a m d e n ..............................
S o u t h w e s t e r n R . R .......................
P la n t e r s ’ a n d M e c h a n ic s ’ ...........
U n i o n ...................................................
S t a t e S. C a r o lin a ...........................
S o u t h C a r o lin a ................................
C h a r le s to n
......................................
F a r m e r s ’ a n d E x c h a n g e ...........
H a m b u r g ...........................................
C o m m e r c ia l........................................
N e w b u r y ......................................
P la n t e r s ’ ..............................................
E x c h a n g e ...........................................
M e r c h a n ts ’ .........................................
C h e s t e r .................................................
C a m d e n ..................................... " . . .
P e o p l e s ’ ..............................................
G e o r g e t o w n ...................................

Discounts,

Deposits.

Specie.

Circulation.

$ 1 ,2 4 0 ,9 5 5
1 ,0 1 4 ,1 1 7
2 8 7 ,0 9 3
4 9 4 ,0 5 5
7 2 2 ,7 1 8
7 2 4 ,4 2 6
4 5 4 ,9 0 5
9 3 8 ,6 5 3
2 ,0 2 7 ,1 0 5
7 6 1 ,8 9 3
1 2 7 ,7 0 8
6 6 5 ,1 2 7
6 7 ,7 9 4
9 8 ,2 4 3
3 8 2 ,4 2 0
1 2 3 ,6 6 9
1 4 3 ,9 5 1
1 4 6 ,4 7 8
4 0 2 ,6 8 6
1 6 8 ,2 1 8

$60 0 ,4 6 8
213,160
19,328
478 ,15 6
242,019
191,825
278,183
170,304
584 ,13 9
165,427
94,6 74
259,555
28,481
32,859
181,431
13,557
70,049
28.673
84,758
70,432

$157,353
4,210
3,792
55,406
91,854
67,380
123,693
55,225
319,282
81,034
97,528
85,786
37,515
20,856
39,185
19,431
37,098
18,229
81,995
23,213

$ 1,227,221

$ 3,919,419

$1,419,443

$ 7,9 9 3 ,2 2 8

T o t a l.......................................$1 1,52 1,24 4

258 ,55 0
201,319
239,480
285,245
134,283
821,448
867 ,87 0
622,101
441,055
509,409
408 ,42 5
561 ,26 4
232,961
293.628
127,081
438 ,58 0
242,300

We also append a summary statement of the debts due, and the resources of
the several banks at that time.
D E B T S D U E r iy T H E S E V E R A L B A N K S .

Capital stock ..............................................................................................
Bills in circulation......................................................................................
Net profits on hand....................................................................................
Balance due to banks in this S ta te .........................................................
Balance due to banks in other States....................................................
Other moneys due which bear interest..................................................
State Treasury for balance o f current fu n d ..........................................
State Treasury for balance of sinking fu n d ..........................................
State Treasury for loan for rebuilding city ............................................
Cash deposited, and all other moneys due, exclusive of bills in circu­
lation, profits on hand, balances due to other banks, and money
bearing interest......................................................................................
Total liabilities................... ......................................................

$14,847,064
7,903,228
1,498,760
1,767,452
665,522
18,340
158,105
1,306,367
1,667,617

38
32
51
47
02
48
30
37
73

3,919,653 42
$33 ,75 2 ,1 1 1 98

RESOURCES OF T H E S E V E R A L BAN KS.

Specie on h an d.............................................................................
Real estate....................................................................................
Bills of other banks in this State..............................................
Bills of banks in other States....................................................
Balance due from banks in this State......................................
Balance due from banks in other States..................................
Notes discounted on personal security......................................
Loans secured by pledge of own stock....................................
Loans secured by pledge of other stock.................................
D omestic exchange .....................................................................
F oreign exchange.......................................................................




$1,419,413
608,041
519,160
62,935
398,520
1,078,152
11,521,244
338,964
1,241,414
8,639,077
765,297

08
17
09
47
99
64
44
14
39
64
01

470

Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance.

.B o n d s ...........................................................................................................
Money invested in stock......................
Suspended debt and debt in suit.............................................................
Branches and agencies . ...........................................................................
Bonds under law rebuilding Charleston................................................
Interest and expenses o f State loa n .....................
Money invested in every other way than is specified in the foregoing
particulars..............................................................................................
Total resources of the b an ks..................................................

1,219,543
1,862,910
1,553,402
1,782,761
201,917
95,066

62
05
03
65
18
33

446,290 30
$33,752,111 98

TE R M S ON VV^IICH CORPORATIONS IN VIRGINIA MAY BORROW MONEY.

The following “ Bill for the relief of railroad and other companies, and to regu­
late the terms on which they may borrow money,” passed the Legislature of V ir­
ginia, March 15th, 1856, is now in force in that State :—
1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly, that no incorporated company
shall hereafter interpose the defense of usury in any action ; nor shall any bond,
note, debt, or contract of such company be set aside, impaired, or adjudged in­
valid by reason of anything contained in the laws prohibiting usury.
2. No company in which the State is a stockholder, shall issue bonds or cer­
tificates of debt to others than the State to an amount greater than its capital,
nor bearing a rate of interest exceeding 8 per cent; nor shall it sell any such
bonds at a discount exceeding ten per cent. But no such bonds or certificates of
debt shall be issued after the completion of the main line of such roads ; nor shall
any bonds or certificates of debt be issued for any purposes other than the con­
struction and equipment of the main line.
3. No issue of bonds shall be made under this act, unless the Board of Public
Works shall have first certified that it is made in accordance with the provisions
thereof.
4. Railroad companies in process of construction, one-half of whose original
capital stock has been actually paid in, may borrow money according to the pro­
visions of this act. And no companies, one-half at least of whose original capital
stock has not been paid in, shall borrow money by a sale of its bonds or certifi­
cates of debt.
5. This act shall be in force from its passage.
TH E CURRENCY QUESTION IN CHINA.

We have referred to this subject in a former number of the Merchants’ Maga­
zine. The question, according to a correspondent of the Eoening Post, continues
to engross considerable attention at Shanghai, and what seems surprising to the
writer in the Post is, that there are two opinions on the subject, each sustained
with acrimony through the local press. We quote from the correspondent of the
Post, as follows
Having lived there, and also been lately at New York, nothing is clearer to my
mind than that the Carolus dollar currency there ought to be superseded by Mex­
ican dollars, or some other currency easier of attaiment than the Carolus, and at
the same time more on a par with the native syce silver. It is clear that the
Carolus dollars cannot be obtained, by fair means, in sufficient quantities to meet
the enlarging necessities of commerce in Shanghai. My agent in New York
was trying more than six months to buy a thousand Carolus dollars for me, and
ultimately reported that he could not get them ! And if a thousand cannot be
obtained, is it not a clear case that it would be infinitely more difficult to obtain
a million ? Nor are they a fair representation of the currency, were they obtain­
able. They have a nominal value of twenty to twenty-five per cent above what




Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance.

4-1

they are really worth by weight, and therefore they ought not to be the repre­
sentatives of the currency. Let the Mexicans be the standard of currency at par
with syce, according to weight, and the difference a premium on the Carolus-—
then, if any persons arc foolish enough to buy at 20 or 50 per cent either, and
can find any to purchase, let them do so. I doubt not but they can be accommo­
dated, at a good round premium. The Chinese are very accommodating, (or
some of their customers,) will make milk, wine, or Carolus dollars either, bran
new, dated fifty years back, when such are in demand. “ W e speak that we do
know.” And while the currency question is under consideration, and the change
gradually progressing, I think the Americans especially should exert their best
influence to introduce gold and the United States half-dollar silver coinage at a
just and equitable rate of exchange. A t present five-dollar gold pieces are only
worth four dollars and a fraction, and not easily disposed of even at that, As
California, our gold country, is likely to have a most extensive trade with China,
(unless they so disgust the Chinese by abuse as to cut off intercourse,) there is
the more necessity for gold being legalized in China, and made a lawful currency
at a just valuation. And if our mints would make our silver money a little
heavier, so as to bo equal in weight with the Mexican, I know of no good reason
why it should not be equal in value. It is now five or six per cent under weight,
and as the Chinese receive all their money by weight, of course the Americans
have to lose that, otherwise it is now at par in Canton, and soon, I trust, will be
at Shanghai, and the other open ports of trade. I beg that the conductors of
our mints will a little enlarge the weight of our silver coin to meet the Chinese
market.
LOANS MADE TO BROKERS BY NEW YORK BANKS.

The official returns of the banks of the State of New Tork, show the following
amounts loaned by the city banks to brokers:—
Union........................................
Metropolitan.............................
Merchants’ ................................
America....................................
Leather.....................................
Republic...................................
Manhattan................................
American Exchange...............
Eulton.......................................
Pacific.......................................
Mechanics’ ................................
Shoe and Leather...................
Corn Exchange.......................
Commerce.................................
Mercantile................................
Oriental.....................................
North America.........................

$539,750 N a tio n a l..........................
450,979 S e v e n t h W a r d ..................................
301,495 C o m m o n w e a l t h ................................
262,094 C itiz e n s ’ ................................................
245,300 S le r c h a n ts ’ E x c h a n g e ...................
231,221 B o w e r y ..................................................
212,200 I m p o r t e r s ’............................................
200,030 M e c h a n ic s ’ an d T r a d e r s ’ ..............
198,464 E a s t R iv e r ...........................................
165,000 P h e n ix ....................................................
157,000 C o u n t y ...................................................
147,000 T ra d esm en ’s ..................................
134,000 M a r k e t ...................................................
114,000 M a rin e ....................................................
105,000 N o r t h R iv e r ........................................
93,500 N. Y. Exchange..........................
2,000 A t l a n t i c .................................................

$ 9 2 ,0 0 0
8 5 ,0 0 0
8 4 ,6 6 4
6 0 ,0 0 0
5 0 ,0 0 0
4 4 ,4 7 6
3 6 ,1 6 6
3 5 ,0 0 0
5 3 ,0 0 0
2 6 ,8 0 0
2 0 ,0 0 0

20,000
2 0 ,0 0 0
1 0 ,0 0 0
8 ,0 0 0

6,197
5 ,1 0 0

T o ta l in c ity b a n k s
I n c o u n try b a n k s ..,

$4,193,391

Total in all banks of the State of New York..................................

$4,474,172

230,781

EX PORT OF AUSTRALIAN GOLD.

Some interesting facts in relation to the gold of Australia have just been pub­
lished. It is stated that the produce of the diggings first became available iu
May, 1851 ; and between the 29th of May and the 31st of December, in that year,
the quantity exported from New South Wales was £408,336, and from Victoria
£438,000. In 1852 the exports from New South Wales had increased to




472

Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance.

£3,600,175, and from Victoria £6,135,000. In 1853 there was a decline in the
shipment of gold from New South Wales, which in that year amounted only to
£1,731,171, and in 1854 a further falling of to £773,209. Last year the export
was £209,250. The shipments of the precious metal from Victoria during the
last three years have increased in a ratio far greater than this decline. In 1853
they amounted to £8,614; in 1854 to £8,255, and during the year ending in
December last the gross amount of £11,303 was exported from the colony of
Victoria. Great Britain and her dependencies have absorbed by far the larger
portion of this golden produce— only some £20,000 having been exported to the
United States during the five years, while £213,000 have been transmitted to
various other countries. It is estimated that from America and Australia during
the last ten years not less than £150,000,000 of value of gold have been imported
by Great Britain.
W H ER E TH E SILV ER GOES.

The following paper was read lately before the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, by B. H. Walsh, LL. D., late Whately Professor of
Political Economy in the University of Dublin :—
Mr. Walsh commenced by stating that so far back as the time when Pliny
termed it the sink of the precious metals, silver was a favorite article of export to
the East. It has continued so since, but the trade of late has assumed an extra­
ordinary magnitude. In the five years prior to the present, over £22,000,000
worth of silver have been exported to the East through England alone, and from
other countries a similar movement has been in operation. The export in 1855
was £6,400,000, and this year it is proceeding at a rate of over £9,000,000 per
annum, judging from the returns that have been published for the first four months.
Unlike the old movement, the present cannot be permanent. The former was
seldom more than might be accounted for as the distribution of silver to some of
its chief consumers—the nations of the East—according as new supplies were
raised elsewhere. It was, in fact, the ordinary movement from the producer to the
consumer.
But now silver goes faster to the East than it is produced throughout the world.
Hence the process cannot be permanent, but must come to an end as soon as the
redistribution of the old stock has been effected ; for the annual production of
silver is only about £8,000,000, and since the export to the East through England
alone is at the rate of over £9,000,000, it follows that it cannot be the new sup­
plies of silver which meet that demand, and all others for the same metal, but that
there must be some auxiliary fund to be drawn upon. Such a fund is furnished
by a cessation it the demand for silver in several countries which before employed
it most largely, but now use gold instead. In a paper brought before this Asso­
ciation at Glasgow, in September last, I had occasion to notice that silver, which
used to be coined in France and the United States at an average rate of
£4,000,000 per annum, is now little employed, while much of the old coin of that
metal is melted down and exported. In France, it is said, that in one year, 1853,
so much as £12,000,000 were disposed of in this manner, and that the operation
has been since proceeding at a still greater rate.
All this acts in the same way as if a silver California had been discovered. No
one thinks it extraordinary that gold is exported on a large scale from the aurife­
rous regions to the various nations w’hich use that metal; but it is cprite as natural
to suppose that when large supplies of silver are thrown upon the market, (it
matters not whether newly extracted from the earth, or just taken from the melt­
ing pot,) they would find their way to those places where silver is generally
employed. But India, China, and other Eastern nations, come under this descrip­
tion, and hence the late extraordinary exportation. As this cause is a novel one,
there is an inclination on the part of some who call themselves practical men to




473

Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance.

adopt any other rather than it. Experience gives no instance of any such, and
hence those who look to their personal experience alone are completely at fault
when discussing this question. Some talk of the balance of trade; others of an
increased importation of tea and silk from China, and a third set of investigators
enunciate details of the machinery of the foreign exchanges by which the transmis­
sion is effected.
But such persons forget that the export of silver is just as likely in the abstract
to be the cause as the effect of the “ balance,” or “increased importation,” in which
they dogmatically assume it originated; and that, as for the details of the foreign
exchanges, they merely tell us how and not why the export takes place. Yet all
this while the question presents no difficulty whatsoever, when two facts are noticed
in juxtaposition— one, the great cessation in the demand for silver in countries
which employed a double standard; the other, the circumstance that the Eastern
nations habitually use silver on a large scale, especially in their currency. After
that there is nothing to be said to complete the explanation, except to call to
mind that when the supply of any article is unusually great, compared with the
number of consumers, it must find its way to those latter in quantities proportion­
ally augmented ; and that such is the case at present with the article of silver, the
principal consumers of which are the nations of the East.
FINANCES OF TH E UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT FOR 1 8 5 8 -1 8 5 7 ,

The following is a corrected statement of the appropriations made at the last
session of Congress, amounting in the aggregate to seventy-five and a half mil­
lions ; besides which the Miscellaneous Civil Appropriation Bill contains a clause
authorizing the appointment of Commissioners to ascertain the amount of indebt­
edness incurred by the Territorial Governments of Oregon and Washington in
the suppression of Indian hostilities during the last two years. We know, from
official documents, that at least four millions of scrip have been issued for the pur­
pose specified, which at last accounts was selling for 25 cents on the dollar. This
sum will no doubt be paid in full, and probably 25 per cent may be added to it to
meet the cost of operations since the date of the report conveying this informa­
tion. The General Appropriation, or Civil Diplomatic Bill of former years, is
now subdivided into three bills, which stand first in the subjoined list:—
Diplomatic and consular expenditures.......................................................
Legislative, judicial and executive expenditures......................................
Miscellaneous and civil expenditures...........................................................
Post-office expenditures ............................................................... .............
For supplying deficiencies...........................................................................
For running the boundary line between U. States and Great Britain,
west of the Lake o f the W ood s...............................................................
Several river and harbor improvement bills..............................................
Naval expenditures........................................................................................
For restoring and maintaining peace with the Indians o f Washington
and Oregon Territories.............................................................................
Invalid and other pensions...........................................................................
Military Academy............................................
Mail-steamer appropriations..........................................................................
Fortifications...................................................................................................
Indian appropriations ....................................................................................
For the collection of the revenue......................................................... . . .
For the interest on the public d e b t.............................................................
Permanent and indefinite appropriations..................................................
Army appropriation defined.........................................................................
T o t a l a p p r o p r ia tio n s o f la t e se ss io n , in c lu d in g d e fe r r e d A r m y B i l l . .




$986,000
6,487,000
8,581,000
12,600,000
4,200,000
81,000
830,000
13,523,000
300,000
1,458,000
174,000
2,100,000
1,745,000
2,340,000
2,259,000
2,300,000
1,500,000
14,000,000
$ 7 5 ,4 7 5 ,0 0 0

474

Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.

STATISTICS OF TRADE AND COMMERCE.
PRODUCE RECEIVED AT HEW ORLEANS IN 1 8 5 5 -5 6 .

The New Orleans Price Current furnishes, in connection with its usual annual
statement of the trade and commerce of that city, the subjoined table, showing
the receipts of the principal articles from the interior during the year ending
August 31, 1856, and their estimated average and total value. We have pub­
lished these tables in the Merchants.’ Magazine from year to year, since its
commencement, in July, 1839 :—
A TABLE, SHOWING THE RECEIPTS O F THE PRIN CIPAL ARTICLES FROM THE INTERIOR DURING
THE

T E A R ENDING THE 3 1 S T OF AUGUST, 1 8 5 6 , W IT H THEIR ESTIMATED AVERAGE AND

TOTAL VALUE.

Articles.
A p p le s .......................
Bacon, assorted.........
Bacon, assorted...........
Bacon, hams...............
Bacon, in bulk.............
Bagging.....................
Bale r o p e ...................
Beans ......................... ..........................bbls.
B u tter.........................
B u tter....................... ........................... bbls.
Beeswax.....................
Beef.............................
B e e f...........................
Beef, dried ................. .............................. lbs.
C o tto n .......................
Corn-meal...................
Corn, in ear.................
Corn, shelled.............
Cheese.........................
Candles.......................
Cider ...........................
Coal, W estern...........
Dried apples and peaches.............................
Feathers.....................
Flaxseed.....................
Flour............................
F u rs........................... .hhds., bndls., <k bxs.
Glassware...................
H e m p .........................
H id e s.........................
H a y .............................
Iron, p i g .....................
L a rd ...........................
L a r d ...........................
L eather.....................
Lime, W estern...........
L e a d ...........................
Lead, bar.....................
Lead, white................
Molasses (estimated cro p ).................... galls.
Oats.............................
Onions.......................
Oil, linseed.................




Amount.
62,449
36,454
2,732
28,751
173,760
33,905
101,331
6,758
33,119
1,825
130
49,849
11,210
19,010
1,759,293
240
41,924
1.990,995
42,652
82,893
59
987,000
3,046
778
230
1,120,974
1,030
80,326
1.6,818
151,431
122,470
332
110,713
83,790
4,758
16,551
80,624
341
65
15,274,140
5S7,180
14,477
163

Average

price.
S3 00
75 00
35 00
60 00
09
18 00
10 00
6 00
10 00
35 00
50 00
12 00
20 00
10
40 00
4 00
80
1 50
4 50
8 00
3 00
45
6 00
42 00
12 00
7 50
6
30
3
5
35
26
6
35
1
5
20
4

00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
75
00
00
00
30
1 00
3 00
42 00

Value.
$187,347
2,734,050
95,620
1,725,060
15,633
610,290
1,013,310
40,548
331,190
63,875
6,600
598,188
224,200
1,901
70,371,720
960
33,539
2,986,492
191,934
763,144
177
444,150
18,276
32,676
2,760
8,407,305
400,000
151,630
504,540
454,293
612,350
11,620
2,878,538
502,740
166,530
28,964
403,120
6,820
260
4,582,242
587,180
43,431
6,846

475

Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.
Articles.

Amount.

Oil, castor......................... ..................... bbls.
Oil, la rd .............................
Potatoes...........................
Pork...................................
P o r k ..................................
P o rk ...................................
Pork in b u lk ..................... .......................lbs.
Porter and a l e ................. ..................... bbls.
Packing y a r n ...................
R u m ..................................
Skins, d e e r .......................
Shingles........................... ...........................M.
S h ot....................................
Soap....................................
Staves................................
Sugar (estimated cro p )..
Spanish m oss...................
T a llow ...............................
Tobacco, leaf.....................
Tobacco, strips..................
Tobacco, stems.................
Tobacco, chewing.............
Twine..................................
V in egar............................. ...................... bbls.
Whisky....................... .
Wheat............... ...............
Other various articles, estimated at.............

Total in 1854-55.............
Total in 1853-54.............

1,520
10,881
182,556
277,841
6,823
2,893
7,480,384
1,687
3,314
669
406
5,000
3,398
10,287
4,647
231,427
6,317
1,195
49,696
4,810
1,584
3,599
3,658
1,087
148,753
869,524

Average
price.

00
00
50
00
00
00
06
00
00
00
00
00
00
50
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
20

Value.
$76,000
380,835
456,390
4,723,297
238,805
173,580
448,823
16,870
23,198
13,380
12,180
15,000
84,950
36,004
232,350
16,199,890
159,510
32,265
6,957,440
962,000
63,360
89,975
43,896
6,522
1,785,036
2,782,476
6,000,000

.........

$144,256,081

$50
35
2
17
35
60
10
7
20
30
3
25
3
50
70
30
27
140
200
40
25
12
6
12
3

$117,106,823 1 Total in 1852-53. . . . . . .
115,336,798 |Total in 1851-52.

$134,233,735
108,051,708

TONNAGE OF TH E U N ITED STA TES IN 1 8 5 1 , 1 854 AND 1855.

The statistics of the navigation of the United States for 1855 show an aggre­
gate tonnage of 5,180,983 tons. Of this amount 4,321,951 is owned in the Free
States, and 859,032 in the Slave States. Of the entire amount of tonnage of the
country, New York, Massachusetts and Maine own 3,250,036 tons, or nearly twothirds of the whole. Of the tonnage owned in the slaveholding States, Louisiana
and Maryland own 439,000 tons, or more than one-half. The following table
shows the tonnage of the principal maritime States in 1851, 1854 and 1855 :—

1851.
New Y o r k ........................................
Massachusetts.................................
Maine.................................................
Pennsylvania....................................
Connecticut.......................................
Few Jersey......................................
California..........................................
Rhode Island....................................
Maryland...........................................
Louisiana.......................................... ...........
Virginia.............................................
South Carolina................................
North Carolina................................
District o f Columbia.......................
G eorgia............................................




252,284

1854.

1855.

1,415,031
916,074
686,100
361,827
129,308
105,947
102,257
45,911
220,203
187,073
84,840
42,115
57,800
37,982
27,521

1,464,221
979,210
806,605
397,767
137,180
121,019
92,262
51,030
234,805
204,143
91,788
60,985
60,077
34,630
29,600

476

Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.
PR IC ES OF PRODUCE AT NEW ORLEANS IN 1855 AND 185C.
[COM PILED FROM TIIE AN N U A L 8TATEMENT OF THE N EW ORLEANS PRICE CURRENT.]

The following tables show the highest and lowest prices of flour, wheat, and
corn in sacks, in each month of the year ending August 31,1856 :—
,---------------------- F L O U R .------------------------N

1855-56.
S e p t e m b e r ..
O c t o b e r .. . .
.N o v e m b e r ..

Highest.
.p e r b b l.

$7 12 a 7 37

.................
D ecem ber . .
Jan u ary. . . .
F eb ru a ry . .
M a r c h ............. .....................
A p r i l .............. ...................
M a y ................
J u n e ................

8 90 a 9 00

,-----------------------W H E A T .-

Low est.
$ 6 62
7 25
8 50
8 00
7 75
6 75
6 50
6 00
5 87
6 00
5 87
6 12

6 87 a 7 12
7 10 a 7 25

J u l y ....................

August.........

a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a

6
7
8
8
8
7
6
6
6
6
6
6

Low est.

H ighest.
75
50
75
10
12
25
75
50
00
25
12
37

$1 4 0
1 85
1 93
1 95
170
178
1 50
1 40
135
1 35
1 25
125

a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a

1 55
1 87
2 00
2 05
173
195
1 55
1 50
140
1 40
1 55
155

$0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

00
50
75
68
75
50
15
25
12
15
10
25

a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

30
60
81
75
95
55
40
40
25
30
35
40

CORN IN SACKS.
Highest.
S e p t e m b e r ..
O c t o b e r ____
N ovem ber . . . . . .
D e c e m b e r ..
J an u ary . . .
F e b r u a r y . . _____

Low est.

85 a 90

65 a 80

a

4 5 a 53

67

75

Highest.
M a r c h ...........
A p r i l ...........
M a y .............. ............
J u n e ........... ...........
J u l y ................. ............
A u g u s t . . . ...........

PRICES OP PORK AT NEW ORLEANS IN

,

--------------------------M E S S .--------------------

Highest.

Lowest

eC
O
o
0
01

September.. ■per bbl. $20 00 a 21 00
October . . . . ............... 21 00 a 22 00
November .
December . . ............... 19 00 a 20 00
January.. . .
February . .
M arch........ ................ 16 50 a 17 00
A p r il...........
May ...........
June............. ............... 19 00 a 19 50
Ju ly............. ................ 20 50 a 21 00
August........ ............... 20 00 a 20 75

20 00 a 21 00
19 00 a 20 00
15 50 a 16 00
14 75 a 15 00
15 50 a 16 00
15 00 a . . . .
15 25 a 15 76
16 00 a . . . .
17 50 a 17 75
20 00 a 21 00
19 60 a 20 00

Lowest.

a
a
a
a

57
52
61
90

1855-56.

,-------------------------P R I M E ----------------------

Highest

L ow est

$17 50a . . . .
$17 50a ..
17 50a . . . .
17 50 a . .
17 50 a . . . .
18 50 a . .
15 00 a . . . .
18 50a . .
14 0 0 a . . . .
15 0 0a . .
14 25 a . . . .
14 25 a . .
12 50 a 13 00
14 25 a . .
13 00 a 13 50 12 50 a 13 00
14 75 a 15 50 13 00 a 13 50
16 00 a . . . . 14 75 a 15 50
16 00a . . . . 16 00 a . . . .
16 0 0 a . . •• 16 0 0a . . . .

PRICES OF BEEF AT NEW ORLEANS IN
Highest.

54
49
55
70

Low est.
45 a 48
4 3 a 48
4 0 a 46
46 a 50
4 8 a 52
68 a 72

1855-56.
Highest.

Lowest.

September . .perbbl. $17 00 a 18 00 $16 50 a 17 00 $15 00 a 16 00 $14 50 a 14 75
O ctober.. . .
16 50 a 17 50 15 00 a 16 00 14 00 a 14 50
November . ..............
17 50 a 18 50 16 00 a 17 50 14 25 a 14 75 14 00 a 14 50
D ecem ber..
12 50 a 14 00 12 00 a 14 00 10 00 a 12 00
January.. . . ............... 12 50 a 14 00 12 50 a 13 50 10 00 a 12 00 10 00 a 10 50
February . . .............. 12 00 a 14 00 12 00 a 13 50 10 00 a 10 50 10 00 a 10 50
M arch......... ................ 12 00 a 14 00 12 00 a 14 00 10 00 a 10 50 , 10 00 a 10 50
A p r il........... ............... 12 00 a 15 00 12 00 a 14 00 10 0 0a 11 00 10 00 a 10 50
M a y ............. ............... 12 00 a 15 00 12 00 a 15 00 10 00 a 11 00 10 00a 10 75
Jun e...........
12 00 a 15 00 10 00 a 10 75 10 00 a 10 75
12 00 a 15 00 12 00 a 15 00 10 00 a 10 75 10 00 a 10 75
July............. ...............
August........ ............... 13 00 a 16 00 13 00 a 14 50 10 00 a 10 75 10 00 a 10 75




Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.

477

IM PO RTS AND EXPORTS AT CINCINNATI.

The Cincinnati Price Current, of September loth, 1856, famishes its usaal
annual statement and statistics of trade and commerce, from which we derive the
following figures. The statements of the Price Current possess a yearly increas­
ing interest, and are evidently prepared with much care and labor.
VALUE

O F P R IN C IP A L

I M P O R T S IN T O T H E
AU GU ST

Articles.

Apples, green
....... .bbls
B eef...............
D o ...............
Bagging........
B ailey...........
Beans.............
Butter.. . . .
D o............... .firkins and kegs
Blooms........ .
Bran, Ac........
Candles........
Corn...............
Corn M eal.. .
Cider.............
. . ..bbls.
Cheese...........
D o...............
Cotton...........
Coffee...........
Codfish..........
Cooperage. . .
Eyge...............
ind bbls.
Flour.............
Feathers........
Fish, sund. . .
D o ................
and kite
Fruits, dried..
Grease...........
Glass.............
Do ware___
. . .pkgs.
Hemp .........
bdls bis
Hides, loose..
Hides, green.
Hay...............
Herrings.........
Hogs...............
Hops...............
Iron and steel.
D o.............
D o .............
Lead...............
L a rd .............
D o.................
Leather...........
Lemons...........
L im e .............
Liquors.......... hhds. imd pps.
Mtlz. and sundries.. . ...pkgs.
Merchandise.. . .. , ...... tons
Molasses___

Malt.............
Nail9.............




PORT

OF

C IN C IN N A T I

FOR

TH E

YEARS

F.NDING

3 1 s t, 1 8 5 5 A N D 1 8 5 6 .

Total quantity.

31,591
1,534
599
23
244,792
15,493
11,361
12,422
3,939
180,018
1,610
978,511
10,263
1,352
77
190,983
29,119
92,086
1,492
162,549
14,997
546,727
5,551
14,404
5,296
137,662
7,059
39,769
31,480
10,079
52,348
64,219
41,696
12,853
509,426
4,379
741,037
113,546
3,757
44,639
79,505
14,763
15,227
9,026
53,545
2,213
7S6,040
2,429
65,174
68,839
104,067

Average price.

$1
12
18
2
1
2
32
15
70

10
00
00
90
40
25
00
50
00
85
8 10
43
70
5 00
24 00
3 40
45 00
18 00
35 00
75
8 00
6 40
27 25
11 80
3 43
1 60
17 00
2 50
4 60
24 00
3 25
7
o 75
60
12 28
35 00
1 60
4 00
80 00
5 50
26 00
5 00
14 00
4 75
1 00
200 00
37 50
634 00
17 00
1 75
4 75

Total value.

134,753
18,408
10,782
67
342,708
34,859
363,652
192,541
275,730
153,015
13,041
420,759
7,184
67 60
1,848
649,342
1,310,355
1,657,548
52,220
121,911
119,976
3,499,062
40,245
169,967
11,271
220.259
120,003
99,422
144,808
241,896
170,131
4,495
114,664
7,711
6,255,751
153,265
1,185,659
4,541,184
300,560
245,514
1,987,625
73,815
213,178
42.873
53,515
442,006
29,476,500
1,539,986
1,107,958
120,467
494,317

Tar?*

$33,539
20,309
74,336
238
566,491
42,932
831,931
114,112
299,435
64,274
8,502
549,626
29,533
3,730
1,633
605,050
664,708
2,064,034
39,494
94,904
96,832
2,793,510
287,062
136,720
18,431
116,094
85,095
104,087
130,014
199,433
86,688
6,076
100,472
6,374
4,591,330
180,680
809,427
250,900
295,200
294,625
1,073,080
66,739
213,036
35,347
62,913
308,020
30,020,940
1,440,260
606,133
62,297
435,568

Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.

478

Total quantity.

Articles.

O il.................................. .bbls.
Oranges.........boxes and bbls.
Oakum...........................
O a ts.............................. .bush.
Oilcake.........................
Pork and Bacon...........
D o .........................
Do .......................
Do .......................
P otatoes....................... .b b ls.
Tig Iron.........................
Pimento and P ep per.. •-bgP.
R y e ........................... .... .bush.
Resin, Tar, & c ...............
Raisins.........................
Rope, Twine, <Ssc.......... .pkgs.
Rice................................
Sugar.............................
D o ...............................
D o................................
Seed, fla x ...........................
Do hemp.....................
Salt .............................
D o ....................................

S h o t.............................
Tea.................................
T ob a cco.......................
D o ...............................
D o ................. b o x e s and keg s
Tallow...........................
Wines.............b b ls and 4 cks.
D o ............... bkts. and b oxes
W h ea t......................... . bush.
W ool.............................
W h iskey.........................bbls.
Tamp, cotton............... .pkgs.
Yarns...........................
Lumber.........................
C o a l..............................
Shingles....................... ...... No
Stave wood and stone (estimated).......................

Average price.
$ 3 8 00
5 00
17 50
32

13,083
7,972
3,856
4 0 3 ,92 0
4 9 9 ,9 8 0
9,734
7 ,513
26,292
16,482,452
33,508
41,016
3,748
158,220
12,180
14,851
5,643
4,442
32,3 54
16,846
2,009
25,849
8,682
1,784
80,719
54,621
1,648
15,031
5,702
2,129
33,924
2,302
3,272
6,924
1,069,468
6,489
428,001
9,102
28,464
7 5 ,0 00 ,0 0 0
7,500,000
32,0 00 ,0 0 0

IJc.
62 00
2 00
16 00
7
1 75
35 00
15 00
75
3 25
4 00
7 50
35 00
8 0 00
20 CO
45 00
5 25
20 00
3 25
1 50
2 75
24 00
32 00
94 00
8 70
2 4 50
26 00
59 00
12 00
1 40
31 00
13 00
60
20

lfc .
9

3 75

$ 49 7 ,1 5 4
39,860
67,480
129,254
6 ,249
603,508
165,286
420 ,67 2
1,153,770
58 639
1,435,560
56,220
116,665
39,585
59,404
57,322
155,470
2,588,320
336,920
90,405
135,707
173,640
5,798
121,078
149,932
39,552
4 80 ,99 2
535,988
18,522
915,948
59,852
193,048
83,088
1,497,255
201,159
5,564,013
14,563
5.692
1,031,250
675,000
120,000

$ 26 7 ,0 4 0
66,196
68,871
201,674
1,344
356,820
135,400
540,890
1,113,092
89,946
931,455
33,525
57,417
47,289
87,915
18,825
155,960
2,817,180
311,440
87,652
120,945
232 ,08 0
32,345
108,157
204,495
60,700
602,220
468 ,27 0
19,652
558,045
95,352
179,352
57,780
699,859
179,970
3,671,580
11,283
13,148
990,000
1,036,900
108,000

4 1 0 ,0 0 0

360,000

Total.................
VALUE OF

$67,501,341

P R IN C IP A L E X P O R T S

FROM

AU G U ST

Articles.

Apples, g r ...................
Alcohol.........................
B e e f ...............................
D o ..............................
B eans............................
Brooms.........................
Butter......................... .
D o...............firkins and kegs
Bran, A c .......................
B aggin g.......................
Corn..............................




Total
1855.

Total value.

THE

PORT

31st, 1855

Total quantity.
10,047
31,679
19,516
4 ,8 4 4
1,891
28.099
2,391
28,128
19,142
5,378
75,2 60

OF

C IN C IN N A T I, , F O R

AND

THE

YEARS

E N D IN G

1856.

Average price,
$1
26
12
18
5

75
40
00
00
00

2

00

32 00
11

00

85
2 90
1 07

Total value.

Total
1855.

$ 1 7 ,58 2
836,325
234 ,19 2
87,192
9,455
66,198
76,512
309,408
16,270
15,596
77,528

$8,567
528,838
202,216
237,609
9,079
41,119
42,380
266,156
9,164
6,958
90,081

Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.
Articles.

Total quantity.

C o r n M e a l ..................... . . . . b b l s .
C h e e s e ...........................
D o ...................................
C a n d le s ...........................
C a t t l e ..............................
C o t t o n .............................. . . . b a l e s
C o f f e e ............................. _____ ska.
C o o p e r a g e ................... .......... P c3E g g s ................................ . . . . b i d s .
F l o u r ...............................
F e a t h e r s ........................
F r u it , d r i e d ................
G r e a s e .............................
G r a s s s e e d .....................
H o r s e s ............................. . . . . h e a d
H a y ................................ . . ..b a le s
H e m p ............................. . . . b a le s
H i d e s .............................. ........... lb s .
............ N o
I r o n ...................................

1,1 8 7
8
1 1 4 ,6 0 7
1 9 1 ,7 2 8
2 1 ,3 3 8
21 6 2 5
3 7 ,9 0 3
1 1 4 ,7 3 7
8 ,6 0 3
5 0 9 ,0 3 1
5 ,0 9 7
4 9 ,6 7 1
7 ,6 7 5
4 ,4 7 8
1,9 2 3
1 ,0 0 8
2 ,8 6 2

D o ..................................
D o ...................................
L a r d ................................
D o ...................................
L a r d O i l ........................
L in s e e d O i l ...................
M o l a s s e s ......................... . . . b b l s .
Oil C a k e ........................
O a t s ................................ . . .s a c k s
P o t a t o e s , & c ................ . . ..b b ls .
P o r k a n d B a c o n ____ . . . h h d s .
D o ........................ . ..tie r c e s
D o .......................... . . . . b b l s .
D o ........................
D o in b u l k ____ _____ lbs.
R o p e , t w in e , &c___ . . . p k g s .
S o a p ................................
S h e e p ..............
S u g a r ..............................
S a l t ................................ ..
D o ................................... . . . s a c k s
S e e d , flax ............. . . . .b b ls .
S u n d r y , m d z .............. . . . . p k g s .
D o m d z ......................
D o l i q u o r s .............. . . . . b b l s .
D o m a n u fa c t u r e s .. .......pcsD o p r o d u c e ..............
S ta r c h ...........................
T a l l o w ........................... ........ b b ls .
T o b a c c o ...........k e g s a n d b o x e s
D o ................................ . . .h h d s .
D o ................................
V i n e g a r ........................ ... . . . b b l s .
W h i s k y ..........................
Wool...................... . . . b a l e s

W ool....................
W h i t e L e a d ................ . . . . k e g s
C a s t in g s ........................

D o.................... .
T o ta l




7,315
36,123
855,718
92,039
11,881
31,838
50,388
56,712
3,639
37,324
1,021
5,521
26,305
34,005
41,819
110,869
25,603
1,115,220
5,144
42,182
3,613
21,336
31,064
9,928
1,418
1,132,694
9,459
26,246
333,373
619,386
37,991
4,094
27,745
5,005
3,075
12,208
352,434
8,691
896
56,063
54,928
3,518

A verage price.
$2
24
3
8
70
45
18
1
10
6
27
1
17
20
140
2
24

3
1
3
80
25
5
33
36
18
28
2
62
22
16
32
7
4
2
85
2
1
5
7
634
45
4
3
4
26
24
94
8
4
13
31

T otal value.

479
Total
1855.

25
00
50
10
00
00
00
10
00
40
75
60
00
00
00
75
00

$ 2 ,6 7 1
192
4 0 1 ,1 2 5
1 ,5 5 2 ,9 9 7
1 ,4 9 3 ,6 8 0
9 7 3 ,1 2 5
6 8 2 ,2 5 4
1 2 6 ,2 1 1
8 6 ,0 3 0
3 ,2 5 7 ,7 9 8
1 4 1 ,4 4 1
7 9 ,4 7 3
1 3 0 ,4 7 5
8 9 ,5 6 0
2 6 9 .2 2 0
3 .5 2 8
6 8 ,6 8 8

$ 8 ,0 3 8
80
3 3 7 ,7 6 1
1 ,0 5 7 .8 5 1
7 1 9 ,9 5 0
4 4 0 ,9 2 4
7 8 2 ,2 3 5
1 2 9 ,7 2 6
4 0 ,1 1 2
1 ,6 2 4 ,0 9 9
1 9 0 ,2 9 4
2 6 ,0 5 8
1 6 0 ,0 2 1
1 1 7 .2 8 0
2 5 2 ,6 5 0
1 5 ,4 0 6
1 0 2 ,1 3 0

11
25
50
75
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
80
00
00
00
00
00
7
00
00
00
00
75
40
25
00
00
00
00
50
00
00
50
00
70
00
00
00
30

804
117,400
1,283,577
345,146
950,480
795,950
251,940
1,871,496
131,004
671,832
28,588
4,416
52,610
2,108,310
920,018
1,773,904
819,296
78,065
36,00S
188,728
7,326
1,813,560
85,426
130,000
7,444
7,928,858
5,997,006
1,185,570
1,333,492
1,817,851
151,964
106,444
679,762
470,470
26,752
48,832
4,581,642
269,421
268
123,270
274,640
316,620

5,284
85,494
907,291
238,935
898,350
875,980
282,627
1,307,850
127,798
541,800
19,450
52,852
33.797
2,548,140
810,300
1,511,987
472,851
52,383
27,363
113,015
3,630
2,010,784
112,632
13,448
5,044
4,869,750
5.079,600
1,157,130
1,390,256
496,737
88,272
241,255
599,771
447,120
28,109
21,607
2,922,612
218,790
1,254
121,479
401,215
186,570

$ 0 0 ,7 4 4 ,7 8 6

$ 8 8 ,7 7 7 ,3 9 4

2 20
5 00
90 00

480

Statistics o f Trade and Commerce.
PRICE OF CORN AT CHICAGO FOR TH E LAST FOUR YEARS.

January.......................
February.....................
M a rch .........................
A p r il.........................
M a y .............................
J u n e............................
J u ly .............................
August ......................
Septem ber..................
October.......................
N ovem ber..................
December....................

185 i
39 a 42
40 a 44
37 a 41
40 a 46
44 a 50
46 a 50
67 a 64
57 a 60
57 a 60
54 a 55
48 a 50
47 a 48

i.851
a 32
a 34
a 34
a 34
a 36
a 35
a 38
a 47
a 52
a 52
52 a 54
a 56

1854.
44
48
43
44
44
49
53
58
55
50
47
45

a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a

1855

45
50
44
45
46
50
54
60
56
51
48
46

a
a
a
a
a
a
68 a
68 a
64 a
65 a
64 a
68 a
50
50
53
66
73
69

51
51
54
68
75
70
73
69
66
68
70
65

The corn crop of Illinois for 1855 is estimated at 150,000,000 bushels. The
amount received at Chicago in 1852 was 2,993,791 bushels. In 1855 it was
8,389,036 bushels.
IM PO R TS OF FOREIGN MERCHANDISE AND SPECIE AT NEW ORLEANS.

W e give below a statement of the imports of merchandise, bullion, and specie
at the port of New Orleans, for each month of the fiscal year ending on the 30th
of June, 1856, and a comparative statement for the years from 1853 to 1856,
b o th in clu s iv e :—
Dutiable.
J u ly , 1855 ...........................
A u g u s t .................................. .................
S e p t e m b e r ........................... ..............
O c t o b e r ..................................
N o v e m b e r ...........................................
D e c e m b e r .............................
January, I8 6 0 .....................
F e b r u a r y ............................. ................
M a rch ........................... .......................
A p r i l ....................................... .............
M a y .........................................
J u n e ..................................... .

Free.

Specie & bullion*

$ 1 2 3 ,6 0 4
162,280
216,309
563,608
676,185
61
93
JO
21
‘ '■ 5
. .,35 6
61,620
1,943,514

$ 1 6 ,41 5
63,684
64,186
68,297
269,023
223,931
144,200
54,476
252,916
393,375
117,726
117,969

$ 6,4 17 ,5 9 6

$1,7 75 ,1 4 8

180,485
425,781
868,645

978,272
1,013,176
1,100,363

$ 8 ,9 90 ,5 8 3

Showing a total of all imports for the year of §17,183,327.
Subjoined, we have a comparative statement of imports, through the custom­
house, New Orleans, for the fiscal years ending on the 30th of June, 1853, to
1856, inclusive:—

1851.
D utiable...............................
F ree..........................................
Bullion and s p e cie .................

1854.

1855.

18§0.

$8,019,029
4,272,252
1,362,832

$8,272,449
3,876,673
2,253,12S

$6,939,002
4,297,170
1,687,436

$8,990,583
6,417,596
1,775,148

$13,654,113

$14,402,150

$12,923,608

$17,183,327

TH E TEA TRADE OF EU R O PE AND TH E UNITED STATES.

The United States, with but little over twenty-six millions of inhabitants, ten
millions less than France, and nine millions less than the German Zollverein, in
one article of trade with Southern Asia, outdoes these more populous countries
of civilized Europe. In the year 1851 England carried 65,100,000 pounds of tea
from China to Europe, and 9,30-1,000 pounds to India and Australia; the United




481

Commercial Regulations.

States exported from China 34,327,000 pounds; Holland, 3,000,000 pounds; and
other nations, 3,000,000 pounds, while Russia carried 14,000,000 pounds by land.
According to the report of the Secretary of the Treasury for 1854-5, 35,303,884
pounds of tea were brought to the United States ports, as follows:—
From the Dutch East Indies
From the British East Indies

20,740 I From the Philippine Islands
636,121 | From China............................

160,350
34,366,665

The wholesale value of this amount was estimated at $7,000,000. Besides
this amount, nearly 12,000,000 pounds were carried in United States bottoms
from China to foreign ports. Only 560 pounds were exported from the United
States. This country, therefore, itself consumes the small amount of 35,200,000
pounds.

COMMERCIAL REGULATIONS.
OF TH E INSPECTION OF VESSELS IN TH E PORTS OF VIRGINIA.

The Legislature of Virginia passed, at its last session, 1856, the following bill,
providing additional protection for the slave property of the citizens of the Com­
monwealth of Virginia:—
1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly, that it shall not be lawful for any
vessel of any size or description whatever, owned in whole or in part by any citi­
zen or resident of another State, and about to sail or steam from any port or
place in this State for any port or place north of and beyond the capes of
Virginia, to depart from the waters of this Commonwealth until said vessel has
undergone the inspection hereinafter provided for in this act, and received a certi­
ficate to that effect If any such vessel shall depart from the State without such
certificate of inspec.
the captain or owner thereof shall forfeit and pay the sum
of five hundred dot
o be recovered by any person who will sue for the same
in any Court of I;
iu this State, in the name of the Governor of the Com­
monwealth. PendinCT ..t,J suit, the vessel of said captain or owner shall not leave
the State until bond be given by the captain or owner, or other person for him,
payable to the Governor, with two or more sureties satisfactory to the Court, in
the penalty of one thousand dollars, for the payment of the forfeit of fine, together
with the cost and expenses incurred in enforcing the same; and in default of such
bond, the vessel shall be held liable; provided, that nothing contained in this sec­
tion shall apply to vessels belonging to the United States Government, or vessels,
American or foreign, bound direct to any foreign country other than the British
American provinces.
2. The pilots licensed under the laws of Virginia, and while attached to a vessel *
regularly employed as a pilot boat, are hereby constituted and appointed inspectors
to execute this act, so far as the same may be applicable to the Chesapeake Bay
and the waters tributary thereto, within the jurisdiction of this State, together
with such other inspectors as may be appointed by virtue of this act.
3. The branch or license issued to a pilot according to the provisions of the
92d chapter of the Code, shall be sufficient evidence that he is authorized and
empowered to act as inspector as aforesaid.
4. It shall be the duty of the inspector or other person authorized to act under
this law, to examine and search all vessels hereinbefore described, to see that no
slave or person held to service or labor in this State, or person charged with the
commission of any crime within the State, shall be concealed on board said vessel.
Such inspection shall be made within twelve hours of the time of departure of
such vessel from the waters of Virginia, and may be made in any bay, river, creek
or other water-course of the State: Provided, however, that steamers plying as
vol .

xxxv.—

no .




ir.

31

482

Commercial Regulations.

regular packets between ports in Virginia and those north of and outside of the
capes of Virginia, shall be inspected at the port of departure nearest to Old Point
Comfort.
5. A vessel so inspected and getting under way, with intent to leave the waters
of the State, if she returns to an anchorage above Back River Point or within
Old Point Comfort, shall be again inspected and charged as if an original case.
I f such vessel be driven back by stress of weather to seek a harbor, she shall be
exempt from payment of a second fee, unless she holds intercourse with the shore.
6. If, after searching the vessel, the inspector see no just cause to detain her, he
shall give to the captain a certificate to that effect. If, however, upon such
inspection, or in any other manner, any slave or person held to service or labor,
or any person charged with any crime, be found on board of any vessel whatever,
for the purpose aforesaid, or said vessel be detected in the act of leaving this
Commonwealth with any such slave or person on board, or otherwise violating
the provisions of this act, he shall attach said vessel, and arrest all persons on
board, to be delivered up to the sergeant or sheriff of the nearest port in this
Commonwealth, to be dealt with according to law.
I. If any inspector or other officer be opposed, or shall have reason to suspect
that he will be opposed or obstructed in the discharge of any duty required of
him under this act, he shall have power to summon and command the force of any
county or corporation to aid him in the discharge of such duty; and every person
who shall resist, obstruct or refuse to aid any inspector or other officer in the dis­
charge of such duty, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction
thereof shall be fined and imprisoned as in other cases of misdemeanor.
8. For every inspection of a vessel under this law, the inspector or other officer
shall be entitled to demand and receive the sum of five dollars; for the payment of
which such vessel shall be liable, and the inspector or other officer may seize and
hold her till the same is paid, together with all charges incurred in taking care of
the vessel, as well as in enforcing the payment of the same : Provided, that steam
packets trading regularly between the waters of the Virginia and ports north of
and beyond the capes of Virginia shall pay not more than five dollars for each
inspection under the provision of this a ct: Provided, however, that for every
inspection of a vessel engaged in the coal trade the inspector shall not receive a
greater sum than two dollars.
9. Any inspector or other person apprehending a slave in the act of escaping
from the State, on board a vessel trading to or belonging to a non-slaveholding
State, or who shall give information that will lead to the recovery of any slave as
aforesaid, shall be entitled to a reward of one hundred dollars, to be paid by the
owner of such slave, or by the fiduciary having charge of the estate to which such
slave belongs ; and if the vessel be forfeited under the provisions of this act, he
shall be entitled to one-half of the proceeds arising from the sale of the vessel; and
if the same amounts to $100 he shall not receive from the owner the above reward
•of $100.
10. An inspector permitting a slave to escape for the want of proper exertion,
or by neglect in the discharge of his duty, shall be fined one hundred dollars ; or
if for like causes he permit a vessel, which the law requires him to inspect, to
leave the State without inspection, he shall be fined not less than twenty nor more
than fifty dollars, to be recovered by warrant by any person who will proceed
against him.
II. No pilot acting under the authority of the laws of this State shall pilot out
of the jurisdiction of this State any such vessel as is described in this act, which
has not obtained and exhibited to him the certificate of inspection hereby
required; and if any pilot should so offend, he shall forfeit and pay not less than
twenty nor more than fifty dollars, to be recovered in the mode prescribed in the
next preceding section of this act.
12.
The courts of the several counties or corporations situated on the Chesa­
peake Bay or its tributaries, by an order entered of record, may appoint one or




Commercial Regulations.

483

more inspectors at such place or places within their respective districts as they
may deem necessary, to prevent the escape or for the recapture of slaves attempt­
ing to escape beyond the limits of the State, and to search or otherwise examine
all vessels trading to such counties or corporations. The expense in such cases
to be provided for by a levy on negroes now. taxed by law ; but no inspection by
county or corporation officers thus appointed shall supersede the inspection of
such vessel by pilots and other inspectors, as specially provided for in this act.
13. It shall be lawful for the county court of any county, upon the application
of five or more slaveholders, residents of the counties where the application is
made, by an order entered of record, to designate one or more police stations in
their respective counties, and a captain and three or more other persons as a police
patrol on each station, for the recapture of fugitive slaves; which patrol shall be
in service at such times and such stations as the court shall direct by their order
aforesaid ; and the said court shall allow a reasonable compensation to be paid to
the members of such patrol; and for that purpose the said court may from time
to time direct a levy on negroes now taxed by law, at such rate per capita as the
court may think sufficient, to be collected and accounted for by the sheriff as other
county levies, and to be called “ the fugitive slave tax.” The owner of each fugi­
tive slave in the act of escaping beyond the limits of the Commonwealth to a non­
slaveholding State, and captured by the patrol aforesaid, shall pay for each slave
over fifteen and under forty-five years old, a reward of one hundred dollars; for
each slave over five and under fifteen years old, the sum of sixty dollars; and for
all others, the sum of forty dollars. Which reward shall be divided equally among
the members of the patrol retaking the slave and actually on duty at the time.
And to secure the payment of said reward, the patrol may retain possession and
use of the slave until the reward is paid or secured to them.
14. The Executive of this State may appoint one or more inspectors for the
Rappahannock and Potomac rivers, if he shall deem it expedient for the due exe­
cution of this act. The inspectors so appointed, to perform the same duties and
to be invested with the same powers in their respective districts, and receive the
same fees as pilots acting as inspectors in other parts of the State. A vessel
subject to inspection under this law, departing from any of the above named
counties or rivers on her voyage to sea, shall be exempt from the payment of a fee
for a second inspection by another officer, if provided with a certificate from the
proper inspecting officer of that district; but if, after proceeding on her voyage,
she returns to the port or place of departure, or enter any other port, river or
roadstead in the State, the said vessel shall be again inspected and pay a fee of
five dollars, as if she had undergone no previous examination and received no pre­
vious certificate. If driven by stress of weather to seek a harbor, and she has no
intercourse with the shore, then and in that case no second fee shall be paid by
said vessel.
15. For the better execution of the provisions of this act in regard to the
inspection of vessels, the Executive is hereby authorized and directed to appoint
a chief inspector, to reside at Norfolk, whose duty it shall be to direct and super­
intend the police agents or inspectors above referred to. He shall keep a record
of all vessels engaged in the piloting business, together with a list of such persons
as may be employed as pilots and inspectors under this law. The owner or owners
of each boat shall make a monthly report to him of all vessels inspected by persons
attached to said pilot boats, the names of such vessels, the owner or owners thereof,
and the places where owned or licensed, and where trading to or from, and the
business in which they are engaged, together with a list of their crews. Any
inspector failing to make his report to the chief inspector shall pay a fine of twenty
dollars for every such failure; which fine shall be recovered by warrant before a
justice of the county or corporation. The chief inspector may direct the time
and station for the cruise of each pilot boat, and perform such other duty as the
governor may designate, not inconsistent with the other provisions of this act.
He shall make a quarterly return to the Executive of all the transactions of his
department, reporting to him any failure or refusal on the part of inspectors to




Commercial Regulations.

484

discharge the duty assigned to them ; and the governor, for sufficient cause, may
suspend or remove from office any delinquent inspector. The chief inspector shall
receive as his compensation ten per cent on all the fees and fines received by the
inspectors acting under his authority, and may be removed at the pleasure of the
Executive.
16. All fines and forfeitures imposed by this act, and not otherwise specially
provided for, shall go one half to the informer, and the other be paid into the
treasury of the State, to constitute a fund, to be called “ the fugitive slave fund,”
and to be used for the payment of rewards awarded by the governor for the appre­
hension of runaway slaves, and to pay other expenses incident to the execution of
this law, together with such other purposes as may hereafter be determined on by
the General Assembly.
17. This act shall be in force from its passage.
OF TH E B R ITISH WRECK AND SALVAGE ACT.

Some doubts having arisen upon the construction of the sixteenth section of
this act, (9 and 10 Victoria, cap. 99,) which empowers a receiver of the droits
of the Admiralty to summon masters and others before him, and take their ex­
aminations with respect to vessels which have sustained damage, and especially
as to the meaning of the term “ distress ” in that section, a case was lately laid
before Dr Harding, Queen’s Advocate, by the Liverpool Ship-owners’ Asso­
ciation ; and we subjoin a copy of his opinion, prefacing it with the section in
question :—
“ X V I. And be it enacted, That any receiver, or in his absence, any justice of
the peace, shall, as soon as conveniently may be, examine upon oath, (which oath
they are hereby respectively empowered to administer,) any person belonging to
any ship or vessel which may be, or may have been in distress, or others who
may be able to give any account thereof, or of the cargo or stores thereof, as to
the name or description of the said ship or vessel, and the names of the master,
commander, or chief officer and owners thereof, and of the owner of the said
cargo, and of the ports or places from or to which the said ship or vessel was
bound, and the occasion of the said ship’s distress, and of the services rendered,
and as to any other matter or circumstance relating to the said ship or cargo, or
any of the stores thereof, as the said receiver or justice may think fit and neces­
sary ; and the said receiver or justice shall take'the said examination down in
writing, and shall make two copies of the same, the one of which he shall send to
the said receiver-general, and the other to the secretary of the committee of
Lloyd’s aforesaid ; and the said copy shall be placed by the said secretary in some
conspicuous situation, in like manner as hereinbefore directed with respect to
other reports, so as to be made to the said secretary as aforesaid ; and for every
such examination by a receiver he shall be entitled to receive from the owner of
the said vessel or cargo, or out of the produce of the sale thereof, the sum of one
pound; and it shall be lawful for the said receiver, or for any officer of the cus­
toms, at the request in writing of the said receiver, to detain such vessel or cargo
until the said sum be paid : provided, always, that if any person belonging to the
said ship or vessel, or otherwise, shall refuse to be so examined by the said re­
ceiver or justice as aforesaid, he shall, for every such refusal, forfeit and pay any
sum not exceeding fifty pounds.”
OPINION.
D octors C ommons, January 27,1853.

I am of the opinion that the meaning of the word distress in the 16th section,
is explained by reference to its use in the other sections, particularly sections 14,
15,19, 21,44, and 45. In some of these it is used in connection with “ stranding,”
“ running on shore,” and “ w r e c k a n d in others, (sections 19 and 21,) in con­




485

Nautical Intelligence.

nection with “ saving and preserving.” I am, therefore, of opinion, that in order
to satisfy the meaning of the word in the 16th section, there must have existed at
least some actual risk, either of loss or stranding, or of the happening of serious
injury to ship or cargo. It cannot, in my opinion, be applicable to all cases of
damage, however small. A ship may have touched the ground, yet make no
water, and put back to be docked—she is not “ in distressshe may put back to
replace loss of anchors, sails, or spars, and yet may never have been “ in distress.”
In order to empower the receiver to take examinations, however, it is not neces­
sary that the distress should actually exist; it will be sufficient if the ship has
been in distress; but this distress can, in my opinion, only have existed where
there has been substantial risk of loss, stranding, or serious injury to the ship or
cargo. I am not aware of any case in point.
J. D. HARDING.
CHANGING TH E NAME OF VESSELS,

Heretofore the name of a vessel once recognized by the government, could not
be changed except by a special act of Congress. A law has recently been passed
vesting the power to make such changes in the Secretary of the Treasury, a copy
of which we annex
AN

A C T A U T H O R IZ IN G

THE SEC R E T A R Y OF TH E
OF V E SSE LS IN

T R E A S U R Y TO CH A N G E T O E

C E R T A IN

NAME

CA SE S.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States
of America in Congress assembled, That the Secretary of the Treasury be, and
hereby is, authorized to permit the owner or owners of any vessel to change the
name of the same when, in his opinion, there shall be sufficient cause for so doing;
and he may establish such rules and regulations as he shall deem proper for that
purpose. Approved March 5,1856.

NAUTICAL INTELLIGENCE.
LIGHTHOUSES AND BUOYS AT T H E IONIAN ISLES.

The following information has been received at this office through the Depart­
ment of State:—
CORFU.

This is a light situated on a rock at the entrance of the north
channel in latitude 39° 48' 10" N., and longitude 19° 57' 30" E. The light is
fixed, and may be seen in clear weather 12 miles. The height of the lantern
above the water is 100 feet. The height of the building is 55 feet.
“ C i t a d e l . ” —This light is situated in latitude 39° 37' 5" N., and longitude
19° 56' E. It is fixed, and may be seen in clear weather 12 miles. The height
of the lantern above the water is 240 feet, the building itself being 32 feet high.
“ L efchim o .” —This is a light-vessel moored in five fathoms water, on the north
part of the shoal, in latitude 39° 27' 30" N., and longitude 20° 4' E. It shows,
at an elevation of 27 feet above the water, a fixed light, which may be seen in
clear weather from six to eight miles.
N o t e .— By keeping this light N. N. 'W. i W . by compass, all danger to the
southward of it will be avoided.
B uoys .— There are two buoys placed on the shoal extending from Cape Bianco.
The first, red, is about E. by S., two miles distant from Cape Bianco, in nine
fathoms. The second buoy, black, is in nine fathoms on the southern extremity
of the shoal, at the distance of 2£ miles from the same capo. These buoys bear
from each other nearly N . N. E. £ E., and S. S. W . J W., by compass, about 1Jmiles apart.
“ T

eguoso

.” —




486

Nautical Intelligence.

N ote .— It may be useful to know that these two buoys and Laka Light are
nearly in the same line.
PAXO.

“ L a k a .”— This light is situated on Laka Point, in latitute 39° 13' N., longi­
tude 20° 9' E. It is fixed, 369 feet in height, and may be seen in clear weather
15 miles.
N ote.— This light is not visible between the bearings of N. by E., southward
W . by N., on account of the intervening land.
“ M adonna .”— This light is on the Madonna Island, in Port Gayo, in latitude
39° 11' 30" N., longitude 20° 12' 20" E. It is fixed, and may be seen in clear
weather 10 miles. The height of the building is 70 feet, and the lantern is 107
feet above the level of the sea.
B uoy.— A buoy is situated on the Madonna shoal, and bears from the Madonna
Lighthouse E. by S., nearly. It is white, with circular black stripes, and is
moored in 4-J fathoms water.
ST. M AURA.

“ M ole .”— This lighthouse stands on the end of the pier or Mole, in the north
anchorage, in latitude 38° 50' 30" N., longitude 20° 42' 55" E. The light is
fixed, and may be seen in clear weather 9 miles. Its height above the water is
54 feet.
N ote .— The bearing of Plaka Point from this lighthouse was found, by an as­
tronomical bearing, to be N. 78° W ., or W . by N., (true,) or W . by N. f N., (by
compass.) Ships coming from the south and west must, therefore, bring the
light to bear about S. E. (by compass) before shaping their course towards it.
Ships coming from the south will open the light when it bears E. ■} N. (The
plan of this anchorage (No. 1009) is in error with reference to the above bearings.)
IT H A C A .

“ S t . A ndrea .” — This is a small light attached to a post at the entrance of
Port Yathy. It is placed on St. Andrea Point, and is only useful to guide ves­
sels after they have entered the “ Gulf of Molo,” to the entrance of Yathy Har­
bor. It is elevated 30 feet above the water, and may be seen at the distance of
four to five miles. Latitude 38° 22' 20" N., longitude 20° 42' 30" E.
“ L azzaketto .” — This light is situated on the Lazzaretto (Port Vathy) in lat­
itude 39° 22' 5" N., and longitude 20° 42' 47" E. It will not be seen until you
are near the entrance of the harbor, into which it serves to guide vessels.
C E P H A L O N IA .

“ G uardiani .”— This light is situated on the southeast extremity of the island
of Guardiani, in latitude 38° 8' N., longitude 20° 26' 30" E. The building is
100 feet in height, and the light is 122 feet above the water, and may be seen in
clear weather 16 miles.
N ote.— In rounding this lighthouse great care is necessary on account of the
shoal extending from the island. When to the south and east of the light do not
increase the altitude of the upper part of the lighthouse from its base above 1° 15'.
“ S t . T eodoro.”— This light is situated on “ Hook Point,” (Port Argostoli,)
in latitude 38° 11' 13" N., longitude 20° 28' 33" E. It is a fixed light, elevated
35 feet above the level of the sea, (the building being 20 feet high,) and may be
seen in clear weather nine miles.
N ote .— During the night, having passed the light, bring it in line with Guar­
diani light, and run with that mark on until you open the lights of the town,
when you will have 12 fathoms in an excellent outside berth. “ St George Cas­
tle” will be just touching an intervening slope ; and in the day time you may run
up abreast of the Sanita, and anchor with that mark on or a little closed in.




Nautical Intelligence.

487

Buoys.—A small buoy lies in six fathoms at the southern extremity of reef ex­
tending from St. George’s Point, near the entrance of Argostoli Harbor.
A buoy similar to the above is placed in 2J fathoms on the northern extremi­
ty of the shoal extending from Hook Point Lighthouse.
N o t e .— A ship’s length northwards of this buoy there are five fathoms water.
A buoy of about the same size is moored on a shoal in Argostoli harbor above
the Lazzaretto.
A large black buoy is placed on the southern end of the shoal off Gape Scala;
it lies in six fathoms water.
I
ZAN TE.

“ C kio N eeo.” — This light is situated on Cape Orio Nero, near Zante anchor­
age, in latitude 37° 48' 39" N., longitude 20° 54' 34" E. It is a fixed light, ele­
vated 93 feet above the sea, (the building being 25 feet high,) and may be seen
in clear weather 12 miles.
N o t e .—This light kept S. W . by S. leads westward of the Montague Rocks,
and S. W. by W. £ W. leads eastward of them.
“ Mole.”'—A light attached to a post at an elevation of 30 feet is situated
near the end of the Mole.
B uoy.—A large black buoy is moored near the Demetrio Rock (St. Spiridione
Shoal) in Zante Bay. It lies in six fathoms, off the north part of the rock.
STKO FAD ES.

“ S tamfane I sland . ” — This light is on the Convent, latitude 37° 15' N., lon­
gitude 21° 1' E. It is a fixed light, elevated 127 feet above the level of the sea,
and may be seen in clear weather 12 miles.
C E E IG O .

“ S t . G eokge.” —This light is situated on a rock at the west side of Capsalli
Bay, in latitude 36° 8' N., longitude 23° E. It is a fixed light, elevated 60 feet
(estimated) above the sea, (the height of the building 21 feet,) and may be seen in
clear weather from 8 to 10 miles.
(Variations of compass 9° W.)
By order of the Lighthouse Board,
THORNTON A. JENKINS, Secretary.
T reasu ry

D e p a r t m e n t , O f f ic e L ig h t h o u s e
W a s h in g t o n ,

August

2 2 ,1S 56.

B oard, )
f

LIGHTHOUSE ON EGG ROCK, OFF WAHANT, BOSTON BAY, MASS.

The lighthouse on Egg Rock having been completed, will be illuminated on the
night of September 15, 1856, and every night thereafter, from sunset to sunrise.
The house is square, 1$ stories in height; it is whitewashed and surmounted by a
tower elevated 3 feet above the roof, and capped with an iron lantern. The illu­
minating apparatus is a fifth order lens, elevated 87 feet above high-water mark,
and should be visible under ordinary states of the atmosphere about 10 miles. The
following magnetic bearings from this station are given :— Graves Bell Boat,
S. E. by S .; Nahant, (East Point,) S. i E .; Methodist Church, Swampscot,
N. N. W . i W .; Half-tide Rock Beacon, N. £ W . ; Outer Dry Pig Rock.
N. E. i N.
By order of the Lighthouse Board,
C. II. B. CALDW ELL, Lighthouse Inspector, 2d Dist
B oston,

August 30, 1S66.

BELL BUOY OFF THE « HEN AND CHICKENS,” BUZZARD’S BAY, MASS.

A black can buoy of the first class, with a bell weighing 3,00 pounds, secured
on top in an iron frame, surmounted by a hoop-iron day-mark, has been placed oil'
this dangerous reef. The bell is elevated 6 feet above the water; it is tolled by




488

Nautical Intelligence.

the action of the waves, tides, and winds, and can be heard in ordinary weather
about 1 mile. The day-mark is 2 feet in diameter, painted black, and is elevated
9 feet above the water. The buoy is placed in 7 fathoms water, hard bottom,
about one-third of a mile south of the Old Cock.” The following magnetic
bearings are given from this buoy :— Sow and Pigs Light-vessel, S. by E .; Seconet Point, W. ; N .; Entrance to Westport Harbor, N. W . by N .; Mishaum
Ledge Buoy, E. N. E .} E .; Old Cock, N. by W .
By order of the Lighthouse Board,
C. H. B. CALDWELL, Lighthouse Inspector, 2d District.
B oston ,

August 18,1856.

ATLANTIC OCEAN, FRANCE— PONTAILLAC LIGHT, R IV ER GIRONDE,

Official information has been received at this office, that the French govern­
ment has given notice that on the 10th July, 1856, a light, alternately red and
white—each color lasting 20 seconds, without intervening eclipse—was exhibited
from the summit of a wooden tower erected on the high ground of Pontaillac,
situated near the entrance, and on the north bank of the River Gironde, on the
west coast of France. The tower is 104 feet high, and the light 177 feet above
the level of water, and should be visible 15 miles in clear weather. It stands in
latitude 45° 38' 10” N., longitude 1° 3' 42” W . of Greenwich. The north chan­
nel leading into the Gironde is lighted already by three lights, exclusive of that
of Oordouan—one on Point de la Coubre, the second on Point de la Falaise, and
the third on the tower of Terre Negre.
S ailing D irections. In entering the Gironde by the north channel at night,
bring the white fixed light of Terre Negre on with the red and white light of
Pontaillac, and keep them so until the Point de la Coubre light bears N. N. E.,
then alter course immediately, and steer for the revolving light of Cordouan, until
you have brought the lights on Point de la Falaise and Terre Negre in one. Steer
for and keep these lights in one until Cordouan light bears S. S. W., after which
alter course to S. E. by S.
[All courses and bearings are magnetic. Var. 20° 45' west.]
By order of the Lighthouse Board,
THORNTON A. JENKINS, Secretary.
T r e a s u r y D e p a r t m e n t , O f f ic e

W a s h in g t o n ,

L ig h t h o u s e B o a r d , )

August 22,1856.

)

LIGHTHOUSE ON HJELSI ISLAND, DENMARK,

The following official information has been received at this office, through the
Department of State, and is published in the Merchants' Magazine for the benefit
of mariners :—Should no unforeseen accident prevent, a fixed light, varied by flashes every four
minutes, will be established during next autumn (1856) on the Island of Hjelm,
situated in the Kattegat, in latitude 56° 08' N., longitude 10° 48' 30" E. of
Greenwich. The illuminating apparatus will be a lens of the second order, placed
at an elevation of 167 feet above the mean level of the sea, on a round brick
tower, 37 feet in height. This light will be distinguished as follows, viz.:—A
bright fixed light will appear for a period of 2 minutes and 55 seconds ; this will
be followed by an eclipse of 25 seconds’ duration, which will be succeeded by a
brilliant flash of about 15 seconds’ duration ; then there will be an eclipse of 25
seconds’ duration, after which the bright fixed light will reappear lor the period
of 2 minutes and 55 seconds, as above.
In clear weather, from the deck of a vessel 15 feet above the water, the fixed
light should be visible at a distance of 18 miles, and the bright flash about 20
miles all around the horizon. Within 8 miles of the lighthouse the eclipse will
hardly be observable.
C open h agen ,

June

2 6 ,1 8 5 6 .




Nautical Intelligence.

489

AMELIA BAR, ENTRANCE TO CUMBERLAND SOUND,
L E A D IN G

TO ST. M A R Y ’ S, G E O R G IA , A N D

F E R N A N D IN A , F L O R ID A .

The buoys on the bar and river are now arranged in the following order:—
Bar buoy is a second-class iron nun, painted with black and white perpendicular
stripes. This buoy is just outside the bar, in 24 feet water at low tide, and can
be passed on either hand ; the lighthouse bears S. W., (the general course over
the bar.) Second buoy is a third-class iron can, painted black, with the No. 1 in
white; this buoy is just inside the bar, in 13 feet water at low tide, near the edge
of the South Breakers, and must be left on the port hand entering. Third buoy
is a second-class iron nun, painted red, with the No. 2 in white; this buoy is in
13 feet water at low tide, near the edge of the North Breakers, and must be left
on the starboard hand entering. Fourth buoy is a third-class iron can, painted
black, with the No. 3 in white; this buoy is in 12 feet water at low tide, near
the edge of the South Breakers, and must be left on the port hand entering.
Fifth buoy is a second-class iron nun, painted red, with the No. 4 in white; this
buoy is in 14 feet water at low tide, near the inner point of the North Breakers,
and must be left on the starboard hand entering. Sixth buoy is a second-class
iron nun, painted black, with the No. 5 in white; this buoy is in 18 feet water
at low tide, and is placed near the shoal running off from Amelia Island, and must
be left on the port hand entering. Seventh buoy is a second-class iron can, painted
black, with the No. 7 in white; this buoy is in 16 feet water at low tide, near
the edge of Tiger Island Shoal, at the entrance of the Fernandina River, and
must be left on the port hand going to St. Mary’s. Eighth buoy is a second-class
iron nun, painted with black and red horizontal stripes ; this buoy is in 12 feet
water at low tide, and is placed on the point of shoal formed by the junction of
the St. Mary’s and Cumberland rivers.
By order of the Lighthouse Board,
0. H A N IG AU LT MORRIS, Lighthouse Inspector, Gth Diet.
Charleston, S. C., August 20,1856.

LIGHT ON MOUNT NAVIDAD, CARTHAGENA, MEDITERRANEAN SEA.

Official information has been received at this office, that the Spanish govern­
ment has given notice that on the 15th July, 1856, a fixed light, of the natural
color, was established on Mount Navidad, on the west side, at the entrance of the
port of Carthagena, in the province of Murcia. The illuminating apparatus is
catadioptric, of the fourth order; the light is placed at a height of 125 English
feet above the level of the sea, and should be visible 10 miles in clear weather. It
stands in latitude 37° 35' 30” N., longitude 0° 58' 37" W . of Greenwich. Every
vessel entering the port of Carthagena by night, and intending to anchor on its
eastern side near the powder magazine, or near the suburb of Santa Lucia, should
always keep the light in sight slightly open of Navidad Point, taking care not to
lose sight of it, so as to pass clear of the shoal named the Laja, within the harbor.
On the contrary, if the intention is to anchor in the part of the harbor known by
the name of the Espalmador Grande, the vessel should lose sight of the light, by
keeping as close as possible to Navidad Point.
L IG H T

ON C A P E

H U E R TA S, A L IC A N T E .

Also, that on and after the 15th day of August, 1856, a fixed light of the nat­
ural color would be exhibited on Cape Huertas, in the province of Alicante, in
latitude 38° 20' 30" N., longitude 0° 22' 37" W. of Greenwich. The appartus
is catadioptric, of the fourth order. The light is placed at a height of 124 feet
above the level of the sea, and should be visible at a distance of 10 miles in
clear weather.
By order of the Lighthouse Board,
THORNTON A. JENKINS, Secretary.
T r e a s u r y D e p a r t m e n t , O f f ic e L ig h t h o u s e B o a r d , )
W a s h in g t o n ,

August




2 2 ,1 8 5 6 .

j

490

Journal o f Insurance.

JOURNAL

OF

INSURANCE.

REGULATIONS OF LAKE UND ERW RITERS.

The Board of Marine Inspectors of the association of Lake Underwriters, held
at Buffalo, August, 1856, unanimously adopted the following rules, specifications
and suggestions relative to the construction, classification and navigation of sail
vessels and propellers on the Lakes :—
R U L E S , A C . R E L A T IV E

TO T H E

CO N ST R U C T IO N O P S A IL
TO CL A SS A

VESSELS A N D

PRO PELLERS

1.

All the timber used must be of good quality, and free from sap and other defects.
F rames.— The parts of each frame must be either bolted or treenailed together,

and the laps in vessels of 200 tons and upwards, shall not be less than two feet six
inches, and joints well fitted. Each frame to be secured to the keel by two bolts,
one through the floor and keel, the other through the keelson floor and keel.
S ister K eelsons, B ilge S trakes .—Vessels about 150 tons to have sister
keelsons, well bolted, and all vessels to have bilge strakes; the collective breath
of the latter to be equal to one-eighth the vessel’s beam, and every strake must
have one through bolt, and one blunt boat, exclusive of spikes, in each frame.
T ransom .— The main transom to have a knee at each end to connect it with the
side of the vessel.
B reast H ooks.-—There must be one breast-hook for every four feet of the
depth of hold, and to have at least three through bolts in each arm.
A rches.—Vessels of 250 tons and upwards must either be arched or have thick
ceiling, edge bolted, with a bolt between every frame from bilge strakes to deck
clamps ; the breadth of the arch to be equal to one-fourth of the depth of hold.
Each strake of the arch must have one through bolt and one blunt bolt in every
frame, exclusive of sufficient spikes.
C l a m p s .— The collective breadth of deck clamps to be equal to one-fifth of the
depth of hold. In every clamp strake of seven inches in breadth there shall be
one through bolt; above seven, two through bolts; above fourteen, three through
bolts; and above twenty-one inches, four through bolts in every frame, exclusive of
spikes, to be driven from the outside, and clenched on a ring or washer. The
joints in clamp strakes to be scarfed, and the length of scarf must not be less than
four times the breadth of the strake so scarfed.
C eiling .— Ceiling to be square fastened with spikes, for every foot in breadth ;
and in the thick ceiling there must be a through bolt at every foot from bilge
strake to clamp in each alternate frame. The ceiling, either in the bottom or
sides, may be diminished in thickness towards the ends of the vessel.
O utside P lank .—In all vessels the bottom plank, ten inches wide and under,
to be square fastened with spikes; and over ten inches to be fastened in propor­
tion ; but the plank on the side, under eight inches wide to be square fastened,
and above that width to be fastened in proportion. In the planking and ceiling,
no butts to be nearer than five feet of each other, unless there is a strake wrought
between them, and then a distance of four feet will be allowed, and no butts to be
on the same timber, unless there be two strakes between them.
B utt B olts.—Vessels of 200 tons and upwards, must be butt bolted with a
bolt through the next timber to the butt, and clenched.
B eam F astenings.—The deck frame may be either with or without carlins.
When without carlins it must be secured to the side by one lodging knee to every
beam, and one diagonal or hanging knee to every alternate beam. Or a shelf piece
may be used instead of the lodging knees, to be jogged up to beams one-fourth of
its thickness, fastened with a through bolt in every frame; and the beams bolted




Journal o f Insurance.

491

thereto with at least two bolts in every beam. The deck frame, where carlins are
used, must be secured by two lodging and one diagonal or hanging knee to every
beam end, or the shelf piece may be substituted for the lodging knees as before
mentioned. Partner beams, in all cases, to have diagonal or hanging knees.
Vessels not exceeding 150 tons are exempted from using diagonal or hanging
knees, provided their beams are well secured to the side by a heavy shelf piece, or
a stringer, bolted in the same manner.
K nees .—The siding of knees to be three-fourths the thickness of the beam they
secure, and to have a bolt at every ten inches; the bolts in the arms must be
through bolts.
C enter B oard .— The head ledges to center-board cases, in vessels of 300 tons
register shall not be less than 7 by 10 inches; the center-board six inches thick ;
the plank for the case not less than six inches thick, secured with edge bolts of
one inch iron, not more than two feet apart, each bolt to pass to the center of
third strake of each bolting; the ends of the plank to be secured with f bolts,
eight inches apartf, driven through and clenched on each side, and to have not less
than four stay rods on each side of case, of I f inch iron, running through the deck
beams and bottom of vessel, and set up with screw. The first and second bolting
of sides of case to pass through the keel and pocket piece and clenched. The head
ledges to be secured by four one inch bolts at the lower ends, passing through the
pocket piece and keel, and one through the keelson and clenched, the upper ends
to be securely fastened to the beams. The keelson, along side the pocket piece,
to be 7 by 16 inches, and to extend sixteen feet forward and abaft the case, and
be secured with four three-quarter bolts in each frame, and one seven-eight bolt
between the frames into pocket piece. All vessels, under or over 300 tons, shall
have their center boxes built in proper proportion to the above rule.
D ead R ise .— All sailing vessels hereafter built, entitled to Class A 1 shall
have not less than 1J inches per foot dead rise, measuring from center of keel out,
one third of breadth of beam ; and all vessels with less dead rise shall have bilge
limbers and proper bilge pumps to entitle them to Class A 2.
C hain P lates .—Vessels of 300 tons shall have chain plates 3 by $ inches, flat
iron, or two parts of 1 inch, round iron, secured to the hull with I f inch bolts
and backers, eight inches long, secured with 1 inch bolts, and larger or smaller
vessels in proportion.
M ast S teps .— Mast steps are best fitted across the keelson, but however fitted
they must be well and securely bolted; and the mast partners must be double
kneed.
L imbers .— In vessels of 300 tons, limbers to be I f by 3 J inches—in larger or
smaller vessels to be in proportion—and limber chains to be provided in all
steamers and propellers; and the Board would recommend their general adoption
in sailing vessels.
C overing B oard .—The joints in the covering board and rail to be scarfed, the
length of scarf not to be less than four times the breadth.
P umps.— All vessels to have at least two good pumps, exclusive of bilge pumps;
pumps to be cased, and in those whose bulk-head forward does not come down to
the skin, one pump must be cased not less than three by two feet, to receive the
suction-pipe of steam pump in case of accident.
S alting .—All vessels hereafter built, and otherwise entitled to be classed A 1,
must be salted, and the stops shall not be less from the covering board than onefifth of the depth of the hold.
"Water -tight B ulk-heads , & c.— It is earnestly recommended that all steam
vessels have two or more water-tight bulk-heads, from skin to deck, with accessable slides to limbers—one to be forward of the freight hold ; and that all sail
vessels have one or more water-tight bulk-heads and slides to limbers— one to be
the forecastle bulk-head. It is also strongly urged on masters and owners of
vessels carrying grain in bulk, to use good and sufficient shifting boards, it being
the opinion of this Board that without them a vessel is not really seaworthy. It




492

Journal o f Insurance.

is also the opinion of this Board of Inspectors that steam vessels navigating the
lakes should be fitted with sufficient sails to control them in case of accident to
the engine. They would also suggest that better means be taken to secure the
hatchways and other openings in the decks of steam vessels, and more especially
of propellers, as it is believed that many of the serious disasters occurring are in
consequence of some of the above named dificiencies, and from being overloaded.
C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f L a k e V e s s e l s . —There shall be three classes—A , B and
C—with two grades to each class, namely: A 1, A 2, B 1, B 2, C 1, C 2.
Vessels hereafter built in accordance with the Rules of the Association, shall be
entitled to Class A 1 five years. At the expiration of which time, if sound, and
in good order, she shall class A 2 three years, B 1 two years, B 2 two years, and
then into Class C. New vessels classing A 2 shall be entitled to remain in that
grade 5 years, B 1,3 years, B 2, 2 years and then into Class C. A t any time, however,
vessels are liable to be surveyed, and if from any cause whatever, such as strand­
ing, collision, dry rot, or deficiencies in materials, &c., a vessel be found unworthy
to remain in her class, the Inspector of the District shall place her in the grade to
which she is entitled. But if the damage or deficiencies be promptly made good
to the satisfaction of the Inspector, the vessel shall remain in her class until in due
course of time she lapses from it. New vessels that are not qualified to class so
high as A 2, shall be classed in the grade to which it is deemed by the Inspector
they are entitled. Vessels already built shall have the benefit of the foregoing
Rules according to their merits—time to be reckoned from the date of launching.
Vessels rebuilt, or having received extensive repairs, shall have the benefit thereof
by their grade being continued or raised; but in no case shall any vessel be con­
tinued in the A 1 grade longer than five years, or be raised to that grade after
that age. Vessels built superior to the Rules of the Association, shall be entitled
to a star on the Register, in addition to the A 1 Class— thus, *A 1. Vessels
built of iron, if of proper thickness and strength, well fastened, and divided into
three or more water-tight compartments, shall be entitled to Class A 1, ten years;
A 2, six years; B 1, four years; B 2, four years, and then into Class C. Subject
always to the same exceptions and rules as govern the classification of sail vessels
and propellers constructed of wood.
KATES OF LAKE INSURANCE.
HULL

For the season.

Less than 200 ton s..
From 200 to 300 “ . .
From 300 to 400 “ . .
Upwards o f 400 “ . .

RATES

A t.

6 per cent.
7 per cent.
8 per cent.
8J per cent.

FOR

A 2.

SAIL

VESSELS.

B 1.

B 2.

6| per c. 7 per c. 8J per c.
7| per c. 8 per c. 9 per c.
8-j per c. 9 per c. 10 perc.
9 per c. 10 per c. 12 per c.

Cl.

C 2.

10 per c.
11 perc.
12 perc.
16 perc.

11 p e r
12 p e r

c.
c.
15 p er c.
20 p er c.

For the year add 1 per cent to the above rates. Vessels in the lumber trade
on the east shore and ports of Lake Michigan (Grand Traverse Bay excepted,)
and east shore of Lake Huron to pay 2 per cent additional. Lumber vessels
loading off the west shore of Lake Michigan (Green Bay excepted,) and west
shore of Lake Huron to pay 1 per cent additional.
HULL RATES F O R STEAM VESSELS.

For the season.

A.

Less than 400 tons...............................
Over 400 and less than 600 tons.......
Over 600 tons.........................................

8 per cent
9 per cent
10 per cent

B.

C.

9 per cent
10 per cent
11 percent

15 per cent
17 per cent
20 percent

For the year add 1 per cent to above rates. For passenger and mail steamers
and first class propellers navigating Lake Ontario only, to Ogdensburg, deduct 10
per cent from above rates.
SHORT RATES TO NOVEMBER 3 0 t H.

April having expired, deduct from above rates.....................
May having expired, deduct from above rates.....................
June having expired, deduct from above rates.....................
July having expired, deduct from above rates.....................




10
20
25
30

per cent.
per cent.
per cent.
per cent.

Postal Department.
Aug. having expired, deduct from above rates....................
Sept, having expired, deduct from above rates....................
Oct. having expired, deduct from above rates.......................

493
35 per cent.
45 per cent.
55 per cent.

Sailing season from April 1st, noon, to November 30th, noon, on Lakes Michi­
gan, Huron, St. Clair, Erie, Ontario and River St. Lawrence to Montreal. Hull
risks on Lake Superior to terminate November 20th. The maximum proportion
of insurance on hulls shall be two-thirds of the valuation on vessels valued at
$5,000 and under ; three-fonrths on vessels valued over $5,000 and less than
$12,000 ; and four-fifths on vessels valued at $12,000 and over.
Rates o f particular average on vessels
Rates of particular average on vessels
Rates of particular average on vessels

classedA 1 and 2 ........Not less than 5 per ct.
classedB 1 and 2 ....... Not less than 1 per ct.
classedC 1 and 2 ....... Not less
than 10 perct.

PRODUCE CARGO RATES.

Shipped
Shipped
Shipped
Shipped
Shipped

on A
on A
on B
on B
on C

1 vessels..................................
2 vessels.................................
1 vessels.................................
2 vessels.................................
1 vessels................................

deduct 5 per cent from standard rates.
charge standard rate.
charge same rate.
add 5 per cent to standardrate.
add 10 per cent to standard rate.

Fire Insurance for the winter on yearly hull policies, covers the equipments on
board the vessel only; if removed, an additional premium to be charged thereon. No
vessel shall load with railroad iron, pig metal, stone, ores or marble, wholly beyond
her registered or American Custom House tonnage measurement, but if half, or
less than half of her tonnage be laden with above articles, her lading shall not
exceed her tonnage more than twenty per cent, or, if Canadian measurement, fifty
per cent.

POSTAL DEPARTMENT.
POSTAL REFORM IN TH E UNITED STATES.

Vigorous efforts will be made at the next session of Congress to accomplish
a reform in our postal system. It is certainly desirable to have as good a system
in the New World as they have in the Old, or at least in England. The move­
ment has our hearty co-operation, and we will most cheerfully open our pages to
the discussion of the subject. The following circular, emanating from a com­
mittee of the Mercantile Library Association of Boston, briefly and succinctly
sets forth the prominent features of the needed reform, and at the same time
presents an array of facts quite irresistible. We give the substance of the cir­
cular, and commend it to the careful attention of our readers. It will be per­
ceived that there is nothing sectional, partisan, or political in the petition to be
presented. It complains of no officer and of no administration, but desires certain
specified changes in the Post-office Department— all of which, except cheap ocean
postage, have been adopted, and have succeeded to a wonderful degree in Eng­
land, not only in accommodating the people, but also in materially enhancing the
revenue
1.
Uniform Postage of Two Cents. No one can doubt the advantage of this
plan who has witnessed its operation abroad or considered its influence in analo­
gous cases. The mere saving in the expense of handling letters by the adoption
of this principle in England, by comparing the cost in 1854 with the expense be­
fore the adoption, is amazing. The diminution has been from $30 to $7 per
thousand; 443,000,000 letters in Great Britain, in 1854, cost in the handling
(not transportation) $3,233,195, while at the rate of cost before a uniform post­




Postal Department.

494

age, the expense would have been $13,309,470. If it be objected that uniformity
is desirable, but why reduce from three cents to two, while the department is
yearly becoming a greater burden to the government, we reply, a uniform rate of
two cents wTill pay. The receipts of the English government are nearly double
the expenses, and the proportion is increasing in favor of the department, showing
that half a penny (or one cent) per letter, instead of two, would now sustain the
department. Will it be contended that at double the amount which will sustain
the British office, the United States office cannot be supported ? Even if the
English are more compact, are they not also more expensive in their scale of
prices ? Will Americans concede that postal machinery cannot be constructed in
this country at double the expense which it costs in England ?
2. Receiving-Houses and Letter-Carriers. Free delivery is the right arm of
the English system, and at the same time it is the most profitable branch of the
service. In London there are 1,385 letter-carriers, 498 receiving-houses, and
frequent deliveries daily. The last accounts from England inform us that the
number is to be further increased. An American now in England writes that he
has often dropped a letter into a receiving-house, had it delivered to his cor­
respondent several miles away, and received an answer by a carrier at his door,
in three hours.
Drop-letters in England comprise nearly half of their whole number, and they
have increased in an astonishing proportion under the present system. The num­
ber of these in six of our principal cities was recently ascertained to be 290,694
in a year. During the same period in England, in six cities, the number was
74,005,791. Had the proportion been the same in the two countries, our letters
would have amounted to 26,863,552—an increase of nearly one hundred-fold.
A free delivery system might probably be arranged, by which the twelve or
fourteen cities and towns immediately around Boston could have their letters
left at the door of each citizen several times each day, at a cost not much exceed­
ing that now paid for postmasters and rents in the same places. Who can esti­
mate the vast social and economical advantages growing out of such an arrange­
ment, exclusive of the profit to government which wotdd certainly result from the
greatly increased correspondence which this convenience would produce ? Out of
the 150,000 or 200,000 residing in the vicinity of Boston, 35,000 or 40,000 are
daily in the city attending to business. What an accommodation to them and to
their families would be the result of such a reform!
3. Money-Orders, This system was commenced in England in 1839, and con­
sists simply of such machinery as enables persons, by means of drafts from one
post-office to another, to transmit small sums not exceeding $25. The best mode
of showing the way in which this is regarded, is to compare the business in 1839
and 1854:—
Orders.

1839 .........................................................
1854 .......................................................... .

188,921
5,466,242

Amount.

$1,565,623
52,321,059

4. Cheap Ocean Postage. The London Alhenceum, in answer to the question,
“ Would ocean postage pay?” says :— Compared with the charge for goods and
passengers, the letter i-ate is enormously high. A man weighing 200 lbs., with
all his food and luxuries and baggage, is taxed £30, while a harmless bag of let­
ters, of equal ■weight, content with a dark corner and left alone, is mulcted for its
transport from Broadway to St. George’s Pier, more than £230!
If mail packets can carry a man, with all his wants and provisions and luggage,
for £30, a bale of letters or a bale of cotton can be carried for one-third of the
same amount. If government wish for mail steamers to bo at their control
in case of war, the charge should be to the Navy, and not the Post-office Depart­
ment.
5. Franking Matter to he charged to the Government. There is no justice or
equality in taxing letters with the expense of sending government maps and pic­
tures to a favored few; with equal propriety might the expenses of the courts, or
of surveys, &c., be charged to the Post-office Department. The Representatives




Journal o f Mining and Manufactures.

495

ought not to bear the burden—neither should the poor woman or the orphan who
has a friend abroad in California. Lot government pay from the treasury for its
own work.
6. No Compulsory Prepayment. Prepayment is very well; but is it just that
when not prepaid, letters should be destroyed ? We hear of small remittances de­
tained here, and large ones there; of an estate of $30,000 lost for want of a wit­
ness's testimony— confiscated for want of a postage stamp ; of life lost by a letter
not being received, when the stamp had been lost or stolen after being placed on
the letter. With a charge of two cents when prepaid, and four cents when not
paid, 98£ per cent of letters have been prepaid in England.
7. Dead Letters to be returned. Is nothing of value but gold or silver, or their
immediate representatives? One would think so, judging from our postage laws.
In England, these letters are returned every six days; and when the name of tho
writer can be ascertained from the seal or the outside of the letter, it is returned
unopened, instead of being detained six months or longer, and then burned, as
with us.
The number of dead letters in England is 5 to 1,000 ; with us, it is nearly 44
to 1,000. This fact, taken in connection with what we have said as to the in­
crease of letters, proves the certainty as well as promptness of their system of free
delivery.
Rowland Hill, in 1837, prior to the great postal reform in England, laid down
four propositions:—
1st. Uniform rate of postage.
2d. Increased speed in delivering letters.
3d. Greater facilities for their dispatch.
4th. Simplification in operations in post-offices.
Although the increase of letters in England in 1845 was threefold what it was
in 1839, it actually cost the government less to handle them; and with us it takes
twice the number of clerks to do the same work as in England, owing to their re­
form, principally in uniformity and free delivery. Such has been the effect of
these facilities in developing correspondence, that more letters have been circu­
lated through tho English post-office within the last four years than through the
United States post-office during the whole period of its existence, from 1790 to
the present time.
The merchants first led off in the English reform under Kowland H ill; they
have done so in New York ; others will follow. The people should speak and in­
struct their Representatives—they will hear and obey. This question addresses
' itself primarily to the largo cities and suburbs; but it speaks to our whole Com­
monwealth and to New England as a question of the utmost importance to their
family, social, intellectual, financial, and economical arrangements. It comes
home to every individual man and woman—and with them we leave our appeal.

JOURNAL OF MINING AND MANUFACTURES.
T H E MANUFACTURES AND PRODUCTS OF MASSACHUSETTS.

In a former number, (see Merchants’ Magazine for August, 1856, vol. xxxv., p.
233-235,) we gave a statement showing the aggregate value of the various manu­
factures and productions of Massachusetts in the year 1855, as prepared by Mr.
De Witt, the Secretary of State for that Commonwealth. We now compile from
the same official documents a summary table, showing the value of articles manu­
factured or produced in the State, the amount of capital invested, and the num­
ber of hands employed, with a comparative summary of the returns of 1845. It
will be seen by this statement that the total value of the industry of 1845 amount­




496

Journal o f Mining and Manufactures.

ed to $124,735,264, and in 1855 to nearly $300,000,000, a most astonishing in­
crease :—
MANUFACTURES, AC , OF MASSACHUSETTS IN

1845

AND

1855.

--------------- 18$5.---------------- n ,--------------1845.-------------->
Value.

Capital
invested.

Hands

Value.

_Capital
invested.

Hands

Dollars, emply’d.
Articles.
Dollars, employed. Dollars.
Dollars.
Cotton G ood s............... 26,140,538 31,961,000 34,787 :12,193,449 17,739,000 20,710
Calico.............................
5,213,000 1,980,000 1,157 4,779,817 1,401,500 2,053
325
200,500
659,000
644 2,264,700
Goods bleached and col. 6,111,200
Woolen goods all kinds. 12,105,514 7,305,500 10,090 8,877,478 5,604,002 7,372
488,000 1,034
834,322
Carpeting.......................
1,362,819 2,264,172 1,614
846
514,000
654,566
W orsted......................... 1,448,740 1,236,000 1,062
42,500
238
94,892
69,980
256
Hosiery and y a rn .........
207,160
79,000
192
145,000
Linen .............................
550,000
910
1,440,000
156
38,000
138
150,477
Silk.................................
55,000
300,000
Roll'd & slit iron &nails 5,512,816 2,342,825 3,025 2,738,300 1,906,400 1,729
377,685
422
538,966
Anchors, chain cables,<fcc
739,600
915,980
547
155,000
235
148,761
Pig iron .........................
567,400
323
641,540
713,270 1,267
Hollow-ware,
........... 3,256,538 1,618,600 2,276 1,280,141
Machinery...................... 4,089,590 2,484,000 3,740 2,022,648 1,103,850 2,421
127,000
221
208,546
Steam-engines boilers 3,255,000 2,099,500 2,638
42
50,000
45
37,800
69,590
113^935
171
144
Scythes .........................
120^532
66,000
94
94,441
48,225
484
Edge to o ls....................
626,654
409,860
68,725
197
Cutlery.........................
398,200
705
148,175
573,625
120,000
230
180,000
3,500
49
15^000
38
25,390
Butts or hinges.............
22^000
750
10
3,200
Door handles
latches.
39,100
12,000
29
75
23,600
24,500
84
60,070
Locks.............................
66,700
269
123,225
278,950
Tacks and brads...........
621,212
370
253,687
259
123,950
408,075
681
275,212
Shovels, spades, die......
894,515
158
58,575
Agricuit’ral implements
189,300
121,691
763,9S0
433
53,000
87
Iron railing, die..............
239,600
129,300
656,400
371
329,000
197
C opper........................... 1,685,500
626,800
610,950
320
167,600
145
515,300
831,890
Brass articles................. 1,504,050
640
49,350
93
Britannia-ware...............
168,000
102,550
302,000
332
60
51J500
Buttons...........................
172,500
229
56,080
267,120
700,200
630
G la ss.............................
758,300
2,648,125 1,806,500 1,887
39
37,500
S ta rch ...........................
48
195,800
161,000
119,950
251,700
113
Chem icals.....................
340
331,965
1,124,765 1,095,600
P a p er............................. 4,141,847 2,564,500 2,630 1,750,273 1,144,537 1,369
293,100
427
Musical instruments. .. 2,295.680 1,280,700 1,765
548,625
10,350
40
C lock s...........................
17,000
54,975
100,000
26
184
800,000
97,000
605,439
139,875
260
293
Watches, jewelry, <fcc.. 2,105^200
126,225
720^500 1,263
305,623
220
68,875
Brushes .........................
484,500
267,600
429
153,900
648
144,540
Saddles, trunks, <tc.. . . 1,220,049
966
422,794
327,807
275
124,700
U pholstery...................
354,261
1,876,800
554,250
600
Hats and ca p s .. . . . . .
734,942
213,793 1,003
1,926,105
350,373 1,042
647
Cordage ....................... 2,478,410
906,321
543,930
636,400 1,000
164
130,161
68,550
212
82,943
V essels........................... 4,648’450 1,940,700 3,592 1,172,147
1,017
‘247,638
199,900
167
921,299
168,050
519
Cards.............................
440,240
154
323,845
171,500
147
196,600
584
S a lt ................................
261
79,980
399,285
350,971
187,324
R. It. cars, coaches, die . 2,352,955
949,770 2,491 1,343,576
553,434 1,881
50
L e a d ..............................
340,000
165,000
68
90,880
72,700
106
Sugar refined............... 2,056,430
940,000
315
410,000
306
Sperm candles &, o il.. . 6,813,291 3,282,013
412 3,613,796 2,451,917




497

Journal o f Mining and Manufactures.
M A N U F A C T U R E S , E T C ., O F M A S SA C H U SE T T S — (C O N T IN U E D .)
r

Articles.

Soap & tallow candles
Pow der.......................
Fire-arms............ . . .
Cannon .......................
Chocolate....................
Cabinet-ware, <fce.___
Tin-ware......................
Paints, <fcc...................
Com bs.........................
Linseed oil...................
Burning fluid, <fcc . . *.
Glue and gum ............
Cotton gins.................
Flour...........................
Leather tan’d & curr’d
Patent leather, ifcc. . .
Boots and shoes.........
Straw bonnets, hats, <fec
Bricks...........................
Math, instruments.. . .
Tobacco and snuff.. . .
Building stone.............
Miner! coal & iron ore

Blocks and pumps./..
Mechanics’ to o ls .........

Lasts and shoe pegs. .
Lumber........................
Firew ood.....................
Whale oil and bone . .
Mackerel and c o d .. . .
Shad, salmon, (fee..........
Sheep and w o o l.........
Horses, oxen, cows, (fee.
Butter, cheese <fe honey
Corn, Indian <fe broom.
Barley.........................
Onions.........................
Turnips.......................
Carrots.........................
B eets...........................
Other crops..................
M illet...........................

Value.
Dollars.

Capital
invested.
Hands
Dollars, employed.

7,720,533
1,582,500
54,000
228,125
391,475
132,500
50,000
54,151
103,000
197,013
3,969,982
1,913,615
570,975
1,451,240
171,000
910,190
271,060
5 57,422
890,000
600,000
462,600
135,500
5 32,650
124,450
114,000
99,000
607 ,45 0
2,040,040
10,934,416
4 ,152,426
1,271,942
2 27,700
*
37,489,923
4 ,905,553
2,627,165
204,850
988,790
1,585,213
561 ,65 0
94^907
111475
237,469
505,500
75400
814,510
1,142,614
745,711
323*135
64,885
28,500
192450
3,664,462
2,960,915
7,766,996 14,546,548
2,829,640
3,696,436
73,156
464,889
15,423,621
2,161 ,S45
3,061,731
73,928
560,201
110,158
563,729
2,521,906
187,446 ]
116,351
148,041 L
484,568
286 ,20 2 ^
6,509

.........

.........

445
836,156
54
165,500
282
260,819
82,000
40
81,672
57
1,476,679
4,243
1,131
793 ,62 4
356,200
71
611
198,965
181,100
93
33
138
387,575
45,4 44
100
173
174,805
3,143
3,836,657
400
74,326 14,7 99 ,1 4 0
14,511
1,649,496
1,109
612,832
76
54,050
775
324,639
2,205
1,065,599
455
220,004
110
43,629
225
21>69
689
367
111,947
60
10,422
296
127^249
1,048
161,899
610
416,366
260
200 ,81 4
31
98,351
3,413
921,106
5,325
1,088,656
11,364 10,371,167
10,551
1,484,137
485
923,420
8,778,317
1,528,089
1,438,788
54,602
328 033
72,261
405,657
1,309,030

* No return.
VOL. XXXV.---- NO. IV,




32

Value.
Dollars.

Capital
invested. Hands
Dollars. empl’d .
405 ,87 2
120,000
62,848
120,000
47,500
4 7 7 ,3 7 4
343,710
253,500
73,100
77,000

343
49
357
48
27
2,594
719
106
340
34

283,675
75,000
44,550
1,900,545

93
48
30
2,043

.,

.,
45,877
13,311
1,407
68
572
1,849
312
80
78
526
35
204
256
806
318
84
2,506
2,926
11,805,910 11,378
1,238,640 7 ,866

530,181

8,476

,.

498

Journal o f Mining and Manufactures.
MANUFACTURES, ETC,, OF MASSACHUSETTS— (CONTINUED.)

-1855.--------------- , ,------------- 1S45.
Value.
Dollars.

Articles.
H a y .............................
Apples, pears, <fcc........
H o p s ............................
Tobacco .......................
Cranberries.................
Beeswax ....................
Casks......................... .
Fringe and tassels.. . .
Stone & earthen ware.
Doors, sashes, <fcc........
G a s ..............................
Pickles and preserves.
Distilled liquors........
B eer. . . . . . ...................
Matches.......................
India-rubber goods. . .
Bread...........................
Types and stereotype
plates........................
Boxes...........................
Confectionery.............
Maple su g ar...............
Porte-monnaies, <fcc...
Clothing.......................
Swine...........................
M ilk .............................
Poultry and eggs . . . .

Ice ...........................
Printing........................
Bookbinding...............
Gravestones*............
Various articles.........

8,702,317
1,315,241
47,461
57,473
135,199
942
802,374
433,000
125,450
936,959
932,332
346,858
3,153,828
355,839
95,750
968,000
3,592,609
309,100
997,783
278,576
52,293
262,700
9,061,896
581,536
755,887
52,688
639,100
1,351,318
147,290
11,756,756
1,051,657

Capital
invested.
Hands
Dollars. employed.

Value.
Dollars.

Capital
invested. Hands
Dollars. empl'd.

5,214,357
755,382
32,251
16,686
828
257,947
66,500
291
61,250
118
774
328,980
318
2,733,900
151,300
185
964,950
147
120,975
133
32,800
150
438,000
462
640,000 1,137
116,800
439,125
52,300

318
792
65

,.

981
269,935
54,300
52,025
180,181

,,
included in summary in 1845
.......

included in summary in 1845
included in summary in 1845
215,105
235
41,443

37,000
299
2,770,600 1,758

...

..
..

487
106
72
215

11,700
15,500

...

917,435
304,917
25,891

701,700
749,550 1,134
52,200
324
3,802,347 8,101
366,200
396

5,231,723

2,410,760 3,281

RECAPITULATION— TOTALS.

1855 ..........................................
1845 ..........................................

Value.

Capital invested.

Hands employed.

$295,820,681
124,735,264

$120,693,258
59,145,767

245,908
152,766

The industry of Massachusetts, in proportion to its population, exceeds that of
any other State in the Union. What the State lacks in natural resources, is
made up by her capital, machinery, and the hardy industry of her citizens.
IRON CONSUMED IN THE UNITED STATES.

The American Iron Masters’ Statistical Review has the following statement in
reference to the amount of railroad iron used in this country for several years
past, and the comparative make and importation for the same period:—
Total number of miles in use December 31, 1855..........................................
Total increase for eight years............................................................................
Total increase for last five years.......................................................................

21,440
15,655
11,963

* "Wheelwright stock, baskets, umbrellas, and a variety of other articles, not elsewhere enu­
merated.




Journal o f Mining and Manufactures.

499

Average annual increase last five years..........................................................
Average number of miles in use for five years ending Dec. 31, 1854.........
Iron required in laying 13,600 miles at 90 tons per mile, 1,224,000 tons,
which, at 8 per cent average annual wear, gives iron required for renewal of track..................................................................................................
Iron required for last five years for renewal of track...................................
Iron required for last five yrs. for new track 11,963 m., at 97 tons per mile
Total consumption of railroad iron for five yea rs..........................................
Iron rails imported for five years ending June 30, 1855 .............................
Estimated production of rails made in the IT. States last five y e a rs .........
Average quantity of rails imported per annum for five y e a r s ...................
Average domestic production for five yea rs..................................................
Total average annual consumption for five years..........................................

2,363
13,600
Tons.
97,920
489,600
1,154,029
1,643,629
1,143,629
500,000
228,726
100,000
328,729

About 30 per cent of the consumption of rails is required for renewals, and 70
per cent for new track.
Thus far the iron imported has represented the number of miles of new track
made, at the rate of one mile for every 97 tons of rails ; and the American mills
have supplied iron for the renewal of track. From this time forward, however,
the American mills will furnish, not only rails for the repair account, but also for
a considerable portion of the new track.
Tons.

Importation of rails for year ending June 30, 1855 ......................................
Production of American mills for year ending December 31, 1855 ...........
Decrease of importations from average of five yea rs....................................
Increase of domestic production on average of five years ..........................
Net decrease from annual average in 1855 .....................................................

127,517
135,300
101,210
35,300
65,910

The following table will show the rate of increase of the mileage of railroads
for 9 years past:—
No. of Miles.

1847 ...................
1848 ...................
1849 ...................
1850 ...................
1 8 6 1 ...................
1852 ................... ___
1853 ...................
1854 ...................
1855 ...................
Total...........

13,315
15,511

Annual increase.

932 7
1,254 •
1,506
2,0221
2,437
2,196 »
3,297
2,011 j

Average.

3,692

1,231

11,963

2,393

16,665

MANUFACTURE OF MALLEABLE IRON W ITH O U T FU E L.

A t the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, ■
held in Cheltenham, England, in August, 1856, H. Bessemer, of London, read a
paper on a new method of making malleable iron from pig iron, which deserves
the attention of our iron manufacturers, as the process is very original, is stated
to be perfectly successful, and destined to revolutionize the process of manufac­
turing malleable iron and steel. The following is the substance of his paper,
which we have condensed for the pages of the Merchants' Magazine:—
For the last two years his attention had been almost exclusively devoted to the
manufacture of malleable iron and steel, with but little progress, until within the
last nine months. The idea occurred to him, that if molten pig iron at a glowing
heat was run into a chamber and a blast driven through it, that the five per cent
of carbon in it would unite with the oxygen of the blast, producing in­




500

Journal o f Mining and Manufactures.

tense combustion, because carbon cannot exist at a white heat in contact with
oxygen.
lie therefore put up an apparatus capable of converting about 7 cwt. of crude
pig into malleable iron, and so successful was the result, that crude pig was ren­
dered into malleable iron in half an hour.
He then put up a cylindrical vessel 3 feet in diameter and 5 feet high, like an
ordinary cupola furnace, the interior of which he lined with fire brick. At
about two inches from the bottom are inserted five tuyre pipes, having nozzles of
fire clay. A t one side of this vessel, half way up, is a tap hole for running in the
crude molten pig iron from a common blast furnace, and on the opposite side is
another tap hole, to run out the metal when the process is completed. A blast
of air, of the pressure of 8 pounds to the square inch, is let into this cylinder a
few minutes before the crude iron is allowed to flow into it from the blast fur­
nace. The molten crude iron is then let in by its tap, and it soon begins to boil
and toss about with great violence. Flames and bright sparks then begin to is­
sue from the vessel's top ; the oxygen of the air from the blower combines with
the carbon in the metal, evolving a most intense heat, producing carbonic acid
gas, which escapes : the metal is deprived of its carbon without roasting by fuel,
as by the common mode, and thus it is rendered into malleable iron.
By this simple process, the heat generated is stated to be so intense that all
slag is thrown out in large forming masses, and all the sulphur is driven off, to­
gether with deteriorating earthy bases, so that the metal is completely refined—
more pure than any puddled iron. It is also stated, that one workman by this
process can convert five tons of crude pig into malleable iron in about thirty min­
utes. Its advantages are painted in such dazzling colors that we arc afraid to
rely upon them implicitly. If they are such as Mr. Bessemer has described, a
new era in the iron manufacture has dawned upon the world, and malleable iron
will soon be reduced to a price but a little above common pig.
We hail every improvement in the manufacture of iron, either to cheapen its
price or improve its quality, as of vast consequence to mankind, because it is the
principal material employed in the mechanic arts; it is the great material agent
of modern progress in physical science. Without it we would neither have
steam-engines, steamships, railroads, cotton or woolen manufactories; we would
be as deficient in machinery as our forefathers who lived in the age of bronze.
An immense amount of fuel is employed in the common process of rendering
pig iron malleable. It is roasted in a furnace by fire heat for a very long period,
until its carbon is made to unite with the oxygen, to which it is exposed, to form
carbonic acid, which is driven off. The new process accomplishes the same result
without the use of any fuel— the carbon in the metal being made the agent to de­
carbonize itself.
The heat produced by this process is also stated to be so great, that scrap iron
placed in a small chamber near its top is melted. By this process, steel of differ­
ent qualities, it is also stated, can be produced, by tapping the metal at different
stages of the process after it boils in the cylinder.
TH E SUGAR R E F IN E R IE S OF NEW YORE.

According to Mr. S tone, the well-informed statistical and commercial editor of
the Journal of Commerce, the sugar refining interest of New York has increased,
within a few years,, to a business of great magnitude, till the city is nearly encir­
cled by enormous refining establishments, easily recognized by their lofty walls
and chimneys, besides several others of consequence in the neighborhood of the
city. No longer ago than the year 1848 there were but two refineries in the city,
(Woclsey's and Stuart’s,) and now, notwithstanding the depression experienced
last season, when two or three houses ceased operations, there are ten refineries,
some of which cost from $500,000 to $800,000 or more, and two others will soon
be added. The machinery and apparatus employed in most of theso is of a very




501

Journal o f Mining and Manufactures.

complete description, affording every available facility for the purification of crude
sugars in the most expeditious and effectual manner. Modern invention con­
tributed largely for its improvement. The aggregate investment in this property
is very near $3,000,000, saying nothing of the enormous capital required to oper­
ate them. The aggregate number of men employed is about 1800. New York
now ranks foremost among the sugar markets of the world. In order to afford a
proper idea of the extent of the New York sugar refineries, we have taken pains
to collect some statistical facts relating to this subject. The following is a list of
these establishments, with an estimate of the quantity of sugar refined by them
each year, as nearly as can be ascertained by particular inquiry
Names.

Pounds.

Grocer’s S. S. Refining Company........................................
R. L. & A. Stuart...................................................................

40 a 42,000,000
40 a 42,000,000
27 a 28,000.000
N. Y. S. S. Refining Com pany............................................
B ooth * Edgar.......................................................................
1 1 a 12,000,000
Havemeyer * Moller.............................................................
12 a 12,500,000
10 a 11,000,000
Mollers, Shotwell * Doscher................................................
Greer, Turner <fc C o ...............................................................
12 a 12,600,000
Harris, Evans * C o..............................................................
1 1 a 12,000,000
E xcelsior.....................................................................................
6a7,000,000
*Ockerahausen & C o.................................................................
8a4,000,000
172 a 182,000,000

or say in round numbers, 190,000,000 pounds. The value of the quantity in ordi­
nary years would be about $15,000,000, but owing to the greatly enhanced cost
of sugar it might, this year, be estimated at $19,000,000 or $20,000,000. Last
year the quantity of sugar refined was excessive, so that a large surplus was thrown
on the market, and prices ruled ruinously low, leading to the temporary or perma­
nent suspension of several refineries. As one result, the quantity of sugar refined
this year will be something like 15,000,000 lbs. less than was manufactured last year,
and now the whole power of the refineries is taxed to keep up with the demand
for immediate consumption. In addition to the above, Mr. Havemeyer is prepar­
ing a refinery in Williamsburg, which will go into operation this year ; and Mr.
Brunges, with associates, contemplates erecting a refinery on West street, near
Canal.
The pre-eminence in this country, of New York, in the matter of sugar-sefining,
is shown by the following table, giving the number and production of refineries in
the United States last year :—
New York and vicinity, 12 refineries............................
Philadelphia
“
5
“
Eastern States
“
6
“
Baltimore
“
2
“
St. Louis
1
Cincinnati
t- .................................................................
New Orleans 1

200
83
43
21

a 205,000,000
a 84,000,000
a 44,000,000
a 22,000,000

28 a 30,000,000
375.a 385,000,000

In the centralization and establishment, at this point, of this enormous refining
business, is seen the result of successful competition with foreign labor and capital.




*

Exclusive o f molasses.

502

Journal o f Mining and Manufactures.

An important branch of industry has been transferred to this from other countries ;
and already the importation of foreign refined sugars has almost entirely ceased.
The diminution in the importation of refined sugars into the United States since
the year 1852 is made apparent by the following table :—

,--------- 1852.- - - - - - - - - - ,
Brown Sugar.............lbs. 450,312,693 $14,430,134
Clayed, white or powdered
6.461,540
239,032
Loaf and other refined.. . .
736,958
43,081
457,511,091

$14,712,847

,- - - - - - - - - - 1855.---------- ,
468,307,412
5.241,272
207,990

$14,418,887
241,669
12,091

473,756,674

$14,673,647

The smallness of the production of sugar in the United States, in comparison
with the enormous consumption, (which in this country is much greater per head
than in any other,) does not reflect favorably upon the improvement made of our
natural advantages for cultivation, notwithstanding, Cuba must always be the
great source of supply for the United States, as the cane grows almost spontane­
ously, and its cultivation can be indefinitely extended.
To show more particularly the magnitude of the business done by some of the
individual refiners, we make a few statements respecting Stuart’s establishment,
which is one of the largest; the value of the annual sales from this one concern
being in the neighborhood of $3,000,000, while the amount of raw sugar annually
worked up has not been less than 40,000,000 pounds for the last three or four
years. The number of men employed is upwards of 300 ; the annual consumption
of coal is from 7,000 to 8,000 tons, and the cost of the single item of bone char­
coal, required for refining, is about $30,000, or nearly as much as that of the fuel
consumed. The enormous quantity of 840,000 pounds of raw sugar is used every
week,—equal to 763 hogsheads of 1,100 lbs.— showing that one hogshead passes
through the refining process in about every 111 minutes, of the six working days.
The sugar is hoisted to the top of the building by steam power, requiring the con­
stant attendance of several men, when it is emptied into an immense copper, and
is very soon after converted into a fluid state, and conveyed hither and thither,
throughout the building, by means of pipes, tanks, &c., while undergoing various
processes of purification, and apparently in the same abundance that Croton water
is ordinarily supplied to manufacturing establishments. Another large concern is
the Grocer’s S. S. Refining Company, whose building is probably the most costly
establishment of its kind extant. Its construction involved an expenditure of not
less than $875,000.
Boston is another very large sugar market, and second only to New York in
the amount of its importations. Besides what is required there for retailing,
Boston has the most extensive distillation of rum in the United States. The usual
import, previous to last year, has been about 70,000 hogsheads of molasses ; and
of sugar 20,000 hogsheads, 80,000 boxes and 100,000 bags.
With the high natural advantages for the cultivation of the cane enjoyed in this
country, it is a matter of regret that our advance in this particular has not been
more decided, that the improvement of our resources might be in some degree
commensurate with our increasing demands. A failure of the crop in the United
States is invariably followed by an undue advance in Cuban sugars, advantage
being taken of our dependence, and the comparative monopoly enjoyed.




503

Statistics o f Agriculture, etc.

STATISTICS OF AGRICULTURE, &c.
TH E SUGAR CROPS OF LOUISIANA FOR TW ENTY-TW O YEARS,

The editors of the New Orleans, (La.) Price Current have compiled with their
usual care, from their own authentic and reliable records, the annexed statement
of the sugar product of Louisiana for the past twenty-two years, showing the
amount of each year’s crop in hogsheads and pounds, with the gross average value
per hogshead, and total; the proportions taken by Atlantic ports and Western
States, and the date of the first receipts of each crop. By this statement it will
be seen that the total product of Louisiana from 1834 to 1855, inclusive, a period
of twenty-two years, was 3,898,140 hogsheads, valued at $198,993,868, and that
of this quantity the Atlantic ports took 1,316,033 hogsheads, and the Western
States 1,934,521 hogsheads. The crops from 1828 (which is as far back as our
estimates extend,) to 1833, summed up 281,000 hogsheads; which would make the
total product in a period of twenty-six years 4,119,140 hogsheads, or 4,396,331,000
pounds. In an article on sugar, which we published in our columns in June last,
it is stated that the estimated product of Louisiana in 1815 was 10,000,000 pounds,
or about 10,000 hogsheads. In 1853, it will be seen by the statement belowq the
crop reached 449,324 hogsheads, estimated to weigh 495,156,000 pounds. We
would here remark that up to 1848 the product in hogsheads is estimated, and
1000 pounds taken as the average weight per hogshead, but for the crops since
that date we have taken the figures of Mr. P. A . Champomier, as we find them in
his annual statements :—TOTAL CEOP.

Years.
1 8 3 4 ......................
1 8 3 5 ...................... ____
1 8 3 6 ...................... _____
1 8 3 7 ...................... _____
1 8 3 8 ...................... ____
1 8 3 9 ...................... ____
1 8 4 0 ......................_____
1 8 4 1 ...................... _____
1 8 4 2 ...................... _____
1 8 4 3 ......................_____
1 84 4 ................... _____
1 8 4 5 ......................_____
1 8 4 6 ......................_____
1 8 4 7 ...................... _____
1 8 4 8 ...................... _____
1 8 4 9 ...................... _____
1 8 5 0 ...................... _____
1 8 5 1 ...............................
1 8 5 2 ......................_____
1 8 5 3 ......................
1 8 5 4 ......................
1 8 5 5 ......................

Total.......................




Hhds.

Pounds.

100,000

100,000,000

30,000
70,000
65,000
70,0 00
115,000
87,000
90,000
140,000
100,000
200,000
186,660
140,000
240,000
220,000
247,923
211,303
236,547
321,931

30,000,000
7 0,000,000
65,000,000
7 0,000,000
115,000,000
87,000,000
90,000,000
140,000,000
100,000,000
200,000,000
186,650,000
140,000,000
240,000,000
220,0 00,000
269,769,000
231,194,000
257,138,000
368,129,000
4 95 ,15 6 ,fOO
385,726,000
254,569,000

3,898,140

4,115,331,000

Av. price
per nhd.
$60
90
60
62
62
50
65
40
42
60
45
55
70
40
40
50

60
50
48
35
52

00
00
00
50
50
00
00
00
50
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00

70 00

Total
value.
$6,0 00 ,0 0 0
2 ,700,000
4 ,200,000
5,062,500
4 ,375,000
5,750,000
4,785,000
3,600,000
4,750,000
6,000,000
9,000,000
10,265,750
9,800,000
9,600,000
8,800,000
12,396,150
12,678,180
11,827,350
15,452,688
15,726,340
18,025,020
16,199,890

195,993,838

504
Tears.
1834 ____
1835 ____
1836 ____
1837 ____
1838 ____
1839 ____
1840 ____
1 8 4 1 ____
1842 ____
1843 ____
1844 ____
1845 ____

Statistics o f Agriculture, etc.
Exported to Exported to
First
Atlantic pts. West.States receipts
Hogsheads. Hogsheads. new crop.
45,500
1,500
26,300
24,500
26,500
42,600
38,500
28.000
63,000
34,000

101,000
79,000

44,500
23,500
35,000
32,500
32,500
58,000
46,500
50,000
60,000
52,000
70.000
75.000

O ct. 15.
N ov . 5.
N ov . 1.
N ov . 1.
O ct. 17.
O ct. 13.
O ct. 14.
O c t 13.
O ct. 12.
O ct. 22.
O ct. 3.
O ct. 4.

Tears.
1846 ____
1847 ____
1848 ____
1849 ____
1850 ____
1 8 5 1 ____
1852 ____
1853 ____
1854 ____
1855 ____

Exported to Exported to
First
Atlantic pts. West.States receipts
Hogsheads. Hogsheads, new crop.
45,500
84,000
90,000
90,000
45,000
42,000
82,000
166,000
39,133

70,000
115,000
108,000
125,000
123,000
149,000
206,000
185,000
143,000
131,027

1,316,033

1,934,527

122,000

O ct.
O ct.
O ct.
O ct.
Oct.
Oct.
O ct.
O ct.
Oct.
O ct.

7.
2.
5.
11.
17.
19.
9.
6.
4.
10.

“ The coining crop will doubtless be the shortest, in proportion to the extent of
ground cultivated, that has occurred since 1835, when the yield was estimated at
30.000 hogsheads. There has been a gradual changing, for some years past, from
the sugar culture to that of cotton, for we find by Mr. Champomier’s statements
that while in 1852 there were 1481 sugar houses, in 1855 the number had been
reduced to 1299, showing a decrease in three years of 182. We also know that
there has been a further material decrease this year, but the great falling off in the
crop is referable to the damage from the remarkable continuance of cold and wet
weather during the past winter, by which the rattoons or stubbles were almost
entirely destroyed, as well as much of the plant cane, before or after planting.
Under these circumstances some planters ploughed up their fields and planted corn
or cotton, or both, and will have no cane. Others will perhaps make enough to
replant for another crop, while some having light soil or well-drained lands, and
having been favored by seasonable showers, may approach a fair average. These
will have an excess of cane beyond their requirements for replanting, but whether
they will sell from their excess to those wanting plants, instead of making sugar,
and to what extent, we have no means of estimating. A t all events the crop
must be a short one—doubtless the shortest since 1843—as the extreme estimate
named is 125,000 hogsheads, while some mark as low as 80,000 hogsheads, an
amount altogether insufficient for the requirements of the West alone, and calling
for an unusually large import of foreign sugars. In accounting for the decline in
the production for years past, it is probable that it may be in some degree (possi­
bly a very important one) attributable to the deterioration of the plant from the
partial exhaustion of the peculiar qualities of the soil necessary for its sustenance.
Should this be the case, it would be well for planters to supply the deficiency by
the application of the proper manures.”
According to a statement annually made up by the New Tork Shipping and
Commercial List, the total import of foreign sugar into the United States for the
year ended December 31st, 1855, was 205,064 tons (equal to 382,786 hogsheads
of 1200 pounds each) against 165,925 tons, or 309,726 hogsheads in 1854 ; and
the quantity of this description taken for consumption in 1855 was 194,052
tons, against 150,854 tons in 1854, or an increase of about 28f per cent.
The total consumption of both foreign and domestic cane sugar in 1855 was
379,197 tons, against 385,298 tons in 1854, or a decrease in the total consumption
of nearly I f per cent. Besides the above, it is estimated that there entered into
the consumption about 11,160 tons of sugar made from foreign and domestic
molasses and about 14,500 of maple sugar, which, with the consumption of Cali­
fornia and Oregon, estimated at about 5,500 tons, -would give a grand total for
the consumption of the United States in the year 1855 of 410,357 tons, against
415.000 tons in 1854. This amount is equal to 766,000 hogsheads of 1200 pounds
each.




505

Statistics o f Agriculture, etc.
CONSUMPTION OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS IN NEW YORK.

The annexed list exhibits the number of beeves, cows, sheep and lambs, calves
and hogs consumed in the city of New York and its environs, for each month in
the year ending April 30th, 1856, with the aggregate amounts for the entire
year:—
Beeves.

May, 1 85 5 ............
J u n e.....................
J u ly .....................
A u g .....................
S e p t.....................
Oct.........................
N ov.......................
D ec.......................
J a n . ,1 8 5 6 ............
Feb.......................
March...................
April.....................
Total.............

12,321
10,929
20,621
25,114

15,313
13,654

184,826

Milch Cows.

Sheep and Lambs.

Veals.

Swine.

1,450
820
. 724
1,617
1,532
1,065
813
613
698
929
1,132
821

21,821
42,012
49,971
81,855
67,555
81,882
62,624
45,657
40,578
22,746
17,402
9,342

10,452
5,540
3.664
4,083
3,195
2,709
2,240
1,644
1,906
1,540
2,151
2,820

23,347
12,826
16,889
8,349
20,679
17,036
36,715
44,088
4 9 ,1 6 5
26,745
13,187
12,025

12,014

543,445

41,844

281,051

STATISTICS OF TH E DAIRY— BU TTER AND CHEESE.

The exports of domestic butter and cheese from the United States are on a
much larger scale than many perhaps are aware of. During the fiscal year of
1855, the shipments of butter amounted to 2,315,249 lbs., valued at ©418,723;
and of cheese, 3,846,568 lbs., valued at ©514,034. Of the butter, the largest
proportion, 461,015 lbs., was sent to the British West Indies. To England there
were exported 3,343,900 lbs of cheese-—more than three-fourths of the entire ship­
ment. Nearly 50,000 lbs. of butter were sent to China, and about 234,000 lbs.
to Australia. Strange as it may seem, during the same fiscal year 879,000 lbs.
of butter were imported into the United States from British North America,
Hamburg, Bremen, Holland, England and France, for home consumption. Be­
sides this, 605,211 lbs. were imported for exportation. The imports of foreign
cheese were on a more extensive scale, the total amount being 1,526,942 lbs.,
valued at ©146,269. The Germans sent us 157,166 lbs. of their fragrant Limburger and other varieties, and the Dutch 220,021 lbs. France sent us the lar­
gest supply, viz., 1,002,146 lbs.
WHAT IT COSTS GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND FOR MILK.

Estimates have been made of the quantity of milk used in the United King­
dom which may well astonish by their vastness, amounting in some cases to 1,150
million quarts annually. Assuming that milch cows yield seven quarts as a daily
average, and that the retail price is six cents per quart, 150,000 cows would be
required to meet the demand, and the retail value would amount to the enormous
sum of ©70,000 per annum. The dairy cows of London yield a larger quantity
of milk than the abovementioned average—at least nine quarts daily—and the
number is about 24,000 ; it follows that the quantity of milk consumed is about
eighty millions of quarts annually, which will amount in value to about eight mil­
lions of dollars. The railways, it appears, are every year bringing more and




506

Statistics o f Agriculture, etc.

more milk to London. This milk is disposed of to the wholesale dealers at 10 to
14 cents per gallon ; they dispose of it to retailers at 14 to 18 cents, who sell it
in their turn at 6 to 8 cents per quart.
AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS OF VAN D IE M E N 'S LAND.

In compliance with a wish expressed by the Royal Society of Van Diemen’s
Land, the government have permitted the following agricultural statistics to be
printed. On the 1st of December, 1854, there were under cultivation in grain,
grasses, and vegetables, 127,732 acres—showing an increase over 1853 of 11,286
acres. The following amounts of produce were on hand on the 31st of Decem­
ber, 1855, and 31st of December, 1854, respectively :—
December, 1854.

W h ea t...............................................bushels
B a ile y .............................................................
Oats.................................................................
Peas......................
Beans...............................................................
T a res..............................................................
Potatoes..................................................tons
H a y .................................................................

1,078,099
125,835
525,647
6,665
653
1,467
23,256
18,886

December, 1853.

716,723
106,263
497,162
6,715
1,005
1,972
16,990
11,122

The import of grain in 1854 was valued at £21,656, of which £10,000 was
in oats from England. The export of grain was valued at £96,785 ; the import
of flour in 1854 was valued at £19,850 ; the export of flour in 1854 was valued
at £147,321.
W IN E CROP OF FRANCE AND GERMANY.

A correspondent of the London Times, who has traversed all the wine growing
districts of France and Germany, says that the vine disease has spared the vine­
yards this year, but the vintage, owing to the unfavorable season, will be very
small. In the graperies surrounding Bordeaux, the disease has been very severe
for two or three years, and consequently there is but little fine wine, and the
prices of all the common descriptions have risen enormously. But the vine itself
is regaining its natural health. From Bordeaux to Toulouse is one continuation
of hills and plains of healthy-looking vines, less and less cared for as the distance
from the former town and of carriage increase. After leaving Toulouse we come
into the great wine districts, which possess a climate and soil nowhere in the
world surpassed. The disease has been very violent, and stocks were never so
low or prices so high, and this year will be little if any better ; but all anxiety as
to the decay of the vine itself has vanished.
TH E W HEAT CROP OF FRANCE.

The annual crop of wheat in France is estimated at 198,000,000 bushels, which
leaves a surplus, after supplying the home market, of five or six million bushels for
export. Last year the crop in France was so short that no French wheat was
exported, but on the contrary, several million bushels were imported. This year
the crop is again estimated to be from 14 to 28 million bushels short.




Railroad, Canal, and Steambat Statistics.

507

RAILROAD, CANAL, AND STEAMBOAT STATISTICS.
IN TERN AL NAVIGATION.
T o F reeman H unt ,

Editor of the Merchants' Magazine:— '

S ir :— Maine has her Portland, Massachusetts her Boston, New York State
her Metropolitan City, Pennsylvania her Philadelphia, Ohio her Cincinnati, Mich­
igan her Detroit, Illinois her Chicago, and Wisconsin her Milwaukie. These are
rich and powerful States, and the political influence of each is directed to the ag­
grandizement of its favorite city. Indiana is one of the richest of the Western
States, but, in consequence of her inland position, she has no metropolitan city.
Now, if Toledo and the five counties lying between the Maumee Itiver and the
Michigan State line were separated from Ohio and attached to Indiana, the lat­
ter State would then have a position for a metropolis, which it would be her in­
terest and inclination to build up. The effects that would probably spring from
such a connection would be—

1st. A transfer of the northern division of the Miami Canal to Indiana.
2d. A sale of the company’s interest in the Wabash Canal back to the State
of Indiana.
3d. An enlargement of the locks and deepening of the canal, when necessary,
so as to admit large class boats.
4th. A completion of the Central or White River Canal.
5th. The construction of a branch of the Wabash Canal across Illinois to St.
Louis.
6th. The opening and construction of good State roads through the flat lands
of Northern Indiana.
7th. The location of the State’s financial and public works agencies in the city
of Toledo.
First. Regarding the proposition to alienate a branch of the public works and
a small portion of the territory of Ohio, it would be necessary to encounter the
selfishness of the State. This State selfishness was at first the miserly guardian
that stretched its withering protection over the territory of Toledo. Without,
however, at present entering into a discussion of the merits of a question which
was once settled by an arbitration of the general government, it may be proper
to consider whether, when a State selfishness is opposed to a sectional interest
which embraces important national considerations or policy, an intervention of
the general government may not be properly employed for the settlement of such
controversies.
Second. The transfer of the Wabash Company’s interests back to the State
would probably be so mutually advantageous as to create little or no difficulty.
Third. The enlargement of the Wabash Canal is a work in which the State of
Indiana could profitably engage, and she is abundantly able to do it. The en­
largement of the canal to a capacity for boats of 125 tons, would reduce the cost
of transportation nearly one-half, and bring into profitable employment the whole
canal, so that the produce of Southwestern Indiana, Southeastern Illinois, and
Kentucky could be sent to the Lake; and if, instead of this, it could be enlarged




508

Railroad, Canal, and Steamboat Statistics.

to a capacity, say for boats of 200 tons, with drawbridges for masted vessels, it
would open an internal navigation through which the tonnage of the lakes could
pass, in the fall and spring, to find profitable winter employment in the Gulf of
Mexico—thus turning to profitable use an immense capital that now lies idle
during nearly half the year.
Fourth. The Central Canal, passing through Indianapolis, could be connected
with the Wabash Canal, and finished to the navigable waters of White Eiver, or
to a termini at New Albany. This, on the same enlarged plan, would extend the
lake navigation to the foot of the falls of the Ohio, and open a large trade be­
tween Toledo and Louisville.
Fifth. The construction of a branch of the Wabash Canal across Illinois to
Alton or St. Louis, would take the trade of the Mississippi at that point—
bringing the sugar and molasses of Louisiana, the cotton of Mississippi, the lead,
iron, and tobacco of Missouri, and the corn and coal of Central Illinois to the
lake.
Sixth. The city of Toledo being included in Indiana, would attract the atten­
tion of the people of that State to a capable lake harbor within their own borders,
and influence a large amount of trade that now seeks other directions. The State
would be interested in constructing good State roads through the low and level
lands of the northern part of the State to Toledo, and these would induce the set­
tlement of largo quantities of land there, that otherwise must lay a long time
unimproved.
Seventh. The location of State business in the new city would create a finan­
cial interest there that would rapidly develop it as one of the financial centers of
the country. The advantages accruing to the general interests of the country, by
the construction of these works, would be very great; and it is not now, as
formerly, when large enterprises were undertaken only to draw their managers
into difficulties and disappointments. The financial condition of the country is
such now as to authorize the projection of any work which promises general
utility and profitableness. The construction of these works would open an inter­
nal navigation unequaled, and make the country the first maritime power in the
world. Ship-building could be carried into the regions of the far West, and this
canal system would be constantly sending to the seaboard a class of persons that
would rapidly become good American seamen ; thus the foreign trade would be
essentially benefited, and when trade was brisk in one quarter and dull in another,
vessel property could be easily transferred.
T. G. MILLER, Toledo, Ohio.

MAGNETIC TELEGRAPHS ON RAILROADS.

The experience of the last year or two ought to lead every State Legislature to
require that every railroad should set up and use constantly its own telegraph,
connecting every station on the route, and all with the office of the superinten­
dent.' With reasonable care, collisions would then be impossible. Some roads
have proved this.
The Erie Railroad has such a wire, and a thorough system of communication.
The arrival of every train at each station is instantly reported ; and if behind
time, whoever is responsible for it must give his reasons, which are sent to head­
quarters instantly, or he will be dismissed. This capital system was put in ope­




Railroad, Canal, and Steamboat Statistics.

509

ration by that model officer, Mr. McCallum, and is worthy of being copied every­
where.
The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad also has a wire of its own, and a system, the
details of which we are not familiar with, but which, no doubt, are very judi­
cious. Travelers ought to show a preference for these roads and others that
adopt some such modes of securing the lives and safety of passengers, and all
roads neglecting them, after a reasonable time, should be avoided. It is the lack
of any such encouragement to special care, on the part of travelers, that permits
the laxity of system and the careless observance of general orders, which result
in so many collisions, and such frightful loss of life and limb as are constantly re­
ported in our journals.
JO B S FITCH TH E IN V ESTO R OF TH E FIR S T STEAMBOAT.

In Judge Hall’s “ Notes on the Western States,” is the following interesting
account of John Fitch, who, in his endeavors to solve the great problem of steam
navigation, long preceded Fulton, who reaped not only fame but wealth from his
labors:—•
In 1785, John Fitch, a watchmaker in Philadelphia, conceived the design of
propelling a boat by steam. He was both poor and illiterate, and many difficul­
ties occurred to frustrate every attempt which he made to try the practicability
of his invention. He applied to Congress for assistance, but was refused ; and
then offered his invention to the Spanish government, to be used in the navigation
of the Mississippi, but without any better success. A t length a company was
formed, and funds subscribed for the building of a steamboat, and in the year 1788
his vessel was launched on the Delaware. Many crowded to see and ridicule the
novel, and, as they supposed, the chimerical experiment. It seemed that the idea
of wheels had not occurred to Mr. Fitch ; but instead of them, oars were used,
which worked in frames. He was confident of success, and when the boat was
ready for the trial, she started off in good style for Burlington. Those who had
sueered began to stare, and those who had smiled in derision, looked grave. Away
went the boat, and the happy inventor triumphed over the skepticism of an un­
believing public. The boat performed her trip to Burlington, a distance of
twenty miles, but unfortunately burst her boiler in rounding to the wharf at that
place, and the next tide floated her back to the city. Fitch persevered, and with
great difficulty procured another boiler. After some time, the boat performed
another trip to Burlington and Trenton, and returned in the same day. She is
said to have moved at the rate of eight miles an hour; but something was con­
tinually breaking, and the unhappy projector only conquered one difficulty to
encounter another. Perhaps this was not owing to any defect in his plaus, but
the low state of the arts at that time, and the difficulty of getting such complex
machinery make with proper exactness. Fitch became embarrassed with debt,
and was obliged to abandon the invention, after having satisfied himself of its
practicability. This ingenious man, who was probably the first inventor of the
steamboat, wrote three volumes, which he deposited in manuscript, sealed up, in
the Philadelphia library, to be opened thirty years after his death. When or why
he came to the West we have not learned ; but it is recorded of him, that he died
and was buried uear the Ohio. His three volumes were opeued, and were found
to contain his speculations on mechanics. He details his embarrassments and
disappointments with a feeling which shows how ardently he desired success, and
which wins for him the sympathy of those who have heart enough to mourn over
the blighted prospects of genius. He confidently predicts the future success of
the plan which, in his hands, failed only for the want of pecuniary means. Ho
prophesies that in less than a century wo shall see our Western rivers swarming
with steamboats; and expresses a wish to be buried on the shores of the Ohio,
where the song of the boatmen may enliven the stillness of his resting-place, and




510

Railroad, Canal, and Steamboat Statistics.

the music of the steam-engine sooth his spirit. What an idea! Yet how natural
to the mind of an ardent projector, whose whole life had been devoted to one
darling object, which it was not his destiny to accomplish! And how touching is
the sentiment found in one of his journals :—“ The day will come when some more
powerful man will get fame and riches from my invention, but nobody will believe
that poor John Fitch can do anything worthy of attention.”

RAILROAD STATISTICS OF TH E UNITED STATES.

The Secretary of the Treasury has prepared the annexed set of “ interrogato­
ries,” which are to be addressed to “ Presidents of Railroad Companies,” with a
view to the compilation of railroad statistics of the United States :—
1. What is the corporate name of your
company ?
2. Wbat is the date o f its charter 2
3. When was it commenced *
4. When completed ? or if not completed,
when is it expected to be completed ?
5. What are the termini of the main road,
and what of the branches 2
6. What is the length of the main road,
and what of the branches 2
7. What is the length of the double track,
if any ?
8. What was the cost of the road all com­
plete ? or the estimated cost if not com­
pleted 2
9. What is the capital stock paid in 2
10. What is the amount of bonds is­
sued 2
11. What is the amount of floating debt 2
12. What is the aggregate amount of
debt 2
13. What are the annual receipts?
14. What is the amount of operating ex­
penses, including repairs 2
15. What is the annual rate and amount
o f interest paid 2
16. What are the net annual profits 2
17. What are the dividends 2

18. What number of miles is run by pas­
senger trains per year 2
19. What number of miles is run by freight
trains per year?
20. What i3 the number of through pas­
sengers for the year ?
21. What is the number o f way passen­
gers for the year 2
22. What is the number of tons of through
freight tor the year 2
23. What is the number of tons o f way
freight for the year 2
24. What is the mileage of the passengers
carried during the year, or the equiva­
lent number of passengers carried one
mile 2
25. What is the mileage of the tons of
freight carried during the year, or the
equivalent number of tons of freight
carried one mile 2
26. What is the average speed o f passen­
ger trains 2
27. What is the average speed of freight
trains 2
28. What number o f casualties for the
year were fatal 2
29. What number of casualties for the
year were not fatal ?

The Secretary requests that the answers to these interrogatories may be given
from the last annual report of each company, with the date of the report, that
they may be inserted in the blank left opposite to each interrogatory ; and that
the interrogatories so answered may be returned to the department at the earliest
period practicable. When the compilation is completed and printed, it is the in­
tention of the Secretary to send a copy to each president, partly to requite the
favor solicited, and partly to disseminate the information collected and com­
bined.
T H E STEAMBOAT F E R R IE S OF NEW YORK.

The corporation of the city of New York controls most of the ferries, and it
has been the custom of that corporation to sell leases of the several ferries for a
period of ten years. By the charter of 1853 all the ferry grants are required to
be disposed of at public auction for a term not exceeding ten years. We give




,

,

Railroad Canal and Steamboat Statistics.

511

below a list of the different ferries connecting New York with its various suburbs,
and the amount of annual revenue they severally yield to the city treasury :—
•

When
leased.

Hurlgate F erry..............................................................
Tbirty-fourtli-street.........................................................
Twenty-third-street.........................................................
Houston-street.................................................................
Peck-slip Co., (three ferries)........................................
Catherine-street to South Tenth-street, Wil’msburgh
Roosevelt-street.............................................................
Catherine.........................................................................
Wall-street ....................................................................
Hamiltou-avenue, South, and Fulton-street................
Staten Island..................................................................
Courtlandt-street.............................................................
Barclay-street.......................................
■ Canal-street................................. . . . . ..........................
Christopher-street...........................................................
Spring-street and Fort L e e ..........................................
Chambers-street and Erie R ailroad...........................
Forty-second-street to W eehaw ken............................

1855
1856
1850
1853
1849
1853
1852
1853
1852
1851
1865
1856
1855
1850
1852
....
1854
1856

Time.
Years.

10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10

Annual
rental

$1,150
300
250
6,500
9,000
3,000
3,000
16,000
5,000
35,000
5,100
5,500
100
600
350
1,250
9,050
50

T o t a l .............................................................................................................................................

1 1 0 1 ,2 0 0

DIVIDENDS PAID BY RAILROADS IS MASSACHUSETTS.

The annexed statement exhibits the percentage of dividends paid by seventeen
railroads of Massachusetts during the last five years, and the total cost of said
roads at the beginning of each year
•DIVIDENDS,

Railroads.
B o s t o n a n d P r o v i d e n c e ......................
B o s t o n a n d W o r c e s t e r .......................
B o s t o n a n d L o w e l l ....................................
T a u n t o n B r a n c h .....................................
N a s h u a a n d L o w e l l ..............................
N o r w ic h a n d W o r c e s t e r .........................
N . B e d fo rd a n d T a u n to n . . . . . . . .
W e s t e r n ......................................................
E a s t e r n ................... ....................................
B o s t o n a n d M a i n e .................................
F i t c h b u r g ....................................................
O ld C o lo n y a n d F a l l R iv e r
C o n n e c tic u t R i v e r .................
P r o v id e n c e a n d W o r c e s t e r .
C a p e C o d B r a n c h ...................................
W o r c e s t e r a n d N a s h u a .....................
L o w e l l a n d L a w r e n c e ........................

1851.

1851

1853.

Per ct.

Per ct.

Per ct.

6
7

51
7
6
8
8
4
7

6
7
8

8
4

8
§
8
5 .)
8

n

s

8
9

a
8
71
71
7
6
5
3

41
4•

21
41
4

• Cost.
1851
1852
1853

.................................
$ 4 4 ,3 1 3 ,3 0 0
1 8 5 4 ..
......................................
4 3 ,7 3 1 ,4 0 0 1 8 5 5 . .
......................................
4 3 ,7 5 7 ,7 0 0

61
6

71
6

' 1854.

Per ct.

1855.'

Per ct.

61

7
6
8
8
6
7
7
7
8
6
3

4
6
6 2 -3

41
7
8

41
6

41
6

6
3
8
6
21
6
7
7
6
5
3

Average
last 5
years.
4
6
6
8
7
4
7
7
5
7
5

8 -1 0
8 10
1 -1 0
8 -1 0
2 -1 0
2 -1 0
2 -1 0
7 -1 0
2 -1 0

....
3
3

7 -1 0
8 -1 0

3

....

2
4

3 1 9 -2 0
4 8 -1 0

Cost.
6 4 4 ,7 3 5 ,6 0 0
4 6 ,7 6 1 ,4 0 0

The Old Colony and Fall Kiver railroads were consolidated into one corpora­
tion in 1854. The Norwich and Worcester dividends are paid on preferred stock.
The surplus earnings of some of the roads have been carried from income account
to the reduction of the construction account. Four per cent of the earnings di­




Statistics of Population, etc.

512

vided by the Eastern Road in 1854, was in East Boston Ferry stock. The divi­
dend of three per cent declared by the Cape Cod Branch Railroad Company in
1855, was made payable in stock.
January 1, 1851, the seventeen roads named, cost 844,313,300; January 1,
1856, $ 4 7 ,5 7 0 ,5 0 0 —increase, $3,266,200. The net earnings of these roads in
1850 were $2,997,300 ; in 1855, $3,035,800—increase, $38,500.

STATISTICS OF POPULATION, &c.
GROWTH OF TH E CITIES OF TH E LAKES.
[FROM THE CINCINNATI G AZETTE.]

Chicago leads the procession, having passed Buffalo the present year. Cleveland and Detroit are
to follow next, to be succeeded by Toledo, which will certainly pass these, and be only second to
Chicago, if indeed she becomes not a successful rival of that city in the long race for supremacy.—
Hunt's Merchants' Magazine.

Cincinnati can afford to look on with pleasure at the rapid growth of her sister
cities on the Lakes. The increase of Cincinnati, in 1856, will be quite equal to
one-fifth the magnitude of the largest city on the Lakes. Never in her whole
history has her physical and commercial prosperity been greater than it is now.
She can therefore not only afford to look with pleasure on the growth of her sister
cities, but she can see in that growth sources of future profit. Soon direct lines
of railroad will connect us with Chicago, Detroit and Toledo, as they now do with
Sandusky, Cleveland and Buffalo. W e say direct, because we already have very
good communications with them. These connections have already added greatly
to the commerce of the city, and when they become more direct, and when (as
under the new grants of government land must be the case) we shall have a direct
line of railroad through Central Michigan to Mackinaw, to Green Bay, and
through to the Copper Mines, to St. Paul’s and the far North West, we shall
bring the basin of the Lakes within our grasp ; and as at certain seasons the
Southern markets are the only available ones in the West, we shall compete with
New York for the trade of that region. Nay more, when (as will also shortly be
the case,) by means of railroads, Charleston and Pensacola will be out-ports of
Cincinnati, here will be the central point of commerce for the trade of the whole
interior. All connections from the Lakes to the Gulf will be hero radiant and
concentrating. Hence we say, we turn to the growth of the Lake cities without
jealousy, and contemplate without alarm the growth of that portion of our country.
Mr. J. W . Scott, who wrote the article for Hunts Magazine, is entirely right
in one proposition, which the writer of this has maintained for thirty years, that
in the interior of the country its greatest cities must arise. This accords with
commercial and historical experience. The largest will arise in the valleys of such
mighty streams as the Missouri, the Ohio, and the Mississippi; modified of course
by the climate, health and institutions of the locality.
The Lake basin is the next largest continuous area, and will therefore have the
largest secondary cities. The growth of the towns on the Lakes correspond very
well with this general principle. Thirty years ago Buffalo was all the rage;
speculation was rife, and Buffalo was to be one of the largest places on the conti­
nent. It did grow for twenty years with great rapidity, and then fell into a slower
but more healthy progress. Then came Cleveland, and its growth in the last
fifteen years has been very great. In the westward course of these Lake towns,
Toledo, which should have been the next to receive the impulse, was, for special
local difficulties (now removed,) passed by, and for five or six years Chicago has
been the city for Western adventurers in town lots, and for the last ten years its
growth has been more rapid than either of its lake sisters, although well known
as an early French port, it could not grow till the country around it grew. In
1834 the first warehouse lots were sold in Chicago, and it now has a population
of 80,000. This is certaiuly a surprising movement.




Statistics o f Population, etc.

513

Let us now view the growth of the Lake cities,— taken together, in their prog­
ress and their comparison with the cities of the river. We give a table for the
past fifteen years :—

1840.

1850.

1855.

C-l
QOt>l

Buffalo . . . .
18,213 42,260
65,000 Detroit...........
Cleveland . .
6,071
17,034
55,000 Chicago..........
Sandusky__
10,000 Milwaukee. . .
5,088
3,819
Toledo..........
15,000
Aggregate.....................................................................

1840.

1859.

9,192
4,47 0
1,740

21,019
29,983
21,461

40,000
80,000
40,000

42,292 170,644

305,000

1855.

The population of the chief towns of the Ohio Valley—Pittsburg, Wheeling,
Cincinnati, Louisville and Evansville, and their immediate suburbs, amounts in
the aggregate, at the present time, to about 430,000, or 4 per cent in advance of
the lake cities. This is exclusive of St. Louis and all other river towns, not in
the Ohio Valley alone.
From a view of the relative growth of the above towns, and the new internal
communications which are in progress, it is quite obvious that Toledo at the west
end of Lake Erie, and some point on Lake Superior, are to be the coming cities
of the next few years—in the basin of the Lakes. Toledo has been kept back by
extraorijinary difficulties, but has great intrinsic advantages. So the great inland
sea—Lake Superior—as settlements progress around its shores, must have a city,
a greater oue, probably, than either in the above table. Its facilities as a manu­
facturing town must be great, and that is the great sheet-anchor of city strength.
There are some facts connected with Lake cities which should be taken into
view before it is hastily concluded that they will be opening cities—an event not
likely to happen. One of these is, that they have heretofore been on a prolonga­
tion of the Hudson River and the Erie canal; in other words, on a line which hold
a monopoly of Western transportation. Hereafter, this will not be the case. The
relative amount of Western produce arriving at Buffalo is diminishing, while the
vast amount of shipment on the Pennsylvania and Baltimore Railroad prove con­
clusively that commerce is resuming its natural channels—channels which nothing
has been able long to change. The increase of business on the Pennsylvania
Railroad is without a parallel anywhere.
While this is true, however, these great interior routes will not disturb the
natural commerce of the Lake board, which is simply that which its own products
and business creates. This is enough to make cities secondary only to those of
the Great Valley. Buffalo, at the debouchment of the upper Lakes, above the
Falls, must ever be an important place. Toledo, at the upper outlet of the
Wabash Valley, and the lower side of a peninsula, will rapidly grow; Chicago
will still increase ; and in the far north-west, on the bays of Lake Superior, will
arise some town of towering magnitude. On such cities, distant as they are from
one another on the bosom of our broad Republic, the cities of the valley, favored
with all the advantages of soil, climate and commerce, can afford to look and
admire, regarding them only as the evidences of a common prosperity.
IMMIGRATION INTO TH E UNITED STATES.

The number of persons arriving in the United States for the year 1855 was
230,476 ; of whom 200,877 were aliens, being less than half the average arrivals
in the previous four years. Under the usual estimates of $100 per head, brought
into the country by these people, says the New York Economist, the result would
be a falling off of $20,000,000 in the receipts into the country. It is remarkable
that the proportion of females is always about 70 per cent of the males who ar­
rive in the country, and this average holds good for a number of years. In the
last thirteen years, 1,805,055 males have arrived, and 1,195,755 females—making
3,404,871 souls. The sexes of the immigrants under 15 years of age seem to be
nearly equally divided, but above that, the males greatly preponderate, as follows,
for 1852 :—
VOL. XXXV.---- NO. IT.
33




Mercantile Miscellanies.

514

Males.

Females.

Total.

Excess
Males,

Per
cent.

15 and u nder..................................
15 to 20 ..........................................
20 and upwards.............................

27,822
20,008
92,851

25,728
17,302
47,268

63,015
37,310
140,109

1,609
2,706
46,593

6
16
98

Total........................................

140,181

90,283

230,464

49,898

56

The greatest preponderance is between the ages of 25 and 35, in which the
males are three times the number of females. Those under 15 are, of course, the
children of immigrants, and exhibit the usual equality of births. The age of 25
to 35 is with males the season of enterprise, and they are impelled in greater pro­
portion to migrate than the females, whom circumstances to a greater extent keep
at home. That is certainly the class which would be most affected by the war
drafts for men, but if that influence was very great upon the number of immi­
grants, it ought to show itself in a diminished proportion of males to females. In
1855 the proportion was as follows
1851.................................................
1853
......................................
1854
......................................
1855
......................................

Males.

Females.

Excess
Males.

246,017
236,896
284,887
140,181

163,735
164,181
175,587
90,287

81,282
72,715
109,300
50,894

Per
cent

50
44
60
55

It would seem from this table, that if the war had any effect, it was to urge
migration, to escape conscription upon the continent. Probably, however, the
chief reason for the decline in immigration to this country wras the revulsion in
railroads, which threw great numbers out of employment at a time of rise in food,
by which means not only the incentive to come here, but the means of coming,
were cut off, since a large portion of the earnings of at least the Irish, have been
devoted to the transportation of their relations ; and dear food has cut off earn­
ings and filled the city tenant-houses with paupers.

MERCANTILE MISCELLANIES.
THE « SACRED TRADESMAN.’'
“ A tradesman is in the eyes of juries a sacred character, not to be mentioned without awe and
self-restraint.” — T h e G lobe.
Spare him, while you see him pumping
Rightly judged the impaneled blades, man,
Water on the milk he sells;
Yenging well the unflogged snip,
Spare him, while his thumb is jumping
Sacred be the British tradesman,
Back its inches in your ells;
Sacred from the ribald quip.
Spare him, while he tips the flunkey
Is it fit for you to flout him,
That the rich man he may cheat;
That unmatched commercial saint?
Spare him, while he “ rides the monkey”
You should never speak about him
That devours the poor man’s meat.
Without awe and self-restraint!
White his nature, safe from soiling
As the alum in his loaves;
Green his soul, as coppers boiling
With his pickles in yon stoves.
Sacred hold his weekly dealings
Who on Sabbath holds the plates,
Spare his fine parochial feelings,
Kate not one who pays his rates.

Bless the slop-shop’s Jew parader—
(Hang the starving stitcher's grief;)
Honor the marine-store trader,
Trainer of the infant thief;
Bless yon salesman's rotten tables,
And his sofas stuffed with hay;
Bless yon goldsmith's graver fables,
“ Not Mosaic,” did he say.

Speak with awe of one who mixes
Divers poisons with his beer;
Speak with awe of one who tricks his
Customers with solemn leer;
Speak with awe of one who tells you
“ On his honor you'll be pleased;"
Speak with awe of one who sells you
Tainted meat, until it's seized.

Yes, we’re full of awe, and so forth,
Self-restraining, void of plaint;
But one little truth should go forth
Touching that same self-restraint.
Though the British tradesman gaily
Goes on puffing, smirking, lying—
Folks, oft bit, are learning daily
To restrain themselves—from buying.




—The

Press.

Mercantile Miscellanies.

515

COMMERCIAL LITERA TU R E.
LETTER

FROM

GEORGE

F R A N C IS

T R A IN .

[FROM TIIE N EW YORK EVENING MIRROR.]

The writer of the following letter, George Francis Train, is a young merchant
of great promise. Indeed he has already made his mark in the commercial world.
In the brief space of two years as a commission merchant at Melbourne, Australia,
he has been eminently successful, and accumulated a fortune sufficient to retire
upon ; but his active, energetic mind will not permit him to do so. Although of
an ardent, sanguine, enthusiastic temperament, he possesses all the characteristics
of a thorough merchant. He has, moreover, accumulated, in the legitimate occu­
pation of the commission merchant, a fortune—avoiding every thing like specular
tion in trade. He sailed in August last for Liverpool, where, we believe, he
intends establishing a mercantile house. His house in Melbourne is still in the
full tide of successful experiment.
S e v e r e H ou se, B o sto n ,

To

June 22,1856.

F r e e m a n H u n t :—

M y D e a r S i r ,—Thank you for the two books which you were pleased to send
and I to receive. It ivas thoughtful of you, and I appreciate the kindness as I
value your friendship. I have been so long a roamer in distant seas and foreign
lands, I was not aware that your active mind had given to the world two such
valuable additions to its “ commercial literature.” I therefore lose no time in
acknowledging my obligations for the present, and in congratulating you upon
these new-born children of your never-tiring industry. Many young Americans like
myself have grown up with your magazine from youth to manhood, and we are glad
to own our indebtedness for the sterling lessons which you have inculcated— for the
good advice you have given us in your monthly history of the world. You have
never hesitated to rap us over the knuckles when admonition was necessary ; while
you have patted us on the shoulder when we have deserved your praise. It may
be pleasant for you to know that the Merchants’ Magazine is as much of an autho­
rity in the Eastern world as in my own land ; for, having been in most of the ports
of the Eastern hemisphere. I speak with knowledge when I say that, from Mel­
bourne to Manhattan, from Java to Jerusalem, it is known and appreciated. And
now I welcome most cordially your “ Wealth and Worth.” The publication is
well timed, and it will be most acceptable to every young merchant. Its essays,
its maxims, its laws of health, its science of political economy are well interspersed
with the romance as well as reality of commercial life. Hence, while giving
good counsel by its sage examples, you have made it most readable and interest­
ing, while its moral tone is strongly marked by its Franklinisms. Not confining
yourself to your own published writings, I notice that you have culled the choicest
gems of literature that our language owns, or rather of that kind which may
adorn a moral or point a reform. Why would it not be a good idea to have a
few thousand copies struck off in a superior binding for Christmas presents ? I
am sure it would : for no sister could present her brother, no mother her son, no
employer hand his clerk, or teacher give his pupil anything so valuable to him as
a guide book, while floating on that
----- •“ tide in men’s affairs—
Which ta’en at its flood, leads on to fortune.”

How long has the book been out ? I should like a dozen copies for our clerks
in Australia, which I will thank you to send to Boston, in care of Messrs. Enoch
Train & Co.
Your “ Lives of American Merchants ” I have not had time to read ; but in
glancing at its pages, can but think it a most important acquisition to the count­
ing house and the library. “ Commercial Biography ” is something new, but
much wanted ; for young merchants can only profit by associating with their
elders, and in studying the high-toned example of those successful merchants who




516

Mercantile Miscellanies.

have gone before. During my absence a new word has been added to our lan­
guage—viz : “ Old Fogyism!” What does it mean ? for if it conveys disrespect
for age, I will have nothing of it— for a young man would soon bo on the quick­
sands without that pilot whose long experience has made him familiar with the
many dangerous places in the channel of mercantile life. We are proud of Holmes.
He tells us—
“ I f the young “ F illy ”—Progress, thou would’st ride,
Have young companions ever by thy sid e;
But if thou’d’st stride that staunch old mare—Success,
Go with thine elders, though they please the less!”

I am, very truly yours,
GEO. FRANCIS TRAIN.

TH E F R E E TRADE CONGRESS AT BRUSSELS.

We look forward to the day when commerce will be nntrameled by restrictions
and annoyance from Custom House officials. The signs of the time favor the pre­
diction we now venture to make—that a quarter of a century will not have passed
away before our prophesy is fulfilled. We may not live to see the “ good time
coming,” but it is as sure and certain as the laws of progress.
A t our last dates much interest was felt in Europe in relation to a “ Free Trade
Congress ” that was about to assemble at Brussels. Imposing delegations from
all the leading nations have been appointed, and three grand committees had been
determined upon, as follows :—
No. 1. The Committee on Legislation.
No. 2. The Committee on Statistics, divided into three sub-committees:—1.
On Agricultural Statistics. 2. On Manufacturing Statistics. 3. On Commercial
Statistics.
No. 3. The Committee on Propositions.
The presidents of the committees will be ex-ojjicio members of the Managing
Committee of the Congress. The functions of the committee will be divided as
follows : No. 1 will receive and examine all documents, propositions and state­
ments relative to the commercial legislation, whether domestic or international, of
each country. It will point out the defects of such legislation, the anomalies,
contradictions and consequences, favorable or unfavorable, resulting from it, and
the modifications which might be beneficially introduced.
Committee No. 2 will collect in its three sections or sub-committees, all facts
and documents, statistical or otherwise, concerning the three great branches of
human industry—agriculture, manufactures and commerce. On the one hand, the
changes to which agriculture or manufacturing labor is subject; the cost of pro­
duction in general; the question as to credit and transport relating to i t ; the
fiscal or other hinderances which lessen the tendency to production, or the favors
which stimulate it. On the other hand, the statistics of international trade; the
price of produce in different countries ; expenses of transport, duties, dues, taxes,
or exactions to which commerce is subject, &c., so as to enable a general report
to be presented, furnishing a picture of the various conditions under which
exchanges are effected between all the members of the human family. The third
committee will receive the different propositions which may be addressed to the
Congress, will examine them, and refer them, in case of necessity, to the particular
committee, the labors of which they refer to.




Mercantile Miscellanies.

517

T H E OYSTER TRADE.

According to the Baltimore American the product of the oyster trade of that
city is equal to or greater than the product of all the wheat and corn raised in the
State, of Maryland. The whole shores of the Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries
are adapted to the growth of the oysters, and as but one year is required for their
full growth, an immense profit accrues to those in the business—a profit which
is estimated at some three hundred to six hundred per cent. There are 250 ves­
sels engaged in the business, which average 900 bushels to the cargo, and re­
quire nine or ten days for a trip. These vessels, making in the aggregate 6,000
trips during the eight months in a year in which they are engaged, give a total
of 4,800,000 bushels per year sold in the Baltimore market. The oysters bring
an average price of 50 cents per bushel, which gives a grand total of §2,400,000
per year paid for oysters by the dealers in Baltimore. Some of the houses send
by the Baltimore and Ohio and Baltimore and Susquehanna railroads, to say
nothing of the other modes of transportation, from eight to twelve tons of canned
oysters per day. The shells are carried, for manure, to all parts of Virginia and
North Carolina. In the “ shocking” of oysters, the shells will increase about onefourth, which would give a total of about 6,000,000 bushels of shells, which sell
for two cents per bushel, making a return of §120,000 per year for the shells
alone.
According to the Journal of Commerce, a comparatively small proportion of
the oysters of which the Connecticut region is so famous, are natives there; but
they are brought from the Chesapeake Bay, in immense quantities, in the spring,
when they are planted, to be taken up in the fall. Their original cost is about
25 cents per bushel, to which 15 cents for freight is added. Native oysters, be­
ing generally preferred by epicures, are nearly all consumed at home, while the
adopted Southern oyster is sent off in every direction to all parts of the country.
The method of preserving them is singular. They are first opened and put in
kegs or cans, which are often afterwards packed in boxes containing ice, of a ca­
pacity equal to from 12 to 20 gallons each. The enormous extent of this trade
may be inferred when it is known that from 150 to 200 vessels, mostly schooners,
are employed in conveying oysters to New Haven, the cargoes consisting of from
2,000 to 6,000 bushels. The profits, too, have been highly remunerative when
ordinary sagacity has been exercised; one firm having cleared, during the last
four years, from §75,000 to §100,000. “ Failure” in the oyster is scarcely ever
known. The business is chiefly engrossed by about twenty firms, the largest of
whom send off from 1,000 to 1,500 gallons per day. The firm of Levi Rowe &
Co., who have one of the largest establishments, with branch houses in Buffalo,
Cleveland, Detroit, Hamilton, C. W., &c., estimate that their business will amount
to 150,000 gallons this season. No less than 20 vessels are employed by them,
and from 75 to 100 individuals, mostly girls and boys, find constant employment
in taking out oysters from the shell, during six months in the year. These girls
often acquire a wonderful dexterity in their department, the several movements
required in going through the process, being performed with all the regularity
and precision observed in touching the keys of a pianoforte. If set to music,
however, the ear ear would be greeted with a succession of sounds much like this
—click—gouge—splash—click—gouge—splash 1 &e. The first indicates the use




518

Mercantile Miscellanies.

of the hammer in removing the edges of the shell; the second, the insertion of
the knife; the third, the final deposition of the disemboweled animal in a tub,
prior to packing. The hammer is thrown down each time it is used, but the knife
is always retained in the hand. The openers receive as compensation two cents a
quart, and some of them earn $2 per day, though $1 is more commonly earned.
As there are about 150 oysters to the gallon, the individual who opens 100 quarts,
or 25 gallons per day, necessarily opens 3,150 oysters during that time. The
operation of “ planting” is after this fashion. The oyster vessels, upon their arri­
val from the South, are anchored near the site of the proposed beds, and their
cargoes are removed by small boats, which come alongside. The beds are formed
by staking off the ground into small lots or squares, each of which is spread over
with about fifty bushels, so laid that one shall not be on another. By fall the
oysters have considerably increased in size an$| greatly improved in flavor. If
allowed to remain too long in the beds, the oyster, not being acclimated to north­
ern winters, perishes with cold.
TH E BOOK TRADE IN TH E W EST,

The cities and towns of the West, while advancing in material wealth, show a
corresponding progress in literature, art and science. Our attention has been
called to a statement in the Chicago Democratic Press on this head, which speaks
volumes in behalf of Western culture. We quote from the Press the following
statement:—
T he B ook T rade in C hicago . Chicago is fast becoming one of the largest
book markets in the country. In school books our dealers are far ahead already.
The fall orders of Messrs. S. C. Griggs & Co. contain, among others, the follow­
ing items of school books. Their own publications, 247,000 volumes, being more
than double of their great order a single twelve months ago ; D. Appleton & Co.’s
publications, near 40,000 ; other houses, 60,000—total volumes, 347,008. Among
tbe books ordered of Appleton & Co., are 455 copies of Commodore Perry’s
Japan Expedition. The same house have ordered for the fall and winter trade,
45,000 quires blank books, 8,000 reams paper, including 3,100 reams commercial
note.
This house has already received 1,800 of Ticknor & Field’s Life of Fre­
mont, and 500 of Derby and Jackson’s and Miller, Orton & Mulligan’s—all but a
few copies of which have been sold. Chicago, through Messrs. G. & Co., fakes
more of the Encyclopedia Brittanica than any other city in the country. Fortyseven of the set—21 volumes, costing $115 50 per set— are taken here. We
notice among the fall purchases of the same house two copies of Roberts’ Views
in Palestine, a large English quarto, costing $450 per set. It is one of the most
magnificent illustrated publications extant, of which there are but four copies in
the country. Also, a celebrated French illustrated work, “ Musee Francais,” in
four volumes, royal quarto, costing $350, a rare and beautiful book, of which there
is but one other copy for sale in any bookstore in the United States. They have
also the “ Royal Galleries of Munich,” in five princely volumes, price $100. Messrs.
G. & Co., publish, in partnership with Ivison & Phinney, New York, that popular
list of school books known under the name of the “ American Educational Series,”
of which upwards of half a million of copies have been sold by the Chicago house
alone within the past twelve months. This series embraces among others,
Sanders’ new Reading Books, a name which, says the Northwestern Christian
Adcocate, has already become a “ household word,” and well it may when such
almost fabulous quantities are sold in a single year, in a Western city, where less
than thirty years ago, a white man’s voice had scarce been heard. The above




Mercantile Miscellanies.

519

orders were forwarded sometime since; but they were deemed insufficient, and
yesterday we were shown an additional order for 78,000 volumes of the publica­
tions of this house. This makes a grand total of 425,000 ordered by Messrs.
Griggs & Co., to meet the demands of the fall trade. What a commentary this
upon the social and moral condition of the great Northwest.
We are informed that A. S. Barnes & Co., of New York, extensively engaged
in the publication of books for schools and seminaries of learning, have received
orders from Western cities, during the present year, for more than 70,000 volumes
of their various publications. Stringer & Townsend, the publishers of a volume
entitled, “ Worth and Wealth : a collection of morals, maxims and miscellanies
for merchants, &c.,” have received orders from Chicago for some 700 copies,
which have been sold in that city.
SUCCESS OF AN HONEST MAN.

The following extract of a letter is copied from the Pennsylvania Inquirer. It
will be seen that the writer, who, but a short time since, as we are credibly in­
formed, was a bankrupt and unable to pay more than thirty cents on the dollar,
recovered from his embarrassments, and now pays dollar for dollar, and has a
snug fortune left:—
August 5, 1856.
G e n ts :—

It affords me much pleasure to inform you that I have been so fortu­
nate, through the lenity of my creditors, to dispose of a portion of my property,
which again reinstates me in my former position, free of debt. The property
which I once offered you for the debt, I exchanged for land— one-third of which
I obtained a few days ago (§4,200.) The balance I invested in city property in
this place, which will bring me at least §75,000. Had you pressed your claim at
the time I asked you for an extension, I would have been unable to have paid
over 30 per cent on my debts; and through the advance of this new country—
which, by the bye, is unprecedented—I have now7paid every cent, dollar for dol­
lar, with interest, and would not take §100,000 lor what I own. I purchased,
November, 1854, the undivided half of this city, which was then inhabited by In­
dians, but since that time purchased from them by government for $1,500. It
contains 1,200 lots, which are now selling briskly at from $200 to $1,200 per lot.
We have now 1,400 inhabitants, the first of which, with myself, located here 5th
April, 1855. We have three good churches, six schools, one printing-press, eight
mercantile houses, with several mills and machinery establishments—and last, but
best of all, the most religious and intelligent community of people that I have ever
seen together in any country. Upon the sale of my property, I advised the speedy
transmission of your money, which, I presume, is done by your attorneys.
Yours, respectfully,
We have not given the name of the city, as the letter was not written with a
view to publication.
MERCANTILE

FA ILURES.

The following paragraphs from the “ Trifleton Papers ” should have found a
place in our “ Worth and Wealth ” had they met our eye before. We will, how­
ever, give the readers of the Merchants’ Magazine the benefit of the invaluable
philosophy they contain :—
Ovid knew nothing, or at least tells us nothing of failures, as we call them.
They are quite of our day, and incidental to our mercantile communities. We




520

Mercantile Miscellanies.

best illustrate the credit system. We all owe each other, and so far is it possible
for us to live on mere credit and nothing else, that when a great merchant fails,
nobody is astonished that lor years he has been sustaining an establishment, equip­
age, and what not, on borrowed capital; and that he hasn’t had sufficient moral
courage to come out and tell the world, like a man, of his bankrupt condition.
We are a “ fast ” and “ stunning ” people, and each of us is eager to keep up with
the times, and outstrip his neighbors in external display and glitter. We there­
fore spend money not only after, but before we have earned it, and when we
become embarrassed, we run larger risks in hopes of large gains, and the result is
every year a series of “ failures.”
In any point of view, it is a sad thing for a man to fail. A true man, indeed,
never fails, in the proper significance of that term ; but I use it now in its mercan­
tile and American sense. Many a man would rather die than fail. No matter
what anybody else may think, he at least sees something in it to be ashamed of—
something ignominious almost; and if his nature be proud and sensitive, he will
be inclined to break up, or rather, to employ a cant phrase, “ break down ” under
it, unless he is sustained and encouraged by those about him.
Have you ever been called upon to sympathise with a man in such circumstances,
and to persuade him that he had still something worth living for ? Have you ever
met his creditors face to face, and stood in the gap between their indignation and
his despondency—despair even, oftentimes ? If you have not, 1 have. I have
seen all sides of human nature, the worst and the best, and my belief is, that though
men are selfish, they are still open to conviction ; and however harshly creditors
may bear upon a failing man in the first flush of their excitement, in the end they
will deal with him justly, leniently, generously, if he prove himself to be an honest
man.
In a world like this, we ought certainly to make allowance for each other.
None of us are infallible. All of us are liable to misfortune. When a man fails,
then, however improvident and foolish he may have been in his manner of con­
ducting his business, let us be at least charitable. Let us hear before we strike,
and treat him as men and Christians should treat a fellow in his distress. We
shall thus lose nothing, and we may gain what is invaluable.

ADULTERATION OF LIQUORS.

The London Times gives an account of a disgraceful imposition in connection
with shipments of brandy to the colonies and elsewhere. The system is, to buy
up empty brandy casks bearing the brands of the most noted Cognac houses, and
send them to Hamburgh, Antwerp, and other places, to be filled with inferior
spirit, and reshipped to Great Britain in transit, whence they arc transhipped on
board vessels bound to Australia, the Cape of Good Hope, &c., where the brands
of these Cognac houses are in good estimation. It, therefore, behooves merchants
trading with the various colonies to be careful to get their supplies from re­
spectable sources, and to caution their correspondents against the receipt of
any consignments of brandy on which they may be unable to place absolute
reliance.
The practice alluded to in the Times, according to the Journal of Commerce,
has found imitation on this side of the Atlantic. As high as eight, and even ten
dollars, is paid for empty casks bearing a well-known brand, and when a suitable
number of these much-prized casks are collected, the brandy is manufactured
from raw whisky, which sells in our market at twenty-five-and-a-half to twentysix cents per gallon, and then shipped to California and elsewhere as the genuine
article.




The Book Trade.

521

THE BOOK TRADE.
1. — The Physiology of the Senses; or how and what wc See, Hear, Taste, and
Smell. By A. B. J ohnson. 12mo, pp. 214. New York : Derby & Jackson.
Mr. Johnson is known in the commercial world as the President of the Branch
Bank of Ontario, and the author of a treatise on banking, and several contribu­
tions to the pages of the Merchants' Magazine-, and particularly a series of papers
on Life Insurance, published some years since in our pages. His treatise, “ Re­
ligion in its Relations to the Present Life,” published at an earlier period, must
at the time have attracted the notice of the religious world, and another, “ The
Meaning of Words Analyzed into Universal Things,” has not passed unnoticed
by scholars. The present volume, it seems, was commenced some seventeen years
since. He had long assumed that “ to understand definitely our sensible powers
would improve our knowledge of the external universe, it being derived wholly
from our senses. To obtain the desired understanding,” continues Mr. J., “ 1
commenced with the simplest truisms I could conceive, as, for instance, that hear­
ing informs me of sounds, seeing of sights, and as sight, sound, taste, smell, &c.,
are as indiscriminable from each other as a triangle and a circle, I sought to as­
certain how many different theorems the truims would constitute by a method
which 1 invented, after the manner of geometrical demonstration.” But we have
not either time or space for further extracts from Mr. J.’s introduction. We
may say, however, that for metaphysical inquiry, the mind of the author of this
treatise seems peculiarly fitted. He discusses his theorems logically, and if the
reader is not prepared to accept the conclusions, he will find much that is sugges­
tive in the highest degree. This work of Mr. Johnson’s is eminently deserving
the attention of every one who would understand the interesting subject he so
ably treats.
2. — The Catholic Church in the United Slates: a sketch of its Ecclesiastical
History. By H enry D e C ourcy'. Translated and enlarged by John Gilmary
Shea, author of a “ History of the Catholic Missions,” &c., and member of the
New York, Massachusetts, Maryland, &c., Historical Societies. 18mo., pp.
594. Baltimore : Murphy & Co.
Mr. De Courcy, though a native of France, is, we are informed, descended from
officers who, in the French navy helped to humble the power of England on the
seas during our Revolution. There is, we believe, no regular history of the Catholic
Church in the United States extant. The present volume supplies a want long
felt by Catholics in the ecclesiastical history of the country. It is “ a compendious
history of the Church, from its foundation under the auspices of Maryland tolera­
tion, through the dark ages of colonial bigotry, to our own free time, when the
serene sky is darkened at times by the hurricane of prejudice.” The translator
has added to the work much original matter.
3. — The Republican Party and its Presidential Candidates : comprising an accu­
rate descriptive history of the Republican party in the United States, from its
origin in 1796 to its dissolution in 1832 ; of the Whig and Democratic parties
during the interregnum ; and of its re-formation in 1856, to defend freedom of
speech and of the press, and to resent the aggressions of the slave power. With
biographical sketches and portraits of Fremont and Dayton. By B enjamin
F. H all . 12mo., pp. 511. New York : Miller, Orton & Mulligan.
This book, as the copious and comprehensive title page clearly shows, has been
written to advance the Republican movement. It nevertheless contains, in a con­
densed form, a chain of interesting facts connected with the political history of
parties, that give to it value as a work of reference after the coming Presidential
campaign is over. It appears to be, in the main, faithful in respect to the subjects
of which it treats. Its circulation will, of course, be almost exclusively confined
to the Northern, or what are termed the “ Free States.”




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4. — Draper's Physiology.

Human Physiology, Statical and Dynamical, or the
Conditions and Course of the Life of Man. By J o h n W e i . b o r n D r a p e r , M. D.,
LL. D., Professor of Chemistry and Physiology in the University of N. York.
With nearly 300 fine wood engravings. 8vo. pp. 638. New York: Harper
& Brothers.
This is a publication of the Lectures on Physiology, given for several years
past in the New York University, by the author, who occupies the chair on that
science therein. The whole has been popularized, and the technicalities so far re­
moved, as to enable the general reader not only to understand the subject, but to
go through with it interested and amused. It treats of the nature and proper­
ties of the food, how it is digested, assimilated, vitalized, and so made a part of
the human body ; how the circulation of the blood is carried on, and breathing
operates. It shows what is the structure of the nervous system and the brain,
considers the wonderful changes going on in this mysterious part of our bodies,
and what course of life should be pursued to maintain “ the harp of a thousand
strings” in good tune to the last. Such a book has been very much needed. It
will supply a vacant space on the shelves of most libraries. We would, however,
recommend the purchaser to read it carefully through before putting it away
thereon, and by so doing he will carry into execution, practically, the recommen­
dation of an ancient worthy—“ Know thyself.”
5. — Religion in America; or, an Account of the Origin, Relation to the State,
and present Condition of the Evangelical Churches in the United States.
With Notices of the Unevangelical Denominations. By R obert B a ir d , D. D.
8vo. pp. 696. Harper & Brothers.
This work treats of the religious character of the early European colonists;
the state of ecclesiastical affairs at the epoch of the Revolution ; the connection
of the State governments with the churches; the character of American preach­
ing ; revivals of religion; the organization and doctrines of the different Chris­
tian sects; and the operations of missionary societies in behalf of the heathen.
The work is constructed on a unique plan, and embodies an amount of informa­
tion which is not elsewhere to be found on the subject within the same compass.
In connection with its principal theme, it presents an ample summary of facts
relating to the history, geography, statistics, and social condition of the United
States, which possesses great interest for all classes of readers, and imparts a col­
lateral value to the volume as a work of reference.
6 . -^-The Old Regime and the Recolution.

By A lexis de T ocqueville, author
of “ Democracy in America.” Translated by John Bonner. 12mo., pp. 314.
New York : Harper & Brothers.
A calm, philosophical inquiry into the cause of the French Revolution, and
the working of the Old Regime. In this work M. de Tocqueville has daguerreotyped French political society under the old monarchy; shown us where the real
power lay. and how it affected individual Frenchmen in the daily avocations of
life; what was the real condition of the nobility, of the clergy, of the middle
classes, of the “ people,” of the peasantry ; wherein France differed from all other
countries in Europe; why a revolution was inevitable. The information derived
under these various heads, it may safely be said, is now first printed. It lias been
obtained, as M. de Tocqueville informs us, mainly from the manuscript records of
the old intendants’ offices and the council of State. Of the labor devoted to the
task, an idea may be formed from the author’s statement, that more than one of
the thirty odd chapters contained in the volume alone cost him a year’s researches.
7. — Tales of Travellers; for Winter Evenings. By M aria S lack . New York:
Robert Garter & Brothers.
A thick volume of nearly five hundred pages, containing tales extracted from
respectable authorities only. Every story is calculated to fix the child’s attention,
and add to his real stock of knowledge. The Carters never publish books of
doubtful moral or social tendency. In the present series of “ Winter Evenings ”
the form of the dialogue has been adopted, without interfering with the narrative.




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8. ~ Memoir of the Life and Public Services of John Charles Fremont.
B y J ohn
B igelow , with splendid illustrations, and an accurate portrait on steel, pp.

480. New York : Derby & Jackson.
No less than three different memoirs of Col. Fremont have been prepared by
different authors. First we had a memoir by the Hon. Charles W . Upham, mem­
ber of Congress from Massachusetts, which was in press before the Presidential
nominations were made. This was followed by the volume before us, and another
by Mr. Smucker. Mr. Bigelow is associated with Mr. Bryant in the editorial man­
agement of the Evening Post; as a terse and able political writer, espousing the
Republican cause with great vigor and earnestness. For fullness and accuracy,
the two results which the author aimed at, this memoir will, we think, favorably
compare with either of the other memoirs published. This volume includes an
account of Fremont’s explorations, discoveries and adventures on five successful
expeditions across the North American continent, selections from his private and
public correspondence, his defense before the Court Martial, and full reports of his
principal speeches in the Senate of the United States. The memoir is dedicated
to Baron Humboldt, as “ the first to discover and acknowledge the genius ” of the
“ Pathfinder.”
9. — Peterson's Uniform Duodecimo Edition of the Complete Works of Charles
Dickens “ Boz.” Philadelphia : T. B. Peterson.
We noticed, in a former number of the Merchants' Magazine, the publication
of the initial volumes of this edition of Dickens’ works. These volumes, the
earliest productions of the author, it will be recollected, embraced the celebrated
“ Pickwick Papers.” We have now “ Nicholas Nickleby,” with thirty-nine il­
lustrations on steel, from designs by Phiz and Cruikshank. This is, beyond all
question, the most desirable library edition that has yet been published. It re­
flects, to use a hackneyed expression, the highest credit upon the enterprising
publisher.
10. — In Perils by mine own Countrymen ; three years on the Kansas Borders.
By a clergyman of the Episcopal Church. 12mo., pp. 240. Miller, Orton &
Mulligan.
The author of this volume informs us, that while it was going through the press
sedate old friends remarked to him that the subject of which he treated was too
grave to admit of the levity which is often displayed in this narrative. To this
he replied, “ my book is a record of facts. The style is my own, the material
was furnished on the border.” The scenes through which he passed, in some
respects, appear to have been “ supremely ” ridiculous and laughable, while others
were inhuman and well calculated to excite horror. Tragedy and comedy, as in
all human society, are panoramic. It is, on the whole, one of the most readable
books relating to “ bleeding Kansas ” that has yet been published. The dedica­
tion is unique, and characteristic— it is, “ To Churchmen and Statesmen ; to be
hand.ed without gloves, as Churchmen and Statesmen handled the author.”
11. — The Recent Progress of Astronomy, especially in the United States. By
E lias L oomis, LL. D., Professor of Mathematics and Natural History in the
University of the city of New York, &c. 12mo., pp. 344. New Y ork : Har­
per & Brothers.
Within the last fifteen years the number of known members of the planetary
system has been, according to Mr. Loomis, more than doubled. A planet of vast
d.mansions has been added to our system ; thirty-six new asteroids have been dis­
covered, four new satellites have been detected, and a new ring added to Saturn.
All these, and other discoveries, are noticed in the present, work. One chapter is
devoted to the recent additions to our knowdedge of the planetary system, another
to our recent knowledge of comets, another to fixed stars and nebula;, and the last
to a general survey of the progress of astronomy in the United States. We have
ever regarded astronomy as one of the most interesting and instructive of sciences,
and its study cannot, we think, fail of ennobling the character and elevating the
intellect of the human race.




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12.— The Life of Col. John Charles Fremont, and his narrative of explorations
and adventures in Kansas, Nebraska, Oregon and California. The memoir by
S amuel M. S muckek , A . M., author of “ The Life and Reign of Catharine II.”
“ Nicholas of Russia,” &e. 12mo., pp. 493. New Y ork: Miller, Orton &
Mulligan.
Seventy-one pages of this volume are devoted to the author’s memoir, and the
remainder of the volume contains Col. Fremont’s narrative of his explorations and
adventures, which are exceedingly interesting, and as they were not written in
view of the Presidency, we apprehend no one will be disposed to consider this
portion of the volume otherwise than reliable and faithful.
13-— Songs and Ballads of the American Revolution; with notes and illustrations.
By F rank M oore. 12mo., pp. 393. New York : D. Appleton & Co.
This volume contains nearly one hundred songs and ballads, selected from the
numerous productions in verse which appeared during the war of the American
Revolution. Many of them are taken from the periodical issues of the time;
others from original ballad sheets, and a few from the recollections of surviving
soldiers, who heard and sang them amid the trials of the camp and field. The
editor and publishers deserve our thanks for collecting and publishing, in a per­
manent form, these mementos of “ times that tried men’s souls.”
14. — Clara; or Slave Life in Europe. With a preface by S ir A
A lison , Bart. 12mo., pp. 533. New York : Harper & Brothers.

rchibald

A translation of a novel by M. Haklander, who resembles, in several interesting
particulars, according to Alison, Dickens and Bulwer. The translation was made
by an accomplished lady, of whom Sir A. Alison says in the preface, “ it is to be
regretted that, although favorably known to the public by one charming work of
fiction, the translator could not be prevailed on to give her name in the title page.”
Those who have read and admired the “ Uncle Tom ” of Mrs. Stowe will, we feel
quite sure, be interested in the perusal of “ Slave Life in Europe.”
15. — Political Essays. By P ark G odwin . 18mo., pp. 345. New York :
Dix, Edwards & Co.
This volume contains a series of political papers contributed from time to time
to Putman’s Magazine. Mr. Godwin was for some time associated with his
father-in-law, Mr. Bryant, in the editorial conduct of the Evening Post. The
essays, nine in number, display more than ordinary ability. Indeed, Mr. Godwin
is regarded by many who do not sympathize with his political opinions, as one of
the strongest and most accomplished writers in the Republic. The volume is
dedicated to Charles Sumner, “ because,’’ says Mr. Godwin, “ I know of no one
more likely to approve of its general objects, or whose name will lend it greater
honor.” The dedication is indicative of the author’s opinions.
16. — Elements of Geometry and Trigonometry. By B. S estini, S. J., author
of “ Analytical Geometry,” &c., &c. 8vo., pp. 366. Baltimore : John Murphy
& Co.
This appears to be one of the best elementary treatises of geometry that has
yet been published. It is at least cordially commended by competent judges, and
is used in institutions of the highest repute. The other mathematical productions
of the author, which are quite popular, presage for this last labor of the learned
professor equal success.
17. — Household Mysteries.

A Romance of Southern Life. By L ouise P etit ,
of Virginia, author of “ Light and Darkness.” 12mo., pp. 300. New York :
D. Appleton & Co.
The “ sunny South ” is rich in scenes of romance, and of late years her sons and
daughters have enriched our light literature with many pleasing and acceptable
pictures of social and domestic life. Among the number, “ Household Mysteries ”
is, we are very confident, destined to enjoy a considerable share of deserved pat­
ronage.




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Trade.

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18. — Western Border L ife; or What Fanny Hunter Saw and Heard in Kansas
and Missouri. 12mo., pp. 408. New York : Derby & Jackson.
The design of the author of this tale is to portray the social and moral life
which “ the border counties of Missouri are endeavoring to force upon the new
territory, and the struggle in which it finds itself involved, upon its migration
hither, with the principles of a society educated to industry and liberty.” She
has no sympathy with the “ border ruffians,” as they are termed. She claims that
a long residence, as a member of a family in the frontier part of Michigan, made
her acquainted with the actual condition of things much better than any stranger.
Its publication is, no doubt, intended to aid in elevating the Republican candidate
to the Presidency.
19. —Louis Napoleon and the Bonaparte Family: comprising a Memoir of their
Connections, with Biographical Sketches of their principal Cotemporaries, and
a Summary of French History, including the Empire of Napoleon III. and
the Russian War. By H enry W . D e P oy, author of “ Kossuth and his
Generals,” “ Ethan Allen,” &c. 12mo., pp. 457. New Y ork: Miller, Orton
& Mulligan.
We have in this volume, in an acceptable and convenient form, a memoir of
the Bonaparte family, from the dawn of their celebrity to the present time, to­
gether with a sketch of French history and biographical notices of the most dis­
tinguished persons who have participated in the administration of French affairs
during the same period. Mr. I)e Puy diligently availed himself, in the prepara­
tion of the work, of a great variety of the most authentic sources, and has suc­
ceeded in bringing within a comparatively small compass what is scattered over
many volumes.
20. — Victoria; or the World Overcome. By C a ro lin e O h esebro ’ , author of
“ Philly and Kit,” “ Getting Along,” “ The Beautiful Gate,” &c. New York :
Derby & Jackson.
Miss Chesebro’, in our judgment, though still quite young, has achieved an en­
viable reputation as a novelist of more than ordinary power. This last production
is equal, if not superior to the best of her former efforts. Her works, like those
of Irving, Willis, and a few others, will take rank in the standard literature of
America.
21. — Retribution.

A Tale of the Passions. By E mma D. E. N. S outhworth.
12mo., pp. 305. Philadelphia : T. B. Peterson.
The author of this book has won a wide reputation as a soul-stirring novelist.
Her previous works, the “ Lost Heiress,” “ Deserted Wife,” “ Wife’s Victory,”
“ Missing Bride,” “ India,” &c., &c., have found a large “ parish ” of excited
readers. “ Retribution ” will bear a favorable comparison with the best of her
previously published romances.
22. '— Some Account of the Life of Spencer Houghton Cone, a Baptist Preacher in
America. 12mo., pp. 489. New York : Livermore & Rudd.
The reverend gentleman of whose life we have some account in this volume,
was identified with many benevolent enterprises. Extracts from his letters, to
which the author has had access, and from his public addresses, will furnish a key
to his sentiments and feelings on important points. Mr. Cone was a native of
Princeton, New Jersey, and died on the 3oth of August, 1855, in his seventyfirst year.
23. —Memorials of Celebrated Characters. By A lphonse D e L amartine , author
of the “ History of the Girondists,” &c. Vol. 3. 12mo., pp. 323. New Y ork:
Harper & Brothers. '
The third and concluding volume opens with a dramatic portraiture of William
Tell, the Swiss patriot. This is followed by memoirs of Madame De Sevigne,
Milton, Auter, and Bossuet. The London Athenccum pronounces the last-named
the most masterly of the many which constitute a remarkable series.




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24. — Sketches and Adventures in Madeira, Portugal and the Andalusias of Spain.
By the author of “ Daniel Webster and his Cotemporaries.” 12mo., pp. 442.
New York : Harper & Brothers.
Unpretending and unambitious as this book professes to be, it is, nevertheless,
one of the most graphic and interesting descriptions of the places visited by the
author that we have read. Comparatively few Americans have visited Madeira,
and if we except General Dix, who passed a winter on that island, and put forth
without pretension, in a chaste, lucid and concise style, his impressions of the
island, we have but few works of travel relating to the parts of Europe visited by
the writer of the present work. These sketches and adventures seem to reflect
Andalusia as it is, and delineate manners and daily occurrences by transcript from
the author’s own experience.
25. — The Great American Battle; or. the contest between Christianity and Polit­
ical Romanism. By A n n a E i x a C a r r o l l , of Maryland. 12mo., pp. 365.
New York : Miller, Orton & Mulligan.
This book is evidently the offspring of the “ Know-Nothingism ’’ of the day, a
political party so uncongenial to our free institutions, that it must pass away
before the “ second sober thought ” of the American people. The work, however,
abounds in noble and patriotic sentiments, and is written in an eloquent and flow­
ing style, and illustrated with some fine engravings of several of our leading politi­
cians. The fine head and manly face of Millard Fillmore forms the frontispiece,
followed by portraits of A. «T. Donelson, Erastus Brooks, K. Raynor and others
of less note.
26. — Modern Greece. A Narrative of a Residence and Travels in that Country.
With Observations on its Antiquities, Literature, Language, Politics, and Re­
ligion. By H e n r y M. B a i r d , M. A. Illustrated by about Sixty Engravings.
18mo., pp. 380. New York : Harper & Brothers.
This interesting and valuable work is the result of rare opportunities of observa­
tion enjoyed by the author during a residence in Greece, and extensive travels in
every part of the country. There lias been nothing for years past on the subject
so accurate in its delineation of national character, and so able and scholarly in
the treatment of historical and scientific connections. Several chapters are de­
voted to the literature of modern Greece, and the manners, customs, politics,
religious festivals, and state of popular education, have been made the topics of
separate examination. It is copiously illustrated ; forty of these illustrations have
been executed after original sketches.
27. — Wau-Bun, the “ Early Day” in the Northwest, By Mrs. J ohn H. K k n zie ,
of Chicago. With illustrations. 8vo., pp. 498. New Y ork: Derby &
J ackson.
This work partakes someu'hat of the character of an autobiography, but con­
tains a series of graphic sketches of many of the now great cities and towns of the
Northwest, It dates back as early as 1830, when most of these cities were
scarcely commenced. The writer’s sympathies for the wrongs the aboriginal race
have received at the hands of the whites are just and proper. The Northwest,
which, in the memory of man, has grown to almost magic power and greatness,
affords material in abundance for valuable contributions, such as this, to the liter­
ature of the Great Republic. “ Wau-Bun ” is, on the whole, a most interesting
and valuable work.
28. — The Heroes; or Greek Fairy Tales for my Children. By Rev. C. K ings ­
ley.
With Illustrations by the author. 18mo., pp. 320. Boston : Ticknor
& Fields.
“ Fairy Tales,” by the author of “ Hypatia,” “ Amyas Leigh,” &c., will not go
arbegging for readers. Whether waiting for the highest intellects or the opening
reason of the young, Mr. Kingsley is equally happy and at home. There is deep
meaning and true wisdom in whatever emanates from his exalted and progressive
mind.




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52 1

29. — An Elementary Greek Grammar: based on the latest German Edition of
Kuhner. By C harles O ’L eary , A . M., Professor of Greek in Mount St.
Mary’s College, Maryland. 12mo., pp. 214. New York : D. & J. Sadlier.
This is an abridgement of the system of modern German grammars by a thor­
ough and accomplished professor of the Greek language. The excellence of the
system consists in making the students acquainted with known principles (not
artificial rules) and laws. The advantages claimed by Mr. O’Leary over the
common method are these:— 1st. The forms and changes (of words) are traced
to a few general principles, and thereby subjected to scientific classification. 2d.
The multitude of details, ever embarrassing to the student, are compressed in a
few comprehensive scales. 3d. What were regarded as exceptions and anomalies,
are brought under the established laws of the language. 4th. Buies founded on
a profound knowledge and scientific analysis of the language, and substituted for
arbitrary formulas. To the best of our knowledge anil belief, it is in every respect
a meritorious elementary work.
30. — The Life o f Francis Marion. By W . G ilmore S imms. Author of Life of
Capt. John Smith, History of South Carolina, &c. 12mo., pp. 347. New
York : Derby & Jackson.
This volume records the facts in the life of one of the most distinguished patri­
ots and heroes of the American Revolution,—the brave and virtuous Marion, the
model citizen soldier, the gallant son of Carolina, whose brilliant exploits, wild
adventures, and severe privations, have employed the pen of the poet and the pen­
cil of the painter, to glorify them and give them renown. These pages undoubt­
edly embody the best and fullest account of Marion that has been written, with­
out the extravagances of Weems, who, as our author remarks, had rather loose
notions of the privileges of the biographer. The book is written in the usual ex­
cellent style of the author, and we commend it to every American.
31. — Perversion: or, the Causes and Consequences of Infidelity: a tale for the
times. By Rev. W . S. C o n y b e a r e , M. A., author of “ Life and Epistles of St.
Paul.” 12mo., pp. 495. New York : Wiley & Halsted.
The causes and consequences of infidelity are described by the author of this
tale as different in different characters. In the “ deliberately wicked,” (according
to Mr. C.) infidelity originates in a depraved will, eager to castoff moral restraint.
In better natures it is occasioned by the inconsistency, extravagance or hypocrisy
of those who “ profess and call themselves Christians
sometimes by the doubts
of a skeptical understanding, and the difficulties inherent in the substance or the
documents of what the author regards the Christian revelation. The consequences
which result from unbelief are “ moral deterioration, and the loss of happiness and
peace.” The object of the author in the present work is to illustrate these state­
ments.
32. — English Trails. By R alph W aldo E merson. 12mo., pp. 312. Boston:
Phillips, Sampson & Co.
Mr. Emerson is, beyond all question, one of the most original thinkers and
writers of the day. The present work is, to use a common phrase, “ Emersonian ”
from beginning to end. Philosophical and suggestive, “ English Traits ” are
analyzed with the pen and power of a master mind. The chapter on “ wealth,”
in which he declares there is no country in which so absolute a homage is paid
to wealth as in England, is searching, truthful, and just. It is the book of
the season.
33. — “ The Modern Whitfield.” The Rev. C. H. Spurgeon, of London, his Ser­
mons. With an Introduction and Sketch of his Life. By E. L. M aooon , D. D.
12mo., pp. 320.
We have in this volume a collection of fifteen sermons, which fell from the lips,
and no doubt moved the heart of this young and eccentric preacher. The intro­
duction, from the pen of the eloquent Magoon, embodying a memoir of the
preacher, is to us the most interesting part of the book.




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34. — A Lady’s Second Journey Round the World.

By I da P feiffer , author o f
the “ Lady’s Journey Round the World.” 12mo., pp. 500. New Y ork:
Harper & Brothers.
Madame Pfeiffer is probably the most extensive lady traveler of ancient or
modern times—that is, there is not on record any account of a woman who has
traveled twice round the world, besides visiting the interior of many countries.
In this, her second voyage, she starts from London to the Gape of Good Hope,
Borneo, Java, Sumatra, Geiebres, Ceram, the Moluccas, &c., California, Panama,
Peru, Equador, and the United States. To those who are fond of woman’s
gossip, shrewd observation, and quick perception of things, this volume will be a
treat.
35. — Experimental Researches on the Food of Animals and the Fattening of Cat­
tle. With Remarks on the Food of Man. By R obert D undas T homp­
son, M. D., Lecturer on Practical Chemistry in the University of Glasgow.
From the last London Edition. 12mo., pp. 172. New York : C. M. Saxton
& Go.
This excellent treatise is based on an extensive series of experiments, made at
the instance of the British government. The original object of that inquiry was
to determine the relative influence of barley and malt in feeding cattle ; but as
the opportunity seemed a favorable one for investigating some scientific problems
of great importance to physiology, and of extreme value in the physical manage­
ment of man and animals, advantage was taken of it to extend the experiments so
as to include those objects. Mr. Saxton is doing much good by reproducing in
this country works of such practical value.
36. —Lays of Ancient Rome, with Ivry and the Armada. By T homas B abington
M acaulay . 12mo., pp. 181. Boston and Cambridge: Janies Monroe & Co.
Early Roman History has, perhaps, a foundation only, or in little else, than
poetry. In these lays the object appears to be to transform some portions of that
early history back into the poetry out of which they were made. In them the
author speaks not as himself, but in the person of ancient minstrels. The lays
exhibit skill and power in construction, and are infused with the true spirit of the
themes. Mr. Macaulay is a man of varied abilities ; an orator, a great historian,
and a respectable poet. In addition to the lays this volume contains a poem entitled,
“ Ivry : a song of the Huguenots,” and “ The Armada.”
37. — Discourses on Special Occasions; and miscellaneous papers. By C. V an
S antvoord . 12mo., pp. 456. New York : M. W . Dodd.
The reverend author delivered the discourses embodied in this volume, in the
course of a ministry to the Reformed Dutch Church, of Saugerties, New York,
between the years 1848 and 1854. The miscellaneous papers have mostly been
contributed to various periodicals. The topics treated of are varied, and gene­
rally of an interesting character, and are handled with much ability. The dis­
courses on Adams, Clay and Webster, the paper on “ Samuel Johnson and Daniel
Webster,” in which the writer marks a few of the points in which these eminent
men appear to resemble one another, and other of the subjects of the book should
not be confined to a narrow circle of readers.
38. —Lectures on the Life, Genius, and Insanity of Cowper. By G eorge B.
C heever , D. D., author of “ Lectures on the Pilgrim’s Progress,” “ Power of
the World to Come,” “ Wanderings of a Pilgrim,” &c. 12mo., pp. 415. New
York : Carter & Brothers.
Dr. Cheever thinks that Southey, in his memoir, has done the poet great in­
justice in what he omits, as well as in some things ungenerously set down. The
fact is the theologies of Cheever and Southey differ widely. One of the main pur­
poses of this volume has been to illustrate more fully the religious experience of
Cowper, and to trace the causes and the manner of his religious gloom. We
think they are to be found in the gloomy, Calvinistic theology he embraced. Mr.
Chover handles his subject with marked ability, and sheds new light upon the
peculiarities of the man and the poet.