Full text of The Merchants' Magazine and Commercial Review : October 1855, Vol. XXXIII, No. IV

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HUNT’S

MERCHANTS’ MAGAZINE.
E s ta b lis h e d J i l l y , 1839,

BY FREEMAN HUNT, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR.

V O LU M E X X X I I I .

O C T O B E R , 1 8 5 5.

C O N T E N T S OF N O .

IV.,

N U M BE R I V

VOL. X X X I I I .

ARTICLES.
Ar t .

page.

I.

THE SOUND DUES OF DENMARK: AND THEIR RELATIONS WITH THE COM­
MERCE OF TIIE W ORLD. Translated l'rom the German................................................ 403

II.

MERCANTILE BIOGRAPHY : W ALTE R RESTORED JONES. By W illiam A.
J ones, A. M., Librarian of Columbia College........................................................................ 423

III.

COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES—No. xvm . Taxes upon Trade—The War—
Oswego—Privateers—Rule o f 1756 regarding Neutrals—Scarcity in England—Louisburg
— Frontenac—Indian Treaty—Canal in England—English Successes—Cherokees—Trade
during the War to English West Indies—To French West Indies—To Europe—To Eng­
land—Exports o f Sundry Articles—Slave Trade—Paper Money—Canada—The Prospect.
By E noch H ale , Jr., Esq., o f New Y ork................................................................................. 431

IV. THE CULTURE OF TEA IN BRA ZIL.

Translated from the Jornal de C om m ercio.... 442

V. COMMERCE OF CANDIA. The Island of Candia—Imports and Exports—Commercial
Importance—Manners, Morals, and Customs of the People, etc.......................................... 446
VI. TREASURE TR OV E: OR THE DISCOVERY OF GOLD AND OTHER COINS IN
M AIN E............................................................................ ............................................................ 448

J O U R N A L OF M E R C A N T I L E L A W .
Guaranty—Liabilities o f Banks......................................................................... ...................................
Shipment of Goods—Consignments, etc................................................................................................
Libel to Recover for Salvage Services....................................................................................................
Commercial Law o f Partnership.............................................................................................................
What Constitutes a Draft or Inland Bill of Exchange........................ ..............................................

453
455
456
457
459

COMMERCIAL CHRONICLE AND R E V I E W :
EMBRACING A FINANCIAL AND COMMERCIAL REVIEW OF THE UNITED STATES, ETC., ILLUSTRA­
TED WITH TABLES, ETC., AS FOLLOWS l

Revival o f the Shipping Interest—Prospects for Breadstuffs in France, Germany, Great Britain,
and the United States— State o f the Money Market—Bank War at the Northwest—Bank Move­
ment in New York, Boston, and Ohio—Business at New York Assay Office and New Orleans
Mint—Imports at New York for August, and from January 1st—Imports o f Dry Goods—Ex­
ports from New York for August, aud from January 1st—Exports o f P roduce-Receipts for
Cash Duties—Exports from New Orleans for the Fiscal Year—Foreign Exchange, e t c .. . . 460-468
NewYork Cotton Market. By U lhorn &l F r e d e r ic k s o n , Brokers, New York............................ 468

VOL. XXXIII.----NO. IV.




26

402

CONTENTS OF NO. IV ., VOL. X X X III.
PAGE.

JOURNAL

OF B A N K I N G ,

CURRENCY,

AND

FINANCE.

Finances of the Principal Cities in the United States.......................................................................
The United States Assay Office in New York......................................................................................
The New York Country Bank Exchange . .........................................................................................
The Main Brace o f State Credit. By J. T hompson, Banker, of New York....................................
Real and Personal Property o f Brooklyn.............................................................................................
Coinage of Cold and Silver in Mints of Mexico from 1521 to 1852..................................................
The Bank o f England and its Notes.—Coinage o f the British M in t................................................
Bank o f Mutual Redemption..................................................................................................................

COMMERCIAL

470
472
475
477
478
478
479
480

REGULATIONS.

Of Importations into the United States from the British Provinces................................................ 480
The Value o f Merchandise must be Indorsed on the Bond................................................................ 481
Duties o f Officers in Charge o f United States Warehouses.—Seized and Unclaimed Goods....... 482
Duty of Superintendent o f Public Warehouses.—Delivery of Goods sold at Auction, e t c ......... 483
Bonds may be given by an Importer to an Interior Port.................................................................... 484
Time o f Transportation Bond in United States.—The Storekeeper o f a Port in the United States 484
Regulations at Frontier Ports of the United States.—Transportation Routes for Merchandise in
Bond.—Rates o f Labor and Storage in the Public Stoies..................................................... ......... 485
Pocking and Repacking Merchandise.—Penalties if Good are Relanded in the United States___ 486
Exports to Canada and other British Provinces.— Warehouse and Transportation Entry............. 486
Cartage, Drayage, or Lighterage of Goods in Bond.—Entry of Merchandise for Consumption... 487
Importers’ Bond for Merchandise......................................................................................................... 487
The Return o f Custom-House Appraisers............................................................................................. 488

POSTAL

DEPARTMENT.

Modification of Prussian-American Postal Treaty............................................................................... 488
Accounts and Returns o f Postmasters in U. States.—Postage on Back Numbers o f Newspapers.. 489
Publications sent to the Library of Congress and Smithsonian Institute.—The Duties o f Postmas­
ters in regard to Waste Paper.—Registration o f Letters.—Lost Drafts or Warrants.................. 490

COMMERCIAL

STATISTICS.

Imports o f Cloths into the United States.—Ships o f the World......................................................... 491
Comparative Navigation of Great Britain and the United States— Exports o f Tea from China to
the United States. —Iron Imported into the United States in 1850-54 .......................................... 493
Wool imported into Great Britain.......................................................................................................... 494

J O U R N A L OF M I N I N G A N D M A N U F A C T U R E S .
Coal Fields and Products o f the Ohio Valley. By Mr. Smith , of Cincinnati Railroad R ecord...
Statistics o f Breweries in the British Islands......................................................................................
New Process o f Tanning Leather..........................................................................................................
The Coal Trade of Pennsylvania: Its Past, Its Present,and Its Future..........................................
The Manufacture of Watches.—Cotton Manufacture in the S ou th ............................„....................
Progress of Iron Manufactures in Ohio.................................................................................................
Salt Manufacture at Syracuse.-Prices o f Boiler Tubes.......................................... ...........................
The Manufacture of Paper in the United States—Carpet Manufacture..................... .....................
What is Amondlillado Sherry V-First Woolen Manufactures in A m erica.....................................
The Manufactures of Lowell...................................................................................... - ...........................

494
496
497
493
499
500
500
501
501
502

J O U R N A L OF I N S U R A N C E .
Law o f Life Assurance............................................................................................................................. 502

STATISTICS

O F A G R I C U L T U R E , fisc.

New Scutching Machine for F la x........................................................................................................... 505
Corn Crop of each County in the State of O h io ................................................................................. 506

STATISTICS

OF P O P U L A T I O N , &c .

The Immigration since 1790 : a Statistical Essay.

NAUTICAL

By Louis Schade, o f Washington, D. C....... 509

INTELLIGENCE.

Brazilian Regulations in relation to Signals—Signals from Flag-staff near Point A talaia............. 513
Iron Light-houses for the Florida Coast................................................................................................ 515

RAILROAD, CANAL, AND S T E A M B O A T S T A T I S T I C S .
Railroads in Germ any...................... ...................................................................................................
Discipline on board Steamers and Ships............................................................................................
Statistics of the Railroads in Maine...................................................................................................
American Steamboats.—The w Great Eastern ” Steamship..................................................... .

MERCANTILE

MISCELLANIES.

The Relation o f Merchants to National Independence....................................................................
Fabricated Trade Mark.........................................................................................................................
First Books in America.—Paris Fuel Shops.—How to make Jujube P a ste.................................

THE
Notices o f 22 new Books or new Editions.




516
517
518.
519
520
522
524

BOOK T R A D E .
525-528

H U N T ’S

MERCHANTS’ MAGAZINE
AND

C O M M E R C I A L REYIEAV.
OCTOBER,

1 855.

Art. I.— T H E S O U N D D U E S OF D E N M A R K :
AND THEIR RELATIONS W ITH THE COMMERCE OE THE W O RLD.*

A n inquiry into the history of Sound Dues, much discussed, often dis­
puted, frequently opposed as they have been, imperturbably exacted as
they are, will teach a momentous lesson of great powers rendered impo­
tent by splitting their energies, of diplomacy missing its ends through ig­
norance and levity, and of great advantages, prejudicial to the interests ol
general Commerce, plucked by a small and feeble country from the quar­
rels of her powerful but discordant neighbors.
That roads thrown open by nature should not be closed by toll-barriers
is a demand as just as it is simple.
The Black Sea has long been open to trade; the Mediterranean naviga­
tion is tributary no more to piratical States; the ISaltic remains locked up.
Denmark, hardly more than a parcel o f scattered islands, holds the key in
her hand, and ransacks the trade of the world of yearly millions. The
* The following translation o f an article on the Sound Dues o f Denmark, published by F. Hessenland, Stettin, Prussia, has been sent us from Washington. It presents the German view o f the
question in a rather strong and perhaps somewhat exaggerated light. In the Merchants' Magazine
for March, 1844, (vol. x., pages 218 to 232,) we published an able and interesting paper relating to
“ The Origin and History o f the Danish Sound and Belt Tolls,” winch was translated from the Dan­
ish o f J. F. Schlegel for the Merchants' Magazine by that accomplished statesman and scholar, the
Hon. G e o r g e P. M a r s h , at that time Representative in Congtess, and since United States Minister
to Turkey. The translation of Mr. Marsh discussed the sovereignty o f Denmark over the adjacent
seas and sounds, and the Sound and Belt tolls, gave the ground of the right o f toll, the rules accord­
ing to which toll was anciently exacted and is now imposed, closing with a full reference to the lit­
erature of the Sound tolls. it will be seen, by reference to that article and the present, that this
question, like most others, has two sides. —Editor Merchants' Magazine.




404

The Sound D ues o f Denm ark :

only distinguishing features between the tribute levied at the Sound and
the involuntary present exacted by the Emperor o f Morocco are the enor­
mity and the regularity of the former.
A ll the natural entrances to the Baltic Sea— the Sound and the two
Belts— are guarded by custom-house officers and fortifications. The whole
o f the transit, whatever its origin or destination, is there subjected to an
assumed right o f sovereignty; vain would be any attempt to elude that
scourge of the trade. A shot across her hawse reminds the forgetful ves­
sel to lay to and p a y ; if she disregard that, a ball is presently sent into
her hull. The powers that be connive at the sway exercised by the guns
of Kronenborg over the Sound, as abs< lute as when the pirate king Helsing, from his strongholds on both sides of the Sound, did plunder the
merchantmen as they passed:—
For why * because the good old rule
Sufficeth them, the simple plan,
That they should take that have the power,
And they should keep who can !

For the last two centuries Denmark has been able to keep but one shore
in her possession; this fact, however, has gone for nothing. The peace­
able merchantmen, whatever their flag, are forced to pass hard under the
guns of the fortress. In the broad channel, varying from a half to three
German miles, the vessel might keep out of tbe range of shot and pass
close to the Swedish coast, but free passage is prohibited. Kronenborg is
only to be silenced by the language of ordnance. In 1658, the Dutch
Admiral Opdam forced the passage with a fleet of thirty-five men o f war,
and on the 30th March, 1801, Parker and Kelson, with fifty-three sails
under their orders, assisted by a fresh north-west wind, passed the straits
unscathed close to the Swedish coast.
The Great Belt, an equally natural passage, and accessible to vessels of
all sizes— the English and French fleets j>assed through it but recently—
is on its south side guarded by the guns of Nyborg, and those o f Fridericia look over the Little Belt.
Unnatural as this state of things really is, Bussia, that colossus stretch­
ing from the Black Sea to the Baltic, that eternal menace weighing like
an incubus upon all hope of progress, protects the D anebrog; Prussia feels
too weak to throw off the fetters keeping her Baltic trade in thrall; Aus­
tria is silent; the other German States never tire of allowing their Baltic
imports and exports to be charged with Danish duties, and even pay a
bonification yearly by way of indemnity; Sweden expostulates without
avail; England and France have hitherto made light of the y o k e ; only
the United States wall worship the idol o f bygone times no longer. As
early as 1843, Mr. Secretary Upshur declared— the other maritime powers
having allowed themselves to be mesmerized by Danish diplomacy— that
“ Denmark continues to this day without any legal title to levy an exceed­
ingly strange duty on all goods passing the Sound. Denmark cannot lay
claim to these duties upon any principle either o f nature or of the law of
nations, nor from any other reason than that o f antiquated custom. It
renders no service in consideration of that tax, and has not even such
rights as the power to enforce it would give. Great and general is the
discontent felt by all nations interested in the Baltic trade on account of
that needless and humiliating contribution. For the United States the




A nd their Relations with the Commerce o f the W orld.

405

time has come when they can appropriately take a decisive step to free
their Baltic trade of this pressure.”
This strong language created great consternation at Copenhagen; how­
ever, the intermediation of Russia succeeded in warding oif the dangerous
blow ; but the United States have now once more opened their trenches
against Denmark.
It is time to break in upon the dead silence that has for years overhung
the question, and draw the attention of the mercantile and political world
towards so generally felt a calamity to trade.
The conventions last entered into in 1841, for the term of ten years,
have expired without being renewed; England, Sweden, as Prussia, and
all other powers that considered themselves to be bound by the same, are
therefore entirely at liberty now, and it is an urgent duty they owe their
mercantile communities, to move for and insist upon a thorough reform of
the Sound Dues. A t the present moment no one can tell which side will
carry it in the struggle for political preponderancy; yet assuredly there is
no lack of warlike force in the Baltic more than sufficient to dictate laws
to Denmark.
W hat renders the Sound Dues all the more severely felt is the fact that
all other highroads between the North Sea and the Baltic, both by land
and water, have in like manner been encumbered by Denmark with heavy
duties. The Sound Dues are now only part of a system, which acts no
less oppressively in the south of the Danish territory than the northern
Dardanelles do by arresting the progress o f the Baltic trade. Denmark,
since the Congress of Vienna in possession of Lauenburg, resists any sat­
isfactory reduction of the dues on the E lbe; the Hamburg-Berlin and Lubeck Railways pay taxes to Denmark, and the transit by land through
Holstein is impeded by Danish imposts. The passage of the SleswigHolstein Canal is subject to the same tribute that goods and vessels have
to pay into the Danish treasury in the Sound and Belts. Denmark, with
her tax gatherers, is master o f all the gateways between Northern Europe
and the ocean.
In times of yore, protection from freebooters and pirates was welcome
to the defenseless sailor, and he readily paid convoy-money to the Dane.
Afterwards, when light-houses, buoys, and beacons were established to
guide the pilot amidst dangerous rocks and shoals, a compensation for the
expense and maintenance of such safeguards was willingly granted. But
over and above that, to lay the open sea under high contributions o f every
description, to levy dues and perquisites from ships and goods, exclusively
for the benefit of the treasury, and without rendering any counter-benefit
— protection is not needed any longer, nor could Denmark afford it, if it
were— belongs to times o f brute force. Without the leniency and for­
bearance of the leading powers this impotent nation could not continue a
practice nor persevere in a system which have developed themselves from
the smallest beginnings to huge dimensions.
It has long ago been ascertained by careful research that the Sound
Dues originated in levying a tax on salt and wine, along with a trifling
ship-money. Even in this restricted form, the impost ied to most vehement
conflicts with the mighty Ilansa. In 1363 and 1365, her victorious arms
subjugated king Waldemar III., and wrung from him exemption from toll
“ in all time coming.” The vow was soon broken, Hanseatic vessels being
stopped in the Sound and compelled to pay duty. New victories secured




406

The Sound D ues o f D en m a rk :

a confirmation of the grant, -which was repeated in 144 3 ,14’7'7,1524, and
lastly, in the most explicit form, by the recess of Odense, 1560. Between
these confirmations, mention is made o f manifold vexations, acts of injust­
ice and complaints, which latter Denmark ultimately endeavored to set aside
by pretending that “ the old title had long since been erased by the mold
of time.” In order the easier to resist the importunity of the Hanseatic
Union, its rivals, the Netherlands, were bribed by special privileges granted
to them in the Sound. The Dutch were the first to introduce the Sound
toll by conventional obligations into the politics and the law of nations.
They did so in 1544, by the treaty of Spire, in which they agreed to pay
“ the ancient duty.” Dubious though it was, that obligation was used by
the Danes as a pretext for annoyances and molestations of every kind.
Higher duties having been imposed in 1548, a remonstrance on this ground
met with the unblushing reply “ that the king, as an independent sover­
eign, could raise them at his good pleasure,” and Denmark made use of
the power it then had to confer privileges and deny them ; it distin­
guished in the Sound between privileged and unprivileged nations. The
English, Scotch, French, and Portuguese were o f the latter class; they
paid, according to a tariff of 1558, a rosenoble (about 19 shillings) on
each vessel, and upon all goods 1 per cent of the value, excepting wine,
which had to pay 3 i per cent.
The per centage paid by privileged nations in the present day is consid­
erably above that exacted from the unprivileged three hundred years ago.
The privileged, i. e., the Netherlands and the Hanseatic towns, tendered
six casks out of each cargo of salt, in compensation for which they re­
ceived one gold florin, and they moreover paid duty on Rhenish and strong
wines. W ith these limitations, ships and goods of the six Vandal Hanse
Towns— Lubeck, Hamburg, Rostock, Stralsund, Wismar, Luneburg— were
perfectly free from taxation; foreign goods in their bottoms paid one to
three rosenobles. The eastern Hanse Towns— Dantzic, Konigsberg, Riga,
Revel, Pernau, Stettin, Greifswald, Wolgast, Elbing, Colberg— paid on
their own goods two rosenobles. The Netherlands and the western Hanseatics paid one to two rosenobles, according as the vessel was loaded or
in ballast. Amsterdam enjoyed exemption from duty even for wine.
Not long after this time, the maritime preponderancy still maintained in
the north by the Hanse began to decline, and by the treaty concluded in
1560 at Odense, with the “ worshipful Hanse Towns,” fresh advantages
were insured to Denmark. True enough those towns retained their free­
dom of duty in the abstract, but copper was added to the list o f excep­
tions ; they had to submit to primage and tonnage dues, and to carry
passports and certificates on the cargo, or to pay a line of one rosenoble.
In 1563, the war with Sweden afforded a welcome pretext for an import­
ant increase of the dues, which, in spite of treaties, was extended to the
ITanseatics and the Dutch. The peace o f Stettin, in lolO , had recognized
the exemption from duty retained by Sweden ever since the dissolution of
the Calmar Union. But treaties on this ground have ever proved illusory7.
The duties varied at the pleasure o f Denmark; tax upon tax was added;
vessels were searched and placed under embargo. Christian IV. went so
far as to prohibit the passage of all goods through the Sound, or only to
allow it by special permission and in consideration o f perfectly extravagant
taxes fixed beforehand. These foolish measures brought about an alliance
o f the Netherlands and Sweden; in the war which ensued the former sup­




A nd their Relations with the Commerce o f the W orld.

407

ported Sweden by sending a fleet before Copenhagen in 1643. This took
effect; negotiations were opened, and both powers insisted upon free and
unimpeded navigation of the open sea for all nations, and repudiated the
pretensions which would make a Danish canal of the Sound. The suc­
cessful Swedish generals— Torstenson, Horn, Wrangel, Konigsmark— had
humbled Denmark ; that able diplomatist, Chancellor Oxenstierna, obtained
for Sweden by the peace of Bromsebroe, 13th August, 1645, new provinces
and total exemption from both Sound Dues and subsidiary taxes for all
her goods and the whole of her dominions, o f which the Duchy o f Pome­
rania then formed part. Stettin was represented in these negotiations by
a special delegate. The treaties of peace at Roeskilde, in 16o7, and at
Copenhagen, in 1660, confirmed this immunity, and gave one shore o f the
straits of the Sound to Sweden. This territorial change necessarily in­
volved for Denmark the loss of her most essential title to a right o f sov­
ereignty over the Sound.
Against the States General, France had, in 1645, lent her aid to Den­
mark ; after the Danish government had fraudulently obtained information
of private instructions empowering the Dutch ambassadors to give way in
the end, the States were obliged to comply with a specified tariff fixed by
the treaty of Christianople, likewise concluded on the 13th August, 1645,
but they have never acknowledged the right to levy duties as claimed by
Denmark, nor indeed has such right met with recognition from any power
to the present day.
Danish cunning and bad faith soon rose to the surface again. The con­
cluding clause of the tariff of Christianople says:— “ And all cargoes not
specified in the preceding list are to be calculated according to mercantile
usage and the custom that has been observed in olden times and ever
since.”
This clause, construed after the Danish fashion, afforded a plausible pre­
text for unrestrainedly charging much more than 1 per cent upon goods
not named in the tariff, and gave rise to the fiction, directly opposed to
the treaty of Christianople, of an unlimited liability to duty of all unspe­
cified goods. According to the rules o f rational interpretation the word
“ calculated ” cannot mean “ taxed,” but must be rendered by “ reduced,”
referring, as it undoubtedly does, to the system adopted by the treaty of
Christianople, of reducing to one uniform rate o f weight and measure all
the different modes o f determining quantity current in the commercial
world. That, with the exception of wine and salt, which were chargeable
at the rate of from 4| to
per cent, on no one article should the duty
be allowed to exceed 1 per cent, was a rule as positively laid down by the
old tariffs as by that o f Christianople itself; the majority of enumerated
articles were even charged less than 1 per cent. Next, it had been omitted
in framing the treaty of Christianople to bind Denmark to maintain light­
houses and the like. This manifest oversight was visited home by Chris­
tian IV., who had the light-houses, beacons, and buoys removed, and did
not allow the dark coast to be lighted up again until fresh imposts had
been agreed to.
On the basis of the Christianople treaty, France, in acknowledgement
of her assistance, was, in 1645, placed on the same footing with the Neth­
erlands. So was Great Britain in 1654. They were raised to the rank of
privileged nations. To the same effect, most nations have subsequently




408

The Sound D ues o f D en m a rk :

concluded treaties of Commerce with Denmark, all of which are founded
on the treaty of Christianople.
An experiment was made on the part of Holland, in 1649, to pay
350,000 florins annually in compensation for Sound Dues, hut this plan
was abandoned in 1653. A subsequent treaty o f loth June, 1701, pro­
viding, among other things, that unspecified goods are not to he charged
with more than 1 per cent of the value at the shipping-port, has never
become obsolete, and is referred to as still in force in the convention of
1841.
Sweden entirely lost her exemption from duty on the 3d June, 1720.
The great northern war, whilst it made Charles X II. immortal, ruined his
kingdom to such a degree that after twenty years of almost uninterrupted
warfare the exhausted country, for being allowed to retain her Swedish
territorial possessions, had to give up the emancipation from Sound Dues
she had won for herself in 1645. Stralsund, Greifswald, and Wolgast,
which places had been occupied by the Danes, hut were again surrendered
to Sweden, had to adopt that country’s renunciation of 1720 as their own.
All the rest of the Baltic ports, now in the possession o f Prussia, could
not possibly be affected by that renunciation. As members o f the Hansa
they were supported by the convention o f Odense, 1560, which had since
been specially confirmed, to Danzig, Konigsberg, Elbing, and Memel, in
1569, to others at different times. Stettin, which deserves our attention
of all others, is named as contracting party by the treaty itself. Some of
those ports had been transferred by the Westphalian peace to Prussia, and
retained all the immunities conferred by the peace of Bromsebroe, 1645,
fifteen years after the dissolution o f the Hanseatic U nion; such were Colberg, Riigenwalde, Stolpe, Cammin, Treptow; others, as Stettin, Anclam,
Demmin, Wollin, Golnow, continued possessed of all their old liberties
and privileges, secured to them in 1560 and 1645, when they joined Prus­
sia at the separate peace concluded by that power with Sweden on the
21st January, 1720, anterior to the peace between Sweden and Denmark,
and consequently before the renunciation of Sweden.
W e now come to a characteristic episode. Pending the war, Prussia
and Denmark agreed at Stettin on a partition o f the German provinces of
Sweden then occupied by their troops, (30th May, 1715.) Denmark in­
sures to the ports o f Lower Pomerania (Stettin, etc.,) the freedom from
duty in the Sound and Belts “ now and in f u t u r e a few months after
(18th December, 1715,) a treaty at Stralsund suddenly cancels that con­
cession. “ The subjects in Lower Pomerania,” it says, “ are liable to duty.”
The history o f that treaty is curious enough. To prevent differences that
might arise in reference to the recently acquired possessions, it was pro­
posed to settle fiscal and commercial regulations in the camp. The Prus­
sians, above all the Minister v. Jlgen, vigorously insisted on the old rights
which Denmark tried to abrogate by sophistical clauses. The Danish dip­
lomatists found means of removing the minister out o f the w a y ; king
Frederie William I. was, without his advisers, invited to a banquet, and
after dinner his courtiers, in the pay of Denmark, produced the Stralsund
treaty for signature. It was signed— '
I solani : Sign ? anything you like !
Only don’t trouble me to read.
In vain the king, on the 3d December, 1716, claimed what was due to




A n d their Relations with the Commerce o f the W orld.

409

him by the treaty o f Odense, “ all of which,” he says, “ I have the best
right in the world to pretend to.” Danish politicians, full of mental res­
ervations and claptraps, were not to be diverted from their aim by words.
Even when shortly after, in the above-mentioned separate peace, Prussia
had obtained from Sweden Lower Pomerania, on payment of two millions
o f dollars, and both powers had mutually guarantied their privileges in
the Sound, and when by that peace the Stralsund treaty, having for its ob­
ject a partition of Pomerania between Denmark and Prussia, had become
absolutely nugatory, Denmark persisted in the refusal to recognize the old
Sound toll immunities. In the same arbitrary manner as Danzig, Konigsberg, etc., had been subjected to duty as early as the end o f the P7th cen­
tury, the Stralsund treaty was extended to and enforced against all Prus­
sian ports, without distinction as to whether they had been annexed before
or after the northern war. This was done after the Danish fashion, by
degrees, according as circumstances served, receding before superior force,
at the first favorable opportunity returning to the aggression, aided by the
inattention, ignorance, or inanity of the adversary. Only once a reaction
took place. Frederick the Great ordered his ambassador at Copenhagen,
von Bismark, to show more energy in supporting the reclamations untir­
ingly renewed by Stettin. Denmark replied that the Sound Dues were
the costliest jewel in her crown— the apple of her eye ; that the notions
for abrogation gave only trouble and vexation. She threatened to call
upon England and France for assistance; whereupon Frederick wrote to
his ambassador:— “ Vous ferez entendre, que si l’on ne voulait pas faire
attention a mes representations, je me verrai oblige a des represailles.”
For a short time this language may have intimidated. As late as 1729
the Prussian ports did not pay duty according to the tariff of Christianop le ; now and then the old rights were respected, and two small ports,
Cammin and Colberg, have been to this day essentially treated in conform­
ity with the convention of Odense, which indeed cannot be proved to have
been abrogated in respect to any o f the places concerned in it. Never­
theless the Christianople tariff has ever since 1803 been enforced against
all the rest, because it suited Denmark’s convenience to do so. Futile in­
terpretations, specious statements, and spurious facts were employed to
make the tariff as productive as possible, to introduce abuses, and to dom­
ineer at pleasure over Baltic trade and navigation. The treaties of 1814
had given to Prussia possession o f the remaining Swedish dominions in
Germany. The Vienna Congress ought to have been eagerly taken ad­
vantage o f by Prussia to rid her Baltic coast of the contribution; instead
o f doing so, she there took preparatory steps towards a treaty of Com­
merce with Denmark, which was signed on the 17th June, 1818, and, for
diplomatic incapacity and weakness, leaves everything else far behind that
has hitherto attracted our notice in reference to our subject. Instead of
advisedly and energetically defending and reclaiming the clear primeval
rights, the Prussian plenipotentiary, Count Dohna, abandoned them each
and all, subjected, without so much as asking for advice from mercantile
quarters, the Prussian ports to the tariff o f 1645, which was not even pro­
duced for inspection, and was perfectly satisfied with himself for having
obtained insertion o f a clause to the effect that goods not enumerated in
the tariff were not to be taxed with more than 1 per cent. Such a model
o f courtesy was this diplomatist, as to give his consent to a secret article
which, while it continued the privileges of Cammin and Colberg, poor




410

The Sound D ues o f D enm ark :

relics of the rights of all, exclusively deduced the title of those ports from
custom and Danish complaisance.
Denmark retained undisturbed possession of the Sound Dues— “ her
gold mine ”— and lost no opportunity to improve its productiveness. She
exceeded and violated the tariff as unscrupulously and arbitrarily as if
there had been no such thing as a binding word or promise. One should
think the extraordinary metamorphosis all commercial relations have un­
dergone in the course of two hundred years, the increase of shipping and
trade to thirty or forty times the extent both had in the middle o f the
seventeenth century, the important changes in prices of all commodities,
would have naturally led to a corresponding reduction o f the tariff; in­
stead of that the dues were levied arbitrarily and without reference to any
leading or published principle. Complaints and reclamations remained
unheard. It was proved that the tariff had been most shamefully exceed­
ed, and the subsidiary dues most immoderately raised, the former by 4 to
o per cent and upwards, the latter to from 30 to 48 dollars for the ship
instead of 6. Stettin alone had to pay too much— from 1827 to 1834,
40,000 dollars annually; 1835, 67,000 dollars; 1836 to 1838, 70,0U0
dollars annually— dues lar exceeding 1 per cent having been charged upon
more than 160 articles. Taking only six of these— coffee, rum and arrack,
raw sugars, spelter, and spirits— 493,301 dollars too much had, in the
twenty years from 1819 to 1839, been abstracted from the pockets of
Stettin merchants.
T he C o n ven tio n of 1841. The Prussian treaty of 1818 had been con­
cluded for a term of twenty years. W hen they had expired in 1838 the
commercial communities o f all the Prussian ports urged with renewed en­
ergy the removal “ o f the old sloth of obsolete Sound Dues,” and entered
their protest against the lamentable violations of the law even as it had
been laid down by the treaty o f 1818. The most careful examination was
petitioned for, and an order from the royal closet, 5th June, 1838, was
graciously pleased to promise redress. Touching letters, however, which
king Frederick VI. wrote with his own hand to king Frederick William
III., convinced his Prussian majesty that the question o f the Sound Dues
was a mere personal affair between him and his royal brother, and had
nothing whatever to do, as everybody else thought, with the interests of
trade. It is true that the Prussian ministry, in their reports to the king,
made it perfectly clear that the Sound Dues did interfere with the export
trade of Prussia and the countries in her rear, and that they likewise
raised the prices o f colonial and other foreign produce to the Prussian
consumer, manufacturer, and merchant. Steps were even taken to enter
upon negotiations; the co-operation of Sweden was secured. Denmark,
however, easily succeeded in protracting and defeating those negotiations,
and refused to allow well-informed members of the Stettin Chamber of
Commerce to take part in them, for fear of compromising her dignity.
A t last, in 1841, the Commercial Corporation of Hull, stimulated by Swe­
den, brought a motion before Parliament to desire such a revision of the
dues as was necessary to disburden the Baltic trade of England. “ Had
the administration of 1814,” said Mr. Hutt, “ paid but the slightest regard
to the great importance of our trade with the North of Europe, it could
never have countenanced pretensions so antiquated and prejudicial as those
raised by the king of Denmark to the effect of throwing obstacles into
the way of free ingress to and egress from the Baltic. The Sound Dues




A nd their Relations with the Commerce o f the W orld.

411

are an institution diametrically opposed to every acknowledged principle
of international law, and to all the usages of tie civilized world ; a direct
violation of those wise maxims that ought to regulate the intercourse of
nations, and prejudicial to the best interests of our Commerce.”
Sir Robert Peel warmly supported the motion, and regarded the Parlia­
mentary debate in the light of an effective demonstration with a view to
the conversion of Denmark.
The foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston,
also gave his full consent to the motion, and referred to the negotiations
already in progress. Upon the latter, Denmark had readily entered, true
to her principle— divide and rule. They had been opened by Sweden, and
taken up by England. Prussia was entreated by Denmark to keep aloof
from them, a separate agreement being held out to her, which should pay
due regard to all Prussian grievances. The hoax succeeded as completely
as could be desired. England was silenced by certain reductions, princi­
pally on manufactured goods; the complaints of Sweden were got rid of
by increasing the amount Denmark yearly paid to Sweden towards the
support of certain light-houses. On the 23d August, 1841, Denmark con­
cluded a convention at London and Elsinore with England and Sweden,
by which, as by nearly all her former treaties, she has lost nothing and
gained much. After the convention had been ratified, Russia, who osten­
sibly at least had had no hand in the negotiations, hastened to accept it
formally and expressly-—which, from her already existing privileged posi­
tion, was not at all necessary— and the Director o f the Sound Dues was
decorated with a Russian order set in diamonds. Prussia, however, was
dismissed with being given to understand that the question had been set­
tled by the said treaty. In the Baltic ports apprehensions were felt lest
Prussia should simply adhere to the Anglo-Swedish conventions, without
carrying the necessary thorough reform, but the Minister of Finance, v.
Alvensleben, assured them that their commercial interests would be care­
fully attended to. Competent persons from Stettin were called to Berlin.
They moved for a total abolition o f the Sound Dues, either by capitalizing
them or paying them off by aversional sums. In case neither were feas­
ible, they proposed to have the tariff entirely repealed, an uniform duty of
one-half per cent established in its stead, and such duty to be levied for
Danish account in the Baltic ports, and according to the value shown by
bills of lading and invoices. Any tariff, they said, was dangerous in Dan­
ish hands; the new convention was already misconstrued, and did charge
most articles of import at the rate of 2 per cent; a number of specified
and unspecified articles had been estimated at more than their value. It
was downright nonsense to retain a tariff framed two hundred years ago.
Denmark, however, was supported by Russia, and, when Prussia became
more pressing again, began to play a different game, placing it at the op­
tion of Prussia to adopt the convention of 1841 provisionally, and declar­
ing her readiness to negotiate on the capitalization of the duty, which ob­
ject, however, she took good care to defeat by underhand operations. This
cannot be called a misfortune; it is clear that rather than indemnify Den­
mark by payment of an amount of nearly forty millions of dollars, quite
different means ought to be resorted to. But so far Prussia had again
been discomfited in carrying out her good intentions. Demonstrations
through the officious press met with a haughty answer from Denmark on
the same ground; besides, the Danish government, through the medium
of the French ambassador at Copenhagen, published an attack on Prussia




412

The Sound D ues o f D en m a rk:

in the Journal des Dehats, where the remonstrances of the fifth power
were called unseasonable and impolitic “ in the name of all the European
cabinets.”
The negotiations had, on the part of Prussia, been conducted with thor­
ough knowledge of the subject and steady perseverance; they were de­
feated by the tough, unconquerable resistance of Denmark, and were sus­
pended in 1815, the treaty o f 1818 being tacitly acknowledged. “ Prus­
sia,” as her government stated at the time, “ aimed at buying off the duty
in order to get rid of the pressure upon trade exercised at the very gates
of the Baltic by a form o f taxation so entirely exceptional and at variance
with the spirit of the age. Having failed in that object, the government
will have to regard as their next duty to the country, to promote an alle­
viation of the burden by every means within their reach. Denmark has,
as far as the question at issue is concerned, been always swayed by a short­
sighted policy, and paid attention only to her nearest and most palpable
interests. Anxious but about one thing, v iz.: to keep up the favorable
state of her finances, however arbitrary and illegal her system of taxation,
she has always obstinately defended it up to the very moment when she
could not but perceive opposition had grown to an intensity which would
render further resistance impossible and even dangerous to the conserva­
tion of the right itself. It has only been in such moments of jeopardy,
and face to face with superior force, that Denmark has consented to sacri­
fice just as much o f her system of taxation as appeared absolutely neces­
sary, according to time and circumstances, in order to preserve the whole
from immediate destruction. Such is the history of all negotiations in
reference to Sound Dues, from the treaties o f Odense and Christianople
down to the present day. To the higher point of view, that the Sound
Dues are a diseased spot on her body, and will, in our times, continue the
object of unceasing attacks, Denmark has never been accessible. Public
opinion is unanimous in condemning the convention o f 1841 as a half
measure, unsatisfactory in every respect. Not content with making Den­
mark that important concession o f allowing the antiquated tariff of Chris­
tianople to continue in force, it has, moreover, entirely frustrated the an­
ticipation of a better state of things, and neither in theory nor practice
has it been founded upon any principle. Not even the reduction to 1 per
cent of all the duties on non-enumerated articles has been carried ; several
of the foremost articles of importation, raw sugars, salt from some coun­
tries, pig-iron, etc., continue to be charged at higher and partially exorbi­
tant rates; the reform, so often and urgently asked for, of the oppressive
and arbitrary system of perquisites, has not only been completely waived,
but there has even been given a formal recognition o f the legality of the
present mode to levy perquisites, although decidedly contrary to all trea­
ties ; in like manner, shipmasters have been formally saddled with the ob­
ligation of personally appearing before the Chamber of Sound Dues to
clear their vessels, an obligation founded upon no treaty; besides, Den­
mark has been allowed to increase light and beacon money by 12i per
cent, and nothing has been done towards a fair settlement o f boat-hire and
pilotage. Denmark has tried, with her notorious sophistry, to make the
result appear less unsatisfactory than it is, and she indulges in the illusion
to fancy the revenue from the Sound Dues a possession she will be allowed
quietly to enjoy. A t the same time when she repeatedly protested her
readiness to negotiate on the capitalization, she has found means, by rais­




A n d their Relations with the Commerce o f the W orld.

413

ing every kind of obstacle, to elude even the proposal o f annual aversional
payments, and slie seems to expect oilers so generous to spring into reality
by the favor of casual circumstances, and as it were o f their own accord.
When such is the state of matters, any time will serve for representing to
Denmark the absolute necessity of going to work in reforming her present
faulty system, and there can be not the slightest doubt that Denmark will
never yield to the persuasion of an enlightened and far-seeing policy, but
only to the compulsory force o f external circumstances and hard facts.”
If this language had induced the commercial public of Prussia to in­
dulge in any sanguine expectations, the government soon entirely disap­
pointed them by renewing the treaty o f Commerce instead of dissolving
it. Russia had demanded and obtained some paltry reductions in the tariff
for cotton, raw sugar, and spirits. They were graciously extended to the
Prussian flag— a matter o f course by the treaty of 1818— and Denmark
not only escaped from having this treaty thrown up, but by the fourth ar­
ticle of the convention of 26th May, 1846, acquired also the adhesion of
Prussia to that of 1841, in consideration of the promise, unnecessary to
be mentioned, that all reductions o f the tariff of 1841, and all and every
privileges or advantages o f whatsoever kind, heretofore or henceforth
granted or to be granted to any other nation, were ij)so facto and by right
equally to refer to Prussian subjects. By an order o f the Prussian Minis­
ter of Finance, dated 17th June, 1846, the pregnant concession was more­
over made to Denmark, that Prussian cargoes were to be furnished with
officially attested declarations.
To lessen the burden as far as it weighs upon the Commerce of Prussia,
that country has long made, and is still making, considerable sacrifices out
of her own treasury. The fees of her consul at Elsinore were reduced in
1845, that the foreign exaction might be less severely felt. Already, since
1825, a discount o f
per cent had been allowed to Stettin on the import,
export, or transit duties for all goods passing the Sound to or from that
port. This bonification from the pockets of the generality of taxpayers
was extended in 1845 to all Baltic ports. Within the five years from
1840 to 1853 the discount amounted to 407,799 dollars, which, computed
for the thirty years since 1835, would make up a sum of several millions,
paid in order that Denmark might not be disturbed in filling “ her gold
mine.” The discount, however, falls far short of being an indemnification,
for the Sound Dues amount to from 6 to 8 per cent o f the import duty of
the Zollverein, consequently at least 3 l per cent are not covered by the
form er; on transit goods the discount is hardly worth naming, transit and
export duties being insignificant in proportion to Sound Dues. Owing to
this circumstance many British goods are now forwarded to Poland via
Hamburg by rail, which would otherwise have gone via Danzig, as the
higher charges of railway transport are all but balanced by the saving o f
Sound Dues and o f interest. In general, any reduction of the duties of
the Zollverein must of course have the effect of placing the Baltic ports
at a further disadvantage, the discount being then reduced in proportion,
while the Sound Dues remain the same.
T he E x p ir a t io n op tiie C o n ventions o f 1841 an d 1846. Both agree­
ments have expired on the 1st July, 1851. Every government has it in
its power to give notice that it does not intend to be bound by the treaty
any longer; from the date of such notice being given the convention of




414

The Sound D ues o f D en m a rk:

1841 remains in force for a twelvemonth, that with Prussia of 1846 for
half that period only.
From the Prussian Baltic ports, as well as in Sweden, reclamations were
vigorously renewed both before and after the conventions in question had
expired. The prosternation of trade, the difficulty of competition with
the Elbe and the railways, was dwelt upon at great length by the Stettin
merchants, who flattered themselves with the hope that the conferences
held at Dresden in 1851 would do away with the oppressive and vexatious
burden. The deputies o f the Society o f Wholesale Dealers and Shipown­
ers at Stockholm complained o f fresh violations of treaty in levying the
nonsensical and oft'ensive tribute, called to mind the old franchise, the sig­
nificant circumstance that Denmark was only possessed of one shore of
the Sound, and the readiness of Sweden to keep at hand an auxiliary corps
in order to save the Danish monarchy, when its existence seemed to be at
an emergency during the last crisis. The equipment o f that corps has
put Sweden to an expense of two millions of dollars banco, as all Swedish
ratepayers will have cause to remember for six years to come. Such aid
having been given, the continuance o f a Danish tax on Swedish trade for
the passage o f the Sound close to the Swedish shore appears doubly oner­
ous and humiliating. By a fiction o f the convention o f 1841, a line is
drawn from the flag-battery at Kronenborg to the north end of Helsingborg on the Swedish side; in consequence thereof it happens every day
that in contradiction with common sense the cabotage between two Swed­
ish ports on ditferent sides o f the imaginary line is made to pay Sound
Dues at Elsinore.
In the yearly reports of the commercial corporations of Stettin and
Danzig to the Prussian ministry, the Sound Dues, as an obstacle occupying
the fir s t rank, as a never-healing wound of Baltic trade, as an unsupportable burden on the open sea, as a “ canker in the flesh,” form the neverending theme of complaint. The replies of the Ministers o f Commerce
endeavor to hold out future comfort. On the 19th August, 1841, the cor­
porations were sold, the petition for throwing up the convention of 1846,
or securing a reduction of such articles as were paying more than 1 per
cent, had been carefully examined, but that the conviction had resulted
that, under existing circumstances, negotiations would have no chance of
success, and that consequently the idea had been abandoned for the time
being. On the 21st June, 1852, they were informed that it was unfeasible
to take the whole of the Sound Dues upon the general budget; again, on
the 24th September, 1853, that the government would not he remiss in
trying to bring about a reduction of the Sound Dues, the moment a favor­
able opportunity should turn up. W e wonder if this opportunity has
drawn nearer in consequence of the offensive and defensive alliance formed
between Austria and Prussia on the 20th April, for the exclusive protec­
tion of German interests. The mercantile world looks forward with greater
confidence to the transatlantic “ pressure from without,” which promises
to be effective.
It would be a strange delusion to fancy that the state of things in the
Sound and Belts had become more regular and rational in the course of
the last twelve years. W hile the nucleus of the matter remains intact,
while the tariff o f Christianople, for hundreds o f years the source of un­
ceasing complaints, continues, in spite of its tottering old age, to be forced
upon the youthful life o f trade, the matter can never be allowed to rest.




A n d their Relations with the Commerce o f the W orld.

415

The ridicule of the whole affair is best shown by comparison. Fancy, for
instance, import duties to be levied to-day according to valuations from
custom-rolls of the 17th century ! W hat was originally 1 per cent has,
in the course of time, become 4 to 12, even 10 per cent; salt, among oth­
ers, pays according to the place of origin 8 to 16 per cent; cotton and
twist, 3 to 4 per cent; wine, 5 to 10; tobacco, 6 ; rice, 4 ; molasses, 3 ;
raisins, 7 ; currants, 24 ; pepper and ginger, 44; cloves, alum, saltpeter, 3
to 5 ; dyewood, 14; spelter, 14; herrings, 2 ; Swedish rod-iron, 14 per
cent. Steel, planks, and lathwood are free of export duty in Sweden, but
pay 34 per cent on passing the Sound. As regards non-enumerated arti­
cles, the convention o f 1841 expressly fixes the maximum duty at 1 per
cent. Important articles, as raw sugar and coffee, pay in fact 2 per cent;
plums, 2 per cent; spices, 5 to 7 ; cacao, 24; potato-starch, 2 ; whisky
from potatoes, 5 to 6 ; sulphur, 34; pimento, 34; brown rosin, 5 ; pigiron, 5 per cent. “ Custom, established in time immemorial,” takes prece­
dence of treaties at Elsinore. Seeds, ship-biscuit, salt-meat, wool, rags,
grain, and timber pay likewise heavy dues.
The ship-money towards supporting lightfires and beacons has been
raised for laden vessels from 4 to 44 thalers specie, and for vessels in bal­
last from 2 to 24, contrary to the treaty o f 1T01. By the ship-money
from vessels passing the Sound and Belts, Denmark not only covers the
expenses for fires and beacons there, and the yearly indemnity to Sweden
for some fires maintained by the latter, but also the costs o f all similar in­
stitutions at all other coasts and ports of the country, and she moreover
realizes an annual net profit of 50,000 dollars, which rises to 14,000 dol­
lars if the dues from ships entering her ports are added. Besides, the
levying of similar dues in the open sea is without example in the civilized
world. A t the coasts of England, France, Spain, and other countries, in
the Channel, the Straits of Gibraltar, Messina, the Dardanelles, everywhere
are to be found lights, generally better maintained than the Danish, for
protecting the sailor; nowhere the vessel sailing past them has to pay any
duty. It is a commandment of political ethics that countries whose terri­
tories are bounded by the sea should take the first and simplest measures
for preventing loss of life. The dues are justified only in reference to ves­
sels entering the ports.
Still more unnatural and unjust, if possible, are the perquisites. After
the goods have paid Sound Dues, the vessel ship-money, the Danish offi­
cers must be paid by the owners of both for gathering those taxes of
them. The perquisites have since 1841 been increased by 1 species, or
l i dollar, besides 1 species 6 stivers to the inspector, and to the persons
doing the translations 32 stivers for 1 to 4 bills of lading or 1 to 8 eockets, and 4 stivers for each bill of lading or cocket in addition. Ships in
ballast or with coals pay 12 stivers (about 13 pence.) As arbitrary as the
raising of the perquisites against the treaty of 1701, is a proviso accord­
ing to which fees o f 21 and 1 species ai-e levied from vessels bound for
Copenhagen, and which sail thither without stopping to clear at Elsinore,
but send their papers to the latter place from Copenhagen; as also from
vessels whose papers are handed in by others than the master, the mate,
or the supercargo.
The same observation refers to the money for the poor’s box— 1 species
for clearing a vessel on Sundays and holidays, or out o f business hours.
From this conglomeration of fees the custom-house officers at Elsinore are




416

The Sound D ues o f D enm ark :

paid incredibly liberal wages; still it leaves a surplus that goes into the
public treasury. The director of the chamber of Sound Dues, a sinecure,
had in 1850 a salary of 15,960 dollars ; the clerks of the chamber, like­
wise sinecures, had from 4,000 to 8,000 each; the cashier, 6,570; the in­
spector, the translator, the passport-clerk, the clerk of the stamp-office, the
runners and messengers, the crew o f the guard-ship, were all salaried pro­
portionately.
The sum total o f the perquisites amounts to about 160,000 dollars an­
nually. From the savings out of them a capital had accumulated up to
1852, of 247,151 dollars. Perfectly exorbitant and a real extortion are
the taxes of boatmen and pilots at Elsinore. The shipmaster is obliged
to lay to there, throw anchor in the open sea, and repair immediately to
the chamber of Sound Dues. His vessel being generally feebly manned,
he has to take a ferryboat. The difficulty and the dangers of the naviga­
ble channel force him to hire a pilot. For the ferryboat, which generally
takes him only a few hundred yards, he has to pay 7 to 19 dollars, accord­
ing to the weather and the season; by night, 9 to 22 dollars. In stormy
weather and drifting ice, the boatman may make any charge he likes—
sometimes 30 to 35 dollars; in quiet weather, he will gain with ease in
one day 40 to 60 dollars. The pilot, though he should have been on
board only 24 hours, gets, for a vessel of medium size— drawing 15 feet—
in summer 36-1, in winter 47 dollars; for every foot beyond 16, 2 dollars
68 shillings more. A pilot at the Sound is a money-making man.
The light dues, perquisites, boat, and pilot hires fall to the charge of
shipowners ; besides the delay at and near Elsinore, the clearing out and
the paying of the dues cost them enormous sums. The necessity for stop­
ping tempts the shipmaster into numerous expenses, into purchasing ship
stores and other articles, which it is not in the power of the shipowner to
control. Even without these evil consequences, the delay occasioned by
the compulsory clearing at Elsinore would be bad enough; every one ac­
quainted with trade knows how much the chances of a speculation depend
upon the speedy arrival o f a cargo at the port of destination. The wind
may change while a vessel is at anchor, or she may arrive in the roads
after 10 o’clock P. M., in which case she loses the whole night, no custom­
house officer being on the spot before 4 o’clock in the morning. By a
present of 4 per cent of the duty, which is tendered by the name of
“ Forung,” for correct declaration, the shipmasters are slily bribed over to
the Danish interest.
The remark in the convention o f 1841, that the “ Forung” is to cover
the expenses, is illusory, the expenses being much higher. Fresh expenses
are entailed by the clearing-houses at Elsinore, indispensable to captains,
as they are not allowed to pay the dues themselves. The agents charge
2 to 31 j>er cent commission for paying the duty, and 8 species, or 12 dol­
lars— sometimes even more— for clearing the vessel; if money has to be
taken on bottomry, the charge is 10 per cent. They yearly make upwards
o f 200,000 dollars Prussian currency, leaving out the profits they realize
on the exchange. That sum eni'iches about 20 commercial firms. In
1850 the deputies o f the Stockholm society of wholesale dealers and ship­
owners computed the charges to Swedish shipowners at Elsinore at
150.000 Prussian dollars yearly ; the dues upon goods at about as much.
Danzig alone pays on the average, annually, 120,000 ; Stettin, upwards of
130.000 dollars for Sound Dues, o f which 4,000 to 11,000 dollars are




417

A n d their Relations with the Commerce o f the W orld.

sometimes paid by one single firm. The Stettin shipowners pay 27,000
dollars annually, under the heads of light dues, pilotage, fees, commission,
clearing charges, and postages.
These details will be sufficient to show why Denmark has a right to
call the income from the Sound Dues a jewel in her crown. Owing to the
extraordinary increase o f trade in general and the steady development of
commercial enterprise in Prussia and Kussia, and of the share both coun­
tries have in the Commerce o f the world, the Danish gold mine improves
in fertility from year to year. Even such reductions as are wrung from
Denmark from time to time and by hard pressure, regularly result in the
further advantage and profit o f her treasury. The interests of trade in
the Baltic ports, and in England, Holland, Belgium, France, and the Uni­
ted States are conflicting in a most singular manner. W ith a high tariff,
trade suffers; any reduction makes the Danish taxation grow up, polyp­
like, to prodigious dimensions, and renders competition with other routes
still more difficult.
A t the beginning of the 18th century the number o f vessels passing theSound and Belts in one year w as:—
m o
1800
1830

7,136
10,221

13,212

1840.
1850
1853

15,662
19,919
21,586

Looking at the flags as specified in the official lists for 1849 to 1853, it
appears that the increase is owing to a progression in the shipping of
Norway, Prussia, Eussia, Denmark, Mecklenburg, and Lubeck. The great
demand for the produce of the Baltic countries, and the tide of increasing
traffic setting in from other quarters o f the world, especially California and
Australia, have caused that increase in spite o f the Sound Dues. Holland
and France have made no progress in the numbers of their shipping pass­
ing the Sound; the United States have made backward steps; but, of all
others, England has lost most. In 1849 the number of British vessels
passing the Sound exceeded that in 1853 by 2,220, and that in 1852 even
by 2,953.
THE FOLLOWING VESSELS PASSED THE SOUND :----




1850.
5,448
2,553
1,982
1,906
2,391
1,138
1,266
314
1,081
429
106
208
62
102
4
39
34
2
S
••

18,959

19,070

27

CO

VOL. X X X III.-----NO. IV .

1849.
6,885
2,877
2,191
1,960
1,361
1,200
1,154
364
337
308
121
74
56
40
IS
7
7
2
2
••

wrsr
GO

English.........
Norwegian..
Swedish . . . .
D u tch ...........
Prussian . . . .
Russian . . . .
D anish.........
French..........
Mecklenburg
Hanoverian .
Am erican.. .
Oldenburg . .
Italian...........
L u beck ........
Belgian.........
Hamburgh.. .
Bremen........
Spanish . . . .
Portuguese .
Austrian . . .

4,811
2,894
2,255
2,060
2,664
1,047
1,518
288
1,077
661
135
222
43
125
7
77
33

1851.

2

3,902
3,020
2,100
1,691
2,319
946
1,464
283
771
555
76
183
48
136
2
46
22
6
2
••

4,665
3,393
2,007
1,875
3,487
1,202
2,095
345
1,103
743
96
230
50
139
22
73
36
4
18
••

19,919

17,563

21,586

..

418

The Sound D ues o f D en m a rk :

O f the 21,586 vessels in 1853, 10,526 came with cargoes from the
North Sea; 7,716 from the Baltic; 2,344 were in ballast.
2,000 to 3,000 vessels passed the Belts annually.
Russian commercial policy, Danish taxation and unavoidable molesta­
tions of shipowners, have scared away the British flag from a territory on
which in 1849 it still took precedence. The declared value o f British pro­
duce shipped direct to Russia is estimated—
1849 ................................
1850................................

£1,379,179 I 1851...............................
1,279,650 | 1852...............................

£1,157,543
994,330

W e wonder if the British negotiators of 1841 have met with thanks for
raising the subsidiary taxes and for superficially revising the tarilf; we
even doubt it. The United States are laying greater stress upon the de­
crease of their Baltic shipping trade.
The income from the Sound Dues, on the average, runs upon the same
scale with the number o f ships. In 1756 the Danish treasury received
200.000 dollars; 1770, 450,890; 1820, 1,500,000 dollars.
The year
1853, compared to 1756, shows a more than thirteenfold increase; the
receipts amounted to 2,530,000 dollars. The insufficient reduction of
1841 had left no trace in 1844.
The revenue from 2,258,000, rapidly
rose to 2,432,000 dollars. In the budget o f 1847 the receipts, owing to
the reductions o f May, 1846, had been estimated at 1,832,000 dollars only
— they actually amounted to 699,000 dollars more, having risen to
2.531.000 dollars.
A return for the 24 years ending 1853, shows the revenue from Sound
Dues, rosenobles, light dues, and fees at the Oeresound and the Belts to
have amounted to 54,000,000 dollars; upon the average, 2,250,000 dol­
lars yearly; besides, the extra charges to agents, boatmen, pilots, and for
postages amount to at least 800,000 dollars annually; 12 millions more
must therefore be added to the above 54 millions. The discount paid by
the Prussian exchequer indirectly forms a further item o f about 2 mil­
lions. A t the end o f another period of 24 years, the colossal sum will
have been doubled. The monster grows the more food it has thrown
into its fangs, to more and more gigantic proportions.
THE SOUND DOES, THE FIRE MONET, AND THE FEES HAVE BROUGHT----

•Rixdalers.

1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841,
1842,

1.966.000
2 .210.000
2.090.000
1.890.000
1.910.000
2.087.000
2.203.000
2.326.000
2.417.000
2.401.000
2.258.000
2.076.000

Rixdalers.

1843
1844
1845
1846
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853.

2.294.000
2.432.000
2.361.000
2,160,900
2.531.000
2.250.000
2.150.000
2.400.000
2.450.000
2.500.000
2.530.000
54,009,000

These figures are based upon the Danish returns, as far as they are pub­
lished, and from 1850 upon the finance laws, adding the light money and
perquisites, and raising the estimate to the actual amount taken.




* One rixdaler about 2s. 3d., or 56 cents Federal money.

Arid their Relations with the Commerce o f the W orld.

419

THE FINANCE LAWS ESTIMATE FOE----

1850 .
Oresund dues and rosenoble.............
N y b o r g ................................................
Friedericia............................................
Light and beacon money...................
Perquisites..........................................
Poor money..........................................
Fines ....................................................
Interest on the capital from surplus
perquisites......................................
Take, instead of th is .........................
Which are stated in proportion to
the increasing traffic, and an addition
has to be made o f................................

1851 .

185 ®.

1851

$2,017,600 $2,035,000 $2,055,810 $2,050,000
17,400
17,650
17,300
18,300
2,700
2,750
3,300
3,700
2,037,770
149,770
134,245
5,970
5,960

2,055,400
153,430
136,030
6,155
5,933

2,076,400
158,895
139,970
6,266
6,340

1,081,000
161,335
140,930
6,175
5,500

6,740

7,650

9,572

6,415

2,340,358
2,400,000

2,365,000
2,450,000

2,399,040
2,500,000

2,399,350
2,530,000

60,000

85,000

100,000

130,000

Beyond doubt, within the reality; and it remains to be seen if Denmark
is inclined and able to disprove it. The objection, that the light moneys
and perquisites are not to be stated in the receipts, requires— after what
has already been said— no refutations, long as they are levied. Nobody
will enter protest against their non-levy.
W h o pays these sums ? The usual answer is— the trade of Russia half,
Prussia a fourth, the remaining Baltic countries the rest. But the ship­
ping of all flags, not excepting the British, bears its heavy share o f the
burden; and the duty on goods is, according to the state of markets, as
often paid by the shipper as by the receiver. Whenever England is in
want of great quantities o f grain, timber, flax, or other staple articles o f
Baltic exportation, the British consumer bears the brunt o f the Sound
Dues.
On the other hand, when goods are imported to the Baltic through the
Sound, it is always the receiver who pays the Sound Dues, on account o f
the competition of other and cheaper routes of traffic. The Baltic mer­
chant dares not charge the Sound Dues to the consumer, because he in
that case would lose him as a customer. Ilis mercantile enterprises, al­
ready burdened with heavy insurance for the passage through the danger­
ous Cattegat— where every year 20 to 40 vessels are lost— are further
maimed by the Danish imposts, even where these keep within the limits
of conventions.
All vessels must hoist their flags in the Sound before passing Kronenborg, if coming from the north ; - before sailing past the guard-ship in the
roads of Elsinore, if outward bound. They belong to three classes—
privileged, unprivileged, and Danish. The following are at present priv­
ileged nations:—
Belgium, by the convention o f 13 June, 1841; the Brazils, by the con­
vention of 26 April, 1828; Bremen, by the convention of 5 November,
1835; Great Britain, by the convention o f 11 July, 1670, and 13 A u­
gust, 1841; France, by the convention o f 23 August, 1742 ; Greece, by
the convention of 31 October, 1846 ; Hamburgh, by the convention of
27 May, 1768; Hanover, by the convention o f 13 April, 1844; Holland,
by the convention o f 13 August, 1843, 15 July, 1701, and 10 July, 1817;




420

The Sound D ues o f D en m a rk :

Lubeck, by tbe convention of 14 October, 1840 ; Mexico, by the conven­
tion of 19 July, 1827 ; Mecklenburg, by the convention of 25 November,
1845; United States, by the convention of 26 April, 1826 ; Norway, by
the convention of 23 August, 1841; Austria, by the convention of 12 Feb­
ruary, 1834 ; Oldenburg, by the convention of 31 March, 1841; Prussia,
by the convention of 17 June, 1841, and 26 May, 1846 ; Russia, by the
convention of 8 October, 1782, and o f 14 October, 1831; Sardinia, by the
convention of 14 August, 1843 ; Naples, by the convention of 13 January,
1846 ; Sweden, by the convention of 3 July, 1720, and 23 August, 1841;
Spain, by the convention of 25 May, 1798: Venezuela, by the convention
of 26 March, 1838.
W ith regard to all of them, it has been provided that ships and cargoes
in the Sound and Belts have to pay no higher dues and taxes than are, or
will be paid now and in future by the most favored nations. From this,
it naturally follows that both old and new conventions apply to them all;
each subsequent reduction equally benefits every one of them, and any na­
tion obtaining, either by means of negotiations or by the force o f arms,
the total abolition of the Sound Dues, will thereby at once secure the
same right to all others.
The only unprivileged nations in Europe at present are Portugal, the
States of the H oly See, and Turkey. The disadvantages connected with
the unprivileged position are in reality o f little consequence. They prin­
cipally consist in the dues on the unenumerated articles being l j , instead
of 1 per cent; in an addition o f a fourth part on certain Spanish and Por­
tuguese wines, and on bottled wine ; o f ^ to ^ on grain, according as it is
shipped at different Baltic ports ; of a rosenoble besides the dues on goods
bound for R ostock; lastly, in unprivileged vessels and cargoes being sub­
ject to the right o f search. This right o f search, however, rests on a mere
assumption on the part of Denmark; it has never been either recognized
or practiced.
Danish vessels form a separate class, enjoying greater privileges than
the vessels of privileged nations. It is true, that by a royal resolution of
18 February, 1771, both classes are placed on the same footing, and there
can be no doubt whatever that any privileges conceded to Danish vessels
may be claimed with equal right by the vessels of all other privileged
nations.
The forbearance towards Denmark, however, has allowed the flag o f that
country to acquire a series o f exclusive immunities, to which the crowning one
has been added in the course of the present year. Besides numerous facil­
ities accorded them in reference to light dues and perquisites, Danish com­
modities— both raw produce and manufactures— if imported from, or ex­
ported to the Faroer, Seeland, and Greenland, goods the produce o f the
Danish colonies and shipped in Danish bottoms, and all goods shipped
thither in such vessels, enjoy full exemption from Sound Dues in the Sound
and Belts. Since the 1st April, 1854, a discount equal to the full amount
of the Sound Dues is being allowed on the Danish import duties for all
goods the produce of transatlantic countries, if brought direct to Denmark
from the producing country. By thus allowing to the full a discount
which has only partially been accorded by Prussia to her ports, Denmark
exonerates her inland consumption from Sound Dues on coffee, dyewood,
rice, tobacco, tea, mahogany, &c. Rum and arrack form an exception to
the franchise, partly to protect the home production o f spirits from com­




A n d their Relations with the Commerce o f the W orld.

421

petition, partly on account o f the Danish colonies, whose produce is
charged with only 48 shillings Rbco. less duty than foreign rum, but,
owing to the exemption, is actually protected at the rate of 1 dollar for
30 quarts.
By the letter of the resolution, the discount in question has not been
restricted to the Danish flag; but experience shows that far more extensive,
while more justified concessions, in reference to Danish importation, though
open to being taken advantage of by all privileged flags, have in the nat­
ural course of circumstances heen but rarely made use of by the latter,
and turned almost exclusively to the benefit o f Danish shipping. Since
1842 there existed in Denmark, with reference to the direct transatlantic
importation of the said goods, a drawback of 25 per cent on import duty
and all charges upon vessels; still, in the ten years ending 1852, only
2,662 commerce-lasts of foreign shipping have been tempted by the draw­
back to import goods of that favored description into Denmark; whereas
during the same period the owners of 659 Danish vessels, with 72,770
commerce-lasts, have reaped the fruits of the facilitated direct importation,
amounting to 888,000 dollars. A t that time Denmark did not yet dare
to show any preference with respect to the Sound Dues to her own flag,
and she not only levied Sound Dues on direct importations, but even de­
ducted the amount of the dues from the drawback on such cargoes as had
had to pass neither the Sound nor Belts. A t present she has shown more
courage. The remission o f 25 per cent on the import duty was too great
a drain on the needy treasury; something was to he done to promote
Danish shipping trade; and thus, contrary to the letter and the spirit of
existing conventions, a remission o f the Sound Dues on the direct Danish
importation was resorted to, the whole burden o f the unnatural tax being
thereby thrown upon the transit. The Danish government may have re­
membered a passage from Winter’s Tale—
“ Truly the gods have taken mercy upon us this year, and we may do all we like.”

The right to make a distinction of that kind is doubtful in the extreme
-—all privileged nations have been placed upon a perfectly equal footing.
Waiving the question, if foreign flags will take advantage of this discount,
Denmark is not entitled to favor her own importation by means of a re­
mission of Sound Dues, unless the same favor be at the same time equally
extended to the importation through the Sound of all other privileged
countries— all o f which may claim the immunities o f the most favored na­
tions. The conditions under which Prussia allows a discount are mani­
festly of a very different nature, and the allowance itself is not made in
violation of treaties.
The recent Danish measure may even injure the Baltic ports, and in
their prejudice lead to a staple right of the Danish ports being established
at the expense of the other ports in the Baltic, and wholly at variance
with acknowledged principles of free trade. Not only the Baltic States,
but also England, Belgium, Holland, France, &c., have therefore all possi­
ble cause for complaint, and in like degree the llanse-Towns, Hamburgh,
and Lubeck, must consider themselves placed at a disadvantage— their
very important indirect importation into Denmark, subject to the full im­
port duty, being by these distinctions in favor of a direct supply brought
face to face with a new and formidable competition. In some quarters it
is mooted that by the Danish resolution o f 1st April, 1854, it is intended




422

The Sound D ues o f D en m a rk :

to buy off the United States. If so, we guess the calculation will prove
incorrect, as soon as the subject shall have been gone into, and the con­
viction arrived at that the measure in question cannot but result in the
advantage of Denmark, and o f Denmark only. The United States must
necessarily have an eye to the unimpeded passage of rice, tobacco, and
cotton, and the facilities accorded to the trifling importation of Denmark,
can in no way make up for the heavy dues weighing on those articles if
bound to other quarters.
No one will volunteer to prove that the present state o f matters can be
tolerated any lon ger; reform is most urgent, and the necessity for it is
being so strongly felt, that the singular idea o f circumventing the Sound,
by means of a canal, has actually been ventilated. That canal was to be
laid through Schonen, from Baa to Wiigen, on a level with the sea; it
was to extend two German miles in length, and to be 20 feet deep and
100 feet broad. Commodious ports were to be constructed at each en­
trance, and proper arrangements made for tugging every vessel through
in a few hours. The expenses are estimated at from 5 to 6 millions of
dollars, and the dues that would be made necessary for paying interest
and maintaining the establishment are computed at a fourth part of the
present annual revenue at the Sound.
Instead o f a road made by the hands o f nature, an artificial one is to
open a gate to trade and navigation. The plan renders sufficient evidence
to the heavy pressure, and is a manifest proof of the hopelessness and faint­
heartedness of the commercial public looking forward for help and redress
to the carrying out o f such an undertaking. As little prospect there is to
get rid o f the burden by paying off the capital. In times like the present,
when all countries are forced yearly to add to their debts, where should
the means be found to raise forty to fifty millions o f dollars ? Where the
unanimity in contracting loans towards this purpose, and making sacri­
fices of that amount in favor of Denmark ? The interest of the maritime
powers makes it necessary to resort to other means. The dissatisfaction
felt in England at the convention o f 1841 is as strong as it is general;
the British cabinet may at times have looked upon and made use of the
Sound Dues as a sword of their commercial policy-—but, at any rate, it is
a sword that cuts both ways, and deeply wounds the trade and navigation
o f their own country.
The United States see the extension of their traffic suffering under high
and illegal duties imposed upon the staple articles of their exportation ;
their treaty with Denmark may be thrown up every twelvemonth. The
French wine trade groans under exorbitant dues. W ith what intensity
the burden is felt in Sweden is shown by the complaints of 1850. Prus­
sia is absolutely and unavoidably placed in the position o f continuing the
persevering and determined opponent of the Sound D u es; she has, down
to 1845, honestly, seriously, and zealously maintained that position, doing
and offering anything to get rid of the fetter. She has failed. Her geo­
graphical and political situation pressingly call upon her to go the way
open to her— throwing up the treaties of 1818 and 1840. Let but a
single leading power do so, and at the same time give notice o f its inten­
tion not to submit any longer to the burdening of its trade and navigation,
and, if need be, resort to reprisals, and the Sound Dues have seen their
last. If Russia, where neither shipowners nor merchants are in a position
to raise a complaint, should like to remain faithful to her character as pro­




Mercantile Biography.

423

tector of Denmark, by making ber ships and cargoes continue to pay the
duty, nobody will prevent her. The question of the Sound Dues is not a
Russian one— it is one of general and transatlantic commercial policy.
Spain and Portugal, at the period of their preponderancy, claimed whole
oceans as their property. Hugo Grotius, the author o f “ Mare Liberum,”
overthrew that maxim as early as 1609.
The Sound is not a dependency
o f Denmark, and even did her supposed right of sovereignty really exist,
it would give her no title to lay enormous taxes upon vessels sailing past
her shore, and neither asking her for, nor owing her anything. The right of
levying dues has never been recognized; a tortuous policy has made cer­
tain tariff concessions by separate treaties to the once powerful Denmark.
They fall as soon as warning is given of the cessation o f those treaties,
and Denmark must grant to all parties what she is forced to concede to
one.
To consider the immutability o f the Sound Dues to have been guaran­
tied by way of indemnity for the loss of Norway, is an erroneous supposi­
tion. Denmark will not be able to produce any documents in point. The
right, thought sacred and incontrovertible, will disappear when the ques­
tion, freed from conventional ties by throwing up the treaties, shall have
been carried over upon the territory o f main force. A real necessity, such
as is given here, must overthrow an unnatural usurpation merely resting
on historical grounds.
Never have so formidable forces unfurled their
flags in the Baltic as at present. England stands more than ever in need
of Prussian alliance and German assistance ; let her enter the lists as the
champion o f free trade for all the world, and the asthmatic policy of Den­
mark will be taught by experience that its impotency is not any further
capable of stemming the current of history.

Art. II.— M E R C A N T I L E

BIOGRAPHY:

W A L TE R RESTORED JONES.
T h e business of Marine Insurance in this country, and especially in the
city of New York, as to its utility and value, and the great profits conse­
quent upon its able administration, has been pretty thoroughly tested for the
last quarter o f a century, in the history and great success of the Atlantic
Mutual Insurance Company. Confessedly at the head of all associations
of the kind, in this country, and owing very much of its past good fortune
to the able direction and management of its late President, it seems but
fitting, that as its former head— almost its creator—-and as identified with
it, from the start— its history being comprised in that of Mr. Jones— some
permanent record should be preserved of the life, labors, and character of
so valuable and public-spirited an officer.
Immediately consequent upon his decease, it is true, warm and appreci­
ative notices appeared in the various journals, and eulogistic while at the
same time discriminating resolutions were adojttcd by all the important pub­
lic bodies of trade and finance, in Wall-street— as, for example, by the Board
o f Underwriters, at a meeting of the Merchants in the Exchange, and the
Chamber of Commerce. Two meetings connected with the company, the




424

M ercantile B iog ra p h y:

one o f the clerks, and the other, especially, o f the trustees, ought not to
be omitted; for, at the latter, among the resolutions, occurs one drawn up
by one who knew Mr. Jones well, and judged him accurately, which we
are happy to quote as the justest character of the deceased which we have
read:—
Resolved, That, by his careful adherence to the modes of transacting business
tested by experience; by his discreet sanction of such improvements as were
found to obviate difficulties aud to supply defects; by his remarkable memory,
vigorous energy, untiring industry, indomitable “ carefulness in making con­
tracts,” and by his good faith and liberality in fulfilling them, he has in our
judgment earned the title o f the first Marine Underwriter of his age and country.
Of such a man we propose to exhibit a picture in the following brief
sketch.
Walter Restored* Jones, the son of John Jones, a highly respectable
member of the well-known Jones family o f Queen’s county, Long Island,
was born at Cold Spring, near Oyster Bay, on the north side of Long
Island, at the family mansion, which is still standing and in the possession
of his family, April 15, 1793. His mother was a daughter o f John Hew­
lett, a family of good local repute, belonging in religious creed to the
Church of England. The Cold Spring branch o f the Jones family of
Queen’s county, whose original seat was on the south side o f the island,
whence all of the sons of William Jones emigrated, except the father of
the late Chief Justice Samuel Jones, were originally independent gentle­
men farmers and manufacturers; some of whose descendants came up to
the city and entered on business, in one department of which, Insurance,
several of them— as John D. Jones, the President of the Atlantic Mutual
Insurance Company; Oliver II. Jones, President of the Hew York Fire and
Marine Insurance Company ; Walter R. T. Jones, average adjuster, and W .
Townsend Jones, Secretary o f the Atlantic— with others o f the family,
have won an enviable reputation.
The reputation of that branch of the family which came directly from
South Oyster Bay was eminently legal, and in a degree political. Cooper,
the novelist, remarks of the family : “ The Jones family has now furnished
legislators and jurists to the colony and State more than a century.”
It included— to mention only the very prominent names—-Judges David
and Thomas Jones, of the Supreme Court of the colony of New York ; the
elder Samuel Jones, the compeer of Hamilton and Burr and Harrison and
Livingston; Samuel Jones, his son, chancelor and chief-justice— fully
equal to the reputation o f his father, and by some thought to have trans­
cended i t ; and David S. Jones, his youngest brother, a worthy son o f so
illustrious a parent, and as a lawyer most able, if not as eminent as his
brother; Major William Jones; Elbert Herring Jones, most upright and
acceptable to their constituents in the State senate and legislature; and
o f the ancient Floyd Jones family, General Henry Floyd Jones and his
nephew David, Richard Floyd Jones, in both houses of the State legisla­
ture, and Elbert Floyd Jones in the lower.— The father o f Mr. Jones, John
Jones, was one of the seventeen children of William Jones, the son of
Major Thomas Jones, the first American ancestor of this very large and
* The middle name o f Mr. Jones has a history worth preserring. An elder brother o f the same
names having met his death by ail accident, it was the wish o f his mother, when the subject o f the
present sketch was born, to retain the name, for which she had a peculiar fondness; hence the
ep ith etR estored ” was added to the origiual Christian name.




W alter Restored Jones.

425

respectable family. Major Jones was an officer o f the English army, and
was present at the battle of the Boyne Water. A t the termination of the
conflict which ended so disastrously for James IT., the supposed* Welsh
officer came over to this country, and finally settled near South Oyster
Bay, on the South shore of Long Island, some thirty miles from Brooklyn.
He here procured a large tract of land, some five to ten thousand acres, a
manorial estate, by purchase from the Indians, and also entered into
whaling enterprises on the coast, then a profitable business, and under an
English commission to cruise against Spanish property, amassed consider­
able property. He built himself a brick house, which stood for nearly a
century and a half, and which was pulled down to make way for the im­
provements of the late David S. Jones, the then munificent possessor of
the Massapequa farm.
John Jones, the grandson of the Major, and father of Walter B., with
his brother-in-law, Devine Hewlett, held in common important water priv­
ileges, and a flour mill, at a period when property o f that character was
especially valuable— previous to the opening o f the Erie Canal and the
importation of Western flour, and also during the epoch of the second
war with Great Britain, and under the restrictive influence of the embargo.
The mill was consequently kept in active operation, and constituted a
valuable property.
The subject o f the present memoir was early introduced to the world of
business and the life o f a great commercial metropolis. A t the tender age
o f eleven years he came up to town and was placed in the store o f his
eldest brother, William H. Jones, then engaged in the flour business, but
now and for several years living the life of a country gentleman, having
brought up a large and socially useful family, and exercising the virtues
o f a genial hospitality, at Eastwoods, near Huntingdon. In his brother’s
office the future underwriter acquired his first insight into the principles
and modes o f business, his true school. A few years later he wras intro­
duced by his cousin, J. Jackson Jones, a son of his uncle Walter, and
brother of William Townsend Jones— an accomplished and most worthy
gentleman, as we learn from all who knew him— into the office of the
United States Insurance Company, as clerk, where he became remarkable
for his habits of method, industry, and attention to business, laying a firm
basis for his future eminence in a province o f Insurance requiring caution,
accuracy, precision, and promptness. The United Insurance Company
was one of the first, if not absolutely the earliest in point of time, in New
York, and perhaps in the Union, for undertaking marine risks. But
owing to novelty, or ignorance o f the proper mode o f conducting the
business, or from some other untoward causes, the association failed to
realize its objects, and it became embarrassed and was discontinued. A t
an early period of his career Mr. Jones conceived an aversion to litigation,
o f which there had been much, both unnecessary and of a vexatious char­
acter, in the early Insurance companies, and which proved in the end
detrimental to their interests, and served to exclude customers. Mr.
Daniel Lord, counselor to the present company, stated in his speech at the
dinner given to Mr. Jones, on occasion o f the complimentary presentation
to him of a rich service o f plate, that “ for the twenty-four years of the
* W e say supposed, because the Major is said on his tombstone to have come from Strabane, in
Ireland, whence he sailed on leaving for America, after the battle. But his name, character, and
the family trails, are all decidedly Welsh.




426

Mercantile B iog ra p h y:

administration, of this company, not more than six lawsuits have occurred
to it, and I can recollect but fo u r ''
In 1824 Mr. Jones was elected assistant or vice to Archibald Grade,
President of the first Atlantic Insurance Company, discontinued two years
after.
In conjunction with Josiah L. Hale, Mr. Jones started, in 1829, the
second Atlantic, with a capital of $350,000. O f this new association Mr.
Hale was president and Mr. Jones vice-president. This company pursued
a successful career, and continued its operations until July, 1842, when
the old stock company was discontinued, and a new company organized
on the mutual plan— that having grown into great favor, and become the
popular mode of conducting insurance, as most profitable and most secure.
The present Atlantic Mutual Insurance Company first went into opera­
tion July 1, 1842— Mr. Jones president, Mr. Hale vice-president, and Mr.
J. D. Jones secretary— and may be considered, without invidious contrast,
as the leading marine insurance company of the country. Its history and
that of Mr. Jones are identical; he was bound up in it, and cherished its
interests as personal with his individual interests. Its prosperity was his,
and he felt its occasional losses, doubtless, as much as any o f its stock­
holders or directors; and the company organized by him, watched and
guided until firmly established, and its business systematically arranged,
bids fair to continue one of the most flourishing in the Union. The large
insurance building No. 51 Wall-street, at the corner of William-street,
was planned and erected under the eye of Mr. Jones, and with the sanc­
tion of the Board of Trustees, his worthy associates.
W e may remark, in passing, that the present incumbent o f the presi­
dential chair, John D. Jones, has received a most thorough education for
the office he holds, having been brought up under his uncle’s eye, and
with Ins character and career before him, as a model, for a period of
nearly a quarter of a century— having the assistance and countenance of
the able Board o f Trustees, composed o f the most influential merchants of
the city.
For twelve-and-a-half years the actual dividends amounted to fortythree-and-a-half per cent, an average of thirty-five per cent per annum.
The intense labor o f the officers o f the institution was remarkable, and
fourteen hours per day are said to have formed the regular daily labor o f
the three principal officers.
In January, 1854, Mr. Hale was obliged to resign, through increasing
feeble health, and physical inability to continue his arduous labors.
As a proof of the remarkable prosperity o f the company, a large share
of the good fortune o f which is to be attributed to Mr. Jones, it may be
mentioned that for the ten years from January, 1844, its annual average
was over thirty-three per cent, and for the first eleven-and-a-half years of
its business, the total amount of profits was $6,092,571, showing an aver­
age of $529,788 per annum.
Previously to this latter date, on November 22, 1853, came off a public
dinner at the Astor House, which had been got up by some of the friends
and business associates of Mr. Jones, in his honor, and for the purpose of
acknowledging their sense of his important services, his high character,
surpassing financial talents, and social virtues. The presentation o f a
magnificent service o f plate, tastefully rich and elaborate, was the distin­
guishing feature of the occasion, which was set off by some extremely




W alter Restored Jones.

427

good speaking. The best speeches were made by Mr. Tileston, who pre­
sided, Rev. Mr. Osgood, who acted as chaplain, and by the guest of the
evening, Mr. Jones himself. The foremost merchants, bankers, and under­
writers of New York city, made up this select assemblage o f the commer­
cial aristocracy of the Union.
In conjunction with his brother, John H. Jones, Esq., of Cold Spring—
a most able and intelligent man of business— Mr. Jones held an interest in
the flourishing manufacture there carried on, originally started by the
three elder sons of John Jones, but of which partnership Mr. J. H. Jones
was the active and enterprising head. In the extensive wffaling operations,
the two brothers were the main capitalists, and the last-mentioned gentle­
man the leading manager— the other the chief adviser. A brief statement
of this latter department of Mr. Jones’s labors, may serve to give an idea
of its magnitude and importance. The business itself' it may be remarked
as an historical coincidence, is a revival of that originally carried on by the
founder o f the family. W e believe there now are (there were in 1848)
eight whaling ships fitted out from Cold Spring, measuring more than
three thousand tons, carrying about two hundred and fifty men, and cost­
ing, with their outfit, about $227,000. These instead o f confining them­
selves near our coast, from which the whales have been mostly frightened
away, make longer voyages than Captain Cook did in circumnavigating
the globe. In connection also with Charles II. Jones— another and a
favorite brother— and with his deceased brother Joshua T., he has been en­
gaged in a large number of mercantile and manufacturing enterprises.
W e derive these facts from a near connection by marriage o f Mr. J. H.
Jones— the father of the present incumbent of the presidential chair of
the Atlantic Mutual Insurance Company.
The idea of a life-saving benevolent association originated with and wras
perfected by Mr. Jones, who, by dint of arduous exertions, effected an in­
corporation, chartered by the Legislature, March, 1849. This was the
result of benevolence and prudence united, and its object and result was
the salvation of life and property to a great extent. The value of such an
association, with its objects properly carried out, was and is very great;
and were its good results even much less beneficial than they have been,
they would be still worthy o f the applause of the philanthropist. Altoge­
ther there were, two years ago, some twenty-seven station-houses, with
the comforts of heat and protection, in winter; with life-boats, (galvanized
iron boats and cars,) guns, ropes, <fcc. On the New Jersey shore there
were fourteen stations, and thirteen on the shore of Long Island. A t the
present date we learn that the number o f these most valuable stations has
nearly doubled. A nobler project for public good, a more humane and
benevolent association w'as never incorporated.
Mr. Jones, in his private and personal character, was a kind and unpre­
tending man, affable and sincere. He was a devoted son and affectionate
brother and a favorite uncle, the only domestic relations we are aware he
held. By his brothers and sisters, nephews, and neices, and all their con­
nections, he was truly beloved. Towards his townsmen, and relatives far
removed, and whom he seldom met and knew but slightly, he was always
friendly. And from many sources we have heard the same invariable
report of his liberality, in affording aid to deserving objects of his bounty,
and especially a Roman-like love of contributing to the support all places
of “ public good.”




428

Mercantile B iog ra p h y:

Originally of a Quaker family, lie became in after years a regular at­
tendant on tlie servicts o f the Episcopal Church, and was one of the pro­
moters of the building of the new church at Cold Spring. A t that delight­
ful place, one of the most picturesque regions not only on Long Island,
but even anywhere in the State, he had erected a noble mansion, of
princely extent and accommodations, o f which he had not yet become the
tenant for life, when he was summoned to his last home by the angel of
death.
His health had been precarious for some months before, indeed ever
since a stroke o f apoplexy he had suffered ; but he would doubtless have
lived longer, perhaps for some years, had not his mind, anxious with the
cares of business and heedless of his own comforts, impelled him to work,
when he was physically unfit to be out o f his room or out of his bed.
Despite the counsel of his skillful physician, Dr. Francis, he went out im­
prudently, over-exerted himself, and came home to die.
He died April 7, 1855, of apoplexy; he was dictating to one o f his
nephews from his bed in the morning, when suddenly there came a pause,
which was never filled up. He was not quite sixty-two years of age.
W ith an originally powerful constitution and an active habit, living a sim­
ple life, and always occupied, he would, it is almost certain, have lived at
least his three-score years and ten, had he allowed himself, as we have re­
marked, to have been governed by the prudent advice o f his medical
friend.
Sanguine and ardent in business, he was a moderate and reasonable
man in his views o f life and conduct— altogether a man to be relied upon
and looked up to. But a regard to the concerns o f others, for which he
was responsible, and a strict sense o f the duties of a man of business, over­
powered his sense of danger or consideration of personal safety. Thus he
fell a martyr to duty, and gave up his life literally to the cause of in­
surance.
W e are happy to be able to quote the following letter o f Dr. Francis,
the medical adviser of Mr. Jones in his last illness, which we have received
since writing the above; in its lucid and comprehensive style stating, in a
most satisfactory manner, the causes and progress of the attack, and its
final result:—
N e w Y oke , May 28, 1855.
D ear S ir :— The professional reputation o f the late W . R . Jones, Esq., was
long known to m e ; my personal acquaintance with him was but o f recent date.
It was not until the morning o f the 7th o f January last that I was requested to
make a medical visit to him at his city residence in Murray-street, on account
o f threatened symptoms o f apoplexy and palsy. Aware o f the close and de­
voted attentions which he so systematically gave to his responsible duties, that
his habit o f body was o f inordinate fullness; that his physical development was
favorable to the invasion o f acute disease, I lost no time in obeying the sum­
m on s; and upon my introduction to the sick-room, I found Mr. J. in a state o f
cerebral congestion, with low er loss o f motion, and inability o f free articulation
or speech.
T he indications o f relief were too manifest to be deferred.
His inordinate
fullness o f habit, and approaching shortness o f breathing, left no time for delay;
he was bled largely, counter-irritants applied, and the ordinary active antiphlogic means pursued. Some mitigation o f symptoms soon took place; but a
vigorous reaction, with increased tendency to a recurrence o f the same alarming
symptoms which marked the invasion o f his illness, justified a repetition o f




W alter Restored Jones.

429

similar measures o f relief, and the gratifying spectacle was soon presented in
the returning consciousness o f the patient, with improved powers o f articula­
tion, and especially o f motion in the lower limbs.
Forebodings, however, o f
the gravest nature as to the ultimate issue o f the case, awaked desire for addi­
tional professional advice, when Professor Parker, o f the University o f Now
York, united with me in consultation. The result o f our deliberations was that
depletory measures were still further advisable, and we had the satisfaction to
find, after two or three subsequent visits, that Mr. Jones now only demanded
time for recovery; nevertheless, imposing on him abstraction from all business
lor at least a month, and exercising on his part a wholesome discretion as to
the use o f animal food and drinks.
The better to secure the safety o f his improved health, I occasionally visited
Mr. Jones, and urged such cautions in his modes o f living, his exercise, and in
his limited appropriation o f time to the discharge o f his professional trusts, a3
I deemed best calculated to give permanence to his now renovated powers, both
mental and bodily, and in this view my associate, Dr. Parker, fully coincided.
Mr. Jones was not entirely a disobedient patient; and during one portion o f the
month o f March his official obligations seem to have been discharged with his
wonted regularity and capacity. But it was evident at the latter part o f that
month, both to his friends as well as to his medical advisers, that our patient
had too confidently harbored the idea that his constitution had become superior
to the renewed assaults o f the enemy that had once brought him to so critical a
condition.
He persevered with marvelous earnestness in all his severe and multiform du­
ties; his many and accustomed hours o f business were filled up daily, and, for­
getful o f the necessity o f that repose which his recent sickness and prostrated
nervous powers demanded, night itself was often invaded by his cares and toils;
and on the 7th o f the ensuing month, April, after uncommon efforts on weighty
duties, he was, towards the hour o f four in the morning, again seized with that
attack, which almost immediately terminated his valuable life. A t the earliest
intimation o f his illness, J hastened to his bedside, but consciousness had ceased,
the pulse no longer beat, and he was to be numbered with the dead.
Thus surrendered to inexorable physical and mental causes, exercising their
preponderating influence on a frame o f body peculiarly susceptible to that
agency, Walter R. Jones, so long the prominent man in his great and responsi­
ble vocation.
W ith every consideration o f respect, I remain yours truly,
W.

A. J o n k s .

JOHN W . FRANCIS.

His funeral, which took place at Trinity, was o f the most imposing char­
acter-— from the array o f distinguished persons, in trade and finance, many
old New Yorkers and Long Island gentry, that were gathered together.
His remains were carried afterward to Cold Spring, to be laid in the fam­
ily burying-ground. For Cold Spring Mr. Jones had a peculiar predeliction, and he was rarely absent from it over a week (when he could get
there) for many years of his life. As the homo of his boyhood and the
seat of his branch o f the Jones family, where, too, so many of his imme­
diate relations still reside, independent of its picturesque, rural beauties,
this charming locality had fascinated him, as it must any one at all simi­
larly situated, who pretends to any love of nature or feeling for the beauty
o f fine scenery. Hilly and beautifully wooded, rich in streams and water
prospects, it is full o f varied attractiveness, and delights the eye of the
traveled stranger or the resident for life.
Mr. Jones is one of the worthies o f Long Island, though so long (from
early boyhood) connected with New York city as to be regarded as one o f
her denizens; yet, as he never for a moment lost sight of the place o f his




430

Mercantile Biography.

nativity and his rural home, as he visited it weekly, built his noble man­
sion there, and there looked to end his days in peace and domestic happi­
ness, he must not be forgotten in the list of eminent Long Islanders. With
the distinguished sons of Long Island, in the different walks of life— in
the profession, in art, in the army and navy— he must ever be associated,
and his name must be added to the list including Conckling, Sandford,
Miller, Wickham, Golden, Post, Seaman, Mott, Elias Ilicks, Mount, Rhodes,
Hackett, Sands, Woodliull, and Truxton, whenever the roll of prominent
Long Islanders is called.
In person Mr. Jones was below the ordinary standard o f height, but
strongly built, and of a full habit o f body. His face, his person, and his
presence, denoted energy and vigor. Forecast and vigilance were stamped
upon his brow, and his eye had a look o f penetration that scrutinized with
caution every application presented to his judgment. The moderation and
mildness of his character was also marked in the expression of his face,
especially in the company o f his friends and kindred.
W e believe there is more than one good portrait o f Mr. Jones by Mr.
Shephard Mount, the able artist. There is also a life-like bust of Mr.
Jones, a copy of which has been placed in the Committee Room of the
company. But the excellent engraving of the head on the bills of the
Marine Bank will preserve his features to all classes of the community,
and be in that light more universally accessible than the best bust or por­
trait in a public place.
The example affoided by the career and character o f Mr. Jones is a rich
heritage to the young men of our country. Comparatively a poor boy, at
an early age he is placed in a store, and has to make his way by dint of
industry, perseverance, integrity, and all the essential virtues, not only o f
the true business man, but of the truly able and great man, in every walk
of life.
And although fortunate in having for his instructors his near relatives
and family friends, yet he was by them simply initiated into his duties, and
taught the elementary routine of business. Most o f all remained with
himself— earnest attention to his business, and strict fidelity in all that
concerned his province. He wras hence, it may be fairly said, a self-taught
and self-made man. In his peculiar walk, he w'as admitted to be without
a rival, and for the point o f excellence reached by him, he ow’ed almost
all to his self-training, his unflagging zeal, and his determination to master
all that related to the complicated science of insurance.
The same qualities, too, that distinguished him as a man of business,
marked also his personal character, or rather grew out of it, earnestness,
sincerity, kindness of heart, a strong love o f family and friends, vigorous
energy of will, and the active exercise o f his intellectual powers.
His native county and the city o f his adoption have reason to be proud
of the man who placed the business of insurance on a more stable footing
than it had ever enjoyed heretofore, and raised the Atlantic Mutual Insur­
ance Company to the rank of the first marine company in the United
States. While, as a man, the interest felt and the faith reposed in him by
his family, his friends, and his dependents, stamp him emj>hatically a
model for those who come after him, in all the relations he filled so worthily
throughout the entire course of his life.




431

Commerce o f the United States.

Art. I I I . — COMMERCE

OF T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S .

N U M B ER X V III.
TAXES

UPON T R A D E — T H E

W A R — O S W E G O — P R IV A T E E R S — R U LE

OF

1756

R E G A R D IN G

S C A R C I T Y IN E N G L A N D — L O U IS B U R G — F R O N T E N A C — IN D IA N T R E A T Y — C A N A L IN
SU CC E SSES — C H E R O K E E S — T R A D E
W E S T IN D IE S — TO E U R O P E — TO
PAPER

M ONEY — CANADA— T H E

D U R IN G T H E

ENGLAN D —

WAR

EXPORTS

TO
OF

E N G L IS H
SU N D RY

W EST

NEU TRALS —

E N G L A N D — E N G L IS H

IN D IE S — TO

FREN CH

A R T IC L E S — S L A V E -T R A D E —

PROSPECT.

In the year 1755 England commenced
in earnest that system of taxing the colonies, “ by absurd and impolitic
laws and orders in council,” upon the Commerce of the colonies in North
America and the W est Indies, which eventuated in the loss o f the former.
The object of these restrictions was to prevent the colonies from furnish­
ing supplies to the French, through their trade in the West Indies and at
other places, and to make their Commerce contribute to the revenues of
England. A t this time, beside being about to incur the burden o f a most
expensive war, the government was under the load o f an existing debt,
incurred in previous contests, o f 72,289,073/. Another measure referring
to the same object, disallowed the farther continuance of the export,
hitherto uninterrupted, from Great Britain to the colonies, o f certain for­
eign goods, free of duty. This measure produced much discontent, both
in England and America, but the attention of the latter was now busily
engaged in another quarter, and Parliament and the cabinet quietly pur­
sued their own course.
In 1756 and 1757, the Assembly o f Pennsylvania aided in that part of
the project referring to the supplies furnished the French, by prohibiting
the export of provisions and military stores from that colony to any
French ports. The act is said to have been the occasion of serious loss
to the merchants of Pennsylvania. But other colonies seem to have been
less scrupulous or less loyal.
W hile all this fighting had been going on in America, and France and
England were making great efforts to assist their respective colonies, the
two nations themselves were upon unusually amicable relations until about
the middle of 1756. England declared war May 17th, and France June
9th, and as if he regarded the contest as a trifle, Louis X V . at the same
time took the side of Austria against Prussia.
For the campaign of 1756, the three defeated projects of the previous
year were renewed, and all again disconcerted.
Instead of taking Du
Quesne, Niagara, and Crown Point, the colonies lost Fort Oswego— a
point of the greatest importance— at Lake Ontario, before the victorious
arms of Montcalm. The capture of this post left the enemy in complete
command of the lakes Ontario and Erie, and of the whole country of the
Five Nations, and destroyed the base for the English operations against
Niagara and Frontenac. In addition to 1,600 prisoners and 120 pieces of
cannon taken here, the lake fleet, of war vessels and traders, consisting of
two sloops of war and two hundred boats and batteaux, came into jiossession of the enemy. There were also stores for five months. The fort
had been an object of considerable jealousy to the Six Nations, and Mont­
calm, partly from necessity, and in part to gain their favor, demolished it
in their presence.*
T a x a t io n

of the

C o l o n ie s .

* The French also took the Island o f Minorca from the English in June.




432

Commerce o f the United States.

One occasion of the disasters o f this campaign was the want o f an effi­
cient financial system in the colonies. The only taxes upon which they
depended for the funds requisite for the heavy operations o f the war were
those upon lands and polls. Their depreciating bills were freely used. A
great help was furnished them in 1756 by the distribution of 115,0002.,
sent over by Parliament as a remuneration for their war expenses o f the
previous year. Of this amount 54,0002. was awarded to Massachusetts,
26.0002. to Connecticut, 15,0002. to New York, 8,0002. to New Hampshire,
7.0002. to Rhode Island, and 5,0002. to New Jersey.
The fleet of Admiral Boscawen gave full protection to the fishery at
Newfoundland and the Gulf of St. Lawrence for the present, but did not
protect the coasts o f the colonies. The French sent some privateers there
to harass the colonial trade, and a number of vessels were taken, upon
which the colonists stationed armed vessels upon the coast for the protec­
tion of the near fisheries, and of their trade generally. They also entered
vigorously into privateering, and by this means inflicted great injury upon
the enemy.
More than four hundred privateers were sent from New England to the
French West Indies and to all parts of the world, where the Commerce o f
France extended. As in the former war, many of the colonial merchants
became very wealthy through the success o f their privateers, though, as
in all wars, the general interests of Commerce still suffered heavily. This
is seen in the fact that the seamen of New England were crowding aboard
the royal navy, though this was partially owing to bounties on enlistment.
O f this useful article England felt such a want, that several acts were
passed in 1756 to encourage the supply of her naval and merchant ser­
vice.
An act was passed in 1750 to encourage the trade of the sugar colo­
nies, which, from their peculiar position and pursuits, were most liable of
all the English dependencies, to sutler by the war.
R ule R e g a r d in g N eu t r a ls .
During the year the English govern­
ment also announced the celebrated rule, the occasion of so much trouble
afterwards, that neutrals in. time o f war could carry on no trade which
they had not been accustomed to carry on in time o f peace. The colonies,
although violently opposed to this principle after acquiring their nation­
ality, when enforced by its author against themselves, were now undoubt­
edly perfectly ready to uphold it in the utmost extent as an effective means
o f crippling their adversary, by depriving his Commerce o f the cover of
the neutral flag.
Du Quesne, Crown Point, and Ticonderoga— a fort lately erected on
the northern side of Lake George, still further within New York— were
the objects in contemplation when the campaign season of 1757 opened;
but the whole effort of the year was suddenly directed to a concentrated
attempt upon Louisburg; but that place being reinforced by seventeen
sail of the line and troops, raising its force to 9,000, the project was aban­
doned, and nothing was done. On the other hand, Montcalm advanced
from Ticonderoga with 9,000 men, and reduced Fort William Henry, on
the south side o f Lake George, defended by 3,000. A line drawn across
from WTilliam Henry to Oswego, would have left between a third and half
of the colony of New York, now at the backs of the French, apart from
their establishment in the Niagara district.
W hile the Indians on the frontiers o f Virginia, Pennsylvania, and New




Commerce o f the United States.

433

York were at deadly strife with the English, the Carolinas were at peace
and enjoying quiet trade with the powerful tribes on their borders. In
1751, at the request o f the Cherokees, the Carolinians established among
them a fortified trading establishment called Fort Loudoun, in honor of
the commander-in-chief. It was situated in the northeast part of the pres­
ent State o f Tennessee, and was the first English occupation of the terri­
tory of that State. The French, as before mentioned, had once erected a
temporary post at the southwestern corner of the State, near Memphis.
The year 1757 was one of great scarcity all over Europe, and so severe
was the distress of the poorer, and the embarrassment of the middle class
in Great Britain, that Parliament suspended the duties on foreign corn
and flour, and prohibited the export from the kingdom of corn, meal, flour,
malt, bread, biscuit, and starch. The export of grain, meal, malt, flour,
beef, pork, bacon, &c., from the colonies to any other places than Great
Britain and Ireland, was also prohibited. These prohibitions were re­
moved in 1759. The importation o f these articles in neutral vessels was
also permitted, so that the ministry did not consider their own principle
regarding neutrals applicable to the country proclaiming it. These acts
were for a limited period, and were in 1758 extended to the close of that
year. Another act gave the colonies liberty to export pig-iron to all parts
of Great Britain, they having been hitherto limited for this article to the
port of London.
The English were as unsuccessful in Europe as in America, and it was
by some imagined that the vigor of the nation was exhausted, and its fall
at hand. But the course of disaster having overturned the ministry, and
upturned such a man as William Pitt, the course o f affairs took a new
turn.
Reinspired by their confidence in the new ministry, New England raised
15,000 in the beginning of 1758, and with 5,000 from the other colonies,
and 30,000 men from England, Gen. Abercrombie found himself in com­
mand of a force of 50,000. Massachusetts was particularly zealous. The
taxes collected in that colony to support the war, amounted in the aver­
age to above half the incomes. The taxes in Boston equaled two-thirds
the income on real estate. One-half the effective men o f the province
were on some sort o f military or naval service. Five hundred seamen were
furnished by that colony for the attack on Louisburg, beside the fisher­
men impressed. The Massachusetts merchants were obliged to employ
Indians and negroes to navigate their vessels.
But it was not in this year alone, as we have shown, that the royal
navy was supplied with men from New England. It was asserted in the
British House of Commons, that during the war there were employed in
the British navy 10,000 American seamen, o f whom by far the greater por­
tion were, of course, from this section.
In the expedition of Gen. Amherst against Louisburg were twenty-three
ships of the line, eighteen frigates, and 16,000 land troops. The “ Dun­
kirk of Am erica” surrendered again to the arms of England on the 26th
of July. As before, stores and ammunition of great value were taken.
The population was about 5,000, and there were as many more troops.
To prevent its recovery by France, at least with its former importance, the
merchants and most of the inhabitants were sent to France in English ves­
sels, and its boasted fortifications were demolished. The loss of this place
was a severe blow to France.
28
V OL. X X X III.— NO. IV .




434

Commerce o f the United States.

The island o f St. John (now Prince Edward’s) and all the other French
settlements of that quarter, of which the chief were Port Dauphin (now
St. Ann’s,) Spanish Bay (now Sydney,) Port Toulouse (now St. Peter’s,)
Arichat, Petit de Grat, <fcc., all surrendered with the fall of Louisburg. St.
John’s had a population o f 5,000, with above 10,000 head of black cattle.
Some of the farmers on that island raised yearly 1,200 bushels o f corn for
the Quebec market. The population of this place suffered the same fate
as that of Nova Scotia and Louisburg— a part being carried to the colo­
nies, a part to France, and some escaping to Canada. So complete was
the removal that not more than 500 or 600 were remaining so late

as mo.

England was now in complete possession of the coast to the mouth o f
the St. Lawrence, and of the entire Gulf and fishing region. In France,
their American fisheries had always been considered of more value than
the mines of Spanish America.
Fort Frontenac was taken the same season by Col. Bradstreet, who, be­
side 60 cannon and a large quantity of military stores, found there nine
armed vessels and a collection of goods designed for the Indian trade.
Although this place is described by some of our historians “ an unimport­
ant post,” and its capture is usually referred to an inferior achievement,
affording very poor compensation for the disastrous repulse of Gen. Aber­
crombie at Ticonderoga, was really the most important point in the whole
series of inland operations, and should have been from the first the great
object of attack. It was the entrepot o f stores and supplies for the whole
range of lake and western forts, and commanded the sole avenue of com­
munication from Canada with every point occupied by the French in
North America, and with the whole horde o f their Indian allies. Had
the English at any time before here concentrated their armies upon this
point and gained possession o f it, the supplies of the lower forts being cut
off, they would have been no longer tenable, and the necessity would have
been saved of capturing them in detail. The writers who speak so slighting­
ly of this achievement, record immediately after that Du Quesne was aban­
doned before the force of Gen. Forbes had reached it— Venango and the
forts above being still retained— and that the western Indians made a gen­
eral peace, concluding the war throughout that whole section, and leaving
the English in possession o f the main part o f the object for which it was
commenced.
Yet no victory had been gained in that quarter, and not the slightest
impression made by the English upon the confidence of the invariably suc­
cessful French and Indians. The obstruction by capture on the ocean,
and blockade in the French ports of the reinforcements and supplies pre­
pared by the French government for Canada, had, of course, its due effect;
but the immediate occasion of these results was the destruction of the
stores provided at Frontenac. Where supplies are to be transmitted over
routes so long, the existence of depots at convenient distances is indis­
pensable, and the destruction of Frontenac, even without its occupation by
the English, disturbed the whole system of inland communication. The
Indians, not receiving their accustomed supplies o f merchandise, attributed
the interruption to the success of the English, and abandoned their allies,
even before the desertion of Du Quesne, hastening the necessity of that
event.




Commerce o f the United States.

435

The retreating force from Du Quesne sailed down the Ohio toward
Louisiana, considering probably that the new forts must soon be aban­
doned or surrender, and regarding the return to Canada impracticable.
The treaty with the Indians was concluded at Easton, sixty miles from
Philadelphia. The tribes represented on the occasion were the Mohawks,
Oneidas, Senecas, Onondagas, Cayugas, Tuscaroras, Nauticokes, Conays,
Tateloes, Chugnats, Delawares, Unamies, Minisinks, Wappingers, and Mo­
hicans, who inhabited a region embraced between the lakes, the Alleghanies, and the Apalachian mountains. As usual in Indian treaties, provision
was made for trade as well as amicable relations.
Beside their advantages in America during this year, the English also
reduced an important trading station held by the French on the River
Senegal, in Africa, transferring to them the monopoly of the important
trade in gum-senega, beside a traffic in other gums and in gold dust. An
extension of the slave-trade was also anticipated from this capture. But
the place was restored to the French at the peace.
Scarcity. The continued scarcity o f provisions in England improved
the market for such as the colonies had to export. A n act was passed
during the year admitting the import of salted beef, pork, and butter into
Great Britain from Ireland, for six months from midsummer, free of
duty, except what would be adequate to the duty upon the salt used in
curing it.
F irst C a n a l in E n g l a n d .
The Duke o f Bridgewater’s celebrated
canal, the first constructed in England, was made in IT58, connecting
Worsley and Manchester. It was straight, with a level bottom, and, of
course, without locks, being thus a far more considerable undertaking than
would be a modern canal of the same length. The cost of carriage from
Liverpool to Manchester, by the river, was before 12s. a ton ; the price by
the canal was 6s.; and the advantages were so palpable that other canals
soon followed, and there was soon a mania on the subject. Yet while the
Duke was engaged upon his project, it was ridiculed by some as wild and
visionary, and by others denounced as ruinous to almost every interest of
the kingdom. It would cause the neglect o f the natural avenues o f in­
land navigation, the rivers, which would henceforth offer their convenient
tides in vain; would take away the work from the horses, as was after­
wards predicted of the railroad ; destroyed so much valuable land as
was used for its channel; would seriously impair the coasting trade;
would hurt the foreign trade; and would finally destroy the navy, and
with it, of course, the whole commercial and political supremacy o f
England.
Another commercial engine o f this year was the Newport Mercury, a
newspaper started at Newport by James Franklin, brother of the philoso­
pher. Most of the colonies had their newspapers at this time.
In F759 Massachusetts was greatly embarrassed in providing a smaller
quota of troops than she had furnished the year previous, owing to the
exhaustion of financial ability, and a very sensible decrease o f population
from the numbers already in the various branches o f the royal service, the
deaths of the last campaign, and the emigration to provinces where the
taxes were less onerous. It was necessary to hold out the lure o f double
bounties.
In Newport, Rhode Island, the merchants protested against the assess­




436

Commerce o f the United States.

ment of 2,200?. upon that town, as its share of the colony tax, declaring
their losses during the war to have exceeded 2,000,000?.*
In July, 1759, Gen. Amherst took Ticonderoga and Crown Point, those
places being abandoned at his approach. Niagara surrendered the same
month, the French still occupying the forts at Presque Isle and French
Creek, in Pennsylvania. In September W olfe carried Quebec. Beside
these victories, the English took Guadaloupe, which was now, o f course,
legally open to the colonial trade. This important island was said to pro­
duce 40,000 hogsheads of sugar yearly, having between 300 and 400
sugar plantations, and above 50,000 inhabitants, of whom over 40,000
were slaves.. In Europe, in the East Indies, and on the seas, the French
were also beaten.
In September, 1760, Montreal surrendered, and with it Detroit, Michilimackinack, the Illinois settlements, and all other places dependent upon
the government of Canada.
The Cherokees, on the Carolina frontier, who had been engaged in peace­
ful trade with those provinces, while the Indians above were at war on
the colonies, dug up the tomahawk when the latter had buried it, on their
part. They commenced hostilities the latter part of 1759, but in Decem­
ber made a treaty with Gov. Littleton, of South Carolina, for renewing
peace and the usual free traffic with the Carolinas, agreeing to have no
trade or communion with the enemies of Great Britain, and to take or
kill every Frenchman coming among them. In February, however, they
resumed hostilities, and committed terrible ravage on the Carolina fron­
tiers. In August, they reduced Fort Loudoun, the only establishment in
Tennessee, murdering the garrison of 180 men. The subjugation o f Can­
ada being effected, Amherst sent a large force to the aid o f the Caroli­
nians, and after several fierce battles, and the destruction of a great num­
ber of .Cherokee villages, the Indians were induced, in 1761, to return to
their old relations o f amity and Commerce. During the war the Assem­
bly o f South Carolina offered bounties of £25, and finally £35, for Cher­
okee scalps.
E x t en sio n s of S ettlem ent . In 1760, Castine, in the district of Maine,
was first settled by English, having been settled by the French as long be­
fore as 1067. The same year emigrants from Massachusetts settled the
township of Liverpool, in Nova Scotia, for the purpose of prosecuting the
salmon fishery. They were very successful, taking a thousand barrels in a
season, and more were thus induced to follow in 1763. The efforts of
Parliament to build up this colony had not been very successful. The
population wras but about 5,000. About £10,000 wras yearly appropriated
for the government o f the colony, relieving the inhabitants o f all civil
burden, and the English government was getting weary o f so unprofitable
an investment. Altogether, the annual grants made to this colony, up to
1755, amounted to about $2,000,000.
The French, in 1760, from the lower Mississippi and Illinois regions,
effected settlements in Arkansas and Missouri.
T r a d e to the E n glish W est I n d ie s .
Notwithstanding the heavy
losses by the attacks of the French upon their Commerce, the provinces
continued to trade with the English W est India Islands during the whole
war. The Island of Jamaica received from North America, during the
# The expenses o f the government o f Canada had risen from 1,700,000 livres ($314,819) in 1749, to
26,000,000 livres ($4,814,814) in 1759, being paid by France.




Commerce o f the United States.

437

war, provisions, lumber, and live-stock, about £ 200,000 currency, equal to
£142,857 sterling-, o f which about one-fourth was paid in produce of the
island, and the other three-fourths in money or bills o f exchange. For­
merly, the continentals had received produce entirely in this trade, but
since their intercourse with the foreign islands began, had demanded a
large proportion in specie.*
T r a d e to the F re n c h C o l o n ie s . The productions of the French col­
onies, owing to the destruction of the Commerce of France by the British
navy, and still more by the privateers of America, were reduced, during
the war, to a very low rate. Notwithstanding the peremptory inhibitions
of Parliament, and the almost treasonable nature o f the act, the colonists
could not refrain from taking advantage o f this state o f things, and re­
trieving something of the mischief they were meanwhile inflicting on the
French possessions, by keeping up their trade with them. The French,
glad of such relief, readily admitted the American vessels to their colonies,
under flags o f truce, and they freely visited the French part of Hispaniola,
(whither they repaired usually with the money and bills of exchange ob­
tained at Jamaica,) and also the other French islands of the W est Indies,
and their colonies at the Mobile and Mississippi Rivers, the latter being
scarcely disturbed during the war. By this means, the French were sup­
plied in those parts with the provisions and lumber so essential to them,
and received, also, large amounts of money in exchange for their produce
and for French manufactures, the balance of the trade being, according to
the system o f the times, greatly in favor of the French, as they sold far
more than they bought. The English government was extremely indig­
nant at this method of vitiating their efforts, but it at least helped to sus­
tain the ability of America to meet the heavy taxation which she imposed
upon herself for the prosecution of the war. In August, 1760, Mr. Sec­
retary Pitt wrote to the several governors of North America, directing
them to use their utmost efforts to detect and punish all persons concerned
in this illegal trade. MacPherson states that some of the revenue officials
in the colony were known to be engaged in the traffic, instead of endeaoring to suppress it.
T r a d e to E u r o p e . The British W est Indies had an active trade to
Europe during the war, in which the vessels of the continental colonies
were employed. From Ireland, Jamaica imported during the war £ 100,000
in provisions. About 630 pipes of wine were brought yearly to the Brit­
ish Islands from Madeira.
But the colonists carried on a large illegal trade to the other continent,
also. During the war an English factory was established at Hamburg,
which flourished through the consignments made from England, but still
more by those received from North America and the W est Indies. The
sugars taken by the colonists at the French islands, as well as those of the
English Islands, here found a market, and France was supplied with sugars
from Hamburg.
T r a d e w it h G r e a t B r it a in . The trade o f Great Britain with the col­
onies, instead of being diminished by the war, was greatly enlarged during
that period. The exports to the North American Provinces, compared
with those to the West India colonies, were in the two periods, 1744-8
and 1754-8, as follows :—
* The amount of sugar imported into England from her sugar colonies, in 1760, was 1,374.720 cwt
In 1765, in a time o f peace, it was 1,227,159 cwt.




438

Commerce o f the United States.

Y e a rs .
1 7 4 4 ....................
1 7 4 5 ..................

N orth A m erica n
c o lo n ie s .
5 3 4 ,0 0 0

W . In d ia
c o lo n ie s .
£ 7 9 6 ,0 0 0

Y ea rs.
1 7 5 4 ..................

.

N orth A m e r ic a *
c o lo n ie s !
£ 1 ,2 4 6 ,0 0 0

W . In d ia
c o lo n ie s .
£ 6 8 5 ,0 0 0

5 0 3 ,0 0 0

1 7 5 5 ..................

1 ,1 7 7 .0 0 0

6 9 4 .0 0 0

1 7 4 6 ..................

4 7 2 ,0 0 0

1 7 5 6 ..................

1 ,4 2 8 ,0 0 0

7 3 3 ,0 0 0

1 7 4 7 ..................

8 5 6 ,0 0 0

1757

...............

1 ,7 2 7 ,0 0 0

7 7 6 ,0 0 0

1 7 4 8 ..................

7 3 4 ,0 0 0

1 7 5 8 ..................

1 ,8 3 2 ,0 0 0

8 7 7 ,0 0 0

£ 7 ,4 1 0 ,0 0 0

£ 3 ,7 6 5 ,0 0 0

3 ,4 8 4 ,0 0 0

3 ,3 6 1 ,0 0 0

£ 3 ,9 2 6 ,0 0 0

£ 4 0 4 ,0 0 0

T o ta l. . .

E x c e s s o f t h e la s t fiv e y e a r s . . . .

T ota l . .

.

.

Thus, while the gain in the West India exports had increased in a verymoderate ratio, the export to the northern colonies had more than doubled,
and from being on a par with the former, the continental provinces, as a
market for English goods, had risen in this brief period to double their
present importance. The total exports of Great Britain in 1760 were
£ 15,781,175, so that it would seem about an eighth part of her Commerce
was with her North American provinces.* To no foreign country, in 17 60,
were the exports so large as to the average of the second period to these
provinces. The largest foreign export was to Portugal, being £1,294,719.
The British East India Company’s exports in 1760 were £477,339.
Thus, during a war which taxed the energies o f the colonies to the ut­
most, their Commerce with the mother country was increasing in a ratio
far greater than it had borne in peace, and outstripping even the progress
of their population.
One occasion o f this rapid increase was doubtless the large amounts of
money remitted from England during the war for the expenditures of their
army, and the sums sent in partial remuneration o f the expenses of the
colonies, a great portion of which were sustained by colonial bills, and re­
paid them in specie. Another cause was, probably, that what illicit trade
the colonies managed to carry on, especially at the West Indies, was much
smaller in war than in times of peace, and that they were thus obliged to
resort to England for a large balance of merchandises which they before
obtained of the French and Dutch. But perhaps more efficient than all,
was the growing disposition among the colonists, remarked with sorrow
by many of the more simple-minded among them, to luxurious living, and
a more reckless spirit in the management of their business. There was
certainly a disposition in the colonies to overtrade, encouraged by the
ready credit which they obtained in England, and the debts thus incurred
were undoubtedly not among the least occasions of trouble in the difficul­
ties which introduced the Revolution. A work published in Dublin, in
1754, by Dr. MacSparran, relating to the colony of Rhode Island, men­
tions as one disadvantage under which the colony labored, that there were
“ too many hands in trade,” and the same remark may have been true of
one or two other provinces. To Pennsylvania, for twenty-eight years be­
fore 1760, the exports from England had increased about as seventeen to
one.
The Assembly of Virginia in 1748 conferred on every parish minister
an annual stipend of 16,000 pounds o f tobacco; but in 1755, the crop
being short, and the price rising to 50s. or 60s. the hundred, enacted that
all who owed debts payable in tobacco might, for ten months, pay them
* The shipping engaged in the merchant service o f England augmented in 1760 to 472,241 tons.




Commerce o f the United States.

439

in money at 16s. Sd. per hundred. The ministers submitted. In 1758,
anticipating another short crop, the measure was tried again, but the clergy,
deeming forbearance no longer a virtue, came out against this species of
robbery, as they considered it. The king, being appealed to, pronounced
the act illegal and void, and a Virginia court decided favorably on the
suit of the ministers, though the decision was afterward reversed.
R ic e .
The export of rice from South Carolina in 1753 was 31,418
bbls.; in 1754 it was 104,682 bbls. From Savannah, in 1755, there were
expiorted 2,999 bbls., and in 1760, 3,283 bbls.
I n d ig o . The exports o f Indigo from South Carolina in 1754 was 215
pounds, and in 1757 it was 754,218 pounds.
S u g a r . A little maple sugar began to be made in New England about
the year 1752, and the manufacture was continued on a small scale up to
the Revolution, when it largely increased. In 1758, M. Dubreuil estab­
lished a sugar plantation, and erected the first mill in Louisiana, or in any
part of the present United States. His mill was situated in the lower
part of the present city of New Orleans. His success induced others to
follow.
C otton is mentioned among the exports o f South Carolina in 1754.
The value of this article manufactured by England in 1760 was only
£ 200 , 000 .
I r o n . A furnace for iron was erected in Orange County, New York,
in 1751, and is said to have produced 1,500 tons per annum o f pig-iron,
which was worked up at the same establishment into bar-iron.
An act of Parliament in 1757 gave liberty to the colonies to export
pig-iron to all parts o f Great Britain, it having before been limited to the
port of London.
S il k . The export of silk from Georgia in 1755 was 138 pounds; in
1757, there was received at the filature in Georgia 1,052 pounds; in 1758,
7,040 pounds; in 1759, 10,000 pounds. Notwithstanding the encourage­
ments offered by Parliament, the culture now declined, although there was
now some increase in the product of South Carolina. In 1760, the export
of silk from Georgia had fallen to 558 pounds. The culture of silk was
commenced in Connecticut in 1760, from whence it afterward spread to
New York and Pennsylvania, though pursued only to a limited extent.
G r a in an d F lo u r . The export of wheat from Pennsylvania in 1749
was of the value of £148,104 currency; in 1750, £155,175; in 1751,
£187,457 ; in 1752, the amount was 86,500 bushels. The exports of flour
from Philadelphia in 1752 were 125,960 barrels, and from New Jersey
(port of Perth Amboy) 6,424 barrels, besides 168,000 pounds o f bread,
and 17,941 bushels of grain. The export of corn from South Carolina in
1748 was 39,308 bushels; from North Carolina in 1753, 61,580 bushels;
and from Philadelphia in 1752, 90,740 bushels.
H em p , F l a x , & c . The export o f hemp from New Jersey in 1751 was
14.000 pounds; o f flax from Philadelphia in 1752, 70,000 bushels; from
New York in 1755 the export of flaxseed was 12,528 hogsheads, all of
which was sent to Ireland. Six wagon loads of flaxseed came into Balti­
more in 1751 from the upland parts of Maryland. In 1751, the Assem­
bly of Virginia offered bounties on the cultivation of hemp and flax in
that colony.
N a v a l S t o r e s . The exports of tar from North Carolina in 1753 were
60.000 barrels; of turpentine, 10,000 barrels; of pitch, 12 barrels. From




440

Commerce o f the United States.

South Carolina— tar, 6,221 barrels; turpentine, 3,808 barrels; pitch, 13,814
barrels.
F urs a n d S k in s . Exports from North Carolina, 1753, about 30,000
deerskins, and 203 hogsheads of the same article from South Carolina.
L um ber , & c . South Carolina exported, 1753, of lumber, 591,412 feet;
shingles, 581,020 pieces; cask-staves, 78,932. Large quantities of lum­
ber were sent from North Carolina, also, and as usual from New England.
N e w P ro d u ctio n s . A society for the encouragement of arts, manu­
factures, and Commerce, composed of nobles, merchants, and men of
wealth, and being the third association of that kind in the realm, was or­
ganized in England in 1754. Among the objects for which it oifered en­
couragement by 'premium was the growth in the American colonies of the
rich and precious productions of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies, as
well as the products of Asia and Africa. W e suspect that people were
too much engaged in their ordinary avocations to experiment very deeply
in consequence o f such encouragement.
T he S l a v e T r a d e . This business still continued active, and the Rhode
Islanders, and the merchants of some other northern colonies, had not yet
become convinced, at least practically, of its turpitude. The number o f
negroes imported into Jamaica, in the ten years from 1752 to 1762, was
71,115, selling at £30 sterling per head. The number imported into South
Carolina in 1753 was 511. The number of negroes in tlie town o f New
York (nearly all slaves) in 1755 was about 2,500; in Newport, Rhode
Island, 1,300, out o f a population of 6,574. Soon after this time the
Quakers in Pennsylvania emancipated their slaves, there being 8,000 to
10,000 slaves in that colony. But the Quakers had not, after 1755, the
administration of the government o f the colony, and numbered but about
one-fifth of the population.
M a r in e S o c ie t ie s . The Massachusetts Marine Society, composed o f
shipmasters, was incorporated by the General Court o f that colony in
1754, and the same year a similar institution was organized at Newport.
P o p u l a tio n . The population of Maryland in 1755 wras 153,564, o f
whom 107,208 were -whites, 42,764 blacks, and 3,592 mulattoes. Penn­
sylvania is estimated to have had 220,000, but the number o f taxables,
36,667, in 1760, would indicate less than 200,000 at the later period. New
York, in 1756, had 96,776 wdiites and 13,542 blacks, a total of 110,317,
the town of New York containing about 13,500 inhabitants. Connecticut,
in 1755, had 128,218 whites and 3,587 blacks, the total being 131,805.
Rhode Island, in 1761, had 35,939 whites and 4,697 blacks, total, 40,636.
A British writer, at 1760, says that apart from emigration, the population
of the North American colonies had doubled in the last twenty-five years.
T he M usquito C o l o n y . The British settlement on the Musquito shore,
in Central America, wns becoming better worthy the attention of the
northern merchants. The British subjects there, exclusive o f Indians, in
1757, were 1,100, and the exports were mahogany, sarsaparilla, tortoise­
shells ; also specie, indigo, cocoa, hides, and tallow, obtained in barter from
the Spaniards. Several vessels were owned there.
P a p e r -M o n e y . In 1751, Rhode Island amended the act for the bank
o f 1750, repealing the bounties offered, that on manufactured wool being
displeasing to the English government; 64s. old tenor, or 16s. new tenor,
or 6s. 9d. of the new bills, were made equal to one ounce coined silver
sterling alloy. The bills were for ten years. The value of a Spanish




Commerce o f the United States.

441

milled-dollar was fixed, in February, 1752, at 56s. old tenor. In Febru­
ary, 1756, Rhode Island issued £80,000 lawful money bills, redeemable in
two years, fixing its value at 6s. Sd. to an ounce o f silver; and in August
provided for sinking the bills issued for the Crown Point expedition, 1755-6,
with money received from England, &c. One dollar specie was to be paid
for every £4 of old tenor, and treasury notes to be given in part for the
bills. In 1759, the colony was owed on worthless bonds, £49,869, and
had £35,000 to be collected on bonds, the affairs of the Paper-Money or
Grand Committee’s Office being now settled up.
Large issues were made in most of the colonies during the war, and
considering the urgency of the case, were allowed by the English govern­
ment. In 1752, the Assembly o f Pennsylvania attempted to avail itself
of the exception made by the act o f Parliament in 1751, to issue £40,000.
Benjamin Franklin, as chairman of a committee on the subject, advocated
the measure in a report, setting forth the good results of previous issues,
and the advantages to be hoped from further moderate issues. The gov­
ernor refused his assent to the bill, an angry controversy ensued, and no
farther issued in the colony until 1755.*
C a n a d a — V alue — the P r o s pe c t . Upon the conquest of Canada great
attention was turned in England and the colonies to this new North Amer­
ican province. In England there were some opposed to its retention, pre­
ferring to hold Guadaloupe instead, or advocating its retrocession as a
check upon the fast-growing colonies already possessed in North America.
Among these is said to have been Edmund Burke. The greater portion
of the English statesmen, however, and the English public, were desirous
of retaining Canada, and a pamphlet urging this policy, by showing the
superiority of continental to West India possessions, was published in
England in 1759. The fear o f the colonies uniting against Great Britain
is considered triumphantly answered, by referring to their inability to con­
federate under a crisis so momentous as the existing war had for several
years been.
The Commerce of Canada under the French, though confined to a small
number of vessels, had been respectable for such a province. Nine or ten
vessels usually arrived yearly from the French West Indies, with ratafia,
molasses, coffee, and sugar, and thirty vessels from France, with French
merchandises. The imports in 1754 were, o f manufactured goods, &c.,
£157,645 sterling; of rum, sugar, &c., £59,123; total, £216,769. The
exports were, to France, of furs and skins, £ 64,570; oil, ginseng, capillaire, lumber, &c., £7,083; to the W est Indies and other places, of fish,
oil, iron, &c., £3,906 ; total, £75,560, leaving a balance against the colony
of £141,209, to be paid by bills drawn by the Intendant upon the treasury
of France.
But the commercial abilities o f this great region were deemed suscept­
ible of vast augmentation. W ith Canada, England and her colonies had
complete possession of the whole fur trade o f the continent, and it was
thought this trade might be indefinitely extended, and a great market thus
afforded for British manufactures among the Indians. It was even antici­
pated that in the back 2Mrts o f the continent might be found many un­
* The Canadian hills of exchange on the French treasury had reached an enormous amount in
1752, and owing to peculations by the Intendant-General, were protested to the amount o f £3,333,333.
In 1759, payment was absolutely refused until an investigation should occur. The bills fell to a low
rate in consequence.




442

The Culture o f Tea in Brazil.

known nations, like those, perhaps, found in Spanish America, with whom
important commercial relations might be opened.
The never-forgotten idea o f the N o r t h - w e s t P a s s a g e into “ the ocean of
Japan, o f China, and the Indies,” also recurred, as an attendant upon this
conquest. From the o th er sid e of Canada it was deemed that the project
might be attempted with a better prospect of success. “ So miserable a
shore ” as that of Hudson Bay was no longer to be solicited to reveal that
desired avenue to the treasures o f the East. They saw, in imagination,
a more genial clime and a more favorable coast, redolent with the sweet
odors wafted over the milder ocean from the luxurious fields of Cathay
and the Archipelagian Isles. Here the farther end of the mysterious
channel would readily reveal itself to the easy search, and sailing through
it from that point, the envious Atlantic would be forced to open the con­
cealed terminus o f its own side.
The visions of the colonists, rid o f all their ancient fears, and with
nothing to do but to embrace the glorious prospect before them, were
equally grand. They began to realize how boundless were their destinies,
and saw the time near at hand when the political and commercial import­
ance of the nations of Europe should yield to the magnificent develop­
ments of America.

Art. IV.— THE CULTURE OF TEA IS B R A ZIL *
I t cannot be contested now that the productions most profitable for
planters are not those which provide more immediately for our wants.
Coffee, sugar, and brandy are among those fictitious necessities which
civilization has introduced into refined societies; and these commodities,
which are generally more injurious than useful, occupy the first rank in
all markets, leaving the second to those that serve for general nourish­
ment ; and this is the reason for which beets, since chemistry has suc­
ceeded in extracting sugar and spirit from them, have acquired so much
importance in Europe.
The history o f the culture of tea is also a proof of this truth. This
plant was left for a long time to vegetate in its native country, without
being noticed, and it was used only for medicinal purposes ; but since the
caprice of an emperor and of fashion found in the leaves of this plant a
flavor agreeable to our senses, and somewhat exciting our intellectual
faculties, agricultural industry got hold o f it, and gave to the culture such
an extension, that an English writer (Mr. B. Fortune) values its annual
production at 2,895,000/.
It is well ascertained that the consumption of tea is becoming, for the
greater portion of the inhabitants of Europe, a necessary o f life, and as
such, this substance must necessarily hold a distinct place amongst the
exotic vegetables to which we are accustomed, as none o f them unites all
the qualities wished for like this plant. Moreover, chemistry has just dis­
covered in the leaves of tea a nutritious principle, which classifies this
* Translated from the Rio Janeiro Jornal de Cummercio o f the 12th o f June, 1855, for the Mer­
chants' Magazine by Dr. L i a n t a u d , the writer.




The Culture o f Tea in Brazil.

443

vegetable as an alimentary article. Therefore, tea can now be considered
a beverage analogous to coffee and chocolate, and which, by its hygienic
and medical qualities, can well compete and be preferred to any other
luxury of the same kind, so that it is obtaining new triumphs every day,
and enlarging the boundaries o f its dominions.
These few remarks will sufficiently explain the cause o f so many efforts
made for this last century in many countries, to introduce the culture o f
this valuable shrub, and thus deprive the Chinese o f a monopoly which
makes the wealth o f their farmers.
Having been sent by the French government to look into the actual
state of this culture in Brazil, I endeavored to prop my own observations
with the interesting communications kindly offered to me by some of the
most experienced dealers in this article, which led me to the conclusions
which close my official report to the Minister of Agriculture and Com­
merce, and to the scientific associations of which I am a member.
The most important question which I had been directed to study most
accurately, and which is also very momentous for the Brazilian people,
is— Whether the culture of tea can be advantageous as a branch of hus­
bandry ? This question, of course, refers to two arts: 1st, the culture of
the plant; and 2d, to the transformation of the leaves from the raw into
a prepared state.
The raising of tea prospers in Brazil perhaps better than in China.
Only here we can see such luxuriant plants and with such a rich foliage,
as those of New Friburgh, St. Paul, Santos, &c., which are far superipr to
the best that I saw in the environs of Canton, Nin-po, Chu-san, &c. All
those who, like myself, have seen this plant gain in Brazil the proportions
o f a third-class tree, and thrive, without any difference for an eastern or
western exposure, in any soil, without the least trouble, will class among
the most absurd stories all which has been published by agricultural so­
cieties concerning the different methods of this culture, and the great ex­
penses and care with which it is attended.
In relation to the profitableness of the culture o f tea, I have only to
copy the figures which Mr. Vincent Jose de Queiros, of St. Paul, handed
to me, which are still more significative by comparing them with the cul­
ture of coffee:—
“ An algueire of tea (about an acre of land) can raise about 20,000 plants o f
tea,” says Mr. Queiros, “ which will yield about ISO arrobas (32 pounds to the
arroba) of tea, when dried, which, being sold at 800 reis per pound, give the
net proceeds of 3,000,000 of reis, and pay the expenses of its cultivation,
amounting to 25 per cent. On the same quantity of land, we cannot raise more
than 2,000 plants of coffee, which will only give 500,000 reis a year, calculating
the yield at 200 arrobas.”
This is only to what refers to the culture of tea; but things are changed
when we consider the preparation o f its leaves, as it is now7 done in Brazil.
When the planters of St. Paul began to prepare tea, their production was
considered somewhat inferior to that from China, although it was paid in
Rio Janeiro 2,000 reis a pound, which was much above the price paid for
the tea from China of the same grade.
It is evident at such a price the teas of Brazil could not compete with
those from China in the markets of Europe, and even for the home con­
sumption. This is proved conclusively by the prices current of St. Paul,
where the price of tea fell from 2,000 to 1,200 at first, and 1,000 and 800




444

The Culture o f Tea in Brazil.

reis afterwards, and now at 600 reis (about half a dollar.) For this reason,
many planters left their plantations, and did not care about the expenses
made on them, and those who continued with them, could only do so by
reducing their plantations and simplifying the process of preparing the
tea, in order to diminish the cost of the article.
This statement is founded upon the most exact information, which I
gathered from reliable sources that it would be idle to mention; but the
truth is, that within five leagues round St. Paul, only on one estate I did
not see marks o f abandoned plantations.
Whilst the production o f coffee is increasing in the province of St.
Paul, that of tea remains stationary, and will even decrease, as the price
of slaves and manual labor is getting higher.
Here also figures are
stronger than words. According to the documents exhibited to me by
the custom-house o f Santos, the exportation of coffee was 3,463 arrobas
for other ports of the empire, and 518,953 arrobas for foreign ports—
making an aggregate o f 522,418 arrobas. During the same period the
exportation of tea was, for the ports of the empire, 147,845 arrobas, and
to foreign ports, zero. In the same w?ay that these figures prove the infe­
riority o f the production o f tea to that of coffee, they show also the cause
of this inferiority on account o f there being no exportation of it to for­
eign ports, which in Brazil is well known both by merchants and planters.
But what is still to be understood, is how to change this state of things so
as to facilitate the exportation o f tea from Brazil.
Many of the planters are under the impression that it is only necessary
to hold the teas three years longer to sell them better ; but I can assure
them, after many experiments made, that the bitter principle o f the drug,
which is rather excessive in the Brazilian teas, being a fixed principle,
cannot be dissipated by time ; only the herbaceous taste can be corrected,
either partially or entirely, but even this improvement is more in appear­
ance than in reality; besides, this long delay is always a loss to the plant­
ers, who cannot always afford it.
Other planters have lately thought that by giving to the Brazilian teas
the same appearance as those from China, they would easily find pur­
chasers, at a high price, in European markets. During my stay in Brazil,
I had frequent occasions to see how they prepare, in different wrays, the
black tea, and how they color the green with different stuffs, especially
with Prussian blue and magnesia.
By these inventions they have con­
trived to imitate, to some extent, the appearance of tea from China, but
they could not give them that aroma and perfume characteristic of the
latter, and which the connoisseurs appreciate so much, and they have not
been able to modify the proportion o f the different principles which, by
chemical analysis, have been discovered in the tea-leaves, so that the
black teas of Brazil are just as bitter and astringent as the green teas.
The best means to find markets abroad for Brazilian teas will be the
low price. The law of cheap prices has always ruled all commercial spec­
ulations ; there is no exception for any article. Among the Brazilian teas,
there are some qualities which cost a great deal more than the teas from
China; but the latter are preferred everywhere, on account o f their cheap­
ness.
Therefore, instead o f complicating the process o f preparing tea, which
only increases the manual labor, and in order to obtain a suitable price,
it will be necessary to make the same process more simple. This is what




The Culture o f Tea in Brazil.

445

has been understood already by the planters of St. Paul. By comparing
the present mode of preparation with the account published twenty years
ago by Father Leandro de Sacramento, and by General Arouche, I find
some considerable differences. Formerly they used to put the leaves o f
tea in a kind of copper kettle, well heated, until they became quite soft,
when they were placed on shelves to be stirred and turned over for a
quarter of an hour, when they were rolled up and put again into the ket­
tle where, by stirring and mixing, they would take that lead color proper
o f the green teas.
All these operations are now performed without taking the leaves out of
the brass kettle, which is a great economy o f labor, time, and fuel. But,
notwithstanding this modification, three hours and a good deal o f labor
are spent in preparing a pound of tea, as it must go on the fire a second
time, and all the leaves must be picked one by one, in order to separate
the different colors.
Such processes are excusable only in a country like China, where the
most simple elements of mechanic art are still unknown, and labor is ex­
tremely cheap ; but not in Brazil, where the population, comparatively so
thin, can find an easy and lucrative occupation out o f any laborious agri­
cultural work. Therefore, it is indispensable to substitute for manual labor
the power of machines, which comes a great deal cheaper, easier, and more
expeditive.
Only in this way the culture o f tea may still become profitable in
Brazil; only by these means they will be able to lower the prices to the
same standard prices of Canton, where tea is sold at from 150 to 200 reis
a pound.
Behold, then, the greatest difficulty which we meet both here and in
Europe. It is more than twelve years since great efforts were made to
propagate the culture of tea in France; and with the help of some of our
best engineers, and of the wonderful discoveries made by chemistry and
physical sciences, we are not without hope to get over this difficulty, so
much so that the progress of the insurrection in China must necessarily
cause a rising in the prices of tea.
Our machines can prepare very speedily immense quantities of leaves,
and might be used for a central manufacture to be established in the capi­
tal, where all the leaves o f tea might be prepared for the market. They
do so in Canton with the teas destined for exportation. The merchants
o f Canton, at the time o f the harvest, send their agents to Fo-King,
Kiang-nan, and other places, to make purchases o f the green leaves o f
tea, which they .dry and pack up in boxes of about 96 pounds each, and
when they have amassed a sufficient quantity to load a chap— that is to
say, about 600 boxes— they send the cargo to Canton, where it is pre­
pared in the pack-houses, in which operation more than 30,000 people are
occupied.
Rio Janeiro also might become the great emporium o f the Brazilian
teas, and the source of a branch of husbandry quite suitable to its climate,
to its central position, and to the immense capital circulating within its
walls. It is Rio Janeiro, more than any other city of Brazil, that it be­
hooves to give an impulse to this great enterprise, having a large number
o f good, intelligent, and industrious workingmen, whose help is certainly
indispensable to make use of the artificial means which mechanic science
has put in our hands.




446

Commerce o f Candia.

Art. V. — C O MME R CE

OF C A N D I A .

THE ISLAND OF CANDIA—IMPORTS AND EXPORTS—COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE—MANNERS, MORALS,
AND CUSTOMS OK THE PEOPLE, ETC.

C a n d ia is a seaport city, and tlie capital o f the Island o f Crete, near the
center of its north coast. It has a population of some 12,000 or 15,000,
nearly all Mohammedans. Its harbor, formed by two moles, each termi­
nating with a port, is now so choked as to be available only by vessels
drawing eight or nine feet of water. The streets are wide and roughly
paved, and the houses are well built, and interspersed with gardens and
fountains. Candia was taken by the Turks from the Venetians in 1669.
A correspondent of the Department of State furnishes some information
o f commercial interest, in connection with a description of the manners,
morals, and customs of the inhabitants :—

“ The trade of this island with the United States fairly commenced in
1847, when the bark Ganges, o f Boston, loaded at the port of Canca a
home cargo of 195 casks of olive oil and 7 81 eases of soap, valued at
$17,694; also in the same year the brig Hallowell loaded at the same
port for Boston a cargo of 1,344 cases of soap, valued at $13,891. In
December, 1850, the brig Barbadoes arrived at the same port from Bos­
ton with a cargo of rum, coffee, sugar, naval stores, furniture, &c., valued
at $3,98:» 39. In 1851 the Barbadoes again arrived at this same port
with an assorted cargo, valued at $3,907 56. As this vessel had the
greater portion o f her cargoes for America in waiting at Smyrna and
Malta, she took on her return but a limited amount o f the produce o f this
island. The cargoes o f this vessel sold at very fair advantage— the net
proceeds of which were invested in the produce of Egypt, at Alexandria,
and forwarded to Boston via England; whereby opening a new and pro­
fitable trade with that section of the Turkish empire in the produce o f
Smyrna, and also with the Island o f Candia via Smyrna, of wool, almonds,
raw silk, wine, &c., all o f which paid a good profit.
“ The total exports from the port of Canca to Boston in 1847, and since,
have been $34,961 8 0 ; and from Alexandria, via Canca and Smyrna, per
brig Barbadoes, $751 87— rendering the total amount $35,713 6 7 ; on
which amount duties were paid at the custom-house at Boston. The to­
tal imports from Boston amounted to $7,896 95 for this port, on a portion
o f the net proceeds of the sales of which the purchase o f the aforesaid
shipment from Alexandria, $751 87, was invested.
“ The brig Barbadoes was intended for a regular trader between Boston
and the Island of Candia by the well-known, highly respectable house of
Messrs. A. S. & W . G. Lewis, of the former place ; but on a voyage to St.
Domingo in January, 1853, for a cargo of coffee designed for the Mediter­
ranean market, she foundered at sea, and never has been heard from.
“ In relation to Candia soap, it appears that the quantity o f soap im­
ported from Turkey during a part o f the years 1849 and 1850, was
155,127 lbs., and from France on the Mediterranean, 1,121,801 lbs.,
making a total of 1,277,018 lbs. for one year. The greater proportion of
the soap imported into the United States from Marseilles is manufactured
from the oil of this island, shipped by French vessels. The soap of this
island is, or has been until o f late, manufactured from olive oil and Egypt­




Commerce o f Candia.

441

ian natim, which by no means is so well adapted to the use o f American
woolen manufactures, <fce., as soap made from olive oil and soda ash. With
a view of qualifying this soap for the American market, the soda ash has
been introduced into its composition, which renders it of a very pure and
fine quality.
“ The following table exhibits a condensed report of the Commerce o f
the Island of Candia for the year 1853, by which it will be seen that the
trade of this island is largely increasing:—
ARRIVALS.

Ports.
R etim o...................
Canca..................... ..........................
Candia................... .........................

Nos.
640
848

T o ta l.................

Tons.
6,218
28,843
15,686

Men.
1,176
4,543
2,455

Dollars.
92,700
390,968
644,544

50,747

8,174

1,028,212

6,261
28,171
15,483

1,199
4,580
2,420

331,740
853,389
787,584

49,915

8,199

DEPARTURES.

R etim o...................
Canca..................... ..........................
Candia...................

640

T ota l...................

Total value of exportations from the island for 1 8 5 3 ...
Total value o f importations for 1853 .............
Balance of trade in favor of the island........

1,972,713
11,972,713
1,028,212
$944,501

“ From the isolated condition of this island, and so little is its general
society influenced by European or any other especial customs, notions, <fcc.,
and also so few strangers of intelligence and influence visit its ports to
give any extraordinary or particular tone to its local manners and customs,
that the broad distinctions of Turk, Greek Rayah, European, &c., are very
prominent and distinct. The ignorant, fanatical, and indolent Turk, and
the cunning, cringing, selfish, and down-trodden Greek Rayah, are met
with at almost every corner; and the cosmopolite Jew, and still', reserved
European, occasionally jostle each other on the ‘ Ma r i n a whi l e may prob­
ably be seen some one of the numerous and enterprising Ionians, with his
vessels and merchandise, cheek by jow l with some grim-visaged and
solemn Arab merchant, discussing the quality and price of a cargo of
barley.
“ To be b rief: the Turk o f this island, with his gross vices, lax morals,
good faith in his business transactions, hospitality, apathy, ignorance, and
sincere veneration for his Creator, is behind the ‘ spirit of the a g e w h i l e
the Gr< ek Rayah, unscrupulous, intensely selfish, aspiring far beyond his
condition, and crafty, is up with the spirit of the age— and both stand in
prominent contrast with each other. In fact, the Turk o f this island is the
Turk of everywhere; while the Greeks, as a class, are industrious and
frugal, with but few vices. The Greeks are very selfish, and sometimes
addicted to intoxication, especially when wine is abundant and cheap.
Homicides are very rare among them, and they are very ignorant, from
the fact that schools are only to be found in the cities. Naturally, the
Greek Rayahs of this island are an intelligent peopile, and only require the
introduction of free schools on the American system to make them known
for intelligence.




448

Treasure Trove.

“ An American in this magnificent island, on the very confines o f civil­
ized Europe, with a population of some 225,000 persons, in this age of in­
telligence and human progression, observes one strange fact that through­
out its whole expanse of three hundred square miles there is not a printing
press, and consequently, neither a newspaper, book, nor pamphlet printed
or published.
“ For its location, natural resources, Ac., this island is unrivaled; and
if divested of its ‘ nightmare ’ of Turkish rule, it would resume its ancient
renown of a ‘ hundred cities,’ and a million o f inhabitants, almost in the
space of the present century.
“ The society of the seaports is very limited, and except among the
great body of the Greek Rayahs, there is but very little or no social in­
tercourse ; and the foreign consuls, leading merchants, and Europeans live
in a very secluded, exclusive, and quiet manner, and what are called din­
ner parties, soirees, balls, Ac., are o f very rare occurrence. For the num­
ber of the population, I believe, comparatively with other sections of
Turkey, or in fact any part of the world, there is not much vice or licen­
tiousness.”

A r t . VI . — T R E A S U R E

TROVE :

OB THE TISCOVERY OF GOLD AND OTHER COINS IN MAINE.

It appears from the following statement, prepared by W il l ia m W il l is ,
Esq., a gentleman of considerable historical and antiquarian research, that
the discovery of a quantity o f old coin on the 11th o f May, 1855, at
Richmond’s Island, near Portland, in the State of Maine, has created quite
a sensation in Portland and at Cape Elizabeth, and has revived the rumors
of a former day that large quantities o f money lie buried in the soil of
that and other islands in this neighborhood. This impression is not of
recent date, nor confined to this region; for ever since the bucaneers in­
fested the coast of Maine, two hundred years ago, the impression has pre­
vailed that they concealed their treasures upon her islands, where they
have been repeatedly sought by visionary men.
But the present case is no vision. A veritable collection o f coin of an
old date having been found, Mr. Willis was induced to make an investiga­
tion into the circumstances; and accompanied by Hon. C. S. D a v e is , D r.
G il m a n D a v e is , and D r. J o h n C um m in gs , the owner of the island, he
carefully examined the locality, and there found fragments of the pot in
which the coin was buried, and other relics of a former age. Mr. Willis
gives a description of the place and the articles discovered, which we deem
sufficiently interesting to transfer to the pages o f the M e r c h a n ts ' M a g a ­
z in e :*—
Richmond’s Island lies off the southern shore of Cape Elizabeth, the nearest
point half a mile distant. It is about a mile long and three-quarters of a mile
wide at the broadest part, and contains a little more than 200 acres.
The first settlement made upon this island, of which we have any account,
* This account was originally communicated by the writer to the “ State o f Maine.”




Treasure Trove.

449

was by Walter Bagnall, in 1628; he carried on a profitable trade with the In­
dians, and was killed by them for his extortion, October 3, 1631. Winthrop, in
his journal, says he accumulated a large property, £400, by his traffic. Bagnall
occupied without title. On December 1, 1631, the Council of Plymouth granted
the island and the whole southern part of Cape Elizabeth, from Cammock’s
Patent of Black Point to Casco Bay, to Robert Trelawny and Moses Goodyeare,
merchants of Plymouth, England, and sent the patent over to John Winter, their
agent, who was one of the adventurers, to the extent of one-tenth, to establish
a trading house, and conduct the operations of the plantation. Winter took
possession of the grant at once, and entered upon a large business. He built a
ship there immediately, probably the bark “ Richmond,” of 30 tons, and sent to
Europe lumber, fish, furs, oil, &c., and received in return wines, liquors, guns,
ammunition, and articles necessary for the Indian trade, and to sustain the colo­
ny. Several ships were employed in the trade; the names of some of them
were the “ Agnes,” “ Richmond,” “ Hercules,” and “ Margery.” In 1635, a ship
of 80 tons, and a pinnace o f 10 tons, arrived at the island. In 1638, Winter
had sixty men employed there in the fishing business, and the same year Tre­
lawny sent a ship of 300 tons, laden with wine and spirits, to the island. In
1639, Winter sent home in the bark “ Richmond,” 6,000 pipe-staves, valued at
£8 bs. a thousand. The place was for twelve years, from 1633 to 1645, the lat­
ter being the year of Winter’s death, one of the most important for its trade
upon this coast. An Episcopal Church was established there, over which Rich­
ard Gibson, an educated man, presided from 1637 to 1640, when he was suc­
ceeded by Rev. Robert Jordan. Jordan married Winter’s only daughter, inher­
ited his estate, and is the ancestor of the numerous race which bears his name
throughout this State and far beyond.
Trelawny, the principal patentee, died in 1644, and Winter in 1645. From
that time the plantation declined; its trading operations were abandoned, and
probably the island itself, for Jordan established himself on the mainland, near
the mouth of the Spunvink River, and there were no persons remaining to sus­
tain its commercial character.
Having given this general historical view, we will proceed to describe the de­
posit and its particular location:—
D escription' of the C oin. The oldest of the coin is silver, o f the reign o f
Elizabeth, of which there are four one-shilling pieces, sixteen sixpences, one
groat, or four-penny piece, and two half-groats. All these pieces, as was the
ease with the whole silver coinage of Elizabeth, bear the same effigy, title, and
motto. They are as follows :—On the face is the head of the queen crowned;
the rose, an old emblem, behind it; around it her title, ELIZABETH, DEG.
ANG: F R : E T: HIB : R. GI: that is, “ Elizabeth, by the grace of God, Queen
of England, France, and Ireland.” On the reverse are the arms o f England,
France, and Ireland, quartered on a shield, traversed by a cross, around which is
the motto: POSVI. DEV. AD1VTOREM. MEV: i. e„ Posui Deum AJjulorem Meurn—I have made God my helper. This motto was first adopted by Ed­
ward 111., and continued to be used till the time of Charles I. On some of the
coin the title and motto are abridged. The shillings have no date, but all the
sixpences, and some of the smaller pieces, have the date of coinage over the
shield, and on the present collection it extends from 1564, the seventh year of
the reign of Elizabeth, to 1593. In her reign both the date and milling the coin
were first introduced, but neither was uniformly followed by her or by subse­
quent princes. Her silver coinage consisted of crowns, half-crowns, shillings,
sixpences, groats, half-groats, pennies, three-half-pennies, half pence, and farth­
ings. No brass or copper money was coined in England before the reign of
James I. The shillings of this and the two subsequent reigns are of uniform
size, and their weight and value nearly correspond with those o f the Spanish
quarter of a dollar, but they are broader and thinner.
Of the reign of James I. there are four one-shilling pieces and one sixpence;
the shillings are not dated—the sixpence bears date 1606, the fourth year of his
reign. The title, motto, and bust on the three pieces are the same: on the face
VOL. x x x i i i .— n o . iv.
29




450

Treasure Trove.

is the head of the king crowned; behind it, on the shilling pieces, are the figures
XII., and on the sixpence VI., to indicate their current value. Around, on the
outside o f the head,is the title, IACOBUS, D. G. MAG: BRI: FR : ET. HIB:
R E X .; i. e., Jacobus, Dei Gratia, MagruB Britannia, Francia, et Hibernia, Rex.,
James, by the grace of God, King of Great Britain, France, and Ireland. On
the reverse is a plain shield, without the cross, on which are quartered the arms
of England, Scotland, France, and Ireland; around it the legend or motto, Qua
Deus conjunxit, Nemo separet—“ What God hath joined, let no man put asunder”
— referring to the union of the English and Scottish crowns. On the first coin­
age in this reign the title was Jacobus, D. G. Angla, Scotia, Fr. et Hib. rex;
in the second, the words Mag. Brit., Great Britain, were substituted for England
and Scotland. The change took place in 1604, when he assumed the style of
King of Great Britain. The shilling pieces in this collection were coined before
June, 1605, as is indicated by ihefleur de lys, which was the mint mark down to
that time. The sixpence has the escallop shell, which was the mint mark from
July, 1606, to June, 1607.
Of the reign of Charles I. there are but one shilling and one sixpence. On
their face they bear the impression of the king’s bust, crowned ; behind the head
the figures indicating the value, XII. on the shillinar, and VI. on the sixpence.
The sixpence is dated 1625, the first of the reign; the shilling has no date. For
the singular fact that in all cases in the three reigns of Elizabeth, James I., and
Charles I., only the smaller pieces are dated we cannot account. The title is
Carolus, D. G. Mag. Br. et Ili. rex; i. e., Charles, by the grace o f God, King
of Great Britain and Ireland. On the reverse are the Union Arms, quartered as
in the preceding reign, but on the shilling the shield is traversed by the cross,
its four arms extending to the circumference. The motto is a new one, adopted
by Charles, Christo auspice regno—I reign under the auspices of Christ-.
G old C oins. The number of gold coins in the collection is twenty-one; o f
which ten are sovereigns, or units, of the reign of James I., and of the value o f
twenty shillings, three are half-sovereigns, or double-crowns, of the value o f
ten shillings each, seven are sovereigns of the reign of Charles I., and one is a
Scottish coin of the last year of the reign of James as king of Scotland only.
This is the oldest in the collection of gold coins, and is dated 1602, and o f the
size and value of the half-sovereign, or double-crown. On one side of the piece
are a sword and scepter, crossed at an acute angle; between the points at the
top is a crow'n; opposite, on the under part, between the hilt of the sword and
the handle of the scepter, is the date 1602; on each side is the national emblem,
the thistle. The motto around these emblems is Salus Populi, Suprema Lex,
i. e., the Safety of the People is the Supreme Law. On the other side is a lion
rampant, on a shield; a rose over the crown, and around it the title IACOBUS
6, D. G. R. SCOTORUM; i. e., James VI., by the grace of God, King of the
Scots. This is a beautiful coin, and is in a fine state of preservation.
The sovereigns and crowns are subsequent to his accession to the English
throne; tw'o of them are of the description which the king denominated “ units,”
from their being the first issued under the United Crow’ns. On their face they
represent the king in armor, crowned, and holding the globe and scepter, around
which is the title, Jacobus, D. G. Mag. Brit., Fran., et Hib. rex. On the reverse
is a shield with the arms of England, France, Scotland, and Ireland, quartered,
and surmounted by the crown. On one side of the shield is the letter I, and the
other R, which I suppose stand for Jacobus rex, King James. The motto Faciam
eos in Genlem Unam—I will make them one nation; hence the name Units or
United. The mint stamp is an escallop shell, indicating its coinage to be prior
to .Tune, 1607.
The other eight of the sovereigns are units, and a later coinage, having the
Ling’s head crowned with laurels in the Roman style, for the first time on Eng­
lish coins. They have the same title or motto as those last described. Behind
the head are the figures XX., designating their value, twenty shillings. These
were called Laurels, from the laurel wreath on the head.
The crowns have an impression similar to that on the sovereigns first described,




Treasure Trove.

451

except that the motto on the reverse is different, viz.: H enricu s rosas R egn u Ja­
the meaning of which I do not find explained. Henry, the eldest son of
the king, a prince of great promise, died in 1612, in the 19th year of his age,
much lamented by the nation. Whether the coin has any and what connection
with him, I have no means of determining. These have also the letters I R on
the sides of the shield. The coinage of James I. consists of Rose Rials, of 30
shillings’ value; Spur Rials, 15 shillings; Units, 20 shillings; Angels and
Crowns, 10 shillings; and Half-Crowns, 5 shillings.
The last of the series of gold coins are seven o f the reign of Charles I., all
of the denomination of sovereigns or units, and o f the same coinage. They
represent the head of the king, crowned and youthful, with a double ruff round
his neck, and a robe over his shoulders; the figures XX. behind his head, and
the title C arolus I). G . M a g . B r., F r ., el H ib . rex . On the reverse a new motto
is introduced. F loren t concordia R e g n a ; i. e., Nations flourish by Peace. In
the center the national arms, quartered as usual on a shield, surmounted by a
crown.
None of the gold coins have dates, and all the coins, both silver and gold, are
much thinner and broader than modern coin of similar value. The impressions
are clear and distinct, especially upon the gold coins, which are less worn than
the silver, and nearly as bright as when issued.
T he R ing. The ring is a wedding signet ring of fine gold, weighing 8 penny­
weights 4 grains. The signet is oval, six-eighths of an inch by five-eighths in
size. On the outer side of the surface is an ornamental border, in the center
the letters G. V., a cord passes between the initials with a tie at the top, and
love-knot at the bottom. Inside are engraved the word “ United,” then the figure
of two united hearts, and the words “ Death only Partes.” The workmanship
is remarkably good, the letters well formed and sharply cut. The initials prob­
ably represent the parties whose hearts are united on the ring, but who they
were we are at a loss even to conjecture.
If the initials represent a man and woman, as it is in the highest degree prob­
able that they do, I find no name commencing with V among our early settlers
with which to connect it except Richard Vines, one of the patentees of a tract
of country on the west side of Saco River, who took possession under his patent
in 1630, and continued there, filling a large space in the affairs of the province,
until 1645, when he removed to Barbadoes. Vines had at least one daughter,
who married Ellicot, and had by him a son named Vines Ellicot, who was living
in 1688, and then styled himself a grandson of Captain Richard Vines. There
were several persons connected with the early settlements whose names com­
menced with G, the principal of whom were Gorges, (William and Thomas;)
Goodyeare, one of the patentees of the island, 1631; Richard Gibson, the Epis­
copal clergyman whom Winthrop calls a scholar—he had a wife, and preached
at the island and Spurwink until 1640, when he was succeeded by Jordan; Wal­
ter Gendall, also, who lived at Spurwink as early as 1673, and had a wife. But,
after all, the ring may not have been, and most probably was not deposited by
the owner; it may have been lost or stolen and trafficked away by the finder, or
it may have been handed down from an ancestor.
L ocation. The coins and ring were found in a stone pot of common manu­
facture, and a beautiful globular shape, resembling a globe lantern. The pot
would probably contain a quart, and was found about a foot below the surface,
on a slope of land gradually descending from the summit in the center of the isl­
and northwesterly to the shore. The spot is about four rods from the bank,
which is there elevated 15 or 20 feet above the beach. There are traces of the
foundation of buildings about the place; stones from the beach were turned up
in plowing; in one place are apparently the foundations of a chimney, and near
was a cavity, which had probably been a cellar. The place had not been plowed
within the memory of the present generation, if it ever had, until it was broken
up last year. This year the plowing was deeper. Mr. Hanscom, the tenant of
Dr. Cummings, was holding the plow, and his son, twelve years old, was driving.
When the boy came to the place he observed the pot, bottom up, and, picking
cobus,




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Treasure Trove.

it up, said to his father, “ I have found it,” in allusion to rumors and frequent
conversations among the people in the vicinity relative to money having been
formerly buried on the island. His father took it, and said, “ It is a broken rumjug of the old settlers; throw it over the bank.”
On second thought, he told him to lay it one side on a pile of stones. On
turning it up, all that could be seen was earth, caked inside. Another small son
of Mr. Hanscom was sitting on the pile of stones where the pot was laid, and
began to pick the earth in sport. He soon came to the coin, and their astonish­
ment and excitement may easily be conceived. The contents were regularly ar­
ranged on the bottom of the jar; the gold on the edge at one side, the silver on
the other, and the ring in the middle.
The whole number of gold pieces was 21; of silver of various sizes, 31—
total standard value, $ 100. The silver was considerably discolored; the gold
very little. Part of the fracture of the pot appeared fresh, as though caused by
the recent plowing; the rest was of an earlier date and made, it is conjectured,
by the plowing of the previous year. But it is probable from appearances, and
from the pieces to complete the jar not being found, that it was a broken vessel
when the coin was placed in it.
A piece of lead, which had been bent to adapt it to some object, was found
near; but from the circumstance that the pot was filled with hard earth, it is
probable that it was not covered, or that the cover had got misplaced. Mr.
Hanscom and two other men immediately spaded the earth in the vicinity of the
spot, but no more coin or any other valuable thing was found. Some broken
pottery, pipes, an iron spoon, piece of a large thick green glass bottle, charcoal,
rusty nails and spikes, were scattered about, which the plow had turned up. A
building had evidently stood there or near by, but without a cellar.
The question most eagerly asked, and most difficult to answer, is— “ How
came the treasure thereV’ No satisfactory answer can be given; we can only
approach the answer by conjecture. I have no doubt that the deposit is a soli­
tary case, and can afford no encouragement to the idle rumors that have long
prevailed, that large sums of money were many years ago buried on the island.
The probability is, that the deposit was made by some inhabitant of the island,
or some transient person, for security, and that he either suddenly died or was
driven from the island, or was killed by the Indians. That the money found was
all that was deposited, there seems no reason to doubt.
My conjecture is that the deposit was made as early as the death of Winter,
which took plaee in 1645; and 1 go still further, and express the belief that the
money is connected with the fate of Walter Bagnall, who was killed by the
Sagamore Squidraset and his company, October 3, 1631. Bagnall had one com­
panion wilh him, a servant or assistant, whom Winthrop calls John P------- , the
blank we cannot supply. He had accumulated a large estate by trading. Win­
throp calls him a wicked fellow, and the Indians were exasperated by his hard
usage of them.
The principal part of the silver is of the reign of Elizabeth—only five pieces
were of James, and two of Charles—and the date shows one of them to have
been coined in 1625. Of the gold, only seven out of the twenty-one pieces were
of the time of Charles, and as these must have been coined before the breaking
out of the civil war in 1642, they may have been before 1631. The coinage
after the civil war commenced was of different patterns, and of much coarser
execution than that issued before. That the deposit must have had an early
date— before the commencement of the civil war—is evident from the fact that
it contains not a piece of coin of a later date than 1642. In 1632 the expedition
fitted out at Boston and Piscataqua to pursue Dixy Bull, a pirate who had vavaged Pemaquid, and plundered vessels, oh their return stopped at Richmond’s
Island, and hung up Black Will, an Indian, who had been concerned in the mur­
der of Bagnall.
Now, my solution is that this coin was Bagnall’s, concealed by his servant or
by some of the Indians, perhaps Black Will, and that it has lain there ever since.
Iu regard to the ring, it probably had no connection with any o f those parties,




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Journal o f M ercantile Law.

but may have been received by Bagnall from some of the rovers on the coast or
other person who came dishonestly by it, and placed by him with his other
treasures.
That the articles were hidden before the Indian wai*of 1675, is manifest from
the absence of any coin of a date thirty years prior to that event, and from the
fact that the island had been deserted for many years before the war by all per­
sons who had money to conceal. Jordan himself, the head and leader of that
whole region, lived on the main land near the mouth of Spurwink River, where
his house w'as burnt by the Indians in the autumn of 1675, with all its contents,
and he barely escaped with his life. The treasure, therefore, is not connected
with the Indian war, but its history must be sought in prior events.
P ortlan d,

Mav 22, 1855.

WILLIAM WILLIS.

JOURNAL OF MERCANTILE LAW.
GUARANTY— LIABILITIES OF BANKS.

In the Supreme Court, General Term, June, 1854. Before Judges Mitchell,
Rosevelt, and Clerke. Talman vs. the Rochester City Bank.
M i t c h e l l , J. The defendants’ points state that they may concede that if the
bond and mortgage mentioned in this case had been assigned in good faith by
Mumford to the Rochester City Bank as security for the debt which he owed to
the bank, the bank might (with the consent of Mumford) have assigned the bond
and mortgage to another, and guarantied the payment of the bond and mortgage.
But that the distinction was manifest between the right of the bank to guaranty
choses in action belonging to it and its right to guaranty those belonging to an­
other. The concession is right, and a bank may certainly assign or convey any
property held by it, and may enter into the common covenants of guaranty or
warranty, or making such assignment or conveyance. This right is a matter of
substance and not of form; as a formal contrivance complying in all outward
respects with the requirements of the rule w’ould be a nullity if it was in fact a
mere contrivance, and the substance of the transaction were contrary to the rule;
so if the case before the Court is in substance within the rule, and only needs a
formality to bring it in all respects within it, the omission of the form should be
disregarded, and the substance alone looked to ; for it is not a question whether
the bank has used the requisite forms or not, but whether it had any power or
capacity to do the thing which it has done, in any possible form; whether the
bank had any powers, functions, or franchises, to guaranty in such a case, not
whether it had used all the requisite forms, which would clearly show that it had
such right. This is not like the case when that which partakes of the character
of form is made necessary by statute; then the seeming form becomes essential
and matter of substance by the effect of the statute—as when a bank is forbid­
den to issue circulating notes unless payable on demand or at its place of busi­
ness. If the bank has the power or capacity to give its guaranty under the cir­
cumstances of this case, there is no statute against this form of doing it. The
counsel for the plaintiff accordingly insists that the transaction in question was,
in effect as well as in form, a guaranty by the bank, of securities in which it had
an interest. This requires an examination of the arrangements made between
the parties, as shown by the complaint. On the 1st of August, 1838, Mumford
was indebted to the bank in a large sum of money, and the bank was desirous
of obtaining payment; Mumford, in order to procure the means of payment, and
it is to be inferred in compliance with this desire, assigned to the American Life
Insurance and Trust Company the first six installments (amounting to $14,250)
of a bond and mortgage which he held from one Ingersoll. It was made a con­
dition of the purchase that the bank should guaranty the final collection of those
installments and of the interest to become due thereon; and the bank did ac­




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Journal o f Mercantile Law.

cordingly execute to the Trust Company its guaranty, which was delivered to
the Trust Company at the same time and place that Mumford assigned to the
company the bond and mortgage. Mumford received the consideration money
for the assignment and guaranty, and applied the funds to payment of his in­
debtedness to the bank. His negotiation of the sale (as is admitted by the plead­
ings) was with the knowledge and assent of the bank, and for the mutual bene­
fit of himself and of the bank. The guaranty executed by the bank recites that
Mumford being indebted to the bank had proposed, as is to be inferred to the
bank, to sell the bond and mortgage for the purpose of applying the funds of
the first six installments upon his indebtedness to the bank, upon receiving from
the bank their guaranty of the said installments and interest thereon, to enable
him to effect the sale, and that Mumford, in pursuance of that arrangement, had
executed an assignment of the bond and mortgage to the Trust Company, with
a covenant guarantying the collection of the principal and interest, and then in
consideration of the premises, and of one dollar paid by the Trust Company,
the bank guaranties to the company the final collection of the said installments,
and of the interests thereon, and reserves to itself the right, upon any default
in payment of principal or interest, to pay the amount then unpaid to the com­
pany, and to have the bond and mortgage assigned to the bank, if the bank so
elect. The mortgaged premises were sold on foreclosure, and on a final sale on
24th November, 1851, only realized $5,150, which was their fair value on the
last-mentioned day. Ingersoll was insolvent, and removed from the State, and
nothing could be collected from him. The bank is called upon to fulfill its guar­
anty, and insists that it had no legal capacity to make such a guaranty, and that
it is not therefore liable on it. From this statement it is plain that Mumford
held the bond and mortgage, and arranged with the bank to convert it into mo­
ney for the benefit of the bank, and to apply the money to be received to pay
his debt to the bank, and that in pursuance of this arrangement communicated
to the Trust Company, he assigned the bond and mortgage to the company, and
the bank at the same time guarantied to the company the payment of the bond
and mortgage, or of the first six installments on it, and that Mumford received
the money from the Trust Company, and applied the proceeds to the payment
of his debt to the bank. If Mumford had assigned the bond and mortgage to
the bank, and the bank had assigned them to the company, and guarantied the
payment, as it did, it is conceded that the bank would have been liable. The
only difference is that the one transfer from Mumford to the bank that would
have been necessary in that case was omitted, and Mumford, to simplify the
transaction, assigned directly to the company. This was a mere matter of form
in conveyancing, and neither the one form nor the other can be considered in any
degree as an attempt to enlarge the franchises of the bank. The measure of a
franchise is never determined by immaterial forms. The question always is
what power or capacity has been given, not whether the power is exercised in a
particular form. In substance, the bank had an interest in the bond and mort­
gage—the arrangement made between it and Mumford, that he should assign
the bond and mortgage for their benefit, or assign them and apply the proceeds
to pay his debt to them, gave them such an interest in this bond and mortgage
that to some extent the bond and mortgage were the property o f the bank. It
was agreed to be theirs when it was agreed that the proceeds should be theirs;
and when this agreement was carried out, and became an executed contract, it
made the bond and mortgage as much to have been theirs by relation during the
process of completing the arrangement, as if there had been an express contract,
of a sufficient consideration to assign the bond and mortgage directly to the
bank, that the bank might assign to the company.
It was contended that in some respects the complaint set forth not facts, but
the evidence of facts only. If the facts stated are such that if they were found
as stated, the plaintiff must recover by operation of law, then the plaintiff has
set forth a sufficient cause of action. So when the plaintiff alleges the execu­
tion of the guaranty by the bank, under its seal, and the guaranty recites the
consideration on which it was executed, and that is a lawful and sufficient con­




Journal o f M ercantile Law .

455

sideration, that is prima facie enough. A statement of certain evidence from
which the law draws a conclusion of fact is in effect a statement of that fact;
but a statement of evidence from which the law would not draw a conclusion of
fact, but which would be left to a jury to find one way or the other, although it
be so clear that a jury ought to find only one way, may not be sufficient in plead­
ing. So it might be that it would not in pleading be a sufficient allegation of
unseaworthiness of a ship to allege that she set sail, and on the same day, with­
out encountering any storm or casualty, foundered at sea, although a jury would
be bound, on such evidence, to find that she was unseaworthy. In pleading it
might be insufficient, because by possibility the ship still was seaworthy when
she left her port. Yet, even in such a case, it may be doubtful whether the
proper remedy is by demurrer, when the party has a more appropriate remedy
by moving to make the pleading more definite and certain. The judgment ap­
pealed from should be affirmed, with costs.
SHIPMENT OF GOODS— CONSIGNMENTS, ETC.

In the Supreme Court, Special Term, (1854.) Before Judge Clerke, Beeche
& Kuramdt vs. Stephani and others.
This was a motion to dissolve an injunction relative to importations of Ger­
man goods, amounting to $70,000.
D e c isio n . P. A. Milberg, of Hamburg, Germany, consigned to the plaintiffs
four different shipments of merchandise, with instructions to deliver the same to
Jacob Rybach, one of the defendants, upon payment of the freight and expenses.
Upon the arrival, in December last, of two o f the consignments, by the ships
Rastede and Donan, they delivered to Rybach the bills of lading for them, on
receiving from him the amount which they demanded for the said charges. Soon
after this, the plaintiffs received notice from Milberg, and from other defendants
in this action, that the latter claimed to be entitled to the goods embraced in the
several consignments, and cautioning them not to part with the possession of
the property and of the bills of lading to Rybach, on the ground that he had
fraudulently obtained possession o f it from them, being merchants and manufac­
turers in Vienna; that he pretended to purchase the goods with the design of
never paying for them, and of causing them to be conveyed secretly to the Uni­
ted States ; and, to carry out such design, he caused the goods to be secretly
removed from Vienna to Hamburg, and there shipped by Milberg, who was not
then aware of the fraud, to New York, whither Rybach himself soon after took
passage. On receiving this confirmation, and before Rybach (with the exception
of two cases, each containing a piano forte,) obtained actual possession of the
property out of the public store, where they then remained in the custody of the
collector, the plaintiffs applied, on the 30th December last, to one of the justices
of this Court for an injunction, which was granted, to restrain him and the other
claimants from taking possession and disposing of the property, and for the ap­
pointment of a receiver, praying in their complaint that the defendants may be
required to interplead and settle their conflicting claims; and that they, the
plaintiffs, may be absolved from all liability in the premises. The plaintiffs al­
lege, in their complaint, that they have no interest in the goods; that they do
not collude with the defendants or any of them, and that this action is com­
menced solely for their own protection. They further allege, that after the
commencement of this action, and after service of the injunction on Rybach,he
entered into a stipulation, on which an order was duly entered, by which it was
agreed that Mr. Charles Looseg, the Austrian Consul, should be appointed re­
ceiver of all the goods comprised in the four shipments, with liberty to make
sales, and to retain the proceeds to await the further order of the Court; but
that Rybach, in evasion of these proceedings, and in violation of the injunction,
made a pretended sale to Stephani, since made a defendant by amendment, and
fraudulently continued with him to have goods, which were imported in the Ras­
tede, removed from the public store, and afterwards placed in the store No. 112
Liberty-street; after which they were delivered by Rybach to Coronna and Littenfelt, as commission merchants, for sale on his account.




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Journal o f Mercantile Law.

On these facts the plaintiffs now apply for an extension o f the injunction and
receivership, so as to embrace the proceeds of the goods that might have been
sold, and the documentary evidences of title to all of the goods— for a receiver­
ship against Stephani, and an attachment against Rybach for a violation of the
injunction. The defendants, Ryb. ck and Stephani, move severally for a dissolu­
tion of the injunction with costs against the plaintiffs, upon affidavits denying
many of the facts alleged by the plaintiffs in their original and amended com­
plaint, and in their affidavits. Instances are continually occurring, especially in
a commercial community, where from peculiar and unforeseen circumstances, a
person who owes a debt, or has incurred a liability, is unable to determine, with­
out serious risk, to which o f several adverse claimants it should be rendered;
and, to prevent the probable or even possible injustice or vexation, arising from
the prosecution of actions by any or all the claimants, this Court will compel
them to test their claims by judicial investigation in an action between themselves;
in other words, the Court will compel them to interplead, on the application of
the person owing the duty or liability, and will relieve him from further respon­
sibility. The plaintiff, however, must show that he does not collude with any of
the claimants; that the claims are what, under the old distinctions, were denom­
inated legal; that priority should subsist between him and the defendants; that
he is in possession, actually or constructively; that he does not claim any inter­
est in the property in dispute, and that he can in no other way be protected from
an oppressive or vexatious litigation, in which he has no personal interest. It
matters not in what capacity the plaintiff has incurred the debt or liability—
whether as a stockholder or tenant, or an ordinary agent, or as a public officer,
or as an accidental recipient of the property. He has a right to claim the equit­
able intervention of the Court, for his complete indemnification and relief.
I
am of opinion that the plaintiffs are entitled to all the relief they ask, and
that the applications made by Bybach and Stephani to dissolve the injunction,
should be denied without costs.
LIBEL TO RECOVER FOR SALVAGE SERVICES.

In United States District Court, before Judge Ingersoll.
miralty. Isaac C. Phillips et al. vs. the ship United States.

Decision in Ad­

This libel is filed to recover a salvage compensation for services rendered to
the ship United States, by the steamtugs Hercules and Underwriter. The ship,
worth from $10,000 to $15,000, and having on board a cargo of about a thou­
sand tons of railroad iron, worth about $45,000, while bound into the port of
New York about two or three o’clock P. M., on the 11th of March, 1853, ran on
the outer middle shoal about three miles from Sandy Hook. There was seven­
teen or eighteen feet of w'ater on the shoal, and the ship drawing about nineteen,
was carried over the shoal by force of the sea and the wind, which was blowing
a gale from the northeast. Soon after she had a signal for a pilot, and was
spoken by one; but the sea was so rough, that he could not then board her. He
ther fore directed the captain o f the ship to follow his boat and he would lead
him into deep water. The direction w'as followed till the ship arrived near the
point of the Hook, when the pilot was enabled to board her, and she then pro­
ceeded under his direction as far as the Southwest Spit. She could then pro­
ceed no farther up the harbor, as the wind was dead ahead. When the pilot
went on board, the ship— which was an old one—from thumping over the outer
middle, was leaking badly.
The necessary hands being at the pumps, and after her arrival at the South­
west Spit, the captain and pilot consulted for her safety, and thereupon the pilot
ordered a signal set for the steamtug Hercules, which, having that day towed
down a schooner from New York to lighten the Avalanta, which was ashore out­
side of the Hook, was about two miles from the ship in the Lower Bay, looking
for business in her ordinary occupation of towing vessels up and down the har­
bor. The evidence was contradictory as to whether the signal was an ordinary




Journal o f M ercantile Law.

457

one for a tow, or a signal of distress. The Hercules came in obedience to the
signal, and took hold of the ship between four and five P. M., and the captain of
the ship told the captain o f the Hercules that the ship was leaking badly, and
that the water was gaining on them.
The Hercules not being able to tow her with as much dispatch as was desired,
a signal was set from the ship for the Underwriter, which had also gone down
in search of business. The Underwriter immediately obeyed the signal, and the
two tugs brought the ship in safety up the harbor, although from the leak she
settled one or two feet while coming up, and ran her upon a mud-bottom in the
Atlantic Dock between nine and ten o’clock at night. This wms on Friday, and
by the following Wednesday she filled with water. The usual price paid to a
steamtug for towing a vessel up from the Lower Bay varies from $25 to $100,
according to the state of the weather and the difficulties of the case.
Held by the Court: That the weight of evidence is, that the signal set was
not a signal of distress, but a signal for a tow. In obeying the signal, the tugs
went to her aid, expecting and agreeing to engage in the business which the sig­
nal indicated. But although the tugs started for the ship with the view to render
a towage service merely, yet if the ship, when the tugs came to her assistance,
was, in point of fact, in a condition where loss or serious damage was reason­
ably to be apprehended from her leaky condition, in connection with the boister­
ous state of the weather—if she was encountering a threatened or impending
peril, from which she was rescued by the tugs— then, although the signal set by
the ship was only for a tow, and although when the tugs started for the ship in
obedience to the signal, they understood that they were wanted only for towage
service, they would be entitled to be compensated for a salvage. For where a
ship or its lading is saved from impending peril by the service of any persons,
upon whom there is no obligation to render the service, then such service is to
be compensated as a salvage.
A mere towage service is confined to vessels which have received no damage
which puts them in peril of loss. A mere towage compensation is payable in
those cases only where the vessel receiving the service is in the same condition
she would ordinarily be without having encountered any damage or accident.
And if a towage engagement merely leads to the rescue of a ship from an im­
minent danger, it should be remunerated as salvage. (3 Hag., 428.)
That the Court does not find as a fact that the ship and cargo would have
been lost or greatly damaged, if she had not been rescued by the tugs, but does
find that there was danger of such loss, or great damage, and that the ship was
rescued from that peril by the tugs, and the compensation which the libelants
are entitled to have received for their services must be a salvage compensation.
That there was but little, if any, more labor and peril incurred by the tugs than
would have been incurred in such weather in performing a towage service ; that
they manifested promptitude in obeying the signal, but were not diverted from
their proper and usual employment, but were engaged in it; that the libelants
have experienced but trifling injury or loss by the service which they have ren­
dered, no more than probably would have been sustained if the ship had not by
her leaky condition been exposed to impending peril— and that under all the cir­
cumstances, the case demands only a moderate compensation. Decree, there­
fore, that the libelants recover the sum of $ 1,000, to be divided equally between
the two tugs.
COMMERCIAL LA W OF PARTNERSHIP.

The Pittsburgh Commercial Journal publishes a case which was lately (1855)
argued and decided in the District Court o f Alleghany county, before Judges
Hampton and Williams, involving some interesting questions relating to the
rights and duties of partners. As the matter was amicably adjusted before the
decision was announced, the names of the parties need not bo given; but for the
information of our readers, many o f whom are interested in the questions, we




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Journal o f Mercantile Law.

give a synopsis of the points decided, taken from the opinion filed by his Honor,
Judge Hampton:—
On the 29th of October, 1853, three persons entered into articles of partner­
ship to carry on the “ General Foundry Business” for the term of five years.
One of the partners becoming dissatisfied, various proposals to purchase or sell
were made without coming to any agreement. At length, on the 9th of June,
one of the partners delivered to his co-partner a note, stating that “ in order to
get rid of any further difficulties or trouble with you, I will leave the concern
and give you all that I have put in, or any interest that I have in it forthwith.”
On the 11th of June an. answer was returned as follows: “ I accept your propo­
sition as you have pleased to make it in your note of June 9, 1855.” The re­
tiring partner, on receiving this answer, demanded indemnity against the out­
standing debts and liabilities of the firm, amounting to several thousand dollars.
The remaining partners refused to give such indemnity, but assumed the posses­
sion and control of the firm, and commenced to carry on the business in their
own names.
A bill in Chancery was then filed by the retiring partner, setting forth the fore­
going facts, and praying the Court to decree a dissolution of the partnership,
and an account to be taken, and asking for an injunction to prevent the remain­
ing partners from using the property and carrying on the business for their own
benefit, and for a suitable person to be appointed as a receiver to take charge of
the property and assets of the partnership, and wind up the business, unless the
complainant was indemnified against the debts and liabilities of the firm. The
case came on to be heard upon a motion by the complainant for the appointment
of a receiver, and was fully argued by counsel. For the complainant it was
contended—
That although the articles stipulated for the continuance of the partnership
for five years, yet it might at any time be dissolved by agreement of the parties,
or by decree of the Court of Chancery for misconduct on the part of one or
more of the parties.
That whether the offer by complainant and the acceptance of defendants was
binding apd operated as a dissolution or not, still the defendants’ conduct was
wrongful, and justified the appointment of a receiver, inasmuch as they refused
to indemnify the retiring partner, and were applying the property to their own
use.
That in equity the retiring party Was entitled to indemnity, although not men­
tioned in his offer, and his right to such indemnity could only be defeated by an
express waiver.
That while the partnership continued, each partner was entitled to participate
in the management, and upon dissolution, the first duty of all the partners was
to wind up the business, and apply the property to discharge the liabilities of
the firm; so that in either aspect the defendants had no right to assume control
of the property and carry on the business for themselves without the consent of
the retiring partner. And having done so, the Court should appoint a receiver.
For the defendants it was contended—
That the complainant had voluntarily offered to quit the concern, and give up
his interest without any demand o f indemnity, and that offer being accepted, he
was bound bv it, and could not impose the new terms of indemnity.
That if the Court was of opinion there had been no dissolution, the defendants
were still willing to go on under the articles.
That they acted under a supposed right in carrying on the business in their
own names, and intended to pay the debts as fast as practicable.
That the appointment of a receiver would be highly injurious to them, and the
interests of the firm, and no irremediable injury had been shown requiring such
appointment.
An elaborate opinion o f the Court was filed on Wednesday last by Hampton,
President Judge, holding—




Journal o f M ercantile Law.

459

1. That the correspondence between the parties did not warrant the belief
that the complainant intended to give up his interest in the partnership and re­
main liable for its outstanding debts and responsibilities without security against
them, and strong conclusive evidence would be required to establish such as the
intention and understanding of the parties, and there was no express waiver of
indemnity.
2. That unless there was an express waiver of indemnity, the retiring party
would, in equity, be entitled to have the business wound up and the property
applied to discharge the liabilities of the partnership, or else to have adequate
security and indemnity against them.
3. That it made no difference whether the offer and acceptance of the 9th and
11th of June operated as a dissolution or not, because if the partnership con­
tinued, the defendants had no right to exclude the complainant from his fair
share of the management, and if it was dissolved, they had no right to appro­
priate the properly to their own use, and leave the complainant responsible for
the debts of the concern, without indemnity or security, and against his con­
sent.
4. That the defendants, having deliberately excluded the complainant from
all participation in the business of the firm, changed its name, opened new
books, taken and used the partnership property in carrying on their own busi­
ness, with full knowledge that the complainant refused to terminate the partner­
ship until he was indemnified, there is no course left for the Court to pursue but
to decree a dissolution and appoint a receiver, unless the defendants pay the
debts of the firm or secure the complainant against liability for the same.
W HAT CONSTITUTES A DRAFT OR INLAND BILL OF EXCHANGE.

A case of some interest has been decided in the Cuyahoga Common Pleas by
Judge Starkweather. The point resolved was— what constitutes a draft or in­
land bill of exchange. Suit had been brought on a piece of paper, which read
as follows: “ Cleveland, June 30, 1853—Wicks, Otis & Brownell, pay to L. F.
Burgess, or order, on the 13th day of July, 1853, three hundred dollars.” Signed,
R. B. Baily; indorsed, L. F. Burgess. Demand and notice were made on the
16th July, instead of the 13th, the holders treating the paper as an inland bill of
exchange or draft, allowing three days’ grace. It was set up in the defense, in
behalf of the indorser, that the paper in question was a bank check, Wicks,
Otis & Brownell being bankers, and therefore not entitled to grace. After able
arguments, the case was submitted to the Court. The Judge held—
1. That the only question to be determined was whether the instrument in
question was a bill of exchange or a bank check eo nomine. If a bill of ex­
change, then it was entitled to grace, not only by the general rule governing
commercial paper, but by positive statute enactment, which no evidence of local
usage could be permitted to control.
2. That even if local usage could be admitted, it was shown in this case that
there was no uniform usage with the banks of Cleveland upon the subject.
3. That whether the paper in suit was an inland draft or a bank cheek, sui
generis, was to be determined by inspection of the instrument itself, applying
to it those tests which commercial law has established for distinguishing the one
class of paper from the other.
4. That on examination of the paper itself, it seemed to lack some, of the or­
dinary qualities of a bank check, being payable to order instead of to bearer, and
at a future time, instead of immediately or on demand; whereas it was found to
possess all the requisites, and to answer precisely to the definition of a bill of
exchange, as recognized in the books and by the commercial world, and must
therefore be declared to be a draft, and entitled to grace under the statute.
Judgment for plaintiffs.




460

Commercial Chronicle and Review.

COMMERCIAL CHRONICLE AND REVIEW .
R E V I V A L OF T H E

SHIP PI NG I N T E R E S T — P R O S P E C T S

B R IT A I N , AND T H E
W E S T — BANK
O F F I CE

EXPORTS

OF

STATES— STATE

M O V E M E N T IN

AND N E W

— IMPORTS

UNITED

ORLEANS

DRY

NEW

GOO DS — E X P O R T S

FI SC A L Y E A R — FO RE IG N

F O R B R E A D S T U F F S IN F R A N C E , G E R M A N Y ,

T H E M ONEY M A R K E T — B ANK

Y O R K , B O S T O N , A ND

MINT— IMPORTS

OF P R O D U C E — R E C E I P T S

OF

FROM

FO R

AT NEW

NEW YORK

C ASH

O H IO — BU SI NE SS

YORK

W A R A T TIIE

AT

NEW

FOR A U G U S T AND FR OM

FOR A U G U S T AND FR OM

DU T IE S— E X P O R T S

FR OM

NEW

YORK

GREAT
NORTH­

ASSAY

JA NU AR Y 1ST.

JA N U A R Y

1S T.—

OR LE A NS FO R

THE

EXCHANGE, ETC.

T he business of the country has become more animated, with a decided im­
provement in many important particulars. The revival of the shipping trade will
give a fresh impulse to a large class of business operations. It is already felt in
the market value of ships. The price of staunch old vessels has been advanced
20 per cent, while a long list of new vessels, some of which have been offered in
the market for nearly a year, have at last been sold, and in many cases at $10
per ton more than was asked during the last spring and summer. This im­
provement is owing in part to the general revival of trade, in nearly all parts of
the world, but especially to the demand for freight from our own ports. Cotton
comes forward earlier, and will be freely exported. The great business of the
next year, after cotton, is to be in breadstuff's. There is now no question but
what the harvests of Europe have sadly disappointed the hopes of the people .
In Germany the yield is far below the average, and the demand for rye from this
country has already been active. Several cargoes have already cleared for An­
twerp, and over a quarter of a million of bushels o f rye have been contracted
for to arrive at the seaboard for the same destination. In France the grain crop
is also deficient, and much excitement has already been felt there in regard to
the future. We learn of engagements in French markets for large deliveries of
wheat and flour three or four months ahead, at very full prices. We doubt,
however, if this business is w’ell managed in that country. It is something so
novel that the merchants appear to be always at one extreme or the other. Last
year a large majority of the imports from this country, were neither suitable in
quality nor landed at the proper season; while a great many cargoes sent out on
French account were ordered to England for a market. In Great Britain there
is less said about any deficiency, but the crop is below an average, and the Eng­
lish must be heavy importers of breadstuff's. This was caused, not as many
appear to suppose, by the rains of the summer, but by the severe cold of last
winter. The thermometer was at zero for a considerable length of time, with
unfavorable winds, and much of the wheat was winter-killed. The demand for
food for Europe is now directed to the United States. Our own crops w’ere
somewhat injured in the gathering, owing to the wet weather, but the damage
has been limited and local, while the actual yield is greater than ever before
known in the history of the country. In the Genesee Valley, and in Ohio, where
some of the best white wheat is raised, the damage is serious, but in most other
parts of the country the injury is nominal. In the Far West and Northwest, the
yield is enormous; and Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin, the last three
especially, have raised wheat enough to feed the whole country, with a surplus




Commercial Chronicle and Review.

461

to spare. The Canadian wheat, much of it very choice, will fully supply in our
markets the deficiency in Genesee. What effect the foreign demand will have
upon prices, it is yet too soon to determine. If no such demand had arisen,
breadstuffs would have been lower throughout the country than for many years.
If the crop now harvested could be sent at onee to market, the export movement
would only bring the market value np to paying prices. But the harvest, owing
to the wet weather already noticed, was several weeks later than usual, and this
brings the woik of threshing, &e., too near to seeding-time for the farmer’s con­
venience. Still the quantity already in movement is very large. The channels
of communication, both by water and railroad, are becoming choked with the
quantity on its way to market, and unless this movement is interrupted by an
early frost closing navigation, or the exporters become excited, and bid upon
each other, we see no reason to anticipate such prices as shall be uncomfortable
for the home consumers. Indian corn is promising beyond all former precedent ;
the warm weather during the first two weeks of September was of almost in­
calculable benefit to the crop, and unless something quite unexpected occur, the
yield will be immense. This, of course, will not be available for the current
season, but it brings out all the old corn, and thus the supply is far in advance
of what even the most sanguine anticipated.
Money has been more in demand in all parts of the country, and rates of in­
terest are about one per cent higher than the average of last month. This is
brought about by no want of confidence, but appears to be simply the result of
the requirements for capital to move the crops, and to meet the revival of busi­
ness on all sides. There has been a sturdy movement among the Western
bankers who are operating under a general banking law requiring a deposit of
public stocks, to drive out from immediate competition with their circulation,
currency from other states which is not thus secured. One or more chartered
banks in Georgia have been the most direct objects of attack, and we are rather
disposed to agree with the assailants that the bills o f such institutions are too
far from home, in Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin. We shall be glad to see the
day, when all bank bills below $5 are banished from circulation. We have gold
and silver enough to supply the place of the small notes, and the exchange
would much increase the comfort and prosperity of the poorer classes, who are
always the greatest sufferers by all bank swindles.
The following will show the bank movement at New York since the opening
of the year:—
"WEEKLY AVERAGES NEW YORK CITY BANKS.

Date.

Capital.

Jan. 6, 1855 $48,000,000
48,000.000
Jan. 13........
48,000,000
Jan. 2 0 ........
48,000,000
Jan. 27........
Feb. 3 ......... 48,000,000
Feb. 10......... 48.000.000
Feb. 17......... 48,000,000
Feb. 2 1 ......... 48,000.000
Maicli 3 . . . . 48,000,000
48,000,000
March 1 0 . . .
March 17 . . . 48,000,000
March 24 . . . 48,000,000
March 31 . . . 47,683,415
47,855,665
April 7 . .




Loans and
Discounts.

$82,214,706
83,976,081
85,447,998
86,654.657
88,115,697
89,862,170
90,850,031
91.590.504
92,386,125
92,331,789
92,447,345
93,050,773
93,634,041
94,499,394

Specie.

$13,596,963
15,488,525
16,372,127
16,697,260
17,439,196
17,124,391
17,339,085
16,370,875
16,531,279
16,870,669
16,933,932
16,602,729
16,018,105
14,968,004

Circulation.

$7,04W,9S2
6,686,461
6.681 355
6,739,823
7,000,766
6,969,111
6,941,606
6,963,562
7,106,710
7,131,998
7,061,018
7,452,231
7,337,633
7,771,534

Deposits.

$64,982,158
67,303,398
69.647,618
20,136 618
72.923.317
73,794,342
75,193.636
74,544,721
75,958,344
76,259,484
76,524,227
76,289,923
75,600,186
77,313,908

•462

Commercial Chronicle and Review.
Loans

Date.

Capital.

April 14 . . .
April 21
April 28.
May 5 .
May 12 .
May 19 .
May 26 .
June 2..
June 9..
June 16..
June 23..
June 30..
J uly 7 .
July 14 .
July 21 .
July 28 .
Aug. 4..
Aug. 11..
Aug. 18..
Aug. 25..
Sept. 1.
Sept. 8.
Sept. 15.

47,855,665
47,855,665
47,855,665
47,855,665
47.855,665
47,855,665
48,684,730
48,684,730
48,684,730
48,633,380
48,633,380
48,633,380
48,633,380
48,833,380
48,833.380
48,833,380
48,833,380
48,833,880
48.833,380
48,883,380
48,833,380
48,833,380
48,833,380

..

..

and discounts.
94,140,399
93,632,893
92,505,951
93,093.243
91,642,498
91,675,500
91,160,518
91,197,653
92,109,097
93,100,385
94,029,425
95.573,212
97,852.491
98,521,002
99,029,147
99,083,799
100,118,569
100,774,209
101,154,060
100,604,604
100,436,970
100,273,733
99,397,009

Specie.

Circulation.

Deposits.

14,890,979
14,855,041
14,282,424
14,325,050
14,585.626
15,225,056
15,314,532
15,397,674
15,005,155
14,978,558
14,705,629
15,641,970
15,381,093
16,576,506
15,918,999
15,920,976
15,298,358
15,280,669
14,649,245
13,326,378
12,852,823
12,006,625
12,213,240

7,523,528
7,510,124
7,610,985
8,087,609
7,804,977
7,638 630
7,489,637
7,555,609
7,602,668
7,452,161
7,335,653
7,394,964
7,743,069
7,515,724
7,407,086
7,409,498
7,642,903
7,714,401
7,610,106
7,582,095
7,620,178
7,861,143
7,721,825

77,282,242
75,744,921
76,219,951
78.214,169
75,850,592
77.351,218
75,765,740
76,343,236
77,128,789
77,894,454
79.113,135
81.903,965
85,647,249
85,664,186
82,079,590
81,625,788
83,279,990
83,141,320
81,948,671
81,278,558
81,057,210
80,442,478
80,510,306

The highest point reached in loans since the weekly statements commenced,
a period of over two years, was on August 18th, when the total was upwards of
one hundred and one millions of dollars. The highest point in specie was dur­
ing the week ending February 3d, when the total was nearly seventeen-and-ahalf millions of dollars. The large receipts at Sub-Treasury for duties, the
shipments to all parts of the interior, to the West for the produce movement, to
the South for the purchase of exchange arid the protection of some of the Geor­
gia banks now run upon, and to Canada to equalize the exchanges, have absorbed
a portion of the gold, having taken up more than the total received from Cali­
fornia, and the quantity in bank is daily diminishing. Still, the banks at New
York are relatively stronger than when the weekly statement commenced, as
they had then only $9,746,452 in specie, against $97,889,617 in loans.
The Boston banks have shown an increase in both loans and specie:—
WEEKLY AVERAGES AT BOSTON.

August 21.

August 27.

September 3. September 10. September 17.

Capital......................$32,710,000 $32,710,000 $32,710,000 $32,710,000 $32,710,000
Loans and discounts53,(583,410 53,683,440 53,763,243 64.242,035 54,209,816
Specie.........................
3,347,014
3,347,014
3,441,552
3,485,528 3,442,136
Due from other banks
7,168,806
7,168,806
7,836,889
8,021,430 8,113.861
Due to other banks. .
6,763,171
5,763,171
5,867,499
6,068,681 6,326,850
D eposits.................... 15,241,003
15,241,003 15,918,474 15,961,681 15,650,018
Circulation................
7,128,563
7,128,563
7,144,870
7,559,765 7,640,147

The country banks of Massachusetts keep most of their specie funds at the
agency appointed for the redemption of their bills. The following is the condi­
tion of the country banks September 1, 1855, compiled from the returns to the
Secretary of State:—
Capital...........
Profits on hand

$25,922,350
12,243,512
6,562,828
2,721,442

Total

$47,450,132

Net circulation.
Deposits............




Notes, bills of exchange,
<fcc...................................
S p e cie ................................
Heal estate........................

Total

$45,SS6,784
1,030,704
532,664
$47,450,132

403

Commercial Chronicle and Review.

We also annex a quarterly bank statement, exhibiting the condition of the
several incorporated banking institutions of the Slate of Ohio on the first Mon­
day of August, 1855, as shown by their returns made under oath to the Auditor
of State, as compared with the returns for the quarter ending in May:—
RESOURCES.

Discounts.........................................................
Specie..............................................................
Notes of other banks.......................................
Due from other banks.......................................
Eastern deposits...............................................
Cash items......................................................
Bonds of State and United States....................
Real estate.......................................................
Other resources...............................................

Aug., 1855.

May, 1855.

|12,65*7,226
1,918,145
1,328,422
1,081,431
2,389,664
16,123
2,590,418
401,506
1,194,344

$13,889,818
1,854,865
1,381,665
958,554
1,111,903
103,339
2,480,118
344,282
1,169,651

$5,115,250
8,521,489
1,038,109
995,625
6,050,934
151,362
18,692
283,213
6,140
250,530

$5,610,150
8,381,253
1,006,803
1,810,125
5,646,450
179,351
48,115
29,585
119,218
287,583

LIABILITIES.

Capital stock . .............
Circulation..................
Safety fund stock.........
Due banks and bankers
Due depositors.............
Surplus........................
Time drafts..................
Discount interest.......
Dividend unpaid.........
Other liabilities............

The above shows a decrease of $1,182,692 in discounts; an increase of
$123,280 in specie ; $617,761 in Eastern deposits; $504,500 in capital stock;
$146,236 in circulation ; and $414,484 in deposits. The variations, it is seen,
are very slight. A further reduction has been made in the capital of the Ohio
Life and Trust Company Bank, which is now only $223,000, against $311,000 in
May, and $511,000 in February. The outstanding circulation of the Miami Val­
ley Bank is $103,310, and of the Savings Bank of Cincinnati, $2,855.
The receipts o f gold from California continue as large as usual, but as a con­
siderable portion of it does not find its way to (he Assay Office, it is not included
in any of the mint statements. The following will show the business at the
New York Assay Office for the month of August:—
DEPOSITS AT THE ASSAY OFFICE, NEW YORK, FOR THE MONTH OF AUGUST.

Gold.

Foreign coins........................................................
Foreign b ullion ..................................................
Domestic bullion..................................................

$3,000
31,000
2,216,000

Total deposits........................................

$2,250,000

Silver.

$2,900
1,750
15,750 '
$20,400

Total deposits payable in bars...........................................................................
Total deposits payable in coins.........................................................................

Total.

$5,900
32,750
2,231,750
$2,270,400
$2,230,400
40,000

Of the deposits of gold, $75,000 was in California mint bars.
The Philadelphia Mint did very little business, having been closed for repairs.
The following is a statement of the deposits and coinage at the Branch Mint,
New Orleans, from the 1st August, 1854, to the 31st July, 1855, inclusive:—




464

Commercial Chronicle and Review.
GOLD DEPOSITS.

California gold bullion........................................
Other gold bullion................................................

$490,990 92
26,189 83
$517,180 75

SILVER DEPOSITS.

Extracted from California gold............................
Other silver bullion.............................................

$3,449 13
2,417,630 26

2,421,079 39
$2,938,260 14

Total gold and silver deposits......................
GOLD COINAGE.

Double eagles.................................
Eagles...........................................
Quarter eagles...............................
Gold dollars...................................
Three dollars.................................

3,000
11,500
21,000
50,000
24,000

Pieces....................................

109,500

$60,000
115,000
52,500
50.000
72.000

00
00
00
00
00

------------- $349,500 00

SILVER COINAGE.

Half-dollars....................................
Quarter dollars...............................
Dimes...........................................
Half dimes.....................

3,018,000
932,000
640.000
1,020,000

$1,509,000 00
233,000 00
64,000 00
51,000 00

Pieces............... ..................

5,610.000

--------------

Total coinage.........................

5,719,500 pieces.

1,857,000 00
$2,206,500 00

There was no coining during the months of April, May, June, and July, ope­
rations in the coining department having been suspended for the purpose of put­
ting up a new engine.
The imports of foreign merchandise of all descriptions at the port of New
York for the month of August were $6,577,734 less than for August, 1854, and
$3,687,375 less than for August, 1853, but $1,197,711 greater than for August,
1852. This is in accordance with the intimation given in our last number, and
here we think that the comparative decline will cease. Our readers will remem­
ber that the imports, which had increased to an amount unprecedented in the
history of our Commerce, began to recede in September of last year, the total
for that month being $3,025,816 less than for September, 1853, and with a sin­
gle exception (February, 1855,) every month since has shown a falling off from
the corresponding period of the previous twelve months. For the year ending
August 31, the total imports at this port were $46,186,914 less than for the year
ending August 31, 1854, a decline far more rapid and important than the previ­
ous increase. A very considerable portion of the decline for the last month is
in goods entered for warehousing, the receipts being taken for consumption as
fast as landed, while last year the excess above the wants o f the trade was so
great that over four millions went into public store. We annex a comparative
statement for the month :—
FOREIGN IMPORTS AT NEW TORE FOR AUGUST.

1851 .

1851 .

1854.

1855 .

Entered for consumption...............$13,711,421 $16,788,352 $17,479,992 $13,899,758
Entered for warehousing.............
464,962
2,226,299 4,123,787 1,356,42 8
Free goods..................................
1,075 388
667,408 1,304,662 1,201,570
Specie and bullion......................
56,917
611,715
175,692
48,64 3
Total entered at the port............ $15,308,688 $20,193,744 $23,084,133 $16,506,399
Withdrawn from warehouse........
1,329,991 1,745,864 3,038,056 2,889,884




Commercial Chronicle and Review.
T h e t o ta l im p o r ts a t N e w Y o r k

fro m

fo r e ig n

p orts

465

fr o m J a n u a ry 1 s t t o A u ­

g u s t 3 1 s t w e r e $ 3 7 , 3 6 3 , 0 8 3 l e s s t h a n f o r t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g e i g h t m o n t h s o f la s t
y e a r , $ 3 7 , 3 4 6 ,0 2 9

le ss

th a n

fo r

th e

sam e

g r e a t e r t h a n f o r t h e s a m e t im e in 1 8 5 2 . a s

t im e

in

1 8 5 3 , a n d o n ly $ 1 1 ,2 1 6 ,2 0 3

w ill a p p e a r fr o m th e fo llo w in g c o m ­

p a r is o n :—

FOREIGN IMPORTS AT NEW YORK FOR EIGHT MONTHS FROM JANUARY 1ST.

1852.
E n t e r e d fo r c o n s u m p t io n ..............
E n t e r e d f o r w a r e h o u s i n g ................
F r e e g o o d s .............................................
S p e c i e a n d b u llio n ...........................

1853.

1 8 54 .

1855.

$ 7 2 ,2 0 9 ,4 5 0 1 1 0 ,3 4 7 ,1 5 9
5 ,9 1 6 ,6 3 0
1 5 ,8 1 3 ,8 8 8
9 ,3 3 5 ,3 2 7
1 0 ,3 3 6 ,5 2 6
2 ,0 8 5 ,1 6 5
1 ,6 1 1 ,2 3 1

1 0 2 ,1 8 1 ,1 0 3 $ 7 2 ,8 0 6 ,0 3 8
2 1 ,8 1 4 ,1 1 0
1 7 ,6 2 1 ,0 7 5
1 2 ,3 4 8 ,8 6 3
9 ,7 6 3 ,8 6 8
1 ,7 8 1 ,7 8 2
5 7 1 ,7 9 4

$ 8 9 ,5 4 6 ,5 7 2
1 0 ,9 5 2 ,5 6 8

1 3 8 ,1 2 5 ,8 5 8
1 4 ,3 8 2 ,9 3 2

T o ta l e n tered a t th e p o r t . . .
W i t h d r a w n fr o m w a r e h o u s e .

1 3 8 ,1 0 8 .8 0 4
9 ,9 7 2 ,9 6 6

1 0 0 ,7 6 2 ,7 7 5
1 7 ,1 6 0 ,1 1 8

T h e e n t r ie s f o r w a r e h o u s in g h a v e m a te r ia lly d e c lin e d , w h ile th e w ith d r a w a ls
fr o m w a r e h o u s e f o r c o n s u m p t io n h a v e in c r e a s e d .

O f th e d e c lin e in th e im p o r ts ,

a b o u t o n e - h a l f h a s b e e n in d r y g o o d s .

T h e to ta l r e c e ip t s o f th is d e s c r ip tio n f o r

A u g u s t w e r e $ 3 ,2 8 6 ,8 4 0 le s s

A u gu st,

th a n

fo r

1 8 5 4 , $ 1 , 6 2 4 ,1 3 8

A u g u s t , 1 8 5 3 , b u t $ 4 2 2 ,3 6 7 m o r e th a n f o r A u g u s t , 1 8 5 2 .

le s s th a n f o r

T h is d e c lin e , as c o m ­

p a r e d w i t h t h e l a s t y e a r , e x t e n d s t o a il d e s c r i p t i o n s o f g o o d s , b u t h a s b e e n c o m ­
p a r a t i v e ly l e a s t in s i l k s : —

IMPORTS OF FOREIGN DRY GOODS AT NEW YORK IN AUGUST.
ENTERED FOR CONSUMPTION.

1 8 52 .

1851.

1 8 51 .

1855.

$ 2 ,5 2 8 ,8 4 2
1 ,2 4 0 ,0 7 1
2 ,7 0 8 ,7 0 2
6 1 4 ,6 8 6
5 3 6 ,6 8 4

$ 3 ,6 0 5 ,7 5 9
1 ,5 4 8 ,7 4 5
2 ,9 8 1 ,0 4 8
7 1 2 ,3 4 2
5 1 6 ,0 0 7

$ 3 ,3 5 4 ,3 8 0 $ 2 ,5 5 2 ,2 6 3
1 ,5 0 8 ,0 1 9
8 0 6 ,6 0 6
3 ,5 0 5 ,4 6 7
3 ,5 7 4 ,0 3 0
7 5 5 ,3 3 3
6 0 7 ,1 9 6
6 4 8 ,6 2 0
6 3 8 ,9 1 2

T o t a l e n t e r e d fo r c o n s u m p t io n . $ 7 ,6 2 6 ,9 8 5

$ 9 ,3 6 3 ,9 0 1

$ 9 ,7 7 1 ,8 1 9 $ 8 ,0 7 9 ,0 0 7

M a n u fa c tu r e s
M a n u fa c tu r e s
M a n u fa c t u r e s
M a n u fa c tu r e s
M is c e lla n e o u s

o f w o o l ..............................
o f c o t t o n ...........................
o f s i l k ................................
o f f l a x ................................
d r y g o o d s ........................

WITHDRAWN FROM WAREHOUSE.

1 8 52 .

1 8 51 .

1851.

1855.

o f w o o l ..............................
o f c o t t o n ........................
o f s i l k ................................
o f f l a x ...........................
d r y g o o d s ......................

$ 2 2 1 ,4 9 8
9 5 ,7 6 9
1 4 0 ,1 4 3
4 2 ,1 2 9
2 1 ,6 8 6

$ 3 4 6 ,5 5 3
8 6 ,1 1 9
1 0 1 ,2 7 1
1 4 ,6 7 2
1 0 ,6 9 9

$ 7 8 8 ,1 6 5
3 2 2 ,0 6 6
3 9 4 ,4 9 3
7 3 ,6 3 6
3 3 ,1 5 5

$ 4 0 2 ,6 4 0
1 2 8 ,7 7 9
3 2 4 ,4 4 5
9 9 ,2 8 6
3 3 ,0 1 6

T o t a l ........................................................
A d d e n t e r e d f o r c o n s u m p t i o n ..............

$ 5 2 1 ,2 2 5
7 ,6 2 6 ,9 8 5

$ 5 5 8 ,3 1 4
9 ,8 6 3 ,9 0 1

$ 1 ,6 1 1 ,4 1 5
9 ,7 7 1 ,8 1 9

$ 9 8 8 ,1 6 6
8 ,0 7 9 ,0 0 7

T o ta l th ro w n on th e m a r k e t . . .

$ 8 ,1 4 8 ,2 1 0

M a n u fa c t u r e s
M a n u fa c t u r e s
M a n u fa c t u r e s
M a n u fa c t u r e s
M i s c e l la n e o u s

$ 9 ,9 2 2 ,2 1 5 $ 1 1 ,3 8 3 ,2 3 4 $ 9 ,0 6 7 ,1 7 3

KNTEREI> FOR WAREHOUSING.

1852.

1851.

1 8 51 .

1855.

M a n u fa c tu r e s o f w o o l ...............................
M a n u fa c tu r e s o f c o t t o n ...........................
M a n u fa c tu r e s o f s i l k .................................
M a n u fa c tu r e s o f f l a x ...................................
M is c e lla n e o u s d r y g o o d s ........................

$ 8 6 ,8 9 0
4 5 ,0 1 8
7 2 ,5 7 9
1 9 ,8 7 3
2 8 ,5 3 6

$ 2 7 0 ,3 6 8
1 3 2 ,5 2 7
9 9 ,2 7 3
4 7 ,8 8 1
1 2 ,4 3 6

$ 8 1 5 ,6 3 6
3 0 0 ,8 6 9
4 7 9 ,1 6 0
1 7 5 ,7 4 2
4 5 ,8 6 2

$ 9 5 ,2 6 9
4 7 ,2 7 2
2 8 ,9 5 4
2 8 ,4 3 4
2 3 ,3 1 2

T o t a l ........................................................
A d d e n t e r e d f o r c o n s u m p t i o n .............

$ 2 5 2 ,8 9 6
7 ,6 2 6 ,9 8 5

$ 5 6 2 ,4 8 5
9 ,3 6 3 ,9 0 1

$ 1 ,8 1 7 ,2 6 9
9 ,7 7 1 ,8 1 9

$ 2 2 3 ,2 4 1
8 ,0 7 9 ,0 0 7

T o t a l e n t e r e d a t t h e p o r t ................

$ 7 ,8 7 9 ,8 8 1

VOL. X X X III. ----- NO. IV .




30

$ 9 ,9 2 6 ,3 8 6 $ 1 1 ,5 8 9 ,0 8 8 $ 8 ,3 0 2 ,2 4 8

Commercial Chronicle and Review.

466

This leaves the total receipts o f dry goods at New York, since January 1st,
$23,871,440 below the corresponding total for last year, and $24,321,364 below
the total for the first eight months o f 1853, but $152,466 greater than for the
same time in 1852, as will be seen by the following comparison:—
IMPORTS OF FOREIGN DRY GOODS AT THE PORT OF NEW YORK FOR EIGHT MONTHS, FROM
JANUARY 1ST.
ENTERED FOR CONSUMPTION.

1852.
M a n u fa c t u r e s
M a n u fa c tu r e s
M a n u fa c tu r e s
M a n u fa c t u r e s
M is c e lla n e o u s

o f w o o l ........................
o f c o t t o n .........................
o f s i l k .............................
o f f l a x .............................
d r y g o o d s .....................

$ 9 ,9 9 3 ,6 8 3
6 ,9 5 5 ,8 5 9
1 4 ,9 4 9 ,4 3 3
4 ,0 3 8 ,6 7 6
3 ,0 2 9 ,1 3 9

18.53.
$ 1 8 ,5 1 8 ,9 8 1
1 1 ,0 1 7 ,7 6 2
2 3 ,6 6 0 ,5 0 2
5 ,6 3 1 ,2 0 9
3 ,8 7 2 ,5 1 8

1854.

1855.

$ 1 5 ,2 5 8 ,1 3 1 $ 1 0 ,4 1 7 ,0 7 3
1 1 ,7 4 8 ,6 6 1
5 ,4 7 1 ,3 3 7
2 0 ,6 7 1 ,3 4 0 1 4 ,8 3 1 ,8 1 4
5 ,0 5 9 ,0 0 4
3 ,4 2 2 ,5 5 1
4 ,0 8 4 ,7 9 6
3 ,4 2 8 ,5 5 7

T o t a l ........................................................ $ 3 8 ,9 6 6 ,7 9 0 $ 6 2 ,7 0 0 ,9 7 2 $ 5 6 ,8 2 1 ,9 3 2 $ 3 7 ,5 7 1 ,3 3 2

WITHDRAWN FROM WAREHOUSE.

1853.

1854.

o f w o o l .........................
o f c o t t o n ......................
o f s i l k ...........................
o f f l a x ..............................
d r y g o o d s .....................

$ 1 ,3 0 0 ,6 3 6
1 ,2 2 1 ,5 5 5
1 ,5 4 1 ,3 1 9
6 5 7 ,6 5 2
2 6 0 ,9 5 1

1 8 52 .

$ 1 ,5 1 0 ,2 0 7
7 8 7 ,6 0 9
1 ,1 0 9 ,6 4 3
1 6 4 ,3 1 3
2 5 8 ,2 4 2

$ 2 ,6 9 3 ,7 3 5
2 ,1 0 4 ,1 2 6
2 ,1 9 3 ,1 5 4
6 3 9 ,9 8 1
2 9 5 ,0 3 6

T o t a l w i t h d r a w n ..............................
A d d e n t e r e d f o r c o n s u m p t io n . . .

$ 4 ,9 8 2 ,1 1 3
3 8 ,9 6 6 ,7 9 0

$ 3 ,8 3 0 ,0 1 4
6 2 ,7 0 0 ,9 7 2

M a n u fa c t u r e s
M a n u fa c t u r e s
M a n u fa c t u r e s
M a n u fa c t u r e s
M is c e lla n e o u s

T o t a l th ro w n u p o n th e m a r k e t.

$ 7 ,9 2 6 ,0 3 2
6 6 ,8 2 1 ,9 3 2

1855.
$ 1 ,9 4 5 ,2 5 7
1 ,9 0 1 ,6 3 2
2 ,1 5 7 ,8 7 8
9 7 1 ,3 8 6
6 1 1 ,7 6 1
$ 7 ,5 8 7 ,9 1 4
3 7 ,5 7 1 ,8 3 2

$ 4 3 ,9 4 8 ,9 0 3 $ 6 6 ,5 3 0 ,9 8 6 $ 6 4 ,7 4 7 ,9 6 4 $ 4 5 ,1 5 9 ,2 4 6

ENTERED FOR WAREHOUSING.

1852.

1 8 53 .

1 8 54 .

M a n u fa c t u r e s o f w o o l .........................
M a n u fa c t u r e s o f c o t t o n ......................
M a n u fa c tu r e s o f s i l k ............................
M a n u fa c t u r e s o f f l a x ..............................
M is c e lla n e o u s d r y g o o d s ...................

$ 1 ,0 0 2 ,0 7 3
6 8 5 ,8 8 2
1 ,7 2 4 ,6 9 7
2 4 3 ,6 5 2
2 5 1 ,0 8 1

$ 1 ,9 2 4 ,6 1 9
9 9 3 ,6 1 9
1 ,2 1 4 ,8 2 1
2 3 8 ,6 2 6
2 7 6 ,3 4 8

$ 3 ,9 9 6 ,9 9 6
2 ,1 7 9 ,5 1 2
2 ,8 1 7 ,3 7 3
7 5 2 ,3 3 5
3 2 9 ,9 3 3

T o t a l ...................................................
A d d e n t e r e d f o r c o n s u m p t i o n ____

$ 3 ,9 0 7 ,3 8 5
3 8 ,9 6 6 ,7 9 0

$ 4 ,6 4 7 ,0 3 3 $ 1 0 ,0 7 6 ,1 4 9
6 2 ,7 0 0 ,9 7 2
6 6 ,8 2 1 ,9 3 2

1855.
$ 1 ,3 5 7 ,6 3 0
1 ,4 4 2 ,5 5 2
1 ,6 7 0 ,2 2 8
7 2 5 ,2 2 6
5 5 9 ,6 7 3
$ 5 ,4 5 5 ,3 0 9
3 7 ,5 7 1 ,3 3 2

Total entered at the port . . . $42,874,175 $67,348,005 $66,898,081 $43,026,641
This will probably close the decline for the current year, as each month for
the remainder of the season will doubtless show an advance upon the correspond­
ing total for last year.
The exports from New York to foreign ports for the month of August, ex­
clusive of specie, were $601,607 less than for August, 1854, $342,821 less than
for August, 1853, but $2,046,877 more than for August, 1852. We annex a
comparative summary:—
EXPORTS FROM NEW YORK TO FOREIGN POETS FOR THE MONTH OF AUGUST.

1 8 51 .
D o m e s t i c p r o d u c e ..................................
F o r e i g n m e r c h a n d is e ( f r e e ) ..............
F o r e i g n m e r c h a n d is e ( d u t i a b l e ) . . .
S p e c i e ...........................................................
T o t a l e x p o r t s ........................
T o t a l, e x c lu s iv e o f s p e c ie




$ 2 ,3 4 0 ,8 2 0
4 6 ,4 6 4
2 2 0 ,9 7 8
2 ,9 3 5 ,8 3 3
$ 5 ,5 4 4 ,0 9 5
2 ,6 0 8 ,2 0 2

1858.
$ 4 ,5 4 0 ,3 8 3
7 9 ,8 5 7
3 7 7 ,7 2 0
1 ,1 8 3 ,9 7 3
$ 6 ,1 8 1 ,9 3 3
4 ,9 9 7 ,9 6 0

1854.

1855.

$ 4 ,4 8 7 ,6 1 9
2 5 3 ,8 5 7
5 1 5 ,2 7 0
4 ,5 4 8 ,3 2 0

$ 4 ,2 8 1 ,4 8 1
1 5 1 ,4 8 2
2 2 2 ,1 7 6
2 ,6 0 9 ,3 9 3

$ 9 ,8 0 5 ,0 6 6
5 ,2 5 6 ,7 4 6

$ 7 ,2 6 4 ,5 3 2
4 ,6 5 5 ,1 3 9

Commercial Chronicle and Review.

467

T h e to ta l e x p o r t s fr o m N e w Y o r k t o fo r e ig n p o r ts , e x c lu s iv e o f s p e c ie , fo r th e
e ig h t m o n t h s e n d in g A u g u s t 3 1 s t, w e r e
t im e l a s t y e a r , b u t

$ 2 ,6 4 0 ,5 4 9

m ore

o n ly $ 2 ,3 8 1 ,5 5 3

th a n

fo r

th e

le s s th a n f o r th e s a m e

sam e

p e r io d

o f 1853, and

$ 1 0 ,4 3 5 ,7 9 6 m o r e th a n f o r th e s a m e t im e in 1 8 5 2 .

The exports of specie are less than for the same time last year; but the re­
shipments of foreign goods, and especially of free goods, has increased, as will
appear from the annexed comparison :—
EXPORTS FROM NEW YORK TO FOREIGN PORTS FOR EIGHT MONTHS FROM JANUARY 1ST.

1892.

1 8 51 .

1854.

1851

Domestic produce..............................$27,452,183 $34,845,630 $39,453,720 $34,579,662
Foreign merchandise (free).........
588,442
1,090,526
1,218,460
3,440,596
Foreign merchandise (dutiable).. 2,966,285
2,865,901
3,151,979
3,422,348
Specie............................................... 18,531,341 13,763,567 23,656,639 22,607,612
Total exp orts............................. $49,538,251 $52,565,624 $67,480,798 $64,050,118
31,006,910 38,802,057 43,824,159 41,442,606

Total, exclusive o f s p e c ie .........

T h e s e l a r g e e x p o r t s , in t h e f a c e o f a s m a l l s u p p l y o f b r e a d s t u f f s , h a v e c r e a t e d
s o m e s u r p r is e , a n d s h o w s th a t t h e e x p o r t d e m a n d h a s b e e n
s c r ip tio n s o f p r o d u c e .
o f th e le a d in g a r t ic le s

a c t iv e

W e a n n e x a c o m p a r is o n , s h o w in g th e

in

oth er de­

e x p o rts

o f som e

o f d o m e s t ic p r o d u c e fr o m th a t p o r t s in c e th e o p e n in g o f

t h e y e a r :—

EXPORTS OF CERTAIN ARTICLES OF DOMESTIC PRODUCE FROM NEW YORK TO FOREIGN
PORTS FROM JANUARY 1ST TO SEPTEMBER 17 t H :---

1851.
Ashes— p o ts ____bbls.
pea rls...........
Beeswax................ lbs.

1855.

1851

1855.

10,706 Naval stores. . . .bbls. 475,764 519,931
1,872 Oils— whale. . . galls. 157,202 191,121
sperm . .
134,098
325,231 680 ,03 2
la r d ___
23,186
79,779
B rea d stu ffs —
linseed .
4,336
8,685
Wheat flour . .bbls. 733,029 334,647
Rye flo u r ...............
10,266
15,907 P r o v is io n s —
Com meal...............
Pork............... bbls.
54,513
37,620
75,842 129,596
Beef...............
W h e a t........... bush. 1,552,552 152,313
46,884
53.744
Rye...................... 315,158
12,911
Cut meats, lbs ....15,526,570 14 ,968,952
Oats ........................
12,211
B u tte r..........
39,054
1,671,407 603,284
C orn ....................... 2 621,544 3,136,667
Cheese..........
1,662,859 2
Candles— mold..boxes
37,236
39,063
Lard............. .......11,110,738 6
sperm.
5,289
8,955 R i c e .................
18,920
12,523
C o a l.. .
..tons
7,752 Tallow............... ..lbs. 4,324,817 1 138,946
17,957
Cotton.
28,404
..bales 246,104 200,196 Tobacco, crude. .pkgs
23,741
H ay. . .
3,151
4,174 Do., raanufactured.lbs. 2,337,016 3
H ops..
978
1,031,133 1
8,228 W halebone. . . .
6,892
918
197,538

The above presents some interesting features, obvious, however, without any
further explanation.
T h e r e c e ip t s f o r c a s h d u t ie s a t th e p o r t o f N e w Y o r k s h o w a m u c h le s s c o m ­
p a r a tiv e d e c lin e th a n th e im p o r ts , o w i n g

to

th e in c r e a s e

o f th e t o t a l v a lu e o f

g o o d s th ro w n u p o n th e m a rk et fro m th e b o n d e d w a re h o u se .
m o n th is o n ly $ 9 2 3 ,8 3 3
le s s

th a n

fo r

$ 6 ,6 2 0 ,2 5 2
th a n

fo r

A u g u st, 1853.

51

th e

l e s s th a n

sam e

p a r i s o n :—




The

to ta l f o r th e

6 3 l e s s t h a n f o r A u g u s t o f l a s t y e a r , a n d $ 4 5 5 ,8 6 1
The

fo r th e

p e r io d

of

r e c e ip t s

sam e

1853. as

t im e

fo r

d u t ie s s in c e

la s t y e a r , a n d $ 8 , 1 7 6 ,0 1 0

w ill b e

seen

fr o m

th e

66

J a n u a ry 1 st are
65

annexed

le ss
com ­

Commercial Chronicle and Review.

468

CASH DUTIES RECEIVED AT NEW YORK.

I n A u g u s t ...................
P r e v io u s 7 m o n t h s ..

1851

1851

1854.

$ 3 ,8 8 4 ,2 9 5 5 6
1 7 ,4 9 1 ,1 0 0 0 6

$ 4 ,7 4 6 ,6 5 7 81
2 5 ,8 0 7 ,4 3 6 65

$ 5 ,2 1 4 .6 2 9 7 8
2 3 ,7 8 3 ,7 0 6 5 4

1855.

T o t a l s in ce J a n . 1 s t . $ 2 1 ,3 7 5 ,3 9 5 62 $ 3 0 ,5 5 4 ,0 9 4 4 6 $ 2 8 ,9 9 8 ,3 3 6

$ 4 ,2 9 0 ,7 9 8
I S ,0 8 7 ,2 8 7

15
66

32 $ 2 9 ,3 7 8 ,0 8 3 8 1

T h is r e v e n u e is s u ffic ie n t fo r th e w a n t s o f th e g o v e r n m e n t , a n d i f o u r o p in io n
in r e g a r d t o t h e c o m i n g i m p o r t s is c o r r e c t , w i l l

be

m ore

lik e ly t o in c r e a s e th a n

d i m i n i s h f o r t h e r e m a in d e r o f t h e f i s c a l y e a r .
W e a re n o w e n a b le d t o g iv e a co m p a r a tiv e s ta te m e n t o f th e im p o r ts a n d e x ­
p o r t s a t N e w O r le a n s f o r th e fis c a l y e a r :—
FOREIGN IMPORTS AT NEW ORLEANS FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 3 0 .

1851.

1854.

1855.

D u t i a b l e ...........................................................................
F r e e .....................................................................................
S p e c i e a n d b u l l io n ...................................................

$ 8 ,0 1 9 ,0 2 9
4 ,2 7 2 ,2 5 2
1 ,3 6 2 ,8 3 2

$ 8 ,2 7 2 ,4 4 9
3 ,8 7 6 ,5 7 8
2 ,2 5 3 ,1 2 8

$ 6 ,9 3 9 ,0 0 2
4 ,2 9 7 ,1 7 0
1 ,6 8 7 ,4 3 6

T o t a l i m p o r t s ..........................................................

$ 1 3 ,6 5 4 ,1 1 3

$ 1 4 ,4 0 2 ,1 5 5

$ 1 2 ,9 2 3 ,6 0 8

EXPORTS FROM NEW ORLEANS TO FOREIGN PORTS FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 3 0.

1851
D o m e s t ic p r o d u c e .....................................................
F o r e ig n m e r c h a n d i s e ................................................
T o t a l e x p o r t s ..............................
The
e le v e n
th e

above
per

ce n t;

p r o m is e

in c r e a s e w ill

........................

s h o w s a fa llin g o f f in
of

and

th e

in

th e

fo r e ig n

b e g rea t b o th

1 8 55 .

$ 6 0 ,6 5 6 ,7 8 5
2 7 5 ,3 4 5

$ 5 4 ,9 8 8 ,8 2 7
3 1 1 ,8 8 4

$ 6 8 ,2 9 2 ,6 6 0

$ 6 0 ,9 3 2 ,1 3 0

$ 5 5 ,3 0 0 ,7 1 1

th e im p o r ts

e x p o rts ,

tra d e

1854.

$ 6 7 ,7 6 8 ,7 2 6
5 2 3 ,9 3 4

of

fr o m

o n ly

th e

about
year

la s t y e a r

of

n in e

ce n t.

s h a ll

per

If

fo r

th e

next

in i m p o r t s

and

e x p o r t s , b u t g r e a t e s t in t h e l a t t e r ,

f r o m t h e l a r g e s h i p m e n t s i n b r e a d s t u ff's a n d o t h e r p r o d u c e .
a s a l r e a d y s t a t e d , is n o w r e v i v i n g ; f r e i g h t s

have

be

about

fu lfille d , th e

T h e s h ip p in g tra d e ,

r a p i d ly i m p r o v e d , a n d

m a n d f o r v e s s e l s is d a i l y i n c r e a s i n g 2 0 p e r c e n t .

th e d e ­

F o r e i g n e x c h a n g e is s t i l l w e l l

m a in t a in e d , b u t m u s t c o m e d o w n a s b o t h c o t t o n a n d g r a i n g o f o r w a r d .

N E W Y O R K COTTON M A R K E T F O R T H E M O N T H EN D IN G S E P T E M B E R 2 1 .
PREPARED

FOR T H E M ERCHANTS* MAQAZINE

BY U H L H O R N &

F R E DE R I C K S ON, B R O K E R S , NE W Y O R K .

O u r m a r k e t s i n c e t h e c l o s e o f o u r la s t r e p o r t , A u g u s t 2 4 t h , h a s d e c l i n e d f u l l y
t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f a c e n t p e r p o u n d o n a ll g r a d e s .

T h e fr e e r e c e ip t s o f n e w c o t ­

t o n a t t h e S o u t h , w i t h a r a p id a d v a n c e in f r e i g h t s , t o g e t h e r w i t h w e e k l y u n f a v o r ­
a b l e a d v i c e s , a s r e g a r d s t h e f o r e i g n m a r k e t s a n d t h e s t o p p a g e f o r a t im e o f a b o u t
1 7 5 . 0 0 0 s p i n d l e s a t t h e e a s t w a r d , in

con seq u en ce

o f th e

w ant

o f w a t e r in t h e

v a r i o u s s t r e a m s — t h e s e c a u s e s , w i t h l i t t l e o r n o c o m p l a i n t s in r e g a r d t o t h e g r o w ­
in g c r o p , a n d a la r g e r s t o c k o il h a n d o n th e 1 st S e p t e m b e r th a n w a s a n tic ip a te d ,
g a v e g r o u n d s f o r th e a b o v e d e c lin e , a n d
th e p r e s e n t re p o r t.

O ur ow n

t h e ir im m e d ia te w a n t s , a n d

in

w h ic h

w as

s p in n e r s c o n tin u e
con sequ en ce

n o t a rre ste d a t th e c lo s e o f

to

o f th e

c o n fin e

th e ir p u r c h a s e s t o

h e a v y s t o c k s in th e E a s te r n

m a r k e t s , g r e a t e r i n d u c e m e n t s h a v e b e e n o f f e r e d t h e m t h e r e t h a n in o u r o w n m a r ­
k et.

The

am ount

pu rch a sed

fo r

export

has

s h ip p e d u n d e r a d v a n c e s h a s b e e n ra th er la r g e .

been
F or

s m a ll, w h ile
s p e c u la tio n

th e q u a n tity

th ere

has been

h u t l i t t l e d o n e , w h i l e a f e w s m a l l p a r c e l s h a v e c h a n g e d h a n d s in t r a n s it u .
T h e o ffic ia l

sta te m e n t

o f th e c o tto n

crop

fo r th e

y e a r 1 8 5 4 -5 , e n d in g 3 1 st

A u g u s t , s h o w s t h e t o t a l r e c e i p t s t o h a v e b e e n 2 , 8 4 7 , 3 3 9 b a l e s , w h ic h i s a d e c r e a s e
o f 8 2 ,6 8 8 b a le s fr o m th e p r e v io u s
yea r b e fo r e .

year, and

4 1 5 ,5 4 3

T h e q u a n tity o f n e w c o t t o n r e c e iv e d

1st S e p te m b e r a m o u n te d
q u a n tity c o n s u m e d
w h ic h is 7 ,0 0 0 b a le s

by

to

th e

le s s

3 4 ,0 7 9

b a le s ,

m a n u fa c tu r e r s

th a n

th e

year

a g a in s t
n o r th

1 ,8 9 0

th e

h a l e s la s t y e a r .
5 9 3 ,5 8 4

The
b a le s ,

T h e e s tim a te g iv e n f o r th e

a n d w e s t o f V ir g in ia is p u t d o w n a t

8 5 .0 0 0 b a le s , a g a in s t 1 0 5 ,0 0 0 b a le s fo r th e p r e v io u s y e a r .




d ecrea se fro m

o f V ir g in ia is

p r e v io u s .

c o n s u m p tio n o f c o t t o n b y th e S ta te s so u th

h a le s

a t th e s h ip p in g p o r ts to th e

T h is e s tim a te , a lth o u g h

Commercial Chronicle and Review.
g iv e n a s s u c h a n d m a d e w ith c a r e , w e
o f c o t t o n in t h e t e r r i t o r y

th in k

469

fo ils b e lo w th e a ctu a l c o n s u m p t io n

m e n t io n e d a b o v e .

The

o p e n in g

o f n e w c h a n n e ls o t

c o m m u n i c a t i o n in t h e S o u t h a n d W e s t , a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f v a r i o u s m a n u ­
fa c t o r ie s , t o g e t h e r w ith th e in c r e a s in g

and

new

sou rces

t h e s t a p l e , w h ic h a r e o p e n i n g d a il y , d e m a n d s t h a t
p re p a re d o f th e co n s u m p tio n o f c o t t o n s o u th
o b ta in e d b y g u e s s in g
h ig h ly p riz e d .

The

export

to

w e s t o f V ir g in ia th a n c a n b e

G reat

B r it a in

— d e c r e a s e , 2 9 ,9 7 2 b a le s .

h a s b e e n 1 ,5 4 9 , 7 1 6 b a l e s , b e i n g a

th e p r e v io u s y e a r.

in c r e a s e o v e r y e a r p r e v i o u s , 3 5 , 8 7 3 b a le s .

T o F r a n c e , 4 0 9 ,9 3 1 b a le s —

T o N orth

o f E u r o p e , 1 3 5 ,2 0 0

b a le s

O th e r fo r e ig n p o r ts, 1 4 9 ,3 6 2 b a le s — d e c r e a s e , 2 6 ,8 0 6

T o t a l f o r e ig n e x p o r t , 2 ,2 4 4 ,2 0 9 b a le s — to ta l d e c r e a s e , 7 4 ,9 3 9 b a le s .

F o r th e w e e k e n d in g
The

and

C o r r e c t s t a t is t i c s c a n n o t b e t o o d e a r l y o b t a i n e d , n o r t o o

d e c r e a s e o f 5 4 ,0 3 4 b a le s fr o m

b a le s .

f o r th e c o n s u m p tio n o f

a m o r e a ccu ra te s ta te m e n t b e

fo r e ig n

a d v ice s

A u gu st

b e in g

3 1 s t th e

fa v o r a b ly

s a le s

w ere

con stru ed , th e

e s tim a te d

a t 6 ,0 0 0 b a l e s .

m a r k e t c l o s e d w ith m u c h

fir m n e s s a t : —

PRICES ADOPTED AUGUST 3 1 st FOR THE FOLLOWING QUALITIES :—
Upland.
Florida.
Mobile. N. O. Sc Texas.
10
10
10$
Ordinary.....................
11$
Middling..................... ......................
11$
nf
12$
12$
Middling fa ir .............
12$
12$
Fair.............................. ........................
13
12$
18$

m

T h e m a r k e t fo r th e w e e k e n d in g S e p t e m b e r

7 th c o m m e n c e d t o d r o o p — th e re

w a s a n i n c r e a s e d d e s i r e t o s e l l in c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e
S e p t e m b e r p r o v i n g l a r g e r t h a n a n t ic ip a t e d .

s t o c k t a k in g o n th e 1 st o f

T h e a m ou n t b e in g —

On hand, unsold........................................................................ bales
Sold, not delivered.............................................................................
On shipboard, not cleared..............................

47,469
2,‘224
7,153

Total......................................................................

56,846

T h e f o r e ig n a d v ic e s lik e w is e d is a p p o in t e d h o ld e r s , a n d th e m a r k e t c lo s e d w ith ­
o u t in q u ir y — s a le s f o r th e w e e k 5 ,0 6 0 b a le s , a t t h e f o l l o w i n g n o m in a l q u o t a t i o n s :
PRICES ADOPTED SEPTEMBER 7 lH FOR THE FOLLOWING QUALITIES I----

Upland.

Ordinary............................................
M iddling............................................
Middling f a i r ....................................
F a ir.....................................................
The

s a le s

fo r

th e

w eek

e n s u in g

Florida.

9f
11
12
12$
d id

9$
11$
12$
12$

Mobile.

N. O. & Texas.

9$
lli
12i
12$

n o t e x c e e d 4 ,5 0 0 b a le s .

$ a $ c e n t p e r p o u n d f a il e d t o in d u c e p u r c h a s e r s t o e n t e r t h e m a r k e t .

10
Ilf
12§
13
A d e c lin e o f
T e le g r a p h ic

a d v i c e s f r o m t h e S o u t h o f h e a v y r e c e i p t s , w i t h p o s i t i v e o r d e r s t o s e ll , g a v e b u y ­
e r s th e a d v a n ta g e t o th e a b o v e e x t e n t , w it h o u t im p a r t in g a c t iv ity t o o u r m a r k e t ,
w h ic h c l o s e d e x t r e m e l y h e a v y a t t h e f o l l o w i n g :—
PRICES ADOPTED SEPTEMBER 14 t H FOR THE FOLLOWING QUALITIES :—

Upland.

O rdinary...........................................
Middling.............................................
Middling f a ir ....................................
F a ir....................................................

Florida.

9i
10$
11$
12

9i
10$
11$
12$

Mobile.

N. O. & Texas.

9i
10$
I lf
12$

9$
10$
12$
13

T h e s a l e s f o r t h e w e e k e n d i n g S e p t e m b e r 2 1 s t w e r e e s t i m a t e d a t 5 ,0 0 0 b a l e s ,
a t a fu r th e r d e c lin e o f f c e n ts p e r p o u n d .
an d o u r o w n S o u th e r n m a r k e t o ffe r e d n o

T h e a ccou n ts b o th

fr o m th e fo r e ig n

e n c o u r a g e m e n t t o h o l d e r s , w h il e b u y ­

e r s a t e a ch d e c lin e s h o w e d le s s d e s ir e to p u r c h a s e .

T h e s c a r c ity o f fr e ig h t w a s

a l s o f e l t u p o n t h e m a r k e t , w h ic h c l o s e d n o m i n a l l y a t t h e f o l l o w i n g : —
PRICES ADOPTED SEPTEMBER 21ST FOR THE FOLLOWING QUALITIES'----

Upland.

Ordinary.................................................
9
Middling................................................
10$
10$
Middling f a i r ....................................
F a ir .......................................................
11$




Florida.

9
10$
11
11$

M obile. N. O. &, Texas.

9
10$
11$
12

9$
10$
11$
12$

470

Journal o f B anking , Currency, and Finance.

JOURNAL OF BANKING, CURRENCY, AND FINANCE.
FIN AN CES OF T H E P R IN C IP A L C ITIE S IN T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S .

In the M ercha nts' M a g a zin e for July, 1855, (vol. xxxiii, page 93.) we published a
table showing at a glance the debts, population, and value of taxable property in
nineteen of the largest cities o f the United States. That table was prepared by
Marie & Kanz. The following facts in regard to the same cities are entitled to a re­
cord in this department:—
N e w Y ork . The sum of 1 5,171,308, accumulated as a sinking fund, ($ 54 0 ,1 4 1 of
which was added in 1854,) is to be deducted from the amount of the above debt. The
city own wharves, real estate, markets, <fce., appraised at $ 22,430,250, besides the
aqueduct, the cost of which was $15 ,47 4 ,0 0 0 —in all $37 ,90 4 ,2 5 0. Ttie revenue from
the aqueduct in 1 854 amounted to $ 04 1 ,8 5 3 . Population in 1845, 371,223 ; in 1850,
615,557 ; in 1855, about 700,000. Taxable property in 1844, $235,9 6 0 ,0 47 ; in 1S54,
$462,285,780.
A lba n y . The actual debt of the city is only $282,016, which is provided for by a

sinking fund of $20,000 a year. The interest on $1,550,000 is paid by three railroad
companies, whose duty it is to provide also for the payment o f the principal by a
sinking fund. The revenue of the aqueduct is sufficient to meet the interest on
$800,000 borrowed to build it. The Western Railroad had, December 1, 1854, a
sinking fund of $397,349 to be applied to the payment of a loan of $1,000,000, part
of the above sum of $1,550,000. Population in 1840, 41,139; in 1850, 50,763; in
1855, about 60,000.
B altim o re . The interest on $4,S00,000 is paid by various railroad companies. The
current expenses in 1855 will be less than $600,000. The payment of the interest is
made subject to a deduction of a tax of 5 per cent. Population in 1850, 159,054; in
1855, about 200,000.
B oston . There are assigned to the payment of the debt:— 1st. A special tax of at
least $50,000 a year— on the 1st of January the sinking fund was $1,411,858. 2d.
The product of sales of the landed property of the city, amounting to 4,370,211 square
feet, within ten years the sales of 2,017,450 feet have produced $1,366,878 3d. The
revenue o f the aqueduct, the cost of which is represented by a debt of $5,432,261,
and the net revenue in 1854 was, without deducting the interest, $137,674. 4th. The
balance remaining in the treasury on April 30, of each year, which was $157,344 in
1854. Population in 1850, 136,881 ; in 1855, about 160,000. Taxable property in
1844, $118,450,300; in 1854, $207,013,200.
B rooklyn . This city and its suburbs, Williamsburg and Bushwick, were consoli­
dated into a single municipality in January, 1855. The debt was increased $450,000
in April. It will be reduced in July by the payment o f a loan of $200,000. The
sinking fund amounts to $400,410. The property belonging to the city is valued at
$722,554. The debt is all at 6 per cent. Population of Brooklyn, <kc., in 1850,
131,357. The consolidated population is estimated by the mayor at about 200,000.
C in cinnati . $875,000 emitted for the construction of the aqueduct, $1,130,000 in
behalf of railroads. The law at present prohibits any new railroad loan. The debt
has just been increased $500,000 in payment for wharves bought of the Ohio and Mis­
sissippi Railroad. The city owns, beside the wharves, property valued at $5,558,526 ;
the aqueduct is $1,000,000; railroad stock, $1,130,000 par value; and the White
Water Canal, $400,000. Population in 1830, 24,821 ; 1840, 46,838; 1850, 115,436;
1855, about 150,000.
C lev elan d . $400,000 emitted for building the aqueduct and $266,000 in behalf of
railroads. The city owns $331,000 in railroad stock, of which $231,400 pay a divi­
dend of 10 per cent. Population in 1840, 6,071 ; in 1850, 17.600; in 1853, 31,000.
C h icago . The city owned in December, 1854, property va lu ed at $ 275,424, beside
the aqueduct, which cost $40 0 ,0 0 0 . Population in 1 8 4 0 ,4 ,4 7 9 ; in 1 8 4 5 ,1 2 ,0 8 8 ; in
1 8 5 0 ,2 8 ,2 6 9 ; in 1854, estimated at 75,0 00 . Taxable in 1 84 5 , $ 3 ,0 6 5 ,0 2 2 ; in 1850,
$ 7 ,2 2 0 ,2 4 9 ; in 1854, $24,392,239.
D etr oit . In the debt is included the new loan of $250,000 emitted June 11,1855 ;
$500,000 in all have been emitted for the construction of the aqueduct, the revenue




Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance .

471

from which will in four years exceed the interest on this sum. The taxable and untaxable property o f the city is appraised at $21,790,820. If o new debt for municipal
objects can be incurred. A sinking fund has been provided for by which the debt will
be cleared off in seventeen years. Population in 1830, 2,222 ; in 1840, 9,102; in 1850,
21,019; in 1854, 40,373.
J er sey C ity . T h is lo a n w a s c o n t r a c t e d f o r th e c o n s t r u c tio n o f t h e a q u e d u c t . T a x ­
a b le p r o p e r t y in 1851, $ 7 ,7 6 1 ,6 1 8 ; in 1854, $ 1 2 ,3 7 3 ,2 8 5 . P o p u la t io n in 1 8 5 0 ,1 1 ,4 7 3 ;
in 1854, 20,989.
L ou isv ille .
$ 70 0 ,0 0 0 emitted for subscriptions in railroads.
The city owns
$744,695 in real estate and $86 3 ,4 5 3 in stock of various companies. A new emission
of $10 0 ,0 0 0 in favor of public schools will soon appear. The revenue on the stock
and other property of the city pays the interest on $1,062,000. The sum of $110,773
has in the course of the year been paid into the sinking fund. Population in 1844,
3 4 ,0 0 0 ; in 1850, 4 3 ,1 8 4 ; in 1854, official estimate, 70,0 00 .
Taxable property in
1845, $ 1 1 ,6 5 6 ,3 0 8 ; in 1850, $20,452,152 ; in 1853, $31,783,349 ; in 1854, $35,000,000.
M il w a u k ie . $823,000 issued in behalf of railroads and secured by bond, <fec. The

city owns $157,557 real estate, besides about $1,000,000 for railroad stock. Popula­
tion in 1840, 1,700; in 1850, 20,061 ; in 1854, over 35,000. The official valuation of
taxable property represents only about one-fourth of its actual value or $18,000,000.
N e w O r le an s . $4,000,000 of this has been issued in favor o f three railroads, a
special tax being imposed for the payment of the dividends. $5,621,000 in 6 per cent
bonds, payable in 1892, has been issued in exchange for the bonds of the old munici­
palities. The obligations of this last class, not yet exchanged, amount to $2,526,262.
To insure the payment of interest on this $8,147,262, the Municipal Council is obliged
by the charter o f the consolidated cities to raise annually by tax $650,000, to be ap­
plied first to the interest on the debt, and the remainder to the redemption of the
bonds. I f the levy of the tax of $650,000 be not the first act of the annual session,
every subsequent becomes void. By an act of State Legislature, passed March 15th,
1855, the city is prohibited from increasing the present amount of its debt, and as
soon as the debt, by the action of the sinking fund, shall be reduced to $12,000,000,
the authorities cannot under any pretext raise the debt above that figure. Population
in 1840, 105,490; in 1850, 133,651; in 1855, about 160,000.
P h il a d e l p h ia . This city owns property valued at $16,681,235, which bring in an
income of $1,088,313; of this, $3,275,000 is in railroad stock at par value, and the
aqueduct is $1,965,000. Of this property, $7,186,685 cannot be alienated for the pay­
ment of the debt. A tax of 5 per cent is deducted from the amount of the interest.
Population in 1850, 409,045; in 1855, about 500,000.
P ittsburg . $1,800,000 issued in favor of railroads. By an act of the Legislature
the municipal debt cannot exceed $1,150,000. The property of the city includes
$1,8 00 ,0 0 0 in railroad stock, par value. Population in 1830,12,568 ; in 1850,46,601;
in 1854, about 62,000.
S t . L ouis. $ 1,450,000 issued to railroads, and $ 308,896 for the construction of the
aqueduct. The property of the city, including the aqueduct, is valued at $2,0 25 ,0 0 0 ,
beside $1,450,000 in railroad stocks, par value. The city will, in addition, issue
$55 0 ,0 0 0 in favor of railroads. The sinking fund is supported, first, by a payment of
$ 1 0 ,00 0 a year; secondly, by the product of the sale of $ 70 0 ,0 0 0 worth of lands;
thirdly, by the dividends on railroad stock belonging to the city. Taxable property
in 1846, $ 1 5 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 ; in 1850, $ 2 9 ,7 7 0 ,6 4 9 ; in 1855, $51 ,22 3 ,8 5 9. Population in
1845, 63,491 ; in 1850, 7 6 ,8 6 0 ; in 1855, estimated at 115,000.
S acramento . Of the debt, $ 28 5 ,0 0 0 has been contracted for the construction of the
aqueduct. A new loon will soon appear, the product of which will be applied to the
payment of the loan becoming due July 1, 1855, and to the liquidation of the floating
debt. The interest on the debt will amount in 1855 to $13 5 ,6 9 8 . The ordinary ex­
penses of the city are estimated at $10 0 ,0 0 0 . Tax on real and personal property
amounts to $160,000, and is to be applied to the payment of the debt. According to
the message o f the mayor the indirect imposts will be sufficient to pay the expenses
of the city government. Population in 1852, 1 0 ,0 0 0 ; now much greater.
S an F rancisco . Sinking fund $50,000 a year. The most recent valuation of tax­
able property fixes it at $52,000,000. The city having decided in May to consolidate
the floating debt, there will soon be issued about $1,800,000 in 6 per cent bonds.
W h ee lin g . $50 0 ,0 0 0 issued to the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad bear the guaranty
of the State; $ 35 0 ,0 0 0 bear the guaranty of railroads, and $25 0 ,0 0 0 are guarantied
by a special tax for the payment of iuterest, and b}' an annual payment of $8,000 to
the sinking fund. Population in 1850, 11,438; in 1855, 14,136.




472

Journal o f Banking , Currency , awe? Finance .
T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S A SS A Y OFFICE IN N E W

YORK.

The following well-written description of the m odus op era n d i of assaying gold, & c.,
at the office in Wall-street, was published in the E v en in g P o s t some months since*
under the title o f “ An Hour at the Assay Office,” With a slight curtailment, we
transfer it to the pages o f the M erch a n ts ’ M a g a z in e :—
What becomes of the gold ? Doubtless this is the question that some o f the read­
ers o f the E v e n in g P o s t are often puzzled to answer. They know all about the dig­
ging, grinding, and washing of it in the mountains and streams of California, and its
transmission over the Isthmus till it reaches the port of New York. They hear of its
safe arrival in the trusty hands of Adams’s and other express companies, but after
that they know nothing of it, except when they are reminded of its presence by the
sight of some bright, newly-stamped five or ten dollar piece, which, however, has a
proverbial facility for taking to itself wings, before the possessor has had time to re­
flect whence it comes or whither it goes.
If our inquisitive readers will take a walk with us to the rather venerable looking
(at least for New York) granite building adjoining the Custom-House, in Wall street,
and now occupied as the United States Assay Office, they will be able to satisfy their
curiosity. Mr. Butterworth, the Superintendent, of whom we make our first inquiries,
informs us of the objects of the assay office, namely, the determination of the value
of the gold brought into our city, and the preparation of it for coinage by the United
States Mint at Philadelphia, or for transhipment, in bars, to foreign countries.
Our readers will bear in mind that the assay office, where the melting, refining,
parting, and other operations upon the gold are performed, is in the rear o f the build­
ing fronting on Wall-street. The latter is occupied by the Sub-Treasurer’s office and
weighing-room, and by the private rooms of various incumbents of government offices.
But before we witness the processes referred to, let us visit the Treasurer’s weighingroom, which is in the front building. Here all the deposits, whether in bars or dust,
(generally, however, in dust,) are first brought, and here their original weight is as­
certained. The dust, which lies in, it may be, half-peck boxes on the floor, is not, as
might be inferred from the name, a fine, bright yellow powder, but looks rather like
dingy, brass-colored granite, broken by a hammer into the fineness of ordinary Turk’s
Island salt. After weighing, the deposit is carried into the Treasurer’s vault, in the
assay office proper, whence it is taken and melted.
The melting is done in crucibles, containing two or three gallons, over a coal furn­
ace heated to an intensity that would satisfy Nebuchadnezzar himself. The poor,
swarthy melter, who superintends with a long-handled ladle, say ten feet in length,
even at that distance turns to a most copperish hue of complexion, and has to aban­
don the work in a few hours for the rest of the day. There he stands, watching the
boiling yellow fluid, alternately covering it up and stirring it with his long pole, until
. in an hour or two the contents of the crucible can be dipped out and the molten mass
poured into molds, by which it is shaped into bars of about three hundred ounces
each.
The gold is then returned to the vault of the melter and refiner, a cell some twelve
feet square, with two iron doors, secured by four locks, and with granite walls, put
together with cannon balls inserted between the stone in such a manner as to defy the
most ingenious and persevering burglar. Four men are appointed to sentinel this de­
pository at night, and a similar provision is made for the Treasurer’s vault, where the
gold that has gone through all the processes which are appointed for it, is placed.
On entering this vault in company with Mr. Morfit, the courteous assistant melter
and refiner, we were not at first impressed with the appearance of what was there
exhibited. Usually one derives his idea of such places from his readings in fairy tales
and in the Arabian Nights, where we are told of caves so full of precious metals and
jewels that the mind craves a little variety in the way of something more common­
place. Not so here, however. In one corner there were perhaps a couple of wheel­
barrow-loads of silver, as pure and white as the goat-hunter, clambering over the hills
of Potosi, pulled up with the roots of the sapling he was supporting himself by. In
another corner was, perhaps, the same bulk of gold, weighing about four times as
much. In such a situation it was not unnatural to think how pleasant it would be to
trundle that glittering heap off for the benefit of whom it might concern, and how
little one would object to its weight, if such a task were imposed. But how much it
expauded one’s estimate of what he saw, when informed that that diminutive pile of
golden bricks was worth half a million! To what excellent uses could it not be ap­




Journal o f B anking , Currency , and Finance.

473

plied ! A house in Fifth Avenue, ditto at Newport, railroad stocks, reputation as a
patron of philanthropic societies and foreign missions— all the possible amenities of
life are suggested by that little heap in the corner. There it lay, as Hood says:—
G old! Gold! Gold! Gold!
+
Bright and yellow, hard and cold ;
Molten, graven, hammeied, and rolled;
Heavy to get, and light to hold ;
Hoarded, bartered, bought, and sold ;
Stolen, borrowed, squandered, doled ;
Spurned by the young, but hugged by the old
To the very verge o f the churchyard m o ld ;
Price of many a crime untold!
G old! Gold! Gold! Gold!
Good or bad a thousand fold !

But to return to business. The gold having been, as we have seen, weighed, melted#
weighed again, and deposited as bullion in the vault, is next to be assayed— that is, to
have its value and fineness ascertained by a delicate chemical process. We were for­
tunate enough to witness the operation, as superintended by Mr. Mason, the assistant
assayer. It is performed in this w ise: on each deposit— which, it must be remembered,
still retains with its gold the various impurities with which it first came out of the
mine—two bars are selected at random, and a small shaving of a prescribed weight
is cut from each. A pair of scales is employed, so delicate that the thousandth part
o f a grain will turn it, to weigh them separately. They are then wrapped round in a
thin coating o f lead, and having been put into little cups, called cupels, made of phos­
phate of lime— or, in plain English, of burnt bone— are subjected to an intense heat.
A t once the lead melts, and uniting with the copper and other foreign ingredients of
the gold, assists their oxydizing, and with them is absorbed into the porous substance
of the cup, leaving no sign, except a dark stain, of its presence. But the gold still
shines out in the cup, inclosed by a trifling wash of silver, that for some reason or
other does not like to disappear with the remaining alloys.
Now, although there is no objection to silver p e r se , the assayer would prefer that it
would not inclose that beautiful round button of pure gold that remains in the cup,
for the same reason that the fastidious boarder, in his Chatham-street headquarters,
preferred his butter and his hairs on separate plates. This, then, is the way he separ­
ates them :— The button is placed on an anvil and flattened with a hammer to such a
thinness as may make it permeable to the nitric acid in which it must now be im­
mersed. A small long-necked bottle, called a mattrass, contains this fluid, into which
he drops the button. The bottle is heated over a furnace, and the acid completely
absorbs the remaining alloy, leaving the gold perfectly pure, with only a slight black
covering of oxydized alloy, which is removed by annealing. The adhering acids are
then washed off, and all he has to do is to re weigh the two shavings of gold, and to
ascertain how much they have lost by the chemical changes they have been put through.
He thus discovers what proportion of pure mfetal is contained in a given part of a de­
posit, and from this judges of the fineness and value of the deposit itself. The owner
then can receive its value in pure bars of other gold, and go on his way, resigning all
claim to the original quantity which he brought to the office.
The assayer has now done his work, and the responsibility of the melter and refiner
begins. His business is merely that of his predecessor, only on a less delicate and
much larger scale; i. e., to free the entire deposit from alloy, just as the assayer had
cleansed his diminutive shaving of a few grains in weight from its impurities. Let
us ascend one story higher in the building, and see him operate. When we reach this
height we see the workmen in the granulating room sweltering over seven large fur­
naces along the sides, and we notice that the cement floor of the apartment is covered,
about two inches deep, with iron grating, through which there gleam, at all times,
small particles of refuse gold or silver, which have been carelessly or unavoidably
dropped. It will not do to lose them, and so at certain periods the floor is carefully
swept, and the sweepings, dirt and all, with the men’s aprons, the discarded crucibles,
ladles, <tc., are collected, burnt, ground, and otherwise transformed, till a very consid­
erable revenue of precious metal is obtained therefrom. What it amounts to in the
assay office has not been definitely stated, but we were told that at the mint in Phila­
delphia it came to the handsome figure of $50,000 a year, enough, by the way, if
properly applied, to bless 25,000 families with a year’s supply o f the W eek ly E v en in g
P o s t.

The melter and refiner takes us to his treasury vault, and the workmen draw their
small wagon loads of gold and silver into the melting room. The melting is now to




474

Journal o f Banking , Currency , and Finance .

be attended to. One hundred pounds o f silver to fifty of gold is placed in each cru­
cible, the rule being two of the former to one of the latter. After an hour and a
quarter the two are rendered fluid, and the man at the furnace, with his long-handled
ladle, dips out the mixed metal, and swinging round the edge of a large copper ves­
sel, pours it into the cold water contained in it. This rotatory motion has the effect
of preventing the solidification in a mass of the metal, causing it to harden and sink
to the bottom in the form of flakes or g ra in s. Hence it is called the process of g r a n ­
u la tion , and the mixed metal, from the excess of silver in its composition, is called
g ra n u la ted silver. It is certainly beautifully white, looking like the oxydized silver
that we see among the ornaments of a jeweler’s ‘window, as, indeed, it is the same
thing. Not only has it been melted itself, but it has facilitated the melting of the
other alloys of the gold, and after drawing them out and mingling with them, has
completely incrusted the pure yellow metal that is concealed in it.
If, now, we can only get rid of this incrustation of silver, we shall have the genuine,
unadulterated gold, that will need but little more than pressing into bars or coining
to answer the purposes of Commerce, which is never sorry to witness an accession to
its already enormous family of “ yellow boys.” To ascertain how this is accomplished,
we must go up two flights of stairs higher, into the parting room, where the granulated
silver is carried. Here wTe find four rows of eight porcelain pots, each with a capacity
of from twenty to twenty-four gallons. They are placed in troughs of boiling salt­
water, and into each is turned a charge of one hundred ami fifty pounds of the gran­
ulated or mixed metal, over which is poured as many pounds of nitric acid. This
acid, uniting with the silver, forms a solution which is called nitrate of silver, and the
effect of such an alliance is to separate and sink the pure gold to the bottom of the
jar. The nitrate of silver is then drawn off with a gold syphon— gold being the only
metal which can withstand its action—and another charge o f nitric acid is applied to
complete the work. After the second charge has been in the same manner removed,
we see at the bottom of the pot an unpromising sediment remaining, as black as Jer­
sey mud. But the spectator must not be discouraged. Like a singed cat, the sedi­
ment is better than it looks— in short, it is pure yellow gold, as will be shown by
washing it a few times in warm water, so as to free it from the acid that still clings
to its exterior. It now appears thoroughly pulverized, and fairly entitled to the name
of gold dust.
The next operation is to solidify it by subjecting it to a pressure of two hundred
tons from a hydrostatic press, when it comes out in the form of cheeses about a foot
in diameter, with a thickness of three inches. Then put it on a furnace heated redhot so as to expel the last drop of water from it, and again melt it in a crucible, from
which it must also again be molded into bars of fine gold, varying, according to their
size and fineness, from $6,000 to $800 in value. These are once more assayed at the
hands of the assayer, by the process before explained, stamped to indicate their num­
ber, fineness, and weight, and committed to the vault of the Treasurer, there to await
his disposal. It is only such bars that are received at the banks, who are unwilling
to accept those which have been assayed without the authority of the government.
Their conversion into money must be done at the mint in Philadelphia.
Our merchants also, for several reasons, prefer the gold bars to coin in making their
foreign payments. In the first place, they are cheaper, as they are compelled to pay
fifty cents on a hundred dollars for money, while the charge for bullion of the same
value in bars is but six cents. They are, moreover, obviously more acceptable to mer­
chants abroad than our national coin, except in those countries where coin is wanted
to supply emigrants bound for our shores.
The fineness of the bars manufactured at the assay office, as shown by its operations
on the last deposit of California gold, was 995 thousandths— a success not hitherto
equaled by any other similar establishment. When first deposited with the assayer,
it ranges on an average from 860 to 885 thousandths of pure metal. According to
the requirements of Congress, our national coin must contain ten per cent of alloy, i.e.,
one hundred parts out of every thousand. Fine bars, by the same rule, are required
to consist of 889 thousandths of pure gold, with a permission to refine as much further
as may be found possible.
B u t t o c o m p l e t e o u r a c c o u n t, w e s h o u ld g i v e a r e p o r t o f th e fa t e o f th e s ilv e r ,
d r a w n c f f in s o lu tio n w it h n itr ic a c id fr o m t h e p o r c e la in p o t s w h ic h w e h a v e m e n ­
t io n e d .
A l l w e h a v e t o s a y is, th a t it is e m p t i e d in t o a n e n o r m o u s v a t, c a p a b l e o f
s w im m in g a t o le r a b ly s iz e d y o u n g e le p h a n t , a n d n e a r ly f ille d w it h a s o lu tio n o f c o m ­
m o n sa lt. T h e s ilv e r is th u s p r e c ip it a t e d — t h a t is, s u n k in a s o li d fo r m t o t h e b o t t o m ,
b e c o m in g w h a t is c a lle d c h lo r id e o f s ilv e r .
I t is th e n f r e e d fr o m t h e a c id s a d h e r in g




Journal o f Banking , Currency , and Finance .

475

to it, in the same manner as we have mentioned in the case of g o ld ; reduced to a
metallic powder by an immersion in vats containing sulphuric acid and zinc, washed,
pressed, dried, and cheesed, in precisely the same way as gold, and is thus ready to be
re-melted aud re-employed for the purification of the more precious metal.
Such is a brief account of the processes used by the new assay office in performing
the duties assigned by the government to it. Every one knows how important aud
necessary it is to the interests of business in an immense commercial city like New
Y ork ; and it is extremely desirable not only that the designs of provincial jealousy
for curtailing its usefulness should be defeated, but that its powers and responsibilities
should be still further extended. It has been too recently established to enable us to
present any statistics showing anything more than a probable estimate of the extent
of its operation for a year. A single arrival from California, on au average, brings it
a deposit of nearly a million-and-a-quarter in value, and such arrivals occur weekly.
This would give a monthly accumulation of five millions. The machinery of the
office is enough for the annual assay of fifty millions. Fifty men are now employed
in carrying on its operations. The officers are Sam. F. Butterworth, Superintendent;
John J. Cisco, Sub-Treasurer; Prof. John Torrey, Assayer, with A.Mason, Assistant;
E. N. Kent, Melter and Refiner, with C. Morfit, Assistant.
T H E N E W Y O R K C O U N T R Y BAN K EXC H AN G E.

W e publish below the plan adopted by the country banks in the State of New
York for their clearing house in the city o f New York:—
ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION.

The several incorporated banks, banking associations, and private bankers o f the
State of New York who shall execute this instrument in the manner hereinafter men­
tioned, hereby associate together for the purpose of establishing in the city of New
York a common agency for the redemption of their circulating notes, and also the cir­
culating notes of other incorporated banks, banking associations, and individual bank­
ers, pursuant to the provisions of the 8th section of the act of the Legislature of the
State of New Y^ork, entitled “ An act relating to the redemption of bank notes,”
passed May 4, 1840, under the following rules and regulations:—
1. The association shall be known as the “ New York Country Bank Exchange.”
2. The agency shall receive all the circulating notes of country banks in good
credit, which shall be sent to it by an associate, at the legal discount of one-quarter
of one per cent. The circulating notes of each member of the association which shall
be forwarded to the agency, or otherwise redeemed by it, shall be duly assorted and
returned to the bank issuing the same, at a discount o f one-fifth of one per cent. E x­
changes shall be made and the balances settled and paid daily. The balances due
from debtor banks shall be paid by them through the bank in the city of New York,
with which they shall respectively keep their account, on the draft or requisition of
the manager of the agency; and the balances due to the creditor banks shall, in like
manner, be paid by the manager to their credit respectively, in such bank in said city
as they shall designate.
3. The association shall be in no way responsible for the exchanges, nor for the
balances resulting therefrom, except so far as such balances shall have actually been
paid into the hands of the manager ; and in such case the responsibility of the asso­
ciation shall be limited to the distribution by the manager to the creditor banks of the
sums received by him; and should any loss occur while such balances are in the hands
o f the manager, it shall be a charge only upon the specific fund hereinafter provided,
to be placed in the charge of the manager.
4. Each member of the association shall appoint the manager thereof its legal
agent for the redemption of its circulating notes, as required by law.
5. For the purpose of redeeming such circulating notes as shall be offered at the
agency otherwise than through the associated banks, each bank, or individual banker,
on becoming a member of the association, shall deposit with the manager the sum of
two thousand dollars, and in case its circulation received from the Bank Department,
or which it shall be authorized to issue, shall exceed one hundred thousand dollars,
then such deposit shall be equal to two per cent upon such circulation; which sum
shall remain on deposit with the association unimpaired so long as the bank or banker
depositing the same shall continue a member thereof, and shall be returned on with­




476

Journal o f Banking , Currency , and Finance .

drawing therefrom— subject, however, to any indebtedness of such bank or banker to
the association, and to its liability for its proportion of the losses or expenses thereof.
6. In case the expenses of the association shall exceed its income from its business,
such expenses shall be apportioned by the executive committee, and paid by the
associates quarterly, in proportion to the amount of redemptions made by them re­
spectively.
7. Each bank belonging to the association may be represented at all meetings by
one or more of its principal officers, but shall be entitled to but one vote.
8. A meeting of the association shall be held at the office of the association on the
second Wednesday o f May in each year, at which meeting a president shall be elected
by ballot. Special meetings may be called by the executive committee at their dis­
cretion, and shall be called by them on the written request of any five of the asso­
ciates. Representatives from fifteen banks shall at all times constitute a quorum.
9. A t every annual meeting a standing committee of five bank officers shall be
elected by ballot as an executive committee, whose duty it shall be to act as a board
o f directors of the association, with power to procure from time to time suitable
rooms for the transaction of the business of the association ; to provide whatever may
be necessary for the use of the agency; to appoint and remove all officers, clerks, or
other persons employed, except the mauager; to fix their salaries, apportion and
draw for the expenses, establish rules and regulations for the conduct and manage­
ment of the business in all cases not herein provided for, and generally to direct the
affairs of the agency.
10. The manager shall be appointed and his salary fixed by the association. He
shall give security, to be approved by the executive committee, in the sum of fifty
thousand dollars, for the faithful discharge of his duties, and each clerk shall give like
security in the sum of ten thousand dollars.
11. The manager, under the direction of the executive committee, shall have charge
o f the business at the agency, so far as it relates to the manner in which it shall be
conducted, and all the clerks shall be under his direction. He shall have power to
suspend any clerk or other person employed for cause, and shall report such suspen­
sion, and the reason of it, to the executive committee. He shall act as secretary at
all meetings of the association and of the executive committee.
12. The executive committee shall have power to suspend the manager, whenever
in their opinion the interests of the association shall require it. Upon such suspension
being m^de, the committee shall immediately call a meeting of the association, and
report the cause of such suspension, when final action shall be taken by the asso­
ciation.
13. In case any associate shall neglect or refuse to provide for the payment of any
balance against such associate, arising from the exchanges, the manager may thereupon
in hi3 discretion return the circulating notes of the defaulting bank constituting such
balance, to the bank or banks from which the same were received, and in the same
proportion as sent by them, first causing each parcel of said notes so returned to be
duly protested. The bank so in default shall thereupon be suspended from the asso­
ciation by the executive committee, or in their absence by the manager, until the final
determination of the association in the matter at a meeting to be called as soon as
practicable thereafter.
14. The executive committee shall designate a bank or banks in the city of New
York, in which all drafts drawn for balances shall be deposited and the funds of the
association kept.
15. New members may be admitted into the association at any time, with the as­
sent of the executive committee, such new members paying an admission fee, to be
fixed by the executive committee, making the deposit hereinbefore mentioned, and
signifying their assent to these articles, in the same manner as the original members.
16. For cause deemed sufficient by the association at any meeting thereof, any bank
may be expelled from the association, provided a majority of the whole number of as­
sociated banks shall vote in favor thereof.
17. Any member of the association may withdraw therefrom at any annual meet­
ing, on giving thirty days’ previous notice of its intention to withdraw to the execu­
tive committee— first paying its due proportion of all expenses, liabilities, and losses,
if any.
18. For the purpose of organization, and until the first annual meeting shall be
held, George W. Cuyler, of Palmyra, in the county of Wayne, shall be the manager
of the association, at an annual salary of five thousand dollars; and George II. Mumford, of Rochester, George W. Tifft, of Buffalo, Edward B. Judsou and Hamilton




Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance.

477

White, of Syracuse, Josiah N. Starin, of Auburn, Solon D. Hungerford, of Adams, and
William R. Osborne, of Binghamton, shall constitute the executive committee.
19. These articles shall be submitted to the several banks and individual bankers
of the State, whose notes are not redeemed at par in the cities of New York, Albany,
or Troy, for their approval and adoption. When approved by the boards of directors
of the incorporated banks or banking associations, or by individual bankers, such ap­
proval shall be signified by the signatures thereto of the president, cashier, or financial
officer of the bank or institution adopting the same. When fifty banks shall have
adopted these articles, the agency may be put in operation.
20. Amendments of these articles may be made at any meeting of the association
by a vote of two-thirds of all the members present, being not less than a majority of
all the members belonging to the association.
THE

MAIN

BRACE

OF S T A T E

CREDIT.

BY J. THOMPSON, BANKER, OF NEW YORK.

The stocks or certificates of indebtedness of a nation, State, or city, should be largely
held directly or indirectly by its own citizens. No paper security not so held ever
acquires a high standard of credit. On the contrary, all State or corporate indebted­
ness so held, epjoys the confidence of capitalists, wherever and whoever they are.
The payment of interest or principal to citizens is much less burdensome and far
less impoverishing than such payment to non-residents.
To establish and illustrate the foregoing, look at Great Britain, with thousands of
millions of debt, her stocks are considered the best in the world, and with tens of mil­
lions of annual interest, all promptly paid, without ever disturbing her finances or the
regular course o f exchange. These happy results arise from the fact that ninety-ninehundredths of her debt is owing to Englishmen. Let us suppose for a moment that
the British debt was held by citizens of other countries, how long would Englishmen
bear th.e burdens of either direct or indirect taxation to provide the interest alone ;
and would any profound reasoner on stock or paper securities trust his money in Brit­
ish Consols? It is our opinion that the payment of interest on the debt of Great
Britain to non-residents for only one year would cause the bankruptcy of the nation,
a revulsion in Commerce, and a suspension of specie payments by every bank in the
kingdom.
W e could show by statistics that the credit of a State rests principally on two
foundations—
1st. By the per centage of debt due its own citizens.
2d. By the character o f its population.
The amount is of far less consequence than either of the foregoing. Had any con­
siderable portion of the stocks of Mississippi, Aikansas, Illinois, Indiana, or Michigan,
been held by the citizens of those States, neither would ever have been classed among
the non-paying.
Besides the loss o f moral, political, and interested influence, there is a positive finan­
cial loss in owing non-residents. The interest semi-annually, and the principal when
paid, is an export of specie or its equivalent— it is an impoverishing element.
The remarks on this subject, as well as our article on the two systems of banking,
published in the M erch a n ts' M a g a zin e for September, 1855, (vol. xxxiii., pages 856-6,)
have an object, namely, to show to (be people of Virginia, Tennessee, and Pennsylva­
nia, that their true interest lies in engrafting the Security System when granting bank­
ing privileges.
Stocks held by the banks of a State as a basis of currency, are to every intent held
by the people o f the State, and the same happy results will follow that are so prom­
inent in the State of New York, and so apparent in Great Britain.




Journal o f B on kin g, Currency, and Finance.

478

R E A L AND P E R S O N A L P R O P E R T Y OF B RO O K LY N .

We give below a statement of the assessed or taxable value of property in the dif­
ferent wards of the city of Brooklyn, (Long Island, New York,) for the years 1854
a n d 1 8 5 5 :—

,---------- -------- 1 8 54 .- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - x ,------------------ 1855 -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Real.

Wards.

Personal.

Total.

Real.

Personal.

Total.

1 ........................... $ 4 ,6 8 5 ,5 5 1 8 1 ,0 5 8 ,7 3 3 $ 5 ,7 4 4 ,2 8 4 $ 4 ,9 3 7 ,9 0 0 $ 1 ,5 6 9 ,9 9 7 $ 6 ,5 0 7 ,S 9 7
2
......................
2 ,8 5 1 ,8 3 3
1 ,4 2 3 ,4 6 3 4 ,2 5 7 ,2 9 6
2 ,9 5 6 .8 5 0
1 ,6 8 1 ,6 8 8 4 ,6 3 8 ,5 3 8
3
.........................
7 ,1 5 1 ,2 3 0 2 ,6 2 8 ,4 2 5
9 ,7 7 9 ,9 5 5 7 ,3 1 0 ,7 5 0
2 ,8 9 1 ,6 5 0 1 0 ,2 0 3 ,4 0 0
4 ...................... 4 ,5 8 0 ,5 2 2
8 9 2 ,3 0 0
5 ,4 7 2 ,8 2 2 4 ,6 8 5 ,7 5 0
8 7 8 ,2 0 0 5 ,5 6 3 ,9 5 0
5
.........................
2 ,5 9 8 ,0 5 3
1 5 ,0 0 0
2 ,6 1 3 ,0 5 3 2 ,8 0 6 ,2 2 5
3 7 ,6 0 0 2 ,8 4 3 ,8 2 5
...................... 1 2 ,2 7 5 ,7 9 8
1 ,2 9 3 ,9 4 0 1 3 5 6 9 ,7 2 9 9 ,3 7 3 ,5 5 0
1 ,5 6 4 ,9 5 0 1 0 ,9 3 8 ,4 5 0
6
7
.........................
6 ,6 9 9 ,5 2 6
9 1 ,0 0 0
6 ,6 4 0 ,5 2 6 6 .8 0 6 ,9 6 5
9 2 .3 0 0 6 ,8 9 9 ,2 6 5
8
.........................
3 ,0 2 2 ,5 3 2
2 2 5 ,3 0 0
3 ,2 4 7 ,8 3 2 4 ,2 4 0 ,8 6 3
2 3 5 ,3 5 0 4 ,4 7 6 ,1 6 3
9
.........................
5 ,1 5 6 ,4 1 5
1 6 2 ,6 2 0
5 ,2 5 9 ,0 3 6 5 ,2 7 4 ,2 5 0
5 9 ,0 0 0 5 ,3 3 3 ,2 5 0
10
.........................
8 ,2 1 1 ,7 3 5
2 2 9 ,6 0 0
8 ,4 3 1 .3 3 5 8 ,1 3 8 ,0 1 6
2 4 3 ,1 0 0 8 ,3 3 1 ,1 1 6
11 ..............................
7 ,5 8 1 ,5 3 1
2 3 4 ,5 0 0
7 ,8 1 6 ,4 3 1 8 ,0 0 7 ,2 4 5
2 3 5 ,0 0 0 8 ,3 4 2 ,2 4 5
12
.....................................................................................................
3 ,3 5 0 ,4 1 5
3 ,0 0 0
3 ,3 5 3 ,4 1 5

Total........... 64,665,117 $8,1S4,S81 72,849,998 67,889,779 $9,591,735 77 481,515
W e also add the figures of Williamsburg and Bushwick, which now form part of
the city of Brooklyn
1 (13th).......... $6,180,265 $1,184,559 $7,364,824 $6,911,750
2 (14th).......... 2,958,980
414,000 3,372,980 3,345,085
3 (loth ).......... 2,103,499
16,400 2,119,419 1,628,352
16.................................................................................... 1,653,245

$359,000 $7,270,750
390,604 3,725,689
14,000 1,642,352
95,000 1,662,745

Total........... 11,242,664 $1,614,559 12,857,223 13,538,432 $1,731,104 14,311,536
17 ..................... 3,106,860
109,000 3,215,360 2,488,100
399,000 2,528,000
18 ................................................ ............................... 1,559,387
82,000 1,641,387
The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Wards constitute what was known as Bushwick
before the consolidation.
COINAGE OF GOLD AND S IL V E R IN M IN T S OF M EXICO F R O M 1 52 1 TO 1 8 5 2 .

A document has been published in Mexico, under the title “ Foreign Commerce of
Mexico since the Conquest,” which contains interesting statistics concerning the amount
of gold and silver yielded by the mines of that country. The entire worth o f gold
and silver stamped by the different mints of Mexico from 1521 to 1852, together with
manufactures from the precious metals, amounts to $3,562,205,000, as follows:—
Silver coined in the city o f Mexico.........................
Gold coined in the city of M exico.........................

$2,248,165,000
111,806,000
------------------------- $2,359,971,000
Silver coined in other Mexican towns.....................
$359,621,000
Gold coined in other Mexican towns........................
15,113,000
---------------------------------------------- 374,734,000
Gold and silver manufactures.................................................................
827,500,000
Total.................................................................................................

$3,562,205,000

The whole of this sum, with the exception of about $100,000,000, has been, it is
supposed, exported. In the year 1690, the amount of silver coined in the city of Mex­
ico was $5,286,000; in the following year it was $6,214,000. From 1691 until 1700,
the quantity decreased until it amounted to only $3,379,000. After the latter year it
steadily rose until it reached, in 1809, its highest point, viz.: $24,708,000.
In 1810,
only $17,951,000 were coined; in 1811, but $8,956,000, and so on till 1837, when but
516,000 silver dollars were issued by the Mexican Mint. In 1838, $1,089,000 were
coined, and the quantity again began to increase. In 1852, it amounted to $2,770,000.




Journal o f Banking, Currency, and Finance.

479

T H E BANK OF ENGLAND AND IT S N O T E S .

The Bank of England has recently changed its plan of printing bank notes. The
object is to prevent counterfeiting. An elaborate account of the old and new modes
is given in the last number of the B a n k ers’ M aga zin e. If, says the writer, we exam­
ine forms of notes printed by typography, we shall observe that the notes of the Bank
of France and the Belgian notes are so produced; but, in these cases, the character of
the note is adapted to the style of printing, and even there the number printed is so
small as to appear insignificant when compared with the number issued by the Bank
of England. A t the former establishment about 300 impressions are printed every
d a y; at the latter nearly 30,000 are produced, as 9,000,000 notes are issued per an­
num, representing nearly £300,000,000.
A paper-mill is in operation in Hampshire, England, which is used exclusively for
the manufacture of bank note paper. The first ever issued was made in these mills,
in about the year 1719, and it has ever since been produced on the same premises.
From an analysis lately made by an eminent chemist, it has been ascertained that the
water of this river is well adapted for the purposes for which it is required in this es­
tablishment. The building, the machinery, and, indeed, the entile premises, have un­
dergone very considerable alterations and improvements of late, (in fact, they are not
yet brought to completion,) in order to adapt them to the perfect execution o f the
paper used for the new bank note, the issue of which is to commence on New Year's
day.
These mills are used exclusively for the making of bank-note paper, and at the
present time about 50,000 notes are made daily. The artisans and work-people live
mostly in neat and picturesque cottages, adjoining the premises, and are occupants of
the same dwellings formerly occupied by their great-grandfathers.
The quality and water-mark of the bank-note paper have, in the new note, (now on
the point of being issued to the public,) been brought to a high degree of excellence.
The molds from which the paper is made are executed by Mr. Brewer, who, with Mr.
Smith, patented a very valuable invention, which was rewarded by a medal at the
Great Exhibition of 1851. Suffice it to say that, in thus improving and endeavoring
to perfect the bank-note paper, the authorities of the bank have had entirely in view
the protection of the public from fraud and loss.
COINAGE OF T H E B R IT IS H M IN T .

The annual account of the moneys coined at the Boyal Mint of Great Britain during
the year 1854, has been laid before the House o f Commons. It states the total value
of the gold coinage to have been £4,152,183, including 921,890.478 ounces weight,
and 3,589,611 pieces of sovereigns, and 144,480.840 ounces weight, and 1,125,144
pieces of half-sovereigns, the value of which latter was, of course, one-half, or £562,572.
No double-sovereigns were coined. The total value of the silver coinage amounted to
£140,4S0, including 650,413 florin pieces, of 200,150.200 ounces in weight and £55,041
in value; 552,414- shilling pieces, o f 100,439 ounces weight and £27,620 in value;
840,116 sixpenny pieces, 76,374.200 ounces weight and £21,002 in value; 1,096,613
groats, of 66,461.450 ounces in weight and £18,276 in value; 4,158 fourpenny pieces,
o f 252 ounces in weight and £69 6s. in value; 1,471,754 threepenny pieces, o f 66,897
ounces in weight and £18,396 in value; 4,752 twopenny pieces, of 144 ounces weight
and £39 12s. in value; and 7,920 silver penny pieces, of 120 ounces in weight, and
£33 in value. The total value of the copper coinage was £61,538, including 6,827,520
pennies, of 127 tons in weight and £28,448 in value; 12,461,568 half-pennies, of 115
tons in weight and £25,961 in value ; 6,504,960 farthings, of 30 tons in weight and




480

Commercial Regulations.

£6,776 in value; and 677,376 half-farthings, o f 1 ton 11 cwts. 2 qrs. in weight and
£352 16s. in value. It is worthy of mention that no crowns or half-crowns were
coined in 1854. The gross total value of the gold, silver, and copper coinage of 1 85 4
amounted to £4,354,201.
BANK OF M U T U A L R E D E M P T IO N .

The following act of the Legislature of New Hampshire authorizes banks in that
State to hold stock in the Bank o f Mutual Redemption to be located in Boston. This
act was passed at the last session of the New Hampshire Legislature, and approved
July 14th, 1855. The act takes effect from and after its passage:—
AN ACT AUTHORIZING BANKS IN THIS STATE TO HOLD STOCK IN THE BANK OF MUTUAL
REDEMPTION.

B e it enacted by the S en ate a n d H ou se o f R ep resentatives in G en era l C ourt con­
ven ed , That any banking corporation in this State may subscribe for, and hold in its

own name, shares in the capital stock of the Bank of Mutual Redemption, to be lo­
cated in Boston, Massachusetts, to an amount not exceeding 5 per cent of the capital
stock of the bank subscribing therefor; and such subscription shall be made only
when authorized by the unanimous vote of the directors making the same.

COMMERCIAL REGULATIONS.
OF IM P O R T A T IO N S IN T O T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S F R O M T H E B R IT IS H PR O V IN C E S.

The Secretary o f the Treasury (James Guthrie) has issued the following circular to
collectors and other officers of the customs, in relation to merchandise entitled to free
entry and liable to duty under the existing revenue law s:—
T reasury D epartment , J u ly 31, 1855.

The following decisions on questions submitted to this Department, arising on im­
portations into the United States from the British provinces of Canada, New Bruns­
wick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward’s Island, being the product of said provinces,
under the Reciprocity Treaty with Great Britain of June 5, 1854, are communicated
for your information and government:—
ENTITLED TO FEEE ENTRY.

Animals o f all kinds; ashes, comprehending pot and pearl ashes; black salts and
salts of ly e ; bags, barrels, or other original packages, containing flour, wheat, or other
free product; barley; bark of hemlock or other trees ; beams, when rough hewn or
sawed only ; beans; boards, when rough hewn or sawed only ; bran; breadstuffs of
all kinds, not further manufactured than flour and meal; broom-corn; burr-stones,
hewn or wrought, or unwrought; butter; Canada Balsam, collected from a species of
pine tree, as turpentine ; castoreum, a product of the beaver; cattle tails, if undressed ;
cheese ; clap boards, if rough hewn or sawed only ; coa l; corn, Indian,or maize; cot­
ton w o o l; dried fruits; dyestutfs ; fish of all kinds, products of fish and of all other
creatures living in the water, the exemption from duty to extend to the fisheries of
Newfoundland and Labrador; fish, wholly or partly cooked, in cans hermetically
sealed; firew ood; flax, unmanufactured; flour of all kinds; fresh meats; fruits, dried
or undried ; fruits, preserved, in cans hermetically sealed ; furs, undressed ; grain of
all kinds; grindstones, hewn or wrought, or unwrought; gypsum, ground or unground;
hair, on the hide or skin or tail thereof, undressed; hair seal skins, undressed ; hemp,
unmanufactured; hides, undressed; horns; horn-tips; hubs for wheels, knees for ves­
sels, lasts, last-blocks, and laths, if rough hewn or sawed only ; lard ; linseed ; lumber
of all kinds, round, rough hewn or sawed on ly; manures; marble, in its crude or un­
wrought state; meals of all kinds; meats, fresh, smoked, or salted; meats, wholly or
partly cooked, preserved without oil or spirits, in cans hermetically sealed; middlings,
ns flour; mill-feed, as flour; nuts; oats; oatmeal; oil, from fish; ores of metals, of
all kinds; palings, pickets, posts, &c., if rough hewn or sawed only ; pates or scraps of




Commercial Regulations .

481

r a w h id e s o r s k in s ; p e a r l a n d p o t a sh ; p e a s ; p e l t s ; p it c h ; p la n t s ; p o t a t o e s ; p o u l ­
t r y ; p o u lt r y , c o o k e d w h o l l y o r p a r t ly , p r e s e r v e d in c a n s h e r m e t ic a lly s e a le d ; p r o d u c t s
o f fis h a n d a ll o t h e r c r e a tu r e s liv in g in th e w a t e r ; p r o v e n d e r , fr o m w h e a t o r o t h e r
g r a i n ; r a g s ; r a ilr o a d tie s , r o u g h h e w n o r s a w e d o n l y ; r a w h id e s a n d s k in s , o r p a r t s
t h e r e o f ; r ic e ; r o t t e n w o o d ; s a lt e d m e a t s ; s a lts o f l y e a n d b l a c k s a lts , ( s e e a s h e s ;)
s a u s a g e s a n d s a u s a g e - m e a t ; s a w - l o g s ; s c a n t lin g , r o u g h h e w n o r s a w e d o n l y ; s c r e e n ­
in g s fr o m g r a in ; s e e d s ; s h in g le s , s h iD g le -b o lts , a n d s h in g le -w o o d , r o u g h h e w n o r s a w e d
o n l y ; s h r u b s ; s k in s o r t a ils , u n d r e s s e d ; s k in s, o r p a r ts t h e r e o f, u n d r e s s e d ; s h ip s tu ffs ,
as b r e a d s t u f f s ; s l a t e ; s p a r s , r o u n d a n d s a w e d o n l y ; s p o k e s o f w h e e ls , i f r o u g h h e w n
o r s a w e d o n ly ; s to n e , in its c r u d e o r u n m a n u fa c tu r e d s t a t e ; ta ils , u n d r e s s e d ; t a l l o w ;
t a r ; t im b e r o f a l l k in d s , r o u n d , r o u g h h e w n o r s a w e d o n l y ; t o b a c c o a n d t o w , u n m a n ­
u fa c t u r e d ; t r e e s ; tu r p e n t in e ; v e g e t a b l e s ; v e g e t a b le s , w h o ll y o r p a r t ly c o o k e d , p r e ­
s e r v e d in c a n s h e r m e t ic a lly s e a l e d ; v e n is o n ; w o o l , u n m a n u fa c tu r e d .
LIABLE TO DUTY UNDER THE EXISTING REVENUE LAWS.
B e a m s , ( s e e t im b e r a n d lu m b e r ;) b e a r ’s g r e a s e ; b e e s w a x ; b o a r d s , (s e e t im b e r a n d
lu m b e r ;) b i s c u i t ; b r e a d ; c a k e s ; f e l l o e s fo r w h e e ls , (s e e t im b e r a n d l u m b e r ;) g r e a s e
o f a ll k in d s , e x c e p t b u tte r , t a l l o w , a n d l a r d ; h a y ; h o p s ; h u b s f o r w h e e ls , k n e e s f o r
v e s s e ls , la s t s , a n d la s t -b lo c k s , ( s e e t im b e r a n d l u m b e r ;) l i m e ; m i l k ; o i l - c a k e ; p a lin g s ,
p ic k e t s , p o s t s , r a ilr o a d t ie s , s c a n tlin g s , s h in g le s , s h iD g le -b o lts , s h in g le -w o o d , s p a r s , a n d
s p o k e s f o r w h e e ls , (s e e t im b e r a n d l u m b e r ;) s p ir it s o f t u r p e n tin e .
T i m b e r o r L u m b e r . Articles of wood entered under these or any other designa­

tions, remain liable to duty under the existing tarifF, if manufactured in whole or in
part by planing, shaving, turning, or riving, or any process of manufacture other than
rough hewing or sawing.
It having been represented to the Department that in some of the frontier collection
districts, compensation has been demanded by officers of the customs for preparing
the papers of claimants under the Reciprocity Treaty with Great Britain, it becomes
necessary to remind such officers that the laws having fixed the salaries of all officers
of the customs, they cannot legally demand extra compensation for any services ren­
dered in connection with their several offices; and that the exactions complained of
cannot be made without subjecting them to the heavy penalties provided in the 17th
section of the act, “ Further to establish the compensation of officers of the customs,
<fec.” approved May 7th, 1822.
Questions in relation to the charge of fe e s on the entry of free goods having been
submitted to the Department, in special reference to importations under the Reciproc­
ity Treaty, it is thought proper to state, that the 7th section of the act “ To provide
for obtaining accurate statements of the foreign Commerce of the United States,” ap­
proved February 10th, 1820, requiring the regular entry and examination of all f r e e
goods, the fee to the collector of 20 cents “ for permit to land goods,” as provided in
the 2d sectiou of the compensation act of March 2, 1799, is legally chargeable in each
case of landing free goods; all such fees, however, as well as all others received by
the collectors on our Northern, North-eastern, and North-western frontier, to be ac­
counted for to the Treasury in the form prescribed by law, the salaries of such collec­
tors, allowed by the act “ To regulate the foreign and coasting trade, <fcc.,” approved
March 2, 1831, modified in some instances by subsequent acts, being in lieu of all fees,
salaries, emoluments, or commissions, allowed prior to the date of said act.
JAMES GUTHRIE, Secretary o f the Treasury.

T H E V A L U E OF M E R CH A N D ISE M U S T BE IN D O RSED ON T H E

BOND.

By a regulation of the United States Treasury Department, when a special penal
bond is given, it is the duty of collectors to indorse on the bond the estimated value
and the date of importation of the merchandise before it is delivered. This duty
is to be carefully performed, and will require a constant and faithful supervision.
I f anything occurs to excite doubt of the continued sufficiency of the principal or
sureties, the collector requires either a new bond in the same form with adequate se­
curity, or in case the parties fail to give it, an adequate bond on each importation, as
in cases where no special penal bond is given. If the estimated value of the merchan­
dise exceed one-half of the penalty of the bond, in no case can it be suffered to be
delivered to, or remain in possession of the parties subject to this bond.
Y O L . X X X I I I .----- N O . I V .




3 1

Commercial Regulations.

482

D U T IE S OF O FFIC E RS UV CHARGE OF U N IT E D S T A T E S W A R E H O U S E S .

A11 bonded warehouses, whether public or private, as well as the stores occupied by
the appraisers, where there are such, are placed by the collector in the custody of
officers designated for the purpose, to be known as storekeepers, who always keep the
keys thereof in their own possession, and personally superintend the opening and clos­
ing of the doors and windows. They are required to be in constant attendance at the
stores from seven o’clock, A. M., to sunset, from April 1st to October 1st, and for the
residue of the year from eight o’clock, A. M., to sunset, except the time necessary for
their meals, not over one hour at noon, when the stores are closed. They are prohib­
ited from allowing any goods to be received, delivered, sampled, packed, or repacked,
except in their presence or the presence of some person designated as an assistant by
the collector, and they are required to keep accurate accounts of all goods received,
delivered, and transferred, and of all orders for sampling, packing, repacking, &c. They
are also required to make daily returns of all goods received and delivered, and inform
the Superintendent of any infraction of the warehouse rules and regulations by in­
spectors or other persons. These officers are also required to keep exact accounts of
all the labor performed on merchandise sent to such stores, whether unclaimed or in
bond, and their returns to the custom-house of its receipt must certify the nature and
amount o f such charges. They must also keep rolls o f all persons employed in such
warehouses, which rolls must exhibit the names of such persons, the number of days
employed, the rate of compensation, and the total amount earned, to be receipted for
by the person to whom due, and paid weekly or monthly, according to the custom of
the port, by the proper disbursing officer of the custom-house, on certificates or tickets
signed by the officer in charge, and setting forth that the person named has been em­
ployed for the number of days stated, at the rate of compensation stated, that the
amount specified therein is due to him, and that he has signed the pay-rolls therefor.
A t the close of the quarter these rolls are to be returned by the officer in charge to
the collector, to be compared with the certificates or tickets before described, and on
which the payments have been made, and to accompany such collector’s account with
the vouchers for disbursements on account of public stores and warehouses.
C ertificate to C an cel B ond . On receiving the permit for the deposit of merchan­
dise in store from the collector, certified by the storekeeper that the goods designated
in the permit, with the exception of such as have been ordered to the appraiser’s store,
have been deposited in the store, and on the same examination being had as is required
by law on importations of merchandise from foreign ports, it is the duty o f the col­
lector, if satisfied that the goods so deposited and examined are the identical goods
described in the entry and invoice received by him from the collector at the port of
withdrawal, to immediately furnish the party making entry with a certificate, coun­
tersigned by the naval officer, where there is one, of their delivery in the proper form,
and is also required to transmit a duplicate o f such certificate to the collector at the
port of withdrawal.
SE IZE D AND UNCLAIM ED GOODS.

By a regulation of the United States Treasury Department, unclaimed and seized
goods can be stored in stores of the third class on the order of the collector; and the
proprietor or occupant must look to the goods for the storage and charges, at the usual
and customary rates, and is liable for the safe keeping of the merchandise as for other
storage. The collector can give no permit to withdraw such goods without the pay­
ment of the legal duties and charges; and if the goods are sold, must cause the stor­
age and charges to be paid out of the proceeds of the sale.




Commercial Regulations.

483

T H E D U T Y OF S U P E R IN T E N D E N T OF PU BLIC W A R E H O U S E S .

In all ports where the nature and extent of business may require such an officer, it
is the duty o f the collector to designate, with the approbation o f the Treasury De­
partment, some suitable person, to be styled the Superintendent of Warehouses, whose
duty it will be to superintend all the public and private bonded warehouses in such
ports, visiting them daily, where the number of warehouses will admit, or, if not, as
often as may be, to ascertain whether the officers are prompt and regular in their at­
tendance, the books correctly kept, the merchandise properly stored, and all the regu­
lations prescribed by the department and the collector faithfully observed and dili­
gently enforced. It is also his duty, when required by the collector, to examine and
inspect such stores as may be offered to be bonded as private warehouses, and make
report thereon to the collector, and generally to perform such duties in relation to the
care of warehouses, and the custody of the goods deposited therein, as may be neces­
sary to their security and the protection of the revenue.
He will also superintend, with the officer of the store, all silks withdrawn for print­
ing, dyeing, <fec, as provided in these instructions, taking an account of the same. And
it is also the duty o f the person or persons withdrawing such goods for dyeing, <tc., to
notify the collector that the Superintendent may be present at the place and time re­
quired.
Such Superintendent is to be stationed where most convenient, and is required
to make a daily report to the collector of every violation of the warehouse instruc­
tions and rules, and of all other matters coming under his observation. It is intended
that this officer, under the directions of the collector, shall have a general supervision
o f the warehouse business in the several warehouses, to see that the laws and regula­
tions are faithfully observed by the officers in charge of each store, and the importer
or agent having joint custody. He is also charged with the superintendence of the
cartage, drayage, or lighterage of all merchandise sent to warehouse under bond, or
withdrawn therefrom for transportation or exportation; and also the cartage, drayage,
or lighterage of all merchandise ordered to the appraiser’s office for examination, or
the public stores for custody, and is required to take care that the work is promptly
and faithfully performed, that the necessary receipts for merchandise are returned in
due season to the officers sending or delivering the same, and that the regulations for
the government of this branch of the service are in all respects complied with, and
every infraction of the same promptly reported to the collector.
D E L IV E R Y OF GOODS SOLD A T AU C TIO N , E T C .

The United States Treasury Department directs that immediately after the sale by
an auctioneer of any goods— such as unclaimed goods with the duty unpaid, remain­
ing in a public store one year, and duly bonded merchandise, remaining stored for the
space of three years from the date of importation— the collector shall proceed to de­
liver them to the several purchasers, the lots or parcels belonging to them, on due
payment to him of the sum or sums for which sold. This delivery shall be made on
a general permit, to be countersigned by the naval officer, if there be any at the port.
The duties of the auctioneer are to be limited to selling the goods, and his charge for
such service, which in no case shall exceed the usual commission at the port, and all
other expenses properly chargeable on the goods which may have accrued, must be
presented and paid within ten days of date of sale. These expenses must be propor­
tioned p r o ra ta on the different lots and parcels, and a statement must be made giving
the gross proceeds, the amount of duty, storage, and other expenses, and the net pro­
ceeds of each lot of goods in the sale.




Commercial Regulations.

484

BONDS M A Y BE G IV E N B Y A N IM P O R T E R TO AN I N T E R IO R P O R T .

It is stated in the U nion, on the authority of the United States Treasury Depart­
ment, that in order to facilitate the transmission of merchandise in bond from a port
o f entry to any interior port of delivery, under the act of 28th March, 1854, the im­
porter of any goods, wares, or merchandise, residing at an interior port of delivery,
and desiring to have the merchandise transported in bond, can produce his invoice to
the surveyor or designated collector of the interior port, take the oath or oaths required
by law, and execute the transportation bond according to the prescribed form, with
proper sureties, before the surveyor or collector of the port, who is required to certify
on said bond a sufficiency of the sureties, and transmit the bond to the collector of the
port of importation ; and the bond so taken is as valid and binding as though executed
in the office of the collector where the entry is made. The invoice, with the oath at­
tached, can be transmitted by the importer to his agent or attorney at the port where
the goods are expected to arrive; who, upon their arrival, is to present the transpor­
tation entry, with bill or bills of lading therefor, in the form and setting forth the par­
ticulars required; after which, the same proceedings are to be had as in other entries
for transportation under bond from one port to another in the United States.
P oets w h e r e such B onds can be E xecuted .
The interior ports of delivery at
which bonds can be so executed, and goods transported under them, are Pittsburg,
Pennsylvania; Cincinnati, Ohio ; Louisville and Paducah, Kentucky; Nashville, Mem­
phis, and Knoxville, Tennessee; St. Louis, Missouri; Wheeling, Virginia; Evansville,
Jeffersonville, and New Albany, Indiana; Alton, Cairo, Galena, and Quincy, Illinois;
Burlington, Keokuk, and Dubuque, Iow a ; and Tuscumbia, Alabama.
T I M E OF T R A N S P O R T A T IO N BOND IN U N IT E D S T A T E S .
I f t h e p o r t t o w h ic h t h e m e r c h a n d is e is t o b e t r a n s p o r te d b e

n o t m o r e th a n o n e

h u n d r e d m ile s d is t a n t b y th e r o u t e p r o p o s e d , th e t im e in s e r t e d in th e b o n d s h a ll b e
t w e n t y d a y s ; i f o v e r o n e h u n d r e d , a n d le s s th a n t w o h u n d r e d a n d f i f t y m ile s , t h ir t y
d a y s ; if over tw o

h u n d red an d

f if t y , a n d le s s th a n f i v e h u n d r e d m ile s , s ix t y d a y s ;

a n d i f o v e r f iv e h u n d r e d m ile s , n in e t y d a y s ; b u t i f th e d is ta n c e b e o v e r t w o h u n d r e d
a n d f i f t y m ile s , th e c o l l e c t o r m a y , a t th e in s ta n c e o f th e p a r t y , a l lo w t h ir t y a d d it io n a l
days.

Nine months w ill be allowed for transportation of merchandise in bond between
the Atlantic and Pacific ports of the United States around Cape Horn, and four
months by other routes between these ports. If the transportation within the time
prescribed is retarded by accident or other unavoidable cause, on regular protest and
due proof o f the accident or other unavoidable cause, the collector may receive the
goods, or any part thereof, within a reasonable time thereafter.
T H E S T O R E K E E P E R OF A P O R T IN T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S .

The deputy collector is the e x officio storekeeper of the port, and has the general
superintendence of the warehouse business. The warehouse superintendent and store­
keeper at the several stores, with the clerks employed on the store accounts, and on
the warehouse business generally, are under his immediate direction, subject, however,
to the control and supervision of the collector of the port.
In order to enforce a proper responsibility on the part o f collectors for merchandise
in bond, these officers are required to account for the duties arising on merchandise
entered at their respective districts for warehousing or re-warehousing with the same
particularity as to details as they are now required to account for the duties on goods
entered for consumption.




Commercial Regulations.

485

REGULATIONS AT FRONTIER PORTS OF THE UNITED STATES.
On the arrival of merchandise at a frontier port, and the due delivery of the mani­
fest or manifests by the master or conductor, the collector or other proper officer of
the customs is required immediately, if the goods be forwarded under lochs, to remove
such lock or locks from the car or cars, and carefully inspect and examine the pack­
ages by the manifest or manifests, to ascertain whether they agree with the descrip­
tion contained therein, and whether they have been in any way violated. The same
comparison and examination will also be required of the cording, sealing, and brand­
ing, to see that no alteration or fabrication of the seals or brands has taken place.
Should the goods be found not to agree with the manifest, or should there be any rea­
son to believe that any violation, alteration, or fabrication has occurred, the collector
must take immediate possession of the goods, and send a statement of the case to the
department, at the same time notifying the collector of the port from which the goods
were forwarded. I f the packages, however, be found to agree in all respects with the
manifests, the cords, seals, and brands unbroken and intact, the collector or other officer
will permit the same to be sent forward without detention to their destination in the
province designated. Should the merchandise arrive at the frontier port before the
receipt o f the triplicate entry, it will not be detained there for that reason, but will
be inspected and checked by the manifest. When the entry shall have been received
it will be compared with the manifest or manifests, and if it shall appear that all the
packages described therein have passed inspection, and been duly delivered to be for­
warded to their final destination, the collector shall furnish to the exporter or his agent
a certificate of the same.
TRANSPORTATION ROUTES FOR MERCHANDISE IN BOND.
The following routes for the transportation of merchandise in bond from one port of
entry to another port of entry, or delivery, have been authorized by the Treasury De­
partment:— From the ports of Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, to
Pittsburg, Wheeling, Cincinnati, Louisville, St. Louis, Nashville, Natchez, Evans­
ville, New Albany, Burlington, (Vermont,) Sackett’s Harbor, Rochester, Oswego,
Lewiston, Buffalo, Ogdensburg, Plattsburg, Cape Vincent, Erie, Toledo, Sandusky,
Cleveland, Detroit, Michilimackinac, Chicago, and Milwaukie, by canal, railroad,
river, or lake, wholly or in part, as the party may select in his entry. Also, from
a port or ports on the Atlantic to any other port on the Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, or
the Pacific, or vice versa , by such route or conveyance as the party in his entry may
select. Also, from the port of New Orleans to any port of entry or delivery on the
Mississippi and its tributaries, and by such conveyance and route as the party selects
in his entry. Also, from the ports of Charleston and Savannah to the ports of Knoxvlile, Nashville, and Memphis, by such conveyance and route as may be designated on
the entry. Whatever mode of transportation may be adopted, whether, by land or
water, or partly by land and partly by water, the route is required to be set forth and
particularly described in the entry.
RATES OF LABOR AND STORAGE IN THE PUBLIC STORES.
The charge for storing goods deposited in the public stores must be at the usual
rate at that port, and the charge for labor at these stores must be at a rate that will
remunerate the government. If collectors fail to demand and receive the amounts
due for the storage and labor accruing in public stores, or the pay of au officer re­
quired in private stores, they will be charged with such sums in their quarterly ac­
counts by the commissioner of customs.




Commercial Regulations.

486

PACKING AND R E PA C K IN G M E R C H A N D ISE ,

A ll merchandise in public or private bonded warehouses in the United States may
be examined at any time during the business hours of the port by the importer, con­
signee, or agent, who shall have liberty to take samples of his goods in quantities ac­
cording to the usage of the port; make all needful repairs of packages, and to repack
the same, provided the original contents are placed in the new package, and the orig­
inal marks and numbers placed thereon, in the mode prescribed in the seventy-fifth
section of the act of 2d March, 1799, and thirty-second section of the act of 1st March,
1823; provided that no samples shall be taken, nor shall any goods be exhibited or
examined, unless under the immediate supervision of an inspector of the customs, and
by order of the importer, owner, or consignee, at his expense; nor shall any package
be repaired, or goods repacked, without a written order from the collector of the
port.
P en a lty . The penalty for failure to transport and deliver bonded merchandise,
withdrawn from warehouse for transportation in the United States, within the time
limited in the transportation bond provided for by the sixth section of the act of 28th
March, 1854, is deemed and taken to be an additional duty of 100 per cent on the in­
voice or appraised value of the merchandise so withdrawn. Thus, if the value of the
merchandise be $400, and the rate of duty 25 per cent, the duty to be secured by the
bond will be $100, and the additional duty of 100 per cent, $400— making the sum
o f $500 to be collected in case of non-compliance with the condition of the obligation
in the bond.
P E N A L T IE S IF GOODS A R E R E LA N D E D IN T H E U N IT E D

STATES,

By the fourth section of the act of August 30, 1852, authorizing the exportation o f
merchandise in bond by certain routes to Mexico, it is provided that no goods, wares,
or merchandise exported out of the limits of the United States, according to the pro­
visions of that act, shall be voluntarily landed and brought into the United States ;
and that if landed or brought into the United States, they shall be forfeited, and the
same proceedings will be had for their condemnation and the distribution of the pro­
ceeds as in other cases of forfeiture o f goods illegally imported; and all persons con­
cerned in the voluntary landing or bringing such goods into the United States, shall
be liable to a penalty of $400.
It will be necessary to maintain a great vigilance along the frontier of the Rio
Grande to prevent the illegal introduction of merchandise into the United States. In
all cases of this description that are discovered, the full penalties of the law will be
rigorously enforced.
E X P O R T S TO CANADA AND O T H E R B R IT IS H P R O V IN C E S.

Merchandise intended for exportation to the adjacent British provinces can be for­
warded from the ports of importation in the United States by way of any of the fol­
lowing designated ports:—Rouse’s Point, Ogdensburg, Cape Vincent, Suspension
Bridge, Lewiston, Buffalo, Oswego, Rochester, Dunkirk, and Plattsburg, New Y ork;
Burlington, Swanton, Alburg, and Island Pond, Vermont; Detroit, Michigan; Eastport, Maine ; and Pembina, Minnesota.
W AREH OU SE

AND T R A N S P O R T A T IO N

ENTRY,

The U n ion states, on the authority of the Treasury Department, that on the arrival
from any foreign port of goods destined for immediate transportation to other ports of
the United States, the warehousing and transportation may be combined in one entry;
the oaths to be the same as prescribed in the warehouse entry.




Commercial Regulations .

487

C A R T A G E , D R A Y A G E , OR LIG H T E R A G E OF GOODS IN BOND.

A ll goods in bond, whether passing from the vessel or other conveyance in which
imported to the warehouse, or from one vessel or conveyance to another, vessel or con­
veyance, or from the warehouse, on permits of transportation or exportation, all un­
claimed goods, and all goods ordered to the appraiser’s store for examination, are
carted, drayed, or lightered, by the custom-house cartmen, draymen, or lightermen
unemployed, and at all ports by persons specially authorized by the collector or other
chief revenue officer. The intention is, that bonded goods shall at all times be in the
custody of the officers of the customs, or their authorized agents. Such persons are
subject to the orders of the collector, and are held to a strict compliance with all the
warehouse rules and regulations. The officers are in all cases required, whether at
the vessel or warehouse, to give the cartmen, &,c.} a ticket descriptive of the merchan­
dise delivered to them, and designating the store, vessel, or other place to which it is
to be taken, which ticket is to be returned to the officer from whom the merchandise
was received, duly receipted by the officer to whom the merchandise was delivered.
The cartmen, draymen, and lightermen are held responsible for the safe conveyance
of all merchandise delivered to them, and for the good condition of all delivered by
them. I f they neglect or refuse to convey all merchandise required of them to the
public stores or elsewhere as soon as it is ready, on report to the collector, they are
subject to dismissal from further employment.
E N T R Y OF M E R CH A N D ISE F O R C O N SU M P T IO N .

The entry for consumption must state in full all the particulars required, together
with the invoice and bill of lading, and must be presented at the collector’s office to
the clerks charged with the duty of examining it. When examined, if found correct, it
is the duty of the clerks to estimate the duties on the invoice value and quantity, cer­
tify to the invoice, and mi ke out a permit in the form prescribed in the act of 1799.
The entry and accompanying papers are then taken to the naval officer, who makes
a like examination, and if it is found to be correct, checks the entry, invoice, and per­
mit. The papers are then taken to a deputy collector, who administers the oath, de­
signates the package or packages to be sent to the appraiser’s store for examination,
marking the same on the invoice, entry, and permit. If the importer desires to avail
himself of the privilege given by the act of May 28, 1830, and obtain possession of
his goods by giving the bond required by the fourth section of that act, he must give
this bond, pay the duties as estimated, and send his permit to the vessel in which his
goods were imported; but if he prefers to await the examination by the appraisers,
it is the duty of the collector, after having administered the oath and directed what
packages are to be examined, to issue an order to the officer on board the vessel, and
send the invoice by a messenger to the appraiser’s store.
I M P O R T E R S ’ BOND F O R M E R C H A N D ISE .

Merchants receiving frequent importations may, to obviate inconveniences which
would be felt in giving the penal bond prescribed in the fourth section of the act of
the 28th o f May, 1830, for each importation, give one in lieu thereof running for a
period not exceeding six months.
In each case it is the duty of the collector to see that the security provided by the
bond is substantial with regard to the pecuniary ability of the obligors. Great care is
required to be taken by the collectors and other officers of the customs in the pro­
ceedings in the importations, so as to insure beyond doubt the sufficiency of the bond
should the United States be compelled to resort to it.




P osta l Department.

488

THE RETURN OF CUSTOM-HOUSE APPRAISERS.
The appraisers, in every case, are required to make their report or return of appraise­
ment in writing, and to sign the same, not by the initials of their names, but in full.
The report or return is to be written on the invoice, if practicable. I f not, on a sep­
arate paper to be permanently attached to the invoice. The return of the appraisers
is to describe, in all cases, the character or class o f the merchandise, as nearly as pos­
sible, in the terms o f the tariff, and state under what schedule, in their opinion, it
falls, for the information of the collector or naval officer.

POSTAL DEPARTMENT.
MODIFICATION OF PRUSSIAN-AMERICAN POSTAL TREATY,
The rates of postage for the correspondence between the United States and foreign
countries, passing through the German Postal Union, under the Prussian-American
Postal Convention, have undergone some slight modification since the publication of
the foreign postage table of March 1, 1855, and the following list embraces all the
countries and places to which letters and newspapers may be forwarded in said closed
mail, with the necessary alterations.
Postmasters should compare this with, and note the alterations upon, the postage
table above referred to.
PREPAYMENT OPTIONAL.

German-Austrian Postal Union, States of, viz.:— Prussia, all other German
States, and the whole Austrian Empire, by the Prussian closed mail, via
London and Ostend..........................................................................................cents

30

Norway..............................................
Papal S tates....................................
Parma.................................................
P ola n d ..............................................
Rhodes................................................
Russia.................................................
Salonica............................................
Samsum..............................................
Sardinia............................................
Smyrna..............................................
Sw eden.............................................
Switzerland........................................
Taltcha................................................
Trebizonde........................................
Tuloza................................................
Tuscany............................................
Varna...............................................

46
35
33
37
40
37
40
40
38
40
42
35
40
40
40
35
40

A l e x a n d r i a ........................
A l t o n a ..................................
B e y r o u t ...............................
C a n d ia ...................................
C e s m e ...................................
C o n s t a n t in o p le .................
D a r d a n e lle s , t h e ..............
D e n m a r k ..............................
G a l a t z ...................................
G a l l i p o l i .............................
G r e e c e ................................
I b r a l i a ..................................
I o n ia n I s l a n d s .................

................

40

.................
.................
................

40
40
85

I t a l y .......................................
L a r n m a .................................. ........................
L a u e n b u r g ..........................
L o m b a r d y .......................... ........................
M o d e n a ................................ ......................

40
33
33

PREPAYMENT REQUIRED.

China, except Hong Kong, via Trieste.............................................................. cents
East Indies, English possessions in, via Trieste........................................................
East Indies, and all other countries in and beyond the East Indies, via Trieste.
Hong Kong, via Trieste...............................................................................................
Egypt, except Alexandria............................ ........................................... ..................
Turkey, Wallachia, Moldavia, Servia, Levante, and Turkish Islands in the Med­
iterranean, via Trieste, except Alexandretta, Antivari, Beyrout, Bourghas,
Caifa, Candia, Canea, Cesme, Constantinople, Dardanelles, Durazzo, Galatz,
Gallipoli, Ibralia, Ineboli, Jaffa, Larnsea, Latakia, Mersina, Mytelene, Prevesa,
Rhodes, Salonica, Sinope, Smyrna, Tenedos, Trebizonde, Taltcha, Tuloza,
Valona, Vara, and Volo, by Prussian closed mail...............................................




62
38
70
38
38

30

P osta l Dejiartment.
Alexandretta, Antivari, Bourghas, Caifa, Durazzo, Ineboli, Jaffa, Latakia, Mereina, Mytelene, Prevesa, Sinope, Tenedos, Yalona, and Yolo, via Trieste, by
Prussian closed m a il...............................................................................................

489

40

The rates above mentioned are the full postage through to destination, with the ex­
ception of “ Turkey, Wallachia, Moldavia, Servia, Levant, and Turkish Islands in the
Mediterranean,” as requiring the prepayment of 30 cents a letter, which is the United
States and Prussian postage.
Newspapers to be sent in the Prussian closed mail must be prepaid six cents each,
which is the full United States and Prussian postage. If to go through said closed
mail to the British possessions in the East Indies, or to Hong Kong, they must be pre­
paid ten cents, and if to other points in China, or to countries beyond the East Indies>
thirteen cents each. But to the East Indies and China it is believed that the cheapest
route for newspapers is in the British mail via Southampton, four cents each, to be
prepaid, being the full United States and British Postage.
With reference to the Prussian closed mail, we are desired to remark, also, that in
many instances, letters which should come in this mail, particularly from the southern
part of Germany, are received in the open mail generally via France, thus rendering
them subject to additional and much higher rates of postage; and it is suggested that
writers would aid greatly toward correcting this irregularity by requesting their cor­
respondents in Germany to inform themselves as to the correct rates of postage, and
to mark their letters specially to be forwarded in the “ Prussian closed mail via Ostend
and London.”
It should also be observed that a prepayment in either country of less than the
combined rate of thirty cents on a single letter goes for nothing, no account being
taken of partial payments.
ACCOUNTS AND R E T U R N S OF P O S T M A S T E R S IN T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S .

Every postmaster, according to the U n ion , speaking on the authority of the PostOffice Department, is required to make up his accounts and forward tra n scrip ts of
them to the third Assistant Postmaster-General, at the end of every quarter, which is
on the last days of March, June, September, and December. In case of death, resig­
nation, or removal o f a postmaster, or the discontinuance of an office, or in case of the
giving of a new official bond in consequence of a change in the name of an office, the
expiration o f the term for which the postmaster may have been appointed, or other­
wise, the accounts are required to be made up to the day (though it is not the end of
a quarter) in which the office ceases to operate, or the new appointment, or the new
bond, as the case may be, takes effect. Many postmasters have been in the habit of
forwarding to the department their o r ig in a l accounts , keeping no duplicate or copy.
This is contrary to the regulations of the department, and will not be permitted. The
department requires, in all cases, tra n scrip ts or cop ies o n ly to be sent, and the original
accounts to be carefully preserved for inspection.
P O STA G E ON BACK N U M B E R S OF N E W S P A P E R S .

Back numbers of newspapers, if addressed to a regular subscriber, are chargeable
with a postage of one cent each, payable either at the office of publication or the
office o f delivery; but if sent to a person not a subscriber, they are considered trans­
ient papers, and as such are chargeable with one cent each if prepaid, and with two
cents if not prepaid. None but regular subscribers to newspapers are entitled to the
benefit of quarterly or yearly prepayment.




P osta l Department.

490

PU BL IC A TIO N S S E N T TO T H E L IB R A R Y OP CONGRESS AND S M IT H SO N IA N

IN­

S T IT U T E .

The fifth section of the act of Congress, approved 3d March, 1855, extending the
right to send books, maps, and charts, or other publications entered for copyright, and
which, under the act of August 10, 1846, are required to be deposited in the Library
of Congress and in the Smithsonian Institute, by mail, free o f postage, does not con­
flict with the provisions of the third section of the act approved 30th August, 1852,
which provides “ that there shall be no word or communication printed on the same
after its publication, or upon the cover or wrapper thereof, nor any writing or marks
upon it, nor upon the wrapper thereof, except the name and address. There shall be
no paper or other thing inclosed in or with such printed matter
and “ if such condi­
tions are not complied with, such printed matter shall be subject to letter postage.”
The written notification from the author or publisher of works to be entered for
copyright should be forwarded by mail prepaid, as the right to receive maps, charts,
or other publications, free cf postage, does cot embrace written letters accompanying
them, though the letters may relate exclusively to the subject.
T H E D U T IE S OF P O S T M A S T E R S IN R E G A R D TO W A S T E

PAPER.

J am es C a m p b e l l , the Postmaster General, has made the following important order

in regard to waste paper:—
“ It shall be the duty of the postmaster, or of one of his assistants, in all cases im­
mediately before the office is swept or otherwise cleared of rubbish, to collect and
examine the waste paper which has accumulated therein, in order to guard against
the possibility o f loss of letters or other mail matter, which may have fallen on the
floor, or have been intermingled with such waste paper during the transaction of busi­
ness. The observance of this rule is strictly enjoined upon all postmasters, and its
violation will constitute a grave offense. Postmasters must be careful to use, in mail­
ing letters or packets, all wrapping paper fit to be used again ; and the sale of any
such paper is strictly forbidden by the regulations of the Department.”
R E G IS T R A T IO N OF L E T T E R S .

In the new system of registration for the greater security of valuable letters sent
by mail, with each letter bill sent from the mailing office a blank letter bill is sent,
which is denominated the retu rn letter bill, and which should be filled up at the office
o f delivery according to instructions, and returned to the mailing office from which it
was received. We are informed that several postmasters, disregarding the general
instructions with which they have been furnished, and misunderstanding the instruc­
tions printed on the bill received from the mailing office, (which is, to return to “ this
office”) are in the habit of returning these bills to the Department. W e are ad­
vised that postmasters at distributing offices, in making their entries in their account
of distributed registered letters sent, should treat such letters precisely as if not re­
gistered, taking no account whatever of the registration fee. No distribution commis­
sion is allowed them on the registration fee.
LOST DRAFTS OR W A R R A N TS.

The Washington U n ion learns from the Postmaster-General, that in all cases
where application is made for the issue of a duplicate draft or warrant, upon the al­
legation that the original is lost, every such application must be addressed to the
Auditor for the Post-Office Department, and must be accompanied by a statement, or




Commercial Statistics.

491

oath, or affirmation by the applicant, or by the person who is the legal holder
thereof, showing the time, place, and all the circumstances attending the loss or de­
struction of the draft or warrant, with its number, date, and amount; in whose favor
it was issued, and if assigned, to whom made payable; together with any other par­
ticulars relating to it within the knowledge of the applicant. The applicant must
also produce a letter or certificate from the officer or person on whom the draft or
warrant may have been drawn, showing that it has not been paid, also that pay­
ment of the same will not thereafter be made to the owner or any other person
whatever.

COMMERCIAL STATISTICS,
IM P O R T OF CLOTHS IN TO T H E

U N IT E D

STATES.

The following tabular statement, compiled from the Treasury Reports, shows the
comparative import of cloihs and cassimeres into the United States from Holland,
Belgium, France, England, <Lc., for each of the years from 1839 to 1854. It will be
seen that the cloths of Germany and France have been rapidly gaining on England in
the American market:—
IMPORT OF CLOTHS AND CASSIMF.RES INTO THE UNITED STATES.
H anse T o w n s
a n d H olla n d .
1 8 4 0 ..................

B e lg iu m .
$ 9 3 ,1 8 5

F ra n ce.
$ 8 9 ,7 6 7

E n g la n d .
$ 4 ,4 9 0 ,8 3 0

T ota l.
$ 4 ,6 9 6 ,5 2 9

1 8 4 1 ..................

1 4 1 ,1 5 3

1 8 0 ,4 7 8

4 ,5 9 7 ,1 4 5

4 ,9 4 2 ,8 6 7

1 8 4 2 .................. _____

1 6 ,2 6 8

2 0 3 ,0 4 6

2 9 5 ,6 8 9

3 ,4 7 5 ,0 2 2

3 ,9 9 5 ,5 7 7

1 8 4 3 .................. _____

5 ,8 7 9

6 0 ,2 4 0

9 2 ,9 9 8

1 ,1 9 5 ,9 7 0

1 ,3 5 0 ,6 2 8

1 8 4 4 .................. _____
1 8 4 5 ..................

4 3 ,8 7 7

4 ,7 7 7 ,9 4 0

1 8 4 6 ...................
1 8 4 7 .................. _____
1 8 4 8 .................. _____

3 5 0 ,1 2 3

5 9 4 ,5 4 8

3 ,7 8 4 ,4 5 6

2 7 7 ,0 7 8

1 ,2 4 4 ,3 2 5

3 ,8 1 5 ,8 5 3

5 ,4 1 1 ,8 5 0

2 9 8 ,1 9 4

1 ,3 3 0 ,7 0 1

2 ,3 5 4 ,3 9 4

4 ,1 9 2 ,3 1 0
4 ,5 2 7 ,7 4 2

2 7 4 ,4 0 9

3 3 8 ,3 7 0

1 ,7 0 3 ,5 7 3

2 ,2 0 7 .8 2 1

7 1 6 ,0 3 1

3 9 6 ,7 1 2

2 ,4 6 6 ,3 0 2

2 ,7 7 7 ,6 1 2

6 ,3 6 4 ,1 4 5

8 9 6 ,7 1 0

1 ,1 7 3 ,2 5 0

2 ,1 1 3 ,4 3 9

4 ,9 9 5 ,9 5 7

1 8 4 9 ..................
1 8 5 0 ..................

7 6 9 ,7 9 9

1 ,6 3 9 ,7 0 6

2 ,7 7 1 ,2 8 2

6 ,1 8 4 ,1 9 0

1 8 5 1 ..................

4 7 8 ,5 3 2

1 ,9 8 8 ,1 8 1

3 ,7 8 5 ,0 7 0

7 ,6 6 9 ,5 2 0

1 8 5 2 ..................
1 8 5 3 .................. _____
1 8 5 4 ..................

2 ,4 7 4 ,0 8 2

4 4 4 ,9 8 7

1 ,7 3 5 ,5 3 0

3 ,4 0 1 ,8 9 2

6 ,9 0 8 ,4 7 1

5 4 2 ,4 9 7

2 ,2 3 3 ,4 7 8

5 ,8 2 1 ,4 3 6

1 1 ,0 7 1 ,9 0 6

4 9 4 ,7 3 5

1 ,7 7 1 ,4 3 2

7 ,6 9 2 ,9 6 5

1 3 ,1 5 9 ,5 8 3

S H IP S OF T H E W O R L D ,

W e give in this number of the M erch a n ts’ M a g a zin e a tabular statement of the
number of vessels, with their tonnage, included in the commercial marine of the
world, except those of China, Japan, and the East, concerning which little is known.
Most of the figures, as will be seen, are given from official reports of the various
governments, at different dates from 1848 to 1854, with the estimates of increase from
the date of reports to 1854, founded on past rates of increase and their present com­
mercial activities, so that the table presents a tolerably correct view of the shipping
of the world in 1854. For the figures we are indebted in part to a long and able ar­
ticle in the London N ew s of April 12tli, 1855. The number of Bremen vessels in the
table may be that of arrivals of their own ships rather than the actual number owned
in that city. The number of American vessels is not given in the report, but it will
be seen that our tonnage is about one-ninth more than the British, including our steam­
boats and small fishing craft. Adding one-ninth to the number o f their vessels we
have about 40,500 as the number of our own :—




Commercial Statistics.

492

SHIPPING OF THE WOULD IN 1 8 5 4 .

Vessels.
40,500
35,960
14,354

United States in 1854.......................................... .
Great Britain and colonies in 1854 .....................
France, official, in 1850..........................................
Increase to 1854 ................................................

Tonnage.
5,661,416
5,043,270
688,130
28,000
7 1 6 ,13 0

—

Spain and colonies in 1850....................................
Increase at 5 per cent in 1854.........................

7,606
380

Portugal in 1848.....................................................
Increase at 7 per cent to 1854 ........................

789
47

361,401
18,020
379,421

7,986
80,525
5,631

86,156

836

Sardinia, Tuscany, Naples, Sicily, and the Papal
States to 1854, supposed....................................
Austria in 1849........................................................
Increase at 5 per cent to 1854.........................
Greece in 1S54.........................................................
Turkey in 1854 .......................................................
Egypt in 1854 .........................................................
Belgium in 1850 ....................................................
Increase to 1854 ................................................

546,021

17,066
259,583
64,895

6,083
1,520
7,603
3,970
2,220
230
149

324,447
264,981
182,000
38,790
30,577
5,423
36,0 00

149

Holland in 1850.......................................................
Increase at 15 per cent to 1854........................
Hanover and Oldenburg in 1854 may h a v e.. . .
Hamburg in 1852....................................................
Lubeck.....................................................................
Brem en....................................................................
Mecklenburg...........................................................
Prussia in 1849........................................................
Increase at 30 per cent to 1854 .....................

396,924
59,538

1,793
297

456 ,46 2
40,0 00
119,884
9,380
1 60 ,00 0
4 0 ,0 0 0

2,090
500
369
70
600
150
283,638
85,091

1,531
459

368,729

1,990

Denmark in 1852 ...................................................
Increase at 2 per cent to 1854 ........................
Tonnage at 10 per c e n t ....................................

4,695
94

189,190
18,919
208,109
3 6 8 ,63 2
1 4 7 ,92 8

4,789

Norway in 1851.......................................................
Sweden in 1852...... ................................................
Russia less than.......................................................
Mexico, Brazil, and all the States o f Central
and South America............................................
Sandwich and Society Islands..............................

886
800
1,530
100

193,735
3,000

139,148

14,467,977

G iv in g N o r w a y S 5 2 v e s s e ls , w h ic h is le s s th a n
h e r to n n a g e w o u ld w a r r a n t ........................................

852

W e h a v e as th e s h ip p in g o f t h e w o r l d ...................
G iv in g to R u s s i a ...................................................................

1 4 5 ,5 0 0
1 0 5 ,5 0 9

A n d w e h a v e a s t h e t o n n a g e o f th e w o r l d .............................................................
At

$50

th e

$ 7 7 5 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 .

to n , t h e

s h ip p in g

O f th is fifte e n

and

o f th e w o r ld

is w o r t h

a h a l f m illio n s

th e

1 5 ,5 0 0 ,0 0 0

enorm ou s am ou n t o f

o f to n n a g e , m o r e th a n te n a n d a

h a l f m illio n s b e l o n g t o th e E n g lis h r a c e ; m o r e th a n t w e l v e a n d a h a l f m illio n s b e l o n g
t o P r o t e s t a n t n a tion s, in c lu d in g t h a t o f F r a n c e ; m o r e

th a n

t h ir te e n m illio n s o f th is

“ a b u n d a n c e o f t h e s e a ” is in p a r t a l r e a d y “ c o n v e r t e d t o th e C h u r ch .”

I t p resen ts at

th e p r e s e n t h o u r th e g r e a t b a r r ie r t o t h e c o n q u e s t o f t h e w o r l d b y m ilit a r y a b s o lu t is m ,
a n d a g r e a t b u lw a r k o f c i v il a n d r e lig io u s li b e r t y .




Commercial Statistics.

493

C O M P A R A T IV E N A V IG A TIO N OF G R E A T B R IT A IN AND T H E

U N IT E D S T A T E S .

The following table shows at a glance the comparative tonnage entering the ports of
Great Britain and the United States at different periods, from the commencement of
the present century to 1854, inclusive. It will be seen by this table that Great Britain
was in 1854 nearly 2,000,000 tons ahead of the United States; but in a few years,
with the same ratio o f increase, the United States will become the first commercial
power in the w orld:—
ENTERED GREAT BRITAIN.

Years.
1 8 0 0 ....................
1 8 0 7 ....................
1 8 1 4 ....................
1 8 2 0 ....................
1 8 3 0 ....................
1 8 4 0 ....................
1 8 5 0 ....................
1 8 5 2 ................
1 8 5 3 ................
1 8 5 4 ................

Great Britain.
922,594
907 ,76 4
1,290,248
1,668,060
2,180,042
2,807,367
4,0 7 8,54 4
4,267,815
4,513,207
4 ,789,986

Foreign.
780,155
6 80 ,14 4
399,287
477,611
758,828
1,298,840
2,035,152
2,462,364
3,284,343
3,109,756

ENTERED UNITED STATES.

Total.
United States.
1,702,749
682,871
1,487,407
1,089,876
1,889,535
59,626
2,115,671
801,252
2 ,938,070
870,299
4 ,106,207
1,576,946
6,113,696
2,573,016
6,730,169
3,235,522
7,7 9 7,55 0
4,004,013
7 ,899,742
3,752,115

Foreign.
123,882
47,672
48,302
79,204
134,419
712,363
1,775,623
2,057,358
2.277,930
2,132,224

Total.
806,753
1,237,543
107,928
880,457
1,004,718
2,209,309
4,348,839
5,292,880
6,281,943
5,884,339

E X P O R T S OF T E A F R O M CHINA TO T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S .

W e have received from a correspondent at Hong Kong, the C hina M ail, containing
full statistics of the tea trade for each year from June 30, 1845, to June 30, 1854, and
from June 30, 1854, to June 10, 1855, from which we condense the exports to the
United States (years ending in June) as follows;—
Years.

Vessels.

1 8 4 5 ................................
1 8 4 6 ...............................
1 8 4 7 ................................
1 8 4 8 ................................
1 8 4 9 ................................
1 8 5 0 ................................
1 8 5 1 ................................
1852 .............................
1 8 5 3 ................................
1 8 5 4 ................................

......................
......................
......................

40
37
38

......................
......................
......................

44
64
68

Total green.
13,812,099
14.236,082
13,853,132
15,345,030
18,818,700
14,396,400
15,215,700
20,937,300
26,489,800
18,280,300

Total black.

Total lbs.
20,762,558
18,502,288
18,171,625
19,338,640
18,672,300
2 1,757,800
2 8,760,800
34,334,000
40,9 74 ,5 0 0
27,867,500

6,950,459
4,266,166
4,318,496
3,993,617
4,853,800
7,361,400
13,545,100
13,396,700
14,484,700
9,587,200

The total export of tea from the undermentioned ports from 1st of July, 1854, to
10th June, 1855, has been as follows ;—
Canton.............

2,400,000 | Shanghae.............

IR O N IM P O R T E D IN TO T H E

19,610 | Fuhohan...........

4,850,000

U N IT E D S T A T E S IN 1 8 5 0 - 5 4 .

The following statement, exhibiting the quantity and value of railroad iron imported
into the United States from June 30, 1850, to June 30, 1854, inclusive and also the
quantity in bond on the 30th of June, 1854, is derived from a report made by F
Bigler, Register o f the Treasury :—
Year ending—

Tons.

Cwt.

Value.

Cost per
ton.

Duty.

June 30, 1851 ................
1852
.......
1853 .................
1854
.......

188,625
245,625
298,995
282,866

16
10
04
19

§4,901,452
6,228,794
10,426,037
12,020,309

Total.............................

1,016,113

09

§33,576,592

§10,072,977 60

In bond June 30, 1854...

47,732

18

1,986,184

.......................




§1,470,435
1,868,688
3,127,711
3,606,092

60
20
10
70

§25 98
25 36
34 87
49 49

§4161

Journal o f M ining and M anufactures .

494

W O O L IM P O R T E D IN T O G R E A T B R IT A IN .

W e give below a statement of the quantity of wool imported into Great Britain in
each of the last fifteen years—that is, from 1840 to 1854, inclusive:—
Y e a rs .
1 8 4 0 ................................. _____

G erra a u y.
P o u n d s.

T ota l.
P ou n d s.
4 9 ,4 3 6 ,2 8 4

2 1 ,8 1 2 ,6 6 4

A u stra lia .
P ou nds.
9 ,7 2 5 ,2 4 3

1 8 4 1 .................................______

5 6 ,1 7 0 ,9 7 4

2 0 ,9 5 9 ,3 7 5

1 2 ,3 9 0 ,3 6 2

1 8 4 2 ................................. _____

4 5 ,8 8 1 ,6 3 9

1 5 ,6 1 3 ,2 6 9

1 2 ,9 7 9 ,9 5 6

1843

.............................. _____

4 9 ,2 4 3 ,0 9 3

1 6 ,8 0 5 ,4 4 8

1 7 ,4 3 3 ,7 8 0

1 8 4 4 ................................. _____

6 5 ,7 1 3 ,7 6 1

2 1 ,8 4 7 ,6 8 4

1 7 ,6 3 2 ,2 4 7

1 8 4 5 ................................. _____

7 6 , S 1 3 ,7 5 5

1 8 ,4 8 4 ,7 3 6

2 4 ,1 7 7 ,2 1 7

1 8 4 6 ................................. _____

6 5 ,2 5 5 ,4 5 2

1 5 ,8 8 8 , 7 0 5

2 1 ,7 8 9 ,3 4 6

1 8 4 7 ................................. _____

6 2 ,5 9 2 ,5 9 8

1 2 ,6 7 3 ,8 1 4

2 6 ,0 5 6 ,8 1 5

1 8 4 8 ................................. _____

7 0 ,8 6 4 , 8 4 7

1 4 ,4 2 9 , 1 6 1

3 0 ,0 1 8 , 2 2 1

1 8 4 9 ................................. _____

7 6 ,7 6 8 ,6 4 7

1 2 ,7 5 0 , 0 1 1

3 5 ,8 7 9 ,1 7 1

1 8 5 0 ................................. _____

7 4 ,3 2 6 ,7 7 8

9 ,1 6 6 ,7 3 1

3 9 ,0 1 8 ,2 2 1

1 8 5 1 ................................. _____

8 3 ,3 1 1 ,9 7 5

8 ,2 1 9 ,2 3 6

4 1 ,8 1 0 ,9 1 7

1 8 5 2 ................................. _____

9 3 .7 6 1 ,4 5 8

1 2 ,7 6 5 ,2 5 3

4 3 ,2 9 7 ,4 0 2

1 8 5 3 ................................. _____

1 1 9 ,3 9 6 ,5 4 9

1 1 ,5 8 4 ,8 0 0

4 7 ,0 7 6 ,0 1 0

1 8 5 4 ................................. _____

1 0 6 ,1 2 1 ,9 9 5

1 1 ,4 4 8 ,6 1 8

4 7 ,4 8 9 ,6 5 0

THE IMPORTS FROM OTHER COUNTRIES INCLUDED IN THE ABOVE FIGURES, ARE I----

1841).
From South A frica ............................................
East Indies .......................................... ...............
South Am erica...................................................
Continent of Europe, exclusive of Germany
and Spain........................................................
Other foreign countries......................................
S p ain ...................................................................

JO U R N A L

OF

M IN IN G

A N D

1854.

741,741
2,441,370
4,387,274

8,223,598
14,965,191
5,134,334

8,441,264
513,823
1,266,905

14,481,483
2,954,921
424,300

M A N U F A C T U R E S.

T H E COAL F IE L D S AND PR O D U C TS OF T H E OHIO T A L L E Y .
BY MR. SMITH, OF THE CINCINNATI RAILROAD RECORD.

The coal trade is likely to increase so rapidly and become so large an element of
railway traffic, that it i9 worth while to look into the sources of supply and demand.
The first thing that strikes us is the remarkable and most important fact, that the
Ohio Talley contains (proportionally) the largest coal field in the world. A second
fact, scarcely less remarkable, is that, including the natural water courses, and the ex­
istent and probable artificial lines of Commerce, it has the largest means of inter­
communication. A third striking fact is, that in the abundance of food and the great
quantity and variety of minerals, it has the greatest inducements for the consumption
of coal in manufacturing.
In this article we shall consider the first branch of this subject, the coal fields and
products of the Ohio Valley.
1. What is the Ohio Valley? The Ohio Valley comprehends all that space o f
country penetrated and watered by the Ohio River and its tributaries. It compre­
hends Western Pennsylvania, Western Virginia, all of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, up
to the narrow rim of the Lakes, and the States of Kentucky and Tennessee. It com­
prehends a surface of about 280,000 square miles; and on that surface the coal basins,
or, in other words, the surface which is underlaid with coal is, according to the best
authorities, as follows:—




Journal o f M ining and Manufactures.
Coal surface

Surface.

Western Pennsylvania ..
Western Virginia,.............
Ohio...................................
Indiana........................... ..
Illinois................................
K entucky.........................
Tennessee......................... ............
A ggregate.....................

20,000 square miles.
«
26,000
“
35,000
«
33,000
«(
40,000
«
40,000
“
40,000
233,000

495

“

10,000 square
18,000
10,000
7,500
35,000
13,500
“
5,000
99,000

“

The above surfaces are not those of the States named, but of that part in the Val­
ley of the Ohio. We see, then, the extraordinary fact that more than one-third the
Valley of the Ohio is underlaid with coal! That we may see clearly the immense
advantage enjoyed by the Valley of the Ohio in this particular, we subjoin a table of
proportionable coal surfaces in the most civilized nations :—
Whole surface.
Sq. miles.

Great Britain..............................................
France..........................................................
Belgium........................................................
United States.............................................
Ohio V a lle y ................................................

120,304
213,838
10,000
3,300,000
233,000

Coal surface.
Sq. miles. Per cent.

12,000
2,000
500
200,000
99,000

10
1
5
6
42

Here, then, we find that one-half the coal surface of the United States is in the
Ohio V alley; and that it is six times greater than all the coal fields of Great Britain,
France, and Belgium! To illustrate this still further, we give a table of distances
from the principal towns in the Ohio Valley to the nearest workable bed of coal:—
Pittsburgh, Penn..................................
Steubenville, Ohio................................
Wheeling, V a .......................................
Zanesville, Ohio....................................
Marietta.................................................
Chiliicothe ..........................................
Columbus..............................................
Dayton ...................................................
Cincinnati..............................................
Covington, Ky.......................................
N ew port................................................

Miles.

Miles.

0
0
0
0
20
30
40
110
110
110
110

Lexington, K y ...................................... 50
Louisville.............................................. 120
New Albany, Ind................................. 120
Indianapolis.......................................... 55
Terre Ila u te ......................................... 10
La Fayette............................................ 60
Vincennes.............................................. 40
Springfield, 111....................................... 50
St. Louis, Mo.........................................
10
1Knoxville, Term.................................... 10
Nashville.............................................. 20

It will be noted in the above table, that no place in the Valley of the Ohio is more
than from 100 to 120 miles from coal banks. If sinking shafts were resorted to and
under ground mining, as in England, it is possible no place is more than 50 miles.
But 100 miles carriage is no objection to the consumption of coal. On the contrary,
it can be carried for five cents per bushel, and then be cheap enough.
Let us now look at what the production of coal is in the Ohio Valley, and what it
will be. The present production of coal in the Ohio Valley is, after careful investiga­
tion, supposed to be as follows:—
Consumption o f Pittsburgh for all purposes........................... - . . . .bush.
22,300,000
Exportation from Pittsburgh..........................................................................
14,400,000
Consumption of Wheeling...............................................................................
2,000,000
Product of Pomeroy and vicinity...................................................................
7,000,000
Received at Cleveland from Ohio mines.................................................. ...
3,000,000
Product of Nelsonville....................................................................................
1,200,000
“
other places in Ohio.......................................................................
3,000,000
“
K entucky.......................................................................................
2,000,000
“
Indiana................................................
1,500,000
“
Illinois.............................................................................................
1,000,000
“
Tennessee.......................................................................................
1,000,000
Aggregate,




68,400,000

Journal o f M ining and Manufactures.

490

I n r o u n d n u m b e r s , w e p r o d u c e s ix t y m illio n s
V a l l e y o f th e O h io .

o f b u s h e ls o f b itu m in o u s c o a l in th e

B u t w h a t is th a t in c o m p a r is o n w it h th e c o n s u m p t io n iu o t h e r

c o u n t r ie s , a n d c o m p a r e d w it h w h a t it w i l l b e ?

L e t u s lo o k a t th e c o n s u m p t io n a n d

p o p u la t io n o f o t h e r c o u n t r ie s a n d c o m p a r e it w it h o u r o w n .

Great Britain...............................................
F ran ce...........................................
Belgium ........................................................
Prussia..........................................................
United States..............................................
Ohio V alley..................................................

Population.

Consumption.
Bushels.

27,000,000
36,000,000
6,000,000
12,000,000
24,000,000
6,000,000

825,000,000
105,000,000
125,000,000
3,500,000
230,000,000
60,000,000

Ratio.

84 to
3 to
26 to
1 to
9£ to
10 to

1
1
1
1
1
1

This shows that the consumption o f coal in the Ohio Valley now is not more than
one-third in proportion to that of France, England, or Belgium, although the coal banks
there are not one-sixth part, in proportion, what they are here.
This is owing to the cheapness of wood, and the want of capital to develop the
mines. But these obstacles are rapidly passing away. Wood is becoming dear in
the commercial towns, and capital is fast learning that mining is a profitable business.
It is quite obvious that the time is not far off iu which the proportion of coal consumed
will be quite as high in the States of the Ohio Valley as in Belgium. Beside this, it
must increase likewise with the increase of population. Combining these so as to ad­
vance the ratio in the proportion of the increased population for the next thirty years,
and we have the increase of coal consumed as follows, viz.:—
Population.

In
In
In
In

1860........................................
1860........................................
1870........................................
1880........................................

Ratio.

5,000,000
8,000,000
10,600,000
14,200,000

10
13
17
23

Con. o f coal.

60,000,000
104,000,000
180,000,000
326,000,000

This will probably be much below the results; for the rapid increase of manufac­
ture consequent on the opening of the Central Western mines of coal, iron, copper,
zinc, and lead, will increase population at a more rapid rate than is above stated;
and the same cause will also increase more rapidly the ratio of consumption to popu­
lation.
In fine, when we regard coal as the great motive power of all machinery, as the
principal fuel for domestic purposes, and then look at the vast, inexhaustible amounts
which are piled up in all the hills, mountains, and vales of the Central West, we must
regard it as the great element in its future growth, and as securing, in the language of
Johnson, “ wealth beyond the dreams of avarice.”
STATISTICS OF BREW ERIES IN THE BRITISH ISLANDS.

There are about two thousand brewers in the British Islands, and the number of
victualers who brew their own ale is set down at 28,000. In London there are about
one hundred wholesale brewers. In 1850, there were 21,668 tons of hops grown in
England, paying a duty of £270,000, or $1,350,000. B la ck w ood sets this down as
probably a larger quantity than is furnished by all the rest of the world together.
Of this amount billy 98 tons were exported, and on the other hand 320 tons were im­
ported. The English boast of their cultivation of the hop, and extol “ this branch of
farming as the most liberal, the most remarkable,” and the most expensive of any in
England. In the same year (1850) the barley and bere crops of Ireland stood thus:
Acres.

B a rle y ............... ................................
Bere......................................................




263,350
57,811

Quarters o f 8 bushels.

1,299,835
208^291

Journal o f M ining and Manufactures.

497

JEW PROCESS OP TANiVIJVG LEATHER.
On the 18th of July, 1855, a patent was granted to Roswell Enos, for tanning sole
leather by a new process, and from specimens of leather produced placed in our hands
for examination by the patentee, as well as from reading the specification, we are
convinced that the process is a good one. No new substances are employed, those
which the patentee uses having been long known to tanners ; he only employs them
in a different manner from that which has been practiced heretofore:—
“ The hair is first removed from the hides in any usual manuer, and the hides thor­
oughly cleansed in either pure water or in a solution of salt and water. A batch o f
fifty sides are then placed in a liquor composed by steeping forty pounds of Sicily
eumac, or one hundred and fifty pounds of unground native sumac, in two hundred
and fifty gallons of water, and adding twenty-five pounds of salt thereto. The sides
remain in said liquor from twelve to twenty-four hours— the length of time depending
upon the temperature of the said liquor and the condition of the sides. About blood
heat is the best temperature for the aforesaid liquor. After the sides have remained
the aforesaid length of time in the salted infusion of sumac, the liquor is strengthened
by adding thereto somewhere about two hundred gallons o f strong oak or hemlock
liquor, and fifteen pounds of salt, and the sides allowed to remain in this strengthened
liquor for the space of from twelve to twenty-four hours. The sides should then be
withdrawn, and placed in about the same quantity of a strong cold oak or hemlock
liquor, containing twenty pounds o f salt in solution, and allowed to remain in it for
five or six days. They are then withdrawn and placed in the same quantity and qual­
ity o f liquor— save that it should be of about blood-warm temperature, are allowed
to remain therein five or six days, which latter operation should be repeated for six
or seven times, when the side will generally be found to be completely tanned. While
passing through each stage of this said tanning process the sides should be repeatedly
handled, as all tanners are fully aware.”
This is a description o f the process. Practical tanners will perceive that neither
acids nor alkalies are used for raising the hides, but that the salt sumac liquor is em­
ployed for the preparatory, and the common tan liquor for the finishing process. The
inventor is an old experienced tanner, and he says:—
“ The salt sumac liquor enters at once into the pores to the very heart of the sides,
and so acts upon them as to give them an exceedingly pliable yet firm basis, and so
prepares them that the strongest liquors of oak or hemlock, <fec., may afterwards be
applied without binding or injuring the hides.”
Tanning is a chemical process, and consists in applying such substances to the skins
of animals as will combine with them, and form a compound firm, pliable, and insol­
uble in water, which we term “ leather.” It is easy to make leather, but there are as
many qualities of it as there are of cloth. The tanning processes, to make good
leather, are tedious and expensive, requiring months to complete all the operations.
To shorten the time required in the process, many plana have been employed, and
numerous substances used to bloat the hides, so as to allow the tanning to combine
rapidly with their gelatine. Some of these have, indeed, shortened the process, but
at the expense of the quality of leather, it being rendered very brittle; hence, a gen­
eral, and perhaps a just, prejudice exists among practical tannere against new pro­
cesses in this art. No such prejudice can exist against this now process, as no new
substances are used. The sole leather which we have seen made by it will bear the
most severe scrutiny. W e have also been assured that the sole leather made by this
process, from sweated Buenos Ay res hides, will make sewed work equally as well as
the limed slaughter hides. The leather is also tough and strong. The length of time
required for tanning a dry Buenos Ayres hide is ninety days, with 75 per cent gain.
The time required for tanning an Oronoeo hide is much less, with a gain of 80 or 85
per cent. This method will tan slaughter sole leather in thirty days; harness or up­
per leather in the rough in twenty days, and calf skins in from six to twelve days.
VOL. x x x i i i .— n o . IV.
32




Journal o f M ining and Manufactures.

498

W e believe the public is more deceived, and gets leas real value for their money, in
common boots and shoes than any other article used as parts of human covering. The
lighter kinds of shoes especially, sold in the stores, are a disgrace to the trade, both
as it respects the sewing and the leather. The uppers are generally made of glazed
sheep skin, about as thick and strong as old-fashioned brown paper, and the sewing,
which is now performed in many instances by machines, is so carelessly executed as
to bring into disrepute— unjustly, we think— the character of those machines. In con­
versation, a few days ago, with a journeyman carpenter, in our city, who has a family
of five children, he declared it impossible for him to keep his family in such shoes as
were sold at the stores. He had, from necessity, been compelled to learn the art of
making boots and shoes for his children, and one pair of his own making, he assured
us, lasted four times as long as a “ market pair.” This should not be, for we are con­
vinced that the lighter as well as the heavier kinds of leather can be made far better
than most of that which is now generally used, and we hope this new process of tan­
ning will be the means of effecting a total reformation in the character of the material
for making common boots and shoes.
TH E

COAL

TRADE

OF P E N N S Y L V A N I A :

ITS PAST, ITS PRESENT, AND ITS EUTURE.

The mineral wealth of Pennsylvania, says the I n q u ir e r of that State, may be esti­
mated by millions. It is one of the most invaluable resources of the State. Its history
and progress are quite extraordinary. But the other day, comparatively speakingj
and the first ton of coal was sent to the Philadelphia market— now, the aggregate per
annum amounts to millions of tons 1
In the year 1820 the entire amount of coal sent to market from the various regions
of Pennsylvania was 365 tons. In 1854 it was 5,841,151. And the total since 1820
is 48,907,800 tons. The trade, too, is constantly increasing. Coal is almost daily be­
ing applied to new uses, and thus new demands are continually arising. The capital
invested in the various works, such as the Reading Railroad, the Lehigh Canal, the
Schuylkill Canal, and the various subordinate railroads, amounts in the aggregate to
many millions o f dollars. But we cannot conceive of any mode of investment more
laudable.
The coal in the mines is, comparatively speaking, valueless; but, dug from the
bowels o f the earth and sent over the various railroads and canals, and thence again
to more distant towns and cities by means of vessels, it becomes a truly important
article not only of manufacture, but o f Commerce; and while it imparts heat to the
homes of thousands and tens of thousands of the community, it affords employment
in the various operations of mining, transporting, and manufacturing, to a very large
class of the children of industry.
The history of the coal trade, so far as Pennsylvania is concerned, possesses the
deepest interest to all who have paid the slightest attention to the development of
national resources and the progress of human events. How many fortunes have been
won and lost by speculations connected with railroads 1 How many farms, which a
few years ago were regarded as valueless in a great measure, are now considered as
precious as some of the mines in California ! And yet, we repeat, the trade is in its
infancy.
W e are only beginning to realize the true importance of this feature of the
mineral wealth of Pennsylvania. It is true, that the future may, in some degree, be
measured by the past; and yet it is difficult to persuade, even the most sanguine,
that such will be the case.




/

Journal o f M ining and Manufactures.

499

THE MANUFACTURE OF WATCHES.
A watch is no longer, as it was formerly, an object of luxury, destined exclusively
for the rich ; it has become an article of the first necessity for every class in society,
and as, together with the increased perfection of this article, its value has in the same
time considerably diminished, it is evident that a common watch, which will exactly
indicate the hour of the day, is actually, by its low price, within the reach of almost
every individual, who will likewise feel anxious to possess one.
For this reason, and in proportion as commercial and maritime relations are extended
and emancipated from the trammels in which the great central marts of Commerce
have involved them, so will distant nations become civilized; and it may be fairly an­
ticipated that the art of watch making will form a part of the great current o f im­
provement.
The number of watches manufactured annually in Neufchatel may be calculated to
be from 100,000 to 120,000, of which about 35,000 are in gold, and the rest in silver.
Now, supposing the first, on an average, to be worth 530, and the others $4-, it
would represent a capital of $1,390,000, without taking into consideration the sale of
clocks and instruments for watch making, the amount of which is very large.
The United States of America consume the largest quantity of those watches. With
the exception of gold and silver for the manufacture of the watch-cases, the other ma­
terials for the construction of the works or mechanism of the Neufchatel watches are
of little value, consisting merely of a little brass or steel. The steel is imported
from England, and is reckoned the best that can be procured; the brass is furnished
by France.
With respect to gold and silver, the inhabitants of Neufchatel have had for a long
time no other resource but to melt current money, until they received gold from Eng­
land, which the English merchants received from California.
The number of workmen who are employed in watch making is estimated at from
18,000 to 20,000, but it is difficult to arrive at the exact number, as the population
employed carry on the business in their own houses.
T h e s p ir it o f a d v e n t u r e is v e r y s tr o n g a m o n g th e in h a b ita n ts o f th e J u r a M o u n ta in s .
A g r e a t m a n y o f t h e m h a v e t r a v e le d in t o v e r y r e m o t e c o u n tr ie s , w h e n c e s o m e h a v e
r e tu r n e d w it h c o n s id e r a b le fo rtu n e s.

COTTON MANUFACTURE IN THE SOUTH.
An able writer, in a Northern periodical, says a Southern cotemporary, has taken
up this subject, and shows very conclusively that the Southern States ought to become
the manufacturers, as well as producers, of cotton for the world. From facts furnished
by this writer, it appears that the cotton manufacture makes up nearly one-half of the
external trade of the British kingdom. The United States furnish four-fifths o f the
six hundred millions of pounds imported into Great Britain. The writer proves, by
statistics and figures, that the British manufacturer receives five times as much for
converting the cotton into cloth as the farmer for producing the raw material, and
both employ the same amount of capital. It appears that the same disproportion ex­
ists between the profits of the Southern planter and the Northern manufacturer. The
writer then sets forth the great advantage possessed by the Southern planter for man­
ufacturing, and shows that the mere saving in the transportation would go largely to
the payment o f the manufacture. He urges that instead of increasing the product,
already too great, the true Southern policy is to enter largely irito the manufacture,
and thus withdraw a portion of the labor engaged in the production, and employ it in
the more profitable mode of manufactures.




Journal o f M ining and Manufactures.

500

PROGRESS OF IRON MANUFACTURES IN OHIO.
Iron manufactures have of late years made gratifying progress in Ohio, as the fol­
lowing statistics o f the interest in that State, gathered in the year 1853, will show:—
PIG IRON.

35 I Bushels coke and charcoal.
140,610 I Operatives em ployed.........
22,658 I Capital invested.................
605,000 I Value of products..........

Furnaces....................................
Tons of iron ore used.............
Tons of pig iron made...........
Bushels of coal consumed___

5,428,000
2,415
$ 1,600,000
2 , 000,000

IRON CASTINGS.

183
41.000
38.000
840,000

Factories..................................
Pig metal, iron, and ore used.
Castings made.........................
Coal consumed.........................

1 Coke and charcoal used.. . .
I Operatives employed..........
I Capital invested.................
| Value of products •...........

355,120
2,758
$ 2, 000,000
3,200,000

[w r o u g h t i r o n .

Factories..................................
Pig metal u sed .......................
Blooms......................................
Coal consumed........................
Coke and charcoal used..........

Operatives employed..........
Wrought iron produced... .
Capital invested.................
Value of products.............

17
8,675
2,900
600,000
466,900

708
14,416
$700,000
1,600,000

This exhibits a total of 235 establishments, producing to the value of $6,700,000,
with a capital of $4,300,000, and employing 5,881 operatives.
SALT MANUFACTURE AT SYRACUSE,
The manufacture o f salt at the salt springs in Onondaga County, New York, is car­
ried on but seven months in the year. The average annual product of solar and fine
salt is about five-and-a-lialf millions of bushels, though the Syracuse J o u rn a l thinks
the amount manufactured the present year will reach six million bushels. Any one
who owns a “ block,” or “ vats,” as the works are called, can get the salt-water from
the State for one cent a bushel of salt made, which includes cost of inspection. Cer­
tain rules are observed among those engaged in the manufacture of salt, so as to pre­
vent competition, dull prices, <tc. No manufacturer is allowed to make more than
20,000 bushels per annum, and the minimum price is fixed at $1 25 per barrel of five
bushels. The present price is $1 39 per barrel. A committee, chosen by the manu­
facturers, act as selling agents; each party’s salt is sold by turn, and the whole details
are equitably and eminently for self-interest. There iB more salt manufactured at
these springs than the aggregate manufacture of all other parts of the country. Some
of the salt wells are sunk directly through the fresh waters of Onondaga Lake, but
most o f the springs are on its borders. The salt is of a far superior quality, and gen­
erally finds a good market; if, however, sales are small, the price never falls below
$1 25 per barrel.
PRICES OF BOILER TUBES.
Thomas Prosser Ac Son, in a circular dated June 15th, 1855, furnish the price list of
their boiler tubes and free-joint iron tubes for crow-bars, railings, awning-frames, leade r a , &c.

T h e f o l l o w i n g i s t h e i r l i s t o f p r i c e s f o r b o i l e r t u b e s :—

Per ft.

Diurn.

in ch es.

c ts.

in c h e s .

............ . . .
1 4 ............ . . .

22

u

i f ............
2 ............... . . .

1

25

Per ft.

D ia m .
in ch e s .

cts.

2 J . . . ............
2 4 . . . ............

35
39

|I

32

|

3 ....

3

II

10

|

2 . . . . ............
2 f . . . ............

D ia m .
in c h e s .
5 ............ . .
6 ............ . .

cts.

S i ..............

34 .............. . .
4 . . ............ . .

2 }...

Per ft.

65

Per ft.
cts.
140
200

7 ..........

84

FREE JOINT IRON TUBES.
i ............ . . .
I f ............. . . .




12

I

14

1

1

2 4 ................ . .
2 5 .............. . .

16
18

II
|
i

3 ............ . . .
3 4 ...........

20

Journal o f M ining and Manufactures.

50 1

THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER IN THE UNITED STATES.
There are in the United States 150 paper-mills in actual operation, having 3,000
engines, and producing in the year 270,000,000 pounds o f paper, which is worth, at
10 cents per pound, $27,000,000. To produce this quantity of paper, 405,000,000
pounds of rags are required, If- pounds o f rags being necessary to make one pound
of paper. The value of these rags, at 4 cents per pound, is $16,200,000. The cost of
labor is I f cents upon each pound of paper manufactured, and is therefore $3,375,000.
The cost of labor and rags united is $19,575,000 a year. The cost of manufacturing,
aside from labor and rags, is $4,050,000, which makes the total cost $23,625,000 of
manufacturing paper worth $27,000,000. W e import rags for this manufacture from
twenty-six different countries, and the amount in 1853 was 22,766,000 pounds, worth
$982,837. Italy is the greatest source of supply, being more than one-fifth of the
whole amount, but the supply has been gradually falling off every year. From Eng­
land we imported 2,666,005 pounds in 1853. The cost of imported rags has been as
follows:— 1850, 3.61 cents; 1851, 3.46 cents; 1852,3.42 cents; 1853, 3.46 cents.
The consumption o f paper in the United States is equal to that of England and France
together.
CARPET MANUFACTURE.
At the anniversary dinner of the Society o f Arts, Mr. Crossley, M. P., the great car­
pet manufacturer, stated some circumstances of interest with regard to the effect of
the Great Exhibition on that particular trade. He mentioned that prior to 1854 his
house had been unsuccessfully competing with America in carpets, but through the
Exhibition, he said, they discovered that the excellence of American carpets arose
from their being manufactured by machinery, and his firm having spent a very large
sum in procuring machinery, they were enabled to manufacture for 2|d. a yard that
which formerly cost them in labor 14d., while their workmen earned better wages,
worked fewer hours, and a corresponding reduction in price was made to the con­
sumer.
The machinery referred to by Mr. Crossley was invented by Mr. Bigelow, of Clinton,
Massachusetts. Many of our readers will recollect that we gave some account of the
manufacture of Brussels carpets by the machinery invented by that gentlemau, and a
sketch of bis life, in a former number o f the M erch a n ts’ M agazin e.
WHAT IS AM0NDTILLAD0 SHERRY 7
The author o f “ N o tes a n d Q ueries ” thus answers the question. He says the
peculiar flavor is caused by a process of fermentation, over which the growers
have no control, and for which they cannot account. Sometimes only one or two butts
in a vintage will be affected, and in other years none at all. Those which some mys­
terious influence designs for Amondtillado produce a kind of vegetable weed after
having been put in the cask; it is long and stringy, like some of our freshwater weeds,
but with very fine fibers, and bears a very minute white flower. Immediately after
shedding these flowers, the whole plant dies away, and never again appears, but it
leaves that peculiar flavor. I have had this description positively staled and verified
by those who have visited the Spanish wine districts.
FIRST WOOLEN MANUFACTURES IN AMERICA.
E. D. K e llogg , Esq., in a recent lecture before the woolen manufactures of Berk­
shire, Massachusetts, claimed for that county the honor of having manufactured the
first American broadcloth, in 1804. He was not, probably, aware that in 1794, a




Journal o f Insurance.

502

woolen factory was built at the Falls of Parker River, in Newbury, by an incorporated
company. The first fulling-mill in America was erected by John Pearson, clothier, in
1643, on Mill River, in Rowley, Massachusetts. The first fine broadcloth was undoubt­
edly made in Pittsfield, from the fleeces of imported Merinoes, by Arthur Scholfield.
In 1808, he manufactured a piece of thirteen yards, which was presented to President
Madison, who wore a suit made from it when he was inaugurated.
THE MANUFACTURES OF LOWELL.
The capital invested in the manufactories of Lowell on the 1st of January, 1855,
amounted to over $14,0.00,000. There are fifty-two mills, running 371,838 spindles,
and 11,407 looms. A t these and other departments of the woolen and cotton manu­
facture, 8,723 females and 4,542 males are employed. This working force produce
weekly 2,230,000 yards of cotton cloth, 30,000 yards of woolen, 25,000 yards of car­
peting, and 50 rugs, consuming therefor 735,000 lbs. of cotton and 90,000 lbs. of wool.

JOURNAL

OF

INSURANCE.

LAW OF LIFE ASSURANCE.
OF THE INTEREST IN THE LIVES OF ONE’S RELATIONS OR FRIENDS.

A father cannot insure the life of his child, or one relation or friend the life of an­
other, unless the party has some pecuniary interest in such life, or would suffer some
pecuniary loss by the death of such relation or friend. This is the only safe rule. If
persons could insure the lives of their relations or friends, merely on the ground of
friendship, or the sorrow experienced on their loss, it would tend to all the evils of
wager policies, and be the more dangerous because persons, united by these ties, are
naturally thrown off their guard, and much more exposed to the fraudulent designs of
those who are inclined to take advantage of such a situation; and the guilty party is
more likely to escape detection, for the apparent friendship tends to ward off suspi­
cion. Therefore, where a father had insured the life o f his son in which he had no pe­
cuniary interest, it was held that he was not entitled to recover; and it being stated
that the offices were in the habit of taking such assurances, Lord Tenterden said that,
“ if a notion prevailed that such assurances were valid, the sooner it was corrected the
better.”
Mr. Ellis states that the offices in England are in the custom of paying upon poli­
cies, without regard to interest; and that so general has this custom become that, in a
case where the executor of a party who had purchased a policy, in which the interest
had or was about to expire, brought an action to recover back the purchase money,
the court admitted evidence of such custom, and held that, although the defendant
had no interest, in point of law, and the payment o f the policy could not be enforced,
yet, though the law would not enforce such payment, there may be reasonable expec­
tation that it would be paid; and, therefore, if there was no improper concealment of
facts, or fraud, to vitiate the sale, the purchaser could not recover.
It has been held, however, that a wife insuring the life of her husband, need not
prove her interest in his life ; for in Reed vs. Royal Exchange Assurance Company,
when the plaintiff’s counsel were proceeding to prove that Reed was entitled to the
interest of a large sum of money, which went from him at his death, and, therefore,
that the plaintiff was interested in his life, Lord Kenyon said it was not necessary, as




Journal o f Insurance .

503

it must be presumed that every wife had an interest in the life of her husband. So,
also, a single woman, dependent on her brother for support and education, has a suffi­
cient interest in his life to entitle her to insure.
In New York a special statute has been passed on this subject; thus it was enacted,
that “ it shall be lawful for any married woman by herself, and in her name, or in the
name of any third person, with his assent, as her trustee, to cause to be insured, for
her sole use, the life of her husband, for any definite period, or for the term of his
natural life; and in case of her surviving her husband, the sum or net amount of the
insurance becoming due and payable, by the terms of the insurance, shall be payable
to her, to and for her own use, free from the claims of the representatives of her hus­
band, or o f any of his creditors; but such an exemption shall not apply where the
amount of premium annually paid shall exceed three hundred dollars. In case of the
death o f the wife before the decease of her husband, the amount of the insurance may
be made payable, after her death, to her children, for their use, and to their guardian,
if under age.”
In Vermont, a statute has been enacted, which is a literal transcript of the one in
New York, with an additional clause, allowing unmarried women to insure the lives of
their fathers or brothers to the same extent. A law of similar character has been
passed in Rhode Island.
These statutes, so far as regards the interest, cannot be considered as extending the
right of effecting assurances, but merely as doing away with proof of the pecuniary
interest in the assurances authorized by such statutes; for an insurance by one r e f ­
lation or friend of the life of another, where the person for whose benefit the assur­
ance is effected is supported by the person whose life is the subject of the assurance,
would be legal. In all such cases, however, not coming under the statute, it would be
necessary to prove the pecuniary interest, i. e., that they were supported by the per­
sons whose life is the subject of the assurance.
An assurance, also, in such cases, would not be valid beyond the amount of pecu­
niary aid received ; whereas, in the cases provided for by statute, the assurance would
be valid to the extent allowed, although the aid received might be less than the amount
o f the assurance effected.
OF WARRANTY IN GENERAL AND ITS EFFECT.

A warranty is a stipulation inserted in writing on the face of the policy or on a
paper referred to therein, on the literal truth or fulfillment of which the validity of
the entire contract depends.
The law in regard to warranty is very strict, and the least breach of one, however
unimportant, releases the assurer from all liability, for it is a well-settled principle of
insurance law, that when a thing is warranted to be of a particular nature or descrip­
tion, it must be exactly what it is stated to be, and it makes no difference whether the
thing be material or not. This principle has been followed in all the English and
American cases.
Therefore, should the assured die from some other cause not in the least connected
with the breach of the warranty, yet the assurer is none the less discharged. It there­
fore becomes of the utmost importance to both parties to know what declarations on
the part of the assured are to be construed as warranties, so as to apply to such de­
clarations the strict construction and severe effect incident to a warranty.
OF THE CLAUSE THAT THE ASSURED IS “ IN GOOD HEALTH.”

Under the clause that the assured is “ in good health” at the time of effecting the
assurance, a party will be entitled to recover, though he may be afflicted with some




504

Journal o f Insurance.

infirmity, if his life he in fact a good one and lie be in a reasonable state of health and
such as to be insured on common terms. Thus, in an action on a policy made on the
life of Sir James Ross for one year, from October, 1T59, to October, 1760, warranted
in good health at the time of making the policy, the fact was that Sir James had re­
ceived a wound in his loins at the battle of La Feldt, in the year 1747, which had
occasioned a partial relaxation or palsy, so that he could not retain his urine or fceces,
and which was not mentioned to the insurers. Sir Janies died of a malignant fever
within the time of the assurance. A ll the physicians and surgeons who were ex­
amined for the plaintiff swore that the wound had no sort of connection with the
fever, and that the want of retention was not a disorder which shortened life, but he
might, notwithstanding that, have lived to the common age of man ; and the surgeon
who opened him said that his intestines were all sound. There was one physician
examined for the defendant who said the want of retention was paralytic; but being
asked to explain, he. said it was only a local palsy arising front the wound, but did
not affect life. But, on the whole, he did not look upon him as a good life. Lord
Mansfield said
“ The question of fraud cannot exist in this case. When a man makes insurance
upon a life generally, without any representation of the state of the life insured, the
insurer takes all the risk, unless there was some fraud in the person insuring, either
by bis suppressing some circumstance which he knew, or by alleging what tvas false ;
but if the person knew no more than the insurer, the latter takes the risk
In this
case there is a warranty, and whenever that is the case, it must at all events be
proved that the party was a good life, which makes the question on a warranty much
larger than that on a fraud. Here it is proved that there was no representation at all
as to the state o f life, nor any question asked about it, nor was it necessary. Where
an insurance is upon a representation, every material circumstance Ehould be men­
tioned, such as age, way of life, Ac.; but where there is a warranty, then nothing
need he told, but it must in general be proved, if litigated, that the life was in fact a
good one, and so it may be though he have a particular infirmity. The only question
is, Whether he was in a reasonably good state of health, and such a life as ought to
be insured on common terms ?”
The jury upon this direction, without going out of court, found a verdict for the
plaintiff.
Again, in an action on a policy on the life of Sir Simeon Stuart, Bart., from the 1st
of April, 1779, to the 1st of April, 1780, and during the life of Eliza Edgly Ew er;
the policy contained a warranty that Sir Simeon was about fifty-seven years of age,
and in good health at the time the policy was underwritten. It was proved on the
trial that although the insured was troubled with spasms and cramps from violent fits
of the gout, yet he was in as good health when the policy was underwritten as he
had been for a long time before ; and also that the underwriters were told that the in­
sured was subject to the gout.
Dr. Heberden and other physicians who were examined, proved that spasms and
convulsions were symptoms incident to the gout. Lord Mansfield said : “ The imper­
fection of language is such, that we have not words for every different idea; and the
real intention of parties must he found out by the subject matter. By the present
policy the life is warranted to some of the underwriters, in health— to others, in good
health; and yet there was no difference intended in point of fact. Such a warranty
can never mean that a man has not the seeds of disorder. We are all born with the
seeds of mortality in us. A man subject to the gout is a life capable of being in­
sured, if he has no sickness at the time to make it an unequal contract.” Verdict for
the plaintiff.




505

Statistics o f A griculture , etc.

I n a n a c t io n o n a p o l i c y o f in s u r a n c e , d a t e d 2 2 d N o v e m b e r , 1 8 0 2 , w h e r e b y t h e d e ­
fe n d a n t s , f o r a c e r ta in c o n s id e r a t io n , in s u r e d t h e li f e o f t h e p l a i n t i f f ’ s w ife , t h e n w a r ­
r a n t e d in g o o d h e a lt h , a n d

o f t h e d e s c r ip tio n s e t fo r t h in a c e r t a in

c e r t ilic a t e s ig n e d

a n d d a te d 9 th N o v e m b e r , 1 8 0 2 , it w a s h e ld t h a t d e c la r a t io n s m a d e b y th e w i f e , w h il e
ly i n g in b e d a p p a r e n t ly ill, a s t o th e b a d s ta t e o f h e r h e a lt h , a n d h e r a p p r e h e n s io n s
th a t s h e c o u ld n o t li v e t e n d a y s lo n g e r , w e r e a d m is s ib le in e v id e n c e t o s h o w h e r o p i n ­
ion, w h o b e s t k n e w t h e fa c t o f th e ill s ta t e o f h e r h e a lt h , a t t h e t im e o f e ffe c t in g th is
p o l ic y .

STATISTICS OF AGRICULTURE. &c.
NEW SCUTCHING MACHINE FOR FLAX.
We have received from Paris, says the Belfast M erca n tile J o u r n a l a n d S ta tistica l
R eg ister, a letter from Mr. C. Merteus, of Gheel, in Belgium, commending to our notice
a new self-acting machine for breaking and scutching flax, which he has invented and
patented. He states in his communication, which is too long for us to translate and
publish in exten so, that this machine is calculated to supply a want that has been felt
for a long time past, in all flax-growing districts, of a machine capable of breaking and
scutching flax straw without the assistance of skilled hands. The expense of employ­
ing trained workmen for this purpose is a serious item in the preparation o f flax, and
even these have become scarce. The rapid extension o f the new systems of steeping
flax, on a large scale, in retteries, renders more important than ever the introduction
of a self-acting machine, doing a large quantity of work, independent of workmen.
This new break and scutching machine accomplishes all the objects required. Being
double, it is perfectly self acting, merely requiring the flax straw to be put in on one
side, without being broken, and the finished flax taken out at the other. From the
moment the flax enters the machine, no further attention is necessary; the machine
does all, and delivers it out perfectly 6cutehed. The single machine is employed with
the same economy, and does not require more hands or more proportionally than the
double machine. The only assistance necessary is one person to put in the flax, an­
other to take it out, and some children to hand the flax to and from these persons.
A ll clasps or holders for fastening the flax, or breaking machines, are dispensed with,
so that the work is of the simplest possible kind, the attendants being all of the class
of ordinary laborers, and the cost of scutching is thus largely diminished. The double
machine will do, in the day of twelve hours, from forty-five to fifty-five stone, (of six­
teen pounds each,) according to the quality of the flax. The single machine does the
half of that quantity. They are adapted for all kinds of straw flax, whether hard or
soft, and can be altered in a moment to suit different qualities. The flax is scutched
with perfect safety to the fiber, leaving the reed whole from end to end. It is evident
the yield of fiber from a given quantity of straw flax must be greater than in any o f
the ordinary modes of scutching. Hardly any tow and no dust is produced by the
machine. The power required for driving the double machine is four-horse, and half
the power for the single machine.
One o f these machines is at the Industrial Exhibition in Paris, and may be seen
there at work, by any of our spinners or flax merchants who are desirous of inspecting
it. It is not for us to say whether it is superior in any respect to the machines at
present in use, but we are always glad to have the opportunity of bringing forward
any improvement calculated to advance the interests of the great staple trade upon
which the prosperity of our province is so materially dependent.




506

CORN CROP OF EACH COUNTY IN THE STATE OF OHIO.
TABULAR STATEMENT EXHIBITING THE NUMBER OF ACRES OF LAND IN EACH COUNTY OF THE STATE OF OHIO CULTIVATED IN CORN DURING THE YEARS 1850,
1851, 1852, AND 1853, TOGETHER WITH THE NUMBER OF BUSHELS YIELDED IN EACH COUNTY, AND THE AVERAGE YIELD PER ACRE, AS ASCERTAINED BY THE
TOWNSHIP ASSESSORS, ACCORDING TO LAW.

■ACRES SOWN.------------------------\

1 8 50 .




10,212
14,708
19,323
9,503
26,669
37,536
62,031
10,107
27,680
24,591
33,116
14,457
25,882
15,907
12,018
4,175
14,569
41,130
82,080
51,842
5,309
19,363
8,579

1852.

1851.

23,124
11,326
12,205
8,592
15,455
9,105
25,219
38,237
54,640
9,940
28,239
25,328
35,979
33,608
12,727
25,753
14,780
10,928
23,809
3,352
22,110
10,657
40,115
32,798
49,074
4,231
16,884
6,846

27,167
11,957
15,363
3,931
16,684
11,060
24,996
39,571
57,763
8,627
30,874
24,117
35,397
36,506
12,107
23,988
14,499
4,169
23,096
4,979
21,946
13,149
42,324
37,061
49,045
5,073
15,680
6,931

28,414
13,636
15.807
9,926
17,676
12,068
27,910
39,870
62,470
9,084
28,824
25,797
32,682
42,269
15,126
27,019
17,295
9,223
25,154
4,954
33,890
11,811
45,409
39,047
55,697
5,738
16,070
7,061

/--------------------- BUSHELS GATHERED,----------------------*

1850.
330,811
560,512
683,341
280,217
991,215
1,314,741
2,646,353
316,999
954,609
799,489
1,313,375
516,821
962.646
489,151
896,922
136,983
615,122
1,569,313
1,331,927
1,984,929
170,680
674,655
310,583

1851.
757,248
443,126
367,897
325,588
515,638
308,655
753,934
1,170,730
2,696.182
264,835
1,266,020
1,067,673
1,346,631
1,504,280
328,003
881,551
487,054
325,570
919,155
82,635
156,323
306,113
1,412.776
1,570,114
2,068,376
94,387
489,368
205,427

1 8 52 .
133,024
325,039
437,192
128,900
516,952
304,573
984,713
1,306,349
2,446,123
163,371
979,544
675,304
1,185,770
1,258,917
291,790
981,469
442,015
133,097
661,019
143,565
846,422
477,898
1,763,030
1,519,721
2,346,295
136,892
382,122
175,139

1851.
860,388
529,603
664,310
403,570
641,967
462,385
1,055,613
1,467,088
2,406,733
276,691
1,292,327
1,142,847
1,234,442
1,528,246
528.439
1,089,867
716,870
383,069
952,555
187,120
1,212,047
439,479
2,066,021
2,123,221
2,544,408
246,998
892,385
296,176

AV. YIELD OF BUSHELS PER ACRE,

1 8 50 .
32.2
3S.1
. . . .

35.3
29.4
37.1
35.0
42.6
31.3
34.4
32.5
39 6
35.7
37.1
30.7
33.0
32.8
■ . . «

42.2
38.1
41.5
38.2
32.1
34.8
36.2

1851.

1852.

1851.

31.9
39.1
30.1
37.8
33 3
33.8
29.8
30.6
49.3
26.6
44.8
42.1
37.4
44.7
25.7
34.1
32.9
29.7
39.4
24.6
34.2
28.7
35.2
47.8
42.1
22.3
28.9
30.0

26.8
27.1
28.4
32.7
30.9
27.5
39.3
33.0
42.3
I S .9
31.7
28.0
33.4
34.4
24.1
40.9
30.4
31.9
28.6
28.8
38.5
36.3
41.6
41. 0
47.8
27.0
24.3
25.2

30.3
38.9
42.0
40.7
36.3
38 3
37.8
36.8
38.5
30.4
44.8
44.5
37.8
36.2
34.9
40.3
41.5
41.5
37.9
37.8
35.8
37.2
45.5
54.4
45.7
43.0
24.4
42.0

S t a tis tic s o f A g r i c u l t u r e , etc.

Adams.........................
A lle n ..........................
Ashland......................
Ashtabula.................
A thens.......................
Auglaize.....................
Belmont......................
B row n ........................
Butler.........................
Carroll.......................
Champaign................
Clark .........................
Clerm ont...................
Clinton.......................
Columbiana...............
Coshocton...................
Crawf >rd...................
Cuyahoga...................
D a rk e.........................
Defiance.....................
D elaw are...................
E r ie ...........................
Fairfield....................
Fayette.......................
Franklin.....................
Fulton.........................
Gallia..........................
G eauga.......................

1851.

16,138
16,166
14,319

22,111
16,110
38,241
16,926

36,454

29,340
17,578
24,677
14,642
7,232
13,484
2,500
42,425
12,212
9,518
19,041
17,767
12,623
18,196
6,621
15,605
36,083
22,242
9,604
3,002
20,403
10,908
16,096
11.041
10,505
9,199
35.610
16,003
35,367
18,825
14,877
29,210
15,796

31,969
11,757
24,040
18,822
8,233
14,131
3,298
44,329
13,315
9,518
21,759
17,649
12,989
21,498
7,739
31,267
39,027
22,040
9,688
3,212
24,885
9,248
21,329
11,483
10,771
9,501
35,020
18,031
32,602
16,202
16,483
31,164
20,294

33,347
18,760
13,593
19,410
10,224
15,040
8,309
50,833
14,433
11,754
23,316
17,712
12,943
21,018
7,236
14,382
41,252
22,098
12,374
3,891
27,470
11,317
24,205
13,790
11,456
11,602
36,937
18,209
32,474
17,909
21,344
30,168
19,956

1,170,643
851,181
533,249
199,300
609,010
1,604,618
461,343
389,550
878.143
439,850
568,782
762,906
286,750
532,571
1 527,734
734,376
446,224
610,930
412,810
791,584
416,063
264,841
214,838
1,183,335
728,242
1,359,179
834,998
583,318
1,249,456

1,361,965
424,390
1,050,412
403,014
211,55S
466,400
68,788
1,699,554
355,234
200,710
517,186
428,313
447,134
547,835
250,711
441,559
1,210,316
760,921
293,386
73,508
822,826
351,505
605.266
346,805
327,434
314,103
1,611,038
403,052
1,660.119
469,372
449,067
1,063,914
469,644

927,289
576,071
891,953
517,136
272,696
463,087
199,405
1,446,889
360,751
200,710
674,428
353,318
458,413
682,651
231,706
457,210
1,485,143
709,928
311,838
104,532
943,696
249,547
826,528
367,078
317,278
273,526
1,097,625
520,821
886.782
541,455
501,331
1,157,183
571,138

In Hamilton County only seven townships made report.

1,457,846
614,882
590,715
757,690
419,477
545,919
118,265
1,889,814
461,684
445,980
847,367
332,789
518,646
922,067
306,187
443,506
1,637,848
858,453
510,794
123,100
1,230,065
486,242
1,307,111
582,380
347,909
391,631
1,672,486
587,235
1,332,416
680,630
802,733
1,198,170
699,926

35.2
33.9

....

23 0
28 5
37.6
33.6
32.2
33.9
38.5
28.0
38 1
34.5
38.8
33.0
39.9
43.3
34.5
31.6
34.6
35.5
32.9
....

25.5
37.1
31.1
37.2
34.7
36.1
38.9
—

46.4
24.1
42.5
27.5
29.2
34.5
27.5
40.0
29.0
21.0
27.1
24.1
35.4
30.1
37.8
28.2
33.5
34.2
30.5
24.4
40 3
32.2
37.6
31.4
31.1
34.1
45.2
25.1
46.9
33.9
30.1
36.4
29.7

29.0
48.9
37.1
27.4
33.1
32.7
33.2
32.6
27.0
21.0
80.9
20.0
35.2
31.2
29.9
14.6
38.0
32 2
32.1
32.5
37.9
26.9
38 7
31.9
29.4
28.7
31.3
28.8
27.2
33.4
30.4
37.1
28.1

43.7
32.8
43.5
39.0
41 .0
36.3
35.7
37.1
32.0
37.9
36.3
18.7
40.0
43.9
42.3
30.8
39.7
38.8
41.3
31.6
44.8
42.9
42.9
42.2
30.4
33.8
45.3
32.3
41.0
38.0
37.6
39.7
35.0

507




25,056

S t a tis tic s o f A g r i c u l t u r e , etc.

Greene...................
Guernsey................
H am ilton*............
H ancock................
Hardin....................
Harrison................
Henry.....................
Highland .............
H ocking.................
H olm es................. .
H u ron ....................
Jackson .................
J efferson............... .
K nox.......................
Lake.......................
Law rence...............
Licking...................
Logan ....................
Lorain....................
L u cas.....................
Madison.................
Mahoning...............
Marion...................
Medina...................
M eigs.................
M ercer.................
M iam i....................
Monroe...................
Montgomery..........
Morgan...................
M orrow ...................
Muskingum............
Noble.......................

508

TABULAE STATEMENT— (CONTINUED.)

-ACRES SOWN.-----------------------\




1852.

2,483
1,532
21,267
65,860
22,957
10,426
34,927
6,354
16,300
69,520
10,651

2,279
1,074
19,580
65,755
20,470
9,405
29,400
5,481
16,180
76,070
9,323
22,812
15,671
15,767
15,946
9,557
11,118
18,694
17,451
3,337
11,195
41,062
14,627
15,481
3,181
5,333
9,790

2,190
1,728
18,679
67,034
22,841
7,701
29,316
7,069
16,576
*75,464
10,950
23.624
17,566
15,647
15,282
9,263
9,020
18,336
17,946
4,077
11,839
41,991
15,750
17,400
4,000
7,552

17,940
15,974
18,245
10,256
11,595
19,003
16,413
3,436
11,013
42,322
20,017

1,537,947 1,664,427

1 8 52 .
2,504
2,071
19,183
53,703
22,825
9,191
32,156
8,773
18,083
75,257
10,613
19,920
19,997
17,545
18,407
10,162
11,270
18,924
20,700
5,170
12,967
38,217
17,331
19,310
6,895
8,713
12,917

. /-------------------- BUSHELS GATHERED.--------------------- >

1S50.
76,764
59,054
752,982
2,627,727
902,611
329,539
1,167,548
210,002
563,320
2,918,958
339,531

1851.
70,259
32,595
451,869
3,007,410
881,026
293,659
1,283,743
158,639
424,457
3,460,486
201,307
1,023,540
492,026
576,536
475,457
302,209
383,969
559,475
589,002
72,941
346,334
2,001,048
449,838
293,030
64,732
163,774
289,591

1852.

AV. YIELD OF BUSHELS PER ACRE.

1852.

1 8 52 .

36.3
28.6
29.3
45.3
80.3
26.5
87.4
31.5
25.0
39.3
24.2
40.9
30.2
26.0
25.5
33.5
25.7
33.3
33.2
27.0
23.5
37.2
34 ,3
24.5
30.0
33.2

38.3
39.6
34.8
52.8
42.0
47.0
36.5
39.7
38.4
45.2
35.6
40.9
40.7
38.5
39.6
40.6
37.8
36.8
42.0
37.2
32.9
42.6
32.7
42.0
31.4
34.3

••

80.8
30.3
23.0
45.7
4 3 .0
31.2
43.6
28.9
26.2
45.4
21.4
44.8
31.3
36.5
29.8
31.6
34.5
29.9
33.7
21.8
30.9
48.7
30.7
18.9
20.3
30.7
29.5

—

4 0 .0

36 .8

36.7

33.6

4 0 .0

18S0.

95,768
82,090
667,563
2,845,999
959,763
431,956
1,172,423
348,315
694,195
3,399,800
377,592
813,934
814,413
673,449
729,823
412,864
426,322
695,553
870,193
192,321
427,042
1,627,679
565,977
810,771
216,370
299,166
517,321

30..9
38,.5
35..4
39,.8
39..3
31.,5
33.,4
33 .0
34 .5
41,.9
31 .8

1,730,188 1,836,493 56,619,608 61,171,282 58,165,517 73,436,090

649,943
521,792
651,328
366,446
413,598
669,008
525,732
92,544
345,470
1,757,409
684,184

79,698
49,470
547,827
3,039,418
692,415
204,255
1,097.187
222,976
416,441
2,971,600
265,850
966,762
531,952
406,835
390,106
311,022
232,443
612,048
596,083
110,698
279,190
1,566,165
541,864
427,577
120,000
250,924

1851

. . ,.

.

36..2
32..6
35 .6
35 .7
35.,6
35.,2
32 .0
26 .9
81..3
41 .5
34 .1

S t a tis tic s o f A g r i c u l t u r e , etc.

Total.......................

1851.

CO

Ottawa.......................
Paulding .................
P erry .........................
Pickaway...................
P ik e ...........................
P orta ge.....................
Preble.........................
Putnam .....................
Richland....................
Ross............................
Sandusky...................
S cio ta ........................
Seneca .......................
S h elb y.......................
Stark .........................
Sum m it.....................
Trumbull...................
Tuscarawas................
U nion.........................
Van W e r t.................
Vinton........................
W a rren .....................
Washington................
W ayne........................
W illiam s...................
W o o d .........................
W yan dot...................

1850.

Statistics o f Population , etc.

509

STATISTICS OF POPULATION, & c.
THE IMMIGRATION SINCE 1700: A STATISTICAL ESSAY.
BY LOUIS SCHADE, ESQ., OF WASHINGTON, D. C.

It will, probably, be of much interest, in the present political struggle, to have an
exact idea o f what the immigration to this country has been, and what it has amount­
ed to. There have been very many opinions advanced in relation to our immigration,
and some o f its statistics, although the works of men enjoying a reputation amongst
us as statisticians, have been of such a character that they rather seemed intended to
flatter political party spirit than to diffuse knowledge and correct ideas on the subject.
The writer has, therefore, with great labor and care, attempted to redress this evil, by
a compilation of tables, made up in the only way possible to ascertain the real state
o f our immigration since the first census of the United States in 1790. By compar­
ing the result obtained with official statistics of other countries, every doubt of the
correctness and reliability o f this work will be removed.
In 1790, the population of the United States, including white and free colored per­
sons, was 3,231,930. If all increase from immigration had been cut off, the surplus of
births over deaths would have constituted the only growth in our population. If we
take, now, the census returns for 1850, we shall find the number of births to be
548,835, and the number of deaths 271,890— confining ourselves to the white and free
colored population. The difference being 276,945, was the increase o f population for
1850, from the excess o f births over deaths. The whole population in 1850 of white
and free colored persons was 19,987,573. The increase, therefore, from the excess o f
births over deaths, was one per cent and thirty-eight hundredths. To show that this
per centage furnished by the returns in 1850 is reliable, we give a table, carefully
made out, showing the per centage in a number of countries from which we have
official returns. The table is as follows:—
TABLE SHOWING THE INCREASE OF POPULATION BY THE SURPLUS OF BIRTHS OVER DEATHS.

Year.
1850
1850
1851
1835
1849
1850
1850
1849
1852

Country.

United States*...................
England and W ales...........
France.................................
Russia..................................
Prussia...............................
Holland...............................
B elgium .............................
Portugal...............................
Saxony ...............................

Inhabitants.

1 6 ,3 3 1 ,1 8 7
4 ,4 2 6 ,2 0 2

Births.

Deaths.

5 4 8 ,8 3 5

2 7 1 ,8 9 0

In crea se
p . cen t.
1 .3 8

5 9 3 ,4 2 2

3 6 8 ,9 8 6

1 .2 5

9 4 3 ,0 6 1

7 8 4 ,4 3 3

0 .4 4

2 ,1 7 3 ,0 5 5

1 ,7 3 1 ,8 3 4

0 .7 4

6 9 1 ,5 6 2

4 9 8 ,8 6 2

1 .1 7

1 0 5 ,3 3 8

6 7 ,5 8 8

1 .2 3

1 2 0 ,1 0 7

9 2 ,8 2 0

0

1 1 4 ,3 3 1

8 8 ,9 9 2

0 .7 2

8 0 ,3 2 2

5 8 ,7 3 9

1 .0 8

61

As might be expected, it is seen that the excess of births over deaths in the United
States is larger than in any other country, and hence we have no hesitation in adopt­
ing the per centage of annual increase o f one and thirty-eight-hundredths as reliable.
This furnishes us a rule to solve the problem before stated. The population in 1790
* The United States census o f 1850 gives the births and deaths o f the white and free colored pop­
ulation in one column, without any separation. Therefore, it has become necessary to include the
free colored population in all other tables hereafter given. As to the slave population, the writer
sees for his purpose no necessity to mention anything o f it at all, as it has no connection whatever
with the immigration.




Statistics o f Population , etc.

510

was 3,231,930. Excluding all immigration, the increase of population each year
would be at the rate of 1.38 per cent. This increase added each year to the aggre­
gate of the preceding year, down to 1850, will give us the population of the United
States in 1850, as it would have been upon the illiberal policy of excluding all immi­
gration. In the following table will be also shown what our population in 1850 would
have amounted to if immigration had been stopped in 1800, 1810, 1820, 1830, or
1840. The calculation is a long and tedious one, but the result is mathematically cer­
tain :—
TABLE SHOWING THE INCREASE OF THE WHITE AND FREE COLORED POPULATION OF THE UNITED
STATES, IF WITHOUT IMMIGRATION, SINCE THE RESPECTIVE YEARS 1790 TO 1850, AFTER
THE RATIO OF INCREASE IN 1850.

Y e a rs .
1 7 9 0 ................................................
1791

A n n u a l in cre a se o f
t h e w h ite a n d fre e
c u lo re d p o p u la tio n ,
i f w it h o u t im m ig ra tio n sin ce .790.
3 ,2 3 1 ,9 3 0

................................................

3 ,2 7 6 .5 3 0

1 7 9 2 ................................................

3 ,3 2 1 ,7 4 6

1793

.....................................

3 ,3 6 7 ,5 8 6

1 7 9 4 ................................................

3 ,4 1 4 ,0 5 8

1795

................................................

3 ,4 6 1 ,1 7 2

1796

................................................

3 ,5 0 8 ,9 3 6

1797

................................................

3 ,5 5 7 ,3 5 9

1798

............................

3 ,6 0 6 ,4 5 0

1799

................................................

3 ,6 5 6 ,2 1 9

1800

................................................

3 ,7 0 6 ,6 7 4

1801

................................................

3 ,7 5 7 ,8 2 6

1802

................................................

3 ,8 0 9 ,6 8 4

1803

................................................

3 ,8 6 2 ,2 5 7

1 8 0 4 ................................................

3 ,9 1 5 ,5 5 6

1805

................................................

3 ,9 6 9 ,5 9 0

1806

................................................

4 ,0 2 4 ,3 5 8

1807

................................................

4 ,0 7 9 ,8 9 5

1808

................................................

4 ,1 3 6 ,1 9 7

1809

................................................

4 ,1 9 3 ,2 7 9

18 1 0
1811

................................
................................................

4 ,2 5 1 ,1 4 3
4 ,3 0 9 ,8 0 8

1 8 1 2 ................................................

4 ,3 6 9 ,2 8 3

1813

4 ,4 2 9 ,5 7 9

................................................

1814

................................................

4 ,4 9 0 ,7 0 7

1815

................................................

4 ,5 5 2 ,6 7 8

1 8 1 6

............................................

4 ,6 1 5 .5 0 4

1817

................................................

4 ,6 7 9 ,1 9 7

1818

................................................

4 ,7 4 3 ,7 6 9

1819

................................................

4 ,8 0 9 ,2 3 3

1820

................................................

4 ,8 7 5 ,6 0 0

1821

................................................

4 ,9 4 2 ,8 8 3

1 8 2 2 ................................................

5 ,0 1 1 ,0 9 4

1823

................................................

5 ,0 8 0 ,2 4 7

1 8 2 4 ................................................

5 ,1 5 0 ,3 5 4

1825

................................................

5 ,2 2 1 ,4 2 8

1826

................................................

5 ,2 9 3 ,4 7 3

1827

................................................

5 ,3 6 6 ,5 2 2

1828

................................................

5 ,4 4 0 ,5 8 0

1829

.............................................

6 ,5 1 5 ,6 5 9

1 8 3 0 ................................................

5 ,5 9 1 ,7 7 5

................................................

5 ,6 6 8 ,9 4 1

1 8 3 2 ................................................

5 ,7 4 7 ,1 7 2

1831
1833

................................................

5 ,8 2 6 ,4 8 2

1 8 3 4 ................................................

5 ,9 0 6 ,8 8 7




Annual increase o f
the white and tree
Annual
colored population,
Annual
surplus of if without iramisurplus o f
birlhs.
gration since J800.
births.

44,600
45,216
45,840
46,472
47,114
47,764
48,423
49,091
49,769
50,465
51,152
51,858
52,573
53,299
54,034
64,768
55,537
66,302
57,079
57,867
58,665
59,475
60,296
61,128
61,971
62,826
63,693
64,572
65,464
66,367
67,283
68,211
69,153
70,107
71,074
72,055
73,049
74,058
75,079
76,116
77,166
78,231
79,310
80,405

-

4,412.884
4,473,781
4,535,519
4,59S,109
4,661,562
4,725,991
4,791,209
4,857,327
4,924,358
4,992,314
5,061,207
5,131,051
5,201,859
5,273,644
5,346,409
5,420,189
5,494,990
5,570,820
5,647,697
5,724,733
5,803,734
5,883,825
5,965,021
6,047,338
6,130,791
6,215,295
6,301,066
6,388,020
6,476,174
6,565,545
6,656,149
6,748,003
6,841,127
6,935,532
7,031,242

60,897
61,738
62,590
63,453
64,329
65,218
66,118
67,031
67,956
68,893
69,844
70,808
71,785
72,765
73,780
74,801
75,830
76,877
77,036
79,001
80,091
81,196
82,317
83,453
84,504
86,771
86,954
88,154
89,371
90,604
91,854
93,122
94,407
95,710

Statistics o f Population, etc.
Annual increase of
the white and free
colored population,
if without irnmigration since 1790.

Years.

1836 ...................
1 8 3 7 ...................
1838 ...................
1839 ...................
1840 ...................
1 8 4 1 ...................
1842 ...................
1843 ...................
1844 ...................
1845 ...................
1846 ...................
1847 ...................
1848 ................... .............
1849 ...................
1850 ...................

Annual increase of
the while and free
colored population,
if without imrnigration since 1810.

Years.

1 8 1 0 ............... .
38 1 1 ................... .............
1 8 1 2 ................... .............
1 8 1 3 ...................
1 8 1 4 ..................................
1 8 1 5 ................... .............
1 8 1 6 ................. ., .............
1 8 1 7 ..................................
1 8 1 8 .................. ...............
1 8 1 9 .................. ...............
1820 ..................
1 8 2 1 .................
1822 .................
1823 .................
1824 .................
1825 ................. ...............
1826 ................. ...............
1827 .................
1828 .................
1829 .................
1830 ................. ...............
1 8 3 1 .................
1832 .................
1833 .................
1834 .................
1835 .................
1836 .................
1837 .................
1838 .................
1839 .................
1840 .................
1 8 4 1 .................
1842 .................
1843 .................
1844 .................
1845 .................
1846 .................
1847 .................
1848 .................
1849 .................
1860

7,156,530

........................




6,131,918
6^216^538
6,389/298
6,477^470
6,566*859
6,657*481
6,749^354
6,842,495

7,428,970
7,531,479

7,955,899

51 1

Annual
surplus of
births.

Annual increase o f
the white and free
colored population,
if without immigration since 1800.

Annual
surplus o f
births.

82,639
83,780
84,936
86,108
S7.296
88,501
89,722
90,961
92,216
93,488
94,779
96,287
97,415
98,770
100,123

7,226,643
7,326,470
7,427,576
7,530,076
7,633,991
7,739,340
7,846,142
7,954,418
8,064,188
8,175,473
8,288,294
8,402,672
8,518,628
8,636,185
8,755,364

98,370
99,727
101,106
102,500
103,915
105,349
106,802
108,276
109,770
111.285
112,821
114,378
115,956
117,557
119,179

Annual
surplus of.
births.

83,468
84,620
85,788
86,972
88,172
89,389
90,622
91.873
93,141
94,426
95,729
97,050
98,389
99,747
101,124
102,519
103,934
105,368
106,822
108,296
109,792
111,306
114,399
115,978
117,578
119,201
120,846
122,514
124,204
125,918
127,656
129,418
131,204
133,014
134,850
136,711
138,597
140,524
142,463
144,429

Annual increase o f
the white and free
colored population, Annual
if without immi- surplus o f
births.
gration since 1820.

...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
...............
8,100,093
8,211,874
8,325,197
8,440,184
8,558,658
8,674,739
8,794,449
8,915,802
9,038,840
9,163,575
9,290,032
9,418,234
9,548,205
9,678,970
9,812,539
9,947,952
10,085,233
10,224,409
10,365,505
10,508,548
10,653,565
10,800,584
10,949,632
11,100,727
11,253,917
11,409,221
11,566,668
11,726,288
11,888,110
12,052,165
12,218,484

111,781
113,323
114,987
116.474
118,081
119,711
121,353
123,038
124,735
126,457
128,202
129,971
130,765
133,569
135,413
137,281
139,176
141,096
143,043
145,017
147,019
149,048
151,104
153,190
155,304
157,447
159,620
161,822
164,055
1 6 6 ,3 1 9

Statistics o f Population, etc.

512

Years.
1830

............ ....................................

A n n u a l in crea se o f
th e w h ite and fre e
c o lo r e d p o p u la t io n ,
i f w it h o u t iin m ig r a tio n s in c e 1830.
1 0 ,8 5 6 , 9 7 7

Annual
surplus o f
births.

1 8 3 1 ............

1 1 * 0 0 6 ,8 0 3

1 4 9 ,8 2 6

1832

............ .................................

11*158*696

1 5 1 ,8 9 3

1833

............ .................................

11*312^686

1 5 3 ,9 9 0

1834

............ ....................................

1 1 ,4 6 8 ,8 0 1

1 5 6 ,1 1 5

1835

.

. . . .................................

1 1 ,6 2 7 ,0 7 0

1 5 8 ,2 6 9
1 6 0 ,4 6 3

Annual increase o f
the white and f ree
colored population, Annual
if without irami- surplus o f
gration since 1840.
births.

1836

............ ....................................

11^787^523

1837

............ .................................

11*950*190

1 6 2 ,6 6 7

1838

............ .................................

1 2 ,1 1 5 ,1 0 2

1 6 4 ,9 1 2

1839

............ ....................................

1 2 ,2 8 2 ,2 9 0

1 6 7 ,1 8 8

1840

............ .................................

12*451*785

1 6 9 ,4 9 5

1 4 ,5 8 1 ,9 9 8

................

1 7 1 ,8 3 4

1 4 ,7 8 3 ',2 2 9

2 0 1 ,2 3 1

1 7 4 ,2 0 5
1 7 6 ,5 0 9

1 4 ,9 8 5 ,2 3 7

2 0 2 ,0 0 8

1 5 ,1 9 2 ,0 3 3

2 0 6 ,7 9 6
2 0 9 ,6 5 0

1 8 4 1 ............
1842

............

..............................

1 2 ,7 9 7 ,8 2 4

1843

............ .................................

1 2 ,9 7 4 ,3 3 3

1 8 4 4 ............

1 7 9 ,0 4 5

1 5 ,4 0 1 ,6 8 3

1845

............ .................................

1 3 ,3 3 4 ,8 7 4

1 8 1 ,4 9 6

1 5 ,6 1 4 ,2 2 6

2 1 2 ,5 4 3

1846

............ .................................

1 3 ,5 1 8 ,8 9 5

1 8 4 ,0 2 1

1 5 ,8 2 9 ,7 0 1

2 1 6 ,4 7 6

1 8 4 7 ................................................
1 8 4 S ............

1 3 ,7 0 5 ,4 5 5

1 8 6 ,5 6 0

1 6 ,0 4 8 , 1 5 1

2 1 8 ,4 4 9

1 8 9 ,1 3 5

1 6 ,2 6 9 ,6 1 6

2 2 1 ,4 6 4

1 9 1 ,7 4 5

1 6 ,4 9 4 ,1 3 5

2 2 4 ,5 2 0

1 9 4 ,3 9 1

1 6 ,7 2 1 ,6 7 4

2 2 7 ,5 3 9

1849

............

1 8 5 0 ............ .................................

1 4 ,2 8 0 ,7 2 6

To these are to be added the results for Louisiana, (180S!;) Florida, (1821;) California, New Mexico, Texas, and Oregon. Louisiara had, in 1803, 17 ,000 inhabitants, of
which 53,000 were slaves. Florida, in 1821, had about 10,000. California and New
Mexico, at the time of their acquisition, had about 60,000. Texas and Oregon only
brought back into the Union citizens who had emigrated thither but a short time be­
fore. I f we put them down in 1860, after the above scale, with 200,000 white and
free colored persons, the writer thinks he has done them more than ample justice.
RECAPITULATION----THE UNITED STATES WOULD HAVE IN

1850.

I f without immigration since 1790 ......................................
Addition for Louisiana, Florida, Ac.......................................

7,355,423
200,000
—---------7,555,423
If without immigration since 1800 ......................................
8,755,364
Addition for Louisiana, Florida, Ac.......................................
200,000
------------8,955,364
I f without immigration since 1 8 1 0 ......................................
10,610,343
Addition for Florida, A c .........................................................
100,000
-------------------10,710,343
I f without immigration since 1820 ......................................
12,218,484
Addition for Florida, A c .........................................................
100,000
-------------------12,318,484
I f without immigration since 1830 ......................................
14,280,726
Addition for New Mexico and California.............................
50,000
------------14,330,726
I f without immigration since 1840 ......................................
16,721,674
Addition fur New Mexico and California.............................
50,000
------------16,771,674
They have actually, however..................................................................
19,987,573
This will be to many an astonishing result, but the author is well assured of the
correctness of his statement. There may be a difference of some hundreds or thous­
ands, but the millions cannot be altered. And in order to show how well the above
estimates correspond with the increase of other countries, and to remove any doubt o f
their correctness, the following table has been com piled:—




513

N au tical Intelligence.

INCREASE OF VARIOUS EUROPEAN NATIONS SINCE TIIE LAST DECENNARY OF THE 18 t H CENTURY.
E n g la n d a n d W a l e s in 1 7 9 0 ......................
1 8 5 1 ......................
A u s t r ia
1 7 9 2 ......................
“
1 8 5 1 ......................
P ran ce
1 7 8 9 ......................
“
1 8 5 1 ......................
P r u s s ia
1 7 9 7 ......................
“
1 8 4 9 ............... . .
S p a in
1 7 9 7 ......................
1 8 4 9 ......................
Sw eden
1 7 9 0 ......................
“
1 8 4 9 ......................
S a r d in ia , ( I s la n d ,)
1 7 9 0 ......................
u
i:
1 8 4 8 . . . ..............
U n it e d S ta t e s
1 7 9 0 ......................
W i t h o u t im m ig r a t ’ n, 1 S 5 0 ......................

...
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
____

1 7 ,9 2 2 ,7 6 8
2 3 ,5 0 0 ,0 0 0
3 6 ,5 1 4 ,4 6 6
2 6 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0
3 5 ,7 8 3 ,1 7 0
8 ,6 6 0 ,0 0 0
1 6 ,3 3 1 ,1 8 7
1 0 ,3 5 1 ,0 7 5
1 4 ,2 1 6 ,2 1 9
2 ,1 5 0 ,4 9 3
3 ,8 1 6 ,5 3 5
4 5 6 ,9 9 0
5 4 7 ,9 4 8
3 ,2 3 1 ,9 3 0
7 ,5 5 5 ,4 2 3

■I n c r e a s e 2 . 0 6 p e r
“

1 .6 5

'
..

h

1 .3 7

“

1 .8 8

“

1 .3 3

«

1 .5 4

..

“

1 .1 9
2 .3 3

This table clearly proves the above estimates of the population of the United
States, without immigration since 1790, to be not only a correct one, but even exhib­
iting a higher increase than any other country. England, the highest among them all,
is still 27 on the hundred behind the United States.
The immigrants and their descendants number in 1850 since—

1790.

1 8 00 .

1810.

12,432,150

11,032,109

9,277,230

1820.
8,669,089

1 8 80 .

1840.

5,656,847

3,265,899

To speculate on these astounding results is not the object of the author, and he
leaves this to all those who feel an interest in these statistics, as he is convinced, that
in the present political struggle his statements will be regarded and appreciated b y
all parties. His point of view is not so much a political as a scientific one, and there­
fore he hopes that by all statisticians these calculations will be honored with a thor­
ough examination.

NAUTICAL INTELLIGENCE.
BRAZILIAN REGULATIONS IN RELATION TO SIGNALS.
SIGNALS FROM FLAG-STAFF NEAR LIGHT HOUSE AT POINT ATALAIA.
Departm en t

To

F

ree m an

H

u n t

,

of

State, W

a s h in g t o n ,

S e p t e m b e r 11, 1855.

E d ito r o f the M erch a n ts' M a g a z i n e :—

S i r : — The Brazilian Government having communicated to the Minister of the Uni­
ted States at Rio de Janeiro a copy of the “ Regulations in relation to signals which
will be made from the flag-staff near the light-house at Point Atalaia, to vessels which
arrive at that point, in want of a pilot, for the port of the city of Belem, the capital
of the Province of Para,” the said copy was transmitted to this Department for gene­
ral information.

A translation of these regulations has been prepared by the Department with a
view to its official publication, but as no newspaper is of such universal circulation in
shipping circles as your own valuable magazine, I have deemed it best for parties in­
terested to place the translation at your disposal for publication.
I am, Sir, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
W . L. M AR CY.

VOL. X X X III.---- NO. IV.




33

N autical Intelligence.

514

[ t r a n s l a t io n .]

Regulations in relation to the signals which will be made from the flag-staff near
the light house at Point Atalaia, to vessels which arrive at that Point, in want of a
pilot for the port of the city of Belem, the capital of the Province of Para:—
1.
2.
3.
4.

A
A
A
A

white flag, with a blue cross through it.
flag, upper half red, lower half white.
flag, all blue.
flag, all red.

No. 2 signifies that there is a pilot, and a boat to convey him to the vessel wanting
him.
Nos. 1 and 2. The vessel in want of a pilot will be on the lookout for him, as he is
on the point of leaving immediately.
Nos. 1 and 3. The vessel must wait, because it is not a suitable time for the pilot
to go out.
Nos. 1 and 4 The pilot requested will leave before noon.
Nos. 2 and 1. The pilot requested will leave in the afternoon.
Nos. 2 and 3. The pilot requested will leave before midnight.
Nos. 2 and 4. The pilot requested will leave after midnight.
Nos. 3 and 1. The vessel in want of a pilot is to send a boat for him if it knows the
place.
Nos. 3 and 2. There is no pilot ready, and therefore you must be on the lookout for
the signal to be made when one arrives.
Nos. 3, 4, 3 and 4, and 4 and 3, are not included in this scheme, because they are to
be employed in the signal regulations for vessels in distress, burning, (fee., announced
on the 6th of December, 1848.
A white flag with a blue cross through it is a signal to show that the signals from
Salinas are perceived at Atalaia.
A flag, inner half white, outer half red, is the signal which a vessel wanting a pilot
must hoist at the head of the prow.
A flag, red and white chequered is the signal which the pilot must make to the ves­
sel that wants him.
Regulations for the signals which are to be made from the town o f Salinas towards
Atalaia, where the flag-staff is placed :—
1. A flag, all white.
2. A flag, inner half white, outer half red.
No. 1 signifies that there is a pilot and a boat to take him on board the vessel.
No. 2. There is a pilot, but no boat to take him on board.
Nos. 1 and 2. There is no pilot.
Regulations for the signals which are to be made by night from Salinas to Atalaia:
s h ip s ’ l a n t e r n s w i t h u n c o lo re d g l a ss e s.

Two lights placed diagonally signifies there is a pilot.
Two lights placed one above the other signifies there is a pilot, but no boat.
Two lights placed on a line signifies there is no pilot.
Night signals to be made at Atalaia to a vessel wanting a p ilot:—
s h ip s ’ l a n t e r n s w i t h r e d g l a sse s.

Two lights placed diagonally signifies there is a pilot.
Two lights placed one above the other signifies there is a pilot, but no boat.
Two lights placed on a line signifies there is no pilot at present.
One red light is the manner in which to acknowledge at Atalaia a signal made to it
from Salinas by night.
One white light is the signal by night which a vessel arriving at Atalaia, and want­
ing a pilot, must hoist at the head of the prow.




Nautical Intelligence.

515

REMARKS.

1st. Those vessels which arrive at Atalaia Point, in quest of a pilot for the port of
the city o f Belem, the capital o f the Province of Para, shall hoist at the head of the
prow the flag which has been designed, and ordered to be used for that purpose by
the proclamation of the 18th of January, 1850.
2d. When the signal is made from Atalaia that it is not a suitable time for the pilot
to go out, the vessel in want of him shall endeavor to bring to, (never attempting to
cast anchor within six and seven fathoms of water,) leaving the light house to the
S. E., sailing off and on, when the water is at high tide, and keeping from the land
when the tide is low.
3d. The vessel desiring a pilot, in order to obtain him as speedily as possible, will
endeavor to keep itself N”. W. and S. E. from the light house.
4th. Masters of vessels who want a pilot are to understand that it is the custom of
the pilots to leave the interior of the harbor of the town of Salinas at high tide, which
occurs, according to the lunar days, on shore at half past seveu— and at the place where
they are accustomed to anchor at fifteen minutes past eight.
5th. The same masters of vessels must be careful to look out for the signals which
may be made to them from Atalaia, and not those which are made from the town of
Salinas for that place, keeping well in mind that the night signals from Atalaia are of
a red light, and those of Salinas are uncolored.
6th. The master o f a vessel to whom signals are made from Atalaia ought to be
provided with a yard, because in calm and fair weather signal flags are most conspic­
uous therefrom.
7th. When a vessel, in stormy or foggy weather, (day or night,) arrives at a place
which she suspects or knows from some indications or other to be in front of Salinas
or Atalaia, iu order to call a pilot she will fire a gun, which will be answered at Ata­
laia by another discharge. This response will be understood to mean that the vessel
which fired the gun will wait until an opportunity offers to send her a pilot.
A true c o p y ,
FRAN. X. BOMTEMPO.
IRON LIGHT-HOUSES FOR THE FLORIDA COAST.
An iron light house to be put up on Coffin’s Patches, on the Florida coast, has been
constructed in Philadelphia, under the superintendence of Lieut. George C. Mead, of
the United States Topographical Corps, who has charge of the light house operations
upon that dangerous coast. This light house is one of the chain projected which
when complete, will greatly improve the navigation of the Florida coast, as the navi­
gator will have a succession of lights to guide him, so located that one will always be
in sight.
The entire height of this structure is about 150 feet. The light house is en­
tirely of iron, and consists of eight posts surrounding a central post. The lower
sections of these posts are twelve inches in diameter, and each weighs about four
tons. They are pointed at the ends, and will be driven by means of a pile-driver into
the coral reef for eight or ten feet, affording a substantial foundation. The lightkeeper’ s house is located within the third section, and from that to the lantern, which
is above the seventh section, a spiral staircase winds around the center post, the whole
being inclosed with boiler plate iron. The stairway is lit by windows in each section.
The lantern is to contain a Fresnel light of the first order, and the structure, when
complete, will be the largest iron light-house in the world.




516

R ailroad , Canal, and Steamboat Statistics.

RAILROAD, CANAL, AND STEAMBOAT STATISTICS.
RAILROADS IN GERMANY.
The following table, exhibiting the names of roads, time of their completion, length
in German miles, dividends in 1850 and 1851, and gross receipts in 1852, was com­
piled from official sources for the Department of State:—
Names o f railroads.

When
completed.

Length in
Dividends.
German mis. 1850.
1851.

Receipts
in 1852.
T h a lers.

Berlin Potsdam....................
Berlin Anhalt........................
Berlin H am burg..................
Berlin Stettin....................... . .August
Breslau Schwednitz Freiburg.. October
Bonn Cologne....................... . .Feb.
Bergish-Markische.................
Dusseldorf-Elberfield........ .
Cologne Minden................... .. .October
Magdeburg L eip sic.............
Magdeburg Halberstadt . . .
Munster H a m m .....................
Magdeburg Wittenberge. . .
Lower Silesia lin e .................
Lower Silesia branch lin e..,. .August
Neisse Brieg.........................
Upper Silesia lin e ................
Prince Wilhelm’s lin e .......... . October
Rhenisch lin e ........................., .October
Ruhrort Crefeld................. ,
Stargard Posen..................... . .August
Thuringian line..................... .
Wilhelm's lin e .......................

7, 1846
10, 1841
15, 1846
15, 1843
29, 1843
15, 1844
29, 1848
3, 1841
15, 1847
18, 1840
16, 1843
26, 1848
5, 1S49
1, 1846
3, 1846
26, 1848
3, 1S46
1, 1S47
15, 1843
5, 1S49
10, 184S
20, 1846
1, 1847

19.6
30.8
39.5
14.8
8.8
3.9
7.7
3.5
36.8
15.7
7.7
4.6
14.2
51.7
9.5
5.8
26.3
4 .3
11.4
5.5
22.6
25.1
7.1

Emperor Ferdinand's J\. line. .Jan.
Vienna-Gloggnitz..................
Vienna-Bruck........................
Taunus line........................... .
Palatine Ludwig’s line.........

6, 1838
29, 1841
13, 1846
11, 1839
1, 1849

55.8
11.3
5.6
5 .8
15.7

Westphalian lin e ...................
Leipsic Dresden....................
Frederick Wilkem’s JN. lin e... . March
Mecklenberg.........................
Altona-Kiel.............................
Gluckstadt-Elmshoim............
Rendsburg Neumunster___
Lubeck B u ck ........................... .October

1,
7,
30,
1,
9,
19,
18,
16,

10.1
15.0
19.2
19.3
14
2.2
4 .4
6

1850
1839
1848
1847
1844
1815
1845
1851

3
5
44
5 1-5
3i
6
..
44
H

15
8

Si

si

Si

6
ii
St

5
1
3
5 7-12
16
9
2
4
4

..
2 1-10
7

2S8

n

Si

si

Si

3
4
7
7
7
5

3
5 1-6
m

8
8
5 2-5
. .

6
. .

8
..

5
..
..

5*
..
..

863,230
963,902
1,498,000
766,848
219,581
113,000
276,092
230,579
2,375,482
750,042
348,158
87,935
240,492
2,026,555
88,916
71,538
1,302,347
98.184
780,646
87,703
277,144
903,500
223,684
Florins.
6,953,578
1,972,921
152,417
497,113
715,821
Thalers*
155,150
756,552
303,407
273,646
842,364
36.336
114,346
109,646

For the year ending the 30th of November, 1852, the traffic and receipts on the
Vienna-Gloggnitz line have been, passengers, 1,601,668 ; centimes of goods, 5,613,144 ;
and receipts, 2,089,610 florins. On the Vienna-Gloggnitz line for the year ending
30th November, 1851—passengers, 1,431,553 ; centimes o f goods, 5,360,620 ; receipts,
1,913,566 florins.
On the Vienna-Bruck line for the year ending 30th November, 1852— passengers,
146,055; centimes of goods, 691,349 ; receipts, 166,124 florins. On the ViennaBruck line for the year ending November 30th, 1851— passengers, 130,444 ; centimes
of goods, 623,104; receipts, 155,199 florins.
A German mile is equal to 4.60 English miles; a thaler is equal to 69 cents ; and
a florin is equal to 46 cents.




Railroad, Canal, aiwZ Steamboat Statistics.

517

DISCIPLINE ON BOARD STEAMERS AND SHIPS.

Taking our accustomed ease one morning some weeks ago, says a correspondent, in
our barber’s shop, we overheard the following, as it fell from the lips of one of our
most distinguished American poets:—
“ I am of the firm opinion that if there had been on board the Arctic— as I con­
tend should be the case on every steamship that crosses the Atlantic— the discipline
o f a man-of-war, that dreadful calamity, at least in part, might have been avoided.
“ It was the lack of authoritative concert between the captain and his officers, and
the officers and the crew, which at the outset led to the deplorable event.
“ When the steamer Princeton, Captain Stockton, had made a portion of a pleasure
excursion down the Potomac, you will remember that in firing a salute with the ‘ big
gun,’ it burst, and destroyed several precious lives, among others that of the then
Secretary of the Navy. Now, I have it from the very best authority— that of Com­
modore Stockton himself—that when the gunners had fired the piece and witnessed
its terrible effects, they resumed their position amidst the carnage it had created, nor
did they move from it until ordered to do so by their commander. Can it be doubted
that obedience and discipline such as this might have saved our unfortunate ocean
steamer ?”
11 But,” interposed the hearer, “ is it certain that any discipline could have saved all
the passengers ?”
“ I don’t know what others may think, but for myself I have not the slightest doubt
of it. Let me mention a circumstance which once occurred on Lake Champlain, and
o f which I myself was an eye-witness:—
“ I was on board the steamer Burlington— this was some twenty-five or thirty
years ago— commanded by Capt. ShermaD, 0De of the most careful, the most method­
ical, the most exact captains that ever trod a steamer’s deck. Everybody knows,
who ever traveled with him, that there never was seen a speck of dirt about his boat
as big as a pea; that his directions were given in a tone so low that they were seldom
heard save by those to whom they were especially addressed; and generally they
were indicated by a merely subdued hiss or whistle.
“ On the occasion o f which I speak, the steamboat had approached the middle of
the widest part of the lake, somewhere, if I recollect rightly, in the neighborhood of
Plattsburg, when a circle of smoke wa3 seen issuing from around the smoke-pipe.
The alarm instantly arose : ‘ The boat is on fire! the boat is on fire!’
“ I rushed to the saloon, where several ladies who were of the pleasure party to
which I myself was attached, were assembled in a state of great fear. Ladies, I said,
don’t be alarmed; I know Capt. Sherman, and his prudence, energy, and determina­
tion so well, that although it is certain that the boat has caught fire, yet I consider
your lives as safe as if you were in your own parlors.
“ Meantime there was no bustle, no loud orders, no shouting or disorder upon the
deck; and when I returned to it, I found two lines of men, all of the crew, passing
full, and receiving empty buckets in return, and in fifteen minutes the fire, which had
reached considerable headway, was entirely extinguished. An hour or two after,
when all excitement in relation to the fire had subsided, as I met the captain on deck
I ventured to ask him : Captain Sherman, will you tell me how it was that you were
enabled to preserve such perfect order among your crew, and to put out a fire so
speedily which had gained such headway ?”
“ Oh, y e s !” replied the captain; “ the whole thing is very simple and easily ex­
plained. It all consists in being prepared for such an emergency. Now, I have re­
hearsed ihe very scene which you have witnessed to-day more than fifty times with
my men, on the deck of this boat.”




518

Railroad , Canal, and Steamboat Statistics.

“ And there,” said Mr. H ------ , “ was seen the benefit o f discipline. Suppose that
the men on board the Burlington had been running hither and thither, without con­
cert and without confidence, frightening others and only anxious to save themselves*
what would have been the result? The boat would have been destroyed to a cer­
tainty.”
Is not ibis worthy of imitation ?
STATISTICS OF THE RAILROADS OF MAINE.
W e are indebted to J o h n A. P o o r , Esq., editor of the S ta te o f M a in e, one of the
best commercial journals in the country, for the following tables shoeing the opera­
tions of the railroads of Maine in 1850, 1858, and 1854:—
18S0.
L e n g th .
47

Atlantic and St. Lawrence...
Androscoggin and Kennebec.

N o. o f
p a s s e n g e rs .
1 5 1 ,1 0 0

C ost.
$ 2 ,2 4 4 ,8 1 4

R e c e ip t s
R e c e ip t s for
p a ssen g ers. fo r freig h t.
$ 8 3 ,5 2 8
$ 5 4 ,0 5 2

55

1 ,6 2 1 ,8 7 8

7 9 ,4 9 2

5 8 ,2 0 3

K e n n e b e c a n d P o r tla n d . . . .

34

1, 0 0 0 , 0 0 0

9 6 ,9 6 4

6 0 ,4 2 4

1 9 ,5 6 2

Portland, Saco, & Portsmouth

51

1 ,3 1 3 ,0 0 0

1 3 3 ,5 6 4

1 9 2 ,4 4 3

3 6 ,5 9 3

B a n g o r a n d P is c a ta q u is . . . .

13

3 5 0 ,0 0 0

3 5 ,0 0 0

1 4 ,0 0 0

4 ,8 0 0

Branch...................
C a l a i s and Baring..................
York and Cumberland.........

12
6

120,000
120,000

5 ,8 8 2

2 ,6 5 3

4 ,6 2 0

9

3 6 0 ,0 0 0

5 ,0 0 0

1 ,2 5 0

300

227

$ 7 ,1 2 9 ,6 9 2

$ 4 1 2 ,5 0 1

$ 1 5 4 ,0 1 0

B u c k fie ld

5 0 7 ,0 0 2

3 4 ,0 5 3

1851
N o . o f R e c e ip t s fo r R e c e ip t s fo r O th er
L e n g th .
C ost.
p a s ’ n g e rs. p a ssen g ers,
fre ig h t.
sum s.
1 4 9 $ 5 ,3 0 6 ,7 2 0
1 6 1 ,3 5 4 $ 1 3 0 , 4 7 5 $ 1 6 7 , 7 3 3 $ 1 7 , 8 6 9

Atlantic a n d St. Lawrence. . .
Androscoggin and Kennebec .
Androscoggin . . . .....................
Bangor and Piscataquis...........
Calais and Baring ..................
Kennebec and Portland...........
Machiasport.............................
Portland, Saco, &, Portsmouth.
York and Cumberland.............
Buckfield Branch.....................

55

2 ,0 3 0 ,1 4 0

1 1 0 ,7 8 4

7 9 ,3 0 5

6 8 ,1 7 0

20

3 1 5 ,8 6 5

2 0 ,7 4 7

9 ,1 6 8

9 ,5 5 5

428

13

1 3 8 ,9 1 3

7 2 ,1 7 8

2 3 ,2 6 9

1 8 ,9 1 1

1 ,9 5 7

6
724

H
51

2 1 7 ,2 5 5

1 4 ,5 5 4

1 ,3 6 1

2 5 ,6 7 5

1,001

2 ,5 2 0 ,9 8 1

2 4 1 ,6 7 1

1 3 4 ,4 3 2

3 4 ,6 2 8

7 ,9 4 1

2 9 7 ,8 1 8

1 8 7 ,8 0 8

5 S ,1 9 7

1 6 .0 6 1

1 8 ,9 0 5

284

4 1 1 ,4 9 5

5 2 ,2 3 5

100,000
1 ,3 0 3 ,3 9 5

9 ,7 1 5

18

7 4 8 ,6 0 9

8 5 ,1 7 0

12

...................

...............

404

6 ,5 9 4

1 2 ,6 8 1 , 8 7 8

9 1 9 ,1 0 6

6 0 0 ,9 8 8

100

1854.
Atlantic and St. Lawrence.. .
Androscoggin and Kennebec...
Calais and Baring....................
Kennebec and Portland.........
Machiasport.............................
Portland, Saco,
Portsmouth.
York and Cumberland.............

1 4 9 $ 6 ,0 1 9 ,9 2 9

1 8 5 ,1 0 5

$ 1 5 3 ,6 1 6

2 ,1 9 6 ,3 3 4

1 2 9 ,0 4 5

9 7 .6 1 5

7 8 ,6 4 6

2 ,0 9 1

20

3 4 3 ,3 1 7

2 2 ,2 3 5

1 3 ,9 1 6

1 5 ,1 4 5

334

13

1 7 8 ,2 3 3

7 6 ,9 8 0

2 6 ,3 4 4

1 8 ,3 6 7

177

2 7 7 .7 7 0

1 6 ,7 2 0

1 ,4 2 0

2 9 ,0 6 0

1 ,1 6 0

2 ,6 1 3 ,4 1 0

2 6 8 ,9 9 2

1 6 0 ,5 3 1

4 6 ,7 1 6

10,100
200

55

6
724

h‘ i

100,000

$ 2 9 6 , 8 9 0 $ 2 0 ,1 4 1

7 ,0 0 0

51

1 ,8 1 5 .9 7 6

2 8 4 ,6 3 5

2 0 2 ,5 9 2

6 2 ,8 3 3

18

7 6 5 ,0 1 8

8 2 ,6 4 0

1 6 ,3 4 8

1 4 ,3 6 4

1 3 ,7 5 9 ,9 8 8 1 ,0 6 6 ,3 5 2

6 7 2 ,3 9 2

5 8 7 ,3 8 8

6 ,9 0 4

12
404

4 1 ,0 1 7

It will be seen by the above that in 1850 Maine had 227 miles of railway in opera­
tion, costing $7,119,692, carrying 595,721 passengers, for which it received $412,501,
and 131,916 tons of freight, receiving therefor $154,010. The total receipts of the
railways o f Maine for 1850 was $566,511.
In 1854 the railways of Maine had cost $15,000,000. They carried 1,066,352 pas­
sengers, and the total receipts for 1854 $1,280,312.




Railroad, Canal, and Steamboat Statistics.

519

AMERICAN STEAMBOATS.
[FROM MADAME FONTENAY’ s TRAVELS

IN

AMERICA.]

“ If the first and most constant need of an Englishman is to exalt his country; of a
Frenchman to boast of his person ; of an Italian to boast of his singing; of a Spaniard
to be jealous ; of a Russian to swagger— the first and most constant need of an Ameri­
can is assuredly to act, or better, to transport himself from one extremity to the other
of his vast country. In fact there is not a people in the world who travel as much
and with as little preparation as the Americans. They start on a journey of four
thousand kilometers as we do from Paris to Rouen. I should say more: they do not
even take the trouble to cairy a trunk on their longest voyages. The clothing which
they have on their backs the day of departure suffices them, save stopping at the first
city, and at the first store on the way replacing the cast-off clothing which they throw
to winds on the road, giving thus to their peregrinations the lively impulsion charac­
terized by these words, ‘ Go ahead !’— en a va nt l
“ The life aboard the steamboats, although not so varied, has none the less real
charms. Who has not heard of those magnificent boats navigating Lake Erie, the
Hudson, the Ohio, the Mississippi, or the St. Lawrence? Boats which cost sometimes
a million of fraucs, and which earn in a season of six months as high as two hundred
and fifty thousand francs of profit for their owners. The Eclipse, which plies between
Louisville and New Orleans, is nearly three hundred feet long. The interior is of a
magnificence incredible in France; the ladies’ saloon, also that of the gentlemen, sur­
passes in richness and elegance the most splendid boats of England. The Eclipse con­
tains about two hundred chambers and five hundred beds. On the panels of the door
of each chamber is painted with care, and sometimes with art, a view taken on the
borders of the Ohio or Missouri. The decorations, sculpture, and tapestry, have ming­
led their marvels o f beauty and painting. Around the steamboat, which resembles a
floating palace, there is an exterior gallery, from which the traveler may admire the
plantations which border the river.
“ The table and the service are in unison with all this splendor. It is not rare to see
the inhabitants of Kentucky, of Indiana, and Missouri, embark at Louisville, Cairo, or
St. Louis, destined to New Orleans, where they stop some days, and afterward re­
mount to the point of departure, having thus remained three weeks on the rivers, sole­
ly for the pleasure of being some time away from home, and to change constantly the
perspective, without leaving their comfortable temporary home. The distractions
which are encountered on board these steamboats, are all that Americans demand.
To smoke, to drink, to talk, to gamble, that is the life of the men; as for the women,
they read, embroider, or play on the piano of their saloon unpublished airs. Nowhere
but in France have I encountered women who know how to do nothing.”
THE « GREAT EASTERN ” STEAMSHIP.

A gentleman of New Bedford, who recently visited the ship yard of Messrs. Scott,
Russell & Co., in London, has furnished the following memoranda of the dimensions of
the stupendous iron steamship now building in that place for the Australian trade,
and which is expected to be launched about next Christmas:—
The hull measures in length 675 feet, greatest breadth of beam 83 feet; depth of
hold 63 feet. The hull, even with the upper deck, is to be iron plate; and from the
keel to eight feet above the water line, she will be double, or two hulls one within the
other, leaving thirty-six inches space within the walls. The hull is built in ten water­
tight compartments, sixty feet each, all of iron an inch in thickness, with two longitu­
dinal iron walls extending the whole length of the ship. Her bottom is flat, four­
teen feet on either side of the keel. Her capacity by measurement is 25,000 tons;




Mercantile Miscellanies .

520

draft twenty feet, and when loaded thirty feet. She has four decks, and saloons to
accommodate 600 first-class, and 1,800 second class passengers, and 10,000 troops.
Her engine will be of three thousand horse power, with four cylinders, each of which
will require 35 tons of melted metal, and when clean will weigh about 30 tons each;
20 flue boilers 6 by 30 feet in length. Her engines are low pressure, and will give
motion to side wheels or paddles, and screw propeller. The engine, when put toge­
ther, will be 54 feet in height. The weight of her machinery will be about 3,000 tons,
hull 10,000; making an aggregate of about 13,000 tons of iron employed in her con­
struction.
The “ Great Eastern ” will be rigged with six masts with fore-and-aft sails, and it is
expected will be capable of a speed of from eighteen to twenty knots— enabling her
to make the passage from London to Australia in thirty days, and to return by way
of Cape Horn in an equal time. She is building by a company at an estimated cost
of £400,000, or $2,000,000; and when completed will be launched broadside to the
water. Her architect is I. K. Brunei, and about 500 men are now employed upon
her in various departments.

MERCANTILE MISCELLANIES.
T H E R E L A T IO N OF M E R C H A N TS TO N ATIO N A L IN D E PEN D E N C E.

The eloquent and appropriate remarks below were published in the “ Philadelphia
M erch a n t ,” a few days before the seventy-ninth anniversary of our American indepen­
dence— a festival which in the highest sense, is associated with the establishment o f
great principles and the performance of great deeds. In these remarks we trace the
mind and style of an able and eloquent divine, Rev. H en ry B acon , o f Philadelphia.
“ The vast variety of journals in our country, representing every phase of the Amer­
ican mind, will present, each from its own point o f view, the meaning o f this festival;
for so grand were the purposes and so far-reaching the principles for which our fathers
contended, that whatever may be the social, political, moral, or religious standpoint
which we take, American Independence assumes a commanding importance. Brought
as we are, by the purposes of our paper, into constant contact with mercantile life, it
is natural for us to look on the commercial view o f this great matter. American In­
dependence was a great piece of Business, as well as a mighty W ar; and the first and
most diflicult work to be accomplished was, the culture of self-denial, which, in the
spirit of a noble patriotism, could lay all the interests of trade, all the revenues of
commerce, all the accumulations of fortune, on the altar of freedom. Merchants rule
the cities; from the cities goes out into the rural towns the awakening power of patri­
otism; and when the first stroke is given to the ‘ thunder-drum ’ yet to be ‘ heard
round the world,’ it is in obedience to the key-note of Liberty given in the city, where
the sacrifices involved in the War are most clearly seen and most speedily felt.
“ Military skill and undaunted courage had their place in the stupendous achieve­
ment of our national Independence. Withered be the hand that would pluck a single
laurel from the warrior’s brow— that would tarnish the honor due Washington and his
unparalleled companions in the bloody field. They were men who did a Divine work
in a providential era, and did it well— so well that the very instinct of the American
now is, that he was born to lead in the best achievements possible to our race. But
while giving unlimited honor to the heroes of the camp and the battle-field, we ask
that due consideration be given to the Business that lay behind all this— the mercan­
tile machinery, so to speak, which mightily aided the transcendent achievement that
enabled Washington to resign his command under skies of victory and in paths of
laurels. That was a stern battle which was fought where supplies were to be secured
and crippled and confused finances were to be managed. The mighty deeds of Robert




M ercantile Miscellanies.

52 1

Morris were less apparent as great victories than a startling battle, and yet what
stupendous issues were made dependent on his wonderful art in almost creating
money at many a fearful crisis! Mercantile tact had its part in the splendid achieve­
ment of American Independence as truly as military skill and unshaken bravery, and
this will yet be exhibited in clearer lines than history has been wont to record it.
Admirably has one of our own merchants, in his bite report as president of the Mer­
chant Fund Society, said of the Merchant— ■His p e c u lia r ity is, that he is the r e p r e ­
sen tative a n d exp on en t o f credit in this and every commercial country. His business,
his fortune, his capital, must suffer, when from any cause, or combination of causes,
the monetary condition of the country is disturbed. It is the commercial profession
which first feels, and must chiefly bear the shock. Against this, as a breakwater, every
wave beats and expends its force; while behind this barrier many a bark, which other­
wise would be wrecked, may lie at safe and peaceful anchorage.’
“ How important it is that this fact should be duly appreciated! The credit, the
honor, the influence, of the merchants o f our Revolutionary era, threw up many a
barricade behind which the brave military fought with hopeful valor. When the pres­
ent was chaotic and the future was darkness, mercantile power touched springs of
hope and a new sun seemed born in the heavens; and to those who may need to look
first beyond American history, in order to see how vital are the monetary concerns of
a nation, before they can see what honor is due beyond the camp, have only to open
Allison’s Introduction to his continuation of his History o f Modern Europe, in connec­
tion with his Essays, and study his working of the great problem of Money and An­
cient Rome. But such need only to look into the records of the English Parliament
for a few months past, and read in the revelations of the * Roebuck Commit tee,’ what
is the necessity for Business accomplishments— tact, energy, promptitude— in union
with the forces in the field, to give success to arms that won Waterloo. The Merchant
in his plain dress— with no train of attendants or attractive show—going quietly, yet
with energy, about his business of finance and supplies, in the time of war, can never
expect to win the applause which waits on the victorious general, yet he holds as
many of the essentials to success as the warrior.
“ As were the relations of the Merchant to the final achievement of American In­
dependence, such are they now to the maintenance of our national success, our accu­
mulating superiority. In the forthcoming volume of ‘ Mercantile Biographies,’ by the
accomplished editor of the M erch a n ts' M a g a zin e , a memoir o f the Hon. James Gore
King will doubtless have a prominent place. Let that biography be read, and see
there the relations o f the merchant to the real independence of the country— the stim­
ulus to industry, to inventive achievement— the support of education, and the promo­
tion of religion, the dispensing of large-handed charity: we mean the healthy condi­
tion of the monetary affairs of the country.
“ But not only upon the few foremost merchants, but upon the many less prominent,
does the real independence of the country rest— men who, amid the noise and bustle
of trade, confessing by their labor to the necessity for effort, are
‘ Richer than doing nothing for a bauble ;
P r o u d e r than ru stlin g in u n p a id -fo r s ilk .’

The greatest need just now is to turn the tide of feeling away from aspiration for po­
litical office, to the essential toil of real business life. The most fatal thing in the
present aspect o f our nation is, the vastness of the number of men who are eager to
live on the public treasury— who deem all methods of drawing means therefrom per­
fectly justifiable, and whose consciences seem to be of an exceedingly spongy nature
Such are no helps to the great work of America. They may talk of ‘ the plodding
man of trade’ in derision, but they scorn the hand that feeds them, and are blind to




522

M ercantile Miscellanies.

the real greatness to which this ‘ plodding’ may lead. So far as real manhood i3 con­
cerned— the real progress which the genius of our nation demands of each of her sons,
these would be mere leeches, are but as a gate that moves only as its hinges are
moved by an independent hand.
“ The coming of the 1 glorious Fourth ’ should be hailed with moral admiration of
the self-denial, toil, and suffering, which glorified the spirits who achieved our inde­
pendence, and with a resolute purpose to do each his part in the work of n tional
progress. Mercantile life has as truly its manifold relations to this great work as
statesmanship, and by indolence and craft in the counting-room or store, national in"
terests may be imperilled, as by bad diplomacy or wicked legislation.”
FABRICATED TRADE MARKS.
[FROM THE MERCANTILE JOURNAL AND STATISTICAL REGISTER, BELFAST.]

Our readers will recollect that we have frequently called their attention to the se­
rious falling off which has taken place of late years in the character of American
flour, owing either to carelessness or fraud in the inspection, inferior qualities having
been systematically branded and sold as extra superfine, to the great loss of the pur­
chaser, and the character of the country in which such unprincipled transactions oc­
curred. In our last remarks on this subject we strongly recommended our American
friends to endeavor to get rid of the system of “ inspection” altogether, in which case
every miller would be obliged to pay proper attention to the character of his manu­
facture, as upon it, and upon it alone, would his reputation and success as a miller de­
pend. To furnish a case in point, as we have then showed, we have only to call the
recollection of our friends to the period when all the flaxseed imported here had to
pass through an inspector’s hands before being offered for sale, but which system was
abolished about twenty-eight or thirty years ago, owing to its being found not to an­
swer the purpose for which it was intended, that of securing to the farmer sound and
pure sowing seed ; not from any fault on the part of the inspector, but from its being
found that the same casks were frequently used, besides other modes adopted, even of
a worse description, to evade the vigilance of the inspecting officer.
We are sorry to find that there are as yet no symptons of improvement on the part
o f our American friends, a circumstance which we regret exceedingly, as a persever­
ance in such a questionable mode of doing business will be the means of forcing
us to seek for flour in other quarters, where the first principles of Commerce are bet­
ter appreciated. We extract the following excellent remarks, taking a more extended
and general view of the system o f trade marks, from the London J o u rn a l o f C om ­
m erce :—
“ Among the many dishonest trade practices and systems of fraud which prevail,
there is, perhaps, none which is carried out on a more extensive scale than the imita­
tion of popular articles of consumption and manufacture, both for home and foreign
consumption. It is, however, to foreign markets that these are mostly shipped, and
trade marks on goods for export are forged to a most unheard of extent. It is only
lately that steps have been taken to put a stop, in America and the colonies, to this
dishonest practice. The rigid enforcement of the law against counterfeiting trade
marks is essential not only to the pecuniary interests of merchants, and the character
of our traders, but also, in some degree, to the sanitary interests of the public. In
London, it may be remembered, there was recently seized a large quantity of spuri­
ous ale. It contained very vile ingredients, and the bottles were fraudulently labeled
‘ Alsopp’s Ale,’ being intended for export to New York. The guilty parties were
prosecuted for counterfeiting the labels and trade marks, and sentenced to twelve
months’ imprisonment to hard labor. This is a severer penalty than that prescribed
by the law of the State of New York, enacted in 1850, by which knowingly forging
or counterfeiting, or causing to be forged or counterfeited, trade marks of any kind is
punishable by imprisonment in the county jail for a period not exceeding six months.




Mercantile Miscellanies .

52 3

There is also a clause in that act, (session law, 1850, pp. 197-98,) making the party
having ‘ in his possession any die, plate, engraving, or printed label, stamp, or wrapper
representation, likeness, similitude, copy, or imitation of the private stamp, wrapper,
or label, for the purpose of assisting in the sale of imitated goods,’ die., equally guilty
with the manufacturer and vendor, and subject to the same punishment. It is well
known that almost every article of merchandise possessing a high reputation in this
country is extensively imitated in America. Being apt and cunning, the universal
Yankee nation, we are told by one of their own trade organs, tries its hand at decep­
tion, and hence imitative Champagne, Sheffield cutlery, Rowland’s macassar, Cognac
brandy, Worcestershire sauce, Belgium cloths, Burton ales, Irish linens, French silks,
Scotch shawls, and a thousand other things, are manufactured there, and sold as the
‘ real originals.’
“ The law on this subject, and the cases bearing upon it, have occasionally been al­
luded t o ; but some recent decisions which have been given may be adverted to here
for the benefit o f traders and merchants. In the Court of Common Pleas, in the case
of Allcroft vs. Culverwell, the plaintiffs, the successors of Dent <fc Co., the celebrated
glove manufacturers, recovered £200 damages for an infringement of their trade
maik, inferior gloves having been spuriously stamped with their distinguishing mark.
Mr. Holloway obtained an injunction in the Rolls Court in November, 1850, against
his brother for fraudulently copying the labels, direction papers, (fee., of his pots and
boxes of pills and ointment. In November, 1854, Mr. Lent, the great Staley Bridge
manufacturer, obtained a perpetual injunction, with costs, in the Supreme Court of
Calcutta, restraining two native houses from using a fabricated mark for stamping
grey shirtings of an inferior character, so as to lead persons to believe they were gen­
uine. It was given in evidence, that by means of this practice second class goods
were constantly sold for those of a superior quality. This decision is stated to have
an astonishing effect upon the bazaar dealers in India. A case or two of this nature,
prosecuted with effect, does wonders in stopping the wholesale system of fraudulent
imitations. So general had the practice become in India that it was common, when
wines were bottled by native coopers, for the question to be put, whether the bottles
should be sealed with the seal of Burdon & Gray, White, or Shaw, <fec. The Amoskeag Manufacturing Company obtained an injunction in the New York Court, in 1849,
against Spear (fe Ripley, to restrain them from using their trade marks on tickings.
The mark was an oval, with the letters ‘ A. C. A.’ below the center, and surrounded
by a vignette in red. A motion to dissolve the injunction was subsequently argued
and denied; the judge, however, reserving the question of the right of the company
to the letters ‘ A. C. A.,’ unless united with the vignette. A decree has since been
made, establishing the right of the company to the whole trade mark, and also to the
letters ‘ A. C. A.,’ whether in combination or by themselves. The courts, both of this
country and of the United States, will now issue injunctions, not only against copying
trade marks, but also against what was formerly often done— imitating them with a
slight difference. A case was decided in 1854, where an action was brought in the
•Superior Court of Connecticut by Messrs. J. <fe P. Coats, of Paisley, Scotland, against
the Wellington Thread Company, of Tolland County, Connecticut, for an infringement
of the labels used on the spools. They were in the habit of using a label in black
and gilt, with the following, amongst other words and figures, printed thereon— 4J. <fe
P. Coats, best six cord, 200 yards.’ The Wellington Company imitated this mark by
making it appear as ‘ Coats’ best six cord, 200 yards.’ An injunction was granted by
the Superior Court against the Wellington Company, to prevent the further use of the
4false and simulated wrappers on the thread,’ under the penalty of £2,000, and the
defendants had to pay the costs of the suit.
“ The more generally and universally this subject of fraudulent imitations of trade
marks is discussed, the more likely is the practice to be put an end to, and private
and public interests protected thereby. A jury of business men will almost invariably
convict for such an offense, and it is but right that ingenuity, skill, and outlay should
be protected. The names of firms become, in the course of time, popular and cele­
brated from their identification with peculiar articles, and the forgery of these, the
trading on another man’s credit, the filching of his good name by some unprincipled
adventurer, in order to deceive the public and enrich himself, is base and criminal in
the extreme, and demands the rigorous application of the law. Almost all commercial
nations have now joined in reprobating such proceedings, and legislating for the re­
dress of the wrong by inflicting damages and levying penalties of various kinds; and
the good sense of the public, and of all honest-minded traders, agree in the necessity
for carefully guarding private interests of this kind.”




524

Mercantile Miscellanies.
FIRST BOOKS IiV AMERICA,

It is a remarkable fact that in a year after the first printing press was established
in Cambridge, Massachusetts, or in 1640, an American book was issued from it, (be­
ing the first published in what are now the United States,) which was soon after re­
printed in England, where it passed through no less than eighteen editions, the last
being issued in 1754; thus maintaining a hold on English popularity for one hundred
and fourteen years. This was the “ Bay Psalm Book.” It passed through twentytwo editions in Scotland, where it was extensively known, the last bearing date 1759;
and as it was reprinted without the compiler enjoying pecuniary benefit from its
sale, we have irrefutable proof that England p ir a te d the first American book, being in
reality the original aggressor in this line.
This first American work enjoyed a more lasting reputation, and had a wider cir­
culation than any volume since, of American origin, having passed in all through
seventy editions— a very remarkable number for the age in which it flourished. Suc­
cess attended the colonial press, and in 1663 the first Bible printed in America was
published at Cambridge. It was unlawful to print an English version of the Scrip­
tures— that right being a monopoly enjoyed by privilege and patent in England. The
one printed in Massachusetts was Elliott’s famous Indian Bible ; and although fifteen
hundred copies were struck off, they are now quite rare and “ sealed books,” as the
tongue in which they are written is literally a “ dead language,” the tribe and all
who had a knowledge o f the dialect being long extinct. Elliott’s work is unique, be­
ing at once a monument to his piety, perseverance, and learning. Its literary suc­
cessor was Newman’s Concordance of the Scriptures. This was compiled by the light
of pine knots in a log cabin, in one of the frontier settlements of Massachusetts. It
was the first of its kind, and for more than a century was admitted to be the most
perfect, holding its place in public esteem until superseded by Cruden’s, which it
suggested.
PARIS FUEL SHOPS,

The fuel with which to cook a dinner in Paris costs nearly a3 much as the dinner
itself. Fuel is very scarce, and the American is surprised to find shops all over the
city, fitted up with shelves like those in shoe stores, upon which is stored wood, split
up in pieces about the size of a man’s finger, and done up in bundles, as matches were
in the days of the tinder-box, steel, and flint: they are about the size of a bunch of
asparagus. These little bundles sell at from two to six sous. Larger sticks are bun­
dled up in the same way, and sell at a frightful price. Charcoal is sold by the weight,
and hard coal being nearly as expensive as wood, can be bought in the smallest quan­
tity at any of these fuel shops. The windows of these shops are often decorated with
a curtain or inside shutter, upon which split wood and round wood are printed to
represent the bundles sold within.
HOW TO MAKE JUJUBE PASTE,

The jujube plant has been recently introduced into this country. The following re­
cipe for making jujube paste is furnished by the United States Patent Office:—
“ Take jujubes, one pound, and water, two quarts; boil half an hour, strain with ex­
pression, settle, decant the clear, and clarify with white of eggs; add a strained solu­
tion of gumarabic, six pounds in four quarts of water, and to the mixture six pounds
of white sugar; gently evaporate, at first constantly stirring, and afterwards without
stirring, till reduced to the consistence of soft extract; add orange-flower water, six
ounces, and place the pan in a vessel of boiling water. In twelve hours carefully re­
move the scum, pour the matter into slightly-oiled tin molds.”




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525

THE BOOK TRADE.
1. —■Theism : the Witness of Reason and Nature to an All-wise and Beneficent
Creator. By J ohn T ullock , D. D., Principal and Priraarius Professor of Theology
St. Mary’s College, St. Andrew’s. 12mo, pp. 431. New Y ork: Robert Carter <fc
Brothers.
Mr. Barnett, a benevolent merchant of Aberdeen, Scotland, among other acts of
liberality, bequeathed certain sums to be expended at intervals of forty years, in the
shape of two premiums, inciting to the discussion of the evidences of religious truth,
and especially to the consideration and confirmation of the attributes of Divine Wis­
dom and Goodness, The writer of this essay received the second premium of £500,
the judges who decided on its merits having been Mr. Isaac Taylor, Henry Royles,
and the Rev. Padre Powell. The writer, it seems, kept very prominently in view the
anti-theistic tendencies of our time, especially as manifested in the form of Positiveism,
Materialistic Pantheism, in the shape of Positive Philosophy, has assumed a dignity
and importance which invest it with a new character, and require a new and more
comprehensive mode of treatment. Miss Martineau’s recent translation of Comte’s
great work, and Mr. G. H. Lewis’ popular exposition of Positiveism, give additional
significance to the purpose of Dr. Tullock’s prize essay.
— A M em o ir o f the Rev. S yd n ey S m ith . By his Daughter, Lady H olland . With
a Selection from his Letters, Edited by Mrs. Austen. In two volumes. 12mo., pp.
371 and 511. New York : Harper <fe Brothers.
It is ten years since the decease of this talented and independent preacher. The
public have had but brief sketches and small recollections o f his noble and Christian
life. His biography and letters will therefore be welcomed by all who love a record
o f the truly good. The memoir in the first volume by his daughter beautifully por­
trays his domestic life, and a large portion of the book is filled with his witty and
brilliant sayings. The other volume contains a large collection from his correspond­
ence, edited by Mrs. Austen. Both books are exceedingly interesting. The London
L ea d er has said most truly, “ that a more lovely picture has seldom been presented to
the world than that of this brave and bright creature, so rich in wit, humor, high
animal spirits, inexhaustible kindliness, manly independence, sagacious good sense.
To read this book is a moral tonic. It is a lesson in life. It makes us happier and
better.”
2.

— T e n P ic tu r e s o f the B ib le. By the Rev. C h ar les B eecher . With an Introduc­
tion by Harriet Beecher Stowe. First Series. 18mo., pp. 315. New York : J. C.
Derby. Boston: Phillips, Sampson & Co.
The first of a series of books designed to interest young readers in the study of the
Old Testament. Mrs. Stowe does not look upon the books of the Old Testament as
mere literary fragments of a rude and barbarous age, o f no more value than any
other literary writings of ancient time, but regards them as the electric principle to
the germs of liberty. The author has paraphrased some o f the most interesting
stories of the Bible, and rendered them attractive to children.
3.

4. — D is c ip lin e o f Sorrow . By Rev. W il l ia m G. E liot , D. D., of St. Louis. Boston:
American Unitarian Association.
Under this title, one of the most affectionate of pastors and best-beloved o f preach­
ers has issued a little book in four chapters— “ Preparation, Trial, Weakness and
Strength, Compensation.” Its recommendations are, that it is written from a full
heart, in a cheering tone, and with a child-like trust; so small that it can easily be
slipped into one’s pocket, it offers all the suggestions that Christian sympathy can
prompt and the struggling heart can crave.
5. — T h e Illu stra ted M a n n ers B o o k . A Manual o f Good Behavior and Polite A c­
complishments. 18mo., pp. 502. New York : Leland, Clay & Co. Stringer &
Townsend.
A book that will amuse the reader, if it does not reform or improve his manners.
The numerous illustrations are rather comical caricatures of the manners of “ polished
society.”




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6. — L ectures, delivered before the Young Men’s Christian Association in Exeter Hall,
London, from November, 1854, to February, 1855. 12mo., pp. 500. New York :
Carter & Brothers.
We noticed some months since the publication of the series of lectures delivered
before the same association for 1853-4. That was the ninth annual series that has
been delivered before the Young Men’s Christian Association, but the first republished
in this country. The present volume contains thirteen lectures. Some idea of their
character may be gathered from the tides of the topics discussed, and the names of
their eminent authors, as follows:— 1. On the Origin of Civilization, by The Archbishop
of Dublin. 2. Labor, Rest, and Recreation, by Rev. John Cumming, D. D. 3. Popu­
lar Fallacies, by Rev. William Landels. 4. The Glory of the Old Testament, by Rev.
Hugh Stowell, M. A. 5. Philosophy of the Atonement, by Rev. Thomas Archer. 6.
Man and his Maker. 7. The Intelligent Study of the Holy Scriptures, by Henry A l­
ford, B. D. 8. Constantinople and Greek Christianity, by Rev. Richard Burgess, B. D.,
Prebendary of St. Paul. 9. Agents in the Revival o f the Last Century. 10. God’s
Heroes and the World’s Heroes, by Rev. J. H. Gurney, M. A., Rector of St. Mary’s,
Marylebone. 11. The Dignity of Labor, by lle^. Newman Hall, B. A „ Surrey Chapel.
12. Ragged Schools, by Rev. Thomas Guthrie, D. D. 13. Opposition to Great Inven­
tions and Discoveries, by Rev. Samuel Martin, Westminster Chapel. The lectures, it
will be seen, are well calculated to promote moral thoughtfulness and living earnest­
ness in young men.
7. — T h e I r o q u o i s ; or the Bright Side of Indian Character. By M in n ie M y r t l e .
12mo., pp. 318. New York : Appleton & Brothers.
This work has evidently been prepared with much research and care. The writer
has consulted the various works of the antiquarian, the historian, and the scholar; but
not there alone, she has become acquainted and resided with portions of the race she
describes, and if she has not told the whole truth, what she has ‘‘ written is truth, in
its minutest details.” There is scarcely a topic connected with the character, manners,
habits, religion, government, <fec., &c., of the Iroquois that is not described and dis­
cussed, and on the whole it contains the most comprehensive view of “ the bright side
of Indian character,” it has been our fortune to meet with in our varied reading.
8. — A m e r ic a V in d ica ted fr o m E u r o p ea n T h eo lo g ico -P o litica l a nd Infid el A sp ersio n s.
By T homas J. V a id en , M. D. In the 79th year of American Constitutional Lib­
erty. • 12mo., pp. 312. New York: Morgan & Co.
A singularly written book which, besides other matters, purports to embrace in its
review Compte, in his “ Positive Philosophy,” and the Baron D’ Holback, in his “ Good
Sense and System of Nature.” The author lays down a position which few will com­
prehend, viz.: that “ the American code of Morality or Infidelity is only extiDguishable by Monotheist Normal principles.” Dr. Yaiden, the author, hails from St. Paul,
Minnesota Territory.
9. — T h e B r itis h P o e ts . Boston: Little, Brown & Co. New York: James S. Dick­
erson.
The enterprising publishers continue to issue their series of the British Poets in
the same uniform and beautiful style. W e have now before us the poetical works of
Percy Bysshe Shelley, edited by Mrs. Shelley, with a memoir, in three volumes ; and
the poetical works of George Herbert, with a memoir of the author and notes, by Rev.
Robert Aris Willmott, incumbent of Beor Wood. W e regard this edition of the
British Poets as the most desirable for libraries that has yet been produced in this
country.
10. — O l i e : or the Old West Room. The Weary at Work and the Weary at Rest.
By L. M. N. 12mo., pp. 525. New Y ork: Mason dfe Brothers.
We find this story full of characters and adventures of all kinds. The plot is uot
very skillfully wrought, yet there is some merit in the work Olie. The orphan is the
principal character—her fortune the reader follows with considerable interest. The
morality of the book is good.
11. — N ew H o p e ; or the Rescue. A Tale of the Great Kanawha.
1 2mo., pp. 391.
New York: Bunce & Brothers.
^
This work is a reprint, having formerly appeared under the title of “ Our Kate.”
The story is an animated and graphic description of Western life in all its phases.
The reader will find much entertainment in its various characters and spirited scenes.




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527

12. — N ew H a m p sh ire A s I t Is. In Three Parts. Compiled from Numerous Authen­
tic Sources. By E d w in C h arlton . Claremont, N. H .: Tracy & Sandford. Bos
ton: James French.
This volume, covering some six hundred pages, furnishes a pretty full historical
sketch of New Hampshire from its first settlement to the adoption of the Federal
Constitution. The second part is devoted to a Gazetteer of the State, embracing de­
scriptions of the towns, cities, villages, remarkable curiosities, minerals, <fcc., and a
general view of the counties, both historical and topographical. In the third and last
part we have a very good general view of New Hampshire, including a description of
its soil, productions, climate, its geological and mineralogical features, mountains, lakes,
and rivers, educational and religious institutions, banks, railroads, <fec. The work is
interspersed with a number of portraits of the distinguished men who have emanated
from that State, with comprehensive biographical sketches. To the sons and daugh­
ters of New Hampshire, scattered over every State and Territory of our wide-spread
Union, the work will have a peculiar interest, and as a contribution to the historical,
statistical, and other valuable information of a portion of the “ Great Republic,” it
will be regarded with favor by the American public generally.
13. — M ath em atica l D ic tio n a r y and C yclop ed ia o f M a th em a tica l S cien ce, comprising
Definitions of all the Terms employed in Mathematics; an Analysis of each Branch,
and of the Whole, as forming a single Science. By C h a r le s D a v ie s , L L . D., author
o f a “ Complete Course of Mathematics,” and W il l ia m G. P ec k , A. M., Assistant
Professor of Mathematics, United States Military Academy. 8vo., pp. 592. New
York : A. S. Barnes & Co.
A valuable dictionary, not only for the student in mathematics, but for the general
reader, who will find it to contain all he needs on the subject. He can learn from it
the signification and use of every technical term, and trace such term, in its connec­
tions, through the entire science. It is emphatically what it purports to be— “ A Dic­
tionary and Cyclopedia of Mathematical Science.” The success which has marked
the mathematical manuals of Dr. Davies, and the industry and learning of Mr. Peck,
the accomplished Professor in the United States Military Academy, presage for the
present work a wide circulation among a large circle of scholars and students.
14. — T h e T u rk ish E m p ir e , embracing the Religion, Manners, and Customs of the Peo­
ple. With a Memoir of the Reigning Sultan and Omer Pacha. By E dw ar d J oy
M o r r is , author o f “ Travels in the East.” 12mo., pp. 216. Philadelphia: Lindsay
<fc Blakiston.
The present struggle, in which Turkey is deeply involved, gives to the present ac­
count of the history, political and religious condition, and physical resources of the
people of that nation particular interest. Mr. Morris has presented, in a concise form,
a general view of the past and present condition of the Ottoman people and empire.
It is chiefly a translation, rendered more complete by the incorporation of portions of
the French writings on Turkey and Constantinople, by Jouannin, Van Gover, and La­
croix, intermingled with a considerable amount of matter suggested by Mr. Morris’s
travels in Turkey and the East.
15. — T h e C reed o f C h risten d om ; its Foundations and Superstructure. By W illia m
R athbone G r e g . 12mo., pp. 357. New Y ork: Calvin Blanchard.
Whatever may be the opinion entertained by different minds under varied influ­
ences, few will dispute the logical acumen of the author. The conclusions which he
has endeavored to make clear, to quote from his own summary, are these :— “ That
the tenet of the Inspiration of the Scriptures is baseless and untenable under any
form or modification which leaves it to a dogmatic value; that the gospels are not
textually records of the sayings and actions of Jesus, but ascribe to him words which
he never uttered, and deeds which he never did; and that the apostles only partially
comprehended, and imperfectly transmitted, the teaching of their Great Master.”
The work will be read with interest by the free inquirer after religious truth.
16. — F ir s t B o o k in C om p osition , for the use of Schools. By J. B ro o kfie ld . New
York : A. S. Barnes & Co.
This little work seems well adapted for the aid of beginners in the difficult task of
composition. From examination we should judge that it would be very useful as a
suggestive of thought and expression to the youthful mind, and would meet the want
which children feel in attempting that branch of education.




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17. — My B on d a ge a n d M y Freedom . Part 1. Life as a Slave. Part 2. Life as a Free­
man. By F r e d e r ic k D ouglas .
With an introduction by Dr. J am es M cC une
S m ith . 12mo., pp. 4 6 4 . New York : Miller, Orton & Mulligan.
More than two-thirds of the four hundred and sixty-four pages of this book is de­
voted to the author’s life as a slave, and we are assured that the details are facts, that
there is not a fictitious name or place in the whole volume. In a letter to Dr. McCune
Smith, a gentleman of African descent, who has written a preface to the work, Mr.
Douglas says:— “ It is not to illustrate any heroic achievements of a man, but to vin­
dicate a just and benefick 1 principle, by letting in the light o f truth upon a system,
esteemed by some as a blessing, and by others as a curse and a crime.” The work is
interesting in several particulars, and displays a power of description and delineation
that would do credit to men whose lives had been blessed with the advantages of a
higher literary culture.
18. — T h e H id d en P a th . By M arion H a r l a n d , author of “ Alone.” 12mo., pp. 434.
New York : J. C. Derby.
Miss Harland has laid the plot of this work in her own State, (Virginia,) where she
is familiar with the scenes and characters which are described with so much natural­
ness. The heroine of the story is happily drawn and sustained. It is the picture of
a young girl who, by the reverses and vicissitudes of life, is thrown upon her own re­
sources, but through noble endurance, perseverance, and patience, is enabled to pass
through trials, encounter difficulties, and at last triumph by steadfast adherence to
duty. Many other characters are very life-like, and exhibit lessons which may be in­
structive to the reader. W e commend the work for the truth it is meant to convey—
that peace and happiness can only be secured by stern persistence in well doing, what­
ever temporary sacrifice it may cost.
19. — T h e R om a n ce o f the R ev olu tion , being a History of the Personal Adventures,
Heroic Exploits, aud Romantic Incidents, as enacted in the War of Independence.
Edited by O l iv e r B. B unce. 12mo., pp. 4 3 4 . New Y ork: Bunce & Brothers.
In the present volume we have a collection of the strange and romantic events of
our revolutionary history w'hich have appeared in various forms during the last fifty
or sixty years. Few, if any, of these passages have heretofore been collected in a
permanent form. This work is designed to perpetuate and preserve these legendary
pictures. The collection of Mr. Bunce is made with discrimination, and illustrates in
a remarkable degree the old and trite adage that truth is stranger than fiction.
20. — C otton is K i n g ; or the Culture of Cotton, and its Relation to Agriculture, Man­
ufactures, and Commerce; to the Free Colored People; and to those who hold that
Slavery is in itself Sinful. By an A m er ic a n . 12mo., pp. 210 Cincinnati: Moore,
Wilatack, Keys & Co.
A more interesting work upon the subject cannot be conceived. In the details of
the influence of the growth of our principal Southern product upon the slave popula­
tion, the author has fortified himself with facts and figures, -which bear the closest
scrutiny. The tabular statements are also new and interesting, and are alone worth
more than the price of the book. It is printed in a beautiful style, and worthy the
imprint of a Pickering or a Moxon.
21. — L ig h t a n d D a r k n e s s ; or the Shadow of Fate. A Story of Fashionable Life.
12mo., pp. 319. New York: D. Appleton & Co.
This story is intended to depict life as it is ; its purpose is to prove that, to the un­
governed passions and foibles of the many, rather than to the hateful crimes of the
few, we owe the miseries which darken social life. The melancholy results of those
who are slaves of impulse, and are not actuated by true principles, are also truly de­
picted. There is a healthy moral tone pervading the whole story, the scenes and char­
acters lively and truthful.
22. —A M a n u a l o f D e n ta l E c o n o m y ; or Practical Instruction on the Physiology and
Treatment o f the Teeth, in order to check their Diseases, repair their Injuries, and
insure their Preservation. By Dr. C h a r le s S. R o w e l l , Surgeon Dentist. New
Y ork : Charles Scribner.
A very useful manual, giving much information regarding the teeth, both for
adults and children, the knowledge of which would prevent much suffering and ex­
pense, by giving timely attention to the preservation of the teeth. The advice to
parents is sound and practical, the author himself being a practical dentist.